THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768— -1771. SECOND » », ten , 1777- -1784. THIRD » ,» eighteen , 1788- -1797. FOURTH >> >> twenty , , 1801- -1810. FIFTH >> >, - twenty , , 181S- -1817. SIXTH >» >> twenty , 1823- -1824. SEVENTH » « twenty-one , 1830- -1842. EIGHTH it » twenty-two , i853- -i860. NINTH » >, twenty-five , 1875- -1889. TENTH >> ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902- -1903. ELEVENTH II published in twenty-nine volum ;a, 1910- -1911. COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE All rignis reserved THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNIC A A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XIX MUN to ODDFELLOWS New York Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. 342 Madison Avenue Copyright, in the United States of America, 191 1, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company. INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XIX. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS, 1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED A. A. W. H. A. Ca. A. E. S. A. F. P. Ambrosius Arnold Willem Hubrecht, LL.D., D.Sc, Ph.D. f Professor of Zoology, and Director of the Institute of Zoology in the University -j Nemertina (in part). of Utrecht. Author of Nemertines. L A. Ge. A. Go.* A. Ha. A. H.-S. A. J. G. A. L. A LI. D A. M. CI. A.N. A. P. H. A. R. S. A. S. E. Arthur Cayley, LL.D., F.R.S. See the biographical article: Cayley, Arthur. Arthur Everett Shipley, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge University. ' Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History. Albert Frederick Pollard, M.A., F.R.Hist.S. Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893- 1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of England under the Protector Somerset ; Henry VIII. ; Life of Thomas Cranmer ; &c. Sir Archibald Geikie, K.C.B. See the biographical article: Geikie, Sir Archibald. Rev. Alexander Gordon, M.A. Lecturer in Church History in the University of Manchester. Adolf Harnack, Ph.D. See the biographical article: Harnack, Adolf. Sir A. Houtum-Schindler, CLE. f General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. \ Rev. Alexander James Grieve, M.A., B.D. f Professor of New Testament and Church History at the United Independent J College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University and Member of 1 Mysore Educational Service. [ Andrew Lang, LL.D. See the biographical article: Lang, Andrew. Arthur Llewellyn Davies (d. 1907). f" Trinity College, Cambridge ; Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Formerly Assistant •! Negligence. Reader in Common Law under the Council of Legal Education. [ Agnes Muriel Clay (Mrs Edward .Wilde). f Late Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. Joint-editor of Sources of -I Municipium. Roman History, 133-70 B.C. I Numbers, Partition of. ' Nematoda {in part) ; Nematomorpha; ■ Nemertina (in pari) Nicholas, Henry; Northumberland, John Dudley, duke of. Murchison. ■ Mutian; Myconius, Friedrich; . Myconius, Oswald. Neoplatonism (in part). Nishapur. 'Nestorians (in part); Nestorius (in pari); New Jerusalem Church; Nicholas of Basel. Mythology; Name (Local and Personal Names) . Alfred Newton, F.R.S. See the biographical article : Newton, Alfred. Nestor; Nidiflcation (in part); Nightingale; Noddy; Nutcracker; Nuthatch; Ocydrome. Natal (in part). Alfred Peter Hillier, M.D., M.P. President, South African Medical Congress, 1893. Author of South African Studies; &c. Served in Kaffir War, 1878-1879. Partner with Dr L. S. Jameson in medical . practice in South Africa till 1896. Member of Reform Committee, Johannesburg, and Political Prisoner at Pretoria, 1895-1896. M.P. for Hitchin division of Herts, 1910. Sir Alexander Russell Simpson, M.D., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S. (Edin.). f Emeritus Professor of Midwifery, Edinburgh University. Dean of the Faculty of < Obstetrics. Medicine and Professor in the University, 1870-1905. j. Arthur Stanley Eddington, M.A., M.Sc, F.R.A.S. C Chief Assistant at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. Fellow of Trinity College, -I Nebula. Cambridge. [ 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors appears in the linai volume. V VI A. S. P-P. A. Ts„ A. W. H.* A. W. Hu. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES B. ft B, S. P. B. W.» C.F.M.B. C. H. Ha. C. H. W. 3. C. K. S. CM. C. ML e.pjf.» C. R* B* c. s. s. D. B. Ma. D. F. T. D. G. H. Mysticism. Andrew Seth Pringle-Pattison, M.A. , LL.D., D.C.L. f Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford J Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 191.1. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos ; The Philosophical Radicals ; &c. ^ Albert Thomas. . Member of the French Chamber of Deputies. Contributor to Vol. xi. of the "1 Napoleon IIL Cambridge Modern History. Author of Le second Empire, &c. Arthur William Holland. Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. Nonjurors. Arthur Wollaston Hutton. f Rector of Bow Church, Cheapside, London. Formerly Librarian of the National J Jfewman Cardinal Liberal Club. Author of Life of Cardinal Manning. Editor of Newman's Lives 1 ' of the English Saints; &c. •; . .- L Lord Balcarres, F.S.A., M.P. Trustee of National Portrait Gallery. Hon. Secretary of Society for Protection of Ancient Buildings; Vice-Chairman of National Trust. Junior Lord of the i Museums Of Art Treasury, ,1903-1905. M.P. for Chorley division, of Lanes from 1895. Son and heir of the 26th earl of Crawford. Sir Boverton Redwood, D.Sc, F.R.S. (Edin.), F.I.C., Assoc.Inst.CE., M.Inst.M.E. Adviser on Petroleum to the Admiralty, Home Office, India Office, Corporation of London, and Port of London Authority. President of the Society of Chemical Industry. Member of the Council of the Chemical Society. Member of Council of Institute of Chemistry. Author of Cantor Lectures on Petroleum; Petroleum and ; ts Products; Chemical Technology; &c. Bertha Surtees Philpotts, M.A. (Dublin). Formerly Librarian of Girton College, Cambridge. Beckles Willson. Author of The Hudson's Bay Company; The Romance of Canada; &c. Charles Frederic Moberly Bell. Managing Director of The Times. Correspondent in Egypt, 1865-1890. Khedives and Pashas ; From Pharaoh to Fellah ; &c. Carlton Htjntxet. Hayes, A.M., Ph.D. Assistant Professor of History at Columbia University, New York City, of the American Historical Association. Naphtha. j Norway: Early History. Newfoundland. Author of -\ flubar Pasha. Member j Nicholas III, [ (popes). IV. and V Rev. Claude Hermann Walter Johns, M.A., Litx.D. f Master of St Catharine's College, Cambridge. Canon of Norwich. Author of « Nineveh. Assyrian Deeds and Documents. (_ Clement King Shorter. Editor of the Sphere. Author of Charlone Bronte and her Circle: The Brontes:. Life and Letters : &c. Carl Theodor Mirbt, D.Th. Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author of Publizistik - im Zeiialter Gregor VII. ; Quetten zur Geschichte des Papstthums ; &c. Chedomille Mijatovich. Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni- potentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James's, 1895-1900, and 1902-" 1903. Christian Pfister, D.-es L. Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. FJudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux. Newspapers: Illustrated Papers. Nicaea, Council of. Nish. Author of J Neustria. f Neckam; -j Nikitin; [Norden, John. Charles Raymond Beazley, M.A., D.Litt. • Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography Author of Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c. Charles Scott Sherrington, D.Sc, M.D., M.A., F.R.S., LL.D. r Professor of Physiology, University of Liverpool. Foreign Member of Academies J - T , nt{ » .„. of Rome, Vienna, Brussels, Gottingen, &c. Author of The Integrative Action of] «* uscle ana nerve. the Nervous System. \_ Duncan Black Macdonald, M.A., D.D. r Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S.A. Author of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory; Selec-' tions from Ibn Khaldun; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam; &c. (, Donald Francis Tovey. j" Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The \ „ , Classical Concerto, The Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical 1 MUS1C - works. I Muslim Ibn Al-Hajjaj David George Hogarth, M.A. Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis,l899 and 1903; Ephcsus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. Myra. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ■ : - vii D.H. D. M. W. D. N. P. D. Wr. E. A.F. E. B.T. E. F. S. E. G. E. Gr. E. He. E. H. M. Ed. M. E. N.-R. E. Pr. E. P. C. E. R. L. E. S. G. E. Wa. E. W. H * P. E. B. P. G.M. B P. G.P. David Hannay. Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Navy; Life of Emilio Castelar; &c. Author of Short History of the Royal Napoleonic Campaigns: . .'? Naval Operations; Navarino, Battle of; Navy; I Nelson; Nile, Battle of the. Nihilism. Nutrition. Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O. Extra Groom-in-Waiting to H.M. King George V. Director of the Foreign Depart- ment of The Times, 1891-1899. Joint-editor of new volumes (10th edition) of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Author of Russia; Egypt and the Egyptian Question; The Web of Empire ; &c. Diarmid Noel Paton, M.D., F.R.C.P. (Edin.). Regius Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. Formerly Super- intendent of Research Laboratory of Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh. Biological Fellow of Edinburgh University, 1884. Author of Essentials of Human Physiology; &c. Daniel Wright, M.D. Translated the History of Nepaul, from the Parbatiya, with an " Introductory Sketch of the Country and People of Nepaul." Edward Augustus Freeman, LL.D. See the biographical article : Freeman, E. A. Edward Burnett Tylor, D.C.L., LL.D. See the biographical article: Tylor, Edward Burnett. Edward Fairbrother Strange. Assistant Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Member of J lyiunta-oy Council, Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art subjects. Joint-editor | matsy. of Bell's " Cathedral " Series. \ Nepal {in pari). j Nobility; Normans. Oath. Edmund Gosse, LL.D. See the biographical article : Gosse, Edmund. Ernest Arthur Gardner, M.A. See the biographical article: Gardner, Percy. r Norton, Thomas; \ Norway: Norwegian Literature; L Novel. Mycenae; Naucratis. Edward Heawood, M.A. Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Librarian of the Royal Geographical -j Nyasa. Society, London. Ellis Hovell Minns, M.A. f University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian J Neuri. at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. [ Edward Meyer, Ph.D., D.Litt. (Oxon.), LL.D. f Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des \ Narses {King of Persia). Alterthums; Geschichte des alten Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstdmme. I Eustace Neville-Rolfe, C.V.O. (1845-1908). Formerly H.M. Consul-General at Naples. Author of Naples in the 'Nineties; &c. Edgar Prestage. Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Com- meudador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon " Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society, &c. Editor of Letters of a Portuguese Nun ; Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea ; &c. \ Naples. Nascimento. E. P. Cathcart, M.D. Grieve Lecturer in Chemical Physiology, University of Glasgow. -J Nutrition {in part). Sir Edwin Ray Lankester, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.A., D.Sc, LL.D. Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. President of the British Association, 1906. Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in University College, London, 1874-1890. Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Oxford, 1891-1898. Director of the Natural History Departments of the British Museum, 1898-1907. Vice-President of the Royal Society, 1896. Romanes Lecturer at Oxford, 1905. Author of Degeneration; The Advancement of Science; The Kingdom of Man; &c. Edwin Stephen Goodrich, M.A., F.R.S. Fellow and Librarian of Merton College, Oxford. Aldrichian Demonstrator of Com- parative Anatomy, University Museum, Oxford. Rev. Edmond Warre, M.A., D.D., D.C.L., C.B., C.V.O. Provost of Eton. Hon. Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. Headmaster of Eton College, 1884-1905. Author of Grammar of Rowing; &c. Sir Edward Walter Hamilton, G.C.B., K.C.V.O. (1847-1908). Joint Permanent Secretary to H.M. Treasury, 1902-1908. Author of National Debt Conversion and Redemption. Frank Evers Beddard, M.A., F.R.S. Prosector of the Zoological Society, London. Formerly Lecturer in Biology at 1 „ , , ,. > Guy's Hospital, London. Naturalist to " Challenger " Expedition Commission, i NematOfla (in part) 1882-1884. Author of Text-Book of Zoogeography; Animal Coloration; &c. Mussel {in part). Myzostomida. Oar. National Debt: Conversions {in part). Frederick George Meeson Beck, M.A. Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. Frederick Gymer Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.Anthrop.Inst. Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. 1 J Northumbria. f Muscular System; ■\ Nerve; [Nervous System. viii S. J. H. F. LLC. P. L. L. F. N. M. F. R. C. F. W .Ha. F. W . Mo. G. A. C* G. B. H. G. C. L. G. E. G. F. H.* G. H. Bo. G. H. C. G. J. T. G. K. G. G. W . T. H .A G. H. Ch. H. D. T H. E. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Francis John Haverfield, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Senior Censor, Student, Tutor ^ Numantia. and Librarian of Christ Church, Oxford, 1891-1907. Author of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain; &c. Francis Llewellyn Griffith, M.A., Ph.D., F.S.A. j" Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and J nh-ijeif Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial j UDe " SK ' German Archaeological Institute. L Lady Lugard. fNassarawa; See the biographical article : Lugard, Sir F. J. D. \ Nigeria. Col. Frederic Natusch Maude, C.B. Lecturer in Military History, Manchester University. Author of War and ine World's Policy; The Leipzig Campaign; The Jena Campaign; &c. Frank R. Cana. Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. Frederick William Hasluck, M.A. Assistant Director, British School of Archaeology, College, Cambridge. Browne's Medallist, 1901. Frederick Walker Mott, F.R.S., M.D., F.R.C.P. " f Physician to Charing Cross Hospital, London. Pathologist to the London County J Neuralgia; Neurasthenia; Asylums. Fullerian Professor of Physiology, Royal Institution. Editor of Archives | Neuropathology. of Neurology. 1 Rev. George Albert Cooke, M.A., D.D. f Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture. University of Oxford. J nHaonathne Fellow of Oriel College; Canon of Rochester. Hon. Canon of St Mary's Cathedral, 1 uaaenaulus - Edinburgh. Formerly Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. L George Ballard Mathews, M.A., F.R.S. f Professor of Mathematics, University College of N. Wales, Bangor, 1884-1896. i Number. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. I Athens. Fellow of King's -j Mysia. J Napoleonic Campaigns: [ Military. ("Natal (in part); Niger; I Nile (in part). J. New South Wales: Historv Netherlands. Numismatics. Nahum. Author of Insects: \ NeuropteKU George Collins Levey, C.M.G. Member of Board of Advice to Agent-General for Victoria. Formerly Editor and Proprietor of the Melbourne Herald. Secretary, Colonial Committee of Royal Com- mission to Paris Exhibition, 1900. Secretary to Commissioners for Victoria at the Exhibitions in London, Paris, Vienna, Philadelphia and Melbourne. Rev. George Edmundson, M.A., F.R.Hist.S. Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909- 1910. Employed by British Government in preparation of the British Case in the " British Guiana- Venezuelan and British Guiana-Brazilian Boundary Arbitrations. George Francis Hill, M.A. Assistant in the Department of Coins, British Museum. Corresponding Member of < the German and Austrian Archaeological Institutes. Author of Coins of Ancient " Sicily ; Historical Greek Coins ; Historical Roman Coins ; &c. Rev. George Herbert Box, M.A. Rector of Sutton Sandy, Bedfordshire. Lecturer in Faculty of Theology, Uni- versity of Oxford, 1908-1909. Author of Short Introduction to Literature of the Old ' Testament; &c. George Herbert Carpenter, B.Sc. (Lond.). Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. their Structure and Life. George James Turner. Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Society. Grove Karl Gilbert, LL.D. Geologist, U.S. Geological Survey. President of the American Geological Society, 1892-1893 and 1909-1910. Formerly Special Lecturer at Cornell, Columbia and Johns Hopkins Universities. Author of Glaciers and Glaciation ; &c. [_ Rev. Griffithes Wheeler Thatcher, M.A., B.D. r Bsll .„.„ nv,«wi„?. Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old J » am sna unUDyam, Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. { Nawawl: Nosairis. Herbert Appold Grueber, F.S.A. r Keeper of Coins and Medals, British Museum. Treasurer of the Egypt Exploration . , Fund. Vice-President of the Royal Numismatic Society. Author of Coins of the "j Numismatics (in pari). Roman Republic; &c. I Hugh Chisholm M.A ru . t . r n „ rA VA . f „. ,. .... A National Debt (in paiH formerly Scholar of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition of ^ w „ r the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the 10th edition. ^newspapers. H. Dennis Taylor. J Inventor of the Cooke Photographic Lenses. Author of A System of Applied Optics. 1 Objective. Karl Hermann Ethe, M.A., Ph.D. r Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Aberystwyth (University of J Nasir KhOSTftO} Wales). Author of Catalogue of Persian Manuscripts in the India Office Library, 1 NizSDlL London (Clarendon Press) ; &c. I Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Selden \ Northampton, Assize oL Niagara. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES IX H. F. G. Nidiflcation: tion. H. F. P. H. L. B. H. M. C. H. M. S. H. M T. H. N. D. Hans Friedrich Gadow, F.R.S., Ph.D. Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. Author of " Amphibia and Reptiles," in the Cambridge Natural History. Henry Francis Pelham, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article: Pelham, Henry Francis. Hans Lien Braekstad. Vice-Consul for Norway in London. Author of The Constitution of the Kingdom of\ Norway: Norway; &c. Nests and Colora. { Nero; Nerva. History, 1814-iQoj. Noras. H. R. H. H. St. H. W. C. D H.Wy. H.W. R * Hector Munro Chadwick, M.A. Librarian and Fellow of Clare College, Cambridge, and University Lecturer in " Scandinavian. Author of Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions. l Henry Morse Stephens, M.A. f Balliol College, Oxford. Professor of History and Director of University Extension, J fJeeker (in ■bari) University of California. Author of History of the French Revolution ; Modern | " European History ; &c. I Henry Martyn Taylor, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. f Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge; formerly Tutor and Lecturer. Smith's i Newton, Sir Isaac. Prizeman, 1865. Editor of the Pitt Press Euclid. I Henry Newton Dickson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.R.G.S. \ Professor of Geography at University College, Reading. Formerly Vice-President, J "Ortn Sea; Royal Meteorological Society. Lecturer in Physical Geography, Oxford University. | Norwegian Sea. Author of Meteorology; Elements of Weather and Climate; &c. L Hugh Robert Mill, D.Sc, LL.D. Director of British Rainfall Organization. Formerly President of the Royal Meteorological Society. Hon. Member of Vienna Geographical Society. Hon. Corresponding Member of Geographical Societies of Paris, Berlin, Budapest, St „ Petersburg, Amsterdam, &c. British Delegate to International Conference on the Exploration of the Sea at Christiania, 1901. Author of The Realm of Nature; The Clyde Sea Area; The English Lakes; The International Geography. Editor of British Rainfall. Author of Idol'a Theatri; The Idea of a Free Church; Personal. Idealism. \ NomlnalIsm ; Nottmenon. Henry William Cari.ess Davis, M.A. f Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, J Murimuth" Nennius. 1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. (_ Ocean and Oceanography. I. A. I. A. C. J. A. H. J. A. L. R. J. A. P.* J. D. B. J. F. -K. J.Hd. J. H. F. J. H. M. Major-General Henry Wylie, C.S.I. Officiating Agent to the Governor-General of India for Baluchistan, 1898-1900. Resident at Nepal, 1891-1900. Rev. Henry Wheeler Robinson, M.A. Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Senior Kennicott Scholar, Oxford, 1901. Author of "Hebrew Psychology in Relation to Pauline Anthrop- ology," in Mansfield College Essays; &c. Israel Abrahams, M.A. Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of Cambridge. President, j w a i ara . Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short History of Jewish Litera- 1 „ . ' ture; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages. I nasi. Sir Joseph Archer Crowe, K.C.M.G. See the biographical article: Crowe, Sir Joseph Archer. Nepal (in part). Obadiah (in part). f Nachmanides; Neer, Van der (in part). John Allen Howe, B.Sc. (Lond.). f Ml „. ( , hp ii„ l i k . Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of i ™ u 5ciiBinam, The Geology of Building Stones. I Neocomian. John Athelstan Laurie Riley, M.A. Pembroke College, Oxford. Author of Athos, or the Mountain of the Monks ; &c. j Nestorians (in part). Rev. James Alexander Paterson, M.A., D.D. Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, New College, Edinburgh of Book of Numbers in the " Polychrome " Bible; &c. James David Bourchier, M.A., F.R.G.S. King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of " Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria. James Fitzmaurice-Kelly, Litt.D., F.R.Hist.S. Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. - Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of A'phonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c. John Hollingshead (1827-1904). Founder of the Gaiety Theatre, London. Member of Theatrical Licensing Reform ■ Committee, 1866 and 1892. Author of Gaiety Chronicles; &c. John Henry Freese, M.A. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. John Henry Middleton, M.A., Litt.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South Kensington Museum, 1 892-1 896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Times; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times. Editor -I Numbers, Book of. Nicholas (King of Monte- negro). Nunez de Arce. Music Halls. Name: Greek and Roman Names; ■ Norieum. Mural Decoration (in part); Niello. X J. H. R. J. HI. R. J. Ja. J. J. Lr. J. L. E. D J. M By. J. M . M. J. P. Pe. J. Si.* J. S. 81. J. S. F. J. S. K. J. T. Be. J. T.O. J. T. S.* J. W. J. W.* Jno. W. J. W. G. J. W. L. G. K.S. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES John Horace Round, M.A., LL.D. f Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage and\ Neville (Family). John Holland Rose, M.A., Litt.D. f Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge Uni- J v w T ' " ' • ~ " - ' " * on I.; Napoleonic) "aP " 5011 *• versity Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon Studies; The Development of the European Nations; The Life of Pitt; &c. Joseph Jacobs, Litt.D. Professor of English Literature in the New York Jewish Theological Seminary of America. Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Corre- sponding Member of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid. Author of Jews of Angevin England; Studies in Biblical Archaeology; &c, Joseph Jackson Lister, M.A., F.R.S. Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Nethinim. { Mycetozoa. John Louis Emil Dreyer. Director of Armagh Observatory. Kepler ; &c. Author of Planetary Systems from Thales to -j Observatory. J. M. Brydon. J Architect of Chelsea Town Hall and Polytechnic, &c. I. John Malcolm Mitchell. ( Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London -1 College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. { Rev. John Punnett Peters, Ph.D., D.D. j Canon Residentiary, P. E. Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professor of Hebrew in J the University of Pennsylvania. Director of the University Expedition to Babylonia, 1 1888-1895. Author of Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates. 1 Rev. James Sibree, F.R.G.S. I Principal Emeritus, United College (L.M.S. and F.F.M.A.), Antananarivo, Mada- J gascar. Member de l'Academie Malgache. Author of Madagascar and its People; 1 Madagascar before the Conquest; A Madagascar Bibliography; &c. < Rev. John Sutherland Black, M.A., LL.D. Assistant-editor of the oth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Joint-editor of -\ the Encyclopaedia Biblica. John Smith Flett, D.Sc, F.G.S. Petrographer to H.M. Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby " Medallist of the Geological Society of London. John Scott Keltie, LL.D., F.S.S., F.S.A. (Scot.). Secretary, Royal Geographical Society. Knight of Swedish Order of North Star. Commander of the Norwegian Order of St Olaf . Hon. Member, Geographical - Societies of Paris, Berlin, Rome, &c. Editor of Statesman's Year Book. Editor of the Geographical Journal. John Thomas Bealby. Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical ■ Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. Joseph Thomas Cunningham, M.A., F.Z.S. Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in " the University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. James Thomson Shotwell, Ph.D. Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. James Williams, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. r All Souls' Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln -j Navigation Laws. College. L Nesfield. Naucrary; Neoplatonism (in part). Nejef; Nippur. Nossi-be. Nestorius (in part). Mylonite; Napoleonite; Neck; Nepheline-Syenite; Nephelinites; Obsidian. National Debt (in part). Nikolayev (in part); Nizhniy-Novgorod (in part); .Novgorod (in part). Mussel (in part); Nautilus; . Octopus. Neeker (in part). Naturalism. Naturalization. James Ward, LL.D. See the biographical article: Ward, James. John Westlake, K.C., LL.D., D.C.L. Professor of International Law, Cambridge, 1888-1908. One of the Members for United Kingdom of International Court of Arbitration under the Hague Convention, 1900-1906. Author of A Treatise on Private International Law, or the Conflict of Laws; Chapters on the Principles of International Law. part i. " Peace "; part ii. " War." John Walter Gregory, D.Sc, F.R.S. f Professor of Geology at the University of Glasgow. Professor of Geology and 1 New South Wales: Geology; Mineralogy in the University of Melbourne, 1900-1904. Author of The Dead Heart 1 New Zealand: Geology. of Australia; &c. [ James Whitbread Lee Glaisher, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. f Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Formerly President of the Cambridge J yinier John Philosophical Society, and the Royal Astronomical Society. Editor of Messenger 1 ' ' of Mathematics and the Quarterly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics. L Kathleen Schlesinger. f Mu .f "f. 1 Box; Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the \ Na " Violin; Orchestra. L Nay; Oboe (in part). INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES XI L. J. S. L. R. F. L. V.' L. W. K. M. Ja. M. N. T. N. D. M. 0. J. R. H. O.K. P. A. K. P. G. P. Gi. P. G. K. P. La. R. A. W. R. C. T. R. G. R. J. M. R. L.* R. La. Leonard James Spencer, M.A. f Muscovite' Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of j N ... .' Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Minera- | HBpneiine; logical Magazine. [ NiCCOllte. Lewis Richard Farneix, M.A., Litt.D. r Fellow and Senior Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford University Lecturer in Classical J „ Archaeology; Wilde Lecturer in Comparative Religion. Corresponding Member 1 Mystery, of Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of Evolution of Religion; &c. [ LUICI VlLLARI. r Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Dept.). Formerly Newspaper Correspondent J K , v > A in East of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906, Philadelphia, 1907, 1 Naples, Kingdom Of. and Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town and Country; &c. [ Leonard William King, M.A., F.S.A. f King's College, Cambridge. Assistant in Department of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities, British Museum; Lecturer in Assyrian at King's College and London University. Author of The Seven Tablets of Creation; &c. Morris Jastrow, Ph.D. Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania. of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c. Marcus Niebuhr Tod, M.A. Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. The Rt. Hon. Lord Northcliffe. r Founder of the Daily Mail ; Chief Proprietor of The Times, and other papers and J Newspapers: periodicals. Chairman of the Associated Newspapers, Ltd., and the Amalgamated 1 papers. Press, Ltd. . I Newton Dennison Mereness, A.M., Ph.D. Author of Maryland as a Proprietary Province. Osbert John Radcliffe Howarth, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, 1901. British Association. Author of Religion Nippur: The Deluge Fragment. J Nebo; Nergal; Ninib; [Nusku; Oannes. Nauarchia. Price of News- Assistant Secretary of the Otto Krummel, Ph.D. Professor of Geography in the University of Kiel, and Lecturer in the Imperial Navai Academy. Author of Handbuch der Ozeanographie. Prince Peter Alexeivitch Kropotkin. See the biographical article : Kropotkin, Prince P. A. Percy Gardner. LL.D., Litt.D., F.S.A. See the biographical article: Gardner, Percy. New York {in part). J Norway: Geography and [ Statistics. Ocean and Oceanography (in part) . New Siberia Archipelago; Nikolayev (in part) ; Nizhniy-Novgorod {in part) ; Novgorod {in part). Myron. Peter Giles, M.A., LL.D., Litt.D. r Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University J N. Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philo- ] 0. logical Society. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology. I Paul George Konody. T Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of The Artist. \ Neer, Van der {in pari). Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c. I Philip Lake, M. A., F.G.S. r Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly J »_„„,„„. D ; • 1 r< ±r s of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian 1 florwa y- Physical Geography. Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Keyser's Comparative Geology. I Robert Alexander Wahab, C.B., C.M.G., CLE. ( Colonel, Royal Engineers. Formerly H.M. Commissioner, Aden Boundary De- j Weid limitation, and Superintendent, Survey of India. Served with Tirah Expeditionary 1 ' Force, 1897-1898; Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission, Pamirs, 1895; & c - ^ Sir Richard Carnac Temple, Bart., CLE. Lieut.-Colonel. Formerly Chief Commissioner, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Hon. Fellow of Trinity Hall, Cambridge. Joint-author of Andamanese Language; &c. Richard Garnett, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article: Garnett, Richard. Nicobar Islands. J Newman, Francis William; t Newton, Sir C. T. Formerly Editor of the St James's J. Murray, Lord George. Ronald John MacNeill, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Gazette, London. Richard Lydekker, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. , F.Z.S. f Muntjac; Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of J M us k Ox* Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum ; The Deer ] „ , , ' of All Lands ; The Game Animals of Africa ; &c. I MylOOOn. Robert Latouciie. Archivist of the department of Tarn et Garonne. Maine au X. et au XL siecle. Author of Histoire du comte du -I Normandy. Xll R. N. B. R. S. B. R. S. P. R. S. T. S. A. C. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Robert Nisbet Bain (d. 1909). Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900 ; The First Romanovs, 1613-1725 ; Slu.von.ic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1796; &c. Sir Robert Stawell Ball, F.R.S., LL.D. Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and Geometry, University of Cambridge. . Director of the Cambridge Observatory and Fellow of King's College. Royal Astronomer of Ireland, 1874-1892. Author of The Story of the Heavens; <&c. Reginald Stuart Poole, LL.D. See the biographical article: Poole, Reginald Stuart. Ralph Stockman Tarb. f Professor of Physical Geography, Cornell University. Special Field Assistant of the -1 New York (in part). U.S. Geological Survey. Author of Physical Geography of New York State. I Stanley Arthur Cook, M.A. f Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, j Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Examiner in Hebrew and J Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Council of Royal Asiatic Society, 1904- 1905. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions ; The Law of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c. Nadasdy; Nansen, Hans; Nikon. Nebular Theory. Numismatics (in part). Nabataeans (in part); Nazarite (in pari). StC. S. H. V.* S. K. S.N. T. As. f . A. C. T. A. 1. T. A. J. T. Ba. T. P. C. T. H. T, H. H.* T. M. L. T. iff. R. D. V.M. Nicole. Viscount St Cyres. See the'biographical article, Iddesleigh, 1st Earl of. Sydney Howard Vines, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.L.S. f Professor of Botany in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, J Naegeli. Oxford. Hon. Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge. Fellow of the University of | London. Author of Student's Text Book of Botany; &c. *- Sten Konow, Ph.D. f Professor of Indian Philology in the University of Christiania. Officier de l'Academie J Mund&S. Franchise. Author of Stamavidhana Brahmana; The Karpuramanjari; Munda ] and Dravidian. L \ Neptune (Planet). Simon Newcomb, D.Sc, LL.D. See the biographical article : Newcomb, Simon. Thomas Ashby, M.A., Litt.D. Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topography of the Roman Campagna. Timothy Augustine Coghlan, I.S.O. f w Agent-General for New South Wales. Government Statistician, New South Wales, J » ew Sout n Wales: Nemorensis Lacus; Nepi; Nola; Nomentana, Via; Nomentum; Nora; Norba; No vara; Nuceria Alfaterna; Nuoro. 1886-1905. Author of Wealth and Progress of New South Wales; Statistical Account \ of Australia and New Zealand; &c. L Geography and Statistics. f Name: Law; I Octroi. Hon. Sec. Anthropo- \ Negro (in part). j Neo-Caesarea, Synod of. ■j Narses (Roman General). Thomas Allan Ingram, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin. Thomas Athol Joyce, M.A. Assistant in Department of Ethnography, British Museum, logical Society. Sir Thomas Barclay. f Neutrality Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council of „ L _. ,_ . „ the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems of i North Sea Fisheries Conven- International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M. P. for Blackburn, 1910. [ tion. Theodore Freylinghuysen Collier, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass. Thomas Hodgkin, LL.D., Litt.D. . See the biographical article: Hodgkin, Thomas. Sir Thomas Hungerford Holdich, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc, F.R.S. f Muscat; Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India, 1892- J North-West Frontier PrO- 1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S. (London), 1887. H.M. Commissioner for the Perso- | , Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Gales of India; &c. L vmce - Rev. Thomas Martin Lindsay, M.A., D.D. f Principal and Professor of Church History, United Free Church College, Glasgow. -{ Occam, William of. Author of Life of Luther ; &c. L Thomas William Rhys Davids, LL.D., Ph.D. Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University. President of the Pali Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of Royal - Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred, Books of the Buddhists; Early Buddhism; Buddhist India; Dialogues of the Buddha; &c. Victor Charles Mahillon. f Principal of the Conservatoire Royal de Musique at Brussels. Chevalier of the S Oboe (in part). Legion of Honout, [ NSgarjuna; Nikaya. w. Mc . w. M. D w. M. R w. 0. M INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xiii W. A. B. C. Rev. William Augustus Brevoort Coolidge, M.A., F.R.G.S., Ph.D. (Bern). Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's College, Lampeter, 1 880-1881. Author of Guide du Haut Dauphini; The Range of '-j Neuchatel. the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland'. The Alps in Nature and in History, &c. Editor of The Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; &c. W. A. P. Walter Alison Phillips, M.A. f Murat . Nibeluneenlied* Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, ■!„..,' r , , „ . .' Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c. I Nicholas I. [of Russia). W. BL William Blain, C.B. (d. 1908). f National Debt: Conversions Principal Clerk and First Treasury Officer of Accounts, 1903-1908. \ (in part). W.Cr. Walter Crane. r.-rw.,™ ( Mural Decoration (m ^rt). See the biographical article : Crane, Walter. ( \ r j W. E. G. Sir William Edmund Garstin, G.C.M.G. f Governing Director, Suez Canal Co. Formerly Inspector-General of Irrigation,-! Nile (in part). Egypt. Adviser to the Ministry of Public Works in Egypt, 1904-1908. I W. F. C. William Feilden Craies, M.A. i Nonfeasance . Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College,-^ "'""mo"""! London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (23rd edition). [_ Obscenity. W. F. R. William Fiddian Reddaway, M.A. r Censor of Non-Collegiate Students, Cambridge. Fellow and Lecturer of King's J Norway: History 1 307-1814. College. Author of " Scandinavia," in Vol. xi. of the Cambridge Modern History. I " W. F. W. Walter Francis Willcox, LL.B., Ph.D. r Chief Statistician, United States Census Bureau. Professor of Social Science and Statistics, Cornell University. Member of the American Social Science Association -j Negro (United States). and Secretary of the American Economical Association. Author of The Divorce I Problem: A Study in Statistics ; Social Statistics oj the United Stales ; &c. I W. G.* Walcot Gibson, D.Sc, F.G.S. f H.M. Geological Survey. Author of The Gold-Bearing Rocks of the S. Transvaal ; 1 Natal: Geology. Mineral Wealth of Africa ; The Geology of Coal and Coal-mining ; &c. I W. H. Be. Rev. William Henry Bennett, M.A., D.D., D.Litt. f Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges, London. J Nimrod; Formeily Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge; Lecturer in Hebrew at Firth 1 Noah. College, Sheffield. Author of Religion of the Post-Exilic Prophets ; &c. I W. H. F. Sir William Henry Flower, F.R.S. /'w-rniiiai See the biographical article: Flower, Sir W. H. | narwnai, W. H. P. Walter Herries Pollock, M.A. f Trinity College, Cambridge. Editor of Saturday Review, 1 883-1 894. Author of -j MllSSet, Alfred de. Lectures on French Poets ; Impressions of Henry Irving ; &c. [ W. J. H. William Jacob Holland, A.M., D.D., LL.D., D.Sc, Ph.D. f Director of the Carnegie. Institute, Pittsbi.rg'. President of the American Association i Museums Of Science. of Museums, 1907-1909. Editor of Annals and Memoirs of Carnegie Museum. I W. L. F. Walter Lynwood Fleming, A.M., Ph.D. f Professor of History in Louisiana State University. Author of Documentary -j Nullification. History of Reconstruction; &c. [ W. L. G. William Lawson Grant, M.A. f Professor of Colonial History, Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly J *[„,„ ■a r „„ c „,-.„i r tr„„„j„\ Beit Lecturer in Colonial History, Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy 1 WeW ijrunswi0K {Canada). Council (Canadian Series). I William Morris ....„„. i Mural Decoration (in Part). See the biographical article: Morris, William. [ ^ui»u»m» r » ; , William Morris Davis, D.Sc, Ph.D. f Professor of Geology in Harvard University. Formerly Professor of Physical \ North America. Geography. Author of Physical Geography; &c. [ William Michael Rossetti. J „ ... See the biographical article : Rossetti, Dante G. \ ffluri " 0> William O'Connor Morris (d. 1904). f Formerly Judge of County Courts, Ireland; and Professor of Law to the King's J O'Connell Daniel Inns, Dublin. Author of Great Commanders of Modern Times; Irish History; 1 ' Ireland, 1708-1808; &c. I W. P. R. The Hon. William Pember Reeves. Director of London School of Economics. Agent-General and High Commissioner for New Zealand, 1896-1909. Minister of Education, Labour, and lustice, New 1 New Zealand. Zealand, 1891-1896. Author of The Long White Cloud: a History of New Zealand; &c. W. R. E. H. William Richard Eaton Hodgkinson, Ph.D., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.C.S. f Professor of Chemistry and Physics, Ordnance College , Woolwich. Formerly J Nitroglycerin Professor ofChemistry and Physics, R.M.A., Woolwich. Part-author of Valentin- I Hodgkinson's Practical Chemistry; &c. v XIV W. R. M. W. R. M.* W.R.S. W. S. H. W. T. A. W. W. R.* INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES William Richard Morfill, M.A. (d. igio). r Formerly Professor of Russian and other Slavonic Languages in the University of J Nagtnr Oxford. Curator of the Taylorian Institution, Oxford. Author of Russia ; Slavonic 1 * Literature; &c. I William Robert Martin. f Captain, R.N. Formerly Lecturer at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Author-^ Navigation, of Treatise on Navigation and Nautical Astronomy; &c. [_ f Nabataeans (in part); William Robertson Smith, LL.D. J Nazarite (in part); See the biographical article: Smith, William Robertson. 1 Numeral; lObadiah (in part). William Symington M'Cormick, M.A., LL.D. f Secretary to the Carnegie Trust of the Scottish Universities. Formerly Professor -{ Oecleve. of English, University College, Dundee. Author of Lectures on Literature; &c. Walker Tallmadge Arndt, M.A. William Walker Rockwell, Lic.Theol. Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. | New York (in part). i Nimes, Councils ol PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES Munich. Murad. Huratori. Mushroom. Mutilation. Mysore. Narcissus. Narcotics. Nashville. Nassau. Nebraska. Nevada. New Caledonia Newcastle, Dukes of. Newcastle-upon-Tyne. New England. New Guinea. New Hampshire. New Hebrides. New Jersey. New Mexico. New Orleans. New York City. Ney. Niam-Niam. Nicaragua. Nice. Nickel. Nightingale, Florence. Nimes. Nitro-Compounds. Nitrogen. Norfolk, Earls and Dukes of. Norfolk. Northampton, Earls and Marquesses of. Northamptonshire. North Carolina. North Dakota. Northumberland, Earls and Dukes of. Northumberland. Norwich. Nottingham. Nottinghamshire. Novaya Zemlya. Nuremberg. Nursing. Nut. Oak. Oates, Titus. ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XIX MUN, ADRIEN ALBERT MARIE DE, Count (1841- ), French politician, was born at Lumigny, in the department of Seine-et-Marne, on the 28th of February 1841. He entered the army, saw much service in Algeria (1862), and took part in the fighting around Metz in 1870. On the surrender of Metz, he was sent as a prisoner of war to Aix-la-Chapelle, whence he returned in time to assist at the capture of Paris from the Commune. A fervent Roman Catholic, he devoted himself to advocating a patriarch type 6f Christian Socialism. His elo- quence made him the most prominent member of the Cercles Catholiques d'Ouvriers, and his attacks on Republican social policy at last evoked a prohibition from the minister of war. He thereupon resigned his commission (Nov. 1875), and in the following February stood as Royalist and Catholic candidate for Pontivy. The influence of the Church was exerted to secure his election, and the pope during its progress sent him the order of St Gregory. He was returned, but the election was declared invalid. He was re-elected, however, in the following August, and for many years was the most conspicuous leader of the anti-Republican party. " We form," he said on one occasion, "the irreconcilable Counter-Revolution." As far back as 1878 he had declared himself opposed to universal suffrage, a declaration that lost him his seat from 1879 to 1881. He spoke strongly against the expulsion of the French princes, and it was chiefly through his influence that the support of the Royalist party was given to General Boulanger. But as a faithful Catholic he obeyed the encyclical of 1892, and declared his readiness to rally to a Republican government, provided that it respected religion. In the following January he received from the pope a letter commending his action, and encouraging him in his social reforms. He was defeated at the general election of that year, but in 1894 was returned for Finistere (Morlaix). In 1897 he succeeded Jules Simon as a member of the French Academy. This honour he owed to the purity of style and remarkable eloquence of his speeches, which, with a few pamphlets, form the bulk of his published work. In Ma voca- tion sociale (1908) he wrote an explanation and justification of his career. HUN, THOMAS (1571-1641), English writer on economics, was the third son of John Mun, mercer, of London. He began by engaging in Mediterranean trade, and afterwards settled down in London, amassing a large fortune. He was a member of the committee of the East India Company and of the standing commission on trade appointed in 1622. In 1621 Mun published A Discourse of Trade from England unto the East Indies. But it is by his England's Treasure by Forraign Trade that he is XIX. 1 remembered in his history of economics. Although written possibly about 1630, it was not given to the public until 1664, when it was " published for the Common good by his son John," and dedicated to Thomas, earl of Southampton, lord high treasurer. In it we find for the first time a clear statement of the theory of the balance of trade. MUNCHAUSEN, Baron. This name is famous in literary history on account of the amusingly mendacious stories known as the Adventures of Baron Munchausen. In 1785 a little shilling book of 49 pages was published in London (as we know from the Critical Review for December 1785), called Baron Munchausen' 's Narrative of his Marvellous Travels and Campaigns in Russia. No copy is known to exist, but a second edition (apparently identical) was printed at Oxford early in 1786. The publisher of both these editions was a certain Smith, and he then sold it to another bookseller named Kearsley, who brought out in 1786 an enlarged edition (the additions to which were stated in the 7th edition not to be by the original author), with illustra- tions under the title of Gulliver Reviv'd: the Singular Travels, Campaigns, Voyages, and- Sporting Adventures of Baron Munnik- houson, commonly pronounced Munchausen; as he relates them over a bottle when surrounded by his friends. Four editions rapidly succeeded, and a free German translation by the poet Gottfried August Burger, from the fifth edition, was printed at Gottingen in 1786. The seventh English edition (1793), which is the usual text, has the moral sub-title, Or the Vice of Lying properly exposed, and had further new additions. In 1792 a Sequel appeared, dedicated to James Bruce, the African traveller, whose Travels to Discover the Nile (1790) had led to incredulity and ridicule. As time went on Munchausen increased in popu- larity and was translated into many languages. Continuations were published, and new illustrations provided (e.g. by T. Rowlandson, 1809; A. Crowquill, 1859; A. Cruikshank, 1869; the French artist Richard, 1878; Gustave Dore, 1862; W. Strang and J. B. Clark, 1895). The theme of Baron Munchausen, the " drawer of the long-bow " par excellence, has become part of the common stock of the world's story-telling. The original author was at first unknown, and until 1824 he was generally identified with Burger, who made the German translation of 1786. But Burger's biographer, Karl von Rein- hard, in the Berlin Gesellschafter of November 1824, set the matter at rest by stating that the real author was Rudolf Erich Raspe (q.v.). Raspe had apparently become acquainted at Gottingen with Hieronymus Karl Friedrich, Freiherr von Munchhausen, of Bodenwerder in Hanover. This Freiherr von Munchhausen (1720-1797) had been in the Russian service and MUNCH-BELLINGHAUSEN-— MUNDAS served against the Turks, and on retiring in 1760 he lived on his estates at Bodenwerder and used to amuse himself and his friends, and puzzle the quidnuncs and the dull-witted, by relating extraordinary instances of his prowess as soldier and sportsman. His stories became a byword among his circle, and Raspe, when hard up for a living in London, utilized the suggestion for his little brochure. But his narrative owed much also to such sources, known to Raspe, as Heinrich Bebel's Facetiae bebelianae (1508), J. P. Lange's Deliciae academicae (1665), a section of which is called Mendacia ridicula, Castiglione's Cortcgiano (1528), the Travels of the Finkenritter, attributed to Lorenz von Lauterbach in the 16th century, and other works of this sort. Raspe can only be held responsible for the nucleus of the book; the additions were made by book- sellers' hacks, from such sources as Lucian's Vera hisloria, or the Voyages imaginaires (1787), while suggestions were taken from Baron de Tott's Memoirs (Eng. trans. 1785), the contem- porary aeronautical feats of Montgolfier and Blanchard, and any topical " sensations " of the moment, such as Bruce's explora- tions in Africa. Munchausen is thus a medley, as we have it, a classical instance of the fantastical mendacious literary genre. See the introduction by T. Seccombe to Lawrence and Bullen's edition of 1895. Adolf Ellisen, whose father visited Freiherr von Munchhausen in 1 795 and found him very uncommunicative, brought out a German edition in 1849, with a valuable essay on pseudology in general. There is useful material in Carl Muller-Fraureuth's Die deulschen Lugendichtungen auf Munchhausen (1881) and in Griesbach's edition of Burger's translation (1890). MUNCH-BELLINGHAUSEN, ELIGIUS FRANZ JOSEPH, Freiherr von (1806-1871), Austrian poet and dramatist (who wrote under the pseudonym " Friedrich Halm ,; ), was born at Cracow on the 2nd of April 1806, the son of a district judge. Educated at first at a private school in Vienna, he afterwards attended lectures at the university, and in 1826, at the early age of twenty, married and entered the government service. In 1840 he became Regierungsrat, in 1845 Hofrat and custodian of the royal library, in 1861 life member of the Austrian Herren- haus (upper chamber), and from 1869 to 1871 was intendant of the two court theatres in Vienna. He died at Hiitteldorf near Vienna on the 22nd of May 1871. MUnch-Bellinghausen's dramas, among them notably Griseldis (1835; publ. 1837; nth ed.. 1896), Der Adept (1836; publ. 1838), Camoens (1838), Der Sohn der WUdnis (1842; 10th ed., 1896), and Der Fechter von Ravenna (185}; publ. 1857; 6th ed., 1894), are distinguished by elegance of language, melodious versification and clever construc- tion, and were for a time exceedingly popular. His poems, Gedichte, were published in Stuttgart, J 850 (new ed.. Vienna. 1877). His works, Scimtliche Werke, were published in eight volumes (1856-1864), to which four posthumous volumes were added in 1872. Ausgewahlte Werke, ed. by A. Schlossar, 4 vols. (1904). See F. Pachler, Jvgend und Lehrjahre des Dichters F. Halm ('877); J. Simiani, Gedenkblatter an F. Halm (1873). Halm's correspondence with Enk von der Burg has been published by R. Schachinger (1890). MUNCIE, a city and the county-seat of Delaware county, Indiana, U.S.A., on the West Fork of the White river, about 57 m. N.E. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1880), 5210; (1890), 11,345; (1900) 20,942, of whom 1235 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 24.005. It is served by the Central Indiana, the Chicago, Cincinnati & Louisville, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Fort Wayne, Cincinnati & Louisville, and the Lake Erie & Western railways, and by the Indiana Union Traction, the Dayton & Muncie Traction, and the Muncie & Portland Traction (electric inter-urban) railways. The city is built on level ground (altitude 950 ft.), and has an attractive residential section. It is one of the principal manufacturing centres in Indiana, owing largely to its situation in the natural gas belt. In 1900 and in 1905 it was the largest producer of glass and glassware in the United States, the value of its product in 1905 being $2,344,462. Muncie (named after the Munsee Indians, one of the three principal divisions of the Delawares) was settled about 1833 and was chartered as a city in 1865. MUNDAS. The Munda {Munda) family is the least numerous of the linguistic families of India. It comprises several dialects spoken in the two Chota Nagpur plateaux, the adjoining districts of Madras and the Central Provinces, and in the Mahadeo hills. The number of speakers of the various dialects, according to the census of 1901, are as follow: Santali, 1,795,113; Mundari, 460,744; Bhumij, 111,304; Birhar, 526; Koda, 23,873; Ho, 371,860; Tun, 3880; Asurl, 4894; Korwa, 16,442; Korku, 87,675; Kharia, 82,506; Juang, 10,853; Savara, 157,136; Gadaba, 37,230; total, 3,164,036. Santali, Mundari, Bhumij, Birhar, Koda, Ho, Turl, Asurl and Korwa are only slightly differing forms of one and the same language, which can be called Kherwari, a name borrowed from Santali tradition. Kherwari is the principal Munda language, and quite 88% of all the speakers of Munda tongues belong to it. The Korwa dialect, spoken in the western part of Chota Nagpur, connects Kherwari with the remaining Munda languages. Of these it is most closely related to the Kurku language of the Mahadeo hills in the Central Provinces. Kurku, in its turn, in important points agrees with Kharia and Juang, and Kharia leads over to Savara and Gadaba. The two last-mentioned forms of speech, which are spoken in the north-east of the Madras Presidency, have been much influenced by Dravidian languages. The Munda dialects are not in sole possession of the 'territory where they are spoken. They are, as a rule, only found in the hills and jungles, while the plains and valleys are inhabited by people speaking some Aryan language. When brought into close contact with Aryan tongues the Munda forms of speech are apt to give way, and in the course of time they have been partly superseded by Aryan dialects. There are accordingly some Aryanized tribes in northern India who have formerly belonged to the Munda stock. Such are the Cheros of Behar and Chota Nagpur, the Kherwars, who are found in the same localities, in Mirzapur and elsewhere, the Savaras, who formerly extended as far north as Sha'habad, and others. It seems possible to trace an old Munda element in some Tibeto-Burman dialects spoken in the Himalayas from Bashahr eastwards. By race the Mundas are Dravidians, and their language was likewise long considered as a member of the Dravidian family. Max Muller was the first to distinguish the two families. He also coined the name Munda for the smaller of them, which has later on often been spoken of under other denominations, such as Kolarian and Kherwarian. The Dravidian race is generally considered as the aboriginal population of southern India. The Mundas, who do not appear to have extended much farther towards the south than at present, must have mixed with the Dravidians from very early times. The so-called Nahall dialect of the Mahadeo hills seems to have been originally a Munda form of speech which has come under Dravidian influ- ence, and finally passed under the spell of Aryan tongues. The same is perhaps the case with the numerous dialects spoken by the Bhils. At all events, Munda languages have apparently been spoken over a wide area in central and north India. They were then early superseded by Dravidian and Aryan dialects, and at the present day only scanty remnants are found in the hills and jungles of Bengal and the Central Provinces, Though the Munda family is not connected with any other languages in India proper, it does not form an isolated group. It belongs to a widely spread family, which extends from India in the west to Easter Island in the eastern Pacific in the east. In the first place, we find a connected language spoken by the Khasis of the Khasi hills in Assam. Then follow the Mon- Khmer languages of Farther India, the dialects spoken by the aboriginal inhabitants of the Malay Peninsula, the Nancowry of the Nicobars, and, finally, the numerous dialects of Austro- nesia, viz. Indonesic, Melanesic, Polynesic, and so on. Among the various members of this vast group the Munda languages are most closely related to the Mon-Khmer family of Farther India. Kurku, Kharia, Juang, Savara and Gadaba are more closely related to that family than is Kherwari, the principal Munda form of speech. We do not know if the Mundas entered India from without. MUNDAY 3 If so, they can only have immigrated from the east. At all events they must have been settled in India from a very early period. The Sabaras, the ancestors of the Savaras, are already mentioned in old Vedic literature. The Munda languages seem to have been influenced by Dravidian and Aryan forms of speech. In most characteristics, however, they differ widely from the neighbouring tongues. The Munda languages abound in vowels, and also possess a richly developed system of consonants. Like the Dravidian languages, they avoid beginning a word with more than one consonant. While those latter forms of speech shrink from pronouncing a short conso- nant at the end of words, the Mundas have the opposite tendency, viz. to shorten such sounds still more. The usual stopped consonants — viz. k, c (i.e. English ch), t and p — are formed by stopping the current of breath at different points in the mouth, and then letting it pass out with a kind of explosion. In the Munda language this operation can be abruptly checked half-way, so that the breath does not touch the organs of speech in passing out. The result is a sound that makes an abrupt impression on the ear, and has been described as an abrupt tone. Such sounds are common in the Munda languages. They are usually written k', c', t' and p'. Similar sounds are also found in the Mon-Khmer languages and in Indo-Chinese. The vowels of consecutive syllables to a certain extent approach each other in sound. Thus in Kherwari the open sounds & (nearly English a in all) and a (the a in care) agree with each other and not with the corresponding close sounds o (the o in pole) and e (the e in pen). The Santali passive suffix ok' accordingly becomes dk' after ii or d ; compare sdn-dk', go, but dal-ok', to be struck. Words are formed from monosyllabic bases by means of various additions, suffixes (such as are added after the base), prefixes (which precede the base) and infixes (which are inserted into the base itself). Suffixes play a great r61e in the inflexion of words, while prefixes and infixes are of greater importance as formative additions. Compare Kurku k-on, Savara on, son ; Kharia ro-mong, Kherwari mu, nose ; Santali bor, to fear; bo-to-r, fear; dal, to strike; da-pa-l, to strike each other. The various classes of words are not clearly distinguished. The same base can often be used as a noun, an adjective or a verb. The words simply denote some being, object, quality, action or the like, but they do not tell us how they are conceived. Inflexion is effected in the usual agglutinative way by means of additions which are " glued " or joined to the unchanged base. In many respects, however, Munda inflexion has struck out peculiar lines. Thus there is no grammatical distinction of gender. Nouns can be divided into two classes, viz. those that denote animate beings and those that denote inanimate objects respectively. There are three numbers — the singular, the dual and the plural. On the other hand, there are no real cases, at least in the most typical Munda languages. The direct and the indirect object are indicated by means of certain additions to the verb. Certain relations in time and space, however, are indicated by means of suffixes, which have probably from the beginning been separate words with a definite meaning. The genitive, which can be considered as an adjective preceding the governing word, is often derived from such forms denoting locality. Compare Santali hdr-rd, in a man; hdr-rdn, of a man. Higher numbers are counted in twenties, and not in tens as in the Dravidian languages. The pronouns abound in different forms. Thus there are double sets of the dual and the plural of the pronoun of the first person, one including and the other excluding the person addressed. The Rev. A. Nottrott aptly illustrates the importance of this distinction by remarking how it is necessary to use the exclusive form if telling the servant that " we shall dine at seven." Otherwise the speaker will invite the servant to partake of the meal. In addition to the usual personal pronouns there are also short forms, used as suffixes and infixes, which denote a direct object, an indirect object, or a genitive. There is a corresponding richness in the case of demonstrative pronouns. Thus the pronoun " that " in Santali has different forms to denote a living being, an inanimate object, something seen, some- thing heard, and so on. On the other hand, there is no relative pronoun, the want being supplied by the use of indefinite forms of the verbal bases, which can in this connexion be called relative participles. The most characteristic feature of Munda grammar is the verb, especially in Kherwari. Every independent word can perform the function of a verb, and every verbal form can, in its turn, be used as a noun or an adjective. The bases of the different tenses can there- fore be described as indifferent words which can be used as a noun, as an adjective, and as a verb, but which are in reality none of them. Each denotes simply the root meaning as modified by time. Thus in Santali the base dal-ket', struck, which is formed from the base dal, by adding the suffix kef of the active past, can be used as a noun (compare dal-ket' -ko, strikers, those that struck), as an adjective (compare dal-ket' -Mr, struck man, the man that struck), and as a verb. In the last case it is necessary to add an a if the action really takes place; thus, dal-ket' -a, somebody struck. - It has already been remarked that the cases of the direct and . indirect object are indicated by adding forms of the personal pronouns to the verb. Such pronominal affixes are inserted before the assertive particle a. Thus the affix denoting a direct object of the third person singular is e, and by inserting it in dal-ket'-a we arrive at a form dal-ked-e-a, somebody struck him. Similar affixes can be added to denote that the object or subject of an action belongs to somebody. Thus Santali hdpdn-in-e dal-kef -iako-lin-a, son-my-he struck-theirs-mine, my son who belongs to me struck theirs. In a sentence such as har kora-e dal-ked-e-a, man boy-he struck- him, the man struck the boy, the Santals first put together the ideas man, boy, and a striking in the past. Then the e tells us that the striking affects the boy, and finally the -a indicates that the whole action really takes place. It will be seen that a single verbal form in this way often corresponds to a whole sentence or a series of sen- tences in other languages. If we add that the most developed Munda languages possess different bases for the active, the middle and the passive, that there are different causal, intensive and recipro- cal bases, which are conjugated throughout, and that the person of the subject is often indicated in the verb, it will be understood that Munda conjugation presents a somewhat bewildering aspect. It is, however, quite regular throughout, and once the mind becomes accustomed to these peculiarities, they do not present any difficulty to the understanding. Bibliography. — Max Miiller, Letter to Chevalier Bunsen on the Classification of the Turanian Languages. Reprint from Chr. K. J. Bunsen, Christianity and Mankind, vol. iii. (London, 1854), especially pp. 175 and sqq.; Friedrich Miiller, Grundriss der Sprach- wissenschaft, vol. iii. part i. (Wien, 1884), pp. 106 and sqq., vol. iv. Eart i. (Wien, 1888), p. 229; Sten Konow, " Munda and Dravidian anguages " in Grierson's Linguistic Survey of India, iv. 1 and sqq. (Calcutta, 1906). (S. K.) MUNDAY (or Monday), ANTHONY (c. 1553-1633), English dramatist and miscellaneous writer, son of Christopher Monday, a London draper, was born in 1 553-1554. He had already appeared on the stage when in 1576 he bound himself apprentice for eight years to John Allde, the stationer, an engagement from which he was speedily released, for in 1578 he was in Rome. In the opening lines of his English Romayne Lyfe (1582) he avers that in going abroad he was actuated solely by a desire to see strange countries and to learn foreign languages; but he must be regarded, if not as a spy sent to report on the English Jesuit College in Rome, as a journalist who meant to make literary capital out of the designs of the English Catholics resident in France and Italy. He says that he and his companion, Thomas Nowell, were robbed of all they possessed on the road from Boulogne to Amiens, where they were kindly received by an English priest, who entrusted them with letters to be delivered in Reims. These they handed over to the English ambassador in Paris, where under a false name, as the son of a well-known English Catholic, Munday gained recommendations which secured his reception at the English College in Rome. He was treated with special kindness by the rector, Dr Morris, for the sake of his supposed father. He gives a detailed account of the routine of the place, of the dispute between the English and Welsh students, of the carnival at Rome, and finally of the martyrdom of Richard Atkins (? 1 559-1 581). He returned to England in 1 578-1 579, and became an actor again, being a member of the Earl of Oxford's company between r579 and 1584. In a Catholic tract entitled A True Reporte of the death of M. Campion (1581), Munday is accused of having deceived his master Allde, a charge which he refuted by publishing Allde's signed declaration to the con- trary, and he is also said to have been hissed off the stage. He was one of the chief witnesses against Edmund Campion and his associates, and wrote about this time five anti-popish pamphlets, among them the savage and bigoted tract entitled A Discoverie of Edmund Campion and his Confederates whereto is added the execution of Edmund Campion, Raphe Sherwin, and Alexander Brian, the first part of which was read aloud from the scaffold at Campion's death in December 1581. His political services against the Catholics were rewarded in 1584 by the post of messenger to her Majesty's chamber, and from this time he seems to have ceased to appear on the stage. In 1 598-1 599, when he travelled with the earl of Pembroke's men in the Low Countries, it was in the capacity of playwright to furbish up old plays. He devoted himself to writing for the booksellers and the theatres, compiling religious works, translating Amadis de Gaule and other French romances, and putting words to popular airs. He was the chief pageant- writer for the City from 1605 MUNDELLA-— MUNDT to 1616, and it is likely that he supplied most of the pageants between 1592 and 1605, of which no authentic record has been kept. It is by these entertainments of his, which rivalled in success those of Ben Jonson and Middleton, that he won his greatest fame ; but of all the achievements of his versatile talent the only one that was noted in his epitaph in St Stephens, Coleman Street, London, where he was buried on the 10th of August 1633, was his enlarged edition (1618) of Stow's Survey of London. In some of his pageants he signs himself " citizen and draper of London," and in his later years he is said to have followed his father's trade. Of the eighteen plays between the dates of 1584 and 1602 which are assigned to Munday in collaboration with Henry Chettle, Michael Drayton, Thomas Dekker and other dramatists, only four are extant. John a Kent and John a Cumber, dated 1595, is supposed to be the same as Wiseman of West Chester, produced by the Admiral's men at the Rae Theatre on the 2nd of December 1594. A ballad of British Sidanen, on which it may have been founded was entered at Stationers' Hall in 1579. The Downfall of Robert Earl of Huntingdon, afterwards called Robin Hood of merrie Sherwodde (acted in February '599) was followed in the same month by a second part, The Death of Robert Earl of Huntingdon (printed 1601), in which he collaborated with Henry Chettle. Munday also had a share with Michael Dray- ton, Robert Wilson and Richard Hathway in the First Part of the history of the life of Sir John Oldcastle (acted 1599), which was printed in 1600, with the name of William Shakespeare, which was speedily withdrawn, on the title page. William Webbe (Discourse of English Poelrie, 1586) praised him for his pastorals, of which there remains only the title, Sweet Sobs and Amorous Complaints of Shep- herds and Nymphs; and Francis Meres (Palladis Tamia, 1598) gives him among dramatic writers the exaggerated praise of being " our best plotter." Pen Jonson ridiculed him in The Case is Altered as Antonio Balladino, pageant poet. Munday's works usually appeared under his own name, but he sometimes used the pseudonym of " Lazarus Piot." A. H. Bullen identifies him with the Shepherd Tony " who contributed " Beauty sat bathing by a spring " and six other lyrics to England's Helicon (ed. Bullen, 1899, p. 15). The completest account of Anthony Munday is T. Seccombe's article in the Diet. Nat. Biog. A life and bibliography are prefixed to the Shakespeare Society s reprint of John a Kent and John a Cumber (ed. J. P. Collier, 1851). His two " Robin Hood" plays were edited by J. P. Collier in Old Plays (1828), and his English Romayne Lyfe was printed in the Harleian Miscellany, vii. 136 seq. (ed. Park, 181 1). For an account of his city pageants see F. W. Fairholt, Lord Mayor's Pageants (Percy Soc, No. 38, 1843). MUNDELLA, ANTHONY JOHN (1825-1897), English educa- tional and industrial reformer, of Italian extraction, was born at Leicester in 1825. After a few years spent at an elementary school, he was apprenticed to a hosier at the age of eleven; He afterwards became successful in business in Nottingham, filled several civic offices, and was known for his philanthropy. He was sheriff of Nottingham in 1853, and in 1859 organized the first courts of arbitration for the settlement of disputes between masters and men. In November 1868 he was returned to parliament for Sheffield as an advanced Liberal. He represented that constituency until November 1885, when he was returned for the Brightside division of Sheffield, which he continued to represent until his death. In the Gladstone ministry of 1880 Mundella was vice-president of the council, and shortly after- wards was nominated fourth charity commissioner for England a"nd Wales. In February 1886 he was appointed president of the board of trade, with a seat in the cabinet, and was sworn a member of the privy council. In August 1892, when the Liberals again came into power, Mundella was again appointed president of the hoard of trade, and he continued in this position until 1804, when he resigned office. His resignation was brought about by his connexion with a financial company which went into liquidation in circumstances calling for the official intervention of the board of trade. However innocent his own connexion with the company was, it involved him in unpleasant public discussion, and his position became untenable. Having made a close study of the educational systems of Germany and Switzerland, Mundella was an early advocate of compulsory education in England. He rendered valuable service in con- nexion with the Elementary Education Act of 1870, and the educational code of 1882, which became known as the " Mundella. Code," marked a new departure in the regulation of public elementary schools and the conditions of the Government grants. To his initiative was chiefly due the Factory Act of 1875, which established a ten-hours day for women and children in textile factories; and the Conspiracy Act, which removed certain restrictions on trade unions. It was he also who established the labour department of the board of trade and founded the Labour Gazette. He introduced and passed bills for the better protection of women and children in brickyards and for the limitation of their labours in factories; and he effected substantial improvements in the Mints Regula- tion Bill, and was the author of much other useful legislation. In recognition of his efforts, a marble bust of himself, by Boehm, subscribed for by 80,000 factory workers, chiefly women and children, was presented to Mrs Mundella. He died in London on the 21st of July 1897. MUNDEN, JOSEPH SHEPHERD (1758-1832), English actor, was the son of a London poulterer, and ran away from home to join a strolling company. He had a long provincial experience as actor and manager. His first London appearance was in 1790 at Covent Garden, where he practically remained until 181 1, becoming the leading comedian of his day. In 1813 he was at Drury Lane. He retired in 1824, and died on the 6th of February 1832. MUNDEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, picturesquely situated at the confluence of the Fulda and the Werra, 21 m. N.E. of Cassel by rail. Pop. (1905), 10,755. It is an ancient place, municipal rights having been granted to it in 1 247. A few ruins of its former walls still survive. The large Lutheran church of St Blasius (i4th-isth centuries) contains the sarcophagus of Duke Eric of Brunswick-Calenberg (d. 1540). The 13th-century Church of St Aegidius was injured in the siege of 1625-26 but was subsequently restored. There is a new Roman Catholic church (1895). The town hall (1619), and the ducal castle, built by Duke Eric II. about 1570, and rebuilt in 1898, are the principal secular buildings. In the latter is the municipal museum. There are various small industries and a trade in timber. Mtinden, often called " Hanno- versch-Mlinden " (i.e. Hanoverian Mtinden), to distinguish it from Prussian Minden, was founded by the landgraves of Thuringia, and passed in 1247 to the house of Brunswick. It was for a time the residence of the dukes of Brunswick-Luneburg. In 1626 it was destroyed by Tilly. See Willigerod, Geschichte von Milnden (Gottingen, 1808); and Henze, Fuhrer durch Mtinden m:d Umgegend (Mtinden, 1900). MUNDRUCUS, a tribe of South American Indians, one of the most powerful tribes on the Amazon. In 1788 they completely defeated their ancient enemies the Muras. After 1803 they lived at peace with the Brazilians, and many are civilized. MUNDT, THEODOR (1808-1861), German author, was born at Potsdam on the 19th of September 1808. Having studied philology and philosophy at Berlin, he settled in 1832 at Leipzig, as a journalist, and was subjected to a rigorous police supervision. In 1839 he married Klara Mtiller (1814-1873), who under the name of Luise Muhlbach became a popular novelist, and he removed in the same year to Berlin. Here his intention of entering upon an academical career was for a time thwarted by his collision with the Prussian press laws. In 1842, however, he was permitted to establish himself as privatdocent. In 1848 he was appointed professor of literature and history in Breslau, and in 1850 ordinary professor and librarian in Berlin; there he died on the 30th of November 1861. Mundt wrote extensively on aesthetic subjects, and as a critic he had considerable influence in his time. Prominent among his works are Die Kunst der deutschen Prosa (1837); Geschichte der Liter atur der Gegenwart (1840); Aesthetik; die Idee der Schonheit und des Kunstwerks im Lichte unserer Zeit (1845, new ed. 1868); Die Gotterwelt der aiten Volker (1846, new ed. 1854). He also wrote several historical novels; Thomas Milnzer (1841); Mendoza, der Vater der Schelmen (1847) and Die Matador e (1850). But perhaps Mundt's chief title to fame was his part in the emancipation of women, a "theme which he elaborated in his Madonna, Unter- haltungen mit einer Heiligen (1835). MUNICH MUNICH (Ger. Munchen), a city of Germany, capital of the kingdom of Bavaria, and the third largest town in the German Empire. It is situated on an elevated plain, on the river Isar, 25 m. N. of the foot-hills of the Alps, about midway between Strassburg and Vienna. Owing to its lofty site (1700 ft. above the sea) and the proximity of the Alps, the climate is changeable, and its mean annual temperature, 49 to 50 F., is little higher than that of many places much farther to the north. The annual rainfall is nearly 30 in. Munich lies at the centre of an important network of railways connecting it directly with Strassburg (for Paris), Cologne, Leipzig, Berlin, Rosenheim (for Vienna) and Innsbruck (for Italy via the Brenner pass), which converge in a central station. Munich is divided into twenty-four municipal districts, nine- teen of which, including the old town, lie on the left bank of the Isar, while the suburban districts of Au, Haidhausen, Giesing, Bogenhausen and Ramersdorf are on the opposite bank. The old town, containing many narrow and irregular streets, forms a semicircle with its diameter towards the river, while round its periphery has sprung up the greater part of modern Munich, including the handsome Maximilian and Ludwig districts. The walls with which Munich was formerly surrounded have been pulled down, but some of the gates have been left. The most interesting is the Isartor and the Karlstor, restored in 1835 and adorned with frescoes. The Siegestor (or gate of victory) is a modern imitation of the arch of Constantine at Rome, while the stately Propylaea, built in 1854-1862, is a reproduction of the gates of the Athenian Acropolis. Munich owes its architectural magnificence largely to Louis I. of Bavaria, who ascended the throne in 1825, and his successors; while its collections of art entitle it to rank with Dresden and Berlin. Most of the modern buildings have been erected after celebrated prototypes of other countries and eras, so that, as has been said by Moriz Carriere, a walk through Munich affords a picture of the architecture and art of two thousand years. In carrying out his plans Louis I. was seconded by the architect Leo von Klenze, while the external decorations of painting and sculpture were mainly designed by Peter von Cornelius, Wilhelm von Kaulbach and Schwanthaler. As opportunity offers, the narrow streets of the older city are converted into broad, straight boulevards, lined with palatial mansions and public buildings. The hygienic improvement effected by these changes, and by a new and excellent water supply, is shown by the mortality averages — 40-4 per thousand in 1871-1875, 30-4 per thousand in 1881-1885, and 20-5 per thousand in 1003-1004. The archi- tectural style which has been principally followed in the later public buildings, among them the law courts, finished in 1897, the German bank, St Martin's hospital, as well as in numerous private dwellings, is the Italian and French Rococo, or Renais- sance, adapted to the traditions of Munich architecture in the 17th and 18th centuries. A large proportion of the most notable buildings in Munich are in two streets, the Ludwigstrasse and the Maximilianstrasse, the creations of the monarchs whose names they bear. The former, three-quarters of a mile long and 40 yds. wide, chiefly contains buildings in the Renaissance style by Friedrich von Gartner. The most striking of these are the palaces of Duke Max and of Prince Luitpoid; the Odeon, a large building for concerts, adorned with frescoes and marble busts; the war office; the royal library, in the Florentine palatial style; the Ludwigskirche, a successful reproduction of the Italian Romanesque style, built in 1829-1844, and containing a huge fresco of the Last Judgment by Cornelius; the blind asylum; and, lastly, the university. At one end this street is terminated by the Siegestor, while at the other is the Feldher- renhalle (or hall of the marshals), a copy of the Loggia dei Lanzi at Florence, containing statues of Tilly and Wrede by Schwan- thaler. Adjacent is the church of the Theatines, an imposing though somewhat over-ornamented example of the Italian Rococo style; it contains the royal burial vault. In the Maxi- milianstrasse, which extends from Haidhausen on the right bank of the Isar to the Max- Joseph Platz, King Maximilian II. tried to introduce an entirely novel style of domestic architecture, formed by the combination of older forms. At the east end it is closed by the Maximilianeum, an extensive and imposing edifice, adorned externally with large sculptural groups and internally with huge paintings representing the chief scenes in the history of the world. Descending the street, towards the west are passed in succession the old buildings of the Bavarian national museum, the government buildings in which the Com- posite style of Maximilian has been most consistently carried out, and the mint. On the north side of the Max- Joseph Platz lies the royal palace, consisting of the Alte Residenz, the Konigsbau, and the Festsaalbau. The Alte Residenz dates from 1601 to 1616; its apartments are handsomely fitted up in the Rococo style, and the private chapel and the treasury contain several crowns and many other interesting and valuable objects. The Festsaalbau, erected by Klenze in the Italian Renaissance style, is adorned with mural paintings and sculp- tures, while the Konigsbau, a reduced copy of the Pitti Palace at Florence, contains a series of admirable frescoes from the Niebelungenlied by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld. Adjoining the palace are two theatres, the Residenz or private theatre, and the handsome Hof theater, accommodating 2500 spectators. The Allerheiligen-Hofkirche, or court-church, is in the Byzantine style, with a Romanesque facade. The Ludwigstrasse and the Maximilianstrasse both end at no great distance from the Frauenplatz in the centre of the old town. On this square stands the Frauenkirche, the cathedral church of the archbishop of Munich-Freising, with its lofty cupola capped towers dominating the whole town. It is imposing from its size, and interesting as one of the few examples of indigenous Munich art. On the adjacent Marienplatz are the old town- hall, dating from the 14th century and restored in 1865, and the new town-hall, the latter a magnificent modern Gothic erection, freely embellished with statues, frescoes, and stained- glass windows, and enlarged in 1900-1905. The column in the centre of the square was erected in 1638, to commemorate the defeat of the Protestants near Prague by the Bavarians during the Thirty Years' War. Among the other churches of Munich the chief place is due to St Boniface's, an admirable copy of an early Christian basilica. It is adorned with a cycle of religious paintings by Heinrich von Hess (1798-1863), and the dome is supported by sixty- four monoliths of grey Tyrolese marble. The parish church of Au, in the Early Gothic style, contains gigantic stained-glass windows and some excellent wood-carving; and the church of St John in Haidhausen is another fine Gothic structure. St Michael's in the Renaissance style, erected for the Jesuits in 1 583-1 595, contains the monument of Eugene Beauharnais by Thorwaldsen. The facade is divided into storeys, and the general effect is by no means ecclesiastical. St Peter's is inter- esting as the oldest church in Munich (12th century), though no trace of the original basilica remains. Among newer churches the most noticeable are the Evangelical church of St Luke, a Transitional building, with an imposing dome, finished in 1896, and the Gothic parochial church of the Giesing suburb, with a tower 312 ft. high and rich interior decorations (1866-1884). The valuable collections of art are enshrined in handsome buildings, mostly in the Maximilian suburb on the north side of the town. The old Pinakothek, erected by Klenze in 1826- 1836, and somewhat resembling the Vatican, is embellished externally with frescoes by Cornelius and with statues of twenty- four celebrated painters from sketches by Schwanthaler. It contains a valuable and extensive collection of pictures by the earlier masters, the chief treasures^ being the early German and Flemish works and the unusually numerous examples of Rubens. It also affords accommodation to more than 300,000 engravings, over 20,000 drawings, and a large collection of vases. Opposite stands the new Pinakothek, built 1846-1853, the frescoes on which, designed by Kaulbach, show the effects of wind and weather. It is devoted to works by painters of the last century, among which Karl Rottmann's Greek landscapes are perhaps the most important. The Glyptothek, a building by Klenze in the Ionic style, and adorned with several groups and MUNICH single statues, contains a valuable series of sculptures, extending from Assyrian and Egyptian monuments down to works by Thorwaldsen and other modern masters. The celebrated Aeginetan marbles preserved here were found in the island of Aegina in 1811. Opposite the Glyptothek stands the exhibition building, in the Corinthian style, it was finished in 1845, an d is used for periodic exhibitions of art. In addition to the museum of plaster casts, the Antiquarium (a collection of Egyptian, Greek and Roman antiquities under the roof of the new Pinakothek) and the Maillinger collection, connected with the historical museum, Munich also contains several private galleries. Fore- most among these stand the Schack Gallery, bequeathed by the founder, Count Adolph von Schack, to the emperor William II. in 1894, rich in works by modern German masters, and the Lotzbeck collection of sculptures and paintings. Other struc- tures and institutions are the new buildings of the art association; the academy of the plastic arts (1874-1885), in the Renaissance style; and the royal arsenal (Zeughaus) with the military museum. The Schwanthaler museum contains models of most of the great sculptor's works. The immense scientific collection in the Bavarian national museum, illustrative of the march of progress from the Roman period down to the present day, compares in completeness with the similar collections at South Kensington and the Musee de Cluny. The building which now houses this collection was erected in 1894-1000. On the walls is a series of well-executed frescoes of scenes from Bavarian history, occupying a space of 16,000 sq. ft. The ethnographical museum, the cabinet of coins, and the collections of fossils, minerals, and physical and optical instruments, are also worthy of mention. The art union, the oldest and most extensive in Germany, possesses a good collection of modern works. The chief place among the scientific institutions is due to the academy of science, founded in 1759. The royal library contains over 1,300,000 printed volumes and 30,000 manuscripts. The observatory is equipped with instruments by the celebrated Josef Fraunhofer. At the head of the educational institutions of Munich stands the university, founded at Ingolstadt in 1472, removed to Landshut in 1800, and transferred thence to Munich in 1826. In addition to the four usual faculties there is a fifth — of political economy. In connexion with the university are medical and other schools, a priests' seminary, and a library of 300,000 volumes. The polytechnic institute (Technische Hochschule) in 1899 acquired the privilege of conferring the degree of doctor of technical science. Munich contains several gymnasia or grammar-schools, a military academy, a veterinary college, an agricultural college, a school for architects and builders, and several other technical schools, and a conservatory of music. The general prison in the suburb of Au is considered a model of its kind; and there is also a large military prison. Among other public buildings, the crystal palace (Glas-palast) , 765 ft. in length, erected for the great exhibition of 1854, is now used, as occasion requires, for temporary exhibitions. The Wittelsbach palace, built in 1843-1850, in the Early English Pointed style, is one of the residences of the royal family. Among the numerous monuments with which the squares and streets are adorned, the most important are the colossal statue of Maximilian II. in the Maximilianstrasse, the equestrian statues of Louis I. and the elector Maximilian I., the obelisk erected to the 30,000 Bavarians who perished in Napoleon's expedition to Moscow, the Wittelsbach fountain (1895), the monument commemorative of the peace of 1871, and the marble statue of Justus Liebig, the chemist, set up in 1883. The English garden (Englischer Garten), to the north-east of the town, is 600 acres in extent, and was laid out by Count Rumford in imitation of an English park. On the opposite bank of the Isar, above and below the Maximilianeum, extend the Gasteig promenades, commanding fine views of the town. To the south-west of the town is the Theresienwiese, a large common where the popular festival is celebrated in October. Here is situated the Ruhmeshalle or hall of fame, a Doric colonnade containing busts of eminent Bavarians. In front of it is a colossal bronze statue of Bavaria, 170 ft. high, designed by Schwanthaler. The botanical garden, with its large palm-house, the Hofgarten, surrounded with arcades containing frescoes of Greek landscapes by Rottmann, and the Maximilian park to the east of the Isar, complete the list of public parks. The population of Munich in 1905 was 538,393. The per- manent garrison numbers about 10,000 men. Of the population, 84% are Roman Catholic, 14% Protestants, and 2% Jews. Munich is the seat of the archbishop of Munich-Freising and of the general Protestant consistory for Bavaria. About twenty newspapers are published here, including the Allgemeine Zeitung. Some of the festivals of the Roman Church are cele- brated with considerable pomp; and the people also cling to various national fetes, such as the Metzgersprung, the Schaffler- tanz, and the great October festival. Munich has long been celebrated for its artistic handicrafts, such as bronze-founding, glass-staining, silversmith's work, and wood-carving, while the astronomical instruments of Fraunhofer and the mathematical instruments of Traugott Lieberecht von Ertel (1778-1858) are also widely known. Lithography, which was invented at Munich at the end of the 18th century, is extensively practised here. The other industrial products include wall-paper, railway plant, machinery, gloves and artificial flowers. The most characteristic industry, however, is brewing. Four important markets are held at Munich annually. The city is served by an extensive electric tramway system. History. — The Villa Munichen or Forum ad monachos, so called from the monkish owners of the ground on which it lay, was first called into prominence by Duke Henry the Lion, who established a mint here in n 58, and made it the emporium for the salt coming from Hallein and Reichenhall. The Bavarian dukes of the Wittelsbach house occasionally resided at Munich, and in 1255 Duke Louis made it his capital, having previously surrounded it with walls and a moat. The town was almost entirely destroyed by fire in 1327, after which the emperor Louis the Bavarian, in recognition of the loyalty of the citizens, rebuilt it very much on the scale it retained down to the beginning of the r9th century. Among the succeeding rulers those who did most for the town in the erection of handsome buildings and the foundation of schools and scientific institutions were Albert V., William V., Maximilian I., Max Joseph and Charles Theodore. In 1632 Munich was occupied by Gustavus Adolphus, and in 1705, and again in r742, it was in possession of the Austrians. In 1 791 the fortifications were razed. Munich's importance in the history of art is entirely of modern growth, and may be dated from the acquisition of the Aeginetan marbles by Louis I., then crown prince, in 1812. Among the eminent artists of this period whose names are more or less identified with Munich were Leo von Klenze (1784-^64), Joseph Daniel Ohlmuller (1 791-1839), Friedrich von Gartner (i792-r847), and Georg Friedrich Ziebland (^800-1873), the architects; Peter von Cornelius (1783-1867), Wilhelm von Kaul- bach (1804-1874), Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld (1794-1872), and Karl Rottmann, the painters; and Ludwig von Schwanthaler, the sculptor. Munich is still the leading school of painting in Germany, but the romanticism of the earlier masters has been abandoned for drawing and colouring of a realistic character. Karl von Piloty (1826-1886) and Wilhelm Diez (1839-1907) long stood at the head of this school. See Mittheilungen des statistischen Bureaus der Stadt Munchen (vols, i.-v., 1875-1882); Sold, Munchen mit seinen Umgebungen (1854); Reber, Bautechnischer Ftihrer durch die Stadt Munchen (1876) ; Daniel, Handbuch der Geographie (new ed., 1895); Prantl, Geschichte der Ludwig- Maximilians Universitdt (Munich, 1872); Goering, 30 Jahre Munchen (Munich, 1904) ; von Ammon, Die Gegend von Munchen geologisch geschildert (Munich, 1895); Kronegg, lUustrierte Geschichte der Stadt Munchen (Munich, 1903) ; the Jahrbuch fur Miinchener Geschichte, edited by Reinhardstottner and Trautmann (Munich, 1887-1894); Aufleger and Trautmann, Alt-Milnchen in Bild und Wort (Munich, 1895) ; Rohmeder, Munchen als Handelsstadt (Munich, 1905); H. Tinsch, Das Stadtrecht von Munchen (Bamberg, 1891); F. Pecht, Geschichte der miinchener Kunst im 19 Jahrhundert (Munich, 1888) ; and Trautwein, Ftihrer durch Munchen (20th ed., 1906). There is an English book on Munich by H. R. Wadleigh (1910). MUNICIPALITY— MUNICIPIUM MUNICIPALITY, a modern term (derived from Lat. muni- cipium; see below), now used both for a city or town which is organized for self-government under a municipal corporation, and also for the governing body itself. Such a corporation in Great Britain consists of a head as a mayor or provost, and of superior members, as aldermen and councillors, together with the simple corporators, who are represented by the governing body; it acts as a person by its common seal, and has a perpetual succession, with power to hold lands subject to the restrictions of the Mortmain laws; and it can sue or be sued. Where necessary for its primary objects, every corporation has power to make by-laws and to enforce them by penalties, provided they are not unjust or unreasonable or otherwise inconsistent with the objects of the charter or other instrument of foundation. See Borough, Commune, Corporation, Local Government, Finance, &c, and for details of the functions of the municipal government see the sections under the general headings of the different countries and the sections on the history of these countries. MUNICIPIUM (Lat. munus, a duty or privilege, capere, to take), in ancient Rome, the term applied primarily to a status, a certain relation between individuals or communities and the Roman state; subsequently and in ordinary usage to a com- munity, standing in such a relation to Rome. Whether the name signifies the taking up of burdens or the acceptance of privileges is a disputed point. But as ancient authorities are unanimous in giving munus in this connexion the sense of " duty " or " service," it is probable that the chief feature of municipality was the performance of certain services to Rome. 1 This view is confirmed by all that we know about the towns to which the name was applied in republican times. The status had its origin in the conferment of citizenship upon Tusculum in 381 B.C. (Livy vi. 26; cf. Cic. pro Plane. 8, 19), and was widely extended in the settlement made by Rome at the close of the Latin War in 338 b.c. (see Rome, History). Italian towns were then divided into three classes: (1) Coloniae civium Romanorum, whose members had all the rights of citizen- ship; (2) municipia, which received partial citizenship; (3) foeder- atae civitates (including the so-called Latin colonies), which remained entirely separate from Rome, and stood in relations with her which were separately arranged by her for each state by treaty (joedus). The municipia stood in very different degrees of dependence on Rome. Some, such as Fundi (Livy viii. 14; cf. ibid. 19), enjoyed a local self-government only limited in the matter of jurisdiction; others, such as Anagnia (Livy ix. 43; Festus, de verb, significatione, s.v. " municipium," p. 127, ed. Miiller), were governed directly from Rome. But they all had certain features in common. Their citizens were called upon to pay the same dues and perform the same service in the legions as full Roman citizens, but were deprived of the chief privileges of citizenship, those of voting in the Comitia (jus suffragii), and of holding Roman magistracies (Jus honorum). It would also appear from Festus (op. cit. s.v. praefeclura, p. 233) that juris- diction was entrusted in every municipium to praefecti juri dicundo sent out from Rome to represent the Praetor Urbanus. 2 The conferment of municipality can therefore hardly have been regarded as other than an imposing of burdens, even in the case of those cities which retained control of their own affairs. But after the close of the second Punic War, when Rome had become the chief power, not only in Italy, but in all the neigh- bouring lands round the Mediterranean, we can trace a growing tendency among the Italian cities to regard citizenship of this great state as a privilege, and to claim complete citizenship as a reward of their services in helping to build up the Roman power. During the 2nd century B.C. the jus sitffragii and jus honorum were conferred upon numerous municipia (Livy xxxviii. 36, 37), whose citizens were then enrolled in the Roman tribes. They can have exercised their public rights but seldom, owing to their distance from Rome; but the consulships of C. Marius, 1 For a contrary view, however, see Marquardt, Rom. Staatsverw. i. p. 26, n. 2 (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1881), and authorities there cited. 5 For a different view see Willems, Droit public romain, p. 381 (Louvain, 1874), a municeps of Arpinum (between 107 and 100 B.C.), and the strength of the support given to Tiberius Gracchus in the assembly by the voters from Italian towns (133 b.c.) show what an important influence the members of these municipia could occasionally exercise over Roman politics. The cities thus privileged, however, though receiving complete Reman citizen ship, were not, as the logic of public law might seem to demand, incorporated in Rome, but continued to exist as independent urban units; and this anomaly survived in the municipal system which was developed, on the basis of these grants of citizen- ship, after the Social War. That system recognized the municeps as at once a citizen of a self-governing city community, and a member of the city of Rome, his dual capacity being illustrated by his right of voting both in the election of Roman magistrates and in the election of magistrates for his own town. The result of the Social War which broke out in 91 B.C. (see Rome: History) was the establishment of a new uniform municipality throughout Italy, and the obliteration of any important distinction between the three classes established after the Latin War. By the Lex Julia of 90 B.C. and the Lex Plautia Papiria of 89 B.C. every town in Italy which made application in due form received the complete citizenship. The term municipium was no longer confined to a particular class of Italian towns but was adopted as a convenient name for all urban communities of Roman citizens in Italy. The organization of a municipal system, which should regulate the governments of all these towns on a uniform basis, and define their relation to the Roman government, was probably the work of Sulla, who certainly gave great impetus to the foundation in the provinces of citizen colonies, which were the earliest municipia outside Italy, and enjoyed the same status as the Italian towns. Julius Caesar extended the sphere of the Roman municipal system by his enfranchisement of Cisalpine Gaul, and the consequent inclusion of all the towns of that region in the category of municipia. He seems also to have given a more definite organization to the municipia as a whole. But, excepting those in Cisalpine Gaul, the municipal system still embraced no towns outside Italy other than the citizen colonies. Augustus and his successors adopted the practice of granting to existing towns in the provinces either the full citizenship, or a partial civitas known as the jus Latii. This partial civitas does not seem to have been entirely replaced, as in Italy, by the grant of full privileges to the communities possessing it, and the distinction survived for some time in the provinces between coloniae, municipia juris Rotnani, and municipia juris Latini. But the uniform system of administration gradually adopted in all three classes rendered the distinction entirely unimportant, and the general term municipium is used of all alike. The incorporation of existing towns, hitherto non-Roman, in the uniform municipal system of the principate took place mainly in the eastern part of the Empire, where Greek civiliza- tion had long fostered urban life. In the west city commu- nities rapidly sprang up under direct Roman influence. The development of towns of the municipal type on the sites where legions occupied permanent quarters can be traced in several of the western provinces; and it cannot be doubted that this development became the rule wherever a body of Roman subjects settled down together for any purpose and permanently occupied a region. At any rate by the end of the 1st century of the principate municipia are numerous in the western as well as the eastern half of the Empire, and the towns are every- where centres of Roman influence. Of the internal life of the municipia very little is known before the Empire. For the period after Julius Caesar, however, we have two important sources of information. A series of municipal laws gives us a detailed knowledge of the constitution imposed, with slight variations, on all the municipia; and a host of private inscriptions gives particulars of their social life. The municipal constitution of the 1st century of the principate is based upon the type of government common to Greece and Rome from earliest times. The government of each town consists of magistrates, senate and assembly, and is entirely 8 MUNICIPIUM independent of the Roman government except in certain cases of higher civil jurisdiction, which come under the direct cog- nisance of the praetor urbanus at Rome. On the other hand, each community is bound to perform certain services to the Imperial govjrnment, such as the contribution of men and horses for military service, the maintenance of the imperial post through its neighbourhood, and the occasional entertain- ment of Roman officials or billeting of soldiers. The citizens were of two classes: (i) cives, whether by birth, naturalization or emancipation, (2) incolae, who enjoyed a partial citizenship based on domicile for a certain period. Both classes were liable to civic burdens, but the incolae had none of the privi- leges of citizenship except a limited right of voting. The citizens were grouped in either tribes or curiae, and accordingly the assembly sometimes bore the name of Comitia Tributa, sometimes that of Comitia Curiata. The theoretical powers of these comitia were extensive both in the election of magis- trates and in legislation. But the growing influence of the senate over elections on the one hand, and on the other hand the increasing reluctance of leading citizens to become candidates for office (see below), gradually made popular election a mere form. The senatorial recommendation of the necessary number of candidates seems to have been merely ratified in the comitia; and a Spanish municipal law of the 1st century makes special provision for occasions on which an insufficient number of candidates are forthcoming. In Italy, however, the reality of popular elections seems to have survived to a later date. The inscriptions at Pompeii, for instance, give evidence of keenly contested elections in the 2nd century. The local senate, or curia, always exercised an important influence on municipal politics. Its members formed the local nobility, and at an early date special privileges were granted by Rome to provincials who were senators in their native towns. For the composition, powers, and history of the provincial senate see Decueio. The magistrates were elected annually, and were six in number, forming three pairs of colleagues. The highest magistrates were the Ilviri (Duoviri) juri dicundo, who had charge, as their name implies, of all local jurisdiction, and presided over the assembly. Candidates for this office were required to be over 25 years of age, to have held one of the minor magistracies, and to possess all the qualifications required of members of the local senate (see Decurio). Next in dignity were the Ilviri aediles, who had charge of the roads and public buildings, the games and the corn-supply, and exercised police control through- out the town. They appear to have been regarded as sub- ordinate colleagues (collegae minore.i) of the Ilviri juri dicundo, and in some towns at least to have had the right to convene and preside over the comitia in the absence of the latter. Indeed many inscriptions speak of IVviri (Quattuorviri) consisting of two IVviri juri dicundo and two IVviri aediles; but in the majority of cases the former are regarded as distinct and superior magistrates. The two quaestores, who appear to have controlled finance in a large number of municipia, cannot be traced in others; and it is probable that in the municipia, as at Rome, the quaestorship was locally instituted, as need arose, to relieve the supreme magistrates of excessive business. Other municipal magistrates frequently referred to in the inscriptions are the quinquennales and praefecti. The quinquennales super- seded the Ilviri or IVviri juri dicundo every five years, and differed from them only in possessing, in addition to their other powers, those exercised in Rome before the time of Sulla by the censors. Two classes of praefecti are found in the municipalities under the Empire, both of which are to be distinguished from the officials who bore that name in the municipia before the Social War. The first class consists of those praefecti who were nominated as temporary delegates by the Ilviri, when through illness or compulsory absence they were unable to discharge the duties of their office. The second class, referred to in inscriptions by the name of praefecti ab decuribnibus creati lege Petronia, seem to have been appointed by the local senate in case of a complete absence of higher magistrates, such as would have led in Rome to the appointment of an interrex. From a social point of view the municipia of the Roman Empire may be treated under three heads: (1) as centres of local self- government, (2) as religious centres, (3) as industrial centres. (1) The chief feature of the local government of the towns is the wide- spread activity of the municipal authorities in improving the general conditions of life in the town. In the municipalities, as in Rome, provision was made out of the public funds for feeding the poorest part of the population, and providing a supply of corn which could be bought by ordinary citizens at a moderate price. In Pliny's time there existed in many towns public schools controlled by the municipal authorities, concerning which Pliny remarks that they were a source of considerable disturbance in the town at the times when it was necessary to appoint teachers. He himself encouraged the establishment of another kind of municipal school at Como, where the leading townspeople subscribed for the maintenance of the school, and the control, including the appointment of teachers, remained in the hands of the subscribers. Physicians seem to have been maintained in many towns at the public expense. The water- supply was also provided out of the municipal budget, and controlled by magistrates appointed for the purpose. To enable it to bear the expense involved in all these undertakings, the local treasury was generally assisted by large benefactions, either in money or in works, from individual citizens; but direct taxation for municipal purposes was hardly ever resorted to. The treasury was filled out of the proceeds of the landed possessions of the community, especially such fruitful sources of revenue as mines and quarries, and out of import and export duties. It was occasionally subsidized by the emperor on occasions of sudden and exceptional calamity. 2. The chief feature in the religious life of the towns was the important position they occupied as centres for the cult of the emperor. Caesar-worship as an organized cult developed spontat neously in many provincial towns during the reign of Augustus, and was fostered by him and his successors as a means of promoting in these centres of vigour and prosperity a strong loyalty to Rome and the emperor, which was ohe of the firmest supports of the latter's power. The order of Augustales, officials appointed to regulate the worship of the emperor in the towns, occupied a position of dignity and importance in provincial society. It was composed of the lead- ing and the wealthiest men among the lower classes of the popula- tion. By the organization of the order on these lines Augustus secured the double object of maintaining Caesar-worship in all the most vigorous centres of provincial life, and attracting to himself and his successors the special devotion of the industrial class which had its origin in the mv.nicipia of the Roman Empire, and has become the greatest political force in modern Europe. 3. The development of this free industrial class is the chief feature of the municipia considered as centres of industry and handicraft. The rise to power of the equestrian order in Rome during the last century of the Republic had to some extent modified the old Roman principle that trade and commerce were beneath the dignity of the governing class ; but long after the fall of the Republic the aristo- cratic notion survived in Rome that industry and handicrafts were only fit for slaves. In the provincial towns, however, this idea was rapidly disappearing in the early years of the Empire, and even in the country towns of Italy the inscriptions give evidence not much later of the existence of a large and flourishing free industrial class, proud of its occupation, and bound together by a strong esprit de corps. Already the members of this class show a strong tendency to bind themselves together in gilds (collegia, sodalitates), and the existence of countless associations of the kind is revealed by the inscriptions. The formation of societies for religious and other purposes was frequent at Rome from the earliest times in all classes of the free population. After the time of Sulla these societies were regarded by the government with suspicion, mainly on account of the political uses to which they were turned, and various measures were passed for- their suppression in Rome and Italy. This policy was continued by the early emperors and extended to the whole Empire, but in spite of opposition the gilds in the provincial towns grew and flourished. The ostensible objects of nearly all such collegia of which we have any knowledge were twofold, the maintenance of the worship of some god, and provision for the performance of proper funerary rights for its members. But under cover of these two main objects, the only two purposes for which such combinations were allowed under the Empire, associations of all kinds grew up. The organization of the gilds was based on that of the municipality. Each elected its officers and treasurers at an annual meeting, and every five years a revision of the list of members was held, correspond- ing to that of the senators held quinquennially by the city magis- trates. It is doubtful how far these societies served to organize and improve particular industries. There is no evidence to show that any societies during the first three centuries consisted solely of workers at a single craft. But there can be little doubt that the later craft gilds were a development, through the industrial gilds of the provincial towns, of one of the most ancient features of Roman life. Remarkable concord seems generally to have existed in the municipia between the various classes of the population. This is accounted for partly by the strong civic feeling which formed a bond of unity stronger than most sources of friction, and MUNIMENT— MUNKACS partly to the general prosperity of the towns, which removed any acute discontent. The wealthy citizen seems always to have had to bear heavy financial burdens, and to have enjoyed in return a dignity and an actual political preponderance which made the general character of municipal constitutions distinctly timocratic. The policy adopted by the early emperors of encouraging, within the limits of a uniform system, the independence and civic patriotism of the towns, was superseded in the 3rd and 4th centuries by a deliberate effort to use the towns as instru- ments of the imperial government, under the direct control of the emperor or, his representatives in the provinces. This policy was accompanied by a gradual decay of civic feeling and municipal enterprise, which showed itself mainly in the un- willingness of the townsmen to become candidates for local magistracies, or to take up the burdens entailed in membership of the municipal senate. Popular control of the local government of the towns was ceasing to be a reality as early as the end of the 1st century of the Empire. Two centuries later local government was a mere form. And the self-governing com- munities of the middle ages were a restoration, rather than a development, of the flourishing and independent municipalities of the age of Augustus and his immediate successors. Authorities. — C. Bruns, Fontes juris romani, c. III., No. 18, and c. IV. (Freiburg, 1893), for Municipal Laws and references to Mommsen's commentary in C.I.L. ; E. Kuhn, Stadtische u. biirgerliche Verfassung des rom. Reichs (Leipzig, 1864): Marquardt, Romische Slaatsverwallung, I. i. (Leipzig, 1881); Toutain. in Daremberg- Saglio Dictionnairc des antiquites grecques et romaines, s.v. " Munici- pium "; S. Dill, Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius, c. 2 and 3 (London, 1904). For the gilds see Mommsen, De collegiis et sodaliciis Romanorum (Keil, 1843); Liebenam, Geschichte u. Organi- sation des rom. Vereinswesens (Leipzig, 1890). (A. M. Cl.) MUNIMENT, a word chiefly used in the plural, as a collective term for the documents, charters, title-deeds, &c. relating to the property, rights and privileges of a cotporation, such as a college, a family or private person, and kept as " evidences " for defending the same. Hence the medieval usage of the word munimenium, in classical Latin, a defence, fortification, from mnnire, to defend. MUNI RIVER SETTLEMENTS, or Spanish Guinea, a Spanish protectorate on the Guinea Coast, West Africa, rectangular in form, with an area of about 9800 sq. m. and an estimated population of 150,000. The protectorate extends inland about 125 miles and is bounded W. by the Atlantic, N. by the German colony of Cameroon, E. and S. by French Congo. The coast- line, 75 m. long, stretches from the mouth of the Campo in 2 10' N. to the mouth of the Muni in i° N., on the north arm of Corisco Bay. The small islands of Corisco (q.v.), Elobey Grande, Elobey Chico and Bana in Corisco Bay also belong to Spain. From the estuary of the Campo the coast trends S.S.W. in a series of shallow indentations, until at the bold bluff of Cape San Juan it turns eastward and forms Corisco Bay. The coast plain, from 12 to 25 m. wide, is succeeded by the foot-hills of the Crystal Mountains, which traverse the country in a north to south direction. These are a table-land, from which rise granitic hills 700 to 1200 ft. above the general level, which is about 2500 ft. above the sea. The mountainous region, which extends inland beyond the Spanish frontier, contains many narrow valleys and marshy depressions. The greater part of the country forms the basin of the river Benito, which, rising in French Congo a little east of the frontier, flows through the centre of the Spanish protectorate and enters the sea, after a course of 300 m., about midway between the Campo and Muni estuaries. The southern bank of the lower course of the Campo and the northern bank of the lower course of the Muni, form part of the protectorate. The mouths of the Campo and Benito are obstructed by sand bars, whereas the channel leading to the Muni is some 36 ft. deep and the river itself is more than double that depth. It is from this superiority of access that the country has been named after the Muni River. The course of all the rivers is obstructed by rapids in their descent from the table-land to the plain. The greater part of the country is covered with dense primeval forest. This forest growth is due to the fertility of the soil and the great rainfall, Spanish Guinea with the neighbouring Cameroon country possessing one cf the heaviest rain records of the world. The humidity of the climate joined to the excessive heat (the average tempera- ture is 78 F.) makes the climate trying. In the eastern parts of the protectorate the forest is succeeded by more open country. Among the most common trees are oil-palms, rubber-trees, ebony and mahogany. The forests are the home of monkeys and of innumerable birds and insects, often of gorgeous colouring. In the north-east of the country elephants are numerous. The inhabitants are Bantu-Negroid, the largest tribe repre- sented being the Fang (q.v.), called by the Spaniards Pamues. They are immigrants from the Congo basin and have pushed before them the tribes, such as the Benga, which now occupy the coast-lands. The villages of the Fang are usually placed on the top of small hills. They cultivate the yam, banana and manioc, and are expert fishers and hunters. The European settlements are confined to the coast. There are trading stations at the mouths of the Campo, Benito and Muni rivers, at Bata, midway between the Campo and Benito, and on Elobey Chico. There are cocoa, coffee and other plantations, but the chief trade is in natural products, rubber, palm oil and palm kernels, and timber. Cotton goods and alcohol are the principal imports. Trade is largely in the hands of British and German firms. The annual value of the trade in 1903-1906 was about £100,000. Spain became possessed of Fernando Po at the end of the i8tb century, and Spanish traders somewhat later established " factories " on the neighbouring coasts of the mainland, but no permanent occupation appears to have been contemplated. During the 19th century a number of treaties were concluded between Spanish naval officers and the chiefs of the lower Guinea coast, and when the partition of Africa was in progress Spain laid claim to the territory between the Campo river and the Gabun. Germany and France also claimed the territory, but in 1885 Germany withdrew in favour of France. After protracted negotiations between France and Spain a treaty was signed in June 1900 by which France acknowledged Spanish sovereignty over the coast region between the Campo and Muni rivers and the hinterland as far east as 11° 20' E. of Greenwich, receiving in return concessions from Spain in the Sahara (see Rio de Org), and the right of pre-emption over Spain's West African possessions. In 1901-1902 the eastern frontier was delimited, being modified in accordance with natural features. The newly acquired territories were placed under the superintendence of the governor-general of Fernando Po, sub-governors being stationed at Bata, Elobey Chico and Corisco. See R. Beltran y Rozpide, La Guinea espanola (Madrid, 1901), and Guinea continental espanola (Madrid, 1903); H. Lorin, " Les colonies espagnoles du golfe de Guinee " in Quest, dip. et col., vol. xxi. (1906) ; E. L. Perea, " Estado actual de los territories espafioles de Guinea " in Reiiista de geog. colon, y mercantil (Madrid, 1905) ; J. B. Roche, Aupays des Pahouins (Paris, 1904). A good map compiled by E. dAlmonte on the scale of 1 :200,ooo was published in Madrid in 1903. Consult also the works cited under Fernando Po. MUNKACS, a town of Hungary, in the county of Bereg, 220' m. E.N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 13,640. It is situated on the Latorcza river, and on the outskirts of the East Beskides mountains, where the hills touch the plains. Its most noteworthy buildings are the Greek Catholic cathedral and the beautiful castle of Count Schonborn. In the vicinity, on a steep hill 580 ft. high, stands the old fort of Munkacs, which played an important part in Hungarian history, and was especially famous for its heroic defence by Helene Zrinyi, wife of Emeric Tokoli and mother of Francis Rakoczy II., for three years against the Austrians (1685-1688). It was afterwards used as a prison. Ypsilanti, the hero of Greek liberty, and Kazinczy, the regenerator of Hungarian letters, were confined in it. According to tradition, it was near Munkacs that the Hungarians, towards the end of the 9th century, entered the country. In 1896 in the fort was built one of the " millennial 10 MUNKACSY— MUNRO, R. monuments " established at seven different points of the kingdom. MUNKACSY, MICHAEL VON (1844-1000), Hungarian painter, whose real name was Michael (Miska) Leo Lieb, was the third son of Michael Lieb, a collector of salt-tax in Munkacs, Hungary, and of Cacilia Rock. He was born in that town on the 20th of February 1844. In 1848 his father was arrested at Miskolcz for complicity in the Hungarian revolution, and died shortly after his release; a little earlier he had also lost his mother, and became dependent upon the charity of relations, of whom an uncle, Rock, became mainly responsible for his maintenance and education. He was apprenticed to a carpenter, Langi, in 1855, but shortly afterwards made the acquaintance of the painters Fischer and Szamossy, whom he accompanied to Arad in 1858. From them he received his first real instruction in art. He worked mainly at Budapest during 1863-1865, and at this time first adopted, from patriotic motives, the name by which he is always known. In 1865 he visited Vienna, returning to Budapest in the following year, and went thence to Munich, where he contributed a few drawings to the Fliegende Blatter. About the end of 1867 he was working at Diisseldorf, where he was much influenced by Ludwig Knaus, and painted (1868- 1869) his first picture of importance, " The Last Day of a Condemned Prisoner," which was exhibited in the Paris Salon in 187c, and obtained for him a medaille unique and a very considerable reputation. He had already paid a short visit to Paris in 1867, but on the 25th of January 1872 he took up his permanent abode in that city, and remained there during the rest of his working life. Munkacsy's other chief pictures are " Milton dictating Paradise Lost to his Daughters " (Paris Exhibition, 1878), " Christ before Pilate " (1881), " Golgotha " (1883), " The Death of Mozart " (1884), " Arpad, chief of the Magyars, taking possession of Hungary," painted for the new House of Parliament in Budapest, and exhibited at the Salon in 1893, and " Ecce Homo." He had hardly completed the latter work when a malady of the brain overtook him, and he died on the 30th of April 1900, at Endenich, near Bonn. Just before his last illness he had been offered the directorship of the Hungarian State Gallery at Budapest. Munkacsy's masterly characterization, force and power of dramatic composition secured him a great vogue for his works, but it is doubtful if his reputation will be maintained at the level it reached during his lifetime. " Christ before Pilate " and " Golgotha " were sold for £32,000 and £35,000 respectively to an American buyer. Munkacsy received the following awards for his work exhibited at Paris: Medal, 1870, Medal, 2nd class; Legion of Honour, 1877; Medal of Honour, 1878; Officer of the Legion, 1878; Grand Prix, Exhibition of 1889; Commander of the Legion, 1889. See F. Walther Ilges, " M. von Munkacsy," Kiinstler Mono- graphien (1899); C. Sedelmeyer, Christ before Pilate (Paris, 1886); J. Beavington Atkinson, " Michael Munkacsy," Magazine of Art (1S81). (E. F. S.) MUNNICH, BURKHARD CHRISTOPH, Count (1683-1767), Russian soldier and statesman, was born at Neuenhuntorf, in Oldenburg, in 1683, and at an early age entered the French service. Thence he transferred successively to the armies of Hesse-Darmstadt and of Saxony, and finally, with the rank of general-in-chief and the title of count, he joined the array of Peter II. of Russia. In 1732 he became field-marshal and president of the council of war. In this post he did good service in the re-organization of the Russian army, and founded the cadet corps which was destined to supply the future genera- tions of officers. In 1734 he took Danzig, and with 1736 began the Turkish campaigns which made Miinnich's reputation as a soldier. Working along the shores of the Black Sea from the Crimea, he took Ochakov after a celebrated siege in 1737, and in 1739 won the battle of Stavutschina, and took Khotin (or Choczim), and established himself firmly in Moldavia. Marshal Miinnich now began to take an active part in political affairs, the particular tone of which was given by his rivalry with Biron, or Bieren, duke of Courland. But his activity was brought to a close by the revolution of 1741; he was arrested on his way to the frontier, and condemned to death. Brought out for execution, and withdrawn from the scaffold, he was later sent to Siberia, where he remained fcr several years, until the accession of Peter III. brought about his release in 1762. Catherine II., who soon displaced Peter, employed the old field-marshal as director-general of the Baltic ports. He died in 1767. Feld- marschall Miinnich was a fine soldier of the professional type, and many future commanders, notably Loudon and Lacy, served their apprenticeship at Ochakov and Khotin. As a statesman he is regarded as the founder of Russian Philhellenism. He had the grade of count of the Holy Roman Empire. The Russian 37th Dragoons bear his name. He wrote an Hbauche pour donner une idee de la forme de V empire i« Russie (Leipzig, 1774), and his voluminous diaries have anpeared in various publications — Herrmann, Beitrage zur Geschichte des russi- schen Reichs (Leipzig. 1843). See Hempel, Leben Miinnichs (Bremen, 1742) ; Ralem, Geschichte des F. M. Graf en Miinnich (Oldenburg, 1803 ; 2nd ed., 1838) ; Kostomarov, Peldmarschall Miinnich {Russische Geschichte inBiographien,v. 2). MUNRO, SIR HECTOR (1726-1805), British general, son of Hugh Munro of Novar, in Cromarty, was born in 1726, and entered the army in 1749. He went to Bombay in 1761, in command of the 89th regiment, and in that year effected the surrender of Mahe from the French. Later, when in command of the Bengal army, he suppressed a mutiny of sepoys at Patna, and on the 23rd of October 1764 won the victory of Buxar against Shuja-ud-Dowlah, the nawab wazir of Oudh, and Mir Kasim, which ranks amongst the most decisive battles ever fought in India. Returning home, he became in 1768 M.P. for the Inverness Burghs, which he continued to represent in parliament for more than thirty years, though a considerable portion of this period was spent in India, whither he returned in 1778 to take command of the Madras army. In that year he took Pondicherry from the French, but in 1780 he was defeated by Hyder Ali near Conjeeveram, and forced .to fall back on St Thomas's Mount. There Sir Eyre Coote took over command of the army, and in 1781 won a signal victory against Hyder Ali at Porto Novo, where Munro was in command of the right division. Negapatam was taken by Munro in November of the same year; and in 1782 he returned to England. He died on the 27th of December 1805. MUNRO, HUGH ANDREW JOHNSTONE (1819-1885), British scholar, was born at Elgin on the 19th of October 1819. He was educated at Shrewsbury school, where he was one of Kennedy's first pupils, and proceeded to Trinity College, Cam- bridge, in 1838. He became scholar of his college in 1840, second classic and first chancellor's medaliist in 1842, and fellow of his college in 1843. He became classical lecturer at Trinity College, and in 1869 was elected to the newly-founded chair of Latin at Cambridge, but resigned it in 1872. The great work on which his reputation is mainly based is his edition of Lucretius, the fruit of the labour of many years (text only, i vol., i860; text, commentary and translation, 2 vols., 1864). As a textual critic his knowledge was profound and his judgment unrivalled; and he made close archaeological studies by frequent travels in Italy and Greece. In 1867 he published an improved text of Aetna with commentary, and in the following year a text of Horace with critical introduction, illustrated by specimens of ancient gems selected by C. W. King. His knowledge and taste are nowhere better shown than in his Criticisms and Elucidations of Catullus (1878). He was a master of the art of Greek and Latin verse composition. His contri- butions to the famous volume of Shrewsbury verse, Sabrinae corolla, are among the most remarkable of a remarkable collec- tion. His Translations into Latin and Greek Verse were privately printed in 1884. Like his translations into English, they are characterized by minute fidelity to the original, but never cease to be idiomatic. He died at Rome on the 30th of March 1885. See Memoir by J. D. Duff, prefixed to a re-issue of the trans, of Lucretius in " Bohn's Classical Library " (1908). MUNRO, Monro or Monroe, ROBERT (d. c. 1680), Scots general, was a member of a well-known family in Ross-shire, the Munroes of Foulis. With several of his kinsmen he served in the continental wars under Gustavus Adolphus; and he MUNRO, SIR T.— MUNSTER ii appears to have returned to Scotland about 1638, and to have taken some part in the early incidents of the Scottish rebellion against Charles I. In 1642 he went to Ireland, nominally as second in command under Alexander Leslie, but in fact in chief command of the Scottish contingent against the Catholic rebels. After taking and plundering Newry in April 1642, and ineffec- tually attempting to subdue Sir Phelim O'Neill, Munro succeeded in taking prisoner the earl of Antrim at Dunluce. The arrival of Owen Roe O'Neill in Ireland strengthened the cause of the rebels (see O'Neill), and Munro, who was poorly supplied with provisions and war materials, showed little activity. Moreover, the civil war in England was now creating confusion among parties in Ireland, and the king was anxious to come to terms with the Catholic rebels, and to enlist them on his own behalf against the parliament. The duke of Ormonde, Charles's lieutenant- general in Ireland, acting on the king's orders, signed a cessation of hostilities with the Catholics on the 15th of September 1643, and exerted himself to despatch aid to Charles in England. Munro in Ulster, holding his commission from the Scottish parliament, did not recognize the armistice, and his troops accepted the solemn league and covenant, in which they were joined by many English soldiers who left Ormonde to join him. In April 1644 the English parliament entrusted Munro with the command of all the forces in Ulster, both English and Scots. He thereupon seized Belfast, made a raid into the Pale, and unsuccessfully attempted to gain possession of Dundalk and Drogheda. His force was weakened by the necessity for sending troops to Scotland to withstand Montrose; while Owen Roe O'Neill was strengthened by receiving supplies from Spain and the pope. On the 5th of June 1646 was fought the battle of Benburb, on the Blackwater, where O'Neill routed Munro, but suffered him to withdraw in safety to Carrickfergus. In 1647 Ormonde was compelled to come to terms with the English parliament, who sent commissioners to Dublin in June of that year. The Scots under Munro refused to surrender Carrick- fergus and Belfast when ordered by the parliament to return to Scotland, and Munro was superseded by the appointment of Monk to the chief command in Ireland. In September 1648 Carrickfergus was delivered over to Monk by treachery, and Munro was taken prisoner. He was committed to the Tower I of London, where he remained a prisoner for five years. In 1654 he was permitted by Cromwell to reside in Ireland, where he had estates in right of his wife, who was the widow of Viscount Montgomery of Ardes. Munro continued to live quietly near Comber, Co. Down, for many years, and probably died there about 1680. He was in part the original of Dugald Dalgetty in Sir Walter Scott's Legend of Montrose. See Thomas Carte, History of the Life of James, Duke of Ormonde (6 vols., Oxford, 1851); Sir J. T. Gilbert, Contemporary History of Affairs in Ireland 1641-1652 (3 vols., Dublin, 1879-1880) and History of the Irish Confederation and the War in Ireland (7 vols., Dublin, 1882-1891); John Spalding, Memorials of the Troubles in Scotland and England (2 vols., Aberdeen, 1850); The Montgomery MSS., 1603-1703, edited by G. Hill (Belfast, 1869); Sir Walter Scott, The Legend of Montrose, author's preface. MUNRO, SIR THOMAS (1761-1827), Anglo-Indian soldier and statesman, was born at Glasgow on the 27th of May 1761, the son of a merchant. Educated at Glasgow University, he was at first intended to enter his father's business, but in 1789 he was appointed to an infantry cadetship in Madras. He served with his regiment during the hard-fought war against Hyder Ali (1780-83), and again in the first campaign against Tippoo (1790-92). He was then chosen as one of four military officers to administer the Baramahal, part of the territory acquired from Tippoo, where he remained for seven years, learning the principles of revenue survey and assessment which he afterwards applied throughout the presidency of Madras. After the final downfall of Tippoo in 1799, ne spent a short time restoring order in Kanara; and then for another seven years (1800-1807) he was placed in charge of the northern districts " ceded " by the nizam of Hyderabad, where he introduced the ryotwari system of land revenue. After a long furlough in England, during which he gave valuable evidence upon matters connected with the renewal of the company's charter, he returned to Madras in 1814 with special instructions to reform the judicial and police systems. On the outbreak of the Pindari War in 1817, he was appointed as brigadier-general to command the reserve division formed to reduce the southern territories of the Peshwa. Of his signal services on this occasion Canning said in the House of Commons: " He went into the field with not more than five or six hundred men, of whom a very small pro- portion were Europeans. . . . Nine forts were surrendered to him or taken by assault on his way; and at the end of a silent and scarcely observed progress he emerged . . . leaving everything secure and tranquil behind him." In 1820 he was appointed governor of Madras, where he founded the systems of revenue assessment and general administration which substantially remain to the present day. His official minutes, published by Sir A. Arbuthnot, form a manual of experience and advice for the modern civilian. He died of cholera on the 6th of July 1827, while on tour in the " ceded " districts, where his name is preserved by more than one memorial. An equestrian statue of him, by Chantrey, stands in Madras city. See biographies by G. R. Gleig (1830), Sir A. Arbuthnot (1881) and J. Bradshaw (1894). MUNSHI, or Moonshi, the Urdu name of a writer or secretary, used in India of the native language teachers or secretaries employed by Europeans. MUNSTER, 6E0RG, Count zu (1776-1844), German palae- ontologist, was born on the 17th of February 1776. He formed a famous collection of fossils, which was ultimately secured by the Bavarian state, and formed the nucleus of the palaeontological museum at Munich. Count Munster assisted Goldfuss in his great work Pctrefacta Germaniae. He died at Bayreuth on the 23rd of December 1844. MUNSTER, SEBASTIAN (1489-1552), German geographer, mathematician and Hebraist, was born at Ingelheim in the Palatinate. After studying at Heidelberg and Tubingen, he entered the Franciscan order, but abandoned it for Luther- anism about 1529. Shortly afterwards he was appointed court preacher at Heidelberg, where he also lectured in Hebrew and Old Testament exegesis. From 1536 he taught at Basel, where he published his Cosmographia universalis in 1544, and where he died of the plague on the 23rd of May 1552. A disciple of Elias Levita, he was the first German to edit the Hebrew Bible (2 vols., fol., Basel, 1 534-1 535); this edition was accom- panied by a new Latin translation and a large number of anno- tations. He published more than one Hebrew grammar, and was the first to prepare a Grammatica chaldaica (Basel, 1527). His lexicographical labours included a Dictionarium chaldaicum (1527), and a Dictionarium trilingue, of Latin, Greek and Hebrew (1530). But his most important work was his Cosmo- graphia, which also appeared in German as a Beschreibung oiler Lander, the first detailed, scientific and popular description of the world in Miinster's native language, as well as a supreme effort of geographical study and literature in the Reformation period. In this Munster was assisted by more than one hundred and twenty collaborators. The most valued edition of the Cosmographia or Beschreibung is that of 1550, especially prized for its portraits and its city and costume pictures. Besides the works mentioned above we may notice Miinster's Germaniae descriptio of 1530, his Novus orbis of 1532, his Mappa Europae of 1536, his Rhaetia of 1538, his editions of Solinus, Mela and Ptolemy in 1 538-1 540 and among non- geographical treatises his Horologiographia, 1531, on dialling (see Dial), his Organum uranicum of 1536 on the planetary motions, and his Rudimenta mathematica of 1551. His published maps numbered 142. See V. Hantzsch, Sebastian Munster (1898), in vol. xviii. of the Publications of the Royal Society of Sciences of Saxony, Historical- Philological Section). MUNSTER, a town of Germany, in the district of Upper Alsace, 16 m. from Colmar by rail, and at the foot of the Vosges Mountains. Pop. (1905), 6078. Its principal industries are spinning, weaving and bleaching. The town owes its origin to a Benedictine abbey, which was founded in the 7th century, and at one time it was a free city of the empire. In its 12 MUNSTER— MUNSTERBERG, H. neighbourhood is the ruin of Schwarzenberg. The Munstertal, or Gregoriental, which is watered by the river Fecht, is famous for its cheese. See Rathgeber, Miinster-im-Gregoriental (Strassburg, 1874) and F. Hecker, Die Stadt und das Tal zu Miinster im St Gregoriental (Munster, 1890). MUNSTER, a town of Germany, capital of the Prussian pro- vince of Westphalia, and formerly the capital of an important bishopric. It lies in a sandy plain on the Dortmund-Ems canal, at the junction of several railways, 107 m. S.W. of Bremen on the line to Cologne. Pop. (1885), 44,060; (1905) 81,468. The town preserves its medieval character, especially in the " Prinzipal-Markt " and other squares, with their lofty gabled houses and arcades. The fortifications were dismantled during the 1 8th century, their place being taken by gardens and prome- nades. Of the many churches of Munster the most important is the cathedral, one of the most striking in Germany, although disfigured by modern decorations. It was rebuilt in the 13th and 14th centuries, and exhibits a combination of Romanesque and Gothic forms; its chapter-house is specially fine. The beautiful Gothic church of St Lambert (14th century) was largely rebuilt after 1868; on its tower, which is 312 ft. in height, hang three iron cages in which the bodies of John of Leiden and two of his followers were exposed in 1536. The church of St Ludger, erected in the Romanesque style about n 70, was extended in the Gothic style about 200 years later; it has a tower with a picturesque lantern. The church of St Maurice, founded about 1070, was rebuilt during the 19th century, and the Gothic church of Our Lady dates from the 14th century. Other noteworthy buildings are the town-hall, a fine Gothic building of the 14th century, and the Stadtkeller, which contains a collection of early German paintings. The room in the town- hall "called the Friedens Saal, in which the peace of Westphalia was signed in October 1648, contains portraits of many ambas- sadors and princes who were present at the ceremony. The Schloss, built in 1767, was formerly the residence of bishops of Munster. The private houses, many of which were the winter residences of the nobility of Westphalia, are admirable examples of German domestic architecture in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. The university of Munster, founded after the Seven Years' War and closed at the beginning of the 19th century, was reopened as an academy in 1818, and again attained the rank of a university in 1902. It possesses faculties of theology, philosophy and law. In connexion with it are botanical and zoological gardens, several scientific collections, and a library of 120,000 volumes. Munster is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop and of the administrative and judicial authorities of Westphalia, and is the headquarters of an army corps. The Westphalian society of antiquaries and several other learned bodies also have their headquarters here. Industries include weaving, dyeing, brewing and printing, and the manufacture of furniture and machines. There is a brisk trade in cattle, grain and other products of the neighbourhood. History. — Munster is first mentioned about the year 800, when Charlemagne made it the residence of Ludger, the newly- appointed bishop of the Saxons. Owing to its distance from any available river or important highway, the growth of the settlement round the monasterium was slow, and it was not until after 1186 that it received a charter, the name Munster having supplanted the original name of Mimegardevoord about a century earlier. During the 13th and 14th centuries the town was one of the most prominent members of the Hanseatic League. At the time of the Reformation the citizens were inclined to adopt the Protestant doctrines, but the excesses of the Anabaptists led in 1535 to the armed intervention of the bishop and to the forcible suppression of all divergence from the older faith. The Thirty Years' War, during which Munster suffered much from the Protestant armies, was ter- minated by the peace of Westphalia, sometimes called the peace of Munster, because it was signed here on the 24th of October 1648. The authority of the bishops, who seldom resided at Munster, was usually somewhat limited, but in 1661 Bishop Christoph Bemhard von Galen took the place by force, built a citadel, and deprived the citizens of many of their privileges. During the Seven Years' War Munster was occupied both by the French and by their foes. Towards the close of the 1 8th century the town was recognized as one of the intellectual centres of Germany. The bishopric of Munster embraced an area of about 2500 sq. m. and contained about 350,000 inhabitants. Its bishops, who resided generally at Ahaus, were princes of the empire. In the 17th century Bishop Galen, with his army of 20,000 men, was so powerful that his alliance was sought by Charles II. of England and other European sovereigns. The bishopric was secularized and its lands annexed to Prussia in 1803. See Geisberg, Merkwiirdigkeiten der Stadt Munster (1877) ; Erhard, Geschichle Munsfers (1837); A. Tibus, Die Stadt Munster (Munster, 1882) ; Hellinghaus, Quellen und Forschungen zur Geschichte der Stadt Miinster (Munster, 1898); Pieper, Die alte Universitat Munster 1773-1818 (Munster, 1902). See also Tucking, Geschichte des Stifts Munster unter C. B. von Galen (Munster, 1865). MUNSTER, a province of Ireland occupying the S.W. part of the island. It includes the counties Clare, Tipperary, Limerick, Kerry, Cork and Waterford (q.v. for topography, &c). After the occupation of Ireland by the Milesians, Munster (Mumha) became nominally a provincial kingdom ; but as the territory was divided between two families there was constant friction and it was not until 237 that Oliol Olum established himself as king over the whole. In 248 he divided his kingdom between his two sons, giving Desmond {q.v., Des-Mumha) to Eoghan and Thomond ( Tuadh-Mumha) or north Munster to Cormac. He also stipulated that the rank of king of Munster should belong in turn to their descendants. In this way the kingship of Munster survived until 1194; but there were kings of Desmond and Thomond down to the 16th century. Munster was originally of the same extent as the present province, excepting that it included the district of Ely, which belonged to the O'Carrols and formed a part of the present King's County. During the 16th century, however, Thomond was for a time included ih Connaught, being declared a county under the name of Clare (q.v.) by Sir Henry Sidney. Part of Munster had been included in the system of shiring generally attributed to King John. In 1570 a provincial presidency of Munster (as of Connaught) was established by Sidney, Sir John Perrot being the first president, and lasted until 1672. Under Perrot a practically new shiring was carried out. MUNSTER AM STEIN, a watering-place of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on the Nahe, i\ m. S. of Kreuznach, on the railway from Bingerbriick to Strassburg. Pop. (1905), 915. Above the village are the ruins of the castle of Rhein- grafenstein (12th century), formerly a seat of the count palatine of the Rhine, which was destroyed by the French in 1689, and those of the castle of Ebernburg, the ancestral seat of the lords of Sickingen, and the birthplace of Franz von Sickingen, the famous landsknecht captain and protector of Ulrich von Hutten, to whom a monument was erected on the slope near the ruins in 1889. The spa (saline and carbonate springs), specific in cases of feminine disorders, is visited by about 5000 patients annually. See Welsch, Das Sol- und Thermalbad Munster am Stein (Kreuz- nach, 1886) and Messer, Fuhrer durch Bad Kreuznach und Miinster am Stein (Kreuznach, 1905). MUNSTERBERG, HUGO ( 1 863- ) , German- American psycho- physiologist, was born at Danzig. Having been extraordinary professor at Freiburg-im-Breisgau, he became in 1892 pro- fessor of psychology at Harvard University. Among his more important works are Beitrdge zur experimentellen Psychologie (4 vols., Freiburg, 1889-1892); Psychology and Life (New York, 1899); Grundziige der Psychologie (Leipzig, 1900); American Traits from the Point of View of a German (Boston, 1901); Die Amerikaner (several ed.; Eng. trans. 1904); Science and Idealism- (New York, 1906); Philosophie der Werte (Leipzig, 1908); Aus Deutsch-Amerika (Berlin, 1908); Psychology and Crime (New York, 1908). He has been prominently identified with the modern developments of experimental psychology MUNSTERBERG— MUNZER 13 (see Psychology), and his sociological writings display the acuteness of a German .philosophic mind as applied to the study of American life and manners. MUNSTERBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian pro- vince of Silesia, on the Oblau, 36 m. by rail S. of Breslau. Pop. (1905), 8475. It is partly surrounded by medieval walls. It has manufactures of drain-pipes and fireproof bricks; there are also sulphur springs. Miinsterberg was formerly the capital of the principality of the same name, which existed from the 14th century down to 1791, when it was purchased by the Prussian crown. Near the town is the former Cistercian abbey of Heinrichau. MUNTANER, RAMON (1265-1336?), Catalan historian, was born at Peralada (Catalonia) in 1265. The chief events of his career are recorded in his chronicle. He accompanied Roger de Flor to Sicily in 1300, was present at the siege of Messina, served in the expedition of the Almogavares against Asia Minor, and became the first governor of Gallipoli. Later he was appointed governor of Jerba or Zerbi, an island in the Gulf of Gabes, and finally entered the service of the infante of Majorca. On the 15th of May 1325 (some editions give the year 1335) he began his Chronica, o descripcio dels fets, e hazanas del inclyt rey Don laume Primer, in obedience, as he says, to the express command of God who appeared to him in a vision. Muntaner's book, which was first printed at Valencia in 1558, is the chief authority for the events of his period, and his narrative, though occasionally prolix, uncritical and egotistical, is faithful and vivid. He is said to have died in 1336. His chronicle is most accessible in the edition published by Karl Lanz at Stuttgart in 1844. MUNTJAC, the Indian name of a small deer typifying the genus Cervulus, all the members of which are indigenous to the southern and eastern parts of Asia and the adjacent islands, and are separated by marked characters from all their allies. For the distinctive features of the genus see Deer. As regards general characteristics, all muntjacs are small compared with the majority of deer, and have long bodies and rather short limbs and neck. The antlers of the bucks are small and simple; The Indian Muntjac (Cervulus muntjac). the main stem or beam, after giving off a short brow-tine, in- clining backwards and upwards, being unbranched and pointed, and when fully developed curving inwards and somewhat down- wards at the tip. These small antlers are supported upon pedicles, or processes of the frontal bones, longer than in any other deer, the front edges of these being continued downwards as strong ridges passing along the sides of the face above the eyes. From this feature the name rib-faced deer has been suggested for the muntjac. The upper canine teeth of the males are large and sharp, projecting outside the mouth as tusks, and loosely implanted in their sockets. In the females they are much smaller. Muntjacs are solitary animals, even two being rarely seen together. They are fond of hilly ground covered with forests, in the dense thickets of which they pass most of their time, only coming to the skirts of the woods at morning and evening to graze. They carry the head and neck low and the hind-quarters high, their action in running being peculiar and not elegant, somewhat resembling the pace of a sheep. Though with no power of sustained speed or extensive leaping, they are remark- able for flexibility of body and facility of creeping through tangled underwood. A popular name with Indian sportsmen is " barking deer," on account of the alarm-cry — a kind of short shrill bark, like that of a fox, but louder. When attacked by dogs, the males use their sharp canine teeth, which inflict deep and even dangerous wounds. In the Indian muntjac the height of the buck is from 20 tc 22 in. ; allied types, some of which have received distinct names, occur in Burma and the Malay Peninsula and Islands. Among these, the Burmese C. muntjac grandicornis is noteworthy on account of its large antlers. The Tibetan muntjac (C. lachrymans), from Moupin in eastern Tibet and Hangchow in China, is somewhat smaller than the Indian animal, with a bright reddish-brown coat. The smallest member of the genus (C. reevesi) occurs in southern China and has a reddish-chestnut coat, speckled with yellowish grey and a black band down the nape. The Tenasserim muntjac (C. feae), about the size of the Indian species, is closely allied to the hairy-fronted muntjac (C. crinifrons) of eastern China, but lacks the tuft of hair on the forehead. The last-mentioned species, by its frontal tuft, small rounded ears, general brown coloration, and minute antlers, connects the typical muntjacs with the small tufted deer or tufted muntjacs of the genus Elaphodus of eastern China and Tibet. These last have coarse bristly hair of a purplish-brown colour with light markings, very large head-tufts, almost concealing the minute antlers, of which the pedicles do not extend as ribs down the face. They include E. cephalophus of Tibet, E. michianus of Ningpo, and E. ichangensis of the mountains of Ichang. (R. L.*) MUNZER, THOMAS (c. 1480-1525), German religious enthu- siast, was born at Stolberg in the Harz near the end of the 15th century, and educated at Leipzig and Frankfort, graduating in theology. He held preaching appointments in various places, but his restless nature prevented him from remaining in one position for any length of time. In 1520 he became a preacher at the church of St Mary, Zwickau, and his rude eloquence, together with his attacks on the monks, soon raised him to influence. Aided by Nicholas Storch, he formed a society the principles of which were akin to those of the Taborites, and claimed that he was under the direct influence of the Holy Spirit. His zeal for the purification of the Church by casting out all unbelievers brought him into conflict with the governing body of the town, and he was compelled to leave Zwickau. He then went to Prague, where his preaching won numerous ad- herents, but his violent language brought about his expulsion from this city also. At Easter 1523 Munzer came to Allstedt, and was soon appointed preacher at the church of St John, where he made extensive alterations in the services. His violence, however, aroused the hostility of Luther, in retaliation for which Munzer denounced the Wittenberg teaching. His preaching soon produced an uproar in Allstedt, and after holding his own for some time he left the town and went to Miihlhausen, where Heinrich Pfeiffer was already preaching doctrines similar to his own. The union of Munzer and Pfeiffer caused a disturb- ance in this city and both were expelled. Munzer went to Nuremberg, where he issued a writing against Luther, who had been mainly instrumental in bringing about his expulsion from Saxony. About this time his teaching became still more violent. He denounced established governments, and advocated common ownership of the means of life. After a tour in south Germany he returned to Miihlhausen, overthrew the governing body of the city, and established a communistic theocracy. The Peasants' War had already broken out in various parts of Germany; and as the peasantry around Miihlhausen were imbued with Miinzer's teaching, he collected a large body of men to plunder the surrounding country. He established his camp at Frankenhausen; but on the 15th of May 1525 the peasants were dispersed by Philip, landgrave of Hesse, who captured Munzer and executed him on the 27th at Miihlhausen. Betore his 14 MUNZINGER— MURAD death he is said to have written a letter admitting the justice of his sentence. His Aussgetriickte Emplossung des falschen Glaubens has been edited by R. Jordan (Muhlhausen, 1901), and a life of Munzer, Die Histori von Thome Miintzer des Anfengers der duringischen Uffrur, has been attributed to Philip Melanchthon (Hagenau, 1525). See G. T. Strobel, Leben, Schriften und Lehren Thomd Miintzers (Nuremberg, 1795); J. K. Seidemann, Thomas Munzer (Leipzig, 1842); O. Merx, Thomas Munzer und Heinrich Pfeiffer (Gottingen, 1889); G. Wolfrau, Thomas Munzer in Allstedt (Jena, 1852). MUNZINGER, WERNER (1832-1875), Swiss linguist and traveller, was born at Olten in Switzerland, on the 21st of April 1832. After studying natural science, Oriental languages and history, at Bern, Munich and Paris, he went to Egypt in 1852 and spent a year in Cairo perfecting himself in Arabic. Entering a French mercantile house, he went as leader of a trading expe- dition to various parts of the Red Sea, fixing his quarters at Massawa, where he acted as French consul. In 1855 he removed to Keren, the chief town of the Bogos, in the north of Abyssinia, which country he explored during the next six years. In 1861 he joined the expedition under T. von Heuglin to Central Africa, but separated from him in November in northern Abyssinia, proceeding along the Gash and Atbara to Khartum. Thence, having meantime succeeded Heuglin as leader of the expedition, he travelled in 1862 to Kordofan, failing, however, in his attempt to reach Darfur and Wadai. After a short stay in Europe in 1863, Munzinger returned to the north and north-east border- lands of Abyssinia, and in 1865, the year of the annexation of Massawa by Egypt, was appointed British consul at that town. He rendered valuable aid to the Abyssinian expedition of 1867-68, among other things exploring the almost unknown Afar country. In acknowledgment of his services he received the C.B. In 1868 he was appointed French consul at Massawa, and in 187 1 was named by the khedive Ismail governor of that town with the title of bey. In 1870, with Captain S. B. Miles, Mun- zinger visited southern Arabia. As governor of Massawa he annexed to Egypt the Bogos and Hamasen provinces of northern Abyssinia, and in 1872 was made pasha and governor-general of the eastern Sudan. It is believed that it was on his advice that Ismail sanctioned the Abyssinian enterprise, but on the war assuming larger proportions in 1875 the command of the Egyptian troops in northern Abyssinia was taken from Munzinger, who was selected to command a small expedition intended to open up communication with Menelek, king of Shoa, then at enmity with the negus Johannes (King John) and a potential ally of Egypt. Leaving Tajura Bay on the 27th of October 1875 Munzinger started for Ankober with a force of 350 men, being accompanied by an envoy from Menelek. The desert country to be traversed was in the hands of hostile tribes, and on reaching Lake Aussa the expedition was attacked during the night by Gallas — Mun- zinger, with his wife and nearly all his companions, being killed. Munzinger's contributions to the knowledge of the country, people and languages of north-eastern Africa are of solid value. See Proc. R.G.S., vol. xiii. ; Journ. R.G.S., vols, xxxix., xli. and xlvi. (obituary notice); Petermanns Mitteilungen for 1858, 1867, 1872., et seq. ; Dietschi and Weber, Werner Munzinger, ein Lebensbild ('875); J- v. Keller-Zschokke, Werner Munzinger Pasha (1890). Munzinger published the following works: liber die Sitten und das Recht der Bogos (1859) ; Ostafrikanische Studien (1864 ; 2nd ed., 1883 ; his most valuable book) ; Die deutsche Expedition in Ostafrika (1865) ; Vocabulaire de la langue de Tigre (1865), besides papers in the geo- graphical serials referred to, and a memoir on the northern borders of Abyssinia in the Zeitschrift fur allgemeine Erdkunde, new series, vol. iii. MURAD, or Amurath, the name of five Ottoman sultans. Murad I., surnamed Khudavendighiar (1319-1389), was the son of Orkhan and the Greek princess Nilofer, and succeeded his father in 1359. He was the first Turkish monarch to obtain a definite footing in Europe, and his main object throughout his career was to extend the European dominions of Turkey. The revolts of the prince of Caramania interfered with the realization of this plan, and trouble was caused from this quarter more than once during his reign until the decisive battle of Konia (1387), when the power of the prince of Caramania was broken. The state of Europe facilitated Murad's projects: civil war and anarchy prevailed in most of the countries of Central Europe, where the feudal system was at its last gasp, and the small Balkan states were divided by mutual jealousies. The capture of Adrianople, followed by other conquests, brought about a coalition under the king of Hungary against Murad, but his able lieutenant Lalashahin, the first beylerbey of Rumelia, defeated the allies at the battle of the Maritsa in 1363. In 1366 the king of Servia was defeated at Samakov and forced to pay tribute. Kustendil, Philippopolis and Nish fell into the hands of the Turks; a renewal of the war in 1381 led to the capture of Sofia two years later. Europe was now aroused; Lazar, king of Servia, formed an alliance with the Albanians, the Hungarians and the Moldavians against the Turks. Murad hastened back to Europe and met his enemies on the field of Kossovo (1389). Victory finally inclined to the side of the Turks. When the rout of the Christians was complete, a Servian named Milosh Kabilovich penetrated to Murad's tent on pretence of communicating an important secret to the sultan, and stabbed the conqueror. Murad was of independent character and remarkable intelligence. He was fond of pleasure and luxury, cruel and cunning. Long relegated to the command of a distant province in Asia, while his brother Suleiman occupied an enviable post in Europe, he became revengeful; thus he exercised great cruelty in the repression of the rebellion of his son Prince Sauji, the first instance of a sultan's son taking arms against his father. Murad transferred the Ottoman capital from Brusa to Adrianople, where he built a palace and added many embellishments to the town. The development of the feudal system of timars and ziamets and its extension to Europe was largely his work. Murad II. (1403-1451) succeeded his father Mahommed I. in 1421. The attempt of his uncle Prince Mustafa to usurp the throne, supported as it was by the Greeks, gave trouble at the outset of his reign, and led to the unsuccessful siege of Constantinople in 1422. Murad maintained a long struggle against the Bosnians and Hungarians, in the course cf which Turkey sustained many severe reverses through the valour of Janos Hunyadi. Accordingly in 1444 he concluded a treaty at Szegedin for ten years, by which he renounced all claim to Servia and recognized George Brancovich as its king. Shortly after this, being deeply affected by the death of his eldest son Prince Ala-ud-din, he abdicated in favour of Mahommed, his second son, then fourteen years of age. But the treacherous attack, in violation of treaty, by the Christian powers, imposing too hard a task on the inexperienced young sovereign, Murad returned from his retirement at Magnesia, crushed his faithless enemies at the battle of Varna (Novemebr 10, 1444), and again withdrew to Magnesia. A revolt of the janissaries induced him to return to power, and he spent the remaining six years of his life in warfare in Europe, defeating Hunyadi at Kossovo (October 17-19, 1448). He died at Adrianople in 1451, and was buried at Brusa. By some considered as a fanatical devotee, and by others as given up to mysticism, he is generally described as kind and gentle in disposition, and devoted to the interests of his country. Murad III. (1546-1595), was the eldest son of Selim II., and succeeded his father in 1574. His accession -marks the definite beginning of the decline of the Ottoman power, which had only been maintained under Selim II. by the genius of the all-powerful grand vizier Mahommed Sokolli. For, though Sokolli remained in office until his assassination in October 1578, his authority was undermined by the harem influences, which with Murad III. were supreme. Of these the most powerful was that of the sultan's chief wife, named Safie (the pure), a beautiful Venetian of the noble family of Baffo, whose father had been governor of Corfu, and who had been captured as a child by Turkish corsairs and sold into the harem. This lady, in spite of the sultan's sensuality and of the efforts, temporarily successful, to supplant her in his favour, retained her ascendancy over him to the last. Murad had none of the qualities of a ruler. He was good-natured, though cruel enough on occasion: his accession had been marked by the murder, according to the MURAENA 15 custom then established, of his five brothers. His will-power had early been undermined by the opium habit, and was further weakened by the sensual excesses that ultimately killed him. Nor had he any taste for rule; his days were spent in the society of musicians, buffoons and poets, and he himself dabbled in verse-making of a mystic tendency. His one attempt at reform, the order forbidding the sale of intoxicants so as to stop the growing intemperance of the janissaries, broke down on the opposition of the soldiery. He was the first sultan to share personally in the proceeds of the corruption which was undermining the state, realizing especially large sums by the sale of offices. This corruption was fatally apparent in the army, the feudal basis of which was sapped by the confiscation of fiefs for the benefit of nominees of favourites of the harem, and by the intrusion, through the same influences of foreigners and rayahs into the corps of janissaries, of which the discipline became more and more relaxed and the temper increasingly turbulent. In view of this general demoralization not even the victorious outcome of the campaigns in Georgia, the Crimea, Daghestan, Yemen and Persia (1578-1590) could prevent the decay of the Ottoman power; indeed, by weakening the Mussulman states, they hastened the process, since they facilitated the advance of Russia to the Black Sea and the Caspian. Murad, who had welcomed the Persian War as a good oppor- tunity for ridding himself of the presence of the janissaries, whom he dreaded, had soon cause to fear their triumphant return. Incensed by the debasing of the coinage, which robbed them of part of their pay, they invaded the Divan clamouring for the heads of the sultan's favourite, the beylerbey of Rumelia, and of the defterdar (finance minister), which were thrown to them (April 3, 1589). This was the first time that the janissaries had invaded the palace: a precedent to be too often followed. The outbreak of another European war in 1592 gave the sultan an opportunity of ridding himself of their presence. Murad died in 1595, leaving to his successor a legacy of war and anarchy. It was under Murad III. that England's relations with the Porte began. Negotiations were opened in 1579 with Queen Elizabeth through certain British merchants; in 1580 the first Capitulations with England were signed; in 1583 William Harebone, the first British ambassador to the Porte, arrived at Constantinople, and in 1593 commercial Capitulations were signed with England granting the same privileges as those enjoyed by the French. (See Capitulations.) Murad IV. (1611-1640) was the son of Sultan Ahmed I., and succeeded his uncle Mustafa I. in 1623. For the first nine years of his reign his youth prevented him from taking more than an observer's part in affairs. But the lessons thus learnt were sufficiently striking to mould his whole character and policy. The minority of the sultan gave full play to the anarchic elements in the state; the soldiery, spahis and janissaries, conscious of their power and reckless through impunity, rose in revolt whenever the whim seized them, demanding privileges and the heads of those who displeased them, not sparing even the sultan's favourites. In 163 1 the spahis of Asia Minor rose in revolt, in protest against the deposition of the grand vizier Khosrev: their representatives crowded to Constantinople, stoned the new grand vizier, Hafiz, in the court of the palace, an a native of Edinburgh and a retired lieutenant of marines, who in 1768 bought the book business of William Sandby in Fleet Street, and, dropping the Scottish prefix, called himself John Murray. He was one of the twenty original proprietors of the Morning Chronicle, and started the monthly English Review (1783-1796). Among his publications were Mitford's Greece, Langhorne's Plutarch's Lives, and the first part of Isaac DTsraeli's Curiosities of Literature. He died on the 6th of November 1793. John Murray (2) (1778-1843), his son, was then fifteen. During his minority the business was conducted by Samuel Highley, who was admitted a partner, but in 1803 the partner- ship was dissolved. Murray soon began to show the courage in literary speculation which earned for him later the name given him by Lord Byron of " the Anak of publishers." In 1807 he took a share with Constable in publishing Marmion, and became part owner of the Edinburgh Review, although with the help of Canning he launched in opposition the Quarterly Review (Feb. 1809), with William Gifford as its editor, and Scott, Canning, Southey, Hookham Frere and John Wilson Croker among its earliest contributors. Murray was closely connected with Constable, but, to his distress, was compelled in 1813 to break this association On account of Constable's business methods, which, as he foresaw, led to disaster. In 181 1 the first two cantos of Childe Harold were brought to Murray by R. C. Dallas, to whom Byron had presented them. Murray paid Dallas 500 guineas for the copyright. In 181 2 he bought the pub- lishing business of William Miller (1769-1844), and migrated to 50, Albemarle Street. Literary London flocked to his house, and Murray became the centre of the publishing world. It was in his drawing-room that Scott and Byron first met, and here, in 1824, after the death of Lord Byron, the MS. of his memoirs, considered by Gifford unfit for publication, was destroyed. A close friendship existed between Byron and his publisher, but for political reasons business relations ceased after the publication of the 5th canto of Don Juan. Murray paid Byron some £20,000 for his various poems. To Thomas Moore he gave nearly £5000 for writing the life of Byron, and to Crabbe £3000 for Tales of the Hail. He died on the 27th of June 1843. His son, John Murray (3) (1808-1892), inherited much of his business tact and judgment. " Murray's Handbooks " for travellers were issued under his editorship, and he himself wrote several volumes (see his article on the " Handbooks " in Murray's Magazine, November 1889). He published many books of travel; also Campbell's Lives of the Chancellors, The Speaker's Commentary, Smith's Dictionaries; and works by Hallam, Gladstone, L'yell, Layard, Dean Stanley, Borrow, Darwin, Living- stone and Samuel Smiles. He died on the 2nd of April 1892, and was succeeded by his eldest son, John Murray (4) (b. 1&51), under whom, in association with his brother, A. H. Hallam Murray, the firm was continued. See Samuel Smiles, A Publisher and his Friends, Memoirs and Correspondence of the late John Murray . . . (1891), for the second John Murray; a series of three articles by F. Espinasse on " The MURRAY, J.-r-MURREE 42 House of Murray," in The Critic (Jan. i860); and a paper by the same writer in Harper's New Monthly Magazine (Sept. 1885). See the Letters and Journals of Byron (ed. Prothero, 1898-1901). MURRAY, JOHN (1778-1820), Scottish chemist, was born at Edinburgh in 1778 and died there on the 22nd of July 1820. He graduated M.D. at St Andrews in 1814, and attained some reputation as a lecturer on chemistry and materia medica. He was an opponent of Sir Humphry Davy's theory of chlorine, supporting the view that the substance contained oxygen, and it was in the course of experiments made to disprove his argu- ments that Dr John Davy discovered phosgene or carbonyl chloride. He was a diligent writer of textbooks, including Elements of Chemistry (1801); Elements of Materia Medica and Pharmacy (1804), A System of Chemistry (1806), and (anony- mously) A Comparative View of the Huttonian and Neptunian Systems of Geology. He is sometimes confused with another John Murray (1 786-1851), a popular lecturer at mechanics' institutes. The two men carried on a dispute about the inven- tion of a miners' safety lamp in the Phil. Mag. for 181 7. MURRAY, SIR JOHN (1841- ), British geographer and naturalist, was born at Coburg, Ontario, Canada, on the 3rd of March 1841, and after some years' local schooling studied in Scotland and on the Continent. He was then engaged for some years in natural history work at Bridge of Allan. In 1868 he visited Spitsbergen on a whaler, and in 1872, when the voyage of the " Challenger " was projected, he was appointed one of the naturalists to the expedition. At the conclusion of the voyage he was made principal assistant in drawing up the scientific results, and in 1882 he became editor of the Reports, which were completed in 1896. He compiled a summary of the results, and was part -author of the Narrative of the Cruise and of the Report on Deep-sea Deposits. He also published numerous important papers on oceanography and marine biology. In 1808 he was made K.C.B., and the received many distinctions from the chief scientific societies of the world. Apart from his work in connexion with the " Challenger " Reports, he went in 1880 and 1882 on expeditions to explore the Faeroe Channel, and between 1882 and 1894 was the prime mover in various biological investigations in Scottish waters. In 1897, with the generous financial assistance of Mr Laurence Pullar and a staff of specialists, he began a bathymetrical survey of the fresh-water lochs of Scotland, the results of which, with a fine series of illustrations and maps, were published in 1910 in six volumes. He took a leading part in the expedition which started in April 1910 for the physiological and biological investigation of the North Atlantic Ocean on the Norwegian vessel " Michael Sars." MURRAY, LINDLEY (1745-1826), Anglo-American gram- marian, was born at Swatara, Pennsylvania, on the 22nd of April 1745. His father, a Quaker, was a leading New York merchant. At the age of fourteen he was placed in his father's office, but he ran away to a school in Burlington, New Jersey. He was brought back to New York, but his arguments against a commercial career prevailed, and he was allowed to study law. On being called to the bar he practised successfully in New York. In 1783 he was able to retire, and in 1784 he left America for England. Settling at Holgate, near York, he devoted the rest of his life to literary pursuits. His first book was Power of Religion on the Mind (1787). In 1795 he issued his Grammar of the English Language. This was followed, among other analogous works, by English Exercises, and the English Reader. These books passed through several editions, and the Grammar was the standard textbook for fifty years throughout England and America. Lindley Murray died on the 16th of January 1826. See the Memoir of the Life and Writings of Lindley Murray (partly autobiographical), by Elizabeth Frank (1826); Life of Murray, by W. H. Egle (New York, 1885). MURRAY (or Moray), SIR ROBERT (c. 1600-1673), one of the founders of the Royal Society, was the son of Sir Robert Murray of Craigie, Ayrshire, and was born about the beginning of the 17th century. In early life he served in the French army, and, winning the favour of Richelieu, rose to the rank of colonel. On the outbreak of the Civil War he returned to Scotland and collected recruits for the royal cause. The triumph of Ci.omwell compelled him for a time to return to France, but he took part in the Scottish insurrection in favour of Charles II. in 1650, and was named lord justice clerk and a privy councillor. These appointments, which on account of the overthrow of the royal cause proved to be at the time only nominal, were confirmed at the Restoration in 1660. Soon after this Sir Robert Murray began to take a prominent part in the deliberations of a club instituted in London for the discussion of natural science, or, as it was then called, the " new philosophy." VWiien it was proposed to obtain a charter for the society he undertook to interest the king in the matter, the result being that on the 15th of July 1662 the club was incorporated by charter under the designation of the Royal Society. Murray was its first president. He died in June 1673. MURRAY, the largest river in Australia. It rises in the Australian Alps in 36° 40' S. and 147 E., and flowing north-west skirts the borders of New South Wales and Victoria until it passes into South Australia, shortly after which it bends south- ward into Lake Alexandrina, a shallow lagoon, whence it makes its way to the sea at Encounter Bay by a narrow opening at 35° iS' S. and 138 55' E. Near its source the Murray Gates, precipitous rocks, tower above it to the height of 3000 ft.; and the earlier part of its course is tortuous and uneven. Farther on it loses so much by evaporation in some parts as to become a series of pools. Its length till it debouches into Lake Alexandrina is n 20 m., its average breadth in summer is 240 ft., its average depth about 16 ft.; and it drains an area of about 270,000 sq. m. For small steamers it is navigable as far as Albury. Periodically it overflows, causing wide inundations. The principal tributaries of the Murray are those from New South Wales, including the Edward River, the united streams of the Murrumbidgee and Lachlan, and the Darling or Callewatta. In 1829 Captain Sturt traced the Murrumbidgee River till it debouched into the Murray, which he followed down to Lake Alexandrina, but he was compelled, after great hardships, to return without discovering its mouth. In 1831 Captain Barker, while attempting to discover this, was murdered by the natives. MURRAY COD (Oligorus macquariensis) , one of the largest of the numerous fresh-water Perciform fishes of Australia, and the most celebrated for its excellent flavour. It belongs to the family Serranidae. Its taxonomic affinities lie in the direc- tion of the perch and not of the cod family. The shape of the body is that of a perch, and the dorsal fin consists of a spinous Murray Cod. and rayed portion, the number of spines being eleven. The length of the spines varies with age, old individuals having shorter spines — that is, a lower dorsal fin. The form of the head and the dentition also resemble those of a perch, but none of the bones of the head has a serrated margin. The scales are small. The colour varies in different localities; it is generally brownish, with a greenish tinge and numerous small dark green spots. As implied by the name, this fish has its headquarters in the Murray River and its tributaries, but it occurs also in the northern parts of New South Wales. It is the most important food fish of these rivers, and is said to attain a length of more than 3 ft. and a weight of 120 lb. MURREE, a town and sanatorium of British India, in the Rawalpindi district of the Punjab, 7517 ft. above the sea, about five hours' journey by cart-road from Rawalpindi town, and the starting-point for Kashmir. The houses are built on the MURSHIDABAD— MUSCAT 43 summit and sides of an irregular ridge, and command magnifi- cent views over forest-clad hills and deep valleys, studded with villages and cultivated fields, with the snow-covered peaks of Kashmir in the background. The population in iooi was 1844; but these figures omit the summer visitors, who probably number 10,000. The garrison generally consists of three mountain batteries. Since 1877 the summer offices of the provincial government have been transferred to Simla. The Murree brewery, one of the largest in India, is the chief industrial establishment. The Lawrence Military Asylum for the children of European soldiers is situated here. MURSHIDABAD, or Moorsheedabad, a town and district of British India, in the Presidency division of Bengal. The administrative headquarters of the district are at Berhampur. The town of Murshidabad is on the left bank of the Bhagirathi or old sacred channel of the Ganges. Pop. (iqoi), 15,168. The city of Murshidabad was the latest Mahommedan capital of Bengal. In 1704 the nawab Murshid Kulia Khan changed the seat of government from Dacca to Maksudabad, which he called after his own name. The great family of Jagat Seth maintained their position as state bankers at Murshidabad from generation to generation. Even after the conquest of Bengal by the British, Murshidabad remained for some time the seat of administration. Warren Hastings removed the supreme civil and criminal courts to Calcutta in 1772, but in 1775 the latter court was brought back to Murshidabad again. In 1 790, under Lord Cornwallis, the entire revenue and judicial staffs were fixed at Calcutta. The town is still the residence of the nawab, who ranks as the first nobleman of the province with the style of nawab bahadur of Murshidabad, instead of nawab nazim of Bengal. His palace, dating from 1837, is a magnificent building in Italian style. The city is crowded with other palaces, mosques, tombs, and gardens, and retains such industries as carving in ivory, gold and silver embroidery, and silk-weaving. A college is maintained for the education of the nawab's family. The District of Murshidabad has an area of 2143 sq. m. It is divided into two nearly equal portions by the Bhagirathi, the ancient channel of the Ganges. The tract to the west, known as the Rarh, consists of hard clay and nodular limestone. The general level is high, but interspersed with marshes and seamed by hill torrents. The Bagri or eastern half belongs to alluvial plains of eastern Bengal. There are few permanent swamps; but the whole country is low-lying, and liable to annual inundation. In the north-west are a few small detached hillocks, said to be of basaltic formation. Pop. (1001), 1,333,184, show- ing an increase of 6-6% in the decade. The principal industry is that of silk, formerly of much importance, and now revived with government assistance. A narrow-gauge railway crosses the district, from the East Indian line at Nalhati to Azimganj on the Bhagirathi, the home of many rich Jain merchants; and a branch of the Eastern Bengal railway has been opened. MUS, the name of a Roman family of the plebeian Decian gens. (1) Publius Decius Mas won his first laurels in the Samnite War, when in 343 B.C., while serving as tribune of the soldiers, he rescued the Roman main army from an apparently hopeless position (Livy vii. 34). In 340, as consul with T. Manlius Torquatus as colleague, he commanded in the Latin War. The decisive battle was fought near Mt Vesuvius. The consuls, in consequence of a dream, had agreed that the general - whose troops first gave way should devote himself to destruction, and so ensure victory. The left wing under Decius became disordered, whereupon, repeating after the chief pontiff the solemn formula of self-devotion he dashed into the ranks of the Latins, and met his death (Livy viii. 9). (2) His son, also called Publius, consul for the fourth time in 295, followed the example of his father at the battle of Sentinum, when the left wing which he commanded was shaken by the Gauls (Livy x. 28). The story of the elder Decius is regarded by Mommsen as an unhistorical " doublette " of what is related on better authority of the son. MUSAEUS, the name of three Greek poets. (1) The first was a mythical seer and priest, the pupil or son of Orpheus, who was said to have been the founder of priestly poetry in Attica. According to Pausanias (i. 25) he was buried on the Museum hill, south-west of the Acropolis. He composed dedicatory and purificatory hymns and prose treatises, and oracular responses. These were collected and arranged in the time of Peisistratus by Onomacritus, who added interpolations. The mystic and oracular verses and customs of Attica, especially of Eleusis, are connected with his name (Herod, vii. 6; viii. 96; ix. 43). A Titanomachia and Theogonia are also attributed to him (G. Kinkel, Epicorum graecorum jragmenta, 1878). (2) The second was an Ephesian attached to the court of the kings of Pergamum, who wrote a Perseis, and poems on Eumenes and Attalus (Su'idas, s.v.). (3) The third (called Grammaticus in all the MSS.) is of uncertain date, but probably belongs to the beginning of the 6th century a.d., as his style and metre are evidently modelled after Nonnus. He must have lived before Agathias (530-582) and is possibly to be identified with the friend of Procopius whose poem (340 hexameter lines) on the story of Hero and Leander is by far the most beautiful of the age (editions by F. Passow, 1810; G. H. Schafer, 1825; C. Dilthey, 1874). The little love-poem Alpheus and Arethusa {Anthol. pal. ix. 362) is also ascribed to Musaeus. MUSA KHEL, a Pathan tribe on the Dera Ghazi Khan border of the Punjab province of India. They are of Kakar origin, numbering 4670 fighting men. They enter British territory by the Vihowa Pass, and carry on an extensive trade, but are not dependent on India for the necessaries of life. They are a peaceful and united race, and have been friendly to the British, but at enmity with the Khetrans and the Baluch tribes to the south of their country. In 1879 the Musa Khels and other Pathan tribes to the number of 5000 made a demonstration against Vihowa, but the town was reinforced and they dispersed. In 1884 they were punished, together with the Kakars, by the Zhob Valley Expedition. MUSAUS, JOHANN KARL AUGUST (1735-1787), German author, was born on the 29th of March 1735 at Jena, studied theology at the university, and would have become the pastor of a parish but for the resistance of some peasants, who objected that he had been known to dance. In 1760 to 1762 he published in three volumes his first work, Grandison der Zweite, afterwards (in 1 781-1 782) rewritten and issued with a new title, Der deutsche Grandison. The object of this book was to satirize Samuel Richardson's hero, who had many sentimental admirers in Germany. In 1763 Musaus was made master of the court pages at Weimar, and in 1769 he became professor at the Weimar gymnasium. His second book — Physiognomische Reisen — did not appear until 1778-1779. It was directed against Lavater, and attracted much favourable attention. In 1782 to 1786 he published his best work V olksmarchen der Deutschen. Even in this series of tales, the substance of which Musaus collected among the people, he could not refrain from satire. The stories, therefore, lack the simplicity of genuine folk-lore. In 1785 was issued Freund Heins Erscheinungen in Holbeins Manier by J. R. Schellenberg, with explanations in prose and verse by Musaus. A collection of stories entitled Straussfedern, of which a volume appeared in 1787, Musaus was prevented from com- pleting by his death on the 28th of October 1787. The V olksmarchen have been frequently reprinted (Dusseldorf, 1903, &c). They were translated into French in 1844, and three of the stories are included in Carlyle's German Romance (1827) ; Musaus's Nackgelassene Scriften were edited by his relative, A. von Kotzebue (1791). See M. M tiller, J. K. A. Musaus (1867), and an essay by A. Stern in Beitrage zur Literaturgeschichte des 18. Jahr- hunderts (1893). MUSCAT, Muskat or Maskat, a town on the south-east coast of Arabia, capital of the province of Oman. Its value as a naval base is derived from its 'position, which commands the entrance to the Persian Gulf. The town of Gwadar, the chief port of Makran, belongs to Muscat, and by arrangement with the sultan the British occupy that port with a telegraph station of the Indo-Persian telegraph service. An Indian political residency is established at Muscat. In geographical 44 MUSCATINE— MUSCLE AND NERVE position it is isolated from the interior of the continent. The mountains rise behind it in a rugged wall, across which no road exists. It is only from Matrah, a northern suburb shut off by an intervening spur which reaches to the sea, that land com- munication with the rest of Arabia can be maintained. Both Muscat and Matrah are defended from incursions on the land- ward side by a wall with towers at intervals. Muscat rose to importance with the Portuguese occupation of the Persian Gulf, and is noted for the extent of Portuguese ruins about it. Two lofty forts, of which the most easterly is called Jalali and the western Merani, occupy the summits of hills on either side the cove overlooking the town; and beyond them on the seaward side are two smaller defensive works called Sirat. All these are ruinous. A low sandy isthmus connects the rock and fortress of Jalali with the mainland, and upon this isthmus stands the British residency. The sultan's palace is a three-storeyed building near the centre of the town, a relic of Portuguese occupation, called by the Arabs El Jereza, a corruption of Igrezia (church). This term is probably derived from the chapel once attached to the buildings which formed the Portuguese governor's residence and factory. The bazaar is insignificant, and its most considerable trade appears to be in a sweetmeat prepared from the gluten of maize. Large quantities of dates are also exported. History. — The early history of Muscat is the history of Portu- guese ascendancy in the Persian Gulf. When Albuquerque first burnt the place after destroying Karyat in 1508, Kalhat was the chief port of the coast and Muscat was comparatively unimportant. Kalhat was subsequently sacked and burnt, the great Arab mosque being destroyed, before Albuquerque returned to his ships, " giving many thanks to our Lord." From that date, through 114 years of Portuguese ascendancy, Muscat was held as a naval station and factory during a period of local revolts, Arab incursions, and Turkish invasion by sea; but it was not till 1622, when the Portuguese lost Hormuz, that Muscat became the headquarters of their fleet and the most important place held by them on the Arabian coast. In 1650 the Portu- guese were finally expelled from Oman. Muscat had been reduced previously by the humiliating terms imposed upon the garrison by the imam of Oman after a siege in 1648. For five years the Persians occupied Oman, but they disappeared in 1 74 1. Under the great ruler of Oman, Said ibn Sultan (1804- 1856), the fortunes of Muscat attained their zenith; but on his death, when his kingdom was divided and the African possessions were parted from western Arabia, Muscat declined. In 1883- 1884, when Turki was sultan, the town was unsuccessfully besieged by the Indabayin and Rehbayin tribes, led by Abdul Aziz, the brother of Turki. In i8$5 Colonel Miles, resident at Muscat, made a tour through Oman, following the footsteps of Wellsted in 1835, and confirmed that traveller's report of the fertility and wealth of the province. In 1898 the French acquired the right to use Muscat as a coaling station. See Stiffe, " Trading Ports of Persian Gulf," vol. ix. Geog. Journal, and the political reports of the Indian government from the Persian Gulf. Colonel Miles's explorations in Oman will be found in vol. vii. Geog. Journal (1896). (T. H. H.*) MUSCATINE, a city and the county-seat of Muscatine county, Iowa, U.S.A., on the Mississippi river (here crossed by a wagon bridge), at the apex of the " great bend," in the south-east part of the state. Pop. (1890), 11,454; (1900)) i4,°73> of whom 2352 were foreign-born; (igio census) 16,178. It is served by the Chicago Milwaukee & Saint Paul, the Chicago Rock Island & Pacific, and the Muscatine North & South railways. It is built on high rocky bluffs, and is the centre of a pearl- button industry introduced in 1891 by J. F. Boepple, a German, the buttons being made from the shells of the fresh-water mussel found in the neighbourhood; and there are other manu- factures. Coal is mined in the vicinity, and near the city are large market-gardens, the water-melons growing on Muscatine Island (below the city) and sweet potatoes being their most important products. The municipality owns and operates the waterworks. Muscatine began as a trading-post in 1833. It was laid out in 1836, incorporated as a town under the name of Bloomington in 1839, and first chartered as a city, under its present name, in 185 1. MUSCHELKALK, in geology, the middle member of the German Trias. It consists of a series of calcareous, marly and dolomitic beds which lie conformably between the Bunter and Keuper formations. The name Muschelkalk (Fr., cakaire coquillier; conchy lien, formation of D'Orbigny) indicates a characteristic feature in this series, viz. the frequent occurrence of lenticular banks composed of fossil shells, remarkable in the midst of a singularly barren group. In its typical form the Muschelkalk is practically restricted to the German region and its immediate neighbourhood; it is found in Thuringia, Harz, Franconia, Hesse, Swabia, and the Saar and Alsace districts. Northward it extends into Silesia, Poland and Heligo- land. Representatives are found in the Alps, west and south of the Vosges, in Moravia, near Toulon and Montpellier, in Spain and Sardinia; in Rumania, Bosnia, Dalmatia, and beyond this into Asia in the Himalayas, China, Australia, California, and in North Africa (Constantine). From the nature of the deposits, as well as from the impoverished fauna, the Muschelkalk of the type area was probably laid down within a land-locked sea which, in the earlier portion of its existence, had only imperfect communications with the more open waters of the period. The more remote representatives of the formation were of course deposited in diverse conditions, and are only to be correlated through the presence of some of the Muschelkalk fossils. In the " German " area the Muschelkalk is from 250-350 ft. thick;' it is readily divisible into three groups, of which the upper and lower are pale thin-bedded limestones with greenish- grey marls, the middle group being mainly composed of gypsiferous and saliniferous marls with dolomite. The Lower Muschelkalk consists, from below upwards, of the following rocks, the ochreous Wellen Dolomit, lower Wellen Kalk, upper Wellen Kalk (so called on account of the wavy character of the bedding) with beds of " Schaumkalk " (a porous cellular lime- stone), and Oolite and the Orbicularis beds (with Myopkoria orbicularis). In the Saar and Alsace districts and north Eifel, these beds take on a sandy aspect, the " Muschelsandstein." The Middle Muschelkalk or Anhydrite group, as already indi- cated, consists mainly of marls and dolomites with beds of anhydrite, gypsum and salt. The salt beds are worked at Hall, Friedrichshall, Heilbronn, Stettin and Erfurt. It is from this division that many of the mineral springs of Thuringia and south Germany obtain their saline contents. The cellular nature of much of the dolomite has given rise to the term " Zellendolomit." The Upper Muschelkalk (Hauptmuschelkalk, Friedrichshallkalk of von Alberti) consists of regular beds of shelly limestone alternating with beds of marl. The lower portion or " Trochitenkalk " is often composed entirely of the fragmentary stems of Encrintts liliiformis; higher up come the " Nodosus " beds with Ceratites compressus, C. nodosus, and C. semipartitus in ascending order. In Swabia and Franconia the highest beds are platy dolomites with Tringonodus Sander- gensis and the crustacean Bairdia. Stylolites are common in all the Muschelkalk limestones. The Alpine Muschelkalk differs in many respects from that of the type area, and shows a closer relationship with the Triassic Mediterranean sea; the more important local phases will be found tabulated in the article Trias. In addition to the fossils mentioned above, the following are Muschelkalk forms: Terebratulina vulgaris, Spiriferina Mantzeli and 5. hirsuta, Myophoria vulgaris, Rhynchotites hirundo, Ceratites Miinsteri, Ptychites studeri, Balatonites balatonicus, Aspidura scutu- lata, Daonella Lommeli, and in the Alpine region several rock- forming Algae, Bactryllium, Gyroporella, Diplopora, &c. (J. A. H.) MUSCLE AND NERVE {Physiology). 1 Among the properties of living material there is one, widely though not universally present in it, which forms the pre-eminent characteristic of 1 The anatomy of the muscles is dealt with under Muscular System, arid of the nerves under Nerve and Nervous System. MUSCLE AND NERVE 45 Muscle. muscular cells. This property is the liberation of some of the energy contained in the chemical compounds of the cells in such a way as to give mechanical work. The mechanical work is obtained by movement resulting from a change, it is supposed, in the elastic tension of the framework of the living cell. In the fibrils existing in the cell a sudden alteration of elasticity occurs, resulting in an increased tension on the points of attachment of the cell to the neighbouring elements of the tissue in which the cell is placed. These yield under the strain, and the cell shortens between those points of its attachment. This shortening is called contraction. But the volume of the cell is not biilty. ' appreciably altered, despite the change of its shape, for its one diameter increases in proportion as its other is diminished. The manifestations of contractility by muscle are various in mode. By Ionic contraction is meant a prolonged and equable state of tension which yields under analysis no element of intermittent character. This is mani- fested by the muscular walls of the hollow viscera and of the heart, where it is the expression of a continuous liberation of energy in process in the muscular tissue, the outcome of the latter's own intrinsic life, and largely independent of any con- nexion with the nervous system. The muscular wall of the blood-vessels also exhibits tonic contraction, which, however, seems to be mainly traceable to a continual excitation of the muscle cells by nervous influence conveyed to them along their nerves, and originating in the great vaso motor centre in the bulb. In the ordinary striped muscles of the skeletal musculature, e.g. gastrocnemius, tonic contraction obtains; but this, like the last mentioned, is not autochthonous in the muscles themselves; it is indirect and neural, and appears to be maintained reflexly. The receptive organs of the muscular sense and of the semi- circular canals are to be regarded as the sites of origin of this reflex tonus of the skeletal muscles. Striped muscles possessing an autochthonous tonus appear to be the various sphincter muscles. Another mode of manifestation of contractility by muscles is the rhythmic. A tendency to rhythmic contraction seems dis- coverable in almost all muscles. In some it is very marked, for example in some viscera, the spleen, the bladder, the ureter, the uterus, the intestine, and especially in the heart. In several of these it appears not unlikely that the recurrent explosive libera- tions of energy in the muscle tissue are not secondary to recurrent explosions in nerve cells, but are attributable to decompositions arising sua sponte in the chemical substances of the muscle cells themselves in the course of their living. Even small strips of the muscle of the heart, if taken immediately after the death of the animal, continue, when kept moist and warm and supplied with oxygen, to " beat " rhythmically for hours. Rhythmic contraction is also characteristic of certain groups of skeletal muscles, e.g. the respiratory. In these the rhythmic activity is, however, clearly secondary to rhythmic discharges of the nerve cells constituting the respiratory centre in the bulb. Such discharges descend the nerve fibres of the spinal cord, and through the intermediation of various spinal nerve cells excite the respiratory muscles through their motor nerves. A form of contraction intermediate in character between the tonic and the rhythmic is met in the auricle of the heart of the toad. There slowly successive phases of increased and of diminished tonus regularly alternate, and upon them are superposed the rhythmic " beats " of the pulsating heart. " The beat," i.e. the short-lasting explosive contraction of the heart muscle, can be elicited by a single, even momentary, application of a stimulus, e.g. by an induction shock. Similarly, such a single stimulus elicits from a skeletal muscle a single '' beat," or, as it is termed, a " twitch." In the heart muscle during a brief period after each beat, that is, after each single contraction of the rhythmic series, the muscle becomes inexcitable. It cannot then be excited to contract by any agent, though the inexcitable period is more brief for strong than for weak stimuli. But in the skeletal, voluntary or striped muscles a second stimulus succeeding a previous so Excit- ability. quickly as to fall even during the continuance of the contraction excited by a first, elicits a second contraction. This second contraction starts from whatever phase of previous contraction the muscle may have reached at the time. A third stimulus excites a third additional contraction, a fourth a fourth, and so on. The increments of contraction become, however, less and less, until the succeeding stimuli serve merely to maintain, not to augment, the existing degree of contraction. We arrive thus by synthesis at a summation of " beats " or of simple contrac- tions in the compound, or " tetanic," or summed contraction of the skeletal muscles. The tetanic or summed contractions are more extensive than the simple, both in space and time, and liberate more energy, both as mechanical work and heat. The tension developed by their means in the muscle is many times greater than that developed by a simple twitch. Muscle cells respond by changes in their activity to changes in their environment, and thus are said to be " excitable." They are, however, less excitable than are the nerve cells which innervate them. The change which excites them is termed a stimulus. The least stimulus which suffices to excite is known as the stimulus of threshold value. In the case of the heart muscle this threshold stimulus evokes a beat as extensive as does the strongest stimulus; that is, the intensity of the stimulus, so long as it is above threshold value, is not a function of the amount of the muscular response. But in the ordinary skeletal muscles the amount of the muscular contraction is for a short range of quantities of stimulus (of above threshold value) proportioned to the intensity of the stimulus and increases with it. A value of stimulus, however, is soon reached which evokes a maximal contraction. Further increase of contraction does not follow further increase of the intensity of the stimulus above that point. Just as in a nerve fibre, when excited by a localized stimulus, the excited state spreads from the excited point to the adjacent unexcited ones, so in muscle the " contraction," when excited at a point, spreads to the adjacent uncontracted parts. Both in muscle and in nerve this spread is termed conduction. It is propagated along the muscle fibres of the skeletal muscles at a rate of about 3 metres per second. In the heart muscle it travels much more slowly. The disturbance travels as a wave of contraction, and the whole extent of the wave-like disturbance measures in ordinary muscles much more than the whole length of any single muscle fibre. That the excited state spreads only to previously unexcited portions of the muscle fibre shows that even in the skeletal variety of muscle there exists, though only for a very brief time, a period of inexcitability. The duration of this period is about ^--Jir of a second in skeletal muscle. When muscle that has remained inactive for some time is excited by a series of single and equal stimuli succeeding at intervals too prolonged to cause summation the succeeding contractions exhibit progressive increase up to a certain degree. The tenth contraction usually exhibits the culmination of this so-called " staircase effect." The explanation may lie in the production of CO2 in the muscle. That substance, in small doses, favours the contractile power of muscle. The muscle is a machine for utilizing the energy contained in its own chemical compounds. It is not surprising that the chemical substances produced in it by the decomposition of its living material should not be of a nature indifferent for muscular life. We find that if the series of excitations of the muscle be prolonged beyond the short stage of initial improvement, the contractions, after being well maintained for a time, later decline in force and speed, and ultimately dwindle even to vanishing point. This decline is said to be due to muscular fatigue. The muscle recovers on being allowed to rest unstimulated for a while, and more quickly on being washed with an innocuous but non- nutritious solution, such as -6%, NaCl in water. The washing seems to remove excreta of the muscle's own production, and the period of repose removes them perhaps by diffusion, perhaps by breaking them down into innocuous material. Since the 4 6 MUSCLE AND NERVE Neuron Theory. muscle produces lactic acids during activity, it has been sug- gested that acids are among the " fatigue substances " with which muscle poisons itself when deprived of circulating blood. Muscles when active seem to pour into the circulation substances which, of unknown chemical composition, are physiologically recognizable by their stimulant action on the respiratory nervous centre. The effect of the fatigue substances upon the contrac- tion of the tissue is manifest especially in the relaxation process. The contracted state, instead of rapidly subsiding after dis- continuance of the stimulus, slowly and only partially wears off, the muscle remaining in a condition of physiological " contracture." The alkaloid veratrin has a similar effect upon the contraction of muscle; it enormously delays the return from the contracted state, as also does epinephrin, an alkaloid extracted from the suprarenal gland. Nervous System. — The work of Camillo Golgi (Pa via, 1885 and onwards) on the minute structure of the nervous system has led to great alteration of doctrine in neural physi- ology. It had been held that the branches of the nerve cells, that is to say, the fine nerve fibres — since all nerve fibres are nerve cell branches, and all nerve cell branches are nerve fibres— which form a close felt-work in the nervous centres, there combined into a network actually con- tinuous throughout. This continuum was held to render possible conduction in all directions throughout the grey matter of the whole nervous system. The fact that conduction occurred preponderantly in certain directions was explained by appeal to a hypothetical resistance to conduction which, for reasons unascertained, lay less in some directions than in others. The intricate felt-work has by Golgi been ascertained to be a mere interlacement, not an actual anastomosis network; the branches springing from the various cells remain lifelong unattached and unjoined to any other than their own individual cell. Each neuron or nerve cell is a morphologically distinct and discrete unit connected functionally but not structurally with its neigh- bours, and leading its own life independently of the destiny of its neighbours. Among the properties of the neuron is con- ductivity in all directions. But when neurons are linked together it is found that nerve impulses will only pass from neuron A to neuron B, and not from neuron B to neuron A; that is, the transmission of the excited state or nervous impulse, although possible in each neuron both up and down its own cell branches, is possible from one nerve cell to another in one direction only. That direction is the direction in which the nerve impulses flow under the conditions of natural life. The synapse, therefore, as the place of meeting of one neuron with the next is called, is said to valve the nerve circuits. This determinate sense of the spread is called the law of forward direction. The synapse appears to be a weak spot in the chain of conduction, or rather to be a place which breaks down with comparative ease under stress, e.g. under effect of poisons. The axons of the motor neurons are, inasmuch as they are nerve fibres in nerve trunks, easily accessible to artificial stimuli. It can be demonstrated that they are practically indefatigable— repeatedly stimulated by electrical currents, even through many hours, they, unlike muscle, continue to respond with unimpaired reaction. Fatfeue ^ et w ^ en tne muscular contraction is taken as index of the response of the nerve, it is found that unmis- takable signs of fatigue appear even very soon after commence- ment of the excitation of the nerve, and the muscle ceases to give any contraction in response to stimuli applied indirectly to it through its nerve. But the muscle will, when excited directly, e.g. by direct application of electric currents, contract vigorously after all response on its part to the stimuli (nerve impulses) applied to it indirectly through its nerve has failed. The inference is that the " fatigue substances " generated in the muscle fibres in the course of their prolonged contraction injure and paralyse the motor end plates, which are places of synapsis between nerve cell and muscle cell, even earlier than they harm the contractility of the muscle fibres themselves. The alkaloid curarin causes motor paralysis by attacking in a selective way this junction of motor nerve cell and striped muscular fibre. Non-myelinate nerve fibres are as resistant to fatigue as are the myelinate. The neuron is described as having a cell body or perikaryon from which the cell branches — dendrites and axon — extend, and it is this perikaryon which, as its name implies, contains the nucleus. It forms the trophic centre of ,°„ ar y the cell, just as the nucleus-containing part of every cell is the trophic centre of the whole cell. Any part of the cell cut off from the nucleus-containing part dies down: this is as true of nerve cells as of amoeba, and in regard to the neuron it constitutes what is known as the Wallerian degeneration. On the other hand, in some neurons, after severance of the axon from the rest of the cell (spinal motor cell), the whole nerve cell as well as the severed axon degenerates, and may eventu- ally die and be removed. In the severed axon the degenera- tion is first evident in a breaking down of the naked nerve filaments of the motor end plate. A little later the breaking down of the whole axon, both axis cylinder and myelin sheath alike, seems to occur simultaneously throughout ins entire length distal to the place of severance. The complex fat of the myelin becomes altered chemically, while the other com- ponents of the sheath break down. This death of the sheath as well as of the axis cylinder shows that it, like the axis cylinder, is a part of the nerve cell itself. In addition to the trophic influence exerted by each part of the neuron on its other parts, notably by the perikaryon on the cell branches, one neuron also in many instances in- fluences the nutrition of other neurons. When, for instance, the axons of the ganglion cells of the retina are severed by section of the optic nerve, and thus their influence upon the nerve cells of the visual cerebral centres is set aside, the nerve cells of those centres undergo secondary atrophy (Cadden's atrophy). They dwindle in size; they do not, however, die. Similarly, when the axons of the motor spinal cells are by severance of the nerve trunk of a muscle broken through, the muscle cells undergo " degeneration " — dwindle, become fatty, and alter almost beyond recognition. This trophic influence which one neuron exerts upon others, or upon the cells of an extrinsic tissue, such as muscle, is exerted in that direction which is the one normally taken by the ?^. t natural nerve impulses. It seems, especially in ^ eurons _ the case of the nexus between certain neurons, that the influence, loss of which endangers nutrition, is associ- ated with the occurrence of something more than merely the nervous impulses awakened from time to time in the leading nerve cell. The wave of change (nervous impulse) induced in a neuron by advent of a stimulus is after all only a sudden augmentation of an activity continuous within the neuron — a transient accentuation of one (the disintegrative) phase of the metabolism inherent in and inseparable from its life. The nervous impulse is, so to say, the sudden evanescent glow of an ember continuously black-hot. A continuous lesser " change " or stream of changes sets through the neuron, and is distributed by it to other neurons in the same direction and by the same synapses as are its nerve impulses. This gentle continuous activity of the neuron is called its tonus. In tracing the tonus of neurons to a source, one is always led link by link against the current of nerve force — so to say, "up stream" — to the first beginnings of the chain of neurons in the sensifacient surfaces of the body. From these, as in the eye, ear, and other sense organs, tonus is constantly initiated. Hence, when cut off from these sources, the nutrition of the neurons of various central mechanisms suffers. Thus the tonus of the motor neurons of the spinal cord is much lessened by rupture of the great afferent root cells which normally play upon them. A prominent and practically important illustration of neural tonus is given by the skeletal muscles. These muscles exhibit a certain constant condition of slight contraction, which dis- appears on severance of the nerve that innervates the muscle. It is a muscular tonus of central source consequent on the continual glow of excitement in the spinal motor neuron, whose outgoing end plays upon the muscle cells, whose ingoing MUSCLE AND NERVE 47 end is played upon by other neurons — spinal, cerebral and cerebellar. It is with the neural element of muscle tonus that tendon pheno- mena are intimately associated. The earliest-studied of these, the " knee-jerk," may serve as example of the class. It is a brief ex- tension of the limb at the knee-joint, due to a simple contraction of the extensor muscle, elicited by a tap or other short mechanical stimulus applied to the muscle fibres through the tendon of the muscle. The jerk is obtainable only from muscle fibres possessed of neural tonus. If the sensory nerves of the extensor muscle be severed, the " jerk " is lost. The brevity of the interval between the tap on the knee and the beginning of the resultant contraction of the muscle seems such as to exclude the possibility of reflex development. A little experience in observations on the knee-jerk imparts a notion of the average strength of the "jerk." Wide departures from the normal standard are met with and are sympto- matic of certain nervous conditions. Stretching of the muscles antagonistic to the extensors — namely, of the flexor muscles — reduces the jerk by inhibiting the extensor spinal nerve cells through the nervous impulses generated by the tense flexor muscles. Hence a favourable posture of the limb for eliciting the jerk is one ensuring relaxation of the hamstring muscles, as when the leg has been crossed upon the other. In sleep the jerk is diminished, in deep sleep quite abolished. Extreme bodily fatigue diminishes it. Con- versely, a cold bath increases it. The turning of attention towards the knee interferes with the jerk; hence the device ot directing the person to perform vigorously some movement, which does not involve the muscles of the lower limb, at the moment when the light blow is dealt upon the tendon. A slight degree of contraction of muscle seems the substratum of all attention. The direction of attention to the performance of some movement by the arm ensures that looseness and freedom from tension in the thigh muscles which is essential for the provocation of the jerk. The motor cells of the extensor muscles, when preoccupied by cerebral influence, appear refractory. T. Ziehen has noted exaltation of the jerk to follow extirpation of a cortical centre. Although the cell body or perikaryon of the neuron, with its contained nucleus, is essential for the maintenance of the life of the cell branches, it has become recognized la Neurons. ^aX. the actual process and function of "con- duction " in many neurons can, and does, go on without the cell body being directly concerned in the conduction. S. Exner first showed, many years ago, that the nerve impulse travels through the spinal ganglion at the same speed as along the other parts of the nerve trunk — that is, that it suffers no delay in transit through the perikarya of the afferent root- neurons. Bethe has succeeded in isolating their perikarya from certain of the afferent neurons of the antennule of Carcinus. The conduction through the amputated cell branches continues unimpaired for many hours. This indicates that the conjunction between the conducting substance of the dendrons and that of the axon can be effected without the intermediation of the cell body. But the proper nutrition of the conducting substance is indissolubly dependent on the cell branches being in continuity with the cell body and nucleus it contains. Evidence illustrating this nexus is found in the visible changes produced in the perikaryon by prolonged activity induced and maintained in the conducting branches of the cell. As a result the fatigued cells appear shrunken, and their reaction to staining reagents alters, thus showing chemical alteration. Most marked is the decrease in the volume of the nucleus, amounting even to 44% of the initial volume. In the myelinated cell branches Of the neuron, that is, in the ordinary nerve fibres, no visible change has ever been demonstrated as the result of any normal activity, however great — a striking contrast to the observations obtained on the perikarya. The chemical changes that accompany activity in the nerve fibre must be very small, for the production of CO-: is barely measurable, and no production of heat is observable as the result of the most forced tetanic activity. The nerve cells of the higher vertebrata, unlike their blood cells, their connective tissue cells, and even their muscle cells, Orowth la early, and indeed in embryonic life, lose power of iScrvous multiplication. The number of them formed is system, definitely closed at an early period of the individual life. Although, unlike so many other cells, thus early sterile for reproduction of their kind, they retain for longer than most cells a high power of individual growth. They continue to grow, and Cerebral Cortex. to thrust out new branches and to lengthen existing branches, for many years far into adult life. They similarly possess power to repair and to regenerate their cell branches where these are injured or destroyed by trauma or disease. This is the explana- tion of the repair of nerve trunks that have been severed, with consequent degeneration of the peripheral nerve fibres. As a rule, a longer time is required to restore the motor than the sensory functions of a nerve trunk. Whether examined by functional or by structural features, the conducting paths of the nervous system, traced from beginning to end, never terminate in the centres of that system, but pass through them. All ultimately emerge as efferent channels. Every efferent channel, after entrance in the central nervous system, sub- divides; of its subdivisions some pass to efferent channels soon, others pass further and further within the cord and brain before they finally reach channels of outlet. All the longest routes thus formed traverse late in their course the cortex of the cerebral hemisphere. It is this relatively huge development of cortex cerebri which is the pre-eminent structural character of man. This means that the number of " longest routes " in man is, as compared with lower animals, disproportionately great. In the lower animal forms there is no such nervous structure at all as the cortex cerebri. In the frog, lizard, and even bird, it is thin and poorly developed. In the marsupials it is more evident, and its excitation by electric currents evokes movements in the musculature of the crossed side of the body. Larger and thicker in the rabbit, when excited it gives rise in that animal to movements of the eyes and of the fore-limbs and neck; but it is only in much higher types, such as the dog, that the cortex yields, under experimental excitation, definitely localized foci, whence can be evoked movements of the fore-limb, hind-limb, neck, ' eyes, ears and face. In the monkey the proportions it assumes are still greater, and the number of foci, for distinct movements of this and that member, indeed for the individual joints of each limb, are much more numerous, and together occupy a more extensive surface, though relatively to the total surface of the brain a smaller one. Experiment shows that in the manlike (anthropoid) apes the differentiation of the foci or 'centres " of movement in the motor field of the cortex is even more minute. In them areas are found whence stimuli excite movements of this or that finger alone, of the upper lip without the lower, of the tip only of the tongue, or of one upper eyelid by itself. The movement evoked from a point of cortex is not always the same; its character is determined by movements evoked from neighbouring points of cortex immediately antecedently. Thus a point A will, when excited soon subsequent to point B, which latter yields pro- trusion of lips, itself yield lip-protrusion, whereas if excited after C, which yields lip-.retraction, it will itself yield lip-retrac- tion. The movements obtained by point-to-point excitation of the cortex are often evidently imperfect as compared with natural movements — that is, are only portions of complete normal movements. Thus among the tongue movements evoked by stigmatic stimulation of the cortex undeviated protrusion or retraction of the organ is not found. Again, from different points of the cortex the assumption of the requisite positions of the tongue, lips, cheeks, palate and epiglottis, as components in the act of sucking, can be pro- voked singly. Rarely can the whole action be provoked, and then only gradually, by prolonged and strong excitation of one of the requisite points, e.g. that for the tongue, with which the other points are functionally connected. Again, no single point in the cortex evokes the act of ocular converg- ence and fixation. All this means that the execution of natural movements employs simultaneous co-operative activity of a number of points in the motor fields on both sides of the brain together. The accompanying simple figure indicates better than any verbal description the topography of the main groups of foci in the motor field of a manlike ape (chimpanzee). It will be 48 MUSCLE AND NERVE noted from it that there is no direct relation between the extent of a cortical area and the mass of muscles which it controls. The mass of muscles in the trunk is greater than in the leg, and in the leg is greater than in the arm, and in the arm is many times greater than in the face and head; yet for the last the cortical area is the most extensive of all, and for the first-named is the least extensive of all. The motor field of the cortex is, taken altogether, relatively to the size of the lower parts of the brain, larger in the anthropoid than in the inferior monkey brains. But in the anthropoid Anus ttyaglna*. *%^H2.».- Abdomen Knee Toes Chest Fingers 6 thumb. Sulcus centraUSf. M&sticaZian come to be furnished more and mOre with fibres that are fully myelinate. At the beginning of its history each is unprovided with myelinate nerve fibres. The excitable foci of the cerebral cortex are well myelinated long before the unexcitable are so. The regions of the cortex, whose conduction paths are early completed, may be arranged in groups by their connexions with sense-organs: eye-region, ear-region, skin and somaesthetic region, olfactory and taste region. The areas of intervening cortex, arriving at Structural completion later than the above sense-spheres, are called by some association-spheres, to indicate the view that they contain the neural mechanisms of reactions (some have said " ideas ") associated with the sense perceptions elaborated in the several sense- spheres. The name "motor area" is given to that region of cortex whence, as D. Ferrier's investigations showed, motor reactions of the facial and Seasori- limb muscles are regularly aiid easily motor evoked. This region is often called the Cenirss. sensori-motor cortex, and the term somaesthetic has also been used and seems appropriate. It has been found that disturbance of sensation, as well as disturbance of movement, is often incurred by its injury. Patients in whom, for purposes of diagnosis, it has been electrically excited, describe, as the initial effect of the stimulation, tingling and obscure but locally-limited sensations, referred to the part whose muscles a moment later are thrown into co-ordinate activity. The distinction, therefore, between the movement of the eyeballs, elicited from the occipital (visual) cortex, and that of the hand, elicited from the cortex in the region of the central sulcus (somaesthetic), is not a difference between Mirfai motor and sensory, for both are sensori-motor in the Diagram of the Topography of the Main Groups of Foci in the Motor Field nature of their reactions; the difference is only a of Chimpanzee. brain still more increased even than the motor field are the great regions of the cortex outside that field, which yield no definite movements under electric excitation, and are for that reason known as " silent." The motor field, therefore, though absolutely larger, forms a smaller fraction of the whole cortex of the brain than in the lower forms. The statement that in the anthropoid (orang-outan) brain the groups of foci in the motor fields of the cortex are themselves separated one from another by sur- rounding inexcitable cortex, has been made and was one of great interest, but has not been confirmed by subsequent observation. That in man the excitable foci of the motor field are islanded in excitable surface similarly and even more extensively, was a natural inference, but it had its chief basis in the observations on the orang, now known to be erroneous. In the diagram there is indicated the situation of the cortical centres for movement of the vocal cords. Their situation is at the lower end of the motor field. That they should lie there is interesting, because that place is close to one known in man to be associated with management of the movements concerned in speech. When that area in man is injured, the ability to utter words is impaired. Not that there is paralysis of the muscles of speech, since these muscles can be used perfectly for all acts other than speech. The area in man is known as the motor centre for speech; in most persons it exists only in the left half of the brain and not in the right. In a similar way damage of a certain small portion of the temporal lobe of the brain produces loss of intelligent apprehension of words spoken, although there is no deafness and although words seen are perfectly apprehended. Another region, " the angular region," is similarly related to intelligent apprehension of words seen, though not of words heard. When this differentiation of cortex, with its highest expres- sion in man. is collated with the development of the cortex as studied in the successive phases of its growth and ripening in the human infant, a suggestive analogy is obvious. The nervous paths in the brain and cord, as they attain completion, difference between the kind of sense and sense-organ in the two cases, the muscular apparatus in each case being an appanage of the sensual. That the lower types of vertebrate, such as fish, e.g. carp, possess practically no cortex cerebri, and nevertheless execute " volitional " acts involving high co-ordination and suggesting the possession by them of associative memory, shows that for the existence of these phenomena the cortex cerebri is in them not essential. In the dog it has been proved that after removal from the animal of every vestige of its cortex cerebri, it still executes habitual acts of great motor complexity requiring extraordinarily delicate adjustment of muscular contraction. It can walk, run and feed; such an animal, on wounding its foot, will run on three legs, as will a normal dog under similar mischance. But signs of associative memory are almost, if not entirely, wanting. Throughout three years such a dog failed to learn that the attendant's lifting it from the cage at a certain hour was the preliminary circumstance of the feeding- hour; yet it did exhibit hunger, and would refuse further food when a sufficiency had been taken. In man, actually gross sensory defects follow even limited lesions of the cortex. Thus the rabbit and the dog are not absolutely blinded by removal of the entire cortex, but in man destruction of the occipital cortex produces total blindness, even to the extent that the pupil of the eye does not respond when light is flashed into the eye. Examination of the cerebellum by the method of Wallerian degeneration has shown that a large number of spinal and bulbar nerve cells send branches up into it. These _ . „ _ . . , . Cerebelmm. seem to end, for the most part, in the grey cortex of the median lobe, some, though not the majority, of them decussating across the median line. The organ seems also to receive many fibres from the parietal region of the cerebral hemisphere. From the organ there emerge fibres which cross to the opposite red nucleus, and directly or indirectly reach the thalamic region of the crossed hemi- sphere. The pons or middle peduncle, which was regarded, MUSCLE AND NERVE 49 on the uncertain ground of naked-eye dissection of human anatomy, as commissural between the two lateral lobes of the cerebellum, is now known to constitute chiefly a cerebro- cerebellar decussating path. Certain cerebellar cells send processes down to the cell-group in the bulb known as the nucleus of Deiters, which latter projects fibres down the spinal cord. Whether there is any other or direct emergent path from the cerebellum into the spinal cord is a matter on which opinion is divided. Injuries of the cerebellum, if large, derange the power of executing movements, without producing any detectable derangement of sensation. The derangement gradually dis- appears, unless the damage to the organ be very wide. A reeling gait, oscillations of the body which impart a zigzag direction to the wall-, difficulty in standing, owing to unsteadi- ness of limb, are common in cerebellar disease. On the other hand, congenital defect amounting to absence of one cerebellar hemisphere has been found to occasion practically no symptoms whatsoever. Not a hundredth part of the cerebellum has remained, and yet there has existed ability to stand, to walk, to handle and lift objects in a fairly normal way, without any trace of impairment of cutaneous or muscular sensitivity. The damage to the cerebellum must, it would seem, occur abruptly or quickly in order to occasion marked derangement of function, and then the derangement falls on the execution of movements. One aspect of this derangement, named by Luciani astasia, is a tremor heightened by or only appearing when the muscles enter upon action — " intention tremor." Vertigo is a frequent result of cerebellar injury: animals indicate it by their actions; patients describe it. To interpret this vertigo, appeal must be made to disturbances, other than cerebellar, which like- wise occasion vertigo. These include, besides ocular squint, many spatial positions and movements unwonted to the body: the looking from a height, the gliding over ice, sea-travel, to some persons even travelling by train, or the covering of one eye. Common to all these conditions is the synchronous rise of perceptions of spatial relations between the self and the environment which have not, or have rarely, before arisen in synchronous combination. The tactual organs of the soles, and the muscular sense organs of limbs and trunk, are originating perceptions that indicate that the self is standing on the solid earth, yet the eyes are at the same time originating perceptions that indicate that the solid earth is far away below the standing self. The combination is hard to harmonize at first; it is at least not given as innately harmonized. Per- ceptions regarding the " me " are notoriously highly charged with " feeling," and the conflict occasions the feeling insuffi- ciently described as " giddiness." The cerebellum receives paths from most, if not from all, of the afferent roots. With certain of these it stands associated most closely, namely, with the vestibular, representing the sense organs which furnish data for appreciation of positions and movements of the head, and with the channels, conveying centripetal impressions from the apparatus of skeletal movement. Disorder of the cere- bellum sets at variance, brings discord into, the space-percep- tions contributory to the movement. The body's movement becomes thus imperfectly adjusted to the spatial requirements of the act it would perform. In the physiological basis of sense exist many impressions which, apart from and devoid of psychical accompaniment, reflexly influence motor (muscular) innervation. It is with this sort of habitually apsychical reaction that the cerebellum is, it would seem, employed. That it is apparently devoid of psychical concomitant need not imply that the impressions concerned in it are crude and inelaborate. The seeming want of reaction of so much of the cerebellar structure under artificial stimulation, and the complex relay system revealed in the histology of the cerebellum, suggest that the impressions are elaborate. Its reaction preponderantly helps to secure co- ordinate innervation of the skeletal musculature, both for maintenance of attitude and for execution of movements. Sleep. — The more obvious of the characters of sleep (q.v.) are essentially nervous. In deep sleep the threshold-value of the stimuli for the various senses is very greatly raised, rising rapidly during the first hour and a half of sleep, and then declining with gradually decreasing decrements. The muscles become less tense than in their waking state: their tonus is diminished, the upper eyelid falls, and the knee-jerk is in abeyance. The respiratory rhythm is less frequent and the breathing less deep ; the heart-beat is less frequent; the secretions are less copious; the pupil is narrow; in the brain there exists arterial anaemia with venous congestion, so that the blood-flow there is less than in the waking state. It has been suggested that the gradual cumulative result of the activity of the nerve cells during the waking day is to load the brain tissue with " fatigue-substances " . . . which clog the action of the cells, and thus periodi- sleep. cally produce that loss of consciousness, &c, which is sleep. Such a drugging of tissue by its own excreta is known in muscular fatigue, but the fact that the depth of sleep progres- sively increases for an hour and more after its onset prevents complete explanation of sleep on similar lines. It has been urged that the neurons retract during sleep, and that thus at the synapses the gap between nerve cell and nerve cell becomes wider, or that the supporting cells expand between the nerve cells and tend to isolate the latter one from the other. Certain it is that in the course of the waking day a great number of stimuli play on the sense organs, and through these produce disintegra- tion of the living molecules of the central nervous system. Hence during the day the assimilatory processes of these cells are overbalanced by their wear and tear, and the end-result is that the cell attains an atomic condition less favourable to further disintegration than to reintegration. That phase of cell life which we are accustomed to call " active " is accompanied always by disintegration. When in the cell the assimilative processes exceed dissimilative, the external manifestations of energy are liable to cease or diminish. Sleep is not exhaustion of the neuron in the sense that prolonged activity has reduced its excitability to zero. The nerve cell just prior to sleep is still well capable of response to stimuli, although perhaps the thres- hold-value of the stimulus has become rather high, whereas after entrance upon sleep and continuance of sleep for several hours, and more, when all spur to the dissimilation process has been long withheld, the threshold-value of the sensory stimulus becomes enormously higher than before. The exciting cause of sleep is therefore no complete exhaustion of the available material of the cells, nor is it entirely any paralysing of them by their excreta. It is more probably abeyance of external function during a periodic internal assimilatory phase. Two processes conjoin to initiate the assimilatory phase. There is close interconnexion between the two aspects of the double activity that in physiological theory constitute the chemical life of protoplasm, between dissimilation and assimilation. Hering has long insisted on a self-regulative adjustment of the cell metabolism, so that action involves reaction, increased catabolism necessitates after-increase of anabolism. The long-continued incitement to catabolism of the waking day thus of itself predisposes the nerve cells towards rebound into the opposite phase; the increased cata- bolism due to the day's stimuli induces increase of anabolism, and though recuperation goes on to a large extent during the day itself, the recuperative process is slower than, and lags behind, the dis- integrative. Hence there occurs a cumulative effect, progressively increasing from the opening till the closing hours. The second factor inducing the assimilative change is the withdrawal of the nervous system from sensual stimulation. The eyes are closed, the maintenance of posture by active contraction is replaced by the recumbent pose which can be maintained by static action and the mere mechanical consistence of the body, the ears are screened from noise in the quiet chamber, the skin from localized pressure by a soft, yielding couch. The effect of thus reducing the excitant action of the environment is to give consciousness over more to mere revivals by memory, and gradually consciousness lapses. A remarkable case is well authenticated, where, owing to disease, a young man had lost the use of all the senses save of one eye and of one ear. If these last channels were sealed, in two or three minutes' time he invariably fell asleep. If natural sleep is the expression of a phase of decreased excit- ability due to the setting in of a tide of anabolism in the cells of the nervous system, what is the action of narcotics ? They lower the 5Q MUSCOVITE external activities of the cells, but do they not at the same time lower the internal, reparative, assimilative activity of the cell that in natural sleep goes vigorously forward preparing the system for the next day's drain on energy? In most cases they Seem to f'anotlcs l° wer both the internal and the external activity of the nerve cells, to lessen the cell's entire metabolism, to reduce the speed of its whole chemical .movement and life. Hence it is not surprising that often the refreshment, the recuperation, obtained From and felt after sleep induced by a drug amounts to nothing, or to worse than nothing. But very often refreshment is undoubtedly obtained from such narcotic sleep. It may be supposed that in the latter case the effect of the drug has been to ensure occurrence of that second predisposing factor mentioned above, of that withdrawal of sense impulses from the nerve centres that serves to usher in the state of sleep. In certain conditions it may be well worth while by means of narcotic drugs to close the portals of the senses for the sake of thus obtaining stillness in the chambers of the mind; their enforced quietude may induce a period in which natural rest and repair continue long after the initial unnatural arrest of vitality due to the drug itself has passed away. Hypnotism. — The physiology of this group of " states " is, as regards the real understanding of their production, eminently vague (see also Hypnotism). The conditions which tend to in- duce them contain generally, as one element, constrained visual attention prolonged beyond ordinary duration. Symptoms attendant on the hypnotic state are closure of the eyelids by the hypnotizer without subsequent ■ attempt to open them by the hypnotized subject; the pupils, instead of being constricted, as for near vision, dilate, and there sets in a condition superficially resembling sleep. But in natural sleep the action of all parts of the nervous system is subdued, whereas in the hypnotic the reactions of the lower, and some even of the higher, parts are exalted. Moreover, the reactions seem to follow the sense impressions with such fatality, that, as an inference, absence of will-power to control them or suppress them is suggested. This reflex activity with " paralysis of will " is characteristic of the somnambulistic state. The threshold-value of the stimuli adequate for the various senses may be extraordinarily lowered. Print of microscopic size may be read; a watch ticking in another room can be heard. Judgment of weight and texture of surface is exalted; thus a card can in a dark room be felt and then re-selected from the re-shuffled pack. Akin to this condition is that in which the power of maintaining muscular effort is in- creased; the individual may lie stiff with merely head and feet supported on two chairs; the limbs can be held outstretched for hours at a time. This is the cataleptic state, the phase of hypno- tism which the phenomena of so-called " animal hypnotism " resemble most. A frog or fowl or guinea-pig held in some unnatural pose, and retained so forcibly for a time, becomes " set " in that pose, or rather in a posture of partial recovery of the normal posture. In this state it remains motionless for various periods. This condition is more than usually readily induced when the cerebral hemispheres have been removed. The decerebrate monkey exhibits " cataleptoid " reflexes. Father A. Kircher's experimentum mirabile with the fowl and the chalk line succeeds best with the decerebrate hen. The attitude may be described as due to prolonged, not very intense, discharge from reflex centres that regulate posture and are probably intimately connected with the cerebellum. A sudden intense sense stimulus usually suffices to end this tonic discharge. It completes the movement that has already set in but had been checked, as it were, half-way, though tonically maintained. Coincidently with the persistence of the tonic contraction, the higher and volitional centres seem to lie under a spell of inhibition; their action, which would complete or cut short the posture-spasm, rests in abeyance. Suspension of cerebral influence exists even more markedly, of course, when the cerebral hemispheres have been ablated. But a potent — according to some, the most potent — factor in hypnotism, namely, suggestion, is unrepresented in the production of so-called animal hypnotism. We know that one idea suggests another, and that volitional movements are the outcome of ideation. If we assume that there is a material process at the basis of ideation, we may take the analogy of the concomitance between a spinal reflex movement and a skin sensation. The physical " touch " that initiates the psychical " touch " initiates, through the very same nerve channels, a reflex movement responsive to the physical " touch," just as the psychical " touch " may be considered also a response to the same physical event. But in the decapitated animal we have good arguments for belief that we get the reflex movement alone as response; the psychical touch drops out. Could we assume that there is in the adult man reflex machinery which is of higher order than the merely spinal, which employs much more complex motor mechanisms than they, and is connected with a much wider range of sense organs; and could we assume that this reflex machinery, although usually associated in its action with memorial and volitional processes, may in certain circumstances be sundered from these latter and unattendant on them — may in fact continue in work when the higher processes are at a standstill — then we might imagine a condition resembling that of the somnambulistic and cataleptic states of hypnotism. Such assumptions are not wholly unjustified. Actions of great complexity and delicacy of adjustment are daily executed by each of us without what is ordinarily understood as volition, and without more than a mere shred of memory attached thereto. To take one's watch from the pocket and look at it when from a familiar clock-tower a familiar bell strikes a familiar hour, is an instance of a habitual action initiated by a sense perception outside attentive consciousness. We may suddenly remember dimly afterwards that we have done so, and we quite fail to recall the difference between the watch time and the clock time. In many instances hypnotism seems to establish quickly reactions similar to such as usually result only from long and closely attentive practice. The sleeping mother rests undisturbed by the various noises . of the house and street, but wakes at a slight murmur from her child. The ship's engineer, engaged in conversation with some visitor to the engine- room, talks apparently undisturbed by all the multifold noise and rattle of the machinery, but let the noise alter in some item which, though unnoticeable to the visitor, betokens importance to the trained ear, and his passive attention is in a moment caught. The warders at an asylum have been hypnotized to sleep by the bedside of dangerous patients, and " suggested " to awake the instant the patients attempt to get out of bed, sounds which had no import for them being inhibited by suggestion. Warders in this way worked all day and performed night duty also for months without showing fatigue. This is akin to the " repetition " which, read by the schoolboy last thing overnight, is on waking " known by heart." Most of us can wake somewhere about a desired although unusually early hour, if overnight we desire much to do so. Two theories of a physiological nature have been proposed to account for the separation of the complex reactions of these conditions of hypnotism from volition and from memory. R. P. H. Heidenhain's view is that the cortical centres of the hemisphere are inhibited by peculiar conditions attaching to the initiatory sense stimuli. W. T. Preyer's view is that the essential condition for initiation is fatigue of the will-power under a prolonged effort of undivided attention. Hypnotic somnambulism and hypnotic catalepsy are not the only or the most profound changes of nervous condition that hypnosis can induce. The physiological derangement which is the basis of the abeyance of volition may, if hypnotism be profound, pass into more widespread derangement, exhibiting itself as the hypnotic lethargy. This is associated not only with paralysis of will but with profound anaesthesia. Proposals have been made to employ hypnotism as a method of producing anaesthesia for surgical purposes, but there are two grave objections to such employment. In order to produce a sufficient degree of hypnotic lethargy the subject must be made extremely susceptible, and this can only be done by repeated hypnotization. It is necessary to hypnotize patients every day for several weeks before they can be got into a degree of stupor sufficient to allow of the safe execution of a surgical operation. But the state itself, when reached, is at least as dangerous to life as is that produced by inhalation of ether, and it is more difficult to recover from. Moreover, by the processes the subject has gone through he has had those physiological activities upon which his volitional power depends excessively deranged, and not improbably permanently enfeebled. (C. S. S.) MUSCOVITE, a rock-forming mineral belonging to the mica group (see Mica). It is also known as potash-mica, being a potassium, hydrogen and aluminium orthosilicate, H2KAl 3 (SiO,j)3. MUSCULAR SYSTEM 5 1 As the common white mica obtainable in thin, transparent cleavage sheets of large size it was formerly used in Russia for window panes and known as " Muscovy glass "; hence the name muscovite, proposed by J. D. Dana in 1850. It crystallizes in the monoclinic system; distinctly developed crystals, however, are rare and have the form of rough six-sided prisms or plates: thin scales without definite crystal outlines are more common. The most prominent feature is the perfect cleavage parallel to the basal plane (c in the figure), on which the lustre is pearly in character. The hardness is 2-2 1, and the spec, grav. 2-8-2-0. The plane of the optic axes is perpendicular to the plane of symmetry and the acute bisectrix nearly normal to the cleavage; the optic axial angle is 60-70 , and double refraction is strong and negative in sign. Muscovite frequently occurs as fine scaly to almost compact aggregates, especially when, as is often the case, it has resulted by the alteration of some other mineral, such as felspar, topaz, cyanite, &c. ; several varieties depending on differences in structure have been distinguished. Fine scaly varieties are damourite, margarodite (from Gr. txapyaplr-qs, a pearl), gilber- tite, sericite (from o-qpwbs, silky), &c. In sericite the fine scales are united in fibrous aggregates giving rise to a silky lustre: this variety is a common constituent of phyllites and sericite- schists. Oncosine (from 67/cocris, intumescence) is a compact variety forming rounded aggregates, which swell up when heated before the blowpipe. Closely related to oncosine are several compact minerals, included together under the name pinite, which have resulted by the alteration of iolite, spodumene and other minerals. Other varieties depend on differences in chemical composition. Fuchsite or " chrome-mica " is a bright green muscovite containing chromium; it has been used as a decorative stone. Oellacherite is a variety containing some barium. In phengite there is more silica than usual, the com- position approximating to H2KAI 3 (Si 3 8 )3- Muscovite is of wide distribution and is the commonest of the micas. In igneous rocks it is found only in granite, never in volcanic rocks; but it is abundant in gneiss and mica-schist, and in phyllites and clay-slates, where it has been formed at the expense of alkali-felspar by dynamo-metamorphic processes. In pegmatite-veins traversing granite, gneiss or mica-schist it occurs as large sheets of commercial value, and is mined in India, the United States and Brazil (see Mica), and to a limited extent, together with felspar, in southern Norway and in the Urals. Large sheets of muscovite were formerly obtained from Solovetsk Island, Archangel. (L. J. S.) MUSCULAR SYSTEM {Anatomy 1 ). The muscular tissue (Lat. musculus, from a fancied resemblance of certain muscles to a little mouse) is of three kinds: (1) voluntary or striped muscle; (2) involuntary or unsiriped muscle, found in the skin, walls of hollow viscera, coats of blood and lymphatic vessels, &c. ; (3) heart muscle. The microscopical differences of these different kinds are discussed in the article on Connective Tissues. Here only the voluntary muscles, which are under the control of the will, are to be considered. The voluntary muscles form the red flesh of an animal, and are the structures by which one part of the body is moved at will upon another. Each muscle is said to have an origin and an insertion, the former being that attachment which is usually more fixed, the latter that which is more movable. This distinction, however, although convenient, is an arbitrary one, and an example may make this clear. If we take the pectoralis major, which is attached to the front of the chest on the one hand and to the upper part of the arm bone on the other, the effect of its contraction will obviously be to draw the arm towards the chest, so that its origin under ordinary circumstances is said to be from the chest while its insertion is into the arm; but if, in climbing a tree, the hand grasps a branch above, the muscular contraction will draw the chest towards the arm, and the latter will then become the origin. Generally, but not always, a 1 For physiology, see Muscle and Nerve. ¥ muscle is partly fleshy and partly tendinous; the fleshy contractile part is attached at one or both ends to cords or sheets of white fibrous tissue, which in some cases pass round pullies and so change the direction of the muscle's action. The other end of these cords or tendons is usually attached to the periosteum of bones, with which it blends. In some cases, when a tendon passes round a bony pulley, a sesamoid bone is developed in it which diminishes the effects of fric- tion. A good example of this is the patella in the tendon of the rectus femoris (fig. 1, P.). Every muscle is supplied with blood vessels and lymphatics (fig. 1, v, a, I), and also with one or more nerves. The nerve supply is very important both from a medical and a morpho- logical point of view. The approxi- mate attachments are also important, because unless they are realized the action of the muscle cannot be understood, but the exact attach- ments are perhaps laid too great stress ' on in the anatomical teaching of medical students. The study of the actions of muscles is, of course, a physiological one, but teaching the subject has been handed over to the anatomists, and the results have been in some respects unfortunate. Until very recently the anatomist studied only the dead body, and his one idea of demonstrating the action of a muscle was to expose and then to pull it, and whatever happened he said was the action of that muscle. It is now generally recognized that no movement is so simple that only one muscle is concerned in it, and that what a muscle may do and what it really does do are not necessarily the same thing. As far as the deeper muscles are concerned, we still have only the anatomical method to depend upon, but with the superficial muscles it should be checked by causing a living person to perform certain movements and then studying which muscles take part in them. For a modern study of muscular actions, see C. E. Beevor's Croonian Lectures for 1903 (London, 1904). Muscles have various shapes : they may be fusiform, as in fig. 1 , conical, riband-like, or flattened into triangular or quadrilateral sheets. They may also be attached to skin, cartilage or fascia instead of to bone, while certain muscles surround openings which they constrict and are called sphincters. The names of the muscles have gradually grown up, and no settled plan has been used in giving them. Sometimes, as in the coraco-brachialis and thyro-hyoid, the name describes the origin and insertion of the muscle, and, no doubt, for the student of human anatomy this is the most satisfactory plan, since by learning the name the approximate attachments are also learnt. Sometimes the name only indicates some peculiarity in the shape of the muscle and gives no clue to its position in the body or its attachments; examples of this are biceps, semilendinosus and pyriformis. Sometimes, as in the. flexor carpi ulnaris and corrugator supercilii, the use of the muscle is shown. At other times the position in the body is indicated, but not the attachments, as in the tibialis anticus and peroneus longus, while, at other times, as in the case of the pectineus, the name is only misleading. Fortunately the names of the describers themselves are very seldom applied to muscles; among the few examples are Horner's muscle and the -P L.M Fig. 1. — The Rectus Mus- cle of the Thigh; to show the constituent parts of a muscle. R, The fleshy belly. Tendon of origin. Tendon of insertion. Nerve of supply. Artery of supply. Vein. Lymphatic vessel. The patella. to, ti, n, a, v, I, P, 52 MUSCULAR SYSTEM muscitlar band of Treitz. The German anatomists at the Basel conference lately proposed a uniform Latin and Greek nomencla- ture, which, though not altogether satisfactory, is gaining ground on the European continent. As there are some four hundred Epicranial aponeurosis Aetrahens aurem transverse wrinkles in the forehead. The anterior, posterior and superior auricular muscles are present but are almost functionless in man. The orbicularis palpebrarum forms a sphincter round the eyelids, which it closes, though there is little doubt that parts of the muscle can act separately and cause various expressions. The side of Parotid gland Steeno- uastoid Frontalis Orbicularis palpebrarum pyramidalis nasi Compressor naris Levator laeii superioris alaeque nasi Levator labii superioris ZygOMATICCS MINOR Depressor alae nasi Zygomaticus major Stenson's duct Orbicularis oris Risorius Buccinator Depressor anguli oris Depressor labii inierioris Masseter Platysma myoides From A. M. Patetson, Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy. Fig. 2. — The Muscles of the Face and Scalp (muscles of expression). muscles on each side of the body it will be impossible here to attempt more than a mere sketch of them; for the details the anatomical textbooks must be consulted. Muscles of the Head and Face (see fig. 2).-*-The scalp is moved by a large flat muscle called the occipito-frontalis, which has two muscular bellies, the occipitalis and frontalis, and an intervening epicranial aponeurosis; this muscle moves the scalp and causes the the nose has several muscles, the actions of which are indicated by their names; they are the compressor, two dilatores and the depressor alae nasi, while the levator labii superioris et alae nasi sometimes goes to the nose. Raising the upper lip, in addition to the last named, are the levator labii superioris proprius and the levator anguli oris, while the zygomaticus major draws the angle of the mouth outward. The lower lip is depressed by the depressor labii inferioris and depressor anguli oris, while the orbicularis oris acts as a sphincter to the mouth. Epicranial aponeurosis Temporal muscle Auriculo-temporal nerve' Superficial temporal artery External carotid artery- Internal lateral ligament Posterior auricular artery Lingual nerve; Mylo-hyoid nerve Parotid gland Inferior dental nerve Masseter (cut) Temporal branch of buccal nerve I Temporal branches of ) inferior maxillary nerve External pterygoid Posterior dental artery Posterior dental nerve Long buccal nerve Pterygomandibular ligament Mental branch of inferior dental nerve From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy. Fig. 3. — Pterygoid Region. MUSCULAR SYSTEM 53 The buccinator muscle in the substance of the cheeks rises from the upper and lower jaws and runs forward to blend with the orbicularis oris. All the foregoing are known as muscles of expression and all are supplied by the seventh or facial nerve. The temporal muscle at the side of the cranium (fig. 3) and the masseter (fig. 2), which rises from the zygoma, close the mouth, since both are inserted into the ramus of the mandible; while, rising from the pterygoid plates, are the external and internal pterygoid muscles (fig. 3), the former of which pulls forward the condyle, and so the whole mandible, while the latter helps to close the mouth by acting on the angle of the lower jaw. This group of muscles forms the masticatory set, all of which are supplied by the third division of the fifth nerve. For the muscles of the orbit, see Eye ; for those of the soft palate and pharynx, see Pharynx ; and for those of the tongue, see Tongue both triangles to the hyoid bone. Where it passes deep to the sterno-mastoid it has a central tendon which is bound to the first rib by a loop of cervical fascia. Rising from the styloid process are three muscles, the stylo-glossus, stylo-hyoid and stylo-pharyngeus, the names of which indicate their attachments. Covering these muscles of the anterior triangle is a thin sheet, close to the skin, called the platysma, the upper fibres of which run back from the mouth over the cheek and are named the risorius (fig. 2) ; this sheet is one of the few remnants in man of the skin musculature or panni- culus carnosus of lower Mammals. With regard to the nerve supply of the anterior triangle muscles, all those which go to the tongue are supplied by the hypoglossal or twelfth cranial nerve, while the muscles below the hyoid bone are apparently supplied from this nerve but really from the upper cervical nerves (see Nerve, Sternocleido- mastoid Mylo-hyoid Digastric •Hyoglossus Stylo-hyoid ■Middle constrictor Thyro-hyoid Inferior constrictor [O-HY0ID ■Inferior constrictor ■Sterno-hyotd Sterno-thyroid From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy. Fig. ,4. — The Triangles of the Neck (muscles). Muscles of the Neck (fig. 4).— Just below the mandible is the iigastric, which, as its name shows, has two bellies and a central tendon; the anterior belly, supplied by the fifth nerve, is attached to the mandible near the symphysis, the posterior supplied by the seventh of the mastoid process, while the central tendon is bound to the hyoid bone. Stretching across from one side of the lower jaw to the other and forming a floor to the mouth is the mylo-hyoid muscle ; posteriorly this reaches the hyoid bone, and in the mid-line has a tendinous raphe separating the two halves of the muscle. Rising from the manubrium sterni and inner part of the clavicle is the Stemo-cleido-mastoid, which is inserted into the mastoid process and superior curved lines of the occipital bone; when it contracts it makes the face look over the opposite shoulder, and it is supplied by the spinal accessory nerve as well as by branches from the cervical plexus. It is an important surgical landmark, and forms a diagonal across the quadrilateral outline of the side of the neck, dividing it into an anterior triangle with its apex downward and a posterior with its apex upward. In the anterior triangle the relative positions of the hyoid bone, thyroid cartilage and sternum should be realized, and then the hyo-glossus, thyro-hyoid, sterno-hyoid and sterno-thyroid muscles are explained by their names. The omo-hyoid muscle rises from the upper border of the scapula and runs across Cranial; and Nerve, Spinal). The posterior triangle is formed by the sterno-mastoid in front, the trapezius behind, and the clavicle below ; in its floor from above downward part of the following muscles are seen: complexus, splenius, levator anguli scapulae, scalenus medius and scalenus anticus. Sometimes a small piece of the scalenus posticus is caught sight of behind the scalenus medius. The splenius rotates the head to its own side, the levator anguli scapulae raises the upper angle of the scapula, while the three scalenes run from the transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae and fix or raise the upper ribs. The trapezius (fig. 5) arises from the spines of the thoracic vertebrae and the ligamentum nuchae, and is inserted into the outer third of the clavicle and the spine of the scapula ; it is used in shrugging the shoulders and in drawing the upper part of the scapula toward the mid-dorsal line. Its nerve supply is the spinal accessory and third and fourth cervical nerves. When the super- ficial muscles and complexus are removed from the back of the neck, the sub-occipital triangle is seen beneath the occipital bone. Exter- nally it is bounded by the superior oblique, running from the trans- verse process of the atlas to the lateral part of the occipital bone, internally by the rectus capitis posticus major, passing from the spine of the axis to the lateral part of the occipital bone, and inferiorly by the inferior oblique joining the spine of the axis to the transverse 54 MUSCULAR SYSTEM process of the atlas. These muscles move the head on the atlas and the atlas on the axis. They are supplied by the posterior branch of the first cervical nerve. Muscles of the Trunk. — The trapezius has already been de- scribed as a superficial muscle of the upper part of the back ; in the loin region the latissimus dorsi (fig. 5) is the superficial muscle, its origin being from the lower thoracic spines, lower ribs and lumbar Complexes' Sterno-mastoid Splenitis capitis SPLENIUi COLLI Serratus posticus superior Levator anguli scapulae forming the semispinalis and multifidus spinae muscles. The latissimus dorsi and rhomboids are supplied by branches of the brachial plexus of nerves, while the deeper muscles get their nerves from the posterior primary divisions of the spinal nerves (see Nerve, Spinal). On the anterior part of the thoracic region the pectoralis major runs from the clavicle, sternum and ribs, to the humerus (fig. 6) ; deep to this is the pectoralis minor, passing from the upper ribs to Sterno-mastoid Rhomboideus minor Rhomboideus MAJOR Teres major< Gluteal fascia Fascia over gluteus maxiinus (cut) Gluteus maxtmus From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy. Fig. 5. — Superficial Muscles of the Back. fascia, and it is inserted into the upper part of the arm bone or humerus. When the trapezius is cut, the rhomboid muscles (major and minor) passing from the upper thoracic spines to the vertebral border of the scapula are seen, and deep to these is the serratus posticus superior passing from nearly the same spines to the upper ribs. On reflecting the latissimus dorsi the serratus posticus inferior is seen running from the lower thoracic spines to the lower ribs. When these muscles are removed the great mass of the erector spinae is exposed, familiar to every one as the upper cut of the sirloin or ribs of beef; it runs all the way up the dorsal side of the vertebral column from the pelvis to the occiput, the complexus already mentioned being its extension to the head. It i3 longitudinally segmented into many different bundles to which special names are given, and it is attached to the various vertebrae and ribs as it goes up, thus straightening the spinal column. Deep to the erector spinae are found shorter bundles passing from one vertebra to another and the coracoid process. The serratus magnus is a large muscle rising by serrations from the upper eight ribs, and running back to the vertebral border of the scapula, which it draws forward as in the fencer's lunge. Between the ribs are the external and internal inter- costal muscles; the former beginning at the tubercle and ending at the junctions of the ribs with their cartilages, while the latter only begin at the angle of the ribs but are prolonged on to the sternum, so that an iuterchondral as well as an intercostal part of each muscle is recognized. The fibres of the external intercostals run downward and forward, those of the internal downward and backward (see Respiration). The abdominal walls are formed of three sheets of muscle, of which the most superficial or external oblique (fig. 6) is attached to the outer surfaces of the lower ribs; its fibres run downward and forward to the pelvis and mid-line of the abdomen, the middle one or internal oblique is on the same plane as the ribs, and its fibres run downward and backward, while the transversaiis MUSCULAR SYSTEM 55 is attached to the deep surfaces of the ribs, and its fibres run horizon- tally forward. Below, all these muscles are attached to the crest of the ilium and to Poupart's ligament, which is really the lower free edge of the external oblique, while, behind, the two deeper ones, at all events, blend with the fascia lumborum. As they approach the mid-ventral line they become aponeurotic and form the sheath of the rectus. The rectus abdominis (fig. 6) is a flat muscular band which runs up on each side of the linea alba or mid-ventral line of the abdomen from the pubis to the ribs and sternum. This muscle has certain tendinous intersections or lineae transversa^, the positions Sterno-mastoid rotating muscles pass from the scapula to the upper end of the humerus; these are the subscapuloris passing in front of the shoulder joint, the supraspinatus above the joint, and the infraspinatus and teres minor behind. The teres major (fig. 5) comes from near the lower angle of the scapula, and is inserted with the latissimus dorsi into the front of the. surgical neck of the humerus. The coraco- brachialis (fig. 7) passes from the coracoid process to the middle of the humerus in front of the shoulder joint, while the brachialis anticus passes in front of the elbow from the humerus to the coronoid process of the ulna. Passing in front of both shoulder and elbow is StTBCLAVJUS Coracoid process Pectoraus major (divided) Pectoralts MINOR .Pectoralts major (divided) Pyramidalis abdominis Poupart's ligament External abdominal ring Triangular fascia From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy. Fig. 6. — Anterior Muscles of the Trunk. of which are noticed in the article Anatomy (Superficial and A rtistic) , and the morphology of which is referred to later. In front of the lowest part of the rectus is sometimes a small triangular muscle called the pyramidalis. The quadratus lumborum is a muscle at the back of the abdominal wall which runs between the last rib and the crest of the ilium. In front of the bodies of the vertebrae is a prevertebral or hypaxial musculature, of which the rectus capitis anticus major and minor muscles and longus colli in the neck and the psoas in the loins form the chief parts, the latter being familiar as the undercut of the sirloin of beef, while the pelvis is closed below by a muscular floor formed by the levator ani and coccygeus muscles. The diaphragm is explained in a separate article. Muscles of the Upper Extremity. — Thedeltoid (seefigs.7and8i is the muscle which forms the shoulder cap and is used in abducting the arm to a right angle with the trunk; it runs from the clavicle, acromial process and spine of the scapula, to the middle of the humerus, and is supplied by the circumflex nerve, Several short the biceps (fig. 7), the long head of which rises from the top of the glenoid cavity inside the joint, while the short head comes from the coracoid process. The insertion is into the tubercle of the radius. These three muscles are all supplied by the same (musculo-cutaneous) nerve. At the back of the arm is the triceps (fig. 8) which passes behind both shoulder and elbow joints and is the great extensor muscle of them; its long head rises from just below the glenoid cavity of the scapula, while the inner and outer heads come from the back of the humerus. It is inserted into the olecranon process of the u'.na and is supplied by the musculo-spinal nerve. The muscles of the front of the forearm form superficial and deep sets (see fig. 7). Most of the superficial muscles come from the internal condyle of the humerus. From without inward they are the pronator radn teres going to the radius, the flexor carpi radialis to the base of the index metacarpal bone, the palmaris longus to the palmar fascia, the flexor sublimis digitorum to the middle phalanges of the fingers, ! and the flexor carpi ulnaris to the pisiform bone. The important 5^ MUSCULAR SYSTEM points of practical interest about these muscles are noticed in the article Anatomy {Superficial and Artistic). In addition to these the brachio-radialis is a flexor of the forearm, though it arises from the outer supracondylar ridge of the humerus. It is supplied by the musculo-spiral nerve, the flexor carpi ulnaris by the ulnar, the rest by the median. The deep muscles of the front of the forearm consist of the flexor longus poUicis running from the radius to the terminal phalanx of the thumb, the flexor profundus digitorum from the ulna to the terminal phalanges of the fingers, and the pronator quadratics Insertion of pectoralis minor Deltoid Axillary artery Musculo- cutaneous nerve Median nerve (outer head) Insertion of m0^m^gt U »—a««BSgP^.'X~-¥ edian ne ™> PKTOiuus^^|H^||ilHm^[^^^S ("""ahead) UAJOR WftlliijHill ^^KST-^—Ulnar nerve coraco-brai Short head of biceps Long head of biceps Brachialis anticus rjceps (inner head) Musculo-cutaneous nerve Musculo-spiral nerve Brachio-radialis Extensor carpi radialis longior Radial artery (cut) Extensor ossrs METACARPI POIXICIS Radial artery (cut) Anterior annular ligament. Semilunar fascia of biceps Pronator radii teres Deep fascia of forearm Flexor carpi radialis Palmare longus Flexor carpi ulnaris Flexor sublime digitorum Flexor longus polucis " Pronator quadratus Ulnar artery Ulnar nerve From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy. Fig. 7. — Superficial Muscles on the Front of the Arm and Forearm. passing across from the lower third of the ulna to the same amount of the radius. These three muscles are supplied by the anterior interosseous branch of the median nerve, but the flexor profundus digitorum has an extra twig from the ulnar. The extensor muscles at the back of the forearm are also divided into superficial and deep sets (see fig. 8). The former rise from the region of the external condyle of the humerus, and consist of the extensor carpi radialis longior and brevior inserted into the index and medius metacarpal bones, the extensor communis digitorum to the middle and distal phalanges of the fingers, the extensor minimi digiti, the extensor carpi ulnaris passing to the metatarsal bone of the minimus, and the supinator brevis wrapping round the neck of the radius to which it is inserted. The aconeus which runs from the external condyle to the olecranon process is really a part of the triceps. The deep muscles rise from the posterior surfaces of the radius and ulna, and are the extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis, the name of which gives its insertion, the extensor brevis pollicis to the proximal phalanx, and the extensor longus pollicis to the distal phalanx of the thumb, while Trapezius Triceps External intermuscular septum Deltoid Infraspinatus Teres major ' — Latisslmus dorsi Extensor carpi radialis longior Extensor carpi radialis BREVIOR Deep fascia of forearm Extensor communis digitorum Extensor carpi ulnaris Extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis Extensor brevis polucis Extensor mtntmi digiti Tendons of extensors of carpus Posterior annular ligament Extensor longus pollicis Extensor indicis From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Boot 0/ Anatomy. Fig. 8. — The Muscles on the Back of the Arm, Forearm and Hand. the extensor indicis joins the extensor communis slip to the index finger; all these posterior muscles are supplied by the posterior interosseous nerve. In front and behind the wrist the tendons are bound down by the anterior and posterior annular ligaments, while on the flexor surface of each finger is a strong fibrous sheath or theca for the flexor tendons. The ball of the thumb is occupied by short muscles called the thenar group, while hypolhenar muscles are found in the ball of the little finger. The four lumbrical muscles (fig. 9, d) run from the flexor profundus digitorum tendons to those of the MUSCULAR SYSTEM 57 extensor communis between the heads of the metacarpal bones, while, rising from the shafts of these bones, are the three palmar and four dorsal interosseous muscles (fig. 9, e) which also are inserted into the extensor tendons. The two outer lumbricals and the thenar muscles are supplied by the median nerve; all the other hand muscles by the ulnar. Muscles of the Lower Extremity. — On the front of the thigh the quadriceps extensor muscles are the most important: there are four of these, the rectus femoris (fig. 1 ) with its straight and reflected heads rising from just above the acetabulum, the crureus, deep to this, from the front of the femur, and the vastus externus and internus wrapping round the femur on each side from the linea aspera. All these are inserted into the patella, or rather the patella is a sesamoid bone developed where their common tendon passes round the lower big toe, and the peroneus tertius, a purely human muscle inserted into the base of the fifth metatarsal bone. All these are supplied by the anterior tibial nerve. The external group comprises the peroneus longus and brevis, rising from the outer surface of the fibula and inserted into the tarsus (fig. 11), the longus tendon passing across the sole to the base of the first metatarsal bone, the brevis to the base of the fifth metatarsal. These are supplied by the musculo-cutaneous nerve. Fig. 9. — Tendons attached to a Finger. a, The extensor tendon. e, An interosseous muscle. b, Deep flexor. /, Tendinous expansion from the lum- c, Superficial flexor. brical and interosseous muscles d, A lumbrical muscle. joining the extensor tendon. end of the femur when the knee is bent. The distal part of this tendon, which passes from the patella to the tubercle of the tibia, is the ligamentum patellae. The sartorius is a long riband-like muscle running from the anterior superior spine of the ilium to the inner surface of the tibia, obliquely across the front of the thigh. It forms the outer boundary of Scarpa's triangle, the inner limit of which is the adductor longus and the base Poupart's ligament. The floor is formed by the iliacus from the iliac fossa of the pelvis, which joins the psoas, to be inserted with it into the lesser trochanter, and by the pectineus running from the upper ramus of the pubis to i'ust below the insertion of the last muscles. The adductor muscles, ongus, brevis and magnus, all rise from the subpubic arch, and are inserted into the linea aspera of the femur, so that they draw the femur toward the middle line. The gracilis (fig. 10) is part of the adductor mass, though its insertion is into the upper part of the tibia. The extensor muscles of the front of the thigh are supplied by the anterior crural nerve, but the adductor group on the inner side from the obturator. The pectineus is often supplied from both sources. On the back of the thigh the gluteus maximus (figs. 5 and 10) plays an important part in determining man's outline (see Anatomy : Superficial and Artistic). It rises from the sacral region, and is inserted into the upper part of the femur and the deep fascia of the thigh, which is very thick and is known as the fascia lata; the muscle is a great extensor of the hip and raises the body from the stooping position. The gluteus medius rises from the ilium, above the hip joint, and passes to the great trochanter; it abducts the hip and enables the body to be balanced on one leg, as in taking a step for- ward. The gluteus minimus is covered by the last muscle, and passes from the ilium to the front of the great trochanter, thus rotating the hip joint inward. Some of its anterior fibres are sometimes separate from the rest, and are then called the scansorius (see Joints). When the gluteus maximus is removed, a number of short externally rotating muscles are seen, rising from the pelvis and inserted into the great trochanter (fig. 10) ; these are, from above downward, the pyrtformis, gemellus superior, obturator internus, gemellus inferior and quadraius femoris. They are all supplied by special branches of the sacral plexus. On cutting the quadratus femoris a good deal of the obturator externus can be seen, coming from the outer surface of the obturator membrane and passing to the digital fossa of the great trochanter. Unlike the rest of this group, it is supplied by the obturator nerve. Coming from the anterior part of the crest of the ilium is the tensor fasciae femoris, which is inserted into the fascia lata, as is part of the gluteus maximus, and the thickened band of fascia which runs down the outer side of the thigh from these to the head of the tibia is known as the ilio tibial band. The tensor fasciae femoris. gluteus medius and minimus, are supplied by the superior gluteal nerve, the gluteus maximus by the inferior gluteal. At the back of the thigh are the hamstrings rising from the tuberosity of the ischium (fig. 10); these are the semimembranosus and semitendinosus, passing to the inner part of the upper end of the tibia and forming the internal hamstrings, and the biceps femoris or external hamstring, which has an extra head from the shaft of the femur and is inserted into the head of the fibula. These muscles are supplied by the great sciatic nerve and extend the hip joint while they flex the knee. In the leg, as distinguished from the thigh, are three groups of muscles, anterior, external and posterior. The anterior group (fig. 11) all come from the front of the tibia and fibula, and consist of the extensor longus digitorum, extending the middle and distal phalanges of the four outer toes, the extensor proprius hallucis, extending the gracilis' Adductor magnus 1 semitendinosus' Semimembranosus Sartorius tendon Biceps tendon (along with peroneal nerve) Gastrocnemius From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy., Fig. 10. — The Muscles on the Back of the Thigh. The posterior group is divided into a superficial and a deep set. The superficial is composed of the gastrocnemius, the two heads of which rise from the two condyles of the femur, the soleus, which rises from the upper parts of the back of the tibia and fibula, the plantaris, which comes from just above the external condyle of the femur, and the popliteus which, although on a deeper plane, really belongs to this group and rises by a tendon from the outer condyle while its fleshy part is inserted into the upper part of the back of the tibia. The gastrocnemius and soleus unite to form the tendo A chillis, which is attached to the posterior part of the calcaneum, while the plantaris runs separately as a very thin tendon to the same place. These muscles are supplied by the internal popliteal nerve. The deep set is formed by three muscles which rise from the posterior surfaces of the tibia and fibula, the flexor longus digitorum, the tibialis posticus, 58 MUSCULAR SYSTEM and the flexor longus hallucis from within outward. Their tendons all pass into the sole, that of the flexor longus digitorum being inserted into the terminal phalanges of the four outer toes, the flexor longus hallucis into the terminal phalanx of the big toe, while the tibialis posticus sends expansions to most of the tarsal bones. The nerve supply of this group is the posterior tibial. On the dorsum of the foot is the extensor brevis digitorum (fig. n). which helps to extend SOLEOS' Extensor longus. digitorum PERONEUS LONGUS' PERONEUS BREVIS' Lower portion of anterior annulai ligament Tendon of peroneus. TERTIUS Innermost slip op extensor brevis digitorum Embryology, '"■':" The development of the muscular system is partly known from the results of direct observation, and partly inferred from the study of the part of the nervous system whence the innervation is derived. The unstriped muscle is formed from the mesenchyme cells of the somatic and splanchnic layers of the mesoderm (see Embryology). but never, as far as we know, from the mesodermic somites. The heart muscle is also developed from mesenchymal cells, though trie changes producing its feebly striped fibres are more complicated. The skeletal or real striped muscles are derived either from the meso- dermic somites or from the branchial arches. As the mesodermic somites are placed on each side of the neural canal in the early embryo, it is obvious that the greater part of the trunk musculature spreads gradually round the body from the dorsal to the ventral side and consists of a series of plates called myotomes (fig. 12). The muscle fibres in these plates run in the long axis of the embryo, and are at first separated from those of the two neighbouring plates by thin fibrous intervals called myocommata. In some, cases these From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy. Fig. 11. — Muscles of the Front of the Right Leg and Dorsum of the Foot. the four inner toes, while in the sole are four layers of short muscles, the most superficial of which consists of the abductor hallucis, the flexor brevis digitorum, and the abductor minimi digiti, the names of which indicate their attachments. The second layer is formed by muscles which are attached to the flexor longus digitorum tendon ; they are the accessorius, running forward to the tendon from the lower surface of the calcaneum, and the four lumbricales, which rise from the tendon after it has split for the four toes and pass between the toes to be inserted into the tendons of the extensor longus digitorum on the dorsum. The third layer comprises the flexor brevis hallucis, adductor obliquus and adductor transversus hallucis and the flexor brevis minimi digiti. The fourth layer contains the three plantar and four dorsal interosseous muscles, rising from the metatarsal bones and inserted into the proximal phalanges and extensor tendons in such a way that the plantar muscles draw the toes towards the line of the second toe while the dorsal draw them away from that line. Of these sole muscles the flexor brevis digitorum, flexor brevis hallucis, abductor hallucis and the innermost lumbrical are supplied by the internal plantar nerve, while all the rest are supplied by the external plantar. From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Book oj Anatomy. Fig. 12. — Scheme to Illustrate the Disposition of the Myotomes in the Embryo in Relation to the Head, Trunk and Limbs. A, B, C, First three cephalic myotomes. N, I, 2, 3, 4, Last persisting cephalic myotomes. C, T, L, S, Co., The myotomes of the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and caudal regions. I., II., III., IV., V., VI., VII., VIII., IX., X., XL, XII., Refer to the cranial nerves and the structures with which they may be embryologically associated. myocommata persist and even become ossified, as in the ribs, but more usually they disappear early, and the myotomes then unite with one another to form a great muscular sheet. In the whole length of the trunk a longitudinal cleavage at right angles to the surface occurs, splitting the musculature into a- dorsal and ventral part, supplied respectively by the dorsal and ventral primary divisions of the spinal nerves. From the dorsal part the various muscles of the erector spinae series are derived by further longitudinal cleavages either tangential or at right angles to the surface, while the ventral part is again longitudinally split into mesial and lateral portions. A transverse section of the trunk at this stage, therefore, would show the cut ends of three longitudinal strips of muscle: (1) a mesial ventral, from which the rectus, pyramjdalis sterno-hyoid, omo- hyoid and sterno-thyroid muscles are derived ; (2) a lateral, ventral, forming the flat muscles of the abdomen, intercostals and part of the sternomastoid and trapezius; and (3) the dorsal portion already noticed. The mesial ventral part is remarkable for the persistence of remnants of myocommata in it, forming the lineae transversae of the rectus and the central tendon of the omo-hyoid. The lateral part in the abdominal region splits tangentially into three layers. MUSES, THE 59 the external and internal oblique and the transversalis, the fibres of which become differently directed. In the thoracic region the intercostals probably indicate a further tangential splitting of the middle or internal oblique layer, because the external oblique is continued headward superficially to the ribs and the transversalis deeply to them. The more cephalic part of the external oblique layer probably disappears by a process of pressure or crowding out owing to the encroachment of the serratus magnus, a muscle which its nerve supply indicates is derived from the lower cervical myo- tomes. The deeper parts of the lateral mass of muscles spread to the ventral surface of the bodies of the vertebrae, and form the hypaxial muscles — such as the psoas, longus colli and recti capitis antici. The nerve supply indicates that the lowest myotomes taking part in the formation of the abdominal walls are those supplied by the first and second lumbar nerves, and are represented by the cremaster muscle in the scrotum. In the perineum, however, the third and fourth sacral myotomes are represented, and these muscles are differentiated largely from the primitive sphincter which sur- rounds the cloacal orifice, though partly from vestigial tail muscles (see P. Thompson, Journ. Anat. and Phys., vol. xxxv; and R. H. Paramore, Lancet, May 21, 1910). In the head no distinct myotomes have been demonstrated in the mammalian embryo, but as they are present in more lowly vertebrates, it is probable that their develop- ment has been slurred over, a process often found in the embryology of the higher forms. Probably nine cephalic myotomes originally existed, of which the first gives rise to the eye muscles supplied by the third nerve, the second to the superior oblique muscle supplied by the fourth nerve, and the third to the external rectus supplied by the sixth nerve. The fourth, fifth and sixth myotomes are sup- pressed, but the seventh, eighth and ninth possibly form the muscles of the tongue supplied by the twelfth cranial nerve. Turning now to the branchial arches, the first branchiomete is innervated by the fifth cranial nerve, and to it belong the masseter, temporal, pterygoids, anterior belly of the digastric, mylo-hyoid, tensor tympani and tensor palati, while from the second branchio- Jiere, supplied by the seventh or facial nerve, all the facial muscles of expression and the stylo-hyoid and posterior belly of the digastric are derived, as well as the platysma, which is one of the few remnants of the panniculus carnosus or skin musculature of the lower mam- mals. From the third branchiomere, the nerve of which is the ninth or glossopharyngeal, the stylo-pharyngeus and upper part of the pharyngeal constrictors are formed, while the fourth and fifth gill arches give rise to the muscles of the larynx and the lower part of the constrictors supplied by the vagus or tenth nerve. It is possible that parts of the sterno-mastoid and trapezius are also branchial in their origin, since they are supplied by the spinal accessory or eleventh nerve, but this is unsettled. The limb musculature is usually regarded as a sleeve-like outpushing of the external oblique stratum of the lateral ventral musculature of the trunk, and it is believed that parts of several myotomes are in this way pushed out in the growth of the limb bud. This process actually occurs in the lower vertebrates, and the nerve supplies provide strong presumptive evidence that this is the real phylogenetic history of the higher forms, though direct observation shows that the limb muscles of mammals are formed from the central mesoderm of the limb and at first are quite distinct from the myotomes of the trunk. A possible explana- tion of the difficulty is that this is another example of the slurring over of stages in phylogeny, but this is one of many obscure morpho- logical points. The muscles of each limb are divided into a dorsal and ventral series, supplied by dorsal and ventral secondary divisions of the nerves in the limb plexuses, and these correspond to the original position of the limbs as they grow out from the embryo, so that in the upper extremity the back of the arm, forearm and dorsum of the hand are dorsal, while in the lower the dorsal surface is the front of the thigh and leg and the dorsum of the foot. For further details see Development of the Human Body, by J. P. McMurrich (London, 1906), and the writings of L. Bolk, Morphol. Jahrb. vols, xxi-xxv. Comparitive Anatomy. In the acrania (e.g. amphioxus) the simple arrangement of myo- tomes and myocommata seen in the early human embryo is perma- nent. The myotomes or muscle plates are < shaped, with their apices pointing towards the head end, each being supplied by its own spinal nerve. In the fishes this arrangement is largely persis- tent, but each limb of the < is bent on itself, so that the myotomes have now the shape of a $, the central angle of which corresponds to the lateral line of the fish. In the abdominal region, however, the myotomes fuse and rudiments of the recti and obliqui abdominis muscles of higher types are seen. In other regions too, such as the fins of fish and the tongue of the Cyclostomata (lamprey), specialized muscular bundles are separated off and are coincident with the acquirement of movements of these parts in different directions. In the Amphibia the limb muspulature becomes much more complex as the joints are formed, and many of the muscles can be homologized with those of mammals, though this is by no means always the case, while, in the abdominal region, a superficial delamination occurs, so that in many forms a superficial and deep rectus abdominis occurs as well as a cutaneus abdominis delaminated from the external oblique. It is probable that this delamination is the precursor of the panniculus carnosus or skin musculature of mammals. The branchial musculature also becomes much more complex, and the mylo-hyoid muscle, derived from the first branchial arch and lying beneath the floor of the mouth, is very noticeable and of great importance in breathing. In the reptiles further differentiation of the muscles is seen, and with the acquirement of costal respiration the external and internal intercostals are formed by a delamination of the internal oblique stratum. In the dorsal region several of the longitudinal muscles which together make up the erector spinae are distinct, and a very definite sphincter cloacae is formed round and cloacal aperture. In mammals certain muscles vary in their attachments or presence and absence in different orders, sub-orders and families, so that, were it not for the large amount of technical knowledge required in recognizing them, they might be useful from a classificatory point of view. There is, however, a greater gap between the musculature of Man and that of the other Primates than there is between many different orders, and this is usually traceable either directly or indirectly to the assumption of the erect position. The chief causes which produce changes of musculature are: (1) splitting, (2) fusion, (3) suppression either partial or complete, (4) shifting of origin, (5) shifting of insertion, (6) new formation, (7) transference of part of one muscle to another. In many of these cases the nerve supply gives an important clue to the change which has been effected. Splitting of a muscular masses often the result, of one part of a muscle being used separately, and a good example of this is the deep flexor mass of the forearm. In the lower mammals this mass rises from the flexor surface of the radius and ulna, and supplies tendons to the terminal phalanges of all five digits, but in man the thumb is used separately, and, in response to this, that part of the mass which goes to the thumb is completely split off into a separate muscle, the flexor longus pollicis. The process, however, is going farther, for we have acquired the habit of using our index finger alone for many purposes, and the index slip of the flexor profundus digitorum is in us almost as distinct a muscle as the flexor longus pollicis. Fusion may be either collateral or longitudinal. The former is seen in the case of the flexor carpi ulnaris. In many mammals {e.g. the dog), there are two muscles inserted separately into the pisiform bone, one rising from the internal condyle of the humerus, the other from the olecranon process, but in many others (e.g. man) the two muscles have fused. Longitudinal fusion, is seen in the digastric, where the anterior belly is part of the first (man- dibular; branchial arch and the posterior of the second or hyoid arch ; ' in this case, as one would expect, the anterior belly is supplied by the fifth nerve and the posterior by the seventh. Partial suppression of a muscle is seen in the rhomboid sheet; in the lower mammals this rises from the head, neck and anterior (cephalic) thoracic spines, but in man the head and most of the neck part is completely sup- pressed. Complete suppression of a muscle is exemplified in the omo-trachelian, a muscle which runs from the cervical vertebrae to the acromian process and fixes the scapula for the strong action of the triceps in pronograde mammals; in man this strong action of the triceps is no longer needed for progression, and the fixing muscle has disappeared. Shifting of origin is seen in the short head of the biceps femoris. This in many lower mammals (e.g. rabbit) is a muscle running from the tail to the lower leg; in many others (e.g. monkeys and man) the origin has slipped down to the femur, and in the great anteater it is evident that the agitator caudae has been used as a muscle slide, because the short head of the biceps or tenuissimus has once been found rising from the surface of this muscle. Shifting of an insertion is not nearly as common as shifting of an origin; it is seen, however, in the peroneus tertius of man, in which part of the extensor longus digitorum has acquired a new attachmentto the base of the fifth metatarsal bone.' The new 1 formation of a muscle is seen in the stylo-hyoideus alter, an occasional human muscle; in this the stylo-hyoid ligament has been converted into a muscle. The transference of part of one muscle to another is well shown by the human adductor magnus ; here the fibres which pass from the tuber ischii to the condyle of the femur have a nerve supply from the great sciatic instead of the obturator, and in most lower mammals are a separate part of the hamstrings known as the presemimembranosus. For further details see Bronn's Classen tind Ordnungen des Thier- reichs; " The Muscles of Mammals," by F. G. Parsons, Jour. Anat. and Phys. xxxii. 428 ; also accounts of the musculature of mammals, by Windle and Parsons, in Proc. Zool. Soc. (1894, seq.); Humphry, Observations in Myology (1874). (F. G. P.) MUSES, THE (Gr. MoOom, the thinkers), in Greek myth- ology, originally nymphs of springs, then goddesses of song, and, later, of the different kinds of poetry and of the arts and sciences generally. In Homer, who says nothing definite as to their names or number, they are simply goddesses of song, who dwell among the gods on Olympus, where they sing at their banquets under the leadership of Apollo Musagetes. According to Hesiod (Theog. 77), who first gives the usually accepted names and number, they were the daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne, the personification of memory; others made them children of 6o MUSET— MUSEUMS OF ART Uranus and Gaea. Three older Muses (Mneme, Melete, Aoide) were sometimes distinguished, whose worship was said to have been introduced by the Aloidae on Mt Helicon (Pausanias ix. 29). It is probable that three was the original number of the Muses, which was increased to nine owing to their arrangement in three groups of three in the sacred choruses. Round the altar of Zeus they sing of the origin of the world, of gods and men, of the glorious deeds of Zeus; they also honour the great heroes; and celebrate the marriages of Cadmus and Peleus, and the death of Achilles. As goddesses of song they protect those who recognize their superiority, but punish the arrogant — such as Thamyris, the Thracian bard, who for having boasted himself their equal was deprived of sight and the power of song. From their connexion wiih Apollo and their original nature as inspiring nymphs of springs they also possess the gift of prophecy. They are closely related to Dionysus, to whose festivals dramatic poetry owed its origin and development. The worship of the Muses had two chief seats — on the northern slope of Mt Olympus in Pieria, and on the slope of Mt Helicon near Ascra and Thespiae in Boeotia. Their favourite haunts were the springs of Castalia, Aganippe and Hippocrene. From Boeotia their cult gradually spread over Greece. As the goddesses who presided over the nine principal departments of letters, their names and attributes were: Calliope, epic poetry (wax tablet and pencil); Euterpe, lyric poetry (the double flute); Erato, erotic poetry (a small lyre) ; Melpomene, tragedy (tragic mask and ivy wreath); Thalia, comedy (comic mask and ivy wreath); Poly- hymnia (or Polymnia), sacred hymns (veiled, and in an attitude of thought) ; Terpsichore, choral song and the dance (the lyre) ; Clio, history (a scroll); Urania, astronomy (a celestial globe). To these Arethusa was added as the muse of pastoral poetry. The Roman poets identified the Greek Muses with the Italian Camenae (or Casmenae), prophetic nymphs of springs and god- desses of birth, who possessed a grove near the Porta Capena at Rome. One of the most famous of these was Egeria, the counsellor of King Numa. See H. Deiters, Ueber die Verehrung der Musen bei den Griechen (1868); P. Decharme, Les Muses (1860); J. H. Krause, Die Musen (1871); F. Rodiger, Die Musen (1875); O. Navarre in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquMs, and O. Bie in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie, the latter chiefly for representations of the Muses in art. MUSET, COLIN (fl. 1200), French trouvere, was poet and musician, and made his living by wandering from castle to castle singing his own songs. These are not confined to the praise of the conventional love that formed the usual topic of the trouvhres, but contain many details of a singer's life. Colin shows naive gratitude for presents in kind from his patrons, and recommends a poet repulsed by a cruel mistress to find consolation in the bons morceaux qu'on mange devant un grand feu. One of his patrons was Agnes de Bar, duchess of Lorraine (d. 1226). See' Hist. litt. de la France, xxiii. 547-553 ; also a thesis, De Nicolas Museto (1893), by J. B6dier. MUSEUMS OF ART. 1 The later 19th century was remarkable for the growth and development of museums, both in Great Britain and abroad. This growth, as Professor Stanley Jevons predicted, synchronizes with the advancement of education. Public museums are now universally required; old institutions have been greatly improved, and many new ones have been founded. The British parliament has passed statutes conferring upon local authorities the power to levy rates for library and museum purposes, while on the continent of Europe the collection and exhibition of objects of antiquity and art has becfime a recognized duty of the state and municipality alike. A sketch of the history of museums in general is given below, under Museums of Science. The modern museum of art differs essentially from its earlier prototypes. The aimless collection of curiosities and bric-a-brac, brought together without method 1 Under the term " museum " (Gr. fiovottov, temple of the muses) we accept the ordinary distinction, by which it covers a collection of all sorts of art objects, while an art gallery (g.p.) confines itself cractically to pictures. or system, was the feature of certain famous collections in by- gone days, of which the Tradescant Museum, formed in the 17th century, was a good example. This museum was a miscellany without didactic value; it contributed nothing to the advance- ment of art; its arrangement was unscientific, and the public gained little or no advantage from its existence. The modern museum, on the other hand, should be organized for the public good, and should be a fruitful source of amusement and instruc- tion to the whole community. Even when Dr Waagen described the collections of England, about 1840, private individuals figured chiefly among the owners of art treasures. Nowadays in making a record of this nature the collections belonging to the public would attract most attention. This fact is becoming more obvious every year. Not only are acquisitions of great value constantly made, but the principles of museum administration and development are being more closely defined. What Sir William Flower, an eminent authority, called the " new museum idea " (Essays on Museums, p. 37) is pervading the treatment of all the chief museums of the world. Briefly stated, the new principle of museum development — first enunciated in 1870, but now beginning to receive general support — is that the first aim of public collections shall be education, and their second recreation. To be of teaching value, museum arrangement and classification must be carefully studied. Acquisitions must be added to their proper sections; random purchase of " curios " must be avoided. Attention must be given to the proper display and cataloguing of the exhibits, to their housing and preservation, to the lighting, comfort and ventilation of the galleries. Furthermore, facilities must be allowed to those who wish to make special study of the objects on view. " A museum is like a living organism: it requires continual and tender care; it must grow, or it will perish " (Flower, p. 13). Great progress has been made in the classification of objects, a highly important branch of museum work. There are three possible systems — namely, by date, by material and „ by nationality. It has been found possible to (/ ™* combine the systems to some extent; for instance, in the ivory department of the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, London, where the broad classification is by material, the objects being further subdivided according to their age, and in a minor degree according to their nationality. But as yet there is no general preference of one system to another. Moreover, the principles of classification are not easily laid down; e.g. musical instruments: should they be included in art exhibits or in the ethnographical section to which they also pertain? Broadly speaking, objects must be classified according to the quality (apart from their nature) for which they are most remark- able. Thus a musket or bass viol of the 16th century, inlaid with ivory and highly decorated, would be properly included in the art section, whereas a common flute or weapon, noteworthy for nothing but its interest as an instrument of music or destruc- tion, would be suitably classified as ethnographic. In England, at any rate, there is no uniformity of practice in this respect, and though it is to be hoped that the ruling desire to classify according to strict scientific rules may not become too preva- lent, it would nevertheless be a distinct advantage if, in one or more of the British museums, some attempt were made to illustrate the growth of domestic arts and crafts according to classification by date. Examples of this classification in Munich, Amsterdam, Basel, Zurich and elsewhere afford excellent lessons of history and art, a series of rooms being fitted up to show in chronological order the home life of our ancestors. In the National Museum of Bavaria (Munich) there is a superb suite of rooms illustrating the progress of art from Merovingian times down to the 19th century. Thus classification, though studied, must not check the elasticity of art museums; it should not be allowed to interfere with the mobility of the exhibits — that is to say, it should always be possible to withdraw specimens for the closer inspection of students, and also to send examples on loan to other museums and schools of art — an invaluable system long in vogue at the Victoria and Albert Museum, and one which should be still more widely adopted. An axiom of museum law MUSEUMS OF ART 6 1 is that the exhibits shall be properly shown. " The value of a museum is to be tested by the treatment of its contents " (Flower, p. 24). But in many museums the chief hindrance to study and enjoyment is overcrowding of exhibits. Although a truism, it is necessary to state that each object should be properly seen, cleaned and safeguarded; but all over the world this rule is forgotten. The rapid acquisition of objects is one cause of overcrowding, but a faulty appreciation of the didactic purpose of the collection is more frequently responsible. In Great Britain, museum progress is satisfactory. Visitors are numbered by millions, access is now permitted on Sundays and week-days alike, and entrance fees are being con- Promsf." sisterly reduced; in this the contrast between Great Britain and some foreign countries is singular. A generation or so ago the national collections of Italy used to be always open to the public. Pay-days, however, were gradually established, with the result that the chief collections are now only visible without payment on Sundays. In Dresden payment is obligatory five days a week. The British Museum never charges for admission. On the other hand, the increase in continental collections is more rapid than in Great Britain, where acquisitions are only made by gift, purchase or bequest. In other European countries enormous collections have been obtained by revolutions and conquest, by dynastic changes, and by secularizing religious foundations. Some of the chief treasures of provincial museums in France were spoils of the Napoleonic armies, though the great bulk of this loot was returned in 1 81 s to the original owners. In Italy the conversion of a monastery into a museum is a simple process, the Dominican house of San Marco in Florence offering a typical example. A further stimulus to the foundation of museums on the continent is the comparative ease with which old buildings are obtained and adapted for the collections. Thus the Germanisches Museum of Nuremberg is a secularized church and convent; the enormous collections belonging to the town of Ravenna are housed in an old Camaldulensian monastery. At Louvain and Florence municipal palaces of great beauty are used; at Nimes a famous Roman temple; at Urbino the grand ducal palace, and so on. There are, however, certain disadvantages in securing both building and collection ready-made, and the special care devoted to museums in Great Britain can be traced to the fact that their cost to the community is considerable. Immense sums have been spent on the buildings alone, nearly a million sterling being devoted to the new buildings for the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. Had it been possible to secure them without such an outlay the collections themselves would have been much increased, though in this increase itself there would have been a danger, prevalent but not yet fully realized in other countries, of crowding the vacant space with specimens of inferior quality. The result is that fine things are badly seen owing to the masses of second-rate examples; moreover, the ample space available induces the authorities to remove works of art from their original places, in order to add them to the museums. Thus the statue of St George by Donatello has been taken from the church of Or San Michele at Florence (on {he plea of danger from exposure), and is now placed in a museum where, being dwarfed and under cover, its chief artistic value is lost. The desire to make financial profit from works of art is a direct cause of the modern museum movement in Italy. One result is to displace and thus depreciate many works of art, beautiful in their original places, but quite insignificant when put into a museum. Another result is that, owing to high entrance fees, the humbler class of Italians can rarely see the art treasures of their own country. There are other collections, akin to art museums, which would best be called biographical museums. They illustrate the life and work of great artists or authors. Of these the most notable are the museums commemorating Durer at Nuremberg, Beethoven at Bonn, Thorwaldsen at Copenhagen, Shakespeare at Stratford and Michelangelo at Florence. The sacristies of cathedrals often contain ecclesiastical objects of great value, and are shown to the public as museums. Cologne, Aachen, Milan, Monza and Reims have famous treasuries. Many Italian cathedrals have small museums attached to them, usually known as " Opera del Duomo." United Kingdom. — The influence and reputation of the British Museum are so great that its original purpose, as stated in the preamble of the act by which it was founded (1753, c. 22), may be quoted: " Whereas all arts and sciences Museum. have a connexion with each other, and discoveries in natural philosophy and other branches of speculative know- ledge, for the advancement and improvement whereof the said museum or collection was intended, do, or may in many instances give help and success to the most useful experiments and under- takings . . ." The "said museum " above mentioned referred to the collection of Sir Hans Sloane, to be purchased under the act just quoted. Sir Hans Sloane is therein stated, " through the course of many years, with great labour and expense, to have gathered together whatever could be procured, either in our own or foreign countries, that was rare and curious." In order to buy his collections and found the museum a lottery of £300,000 was authorized, divided into 50,000 tickets, the prizes varying from £10 to £10,000. Provision was made for the adequate housing of Sir Robert Cotton's books, already bought in 1700 (12 and 13 Will. III. c. 7). This act secured for the nation the famous Cottonian manuscripts, "of great use and service for the knowledge and preservation of our constitution, both in church and state." Sir Robert's grandson had preserved the collection with great care, and was willing that it should not be " disposed of or embeziled," and that it should be preserved for public use and advantage. This act also sets forth the oath to be sworn by the keeper, and deals with the appointment of trustees. This is still the method of internal government at the British Museum, and additions to the Board of Trustees are made by statute, as in 1824, in acknowledgment of a bequest. The trustees are of three classes: (a) three principal trustees, namely the Primate, the Lord Chancellor and the Speaker; (b) general trustees, entitled ex officio to the position in virtue of ministerial office; (c) family, bequest and nominated trustees. A standing committee of the trustees meets regularly at the museum for the transaction of business. The great departments of the museum (apart from the scientific and zoological collections, now placed in the museum in Cromwell Road, South Kensington) are of printed books, MSS., Oriental books, prints and drawings, Egyptian and Assyrian antiquities, British and medieval antiquities, coins and medals. Each of these eight departments is under a keeper, with an expert staff of subordinates, the head executive officer of the whole museum being styled director and chief librarian. The museum has been enriched by bequests of great importance, especially in the library. Recent legacies have included the porcelain bequeathed by Sir Wollaston Franks, and the valuable collection of works of art (chiefly enamels and gold-smithery) known as the Waddesdon bequest — a legacy of Baron F. de Rothschild. The most important group of acquisi- tion by purchase in the history of the museum is the series of Greek sculptures known as the Elgin Marbles, bought by act of parliament (56 Geo. III. c. 99). There are four national museums controlled by the Board of Education, until recently styled the Department of Science arid Art. The chief of these is the Victoria and Albert Museums of Museum at South Kensington. This museum has a '** Board 0/ dependency at Bethnal Green, the Dublin and Edacatioa - Edinburgh museums having been now removed from its direct charge. There is also a museum of practical geology in Jermyn Street, containing valuable specimens of pottery and majolica. The Victoria and Albert Museum owed its inception to the Exhibition of 1851, from the surplus funds of which 12 acres of land were bought in South Kensington. First known as the Department of Practical Art, the museum rapidly established itself on a broad basis. Acquisitions of whole collections and unique specimens were accumulated. In 1857 the Sheepshanks gallery of pictures was presented; in 1879 the India Office trans- ferred to the department the collection of Oriental art formerly belonging to the East India Company; in 1882 the Jones bequest of French furniture and decorative art (1 740-1810) was received; 62 MUSEUMS OF ART in 1884 the Patent Museum was handed over to the department. Books, prints, MSS. and drawings were bequeathed by the Rev. A. Dyce and Mr John Forster. Meanwhile, gifts and purchases had combined to make the collection one of the most important in Europe. The chief features may be summarized as consisting of pictures, including the Raphael cartoons lent by the king; textiles, silks and tapestry; ceramics and enamels; ivory and plastic art, metal, furniture and Oriental collections. The guiding principle of the museum is the illustration of art applied to industry. Beauty and decorative attraction is perhaps the chief characteristic of the exhibits here, whereas the British Museum is largely archaeological. With this object in view, the museum possesses numerous reproductions of famous art treasures: casts, facsimiles and electrotypes, some of them so well contrived as to be almost indistinguishable from the originals. An art library with 75,000 volumes and 25,000 prints and photographs is at the disposal of students, and an art school is also attached to the museum. The museum does considerable work among provincial schools of art and museums, " circulation " being its function in this connexion. Works of art are sent on temporary loan to local museums, where they are exhibited for certain periods and on being withdrawn are replaced by fresh examples: The subordinate museum of the Beard of Education at Bethnal Greenand that at Edinburgh call for no comment, their contents being of slender value. The Dublin Museum, though now controlled by the Irish Department, may be mentioned here as having been founded and worked by the Board of Education. Apart from the fact that it is one of the most suitably housed and organized museums in the British Isles, it is remarkable for its priceless collection of Celtic antiquities, belonging to the Royal Irish Academy, and transferred to the Kildare Street Museum in 1890. Among its most famous specimens of early Irish art may be mentioned the shrine and bell of St Patrick, the Tara brooch, the cross of Cong and the Ardagh chalice. The series of bronze and stone implements is most perfect, while the jewels, gold ornaments, torques, fibulae, diadems, and so forth are such that, were it possible again to extend the galleries (thus allowing further classification and exhibition space), the collection would surpass the Danish National Museum at Copenhagen, its chief rival in Europe. The famous collections of Sir Richard Wallace (d. 1890) having been bequeathed to the British nation by his widow, the public other has acquired a magnificent gallery of pictures, National together with a quantity of works of art, so important and Quasi- as to make it necessary to include Hertford House among national museums. French art predominates, and the examples of bronze, furniture, and porcelain are as fine as those to be seen in the Louvre. Hertford House, however, also contains a most remarkable collection of armour, and the examples of Italian faience, enamels, bijouterie, &c, are of first-rate interest. The universities of Cambridge and Oxford have museums, the latter including the Ashmolean collec- tions, a valuable bequest of majolica from D. Fortnum, and some important classical statuary, now in the Taylorian Gallery. Christ Church has a small museum and picture gallery. Trinity College, Dublin, has a miniature archaeological collection, containing some fine examples of early Irish art. The National Museum of Antiquities of Scotland, controlled by the Board of Manufactures, was formed by the Scottish Society of Antiquaries, and has a comprehensive collection of Scottish objects, lay and religious. The Tower of London contains armour of historic and artistic interest, and the Royal College of Music has an invaluable collection of musical instruments, presented by Mr George Donaldson. Art museums are also to be found in several public schools in the United Kingdom. The Museums Act of 1845 enabled town councils to found and maintain museums. This act was superseded by another passed in 1850, by Mr William Ewart, which in its turn has museums, been replaced by amending statutes passed in 1855, 1866, 1868 and 1885. The Museums and Gymna- siums Act of 1891 sanctioned the provision and maintenance of National Museums. museums for the reception of local antiquities and othef objects of interest, and allows a 3d. rate, irrespective of other acts. Boroughs have also the right to levy special rates under private municipal acts, Oldham affording a case in point. Civic museums must still be considered to be in their infancy. Although the movement is now firmly established in municipal enterprise, the collections, taken as a whole, are still somewhat nondescript. In many cases collections have been handed over by local societies, particularly in geology, zoology and other scientific, departments. There are about twelve museums in which Roman antiquities are noticeable, among them being Leicester, and the Civic Museum of London, at the Guildhall. British and Anglo- Saxon relics are important features at Sheffield and Liverpool; in the former case owing to the Bateman collection acquired in 1876; while the Mayer collection presented to the latter city contains a highly important series of carved ivories. At Salford, Glasgow and Manchester industrial art is the chief feature of the collections.. Birmingham, with perhaps the finest provincial collection of industrial art, is supported by the rates to the extent of £4200 a year. Its collections (including here, as in the majority of great townsman important gallery of paintings) are entirely derived from gifts and bequests. Birmingham has made a reputation for special exhibitions of works of art lent for a time to the corporation. These loan exhibitions, about which occasional lectures are given, and of which cheap illustrated catalogues are issued, have largely contributed to the great popularity and efficiency of the museum. Liverpool, Preston, Derby and Sheffield owe their fine museum buildings to private generosity. Other towns have museums which are chiefly supported by subscriptions, e.g. Chester and Newcastle, where there, is a fine collection of work by Bewick the engraver. At Exeter the library, museum, and art gallery, together with schools of science and art, are combined in one building. Other towns may be noted as having art museums : Stockport, Notting- ham (Wedgwood collection), Leeds, Bootle, Swansea, Bradford, Northampton (British archaeology), and Windsor. There are museums at Belfast, Larne, Kilkenny and Armagh. The cost of the civic museum, being generally computed with the mainten- ance of the free library, is not easily obtained. In many cases the librarian is also curator of the museum; elsewhere no curator at all is appointed, his work being done by a caretaker. In some museums there is no classification or cataloguing and the value of existing collections is impaired both by careless treatment and by the too ready acceptance of worthless gifts; often enough the museums are governed by committees of the corporation whose interest and experience are not great. Foreign Museums. — Art museums are far more numerous on the continent of Europe than in England. In Germany progress has been very striking, their educational aspect being closely studied. In Italy public collections, which are ten times more numerous than in England, are chiefly regarded as financial assets. The best examples of classification are to be found abroad, at Vienna, Amsterdam, Zurich, Munich and Gizeh in Egypt. The Musee Carnavalet, the historical collection of the city of Paris, is the most perfect civic museum in the world. The buildings in which the objects can be most easily studied are those of Naples, Berlin and Vienna. The value of the aggregate collections in any single country of the great powers, Russia excepted, probably exceeds the value of British collections. At the same time, it must be remembered that masses of foreign collections represent expropriations by the city and the state, together with the inheritance of royal and semi-royal collectors. In Germany and Italy, for instance, there are at least a dozen towns which at one time were capitals of principalities. In some countries the public holds over works of art the pre-emptive right of purchase. In Italy, under the law known as the Editto Pacca, it is illegal to export the more famous works of art. Speaking generally, the cost of maintaining municipal museums abroad is very small, many being without expert or highly-paid officials, while admission fees are often considerable. Nowhere in the United Kingdom are the collections neglected in a manner MUSEUMS OF ART 63 through which certain towns in Italy and Spain have gained an unenviable name. Berlin and Vienna have collections of untold richness, and the public are freely admitted. Berlin, besides its picture gallery Germany an d architectural museum, has a collection of Christian and antiquities in the university. The old museum, a Austria. royal foundation, is renowned for its classical sculp- ture and a remarkable collection of medieval statuary, in which Italian art is well represented. The new museum is also noteworthy for Greek marbles, and contains bronzes and engravings, together with one of the most typical collections of Egyptian art. Schliemann's discoveries are housed in the Ethnographic Museum. The Museum of Art and Industry, closely similar in object and arrangement to the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, contains collections of the same character — enamels, furniture, ceramics, &c. Vienna also has one of these museums (Kunstgewerbe), in which the great value of the examples is enhanced by their judicious arrangement. The Historical Museum of this city is interesting, and the Imperial Museum (of which the structure corresponds almost exactly with a plan of an ideal museum designed by Sir William Flower) is one of the most comprehensive extant, containing armour of world-wide fame and the choicest specimens of indus- trial art. Prague, Innsbruck and Budapest are respectively the homes of the national museums of Bohemia, Tirol and Hungary. The National Museum of Bavaria (Munich) has been completed, and its exhibition rooms, 100 in number, show the most recent methods of classification, Nuremberg, with upwards of eighty rooms, being its only rival in southern Germany. Mainz and Trier have Roman antiquities. Hamburg, Leipzig and Breslau have good " Kunstgewerbe " collections. In Dresden there are four great museums — the Johanneum, the Albertinum, the Zwinger and the Griine Gewolbe — in which opulent art can best be appreciated; the porcelain of the Dresden galleries is superb, and few branches of art are unrepresented. Gotha is remarkable for its ceramics, Brunswick for enamels (in the ducal cabinet) . Museums of minor importance exist at Hanover, Ulm, Wiirzburg, Danzig and Liibeck. The central museum of France, the Louvre, was founded as a public institution during the Revolutionary period. It contains the collections of Francois I., Louis XIV., and the Napoleons. Many works of art have been added to it from royal palaces, and collections formed by dis- tinguished connoisseurs (Campana, Sanvageot, La Caze) have been incorporated in it. The Greek sculpture, including the Venus of Melos and the Nike of Samotlirace, is of pre-eminent fame. Other departments are well furnished, and from a technical point of view the manner in which the officials have overcome structural difficulties in adapting the palace to the needs of an art museum is most instructive. The Cluny Museum, bought by the city . in 1842, and subsequently transferred to the state, supplements the medieval collections of the Louvre, being a storehouse of select works of art. It suffers, however, from being overcrowded, while for purposes of study it is badly lighted. At the same time the Maison Cluny is a well-furnished house, decorated with admirable things, and as such has a special didactic value of its own, corresponding in this respect with Hertford House and the Poldi-Pezzoli Gallery at Milan — collections which are more than museums, since they show in the best manner the adaptation of artistic taste to domestic life. The French provincial museums are numerous and important. Twenty-two were established early in the 19th century, and received .1000 pictures as gifts from the state, numbers of which were not returned in 1815 to the countries whence they were taken. The best of these museums are at Lyons; at Dijon, where the tombs of Jean sans Peur and Philip the Bold are preserved; at Amiens, where the capital Musee de Picardie was built in 1850; at Marseilles and at Bayeux, where the " Tapestry " is well exhibited. The collec- tions of Lille, Bordeaux, Toulouse, and Avignon are also impor- tant. The objects shown in these museums are chiefly local gleanings, consisting largely of church plate, furniture, together with sculpture, Carved wood, and pottery, nearly everything being French in origin. In many towns Roman antiquities and early Christian relics are preserved (e.g. Autun, Nimes, Aries and Luxeuil). Other collections controlled by municipalities are kept at Rouen, Douai, Montpellier, Chartres -(i^th-century sculptures), Grenoble, Toulon, Ajaecio, Epinal (Carolingian objects), Besancon, Bourges, Le Mans (with the remarkable enamel of Geoffrey of Anjou), Nancy, Aix and in many other towns. As a rule, the public is admitted free of charge, special courtesy being shown to foreigners. In many cases the collections are ill cared for and uncatalogued, and little money is provided for acquisitions in the civic museums; indeed, in this respect the great national institutions contrast unfavourably with British establishments, to which purchase grants are regularly made. The national, civic and papal museums of Italy are so numerous that a few only can be mentioned. The best arranged and best classified collection is the Museo Nazionale: at Naples, containing many thousand examples of Roman art, chiefly obtained from the immediate neighbourhood. For historical importance it ranks as primus inter pares with the collections of Rome and the Vatican. It is, however, the only great Italian museum where scientific treatment is consistently adopted. Other museums of purely classical art are found at Syracuse, Cagliari and Palermo. Etruscan art is best displayed at Arezzo, Perugia (in the university), Cortona, Florence (Museo Archeologico), Volterra and the Vatican. The Florentine museums are of great importance, consisting of the archaeological museum of antique bronzes, Egyptian art, and a great number of tapestries. The Museo Nazionale, housed in the Bargello (a.d. 1260), is the central depository of Tuscan art. Numerous examples. of Delia Robbia ware have been gathered together, and are fixed to the walls in a manner and position which reduce their value to a minimum. The plastic arts of Tuscany are represented by Donatello, Verrocchio, Ghiberti, and Cellini, while the Carrand collection of ivories, pictures, and varied medieval specimens is pf much interest. This- museum, like so many others, is becoming seriously overcrowded, to the lasting detriment of churches, market-places, and streets, whence these works of art are being ruthlessly removed. Thepublic is admitted free one day a week, and the receipts are devoted to art and antiquarian purposes (". tasse . . . destinate . . . alia conver- sazione dei monumenti,, all' ampliamento degli scavi, ed' all' incremento dei instituti ... nella citta."-^Law of 1875, §5). The museums of Rome are numerous, the Vatican alone contain- ing at least six — Museo Clementino, of classical art, with the Laocoon, the Apollo Belvedere, and other masterpieces; the Chiaramonti, also of classical sculpture; the Gallery of Inscrip- tions; the Egyptian, the Etruscan and the Christian museums. The last is an extensive collection corresponding with another papal museum in the Lateran Palace, also known as the Christian Museum (founded 1843), and remarkable for its sarcophagi arid relics from the catacombs. The Lateran has also a second museum known as the Museo Profano. Museums belonging to the state are equally remarkable. The Kircher Museum deals with prehistoric art, and contains the " Preneste Hoard." The Museo Nazionale (by the Baths of Diocletian), the Museo Capi- tolino, and the Palazzo dei Conservatori contain innumerable specimens of the finest classical art, vases, bronzes, mosaics, and statuary, Greek as well as Roman. Among provincial museums there are few which do not possess at least one or two objects of signal merit. Thus Brescia, besides a medieval collection, has a famous bronze , Victory. Pesaro, Urbino, and the Museo Correr at Venice have admirable examples pf majolica; Milan, Pisa and Genoa have general archaeology combined with a good proportion of mediocrity. The civic museum of Bologna is comprehensive and well arranged, having Egyptian, classical, and Etruscan collections, besides many things dating from the " Bella Eppca " of Italian art. At Ravenna alone can the Byzantine art of Italy be properly understood, and it is most deplorable that the superb collections in its fine galleries should remain uncatalogued and neglected. Turin, Siena, Padua, and other towns have civic museums. • 64 MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE Russia. The Ryks, Museum at Amsterdam, containing the national collections of Holland, is a modern building in which a series Belgium of historical rooms are furnished to show at a glance and the artistic progress of the Dutch at any given period. Holland. N me rooms are also devoted to the chronological display of ecclesiastical art. Besides the famous paintings, this museum (the sole drawback of which is the number of rooms which have no top light) contains a library, many engravings, a comprehensive exhibit of armour, costume, metal-work, and a department of maritime craftsmanship. Arnhem and Haarlem have municipal collections. At Leiden the university maintains a scholarly collection of antiquities. The Hague and Rotterdam have also museums, but everything in Holland is subordinated to the development of the great central depository at Amsterdam, to which examples are sent from all parts of the country. In Belgium the chief museum, that of ancient industrial art, is at Brussels. It contains many pieces of medieval church furniture and decoration, but in this respect differs only in size from the civic museums of Ghent and Luxemburg and the Archbishop's Museum at Utrecht. In Brussels, however, there is a good show of Frankish and Carolingian objects. The city of Antwerp maintains the Musee Plan tin, a printing establishment which has survived almost intact, and presents one of the most charming and instructive museums in the world. As a whole, the museums of Belgium are disappointing, though, per contra, the churches are of enhanced interest, not having been pillaged for the benefit of museums. New museums are being founded in Russia every year. Kharkoff and Odessa (the university) have already large collec- tions, and in the most remote parts of Siberia it is curious to find carefully chosen collections. Krasno- yarsk has 12,000 specimens, a storehouse of Buriat art. Irkutsk the capital, Tobolsk, Tomsk (university), Khabarovsk, and Yakutsk have now museums. In these Russian art naturally predominates. It is only at Moscow and St Petersburg that Western art is found. The Hermitage Palace in the latter city contains a selection of medieval objects of fabulous value, there being no less than forty early ivories. But from a national point of view these collections are insignificant when compared with the gold and silver objects illustrating the primitive arts and ornament of Scythia, Crimea and Caucasia, the high standard attained proving an advanced stage of manual skill. At Moscow (historical museum) the stone and metal relics are scarcely less interesting. There is also a museum of industrial art, the speci- mens of which are not of unusual value, but being analogous to the Kunstgewerbe movement in Germany, it exercises a whole- some influence upon the designers who study in its schools. American museums are not committed to traditional systems, and scientific treatment is allowed its fullest scope. They exist in great numbers, and though in some cases their exhibits are chiefly ethnographic, a far wider range of art objects is rapidly being secured. The National Museum at Washington, a branch of the Smithsonian Institution (q.v.), while notable for its American historical and ethnological exhibits, has the National Gallery of Art. The Metropolitan Museum of Art (held by trustees for the benefit of the city of New York) has in the Cesnola collection the most complete series of Cypriot art objects. It has also departments of coins, Greek sculpture and general examples of European and American art. The Museum of Fine Arts at Boston is very comprehensive, and has a remarkable collection of ceramics, together with good reproductions of antique art. There are museums at St Louis, Chicago, Pittsburg, Brooklyn, Cincinnati, Buffalo and Washington, as well as Montreal in Canada; and the universities of Harvard, Chicago, Pennsylvania and Yale have important collections. The Swiss National Museum is situated at Zurich, and though of medium size (50 rooms), it is a model of arrangement and organization. Besides the special feature of rooms Countries, illustrating the historical progress of art, its collection of stained glass is important. Basel also (historical museum) is but little inferior in contents or system to the Zurich America. establishment. Geneva has three collections. Lausanne holds the museum of the canton, and Bern has a municipal collection. All these institutions are well supported financially, and are much appreciated by the Swiss public. The art museums of Stockholm, Christiania and Copenhagen rank high for their intrinsic excellence, but still more for their scientific and didactic value. Stockholm has three museums: that of the Royal Palace, a collection of costume and armour; the Northern Museum, a large collection of domestic art; the National Museum, containing the prehistoric collections, gold ornaments, &c, classified in a brilliant manner. The National Museum of Denmark at Copenhagen is in this respect even more famous, being probably the second national collection in the world. The arrangement of this collection leaves little to be desired, and it is to be regretted that some British collections, in themselves of immense value, cannot be shown, as at Copenhagen, in a manner which would display their great merits to the fullest degree. There is also at Copenhagen a remarkable collection of antique busts (Gamle Glyptotek), and the Thorwaldsen Museum con- nected with the sculptor of that name. Norse antiquities are at Christiania (the university) and Bergen. Athens has three museums, all devoted to Greek art: that of the Acropolis, that of the Archaeological Society (vases and terra-cotta) and the National Museum of Antiquities. The state owns all discoveries and these are accumulated at the capital, so that local museums scarcely exist. The collections, which rapidly increase, are of great importance, though as yet they cannot vie with the aggregate in other European countries. The Museum of Egyptian Antiquities (Cairo), founded by Mariette Bey at Bulak, afterwards removed to theGiza palace and developed by Maspero, is housed in a large building erected in 1902, well classified, and liberally supported with money and fresh acquisitions. Minor museums exist at Carthage and Tunis. At Constantinople the Turkish Museum contains some good classical sculpture and a great deal of rubbish. The Museo del Prado and the Archaeo- logical Museum at Madrid are the chief Spanish collections, containing numerous classical objects and many specimens of Moorish and early Spanish art. In Spain museums are badly kept, and their contents are of indifferent value. The museums of the chief provinces are situated at Barcelona, Valencia, Granada and Seville. Cadiz and Cordova have also sadly neglected civic collections. The National Museum of Portugal at Lisbon requires no special comment. The progress of Japan is noticeable in its museums as in its industrial enterprise. The National Museum(Weno Park, Tokyo) is large and well arranged in a new building of Western architecture. KiotS and Nara have excellent museums, exclusively of Oriental art, and two or three other towns have smaller establishments, including com- mercial museums. There are several museums in India, the chief one being at Calcutta, devoted to Indian antiquities. The best history of museums can be found in the prefaces and introductions to their official catalogues, but the following works will be useful for reference : Annual Reports presented to Parliament (official) of British Museum and Board of Education; Civil Service Estimates, Class IV., annually presented to Parliament; Second Report of Select Committee of House of Commons on Museums of Science and Art Department (official; I vol., 1898) ; Annual Reports of the Museum Association (London) ; Edward Edwards, The Fine Arts in England (London, 1840); Professor Stanley Jevons, " Use and Abuse of Museums," printed in Methods of Social Reform (London, 1882) ; Report of Committee on Provincial Museums. Report of British Association (London, 1887); Thos. Greenwood, Museums and Art Galleries (London, 1888) ; Professor Brown Goode, Museums of the Future, Report on the National Museum for 1889 (Washington, 1 891) ; Principles of Museum Administration ; Report of Museum Association (London, 1895); Mariotti, La Legislazione dette belle arti. (Rome, 1892) ; L. Benedite, Rapport sur I 'organisation . . . dans les musies de la Grande Bretagne (official; Pans, 1895); Sir William Flower, Essays on Museums (London, 1898); Le Gallerie nazionali italiane (3 vols., Rome, 1894) ; D. Murray, Museums: Their History and Use, with Bibliography and List of Museums in the United Kingdom (3 vols., 1904). (B.) MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE. The ideal museum should cover the whole field of human knowledge. It should teach the truths of all the sciences, including anthropology, the science which deals with man and all his works in every age. Afl tfie MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE *5 sciences and all the arts are correlated. The wide separation of collections illustrative of the arts (see Museums of Art above) from those illustrative of the sciences, and their treatment as if belonging to a wholly different sphere, is arbitrary. Such separation, which is to-day the rule rather than the exception, is due to the circumstances of the origin of many collections, or in other cases to the limitations imposed by poverty or lack of space. Many of the national museums of continental Europe had their beginnings in collections privately acquired by monarchs, who, at a time when the modern sciences were in their infancy, entertained themselves by assembling objects which appealed to their love of the beautiful and the curious. The pictures, marbles, bronzes and bric-a-brac of the palace became the nucleus of the museum of to-day, and in some notable cases the palace itself was converted into a museum. In a few instances these museums, in which works of art had the first place, have been enriched and supplemented by collections illustrative of the advancing sciences of a later date, but in a majority of cases these collections have remained what they were at the outset, mere exponents of human handicraft in one or the other, or all of its various departments. Some recent great foundations have copied the more or less defective models of the past, and museums devoted exclusively to the illustration of one or the other narrow segment of knowledge will no doubt continue to be multiplied, and in spite of their limited range, will do much good. A notable illustration of the influence of lack of space in bringing about a separation of anthropological collections from collections illustrative of other sciences is afforded by the national collection in London. For many years the collections of the British Museum, literary, artistic and scientific, were assembled in ideal relationship in Bloomsbury, but at last the accumulation of treasure became so vast and the difficulties of administration were so pressing that a separation was decided upon, and the natural history collections were finally removed to the separate museum in Cromwell Road, South Kensington. But the student of museums can never fail to regret that the necessities of space and financial considerations compelled this separation, which in a measure destroyed the ideal relationship which had for so many years obtained. The ancient world knew nothing of museums in the modern sense of the term. There were collections of paintings and statuary in the temples and palaces of Greece and Rome; the homes of the wealthy were everywhere adorned by works of art ; curious objects of natural history were often brought from afar, as the skins of the female gorillas, which Hanno after his voyage on the west coast of Africa hung up in the temple of Astarte at Carthage; Alexander the Great granted to his illustrious teacher, Aristotle, a large sum of money for use in his scientific researches, sent him natural history collections from conquered lands, and put at his service thousands of men to collect specimens, upon which he based his work on natural history; the museum of Alexandria, which included within its keeping the Alexandrian library, was a great university composed of a number of associated colleges; but there was nowhere in all the ancient world an institution which exactly corresponded in its scope and purpose to the modern museum. The term " museum," after the burning of the great institution of Alexandria, appears to have fallen into disuse from the 4th to the 17 th century, and the idea which the word represented slipped from the minds of men. The revival of learning in the 15th century was accompanied by an awakening of interest in classical antiquity, and many persons laboured eagerly upon the collection of memorials of the past. Statuary, inscriptions, gems, coins, medals and manu- scripts were assembled by the wealthy and the learned. The leaders in this movement were presently followed by others who devoted themselves to the search for minerals, plants and curious animals. Among the more famous early collectors of objects of natural history may be mentioned Georg Agricola (1490-1555), who has been styled " the father of mineralogy." By his labours the elector Augustus of Saxony was induced to establish the Kunst und Naturalien Kammer, which has since expanded into the various museums at Dresden. One of his contempo- xix. 3 raries was Conrad Gesner of Zurich (1516-1565), " the German Pliny," whose writings are still resorted to by the curious. Others whose names are familiar were Pierre Belon (151 7-1564,), professor at the College de France; Andrea Cesalpini (1519-1603), whose herbarium is still preserved at Florence; Ulissi Aldrovandi (1522-1605), remnants of whose collections still exist at Bologna; Ole Worm (1588-1654), a Danish physician, after whom the so- called " Wormian bones " of the skull are named, and who was one of the first to cultivate what is now known as the science of prehistoric archaeology. At a later date the collection of Albert Seba (1665-1736) of Amsterdam became famous, and was purchased by Peter the Great in 17 16, and removed to St Petersburg. In Great Britain among early collectors were the two Tradescants; Sir John Woodward (1665-1728), a portion of whose collections, bequeathed by him to Cambridge University is still preserved there in the Woodwardian or Geological Museum; Sir James Balfour (1600-1657), and Sir Andrew Balfour (1630- 1694), whose work was continued in part by Sir Robert Sibbald (1641-1722). The first person to elaborate and present to modern minds the thought of an institution which should assemble within its walls the things which men wish to see and study was Bacon, who in his New Atlantis (1627) broadly sketched the outline of a great national museum of science and art. The first surviving scientific museum established upon a substantial basis was the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, founded by Elias Ashmole. The original collection had been made by the Tradescants, father and son, gardeners who were in the employment of the duke of Buckingham and later of King Charles I. and his queen; it consisted of " twelve cartloads of curiosities," principally from Virginia and Algiers, which the younger Tradescant bequeathed to Ashmole, and which, after much litigation with Tradescant's widow, he gave to Oxford upon condition that a suitable building should be provided. This was done in 1682 after plans by Sir Christopher Wren. Ashmole in his diary makes record, on the 17th of February 1683, that " the last load of my rareties was sent to the barge, and this afternoon I relapsed into the gout." The establishment of the German academy of Naturae Curiosi in 1652, of the Royal Society of London in 1660, and of the Academie des Sciences of Paris in 1666, imparted a powerful impulse to scientific investigation, which was reflected not only in the labours of a multitude of persons who undertook the formation of private scientific collections, but in the initiation by crowned heads of movements looking toward the formation of national collections, many of which, having their beginnings in the latter half of the 17th century and the early years of the 18th century, survive to the present day. The most famous of all English collectors in his time was Sir Hans Sloane (1660-1753), whose vast collection, acquired at a great outlay of money, and including the collections of Petiver, Courten, Merret, Plukenet, and Buddie — all of which he had purchased — was by his will bequeathed to the British nation on condition that parliament should pay to his heirs the sum of £20,000, a sum far less than that which he had expended upon it, and representing, it is said, only the value of the coins which it contained. Sloane was a man who might justly have said of himself " humani nihil a me alienum puto "; and his collection attested the catholicity of his tastes and the breadth of his scientific appetencies. The bequest of Sloane was accepted upon the terms of his will, and, together with the library of George II., which had likewise been bequeathed to the nation, was thrown open to the public at Bloomsbury in 1759 as the British Museum. As showing the great advances which have occurred in the administration of museums since that day, the following extract taken from A Guide- Book to the General Contents of the British Museum, published in 1761, is interest- ing: ". . . fifteen persons are allowed to view it in one Company, the Time allotted is two Hours; and when any Number not exceeding fifteen are inclined to see it, they must send a List of their Christian and Sirnames, Additions, and Places of Abode, to the Porter's Lodge, in order to their being entered in the Book; in a few Days the respective Tickets will be made out, specifying 66 MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE the Day and Hour in Which they are to come, which, on being sent for, are delivered. If by any Accident some of the Parties are prevented from coming, it is proper they send their Ticket back to the Lodge, as nobody can be admitted with it but themselves. It is to be remarked that the fewer Names there are in a List, the sooner they are likely to be admitted to see it." The establishment of the British Museum was coincident in time with the development of the systematic study of nature, of which Linnaeus was at that time the most distinguished exponent. The modern sciences, the wonderful triumphs of which have revolutionized the world, were just emerging from their infancy. Museums were speedily found to furnish the best agency for preserving the records of advancing knowledge, so far as these consisted of the materials upon which the investi- gator had laboured. In a short time it became customary for the student, either during his lifetime or at his death, to entrust to the permanent custody of museums the collections upon which he had based his studies and observations. Museums were thenceforth rapidly multiplied, and came to be universally regarded as proper repositories for scientific collections of all kinds. But the use of museums as repositories of the collec- tions of the learned came presently to be associated with their use as seats of original investigation and research. Collections of new and rare objects which had not yet received attentive study came into their possession. Voyages of exploration into unknown lands, undertaken at public or private expense, added continually to their treasures. The comparison of newer collections with older collections which had been already made the subject of study, was undertaken. New truths were thus ascertained. A body of students was attracted to the museums, who in a few years by their investigations began not only to add to the sum of human knowledge, but by their publications to shed lustre upon the institutions with which they were connected. The spirit of inquiry was wisely fostered by private and public munificence, and museums as centres for the diffusion of scientific truth came to hold a well-recognized position. Later still, about the middle of the 19th century, when the importance of popular education and the necessity of popularizing knowledge came to be more thoroughly recognized than it had heretofore been, museums were found to be peculiarly adapted in certain respects for the promotion of the culture of the masses. They became under the new impulse not merely repositories of scientific records and seats of original research, but powerful educational agencies, in which by object lessons the most important truths of science were capable of being pleasantly imparted to multitudes. The old narrow restrictions were thrown down. Their doors were freely opened to the people, and at the beginning of the 20th century the movement for the establishment of museums assumed a magnitude scarcely, if at all, less than the movement on behalf of the diffusion of popular knowledge through public libraries. While great national museums have been founded and all the large municipalities of the world through private or civic gifts have established museums within their limits, a multitude of lesser towns, and even in some cases villages, have established museums, and museums as adjuncts of universities, colleges and high schools have come to be recognized as almost indispensable. The movement has assumed its greatest proportions in Great Britain and her colonies, Germany, and the United States of America, although in many other lands it has already advanced far. There are now in existence in the world, exclusive of museums of art, not less than 2000 scientific museums which possess in themselves elements of permanence, some of which are splendidly supported by public munificence, and a number of which have been richly endowed by private benefactions. Great Britain and Ireland. — The greatest museum in London is the British Museum. The natural history department at South Kensington, with its wealth of types deposited there, constitutes the most important collection of the kind in the world. The Museum of Practical Geology in Jermyn Street contains a beautiful and well-arranged collection of minerals and a very complete series of specimens illustrative of the petrography and the invertebrate paleontology of the British Islands. The botanical collections at Kew are classic, and are as rich in types as are the zoological collections of the British Museum. The Hunterian Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons contains a notable assemblage of specimens illustrating anatomy, both human and comparative, as well as pathology. In London also a number of private owners possess large collec- tions of natural history specimens, principally ornithological, entomological and conchological, in some instances destined to find a final resting place in the national collection. One of the most important of these great collections is that formed by F. Ducane Godman, whose work on the fauna of middle America, entitled Biologia ccntrali-americana, is an enduring monument to his learning and generosity. The Hon. Walter Rothschild has accumulated at Tring one of the largest and most important natural history collections which has ever been assembled by a single individual. It is particularly rich in rare species which are either already extinct or verging upon extinction, and the ornithological and entomological collections are vast in extent and rich in types. Lord Walsingham has at his country seat, Merton Hall, near Thetford, the largest and most perfect collection of the microlepidoptera of the world which is in existence. The Ashmolean Museum and the University Museum at Oxford, and the Woodwardian Museum and the University Museum at Cambridge, are remarkable collections. The Free Public Museum at Liverpool is in some respects one of the finest and most successfully arranged museums in Great Britain. It contains a great wealth of important scientific material, and is rich in types, particularly of birds. The Manchester Museum of Owens College and the museum in Sheffield have in recent years accomplished much for the cause of science and popular educa- tion. The Bristol Museum has latterly achieved considerable growth and has become a centre of much enlightened activity. The Royal Scottish Museum, the herbarium of the Royal Botanical Garden, and the collections of the Challenger Expe- dition Office in Edinburgh, are worthy of particular mention. The museum of the university of Glasgow and the Glasgow Museum contain valuable collections. The museum of St Andrews University is very rich in material illustrating marine zoology, and so also are the collections of University College at Dundee. The Science and Art Museum of Dublin and the Public Museum of Belfast, in addition to the works of art which they contain, possess scientific collections of importance. There are also in Great Britain and Ireland some two hundred smaller museums, in which there are collections which cannot be overlooked by specialists, more particularly by those interested in geology, paleontology and archaeology. India. — The Indian Museum, the Geological Museum of the Geological Survey of India, and the herbarium of the Royal Botanic Garden in Calcutta, are richly endowed with collections illustrating the natural history of Hindostan and adjacent countries. The finest collection of the vertebrate fossils of the Siwalik Hills is that found in the Indian Museum. The Victoria and Albert Museum in Bombay and the Government Museum in Madras are institutions of importance. Australia. — The Queensland Museum, and the museum of the Geological Survey of Queensland located in Brisbane, and the National Museum at Melbourne, Victoria, represent important beginnings. Sydney, the capital of New South Wales, is the centre of considerable scientific activity. The museums connected with the university of Sydney, the museum of the Geological Survey of New South Wales, and the Australian Museum, all possess valuable collections. The museum at Adelaide is noteworthy. New Zealand. — Good collections are found in the Otago Museum, Dunedin, the Canterbury Museum at Christ Church, the Auckland Museum at Auckland, and the Colonial Museum at Wellington. South Africa. — The South African Museum at Capetown is a flourishing and important institution, which has done excellent work in the field of South African zoology. A museum has bedn established at Durban, Natal, which gives evidence of vitality. Egypt. — Archaeological studies overshadow all others in the land of the Nile, and the splendid collections of the great museum of antiquities at Cairo find nothing to parallel them in the domain of the purely natural sciences. A geological museum was, however, established in the autumn of 1903, and in view of recent remarkable palcontological discoveries in Egypt possesses brilliant opportunities MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE 6 7 Canada. — In connexion with the Universite Laval in Quebec, the McGill University in Montreal, and the university of Toronto in 'Ontario, beginnings of significance have been made. The Peter Redpath Museum of McGill College contains important collections in all branches of natural history, more particularly botany. The provincial museum at Victoria, British Columbia, is growing in importance. A movement has been begun to establish at Ottawa a museum which shall in a sense be for the Dominion a national establishment. France. — Paris abounds in institutions for the promotion of culture. In possession of many of the institutions of learning, such as the £cole Nationale Superieure des Mines, the Inslitut National Agronomique, and the various learned societies, are collections of greater or less importance which must be consulted at times by specialists in the various sciences. The Museum d'Histoire Naturelle in the Jardin des Plantes is the most comprehensive and important collection of its kind in the French metropolis, and while not as rich in types as the British Museum, nevertheless contains a vast assemblage of classic specimens reflecting the labours of former generations of French naturalists. Unfortunately, much of the best material, consisting of the types of species obtained by the naturalists of French voyages of exploration, have been too long exposed to the intense light which fills the great building and have become bleached and faded to a great degree. The zeal to popularize knowledge by the display of specimens has conflicted with the purpose to preserve the records of science, a fact which French naturalists themselves universally admit. As in England, so also in France, there are a number of virtuosi, who have amassed fine private collections. One of the very largest and finest of all the entomological collections of the world is that at Rennes, belonging to the brothers Oberthiir, upon which they have expended princely sums. The Museum des Sciences Naturelles of Lyons is in some respects an important institution. Belgium. — Brussels has been called " a city of museums." The Musee du Congo and the Musee Royal d'Histoire Naturelle du Belgique are the two most important institutions from the standpoint of the naturalist. The former is rich in ethnographic and zoological material brought from the Congo Free State, and the latter contains very important paleontological collections. Holland. — The zoological museum of the Koninklijk Zoologisch Genootschap, affiliated with the university at Amsterdam, is well known. The royal museums connected with the university of Leideri are centres of much scientific activity. Denmark. — -The National Museum at Copenhagen is particularly rich in Scandinavian and Danish antiquities. Sweden. — In Stockholm, the capital, the Nordiska Museet is devoted to Scandinavian ethnology, and the Naturhistoriska Riks- Museum is rich in paleontological, botanical and archaeological collections. Great scientific treasures are also contained in the museums connected with the university of Upsala. Norway. — Classic collections especially interesting to the student of marine zoology are contained in the university of Christiania. Germany. — Germany is rich in museums, some of which are of very great importance. The Museum fur Naturkunde, the ethno- graphical museum, the anthropological museum, the mineralogical museum and the agricultural museum in Berlin are nobie institutions, the first mentioned being particularly rich in classical collections. Hamburg boasts an excellent natural history musei'm and ethno- graphical museum, the Museum Godeffroy and the Museum Umlauff. There are a number of important private collections in Hamburg. The municipal museum in Bremen is important from the standpoint of the naturalist and ethnologist. The Roemer Museum at Hildes- heim is one of the best provincial museums in Germany. Dresden even niore justly than Brussels may be called " a city of museums," and the mineralogical, archaeological, zoological and anthropological museums are exceedingly important from the standpoint of the naturalist. Here also in private hands is the greatest collection of palaearctic lepidoptcra in Europe, belonging to the heirs of Dr Otto Staudinger. The ethnographical museum at Leipzig is rich in collections brought together from South and Central America. The natural history museum, the anatomical museum and the ethno- graphical musjum in Munich are important institutions, the first mentioned being particularly rich in paleontological treasures. The natural history museum of Stuttgart is likewise noted for its important paleontological collections. The Senckenbergische Naturforsckende Gesellschaft museum at Frankfort-on-the-Main contains a very important collection of ethnographical, zoological and botanical material. The museum of the university at Bonn, and more particularly the anatomical museum, are noteworthy. In connexion with almost all the German universities and in almost all the larger towns and cities are to be found museums, in many of which there are important assemblages illustrating not only the natural history of the immediate neighbourhood, but in a multitude of cases containing important material collected in foreign lands. One of the most interesting of the smaller museums lately established is that at Lubeck, a model in its way for a provincial museum. Austro-Hungary. — The Imperial Natural HistoryMuseuminVienna is one of the noblest institutions of its kind in Europe, and possesses one of the finest mineralogical collections in the world. It is rich also in botanical and conchological collections. There are important ethnographical and anthropological collections at Budapest. The natural history collections of the Bohemian national museum at Prague are well arranged, though not remarkably extensive. Russia. — The Rumiantsof Museum in Moscow possesses splendid buildings, with a library of over 700,000 volumes in addition to splendid artistic treasures, and is rich in natural history specimens. It is one of the most magnificent foundations of its kind in Europe. There are a number of magnificent museums in St Petersburg which contain stores of important material. Foremost among these is the museum of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, rich in collec- tions illustrating the zoology, paleontology and ethnology, not only of the Russian Empire, but also of foreign lands. There are a number of provincial museums in the larger cities of Russia which are growing in importance. Italy. — Italy is rich in museums of art, but natural history collections are not as strongly represented as in other lands. Con- nected with the various universities are collections which possess more or less importance from the standpoint of the specialist. The Museo Civico di Storia Naturale at Genoa, and the collections preserved at the marine biological station at Naples, have most interest for the zoologist. Spain. — There are no natural history collections of first importance in Spain, though at all the universities there are minor collections, which are in some instances creditably cared for and arranged. Portugal. — The natural history museum at Lisbon contains important ornithological treasures. Eastern Asia. — The awakening of the empire of Japan has resulted among other things in the cultivation of the modern sciences, and there are a number of scientific students, mostly trained in European and American universities, who are doing excellent work in the biological and allied sciences. Very creditable beginnings have been made in connexion with the Imperial University at Tokio for the establishment of a museum of natural history. At Shanghai there is a collection, gathered by the Chinese branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, which is in a decadent state, but contains much good material. Otherwise as yet the movement to establish museums has not laid strong hold upon the inhabitants of eastern Asia. At Batavia in Java, and at Manila in the Philippine Islands, there are found the nuclei of important collections. United States. — The movement to establish museums in the United States is comparatively recent. One of, the very earliest collections (1802), which, however, was soon dispersed, was made by Charles Willson Peale [q.v.). The Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia, established in 18 12, is the oldest society for the promotion of the natural sciences in the United States. It possesses a very important library and some most excellent collections, and is rich in ornithological, conchological and botanical types. The city of Philadelphia also points with pride to the free museum of archaeology connected with the university of Pennsylvania, and- to the Philadelphia museums, the latter museums of commerce, but which incidentally do much to pro- mote scientific knowledge, especially in the domain of ethnology, botany and mineralogy. The Wistar Institute of Anatomy is well endowed and organized. The zoological museum at Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, is associated with the names of Louis and Alexander Agassiz, the former of whom by his learning and activity as a collector, and the latter by his munificent gifts, as well as by his important researches, not only created the institution, but made it a potent agency for the advancement of science. The Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, likewise connected with Harvard University, is one of the greatest institutions of its kind in the New World. The Essex Institute at Salem, Massa- chusetts, is noteworthy. The Butterfield Museum, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, and the Fairbanks Museum of Natural Science (1891) at St Johnsbury, Vermont, are im- portant modern institutions. In the museum of Amherst College are preserved the types of the birds described by J. J. Audubon, the shells described by C. B. Adams, the mineralogical collections of Charles Upham Shepard, and the paleontological collections of President Hitchcock. In Springfield (1898) and Worcester, Massachusetts, there are excellent museums. The Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, contains much of the paleontological material described by Professor O. C. Marsh. The New York State Museum at Albany is important from a geological and paleontological standpoint. The American Museum of Natural History in New York City, founded in 1869, provision for the growth and enlargement of which upon a scale of the 68 MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE Collect? I. I Ajcotyol EC Gallery of Reptiles Gallery of Birds THE CARNEGIE INSTITUTE Pittsburg, Penn.,U.S.A. Plan of First Floor. Gallery of Fishes ■bm^^bb ■ i nr~iBi w i ij i ■ en Court | .: j. Open Court Open Court Reference. A. Main Entrance to Institute B. Entrance to Main Auditorium C. Main Entrance to Library 1. Administration Rooms of Institute 2. Public Comfort Rooms 3. Administrative Rooms of Library I Children's I Librar Children's Library fr Open Court I (ft J M o is ? s m • 1 Loan Department of ^ Library* t Open Court \ ^ Gallery of Useful Arts, Ceramics, etc. "THIiyttkt I 1 5] ■» II Greenroom of P ' I X SJ Greenroom of fc jq| •> | I Auditorium h*- * '' ^l Auditorium i g i Mi jryilfic. MU SGRAVE— MUSH 69 utmost magnificence has been made, is liberally supported both by public and private munificence. The ethnographical, paleontological and archaeological material gathered within its walls is immense in extent and superbly displayed. The museum of the New York botanical garden in Bronx Park is a worthy rival to the museums at Kew. The Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences combines with collections illustrative of the arts excellent collections of natural history, many of which are classic. The United States National Museum at Washington, under the control of the Smithsonian Institution, of which it is a depart- ment, has been made the repository for many years past of the scientific and artistic collections coming into the possession of the government. The growth of the material entrusted to its keeping has, more particularly in recent years, been enormous, and the collections have wholly outgrown the space provided in the original building, built for it during the incumbency of Professor Spencer F. Baird as secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. The congress of the United States has in recent years made provision for the erection of a new building upon the Mall in Washington, to which the natural history collections are ultimately to be transferred, the old buildings to be retained for the display of collections illustrating the progress of the arts, until replaced by a building of better construction for the same purpose. The United States National Museum has published a great deal, and has become one of the most important agencies for the diffusion of scientific knowledge in the country. It is liberally supported by the government, and makes use of the scientific men connected with all the various departments of activity under government control as agents for research. The collections of the United States Geological Survey, as well as many of the more important scientific collections made by the Department of Agriculture, are deposited here. As the result of the great Columbian international exposition, which took place in 1893, a movement originated in the city of Chicago, where the exposition was held, to form a permanent collection of large proportions. The great building in which the international exposition of the fine arts was displayed was preserved as the temporary heme for the new museum. Marshall Field contributed $1,000,000 to the furtherance of the enterprise, and in his honour the institution was called " The Field Columbian Museum." The growth of this institution was very rapid, and Mr. Field, at his death, in 1906, bequeathed to the museum $8,000,000, half to be applied to the erection of a new building, the other half to consti- tute an endowment fund, in addition to the revenues derived from the endowment already existing. The city of Chicago provides liberally for the support of the museum, the name of which, in the spring of 1906, was changed to " The Field Museum of Natural History." The city of St Louis has taken steps, as the result of the international exposition of 1904, to emulate the example of Chicago, and the St Louis Public Museum was founded under hopeful auspices in 1905. Probably the most magnificent foundation for the advance- ment of science and art in America which has as yet been created is the Carnegie Institute in the city of Pittsburg. The Carnegie Institute is a complex of institutions, consisting of a museum of art, a museum of science, and a school for the education of youth in the elements of technology. Affiliated with the museums of art and science, and under the same roof, is the Central Free Library of Pittsburg. The buildings erected for the accommodation of the institute, at the entrance to Schenley Park, cost $8,000,000, and Mr Andrew Carnegie provided liberally for the endowment of the museums of art and science and the technical school, leaving to the city of Pittsburg the maintenance of the general library. The natural history collections contained in the museum of science, although the institution was only founded in 1896, are large and important, and are particularly rich in mineralogy, geology, paleontology, botany and zoology. The entomological collections are among the most important in the new world. The concho- logical collections are vast, and the paleontological collections are among the most important in America. The great Bayet collection is the largest and most complete collection represent- ing European paleontology in America. The Carnegie Museum contains natural history collections aggregating over 1,500,000 specimens, which cost approximately £125,000, and these are growing rapidly. The ethnological collections, particularly those illustrating the Indians of the plains, and the archaeological collections, representing the cultures more particularly of Costa Rica and of Colombia, are large. In connexion with almost all the American colleges and universities there are museums of more or less importance. The Bernice Pauahi Bishop museum at Honolulu is an institution established by private munificence, which is doing excellent work in the field of Polynesian ethnology and zoology. Other American Countries. — The national museum in the city of Mexico has in recent years been receiving intelligent encouragement and support both from the government and by private individuals, and is coming to be an institution of much importance. National museums have been established at the capitals of most of the Central American and South American states. Some of them represent considerable progress, but most of them are in a somewhat languish- ing condition. Notable exceptions are the national museum in Rio de Janeiro, the Museu Paraense (Museu Goeldi), at Para, the Museu Paulista at Sao Paulo, and the national museum in Buenos Aires. The latter institution is particularly rich in paleontological collections. There is an excellent museum at Valparaiso in Chile, which in recent years has been doing good work. (W. J. H.) MUSGRAVE, SAMUEL (1732-1780), English classical scholar and physician, was born at Washfield, in Devonshire, on the 29th of September 1732. Educated at Oxford and elected to a Radcliffe travelling fellowship, he spent several years abroad. In 1766 he settled at Exeter, but not meeting with professional success removed to Plymouth. He ruined his prospects, however, by the publication of a pamphlet in the form of an address to the people of Devonshire, in which he accused certain members of the English ministry of having been bribed by the French government to conclude the peace of 1763, and declared that the Chevalier d'Eon de Beaumont, French minister plenipotentiary to England, had in his possession documents which would prove the truth of his assertion. De Beaumont repudiated all knowledge of any such transaction and of Musgrave himself, and the House of Commons in 1770 decided that the charge was unsubstantiated. Thus discredited, Musgrave gained a precarious living in London by his pen until his death, in reduced circumstances, on the 5th of July 1780. He wrote several medical works, now forgotten; and his edition of Euripides (1778) was a considerable advance on that of Joshua Barnes. See W. Munk, Roll of the Royal College of Physicians, ii. (1878). MUSH, the chief town of a sanjak of the same name of the Bitlis vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, and an important military station. It is situated at the mouth of a gorge in the mountains on the south side of the plain, the surrounding hills being covered with vineyards and some oak scrub. There are few good houses; the streets are ill-paved and winding, while the place and its surroundings are extremely dirty. The castle, of which there are some remains, is said to have been built by Mushig, an Armenian king of the province Daron, who founded the town. A khan, with two stone lions (Arab or Seljuk) in bas-relief, deserves notice, but the bazaar is poor, although pretty embroidered caps are produced. Good roads lead to Erzerum and Bitlis. There are 1400 inhabitants, consisting of Kurds and Armenians, about equally divided. The climate is healthy but cold in winter, with a heavy snow fall. Mush is the seat of the Gregorian and Roman Catholic Armenian bishops and some American mission schools. Some miles to the west at the edge of the' plain is the celebrated monastery of Surp Garabed or St John the Baptist, an important place of Armenian pilgrimage. Mush plain, 35 m. long by 12 broad, is very fertile, growing wheat and tobacco, and is dotted with many thriving Armenian villages. The Murad or eastern Euphrates traverses the western end of the plain and disappears into a narrow mountain gorge there. Vineyards are numerous and a fair wine is produced. 7o MUSHROOM Wood is scarce and the usual fuel is tezek or dried cow-dung. There are several sulphur springs, and earthquakes are frequent and sometimes severe. It was on the plain of Mush that Xenophon first made acquaintance with Armenian houses, which have little changed since his day. MUSHROOM. 1 There are few more useful, more easily recognized, or more delicious members of the vegetable kingdom than the common mushroom, known botanically as Agaricus campestris (or Psalliola campestris). It grows in short grass in the temperate regions of all parts of the world. Many edible fungi depend upon minute and often obscure botanical characters for their determination, and may readily be con- founded with worthless or poisonous species; but that is not the case with the common mushroom, for, although several other species of Agaricus somewhat closely approach it in form and colour, yet the true mushroom, if sound and freshly gathered, may be distinguished from all other fungi with great ease. It almost invariably grows in rich, open, breezy pastures, in places where the grass is kept short by the grazing of horses, herds and flocks. Although this plant is popularly termed the " meadow mush- room," it never as a rule grows in meadows. It never grows in wet boggy places, never in woods, or on or about stumps of trees. An exceptional specimen or an uncommon variety may sometimes be seen in the above-mentioned abnormal places, but the best, the true, and common variety of the table is the produce of short, upland, wind-swept pastures. A true mushroom is never large in size; its cap very seldom exceeds 4, at most 5 in. in diameter. The large examples measuring from 6 to 9 or more in. across the cap belong to Agaricus arvensis, called from its large size and coarse texture the horse mushroom, which grows in meadows and damp shady places, and though generally wholesome is coarse and sometimes indigestible. The mushroom usually grown in gardens or hot-beds, in cellars, sheds, &c, is a distinct variety known as Agaricus horlensis. On being cut or broken the flesh of a true mushroom remains white or nearly so, the flesh of the coarser horse mushroom changes to buff or sometimes to dark brown. To summarize the characters of a true mushroom — it grows only in pastures; it is of small size, dry, and with unchangeable flesh; the cap has a frill; the gills are free from the stem, the spores brown-black or deep purple-black in colour, and the stem solid or slightly pithy. When all these char- acters are taken together no other mushroom-like fungus— and nearly a thousand species grow in Britain — can be con- founded with it. The parts of a mushroom consist chiefly of stem and cap ; the stem has a clothy ring round its middle, and the cap is furnished under- neath with numerous radiating coloured gills. Fig. 1 (1) represents a section through an infant mushroom, (2) a mature example, and (3) a longitudinal section through a fully developed mushroom. The cap d, e is fleshy, firm and white within, never thin and watery; externally it is pale brown, dry, often slightly silky or floccose, never viscid. The cuticle of a mushroom readily peels away from the flesh beneath, as shown at F. The cap has a narrow dependent margin or frill, as shown at G, and in section at 11; this dependent frill originates in the rupture of a delicate continuous wrapper, which in the infancy of the mushroom entirely wraps the young plant; it is shown in its continuous state at J, and at the moment of rupture at K. The gills underneath the cap L, M, N are at first white, then rose-coloured, at length brown-black. A point of great importance is to be noted in the attachment of the gills near the stem at o, P ; the gills in the true mushroom are (as shown) usually more or less free from the stem, they never grow boldly against it or run down it; they may sometimes just touch the spot where the stem joins the bottom of the cap, but never more; there is usually a slight channel, as at p, all round the top of the stem. When a mushroom is perfectly ripe and the gills are brown-black in colour, they throw down a thick dusty deposit of fine brown-black or purple-black spores; it is essential to note the colour. The spores on germination make a white felted mat, more or less dense, of mycelium; this, when compacted with dry, half-decomposed dung-, is the mushroom spawn of gardeners. The stem is firm, slightly pithy up the middle, but never hollow; it bears a floccose ring near its middle, as illustrated at Q } Q; this ring originates by the rupture of the thin general wrapper K of the infant plant. Like all widely spread and much-cultivated plants, the edible 'The earlier 15th-century form of the word was musseroun, muscheron, &c, and was adapted from the French mousseron, which is generally connected with mousse, moss. mushroom has numerous varieties, and it differs in different places and under different modes of culture in much the same way as our kitchen-garden plants differ from the type they have been derived from, and from each other. In some instances these differences are so marked that they have led some botanists to regard as distinct species many forms usually esteemed by others as varieties only. Fig. 1. — Pasture Mushroom (Agaricus campestris). A small variety of the common mushroom found in pastures has been named A. pratensis; it differs from the type in having a pale reddish-brown scaly top, and the flesh on being cut or broken changes to pale rose-colour. A variety still more marked, with a darker brown cap and the flesh changing to a deeper rose, and sometimes blood-red, has been described as A. rufescens. The well-known compact variety of mushroom-growers, with its white cap and dull purplish clay-coloured gills, is A. horterisis. Two sub- varieties of this have been described under the names of A. Buchanani and A. elongatus, and other distinct forms are known to botanists. A variety also grows in woods named A. silvicola; this can only be distinguished from the pasture mushroom by its elongated bulbous stem and its externally smooth cap. There is also a fungus well known to botanists and cultivators which appears to be inter- mediate between the pasture variety and the wood variety, named A. vapor -arms. The large rank horse mushroom, now generally referred to as A. arvensis, is probably a variety of the pasture mush- room ; it grows in rings in woody places and under trees and hedges in meadows; it has a large scaly round cap, and the flesh quickly changes to buff or brown when cut or broken ; the stem too is hollow. An unusually scaly form of this has been described as A. villaticus and another as A . augustus. A species, described by Berkeley and Broome as distinct from both the pasture mushroom and horse mushroom, has been pub- lished under the name of A. elvensis. This grows under oaks, in clusters — a most unusual character for the mushroom, and is said to be excellent for the table. An allied fungus peculiar to woods, with a less fleshy cap than the true mushroom, with hollow stem, and strong odour, has been described as a close ally of the pasture mushroom under the name of A. silvaticus; its qualities for the table have not been recorded. Many instances are on record of symptoms of poisoning, and even death, having followed the consumption of plants which have passed as true mushrooms; these cases have probably arisen from the examples consumed being in a state of decay, or from some mis- take as to the species eaten. It should always be specially noted whether the fungi to be consumed are in a frech and wholesome condition, otherwise they act as a poison in precisely the same way as does any other semi-putrid vegetable. Many instances are on record where mushroom-beds have been invaded by a growth of strange fungi and the true mushrooms have been ousted to the advan- tage of the new-comers. When mushrooms are gathered for sale, by persons unacquainted with the different species mistakes are of frequent occurrence. A very common spurious mushroom in markets is A. velutinus, a slender, ringless, hollow-stemmed, black- gilled fungus, common in gardens and about dung and stumps; it is about the size of a mushroom, but thinner in all its parts and far more brittle ; it has a black hairy fringe hanging round the edge of the cap when fresh. Another spurious mushroom, and equally common in dealers' baskets, is A . lacrymabundus ; this grows in the same posi- tions as the last, and is somewhat fleshier and more like a true mush- room ; it has a hollow stem and a slight ring, the gills are black-brown mottled and generally studded with tear-like drops of moisture. In both these species the gills distinctly touch and grow on to the stem. Besides these there are numerous other black-gilled species which find a place in baskets — some species far too small to bear MUSHROOM 7* any resemblance to a mushroom, others large and deliquescent, generally belonging to the stump- and dung-borne genus Coprinus. The true mushroom itself is to a great extent a dung-borne species, therefore mushroom-beds are always liable to an invasion from other dung-borne forms. The spores of all fungi are constantly floating about in the air, and when the spores of dung-infesting species alight on a mushroom-bed they find a nidus already prepared that exactly suits them; and if the spawn of the new-comer becomes more profuse than that of the mushroom the stranger takes up his position at the expense of the mushroom. There is also a fungus named Xylaria vaporaria, which sometimes fixes itself on mushroom- beds and produces such an enormous quantity of string-like spawn that the entire destruction of the bed results. This spawn is some- times so profuse that it is pulled out of the beds in enormous masses and carted away in barrows. Sometimes cases of poisoning follow the consumption of what have really appeared to gardeners to be true bed-mushrooms, and to country folks as small horse mushrooms. The case is made more complicated by the fact that these highly poisonous forms now and then appear upon mushroom-beds to the exclusion of the mush- rooms. This dangerous counterfeit is A. fastibilis, or sometimes A. crustuliniformis, a close ally if not indeed a mere variety of the first. A description of one will do for both, A. fastibilis being a little the more slender of the two. Both have fleshy caps, whitish, moist and clammy to the touch ; instead of a pleasant odour, they have a dis- agreeable one; the stems are ringless, or nearly so; and the gills, which are palish-clay-brown, distinctly touch and grow on to the solid or pithy stem. These two fungi usually grow in woods, but sometimes in hedges and in shady places in meadows, or even, as has been said, as invaders on mushroom-beds. The paie clay-coloured gills, offensive odour, and clammy or even viscid top are decisive characters. A reference to the accompanying illustration (fig. 2), which is about one-half natural size, will give a good idea of A. fastibilis ; the difference in the nature of the attachment of the gills near the stem is seen at R, the absence of a true ring at s, and of a pendent frill at T. The colour, with the exception of the gills, is not unlike that of the mushroom. In determining fungi no single character must be relied upon as conclusive, but all the characters must be taken together. Sometimes a beautiful, somewhat slender, fungus peculiar to stumps in woods is mistaken for the mushroom in A. cervinus; it has a tall, solid, white, ringless stem and somewhat thin brown cap, furnished underneath with beautiful rose-coloured gills, which are free from the stem as in the mushroom, and which Fig. 2. — Poisonous Mushroom (Agaricus fastibilis). never turn black. It is probably a poisonous plant, belonging, as it does, to a dangerous cohort. Many other species of Agaricus more or less resemble A. campsstris, notably some of the plants found under the sub-genera Lepiota, Volvaria, Pholiota and Psalliota; but when the characters are noted they may all with a little care be easily distinguished from each other. The better plan is to discard at once all fungi which have not been gathered from open pastures; by this act alone more than nine-tenths of worthless and poisonous species will be excluded. In cases of poisoning by mushrooms immediate medical advice should be secured. The dangerous principle is a narcotic, and the symptoms are usually great nausea, drowsiness, stupor and pains in the joints. A good palliative is sweet oil; this will allay any corrosive irritation of the throat and stomach, and at the same time cause vomiting. Paris mushrooms are cultivated in enormous quantities in dark underground cellars at a depth of from 60 to 160 ft. from the surface. The stable manure is taken into the tortuous passages of these cellars, and the spawn introduced from masses of dry dung where it occurs naturally. In France mushroom-growers do not use the compact blocks or bricks of spawn so familiar in England, but much smaller flakes or " leaves " of dry dung in which the spawn or mycelium can be seen to exist. Less manure is used in these cellars than we generally see in the mushroom-houses of England, and the surface of each bed is covered with about an inch of fine white stony soil. The beds are kept artificially moist by the application of water brought from the surface, and the different galleries bear crops in succession. As one is exhausted another is in full bearing, so that by a systematic arrangement a single proprietor will send to the surface from 300 lb to 3000 lb of mushrooms per day. The passages sometimes extend over several miles, the beds sometimes occupying over 20 m., and, as there are many proprietors of cellars, the produce of mushrooms is so large that not only is Paris fully supplied, but vast quantities are forwarded to the different large towns of Europe; the mushrooms are not allowed to reach the fully expanded condi- tion, but are gathered in a large button state, the whole growth of the mushroom being removed and the hole left in the manure covered with fine earth. The beds remain in bearing for six or eight months, and then the spent manure is taken to the surface again for garden and field purposes. The equable temperature of these cellars and their freedom from draught is one cause of their great success; to this must be added the natural virgin spawn, for by continually using spawn taken from mushroom-producing beds the potency for reproduction is weakened. The beds produce mushrooms in about six weeks after this spawning. The common mushroom (Agaricus campestris) is propagated by spores, the fine black dust seen to be thrown off when a mature speci- men is laid on white paper or a white dish ; these give rise to what is known as the " spawn " or mycelium, which consists of whitish threads permeating dried dung or similar substances, and which, when planted in a proper medium, runs through the mass, and even- tually develops the fructification known as the mushroom. This spawn may be obtained from old pastures, or decayed mushroom beds, and is purchased from nurserymen in the form of bricks charged with the mycelium, and technically known as mushroom spawn. When once obtained, it may be indefinitely preserved. It may be produced by placing quantities of horse-dung saturated with the urine of horses, especially of stud horses, with alternate layers of rich earth, and covering the whole with straw, to exclude rain and air; the spawn commonly appears in the heap in about two months afterwards. The droppings of stall-fed horses, or of such as have been kept on dry food, should be made use of. The old method of growing mushrooms in ridges out of doors, or on prepared beds either level or sloping from a back wall in sheds or cellars, may generally be adopted with success. The beds are formed of horse-droppings which have been slightly fermented and frequently turned, and may be made 2 or 3 ft. broad and of any length. A layer of dung about 8 or 10 in. thick is first deposited, and covered with a light dryish earth to the depth of 2 in.; and two similar layers with similar coverings are added, the whole being made narrower as it advances in height. When the bed is finished, it is covered with straw to protect it from rain, and also from parching influences. In about ten days, when the mass is milkwarm, the bed will be ready for spawning, which consists of inserting small pieces of spawn bricks into the sloping sides of the bed, about 6 in. asunder. A layer of fine earth is then placed over the whole, and well beaten down, and the surface is covered with a thick coat of straw. When the weather is temperate, mushrooms will appear in about a month after the bed has been made, but at other times a much longer period may elapse. The principal things to be attended to are to preserve a moderate state of moisture and a proper mild degree of warmth; and the treatment must vary according to the season. These ordinary^ ridge beds furnish a good supply towards the end of summer, and in autumn. To command a regular supply, how- ever, at all seasons, the use of a mushroom-house will be found very convenient. The material employed in all cases is the droppings of horses, which should be collected fresh, and spread out in thin layers in a dry place, a portion of the short litter being retained well mois- tened by horse-urine. It should then be thrown together in ridges and frequently turned, so as to be kept in an incipient state of fer- mentation, a little dryish friable loam being mixed with it to retain the ammonia given off by the dung. With this or a mixture of horse-dung, loam, old mushroom-bed dung, and half -decayed leaves, the beds are built up in successive layers of about 3 in. thick, each layer being beaten firm, until the bed is 9 or 10 in. thick. If the heat exceeds 8o°, holes should be made to moderate the fermentation. The beds are to be spawned when the heat moderates, and the surface is then covered with a sprinkling of warmed loam, which after a few days is made up to a thickness of 2 in., and well beaten down. The beds made partly of old mushroom-bed dung often contain sufficient spawn to yield a crop, without the introduction of brick or cake spawn, but it is advisable to spawn them in the regular way. The spawn should be introduced an inch or two below' the surface when the heat has declined to about 75 , indeed the bed ought never to exceed 8o°. The surface is to be afterwards covered with tay or litter. The atmospheric temperature should range from 60 ° to 65 till the mushrooms appear, when it may drop a few degrees, but not lower than 55 . If the beds require watering, water of about 8o° should be used, and it is preferable to moisten the covering of litter rather than the surface 01 the beds themselves. It is also beneficial, especially in the case of partially exhausted beds, to water with a dilute solution of nitre. For a winter supply the beds should be made towards the end of August, and the end of October. Slugs and woodlice are the worst enemies of mushroom crops. The Fairy-ring Champignon. — This fungus, Marasmius Oreades, is more universally used in France and Italy than in England, although it is well known and frequently used both in a fresh and in a dry state in England. It is totally different in appearance from the 72 MUSIC pasture mushroom, and, like it, its characters are so distinct that there is hardly a possibility of making a mistake when its peculiari- ties are once comprehended. It has more than one advantage over the meadow mushroom in its extreme commonness, its profuse growth, the length of the season in which it may be gathered, the total absence of varietal forms, its adaptability for being dried and preserved for years, and its persistent delicious taste. It is by many esteemed as the best of all the edible fungi found in Great Britain. Like the mushroom, it grows in short open pastures and amongst the short grass of open roadsides; sometimes it appears on lawns, but it never occurs in woods or in damp shady places. Its natural habit is to grow in rings, and the grassy fairy-rings so frequent amongst the short grass of downs and pastures in the spring are generally caused by the nitrogenous manure applied to the soil in the previous autumn by the decay of a circle of these fungi. Many other fungi in addition to the fairy-ring champignon grow in circles, so that this habit must merely be taken with its other characters in cases of doubt. A glance at the illustration (fig. 3) will show how entirely the fairy- ring champignon differs from the mushroom. In the first place, it Fig. 3. — The Fairy-ring Champignon (Marasmius oreades). is about one-half the size of a mushroom, and whitish-buff in every part, the gills always retaining this colour and never becoming salmon-coloured, brown or black. The stem is solid and corky, much more solid than the flesh of the cap, and perfectly smooth, never being furnished with the slightest trace of a ring. The buff- gills are far apart (v), and in this they greatly differ from the some- what crowded gills of the mushroom; the junction of the gills with the stem (w) also differs in character from the similar junction in the mushroom. The mushroom is a semi-deliquescent fungus which rapidly falls into putridity in decay, whilst the champignon dries up into a leathery substance in the sun, but speedily revives and takes its original form again after the first shower. To this character the fungus owes its generic name (Marasmius) as well as one of its most valuable qualities for the table, for examples may be gathered from June to November, and if carefully dried may be hung on strings for culinary purposes and preserved without deterioration for several years; indeed, many persons assert that the rich flavour of these fungi increases with years. Champignons are highly esteemed (and especially is this the case abroad) for adding a most delicious flavour to stews, soups and gravies. A fungus which may carelessly be mistaken for the mushroom is M. peronatus, but this grows in woods amongst dead leaves, and has a hairy base to the stem and a somewhat acrid taste. Another is M. urens; this also generally grows in woods, but the gills are not nearly so deep, they soon become brownish, the stem is downy, and the taste is acrid. An Agaricus named A. dryophilus has sometimes been gathered in mistake for the champignon, but this too grows in woods where the champignon never grows; it has a hollow instead of a solid stem, gills crowded together instead of far apart, and flesh very tender and brittle instead of tough. A small esculent ally of the champignon, named M. scovodonius, is sometimes found in pastures in Great Britain ; this is largely consumed on. the Continent, where it is esteemed for its powerful flavour of garlic. In England, where garlic is not used to a large extent, this fungus is not sought for. Another small and common species, M. porreus, is pervaded with a garlic flavour to an equal extent with the last. A third species, M. alliaceus, is also strongly impregnated with the scent and taste of onions or garlic. Two species, M. impudicus and M. foetidus, are in all stages of growth highly foetid. The curious little edible Agaricus esculentus, although placed under the sub-genus Collybia, is allied by its structure to Marasmius. It is a small bitter species common in upland pastures and fir plantations early in the season. Although not gathered for the table in England, it is greatly prized in some parts of the Continent. MUSIC. — The Greek hovclkt] (sc. r'txv)), from which this word is derived, was used very widely to embrace all those arts over which the Nine Muses (Mouotu) were held to preside. Contrasted with yvuvaoTiicq (gymnastic) it included those branches of education concerned with the development of the mind as opposed to the body. Thus such widely different arts and sciences as mathematics, astronomy, poetry and literature generally, and even reading and writing would all fall under HovaiKi}, besides the singing and setting of lyric poetry. On the educational value of music in the formation of character the philosophers laid chief stress, and this biased their aesthetic analysis. 'Apuovia (harmony), or apnoviKr\ (sc. rtyvri), rather than novaucri, was the name given by the Greeks to the art of arranging sounds for the purpose of creating a definite aesthetic impression, with which this article deals. I. — General Sketch 1. Introduction. — As a mature and independent art music is unknown except in the modern forms realized by Western civilization; ancient music, and the non-European music of the present day, being (with insignificant exceptions of a character which confirms the generalization) invariably an adjunct of poetry or dance, in so far as it is recognizable as an art at all. The modern art of music is in a unique position; for, while its language has been wholly created by art, this language is yet so perfectly organized as to be in itself natural; so that though the music of one age or style may be at first unintelligible to a listener who is accustomed to another style, and though the listener may help himself by acquiring information as to the char- acteristics and meaning of the new style, he will best learn to understand it by merely divesting his mind of prejudices and allowing the music to make itself intelligible by its own self- consistency. The understanding of music thus finally depends neither upon technical knowledge nor upon convention, but upon the listener's immediate and familiar experience of it; an experience which technical knowledge and custom can of course aid him to acquire more rapidly, as they strengthen his memory and enable him to fix impressions by naming them. Beyond certain elementary facts of acoustics (see Sound), modern music shows no direct connexion with nature inde- pendently of art; indeed, it is already art that determines the selection of these elementary acoustic facts, just as in painting art determines the selection of those facts that come under the cognizance of optics. 1 In music, however, the purely acoustic principles are incomparably fewer and simpler than the optical principles of painting, and their artistic interaction transforms them into something no less remote from the laboratory experiments of acoustic science than from the unorganized sounds of nature. The result is that while the ordinary non- artistic experiences of sight afford so much material for plastic art that the vulgar conception of good painting is that it is deceptively like nature, the ordinary non-artistic experience of sound has so little in common with music that musical realism is, with rare though popular exceptions, generally regarded as an eccentricity. This contrast between music and plastic art may be partly explained by the mental work undergone, during the earliest infancy both of the race and of the individual, in interpreting sensations of space. When a baby learns the shape of objects by taking them in his hands, and gradually advances to the discovery that his toes belong to him, he goes through an amount of work that is quite forgotten by the adult, and its complexity and difficulty has perhaps only been fully realized through the experience of persons who have been born blind but have acquired sight at a mature age by an operation. Such work gives the facts of normal adult vision an amount of organic principle that makes them admirable raw material for art. The power of distinguishing sensations of sound is associated with no such mental skill, and is no more complex than the power of distinguishing colours. On the other hand, sound is the principal medium by which most of the higher animals both express and excite emotion; and hence, though until 1 Thus Chinese and Japanese art has attained high organization without the aid of a veracious perspective ; while, on the other hand, its carefully formulated decorative principles, though not realistic, certainly rest on an optical and physiological basis. Again, many modern impressionists justify their methods by an appeal to pheno- mena of complementary colour which earlier artists possibly did not perceive and certainly did not select as artistic materials. GENERAL SKETCH] MUSIC 73 codified into human speech it does not give any raw material for art, yet so powerful are its primitive effects that music (in the bird-song sense of sound indulged in for its own attractive- ness) is as long prior to language as the brilliant colours of animals and flowers are prior to painting (see Song). Again, sound as a warning or a menace is eminently important in the history of the instinct of self-preservation; and, above all, its production is instantaneous and instinctive. All these facts, while they tend to make musical expression an early phenomenon in the history of life, are extremely unfavourable to the early development of musical art. They invested the first musical attempts with a mysterious power over listener and musician, by re-awakening instincts more powerful, because more ancient and necessary, than any that could ever have been appealed to by so deliberate a process as that of drawing on a flat surface a series of lines calculated to remind the eye of the appearance of solid objects in space. It is hardly surprising that music long remained as imperfect as its legendary powers were portentous, even in the hands of so supremely artistic a race as that of classical Greece ; and what- ever wonder this backwardness might still arouse in us vanishes when we realize the extreme difficulty of the process by which the principles of the modern art were established. 2. Non-harmonic and Greek Music. — Archaic music is of two kinds — the unwritten, or spontaneous, and the recorded, or scientific. The earliest musical art-problems were far too difficult for conscious analysis, but by no means always beyond the reach of a lucky hit from an inspired singer; and thus folk- music often shows real beauty where the more systematic music of the time is merely arbitrary. Moreover, folk-music and the present music of barbarous and civilized non-European races furnish the study of musical origins with material analogous to that given by the present manners and customs of different races in the study of social evolution and ancient history. We may mention as examples the accurate comparison of the musical scales of non-European races undertaken by A. J. Ellis {On the Musical Scales of Various Nations, 1885); the parallel researches and acute and cautious reasoning of his friend and collaborator, A. J. Hipkins {Dorian and Phrygian reconsidered from a Non-harmonic Point of View, 1902); and, perhaps most of all, the study of Japanese music, with its remarkable if uncertain signs of the beginning of a harmonic tendency, its logical coherence, and its affinity to Western scales, points in which it seems to show a great advance upon the Chinese music from which most of it is derived {Music and Musical Instruments of Japan, by J. F. Piggott, 1893). The reader will find detailed accounts of ancient Greek music in the article on that subject in Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians (new ed., ii. 223) and in Monro's Modes of Ancient Greek Music (Clarendon Press, 1894), while both the Greek music itself, and the steps by which it passed through Graeco-Roman and early Christian phases to become the foundation of the modern art, are traced as clearly as is consistent with accuracy in The Oxford History of Music, vol. i., by Professor Wooldridge. Sir Hubert Parry's Evolution of the Art of Music {" International Scientific Series," originally published under the title of The Art of Music) presents the main lines of the evolution of modern musical ideas in the clearest and most readable form yet attained. Sir Hubert Parry illustrates in this work the artificiality of our modern musical conceptions by the word " cadence," which to a modern musician belies its etymology, since it normally means for him no " falling " close but a pair of final chords rising from dominant to tonic. Moreover, in consequence of our harmonic notions we think of scales as constructed from the bottom upwards; and even in the above-mentioned article in Grove's Dictionary all the Greek scales are, from sheer force of habit, written upwards. But the ancient and, almost universally, the primitive idea of music is like that of speech, in which most inflections are in fact cadences, while rising inflexions express less usual sentiments, such as surprise or interrogation. Again, our modern musical idea of " high " and " low " is probably derived from a sense of greater and less vocal effort; and it has been much stimulated by our harmonic sense, which has necessitated a range of sounds incomparably greater than those employed in any non-harmonic system. The Greeks derived their use of the terms from the position of notes on their instruments; and the Greek hypate was what we should call the lowest note of the mode, while nete was the highest. Sir George Macfarren has pointed out {Ency. Brit., 9th ed., art. " Music ") that Boethius (c. a.d. 500) already fell into the trap and turned the Greek modes upside down. 1 Another radical though less grotesque misconception was also already well exploded by Macfarren; but it still frequently survives at the present day, since the study of non-harmonic scales is, with the best of intentions, apt rather to encourage than to dispel it. The more we realize the importance of differences in position of intervals of various sizes, as producing differences of character in scales, the more irresistible is the temptation to regard the ancient Greek modes as differing from each other in this way. And the temptation becomes greater instead of less when we have succeeded in thinking away our modern harmonic notions. Modern harmonization enormously increases the differences of expression between modes of which the melodic intervals are different, but it does this in a fashion that draws the attention almost entirely away from these differences of interval ; and without harmony we find it extremely difficult to distinguish one mode from another, unless it be by this different arrangement of intervals. Nevertheless, all the evidence irresistibly tends to the conclusion that while the three Greek genera — diatonic, chromatic, and enharmonic — were scales differing in intervals, the Greek modes were a series of scales identical in arrangement of interval, and differing, like our modern keys, only in pitch. The three genera were applied to all these modes or keys, and we have no difficulty in understanding their modifying effects. But the only clue we have to the mental process by which in a preharmonic age different characteristics can be ascribed to scales identical in all but pitch, is to be found in the limited compass of Greek musical sounds, corresponding as it does to the evident sensitive- ness of the Greek ear to differences in vocal effort. We have only to observe the compass of the Greek scale to see that in the most esteemed modes it is much more the compass of speaking than of singing voices. Modern singing is normally at a much higher pitch than that of the speaking voice, but there is no natural reason, outside the peculiar nature of modern music, why this should be so. It is highly probable that all modern singing would strike a classical Greek ear as an outcry; and in any case such variations of pitch as are inconsiderable in modern singing are extremely emphatic in the speaking voice, so that they might well make all the difference to an ear un- accustomed to organized sound beyond the speaking compass. Again, much that Aristoxenus and other ancient authorities say of the character of the modes (or keys) tends to confirm the view that that character depends upon the position of the mese or keynote within the general compass. Thus Aristotle {Politics, v. (viii.) 7, 1342 b. 20) states that certain low-pitched modes suit the voices of old men, and thus we may conjecture that even the position of tones and semitones might in the Dorian and Phrygian modes bring the bolder portion of the scale in all three genera into the best regions of the average young voice, while the Ionian and Lydian might lead the voice to dwell more upon semitones and enharmonic intervals, and so account for the heroic character of the former and the sensual character of the latter (Plato, Republic, 398 to 400). Of the Greek genera, the chromatic and enharmonic (especially 1 It is worth adding that in the 16th century the great contrapun- tal composer Costanzo Porta had been led by doubts on the subject to the wonderful conclusion that ancient Greek music was poly- phonic, and so constructed as to be invertible; in illustration of which theory he and Vincentino composed four-part motets in each of the Greek genera (diatonic, chromatic and enharmonic), Porta's being constructed like the 12th and 13th fugues in Bach's Kunst der Fuge so as to be equally euphonious when sung upside down! (See Hawkins's History of Music, i. 1 12 !} 74 MUSIC [GENERAL SKETCH the latter) show very clearly the origin of so many primitive scales in the interval of the downward fourth. That interval (e.g. from C to G) is believed to be the earliest melodic relation- ship which the ear learnt to fix; and most of the primitive scales were formed by the accretion of auxiliary notes at the bottom of this interval, and the addition of a similar interval, with similar accretions, below the former. In this way a pentatonic scale, like that of so many Scotch melodies, can easily be formed (thus, C, A, G; F, D, C) ; and though some primitive scales seem to have been on the nucleus of the rising fifth, while the Siamese now use two scales of which not a single note within the octave can be accounted for by any known principle, still we may consider that for general historic purposes the above example is typical. The Greeks divided their downward fourth into four notes, called a tetrachord; and by an elaborate system of linking tetrachords together they gave their scale a compass of two octaves. The enharmonic tetrachord, being the most ancient, gathered the lower three notes very closely to the bottom, leaving the second note no less than a major third from the top, thus — C,Ab, G', G; (where G' stands for a note between Ab and G). The chromatic tetrachord was C, Bbb, Ab, G; and the diatonic tetrachord was C, Bb, Ab, G. It is this last that has become the foundation of modern music, and the Greeks themselves soon preferred it to the other genera and found a scientific basis for it. In the first place they noticed that its notes (and, less easily, the notes of the chromatic scale) could be connected by a series of those intervals which they recognized as concordant. These were, the fourth; its converse, or inversion, the fifth; and the octave. The notes of the enhar- monic tetrachord could not be connected by any such series. In the articles on Harmony and Sound account is given of the historic and scientific foundations of the modern conception of concord; and although this harmonic conception applies to simultaneous notes, while the Greeks concerned themselves only with successive notes, it is nevertheless permissible to regard the Greek sense of concord in successive notes as con- taining the germ of our harmonic sense. The stability of the diatonic scale was assured as early as the 6th century B.C. when Pythagoras discovered (if he did not learn from Egypt or India) the extremely simple mathematical proportions of its intervals. Arid this discovery was of unique importance, as fixing the intervals by a criterion that could never be obscured by the changes of taste and custom otherwise inevitable in music that has no conscious harmonic principles to guide it. At the same time, the foundation of a music as yet immature and ancillary to drama, on an acoustic science ancillary to a priori mathe- matics, was not without disadvantage to the art; and it is arguable that the great difficulty with which during the medieval beginnings of modern harmony the concords of the third and sixth were rationalized may have been increased by the fact that the Pythagorean system left these intervals con- siderably out of tune. In preharmonic times mathematics could not direct even the most observant ear to the study of those phenomena of upper parliah of which Helmholtz, in 1863, was the first to explain the significance; and thus though the Greeks knew the difference between a major and minor tone, on which half the question depended, they could not possibly arrive at the modern reasons for adding both kinds of tone in order to make the major third. (See Sound.) Here we must digress in order to illustrate what is implied by our modern harmonic sense; for the difference that this makes to our whole musical consciousness is by no means uni- versally realized. Music, as we now understand it, expresses itself in the interaction of three elements — rhythm, melody and harmony. The first two are obviously as ancient as human consciousness itself. Without the third a musical art of per- manent value and intelligibility has not been known to attain independent existence. With harmony music assumes the existence of a kind of space in three dimensions, none of which can subsist without at least implying the others. When we hear an unaccompanied melody we cannot help interpreting it in the light of its most probable harmonies. Hence, when it does not imply consistent harmonies it seems to us quaint or strange; because, unless it is very remote from our harmonic conceptions, it at least implies at any given moment some simple harmony which in the next moment it contradicts. Thus our inferences as to the expression intended by music that has not come under European influence are unsafe, and the pleasure we take in such music is capricious. The effort of thinking away our harmonic preconceptions is probably the most violent piece of mental gymnastics in all artistic experience, and furnishes much excuse for a sceptical attitude as to the artistic value of preharmonic music, which has at all events never become even partially independent of poetry and dance. Thus the rhythm of classical Greek music seems to have been entirely identical with that of verse, and its beauty and ex- pression appreciated in virtue of that identity. From the modern musical point of view the rhythm of words is limited to a merely monotonous uniformity of flow, with minute undulations which are musically chaotic (see Rhythm). The example of Greek tragedy, with the reports of its all-pervading music (in many cases, as in that of Aeschylus, composed by the dramatist himself) could not fail to fire the imaginations of modern pioneers and reformers of opera; and Monteverde, Gluck and Wagner convinced themselves and their contemporaries that their work was, amongst other things, a revival of Greek tragedy. But all that is known of Greek music shows that it represents no such modern ideas, as far as their really musical aspect is concerned. It represents, rather, an organization of the rise and fall of the voice, no doubt as elaborate and artistic as the organization of verse, no doubt powerful in heightening the emotional and dramatic effect of words and action, but in no way essential to the understanding or the organization of the works which it adorned. The classical Greek preference for the diatonic scale indicates a latent harmonic sense and also that temperance which is at the foundation of the general Greek sense of beauty; but, beyond this and similar generalities, all the research in the world will not enable us to understand the Greek musician's mind. Non-harmonic music is a world of two dimensions, and we must now inquire how men came to rise from this " flatland " to the solid world of sound in which Palestrina, Bach, Beethoven and Wagner live. 3. Harmonic Origins .^Although the simultaneous blending of different sounds was never seriously contemplated by the Greeks, yet in classical times they were fond of singing with high and low voices in octaves. This was called magadizing, from the name of an instrument on which playing in octaves was rendered easy by means of a bridge that divided the strings at two-thirds of their length. While the practice was esteemed for the beauty of the blending of different voices, it was tolerated only because of the peculiar effect of identity furnished by the different notes of the octave, and no other interval was so used by the Greeks. In the article on Harmony the degrees of identity-in- difference which characterize the simpler harmonic intervals are analysed, and the main steps are indicated by which the more complicated medieval magadizing uses of the fourth and fifth (the sympkonia, diaphonia or organum of Hucbald) gave way (partly by their own interchange and partly through experiments in the introduction of ornaments and variety) to the modern conception of harmony as consisting of voices or parts that move independently to the exclusion of such parallel motion. In The Oxford History of Music, vols. i. and ii., will be found abundant examples of every stage of the process, which begins with the organum or diaphony that prevailed until the death of Guido of Arezzo (about 1050) and passes through the discant, or measured music, of the r3th century, in which rhythm is first organized on a sufficiently firm basis to enable voices to sing contrasted rhythms simultaneously, while the new harmonic criterion of the independence of parts more and more displaces and shows its opposition to the old criterion of parallelism. The most extraordinary example of these conflicting principles is the famous rota " Sumer is icumen in," a 13th-century round in four parts on a canonic ground-bass in two. Recent researches GENERAL SKETCH] MUSIC 75 have brought to light a number of works in the forms of motet, conduclus, rondel (neither the later rondo nor the round, but a kind of triple counterpoint), which show that " Sumer is icumen in " contains no unique technical feature; but no work within two centuries of its date attains a style so nearly intelligible to modern ears. Its richness and firmness of harmony are such that the frequent use of consecutive fifths and octaves, in strict accordance with 13th-century principles, has to our ears all the effect of a series of grammatical blunders, so sharply does it contrast with the smooth counterpoint of the rest. In what light this smooth counterpoint struck contemporaries, or how its author (who may or may not be the writer of the Reading MS., John of Fornsete) arrived at it, is not clear, though W. S. Rockstro's amusing article, " Sumer is icumen in," in Grove's Dictionary, is very plausible. All that we know is that music in England in the 13th century must have been at a comparatively high state of development; and we may also conjecture that the tuneful character of this wonderful rota has something in common with the unwritten but famous songs of the aristocratic troubadours, or trouveres, of the 12th and 13th centuries, who, while disdaining to practise the art of accompaniment or the art of scientific and written music, undoubtedly set the fashion in melody, and, being themselves poets as well as singers, formed the current notions as to the relations between musical and poetic rhythm. The music of Adam de la Hale, surnamed Le Bossu d' Arras (c. 1230-1288), shows the transformation of the troubadour into the learned musician; and, nearly a century later, the more ambitious efforts of a greater French poet (like his contemporary Petrarca, one of Chaucer's models in poetic technique), Guillaume de Machault {fi. 13 50) , mark a further technical advance, though they are not appreciably more intelligible to the modern ear. In the next century we find an Englishman, John Dunstable, who had as early as 1437 acquired a European reputation; while his works were so soon lost sight of that until recently he was almost a legendary character, sometimes revered as the " inventor " of counterpoint, and once or twice even identified with St Dunstan! Recently a great deal of his work has come to light, and it shows us (especially when taken in connexion with the fact that the early Netherlandish master, G. Dufay, did not die until 1474, twenty-one years after Dunstable) that English counterpoint was fully capable of showing the composers of the Netherlands the path by which they were to reach the art of the " Golden age." In such examples of Dunstable's work as that appended to the article " Dunstable " in Grove's Dictionary (new ed., i. 744) we see music approaching a style more or less consistently intelligible to a modern ear; and in English Carols of the 15th Century (1801) several two-part compositions of the period, in a style resembling Dunstable's, have been made accessible to modern readers and filled out into four-part music by the editor " in accordance with the rules of the time." And though it may be doubted whether Mr Rockstro's skill would not have been held in the 15th century to savour overmuch of the Black Art, still the success of his attempt shows that the musical conceptions he is dealing with are no longer radically different from those of our modern musical consciousness. 4. The Golden Age. — The struggle towards the realization of mature musical art seems incredibly slow when we do not realize its difficulty, and wonderfully rapid as soon as we attempt to imagine the effort of first forming those harmonic conceptions which are second nature to us. Even at the time of Dunstable and Dufay the development of the contrapuntal idea of inde- pendence of parts had not yet so transformed the harmonic consciousness that the ancient parallelisms or consecutive fourths and fifths that were the backbone of discant could be seen in their true light as contradictory to the contrapuntal method. By the beginning of the 16th century, however, the laws of counterpoint were substantially fixed; practice was for a while imperfect, and aims still uncertain, but skill was increasing and soon became marvellous; and in 16th-century music we leave the archaic world altogether. Henceforth music may show various phenomena of crudeness, decadence and transition, but its transition-periods will always derive light from the past, whatever the darkness of the future. In the best music of the 16th century we have no need of research or mental gymnastics, beyond what is necessary in all art to secure intelligent presentation and attention. Its materials show us the " three dimensions " of music in their simplest state of perfect balance. Rhythm, emancipated from the tyranny of verse, is free to co-ordinate and contrast a multi- tude of melodies which by the very independence of their flow produce a mass of harmony that passes from concord to concord through ordered varieties of transitional discord. The criterion of discord is no longer that of mere harshness, but is modified by the conception of the simplicity or remoteness of the steps by which the flux of independent simultaneous melodies passes from one concord, or point of repose, to another. When the music reaches a climax, or its final conclusion, the point of repose is, of course, greatly emphasized. It is accordingly the " cadences " or full closes of 16th-century music that show the greatest resemblance to the harmonic ideas of the present day; and it is also at these points that certain notes were most frequently raised so as to modify the ecclesiastical modes which are derived more or less directly from the melodic diatonic scale of the Greeks, and misnamed, according to inevitable medieval misconceptions, after the Greek modes. 1 In other passages our modern ears, when unaccustomed to the style, feel that the harmony is strange and lacking in definite direction; and we are apt to form the hasty conclusion that the mode is an archaic survival. A more familiar acquaintance with the art soon shows that its shifting and vague modulations are no mere survival of a scale inadequate for any but melodic purposes, but the natural result of a state of things in which only two species of chord are available as points of repose at all. If no successions of such chords were given prominence, except those that define key according to modern notions based upon a much greater variety of harmony, the resulting monotony and triviality would be intolerable. Moreover, there is in this music just as much and no more of formal antithesis and sequence as its harmony will suffice to hold together. Lastly, we shall find, on comparing the masterpieces of the period with works of inferior rank, that in the masterpieces the most archaic modal features are expressive, varied and beautiful; while in the inferior works they are often avoided in favour of ordinary modern ideas, and, when they occur, are always accidental and monoto- nous, although in strict conformity with the rules of the time. The consistent limitations of harmony, form and rhythm have the further consequence that the only artistic music possible within them is purely vocal. The use of instruments is little more than a necessary evil for the support of voices in case of insufficient opportunity for practice; and although the origins of instrumental music are already of some artistic interest in the 1 6th century, we must leave them out of our account if our object is to present mature artistic ideas in proper proportions. The principles of 16th-century art-forms are discussed in more detail in the article on Contrapuntal Forms. Here we will treat the formal criteria on a general basis; especially as with art on such simple principles the distinction between one art-form and another is apt to be either too external or too subtle for stability. With music there is a stronger probability than in any other art that merely mechanical devices will be self-evident, and thus they may become either dangerous or effective. With the masters of the Netherlands they speedily became both. Two adjacent groups of illustrations in Burney's 1 The technical nature of the subject forbids us to discuss the origin and characteristics of the great Ambrosian and Gregorian collections of melodic church music on which nearly all medieval and 16th-century polyphony was based, and from which the ecclesi- astical modes were derived. Professor Wooldridge in The Oxford History of Music, i. 20-44, has shown the continuity of this early Christian music with the Graeco- Roman music, and the origin of its modes in the Ptolemaic modification (c. A. D. 150) of the Greek diatonic scale ; while a recent defence of the ecclesiastical tradi- tion of a revision by St Gregory will be found in the article on " Gregorian music " in Grove's Dictionary (new ed.), ii. 235. 76 MUSIC [GENERAL SKETCH History of Music will show on the one hand the astonishing way in which early polyphonic composers learnt to " dance in fetters," and, on the other hand, the expressive power that they attained by that discipline. Burney quotes from the venerable 15th-century master Okeghem, or Okenheim, some canons so designed as to be singable in all modes. They are by no means extreme cases of the ingenuity which Okenheim and his pupils often employed; but though they are not very valuable artistically (and are not even correctly deciphered by Burney) 1 they prove that mechanical principles may be a help rather than a hindrance to the attainment of a smooth and plastic style. Burney most appropriately follows them with Josquin Des Pres's wonderful Deploration de Jehan Okenheim, in which the tenor sings the plain chant of the Requiem a degree below its proper pitch, while the other voices sing a pastoral dirge in French. The device of transposing the plain chant a note lower, and making the tenor sing it in that position through- out the whole piece, is obviously as mechanical as any form of acrostic: but it is happily calculated to impress our ears, even though, unlike Josquin's contemporaries, most of us are not familiar with the plain chant in its normal position; because it alters the position of all the semitones and gives the chant a plaintive minor character which is no less impressive in itself than as a contrast to the orthodox form. And the harmonic superstructure is as fine an instance of the expressive possibilities of the church modes at their apogee from modern tonality as could be found anywhere. A still nobler example, which we may perhaps acclaim as the earliest really sublime masterpiece in music, is Josquin's Miserere, which is accessible in a modern edition. In this monumental work one of the tenor parts is called Vagans, because it sings the burden Miserere mei Deus at regular intervals, in an almost monotonous wailing figure, wandering through each successive degree of the scale throughout the composition. The effect, aided as it is by consummate rhetorical power in every detail of the surrounding mass of . harmony and counterpoint, is extremely expressive; and the device lends itself to every shade of feeling in the works of the greatest of all Netherland masters, Orlando di Lasso. Palestrina is less fond of it. Like all more obvious formal devices it is crowded out of his Roman art by the exquisite subtlety of his sense of proportion, and the exalted spirituality of his style which, while it allows him to set the letters of the Hebrew alphabet in the Lamentations of Jeremiah in much the same spirit as that in which they would be treated in an illuminated Bible, forbids him to stimulate a sense of form that might distract the mind from the sense of mystery and awe proper to objects of devout contemplation. Yet in one of his greatest motets, Tribularer si nescirem, the burden of Josquin's Miserere appears with the same treatment and purpose as in its prototype. But with the lesser Flemish masters, and sometimes with the greatest, such mechanical principles often became not only inexpressive but absolutely destructive to musical effect. The ingenuity necessary to make the stubborn material of music plastic was not so easily attainable as the ingenuity necessary to turn music into a mathematical game; and when Palestrina was in his prime the inferior composers so outnumbered the masters to whom music was a devout language, and so degraded the art, not only by ousting genuine musical expression but by foisting secular tunes and words into the church services, that one of the minor questions with which the Council of Trent was concerned was whether polyphonic church music should be totally abolished with other abuses, or whether it was capable of reform. Legendary history relates that Palestrina submitted for judgment three masses of which the Missa papae Marcelli proved to be so sublime that it was henceforth accepted as the ideal church music (see Palestrina). This tale is difficult to reconcile with the chronology of Palestrina's works, but there is no doubt that Palestrina was officially recognized by the Church as a bulwark against bad taste. But we must not allow this to mislead us as to the value of church music before 1 The correct version will be found in The Oxford History of Music, fi. 215. Palestrina. Nor must we follow the example of Baini, who, in his detestation of what he is pleased to call fiammingo squalore, views with uncritical suspicion any work in which Palestrina does not confine himself to strictly Italian methods of expression. A notion still prevails that Josquin represents counterpoint in an anatomical perfection into which Palestrina was the first to breathe life and soul. This gives an altogether inadequate idea of 16th-century music. Palestrina brought the century to a glorious close and is undoubtedly its greatest master, but he is primus inter pares; and in every part of Europe music was represented, even before the middle of the century, by masters who have every claim to immortality that sincerity of aim, completeness" of range, and depth and perfection of style can give. It has been rightly called the golden age of music, and our chronological table at the end of this article gives but an inadequate idea of the number of its masters whom no lover of music ought to neglect. It is not exclusively an age of church music. It is also the age of madrigals, both secular and spiritual; and, small as was its range of expression, there has been no period in musical art when the distinctions between secular and ecclesiastical style were more accurately maintained by the great masters, as lis abundantly shown by the test cases in which masses of the best period have been based on secular themes. (See Madrigal.) 5. The Monodic Revolution and its Results. — Like all golden ages, that of music vanished at the first appearance of a knowledge beyond its limitations. The first and simplest realization of mature art is widespread and nourishes a veritable army of great men; its masterpieces are innumerable, and its organization is so complete that no narrowness or specialization can be felt in the nature of its limitations. Yet these are exceedingly close, and the most modest attempt to widen them may have disastrous results. Many experiments were tried before Pales- trina's death and throughout the century, notably by the elder and younger Gabrieli. Perhaps Palestrina himself is the only great composer of the time who never violates the principles of his art. Orlando di Lasso, unlike Palestrina, wrote almost as much secular as sacred music, and in his youth indulged in many eccentricities in a chromatic style which he afterwards learnt to detest. But if experiments are to revolu- tionize art it is necessary that their novelty shall already embody some artistic principle of coherence. No such principle will avail to connect the Phrygian mode with a chord containing Aft; and, however proud the youthful Orlando di Lasso may be at being the first to write A#, neither his early chromatic experiments nor those of Cipriano di Rore, which he admired so much, left a mark on musical history. They appealed to nothing deeper than a desire for sensational variety of harmony; and, while they carried the successions of chords far beyond the limits of the modes, they brought no new elements into the chords themselves. By the beginning of the 17th century the true revolutionary principles Were vigorously at work, and the powerful genius of Monteverde speedily made it impossible for men of impres- sionable artistic temper to continue to work in the old style when such vast new regions of thought lay open to them. In the year of Palestrina's death, 1594, Monteverde pub- lished, in his third book of madrigals, works in which without going irrevocably beyond the letter of 16th-century law he showed far more zeal for emotional expression than sense of euphony. In 1599 he published madrigals in which his means of expression involve harmonic principles altogether incompatible with 16th- century ideas. But he soon ceased to place confidence in the madrigal as an adequate art-form for his new ideals of expression, and he found an unlimited field in musical drama. Dramatic music received its first stimulus from a group of Florentine dilettanti, who aspired amongst other things to revive the ideals of Greek tragedy. Under their auspices the first true opera ever performed in public, Jacopo Peri's Euridice, appeared in 1600. Monteverde found the conditions of dramatic music more favourable to his experiments than those of choral music, in which both voices and ears are at their highest sensibility GENERAL SKETCH] MUSIC 77 to discord. Instruments do not blend like voices; and players, producing their notes by more mechanical means, have not the singer's difficulty in making combinations which the ear does not readily understand. The one difficulty of the new art was fatal: there were no limitations. When Monteverde introduced his unprepared discords, the effect upon musical style was like that of intro- ducing modern metaphors into classical Greek. There were no harmonic principles to control the new material, except those which just sufficed to hold together the pure 16th-century style; and that style depended on an exquisite continuity of flow which was incompatible with any rigidity either of har- mony or rhythm. Accordingly there were also no rhythmic principles to hold Monteverde's work together, except such as could be borrowed from types of secular and popular music that had hitherto been beneath serious attention. If the 17th century seems almost devoid of great musical names it is not for want of incessant musical activity. The task of organizing new resources into a consistent language was too gigantic to be accomplished within three generations. Its fascinating dramatic suggestiveness and incalculable range disguised for those who first undertook it the fact that the new art was as difficult and elementary in its beginnings as the very beginning of harmony itself in the 13th and 14th centuries. And the most beautiful compositions at the beginning of the 17th century are rather those which show the decadence of 16th-century art than those in which the new principles were most consistently adopted. Thus the madrigals of Monteverde, though often dull and always rough, contain more music than his operas. On the other hand, almost until the middle of the 17th century great men were not wanting who still carried on the pure polyphonic style. Their asceticism denotes a spirit less compre- hensive than that of the great artists for whom the golden age was a natural environment; but in parts of the world where the new influences did not yet prevail even this is not the case, and a composer like Orlando Gibbons, who died in 1625, is well worthy to be ranked with the great Italian and Flemish masters of the preceding century. But the main task of composers of the 17th century lay elsewhere; and if the result of their steady attention to it was trivial in comparison with the glories of the past, it at least led to the glories of the greater world organized by Bach and Handel. The early monodists, Monteverde and his fellows, directed attention to the right quarter in attempting to express emotion by means of single voices supported by instruments; but the formless declamation of their dramatic writings soon proved too monotonous for permanent interest, and such method as it showed became permanent only by being codified into the formulas of recitative, which are, for the most part, very happy idealizations of speech-cadence, and which accordingly survive as dramatic elements in music at the present day, though, like all rhetorical figures, they have often lost meaning from careless use. 1 It was all very well to revolutionize current conceptions of harmony, so that chords were no longer considered, as in the days of pure polyphony, to be the result of so many independent melodies. But in art, as elsewhere, new thought eventually shows itself as an addition to, not a substitute for, the wisdom of ages. Moreover, it is a mistake, though one endorsed by high authorities, to suppose that the 16th-century composers did not appreciate the beauty of successions of chords apart from polyphonic design. On the contrary, Palestrina and Orlando di Lasso themselves are the greatest masters the world has ever seen of a style which depends wholly on the beauty of masses of harmony, entirely devoid of polyphonic detail, and held together by a delicately balanced rhythm in which obvious symmetry is as carefully avoided as it is in the successions of chords themselves. Nevertheless, the monody of the 17 th century is radically different in principle, not only because chords are used which were an outrage on 16th- J The " invention " of recitative is frequently ascribed to this or that monodist, with as little room for dispute as when we ascribe the invention of clothes to Adam and Eve. All monody was recita- tive, if only from inability to organize melodies. century ears, but because the fundamental idea is that of a solo voice declaiming phrases of paramount emotional interest, and supported by instruments that play such chords as will heighten the poignancy of the voice. And the first advance made on this chaotic monody consisted, not in the reintroduction of vitality into the texture of the harmonies, but in giving formal symmetry and balance to the vocal surface. This involved the strengthening of the harmonic system, so that it could carry the new discords as parts of an intelligible scheme, and not merely as uncontrollable expressions of emotion. In other words, the chief energies of the successors of the monodists were devoted to the establishment of the modern key-system; a system in comparison with which the subtle variety of modal concord sounded vague and ill-balanced, until the new key-system itself was so safely established that Bach and Beethoven could once more appreciate and use essentially modal successions of chords in their true meaning. The second advance of the monodic movement was in the cultivation of the solo voice. This developed together with the cultivation of the violin, the most capable and expressive of the instruments used to support it. Monteverde already knew how to make interesting experiments with violins, such as directing them to play pizzicato, and accompanying an excited description of a duel by rapidly repeated strokes on a major chord, followed by sustained dying harmonies in the minor. By the middle of the century violin music is fairly common, and the distinction between Sonata da Mesa and Sonata da camera appears (see Sonata). But the cultivation of instru- mental technique had also a great effect on that of the voice; and Italian vocal technique soon developed into a monstrosity that so corrupted musical taste as not only to blind the contem- poraries of Bach and Handel to the greatness of their choral art, but, in Handel's case, actually to swamp a great deal of his best work. The balance between a solo voice and a group of instruments was, however, successfully cultivated together with the modern key-system and melodic form; with the result that the classical aria, a highly effective art-form, took shape. This, while it totally destroyed the dramatic character of opera for the next hundred years, yet did good service in furnishing a reasonably effective means of musical expression which could encourage composers and listeners to continue cultivating the art until the day of small things was past. The operatic aria, as matured by Alessandro Scarlatti, is at its. worst a fine oppor- tunity for a gorgeously dressed singer to display feats of vocal gymnastics, either on a concert platform, or in scenery worthy of the Drury Lane pantomime. At its best it is a beautiful means of expression for the devout fervour of Bach and Handel. At all times it paralyses dramatic action, and no more ironic revenge has ever overtaken iconoclastic reformers than the historic development by which the purely dramatic declama- tion of the monodists settled down into a series of about thirty successive displays of vocalization, designed on rigidly musical conventions, and produced under spectacular conditions by artificial sopranos as the highest ideal of music-drama. The principal new art-forms of the 17th century are then, firstly, the aria (not the opera, which was merely a spectacular condition under which people consented to listen to some thirty arias in succession) ; and, secondly, the polyphonic instrumental forms, of which those of the suite or sonata da camera were mainly derived from the necessity for ballet music in the opera (and hence greatly stimulated by the taste of the French court under Louis XIV.), while those of the sonata da chiesa were also inspired by a renaissance of interest in polyphonic texture. The sonata da chiesa soon settled into a conventionality only less inert than that of the aria because violin technique had wider possibilities than vocal; but when Lulli settled in France and raised to a higher level of effect the operatic style suggested by Cambert, he brought with him just enough of the new instru- mental polyphony to make his typical form of French overture (with its slow introduction in dotted rhythm, and its quasi-fugal allegro) worthy of the important place it occupies in Bach's and Handel's art. 7 8 MUSIC [GENERAL SKETCH Meanwhile great though subordinate activity was also shown in the evolution of a new choral music dependent upon an instru- mental accompaniment of more complex function than that of mere support. This, in the hands of the Neapolitan masters, was destined to lead straight to the early choral music of Mozart and Haydn, both of whom, especially Mozart, subsequently learnt its greater possibilities from the study of Handel. But the most striking choral art of the time came from the Germans, who never showed that thoughtless acquiescence in the easiest means of effect which was already the bane of Italian art. Consequently, while the German output of the 17th century fails to show that rapid attainment of modest maturity which gives much Italian music of the period a permanent if slight artistic value, there is, in spite of much harshness, a stream of noble polyphonic effort in both organ and choral music in Germany from the time of H.Schiitz (who was born in 1585 and who was a great friend and admirer of Monteverde) to that of Bach and Handel just a century later. Nor was Germany inactive in the dramatic line, and the 17th-century Italian efforts in comic opera, which are so interesting and so unjustly neglected by historians, found a parallel, before Handel's maturity, in the work of R. Keiser, and may be traced through him in Handel's first opera, Almira. The best proof of the insufficiency of 17th-century resources is to be found in the almost tragic blending of genius and failure shown by our English church music of the Restoration. The works of Pelham Humfrey and Blow already show the qualities which with Purcell seem at almost any given moment to amount to those of the highest genius, while hardly a single work has any coherence as a whole. The patchiness of Purcell's music was, no doubt, increased by the influence of French taste then predominant at court. When Pelham Humfrey was sixteen, King Charles II., as Sir Hubert Parry remarks, " achieved the characteristic and subtle stroke of humour of sending him over to France to study the methods of the most celebrated composer of theatrical music of the time in order to learn how to compose English church music." Yet it is impossible to see how such ideas as Purcell's could have been presented in more than French continuity of flow by means of any designs less powerful than those of Bach and Handel. Purcell's ideas are, like those of all great artists, at least sixty years in advance of the normal intellect of the time. But they are unfortunately equally in advance of the only technical resources then conceivable; and Purcell, though one of the greatest contrapuntists that ever lived, is probably the only instance in music of a man of really high genius born out of due time. Musical talent was certainly as common in the 17th century as at any other time; and if we ask why, unless we are justified in counting Purcell as a tragic exception, the whole century shows not one name in the first artistic rank, the answer must be that, after all, artistic talent is far more common than the interaction of environment and character necessary to direct it to perfect artistic results. 6. Bach and Handel. — It was not until the 18th century had begun that two men of the highest genius could find in music a worthy expression of their grasp of life. Bach and Handel were born within a month of each other, in 1685, and in the same part of Saxony. Both inherited the tradition of polyphonic effort that the German organists and choral writers had steadily maintained throughout the 17th century; and both profited by the Italian methods that were penetrating Germany. In Bach's case it was the Italian art-forms that appealed to his sense of design. Their style did not affect him, but he saw every possi- bility which the forms contained, and studied them the more assiduously because they were not, like polyphonic texture, his birthright. In recitative his own distinctively German style attained an intensity and freedom of expression which is one of the most moving things in art. Nevertheless, if he handled recitative in his own way it was not for want of acquaintance with the Italian formulas, nor even because he despised them; for in his only two extant Italian works the scraps of recitative are strictly in accordance with Italian convention, and the arias show (when we allow for their family likeness with Bach's normal style) the most careful modelling upon Italian forms. Again, as is well known, Bach arranged with copious additions and alterations many concertos by Vivaldi (together with some which though passing under Vivaldi's name are really by Germar contemporaries); and, while thus taking every opportunity of assimilating Italian influences in instrumental as well as in vocal music, he was no less alive to the importance of the French overture and suite forms. Moreover, he is very clear as to where his ideas come from, and extremely careful to maintain every art-form in its integrity. Yet his style remains his own through- out, and the first impression of its resemblance to that of his German contemporaries diminishes the more the period is studied. Bach's art thus forms one of the most perfectly systematic and complete records a life's work has ever achieved. His art -forms might be arranged in a sort of biological scheme, and their interaction and genealogy has a clearness which might almost be an object of envy to men of science even if Bach had not demonstrated every detail of it by those wonderful re- writings of his own works which we have described elsewhere (see Bach). Handel's methods were as different from Bach's as his circum- stances. He soon left Germany and, while he never betrayed his birthright as a great choral writer, he quickly absorbed the Italian style so thoroughly as to become practically an Italian. He also adopted the Italian forms, but not, like Bach, from any profound sense of their possible place in artistic system. To him they were effective, and that was all. He did not trouble himself about the permanent idea that might underlie an art- form and typify its expression. He has no notion of a form as anything higher than a rough means of holding music together and maintaining its flow; but he and Bach, alone among their contemporaries, have an unfailing sense of all that is necessary to secure this end. They worked from opposite points of view: Bach develops his art from within, until its detail, like that of Beethoven's last works, becomes dazzling with the glory of the whole design; Handel at his best is inspired by a magnificent scheme, in the execution of which he need condescend to finish of detail only so long as his inspiration does not hasten to the next design. Nevertheless it is to the immense sweep and breadth of Handel's choral style, and its emotional force, that all subsequent composers owe their first access to the larger and less mechanical resources of music. (See Handel.) 7. The Symphonic Classes. — After the death of Bach and Handel another change of view, like that Copernican revolution for which Kant sighed in philosophy, was necessary for the further development of music. Once again it consisted in an inversion of the relation between form and texture. But, whereas at the beginning of the 17th century the revolution consisted mainly in directing attention to chords as, so to speak, harmonic lumps, instead of moments in a flux of simultaneous melodies; in the later half of the 18th century the revolution concerned the larger musical outlines, and was not complicated by the discovery of new harmonic resources. On the contrary, it led to an extreme simplicity of harmony. The art of Bach and Handel had given perfect vitality to the forms developed in the 18th century, but chiefly by means of the reinfusion of polyphonic life. The formal aspects (that is, those that decree the shapes of aria and suite-movement and the balance and contrasts of such choruses as are not fugues) are, after all, of secondary importance; the real centre of Bach's and Handel's technical and intellectual activity is the polyphony; and the more the external shape occupies the foreground the more the work assumes the character of light music. In the article Sonata Forms we show how this state of things was altered, and attention is there drawn to the dramatic power of a music in which the form is technically prior to the texture. And it is not difficult to understand that Gluck's reform of opera would have been a sheer impossibility if he had not dealt with music in the sonata style, which is capable of changing its character as it unfolds its designs. The new period of transition was neither so long nor so inter- esting as that of the 17th century. The contrast between the GENERAL SKETCH] MUSIC 79 squalid beginnings of the new art and the glories of Bach and Handel is almost as great as that between the monodists and Palestrina, but it appeals far less to our sympathies, because it seems like a contrast between noble sincerity and idle elegance. The new art seems so easy-going and empty that it conceals from us the necessity of the sympathetic historical insight for which the painful experiments of the monodists almost seem to cry aloud. And its boldest rhetorical experiments, such as the fantasias of Philipp Emanuel Bach, show a security of harmony which, together with the very vividness of their realization of modern ideas, must appear to a modern listener more like the hollow rhetoric of a decadent than the prophetic inspiration of a pioneer. And, just as in the 17th century, so in the time before Haydn and Mozart, the work that is most valuable artis- tically tends to be that which is of less importance historically. The cultivation of the shape of music at the expense of its texture was destined to lead to greater things than polyphonic art had ever dreamt of; but no living art could be achieved until the texture was brought once more into vital, if subordinate, relation to the shape. Thus, far more interesting artistically than the epoch-making earlier pianoforte works of Philipp Emanuel Bach are his historically less fruitful oratorios, and his symphonies, and the rich polyphonic modifications of the new principles in the best works of his elder brother Friedemann. Yet the tran- sition-period is hardly second in historic importance to that of the 17th century; and we may gather from it even more direct hints as to the meaning of the tendencies of our own day. As in the 17th century, so in the 18th the composers and critics of Haydn's youth, not knowing what to make of the new tendencies, and conscious rather of the difference between new and old ideas than of the true nature of either, took refuge in speculations about the emotional and external expression of music; and when artistic power and balance fail it is very con- venient to go outside the limits of the art and explain failure away by external ideas. Fortunately the external ideas were capable of serious organic function through the medium of opera, and in that art-form music was passing out of the hands of ■ Italians and assuming artistic and dramatic life under Gluck. The metaphysical and literary speculation which overwhelmed musical criticism at this time, and which produced paper warfares and musical party-feuds such as that 'between the Gluckists and the Piccinists, at all events had this advantage over the Wagnerian and anti-Wagnerian controversies of the last genera- tion and the disputes about the legitimate function of instru- mental music at the present day — that it was speculation applied exclusively to an art-form in which literary questions were directly concerned, an art-form which moreover had up to that time been the grave of all the music composers chose to put into it. But as soon as music once more attained to consistent principles all these discussions became but a memory. If Gluck's music had not been more musical as well as more dramatic than Piccini's, all its foreshadowing of Wagnerian principles would have availed it no more than it availed Monteverde. When the new art found symphonic expression in Haydn and Mozart, it became music pure and simple, and yet had no more difficulty than painting or poetry in dealing with external ideas, when these were naturally brought into it by the human voice or the conditions of dramatic action. It had once more become an art which need reject or accept nothing on artificial or extraneous grounds. Beethoven soon showed how gigantic the scale and range of the sonata style could be, and how tremendous was its effect on the possibilities of vocal music, both dramatic and choral. No revolution was needed to accomplish this. The style was perfectly formed, and for the first and so far the only time in musical history a mature art of small range opened out into an equally perfect one of gigantic range, without a moment of decadence or destruction. The chief glory of the art that culminates in Beethoven is, of course, the instrumental music, all of which comes under the head of the sonata-forms (q.v.). Meanwhile Mozart raised comic opera, both Italian and German, to a height which has never since been approached within the classical limits, and from which the operas of Rossini and his successors show a decadence so deplorable that if " classical music " means " high art " we must say that classical opera buffa begins and ends in Mozart. But Gluck, finding his dramatic ideas encouraged by the eminent theatrical sensibilities of the French, had already given French opera a stimulus towards the expression of tragic emotion which made the classics of the French operatic school well worthy to inspire Beethoven to his one noble operatic effort and Weber to the greatest works of his life. Cherubini, though no more a Frenchman than Gluck, was Gluck's successor in the French classical school of dramatic music. His operas, like his church music, account for Beethoven's touching estimation of him as the greatest composer of the time. In them his melodies, elsewhere curiously cold and prosaic, glow with the warmth of a true classic; and his tact in developing, accelerating and suspending a dramatic climax is second only to Mozart's. Scarcely inferior to Cherubini in mastery and dignity, far more lovable in temperament, and weakened only by inequality of invention, Mehul deserves a far higher place in musical history than is generally accorded him. His most famous work, Joseph, is of more historical importance than his others, but it is by no means his best from a purely musical point of view, though its Biblical subject impelled Mehul to make extremely successful experiments in " local colour " which had probably considerable influence upon Weber, whose admiration of the work was boundless. One thing is certain, that the romantic opera of Weber owes much of its inspiration to the opera comique of these masters. 1 8. From Beethoven to Wagner. — After Beethoven comes what is commonly though vaguely described as the "romantic" movement. In its essentials it amounts to little more than this, that musicians found new and prouder titles for a very ancient and universal division of parties. The one party set up a convenient scheme of form based upon the average procedure of all the writers of sonatas except Haydn and Beethoven, which scheme they chose to call classical; while the other party devoted itself to the search for new materials and new means of expression. The classicists, if so they may be called, did not quite approve of Beethoven; and while there is much justification for the charge that has been brought against them of reducing the sonata-form to a kind of game, they have for that very reason no real claim to be considered inheritors of classical traditions. The true classical method is that in which matter and form are so united that it is impossible to say which is prior to the other. The pseudo-classics are the artists who set up a form conveniently like the average classical form, and fill it with something conveniently like the average classical matter, with just such difference as will seem like an advance in brilliance and range. The romanticists are the artists who realize such a difference between their matter and that of previous art as impels them to find new forms for it,- or at all events to alter the old forms considerably. But if they are successful the difference between their work and that of the true classics becomes merely external; they are classics in a new art-form. As, however, this is as rare as true classical art is at the best of times, romanti- cism tends to mean little more than the difference between an unstable artist who cannot master his material and an artist who can, whether on the pseudo-classical or the true classical plane. The term " romantic opera " has helped us to regard Weber as a romanticist in that sphere, but when we call his instru- mental works "romantic" the term ceases to have really valuable meaning. As applied to pieces like the Concertstiick, the Invitation a la danse, and other pieces of which the external subject is known either from Weber's letters or from the titles of the pieces themselves, the term means simply " programme- music " such as we have seen to be characteristic of any stage in which the art is imperfectly mastered. Weber's programme- music shows no advance on Beethoven in the illustrative resources of the art; and the application of the term " romantic " 1 We must remember in this connexion that the term Optra comique means simply opera with spoken dialogue, and has nothing to do with the comic idea. 8o MUSIC [GENERAL SKETCH to his interesting and in many places beautiful pianoforte sonatas has no definite ground except the brilliance of his piano- forte technique and the helplessness in matters of design (and occasionally even of harmony) that drives him to violent and operatic outbreaks. Schubert also lends some colour to the opposition between romantic and classical by his weakness in large instrumental designs, but his sense of form was too vital for his defective training to warp his mind from the true classical spirit; and the new elements he introduced into instrumental music, though not ratified by concentration and unity of design, were almost always the fruits of true inspiration and never mere struggles to escape from a difficulty. His talent for purely instrumental music was incomparably higher than Weber's, while that for stage-drama, as shown in the most ambitious of his numerous operas, Fierra- bras, was almost nil. But he is the first and perhaps the greatest classical song writer. It was Beethoven's work on a larger scale that so increased the possibilities of handling remote harmonic sequences and rich instrumental and rhythmic effects as to prepare for Schubert a world in which music, no less than literature, was full of suggestions for that concentrated expres- sion of a single emotion which distinguishes true lyric art. And, whatever the defects of Schubert's treatment of larger forms, his construction of small forms which can be compassed by a single melody or group of melodies is unsurpassable and is truly classical in spirit and result. Schumann had neither Schubert's native talent for larger form nor the irresponsible spirit which allowed Schubert to handle it uncritically. Nor had he the astounding lightness of touch and perfect balance of style with which Chopin con- trolled the most wayward imagination that has ever found expression in the pianoforte lyric. But he had a deep sense of melodic beauty, a mastery of polyphonic expression which for .all its unorthodox tendency was second only to that of the greatest classics, and an epigrammatic fancy which enabled him to devise highly artistic forms of music never since imitated with success though often unintelligently copied. In his songs and pianoforte lyrics his romantic ideas found perfectly mature expression. Throughout his life he was inspired by a deep reverence which, while it prevented him from attempting to handle classical forms with a technique which he felt to be inadequate, at the same time impelled him as he grew older to devise forms on a large scale externally resembling them. The German lyric poetry, which he so perfectly set to music, strength- ened him in his tendency to present his materials in an epi- grammatic and antithetic manner; and, when he took to writing orchestral and chamber music, the extension of the principles of this style to the designing of large spaces in rigid sequence furnished him with a means of attaining great dignity and weight of climax in a form which, though neither classical nor strictly natural, was at all events morctrue in its relationship to his matter than that of the pseudo-classics such as Hummel or even Spohr. Towards the end of his short life, before darkness settled upon his mind, he rose perhaps to his greatest height as regards solemnity of inspiration, though none of his later works can compare with his early lyrics for artistic perfection. Be this as it may, his last choral works, especially the latter parts of Faust (which, unlike the first part, was written before his powers failed), show that the sense of beauty and polyphonic life with which he began his career was always increasing; and if he was led to substitute an artificial and ascetic for a natural and classical solution of the difficulties of the larger art-forms it was only because of his insight into artistic ideals which he felt to be beyond his attainment. He shared with Mendelssohn the inevit- able misunderstanding of those contemporaries who grouped all music under one or other of the two heads, Classical and Romantic. There is good reason to believe that Mendelssohn died before he had more than begun to show his power, though this may be denied by critics who have not thought of comparing Handel's career up to the age at which Mendelssohn's ceased. And his mastery, resting, like Handel's, on the experience of a boyhood comparable only to Mozart's, was far too easy to induce him as a critic to reconcile the idea of high talent with distressing intellectual and technical failure. This same mastery also tended to discredit his own work, both as performer and composer, in the estimation of those whose experience encouraged them to hope that imperfection and over-excitement were infallible signs of genius. And as his facility actually did co-operate with the tendencies of the times to deflect much of his work into pseudo-classical channels, while nevertheless his independence of form and style kept him at all times at a higher level of interest and variety than any mere pseudo-classic, it is not to be wondered that his reputation became a formidable object of jealousy to those apostles of new ideas who felt that their own works were not likely to make way against academic opposition unless they called journalism to their aid. Nothing has more confused, hindered and embittered the careers of Wagner and Liszt and their disciples than the paper warfare which they did everything in their power to encourage. No doubt it had a useful purpose, and, as nothing affords a greater field for intrigue than the production of operas, it is at least possible that the gigantic and unprecedentedly expensive works of Wagner might not even at the present day have obtained a hearing if Wagner himself had been a tactful and reticent man and his partisans had all been discreet lovers and practisers of art. As to Wagner's achievement there is now no important difference of opinion. It has survived all attacks as the most monumental result music has achieved with the aid of other arts. Its antecedents must be sought in many very remote regions. The rediscovery, by Mendelssohn, of the choral works of Bach, after a century of oblivion, revealed the possi- bilities of polyphonic expression in a grandeur which even Handel rarely suggested; and inspired Mendelssohn with impor- tant ideas in the designing of oratorios as wholes. The complete fusion of polyphonic method with external and harmonic design had, under the same stimulus, been carried a step further than Beethoven by means of Schumann's more concentrated harmonic and lyric expression. That wildest of all romanticists, Berlioz, though he had less polyphonic sense than any composer who ever before or since attained distinction, nevertheless revealed important new possibilities in his unique imagination in orches- tral colour. The breaking down of the barriers that check continuity in classical opera was already indicated by Weber, in whose Euryanthe the movements frequently run one into the other, while at least twenty different themes are discoverable in the opera, recurring, like the Wagnerian leit-motif, in apt transformation and logical association with definite incidents and persons. But many things undreamed of by Weber were necessary to complete the breakdown of the classical barriers; for the whole pace of musical motion had to be emancipated from the influence of instrumental ideas. This was the most colossal reformation ever attempted by a man of real artistic balance; and even the undoubted, though unpolished, dramatic genius shown in Wag- ner's libretti (the first in which a great composer and dramatist are one) is but a small thing in comparison with the musical problems which Wagner overcomes with a success immeasur- ably outweighing any defects his less perfect literary mastery allowed to remain in his dramatic structure and poetic diction. Apart from the squabbles of Wagnerian and anti-Wagnerian journalism, the chief difficulty of his supporters and antagonists really lay in this question of the pace of the music and the consequent breadth of harmony and design. The opening of the Walkiire, in which, before the curtain rises, the sound of driving rain is reproduced by very simple sequences that take sixteen long bars to move a single step, does not, as instrumental music, compare favourably for terseness and variety with the first twenty bars of the thunderstorm in Beethoven's Pastoral Symphony, where at least four different incidents faithfully portray not only the first drops of rain and the distant thunder, but all the feelings of depression and apprehension which they inspire, besides carrying the listener rapidly through three different keys in chromatic sequence. But Beethoven's storm GENERAL SKETCH] MUSIC 81 is idealized, in its whole rise and fall, within a space of five minutes. Wagner's task is to select five real minutes near the end of the storm and to treat them with no greater variety than the action of the drama demands. When we have learnt to dissociate our minds from irrelevant ideas of an earlier instru- mental art, we find that Wagner's broad spaces contain all that is necessary. Art on a large scale will always seem to have empty spaces, so long as we expect to find in it the kind of detail appropriate to art on a smaller scale. Wagner's new harmonic resources are of similar and more complex but not less legitimate origin. In Derfliegende Hollander they are, like his wider rhythmic sweep, imperfectly digested; in fact, much of his work before the Meistet singer is, in patches, debased by the influence of Meyerbeer. But in his later works the more closely his harmonic language is studied the more conclusively does it show itself to be a logical and mastered thing. His treatment of key is, of course, adapted to a state of things in which the designs are far too long for the mind to attach any importance to the works ending in the key in which it began. To compare Wagner's key-system with that of a symphony is like comparing the perspective and composition of a panorama with the perspective and composition of an easel picture. Indeed the differences are precisely analogous in the two cases; and Wagner's sense of harmony and key turns out on investigation to be the classical sense truly adapted to its new conditions. For this very reason it is in detail quite irrele- vant to symphonic art; and there was nothing anti- Wagnerian in the reasons why Brahms had so little to do with it in his music, although every circumstance of the personal controversies and thinly disguised persecutions of Brahms's youth were enough to give any upholder of classical symphonic art a rooted prejudice to everything bearing the name of " romantic." Side by side with Wagner many enthusiasts place Liszt; and it is. indisputable that Liszt had in mind a larger and slower flow of musical sequence closely akin to Wagner's, and, no doubt, partly independent of it; and moreover, that one of Liszt's aims was to apply this to instrumental music. Also his mastery and poetic power as a pianoforte player were faithfully reflected in his later treatment of the orchestra, and ensured an extra- ordinary rhetorical plausibility for anything he chose to say. But neither the princely magnanimity of his personal character, which showed itself in his generosity alike to struggling artists and to his opponents, nor the great stimulus he gave (both by his compositions and his unceasing personal efforts and encour- agement) to new musical ideas on romantic lines, ought at this time of day to blind us to the hollowness and essential vulgarity of his style. These unfortunate qualities did not secure for his compositions immediate popular acceptance; for they were outweighed by the true novelty of his aims. But recently they have given his symphonic poems an attractiveness which, while it has galvanized a belated interest in those works, has made many critics blind to their historical importance as the founda- tion of new forms which have undergone a development of sensational brilliance under Richard Strauss. Meanwhile the party politics of modern music did much to distract public attention from the works of Brahms, who carried on the true classical method of the sonata-forms in his orchestral and chamber music, while he was no less great and original as a writer of songs and choral music of all kinds. He also developed the pianoforte lyric and widened its range. Without losing its characteristic unity it assumed a freedom and largeness of expression hitherto only attained in sonatas. Hence, however, Brahms's work, like Bach's, seemed, from its continuity with the classical forms, to look backward rather than forward. Indeed Brahms's reputation is in many quarters that of an academic reactionary; just as Bach's was, even at a time when the word " academic " was held to be rather a title of honour than of reproach. When the contemporary standpoints of criticism are established by the production of works of art in which the new elements shall no longer be at war with one another and with the whole, perhaps it will be recognized once more that the idea of progress has no value as a critical standard unless it is strictly applied to that principle by which every work of art must differ in every part of its form from every other work, precisely as far as its material differs and no further. Then, perhaps, as the conservative Bach after a hundred years of neglect revealed himself as the most profoundly modern force in the music of the 19th century, while that of his gifted and progressive sons became a forgotten fashion as soon as their goal was attained by greater masters, so may the musical epoch that seems now to have closed be remembered by posterity as the age, not of Wagner and the pioneer Liszt, but the age of Wagner and Brahms. It will also in all probability be remembered as the age in which the performer ceased to be necessarily the intellectual inferior of the composer and musical scholar. With the excep- tion of Wagner and Berlioz every great composer, since Palestrina sang in the papal choir, has paid his way as a performer; but Joseph Joachim was the first who threw the whole mind of a great composer into the career of an interpreter; and the example set by him, Biilow, Clara Schumann and Jenny Lind, though followed by very few other artists, sufficed to dispel for ever the old association of the musical performer with the mounte- bank. Joachim's influence on Brahms was incalculable. The two composers met at the time when new musical tendencies were beginning to arouse violent controversy. At the age of twenty- one Joachim had produced in his Hungarian Concerto a work of high classical mastery and great nobility, and his technique in form and texture was then considerably in advance of Brahms's. For some years Joachim and Brahms interchanged contrapuntal exercises, and many of the greatest and most perfect of Brahms's earlier works owe much to Joachim's criticism. Yet it is impossible to regret that Joachim did not himself carry on as a composer the work he so nobly began, when we realize the enormous influence of his playing in the history of modern music. By it we have become familiar with a standard of truthfulness in performance which all the generous efforts of Wagner and Liszt could hardly have rendered independent of their own special propaganda. And by it the record of classical music has been made a matter of genuine public knowledge, with a unique freedom from those popularizing tendencies which invest vulgar error with the authority of academic truth. In this respect there is a real change in the nature of modern musical culture. No serious composer at the present day would dedicate a great work to an artist who, like F. Clement, for whom Beethoven wrote his Violin Concerto, would perform the work in two portions and between them play a sonata for the violin on one string with the violin upside down. But it is hardly true that Wagner and Liszt produced a real alteration in the standard of general culture among musicians. Their work, especially Wagner's, appealed, like Gluck's, to many specific literary and philosophical interests, and they themselves were brilliant talkers; but music will always remain the most self- centred of the arts, and men of true culture will measure the depth and range of the musician's mind by the spontaneity and truthfulness of his musical expression rather than by his volubility on other subjects. The greatest musicians have not often been masters of more than one language; but they have always been men of true culture. Their humanity has been illuminated by the constant presence of ideals which their artistic mastery keeps in touch with reality. Chronological Table Pythagoras, c. 582-500 b.c Determines the ratios of the diatonic scale. Aristoxenus, fl. 320 B.C. Our chief authority on classical Greek music. Ptolemy, fl. a.d. 130. Astronomer, geographer, mathematician and writer on music. Reforms the Greek modes so as to prepare the way for the ecclesiastical modes. St Ambrose. Arranges the Ambrosian tones of church music, a.d. 384. Hucbald, c. 840-930. Systematizer of Diaphonia or OrgMum (called by him Symphonia), and inventor of a simple and in- genious notation which did not survive him. 8z MUSIC [RECENT MUSIC Guido of Arezzo, c. 990-1050. Theorist and systematizer of musical notation and solmization. Franco of Cologne, nth century author of treatises on musical rhythm. Works under the name of Franco appear at dates and places which have led to the assumption of the existence of three different authors, who, however, have been partly explained away again; and the nth century is sometimes called the Franconian period of discant. Discantus positio vulgaris. An anonymous treatise written before 1 150 ; is said to contain the earliest rules for " measured music," i.e. (or music in which different voices can sing different rhythms. The Reading MS., c. 1240 (British Museum, MS. Had., 978, fol. lib.), contains the rota " Sumer is icumen in." Walter Odington, fl. 1280. English writer on music, and composer. Adam de la Hale, 1230-1288 ) Connecting-links between the trouba- Machault,/Z. 1350 J dours and the archaic contrapuntists. John Dunstable, died 1453. English contrapuntal composer. G. Dufay, died 1474. Netherland contrapuntal composer. (These two are the principal founders of artistic counterpoint.) Josquin Des Pres, 1 445-1 521. The first great composer. Masters of the Golden Age [In the following list when a name is not qualified as " church composer " or " madrigalist," the composer is equally great in both lines ; but the qualification must not be taken as exclusive.] Netherland Masters. J. Arcadelt, c. 1514-1560. Madrigalist. Clemens non Papa, died before 1558. Jrlando di Lasso, born between 1520 and 1530; died 1594. Jan P. Sweelinck, 1362-1621. Organist, theorist and church com- poser. French Masters. E. Genet, surnamed Carpentrasso, fl. 1520. Church composer. C. Goudimel. Killed in the massacre of Lyons, 1572. Italian Masters. Palestrina, c. 1525-1594. L. Marenzio, c. 1560; died 1599. Anerio, Felice c. 1560- 1630, and G. Francesco, c. 1 567-1620, brothers. Church composers. Spanish Masters. C. Morales, 1512-1553 1 „ , . . , , F. Guerrero, c. 1 528-1 599 I Exclusively church com- T. L. de Victoria or ViUoria, fl. 1580 J P° sers - English Masters. T. Tallis, c. 1515; died 1585. Church composer. W. Byrd, 1542 or 1 543-1 623. Greatest as church composer. J. Wilbye, fl. 1600. Madrigalist. T. Money, fl. 1590. Theorist and madrigalist. Orlando Gibbons, 1583-1625. German Masters. J. Handl, or Gallus, c. 1550-1591. Hans Leo Hasler or Hassler, 1564-1612. Church composer. G. Aichinger, c. 1 565-1628. Church composer. The Monodists Cavalieri's ha Rappresentazione di Anima e di Corpo, posthumously produced in 1600. The first oratorio, one of the first works dependent on instrumental accompaniment, and one of the first with a " figured bass " indicating by figures what chords are to be used. Peri's Euridice, 1600. The first opera. Monteverde, 1 567-1 643. Great pioneer of modern harmony. The Renaissance cf Texture H. Schtitz, 1585-1672. Combines monodic and polyphonic prin- ciples in German church music and Italian madrigal. G. Frescobaldi, 1583-1644. Organ composer. Alessandro Scarlatti, 1659-1725. Founder of the aria-form of Handelian opera, and of the Neapolitan school of composition. J. B. Lulli, 1633-1687. The first classic of French opera. H. Purcell, c. 1658; died 1695. A. Corelli, 1653-1713. The first classic of the violin in the forms of suite (or sonata da camera), sonata da chiesa and concerto. F. Couperin, 1668-1733. French composer of suites (ordres) and much addicted to giving fanciful titles to his pieces which are some- times " programme music " in fact as well as name. J. P. Rameau, 1683-1764. French opera writer, harpsichordist and theorist. D. Buxtehude, 1637-1707. J. S. Bach, 1685-1750. G. F. Handel, 1685 -1759. The Sonata Epoch Domenico Scarlatti, 1685- 1 757, son of Alessandro. Harpsichord virtuoso and master of a special early type of sonata. K. Phillpp Emanuel Bach, 1 7 14-1788, third son of Sebastian Bach. The principal pioneer of the sonata style. G. W. Gluck, 1714-1787. Reformer of opera, and the first classic of 1 essentially dramatic music. F. J. Haj'dn, 1732-1809. W. A. Mozart, 1 756-1 791. Beethoven, 1770-1827. Cherubini, 1760-1842. A classic of French opera and of church music. The Lyric and Dramatic or " Romantic " Period [In this list the only qualifications given are those of which the complex conditions of modern art make definition easy as well as desirable; and, as throughout this table, the definitions must not be taken as exclusive. The choice of names is, however, guided by the different developments represented : thus accounting for glaring omissions and artistic disproportions.] Weber, 1 786-1 826. Master of romantic opera. Schubert, 1 797-1 828. The classic of song. Mendelssohn, 1 809-1 847. Chopin, 1 809-1 849. Composer of pianoforte lyrics. Berlioz, 1803-1869. Master of impressionist orchestration. Schumann, 1810-1856. Wagner, 1813-1883. Achieves absolute union of music with drama. Liszt, 181 1-1886. Pianoforte virtuoso and pioneer of the symphonic poem. Bruckner, 1824-1896. The symphonist of the Wagnerian party. Brahms, 1 833-1 897. Classical symphonic and lyric composer. Joachim, 1831-1907. Violinist, composer and teacher. Brahms's chief fellow-worker in continuing the classical tradition. Tschaikovsky, 1840-1893. Dvorak, 1 841-1904. Richard Strauss, 1864- Development of the symphonic poem. (D. F. T.) II. — Recent Music Under separate biographical headings, the work of the chief modern composers in different countries is dealt with; and 'here it will be sufficient to indicate the general current of the art, and to mention some of the more prominent among recent composers. Germany. — On the death of Brahms, the great German composers seemed, at the close of the 19th century, to have left no successor. Such merely epigonal figures as A. Bungert (b. 1846) and Cyrill Kistler (1848-1907) could not be regarded as important; and E. Humperdinck's (b. 1854) striking success with Hansel und Gretel (1893) was a solitary triumph in a limited genre. The outstanding figure, at the opening of the 20th century, was Richard Strauss (q.v.) ; but it was not so much now in composition, as in the high excel- lence of executive art, that Germany still kept up her hegemony in European music, by her schools, her great conductors and instru- mentalists, and her devotion as a nation to the production of musical works. France. — From the earliest days of their music, the French have had the enviable power of assimilating the great innovations which were originated in other countries, without losing their habit of warmly appreciating that which their own countrymen produce. That which happened with the Netherlandish composers of the 16th century, and with Lulli in the 17th, was repeated, more or less exactly, with Rossini in the early part of the 19th century and with Wagner at its close. During the last quarter of the 19th century all that is represented by the once-adored name of Gounod was discarded in favour of a style as different as possible from his. The change was mainly due to the Belgian musician, Cesar Auguste Franck (1822-1890), who established a kind of informal school of symphonic and orchestral composition, as opposed to the con- ventional methods pursued at the Paris Conservatoire. Massenet •vas left as almost the only representative of the older school, and from Edouard Lalo (1823-1892) to G. Charpentier (b. i860), all the younger composers of France adopted the newer style. With these may be mentioned Alfred Bruneau (b. 1857), an d Gabriel Faur6 (b. 1845). Camille Saint-Saens (b. 1835), however, remained the chief representative of the sound school of composition, if only by reason of his greater command of resources of every kind and his success in all forms of music. Among the newer school of composers the most original unquestionably was Debussy (q.v.), and among others may be mentioned Ernest Reyer (b. 1823), the author of some ambitious and sterling operas; F. L. V. de Joncieres (b. 1839), an enthusiastic follower of Wagner, and a composer of merit; Emanuel Chabrier (1841-1894), a man of extraordinary gift, who wrote one of the finest opSras comiques of modern times, Le Roi malgre lui (1887) ; Charles Marie Widor (b. I845), an earnest musician of great accomplishment; and Vincent d'Indy (b. 1851), a strongly original writer, alike in dramatic, orchestral and chamber compositions. In the class of lighter music, which yet lies above the level of opira bouffe, mention must be made of Leo Delibes (1836-1891) and Andr<6 Messager (b. 1855). In describing the state of music in France, it would be wrong to pass over the work done by the great conductors of various popular orchestral concerts, such as Jules E. Pasdeloup (1819-1887), Chas. Lamoureux (1834- 1S99), and Judas [Edouard] Colonne (b. 1838). Italy. — In Italy during the last quarter of the 19th century many important changes took place. The later development in the style of Verdi (q.v.) was only completed in Otello (1887) and Falstaff (1893), while his last composition, the four beautiful sacred vocal works, show how very far he had advanced in reverence. RECENT MUSIC] MUSIC 83 solidity of style and impressiveness, from the time when he wrote his earlier operas. And Arrigo Boito's Mefistofele had an immense influence on modern Italian music. Among the writers of " abso- lute " music the most illustrious are G. Sgambati (b. 1843) and G. Martucci (b. 1856), the latter's symphony in D minor being a fine work. Meanwhile a younger operatic school was growing up, of which the first production was the Flora mirabilis of Spiro Samara (b. 1861), given in 1886. Its culmination was in the Cavalleria rusticana (1890) of Pietro Mascagni (b. 1863), the Pagliacci (1892) of R. Leoncavallo (b. 1858), and the operas of Giacomo Puccini (b. 1858), notably Le Villi (1884), Manon Lescaut (1893), La Bohhne (1896), Tosca (1900), and Madama Butterfly (1904). The oratorios of Don Lorenzo Perosi (b. 1872) had an inter- esting influence on the church music of Italy (see Palestrina). Russia. — The new Russian school of music originated with M. A. Balakirev (b. 1836), who was instrumental in founding the Free School of Music at St Petersburg, and who introduced the music of Berlioz and Liszt into Russia; he instilled the principles of "advanced" music into A. P. Borodin (18^4-1887), C. A. Cui (b. 1835), M. P. Moussorgsky (1 839-1 881), "and N. A. Rimsky- Korsakov (1844-1908), all of whom, as usual with Russian com- posers, were, strictly speaking, amateurs in music, having some other profession in the absence of any possible opportunity for making money out of music in Russia. The most remarkable man among their contemporaries was undoubtedly Tschaikovsky (q.v.). A. Liadov (b. 1855) excels as a writer for the pianoforte, and A. Glazounov (b. 1865) has composed a number of fine orchestral works. United States. — Of the older American composers, only John Knowles Paine (d. 1906) and Dudley Buck (d. 1909), both born in 1839, and Benjamin Johnson Lang (1837-1909), need be mentioned. Paine, professor of music at Harvard University, and composer of oratorios, orchestral music, &c, ranks with the advanced school of romantic composers. Dudley Buck was one of the first American composers whose names were known in Europe ; and if his numerous cantatas and church music do not reach a very high standard accord- ing to modern ideas, he did much to conquer the general apathy with regard to the existence of original music in the States. Lang, prominent as organist and conductor, also became distinguished as a composer. George Whitefield Chadwick (b. 1854) has produced many orchestral and vocal works of original merit. Though the works of Clayton Johns (b. 1857) are less ambitious, they have won more popularity in Europe, and his songs, like those of Arthur Foote (b. 1853), Reginald De Koven (b. 18.59), and Ethelbert Nevin (1862-1901), are widely known. Edward Alexander McDowell (q.v.) may be regarded as the most original modern American composer. Walter Johannes Damrosch (b. 1862), the eminent conductor of the New York Symphony Orchestra, and of various operatic undertakings, has established his position as an original and poetic composer, not only by his opera, The Scarlet Letter, but by such songs as the intensely dramatic " Danny Deever." Dr Horatio William Parker's (b. 1863) oratorio settings of the hymn " Hora novissima " and of "The Wanderer's Psalm " are deservedly popular. Their masterly workmanship and his power of expression in sacred music mark him as a distinct personality. Numerous orchestral as well as vocal works have not been heard out of America, but a group of songs, newly set to the words of familiar old English ditties, have obtained great success. Mrs H. H. A. Beach, the youngest of the prominent composers of the United States and an accomplished pianist, has attained a high reputation as a writer in all the more ambitious forms of music. Many of her songs and anthems have obtained wide popularity. The achievements of the United States are, however, less marked in the production of new composers than in the attention which has been paid to musical education and appreciation generally. Henry E. Krehbiel (b. 1854), the well-known critic, was especially prominent in drawing American attention to Wagner and Brahms. The New York Opera has been made a centre for the finest artists of the day, and the symphony concerts at Boston and Chicago have been unrivalled for excellence. It is worthy of note that no country has produced a greater number of the most eminent of recent singers. Mesdames E. Eames, Nordica. Minnie Hauck, Susan Strong, Suzanne Adams, Sybil Sanderson, Esther Paljiser, Evangeline Florence, and very many more among leading sopranos, with Messrs E. E. Oudin, D. Bispham and Denis O'Sullivan, to name but three out of the host of excellent male artists, proved the natural ability of the Americans in vocal music; and it might also be said that the more notable English- speaking pupils of the various excellent French schools of voice- production are American with hardly an exception. United Kingdom. — English music requires more detailed notice, if only because of the striking change in the national feeling with regard to it. The nation had been accustomed for so long to consider music as an exotic, that, notwithstanding the glories of the older schools of English music, the amount of attention paid to everything that came from abroad, and the rich treasures of tradi- tional and distinctively English music scattered through the country, • the majority of educated people adhered to the common belief that England was not a musical country. The beauty and the enormous . quantity of traditional Irish music, the enthusiasm created in Scotland by trumpery songs written in what was supposed to be an imitation of the Scottish style, the existence of the Welsh Eisteddfodau, were admitted facts; but England was supposed to have had no share in these gifts of nature or art, and the vogue of foreign music, from Italian opera to classical symphonies, was held ; as evidence of her poverty, instead of being partly the reason of the national sterility. In the successive periods during which the music of Handel and Mendelssohn respectively had been held as all-sufficient for right-thinking musicians, success could only be attained, if at all, by those English musicians who deliberately set themselves to copy the style of these great masters; the few men who had the determination to resist the popular movement were' either confined, like the Wesley s, to one branch of music in which some originality of thought was still allowed that of the Church, or, like Henry Hugo Pierson in the days of the Mendelssohn worship, were driven to seek abroad the recognition they could not obtain at home. For a time it seemed as if the great vogue of Gounod would exalt him into a third artistic despot; but no native com- poser had even the energy to imitate his Faust; and, by the date of The Redemption (1882) and Mors el vita (1885), a renaissance of English music had already begun. For a generation up to the 'eighties the affairs of foreign opera in England were rather depressing; the rival houses presided over by the impresarios Frederick Gye (1810-1878) and Colonel J. H. Mapleson (1828-1901) had been going from bad to worse; the traditions of what were called "the palmy days " had been for- gotten, and with the retirement of Christine Nilsson in 1881, and the death of Therese J. A. Tietjens in 1877, the race of the great queens of song seemed to have come to an end. It is true that Mme Patti was in the plenitude of her fame and powers, but the number of her impersonations, perfect as they were, was so small that she alone could not support the weight of an opera season, and her terms made it impossible for any manager to make both ends meet unless the rest of the company were chosen on the principle enunciated by the husband of Mme Catalani, " Ma femme et quatre ou cinq poupees." Mme Albani (b. 1851) had made her name famous, but the most important part of her artistic career was yet to come. She had already brought Tannhduser and Lohengrin into notice, but in Italian versions, as was then usual; and the great vogue of Wagner's operas did not begin until the series of Wagner concerts given at the Royal Albert Hall in 1877 with the object of collecting funds for the preservation of the Bayreuth scheme, which after the production of the Nibelungen trilogy in 1876 had become involved in serious financial difficulties. The two seasons of German opera at Drury Lane under Dr Hans Richter (b. 1843) in 1882 and 1884, and the production of the trilogy at Her Majesty's in 1882, under Angelo Neumann's managership, first taught stay-at-home Englishmen what Wagner really was, and an Italian opera as such (i.e. with Italian as the exclusive language employed and the old " star " system in full swing) ceased to exist as a regular institution a few years after that. The revival of public interest in the opera only took place after Mr (afterwards Sir) Augustus Harris (1852-1896) had started his series of operas at Drury Lane in 1887. In the following season Harris took Covent Garden, and since that time the opera has been restored to greater public favour than it ever enjoyed, at all events since the days of Jenny Lind. The clever manager saw that the public was tired of operas arranged to suit the views of the prima donna and no one else, and he cast the works he produced, among which were Un Balto in maschera and Les Huguenots, with due attention to every part. The brothers Jean and Edouard de Reszke, both of whom had appeared in London before — the former as a baritone and the latter during the seasons 1880-1884 — were even stronger attractions to the musical public of the time than the various leading sopranos, among whom were Mme Albani, Miss M. Mac- intyre, Mme Melba, Frau Sucher and Mme Nordica, during the earlier seasons, and Mme Eames, Mile Ravogli, MM. Lassalle and P. H. Plangon, and many other Parisian favourites later. As time went on, the excellent custom obtained of giving each work in the language in which it was written, and among the distinguished German artists who were added to the company were Frau M. Ternina, Frau E. Schumann-Heink, Frau Lilli Lehmann and many more. Since Harris's death in 1896 the traditions started by him were on the whole well maintained, and as a sign of the difference between the present and the former position of English composers, it may be mentioned that two operas by F. H. Cowen, Signa and Harold, and two by Stanford, The Veiled Prophet and Much Ado about Nothing, were produced. To Signor Lago, a manager of more enterprise than good fortune, belongs the credit of reviving Gluck's Orfeo (with the masterly impersonation of the principal character by Mile Giulia Ravogli), and of bringing out Cavalleria rusticana, Tschaikovsky 's Eugen Onegin and other works. If it be just to name one institution and one man a r the creator of such an atmosphere as allowed the genius of English composers to flourish, then that honour must be paid to the Crystal Palace and August Manns, the conductor of its Saturday concerts. At first engaged as sub-conductor, under a certain Schallehn, at the building which was the lasting result of the Great Exhibition o c 1 85 1, he became director of the music in 1855; so for the better part of half a century his influence was exerted on behalf of the best music of all schools, and especially in favour of anything of 8 4 MUSIC [RECENT MUSIC English growth. Through evil report and good report he supported his convictions, and for many years he introduced one English composer after another to a fame which they would have found it hard to gain without his help and that of Sir George Grove, his loyal supporter. In 1862, when Arthur Sullivan had just returned from his studies in Leipzig, his Tempest music was produced at the Crystal Palace, and it is beyond question that it was this success and that of the succeeding works from the same hand which first showed Englishmen that music worth listening to might be pro- duced by an English hand. Sullivan reached the highest point of his achievement in The Golden Legend (1886), his most important contribution to the music of the renaissance. An important part of the Crystal Palace music was that the concerts did not follow. but led, popular taste; the works of Schubert, Schumann and many other great masters were given constantly, and the whole repertory of classical music was gone through, so that a constant attendant at these concerts would have become acquainted with the whole range of the best class of music. From 1859 onwards the classical chamber-music could be heard at the Popular Concerts started by Arthur Chappell, and for many years their repertory was not less catholic than that of the Crystal Palace undertaking ; that in later times the habit increased to a lamentable extent of choosing only the " favourite " (i.e. hackneyed) works of the great masters does not lessen the educational value of the older concerts. The lovers of the newer developments of music were always more fully satisfied at the concerts of the Musical Union, a body founded by John Ella in 1844, which lasted until 1880. From 1879 onwards the visits of Hans Richter, the conductor, were a feature of the musical season, and the importance of his work, not only in spread- ing a love of Wagner's music, but in regard to every other branch of the best orchestral music, cannot be exaggerated. Like the popular concerts, the Richter concerts somewhat fell away in later years from their original purpose, and their managers were led by the popularity of certain pieces to give too little variety. The importance of Richter's work was in bringing forward the finest English music in the years when the masters of the renaissance were young and untried. Here were to be heard the orchestral works of Sir Hubert Parry, Sir Charles Villiers Stanford, Sir A. Campbell Mackenzie and Dr F. H. Cowen ; and the names of these composers were thus brought into notice much more effectually than could have been the case in other surroundings. Meanwhile outside London the work of the renaissance was being carried on, notably at Cambridge, where by the amalgamation of various smaller societies with the University Musical Society, Stanford created in 1875 a splendid institution which did much to foster a love of the best music for many years ; and at Oxford, where private meetings in the rooms of Hubert Parry brought about the institu- tion of the Musical Club, which has borne fruit in many ways, though only in the direction of chamber-music. The Bach Choir, founded by Mr Arthur Duke Coleridge in 1875, and conducted for the first ten years of its existence by Mr Otto Goldschmidt and subsequently by Professor Stanford, worked on purely uncommercial lines ever since its foundation, and besides many important works of Bach, it brought forward most important compositions by Englishmen, and had a prominent share in the work of the renais- sance. Parry's earlier compositions had a certain austerity in them which, while it commanded the homage of the cultivated few, prevented their obtaining wide popularity; and it was not until the date of his choral setting of Milton's Ode at a Solemn Mustek that he found his true vein. In this and its many successors, produced at the autumn festivals, though very rarely given in London, there was a nobility of utterance, a sublimity of concep- tion, a mastery of resource, that far surpass anything accomplished in England since the days of Purcell; while his " Symphonic Varia- tions " for orchestra, and at least two of his symphonies, exhibit his command of the modern modifications of classical forms in great perfection. Like Parry, Stanford first caught the ear of the public at large with a choral work, the stirring ballad-setting of Tennyson's Revenge; and in all his earlier and later works alike, which include compositions in every form, he shows himself a supreme master of effect; in dramatic or lyrical handling of voices, in orchestral and chamber-music, his sense of beauty is unfailing, and while his ideas have real distinction, his treatment of them is nearly always the chief interest of his works. The work of the musical renaissance has been more beneficially fostered by these two masters than by any other individuals, through the medium of the Royal College of Music. In 1876 the National Training School of Music was opened with Sullivan as principal; he was succeeded by Sir John Stainer in 1881, and the circumstance that such artists as Mr Eugen d'Albert and Mr Frederic Cliffe received there the foundation oftheir musical education is the only important fact connected with the institution, which in 1882 was succeeded by the Royal College of Music, under the directorship of Sir George Grove, and with Parry and Stanford as professors of composition. In 1894 Parry succeeded to the directorship, and before and after this date work of the best educational kind was done in all branches of the art, but most of all in the important branch of composition. Mackenzie's place among the masters of the renaissance is assured by his romantic compositions for orchestra — such as La Belle dame sans merci and the two " Scottish Rhapsodies "; some of his choral works, such as the oratorios, show some tendency to fall back into the conventionalities from which the renaissance movement was an effort to escape; but in The Cottar's Saturday Night; The Story of Sayid; Vent, Creator Spiritus, and many other things, not except- ing the opera Colomba or the witty " Britannia " overture, he shows no lack of spontaneity or power. As principal of the Royal Academy of Music (he succeeded Macfarren in 1888) he revived the former glories of the school, and the excellent plan by which it and the Royal College unite their forces in the examinations of the Associated Board is largely due to his initiative. The opera just mentioned was the first of the modern series of English operas brought out from 1883 onwards by the Carl Rosa company during its tenure of Drury Lane Theatre: at the time it seemed as though English opera had a chance of getting permanently established, but the enterprise, being a purely private and individual one, failed to have a lasting effect upon the art of the country, and after the production of two operas by Mackenzie, two by Arthur Goring Thomas, one by F. Corder, two by Cowen and one by Stanford, the artistic work of the company grew gradually less and less important. In spite of the strong influence of French ideals and methods, the music of Arthur Goring Thomas was remarkable for individuality and charm ; in any other country his beautiful opera Esmeralda would have formed part of the regular repertory; and his orchestral suites, cantatas and a multitude of graceful and original songs, remain as evidence that if his career had been prolonged, the art of England might have been enriched by some masterpiece it would not willingly nave let die. After a youth of extraordinary pre- cocity, and a number of variously successful attempts in the more ambitious and more serious branches of the art, Cowen found his chief success in the treatment of fanciful or fairy subjects, whether in cantatas or orchestral works; here he is without a rival, and his ideas are uniformly graceful, excellently treated and wonderfully effective. His second tenure of the post of conductor of the Phil- harmonic Society showed him to be a highly accomplished conductor. In regard to English opera two more undertakings deserve to be recorded. In 1891 the Royal English Opera House was opened with Sullivan's Ivanhoe, a work written especially for the occasion* the absence of anything like a repertory, and the retention of this one work in the bills for a period far longer than its attractions could warrant, brought the inevitable result, and shortly after the production of a charming French comic opera the theatre was turned into the Palace Music Hall. The charming and thoroughly characteristic Shamus O'Brien of Stanford was successfully pro- duced in 1896 at the Opera Comique theatre. This work brought into public prominence the conductor Mr Henry J. Wood (b. 1870), who exercised a powerful influence on the art of the country by means of his orchestra, which was constantly to be heard at the Queen's Hall, and which attained, by continual performance together, a degree of perfection before unknown in England. It achieved an important work in bringing music within the reach of all classes at the Promenade Concerts given through each summer, as well as by means of the Symphony Concerts at other seasons. The movement thus started by Mr Wood increased and spread remarkably in later years. His training of the Queen's Hall Orchestra was characterized by a thoroughness and severity pre- viously unknown in English orchestras. This was partly made possible by the admirable business organization which fostered the movement in its earlier years ; so many concerts were guaranteed that it was possible to give the players engagements which included a large amount of rehearsing. The result was soon apparent, not only in the raising of the standard of orchestral playing, but also in the higher and more intelligent standard of criticism to which performances were subjected both by experts and by the general public. The public taste in London for symphonic music grew so rapidly as to encourage the establishment of other bodies of players, until in 1910 there were five first-class professional orchestras giving concerts regularly in London — the Philharmonic Society, the Queen's Hall Orchestra, the London Symphony Orchestra (described by Dr Hans Richter as " the finest orchestra in the world "), the New Symphony Orchestra under Mr Landon Ronald (b. 1873), a composer and conductor of striking ability, and Mr Thomas Beecham s Orchestra. Mr Beecham, who had come rapidly to the front as a musical enthusiast and conductor, paid special attention to the work of British compbsers. Manchester, Birming- ham, Liverpool and Edinburgh, had their own orchestras; and it might be said that the whole of the United Kingdom was now permeated with a taste for and a knowledge of orchestral music. The effect of this development has influenced the whole of the musical life of England. The symphony and the symphonic poem have taken the place so long held by the oratorio in popular taste; and English composers of any merit or ability find it possible to get a hearing for orchestral work which at the end of the :9th century would have had to remain unperformed and unheard. The result has been the rapid development of a school of English orchestral composers — a school of considerable achievement and still greater promise. The new school of English writers contains many names of skilled composers. Sir Edward Elgar established his reputation by his vigorous Caractacus and the grandiose imaginings of his Dream of Gerontius, as by orchestral and chamber compositions of RECENT MUSIC] MUSIC 85 decided merit and individuality, and by being the composer of a symphony which attained greater and wider fame than any similar work since the symphonies of Tschaikovsky. Mr Edward German (b. 1862) won great success as a writer of incidental music for plays, and in various lighter forms of music, for which his great skill in orchestration and his knowledge of effect stand him in good stead. The quality of Mr Frederic Cliffe's orchestral works is extremely high. Dr Arthur Somervell (b. 1863), who succeeded Stainer as musical adviser to the Board of Education, first came into promi- nence as a composer of a number of charming songs, notably a fine song-cycle from Tennyson's Maud, but his Mass and various orchestral works and cantatas and pianoforte pieces show his conspicuous ability in other forms. Various compositions written by Mr Hamish MacCunn (b. 1868), while still a student at the Royal College of Music, were received with acclamation; but his later work was not of equal value, though his operas Jeanie Deans and Diarmid were successful. Mr Granville Bantock (b. 1868), an ardent supporter of the most advanced music, has written many fine things for orchestra, and Mr William Wallace (b. 1861), in various orchestral pieces piayed at the Crystal Palace and elsewhere, and in such things as his " Freebooter " songs, has shown strong individuality and imagination. Mr Arthur Hinton (b. 1869) has produced things of fanciful beauty and quaint origi- nality. Miss Ethel M. Smyth, whose Mass was given at the Royal Albert Hall in most favourable conditions, had her opera Fantasio produced at Weimar and Carlsruhe, and Der Wald at Covent Garden. Miss Maud Valerie White's graceful and expressive songs brought her compositions into wide popularity; and Mme Liza Lehmann made a new reputation by her cycles of songs after her retirement from the profession of a singer. The first part of Mr S. Coleridge-Taylor's (b. 1875) Hiawatha scenes was performed while he was still a student at the Royal College, and so great was its popularity that the third part of the trilogy was commissioned for performance by the Royal Choral Society. Mr Cyril Scott is a composer who aims high, though with a somewhat strained originality. Dr H. Walford Davies (b. 1869) and W. Y. Hurlstone (1876-1906) excel in the serious kind of chamber-music and use the classic forms with notable skill; and Mr R. Vaughan Williams, in his songs and other works, has shown perhaps the most conspicuous talent among all of the younger school. English executive musicians have never suffered from foreign competition in the same degree as English composers, and the success of such singers as Miss Anna Williams, Miss Macintyre, Miss Marie Brema, Miss Clara Butt, Miss Agnes Nicholls, Messrs Santley, Edward Lloyd, Ben Davies, Plunket Greene and Ffrangcon Davies; or of such pianists as Miss Fanny Davies and Mr Leonard Borwick, is but a continuance of the tradition of British excellence. The scientific study of the music of the past has more and more decidedly taken its place as a branch of musical education; the learned writings of W. S. Rockstro (1823-1895), many of them made public first in the Encyclopaedia Britannica and Grove's Dictionary of Music, made the subject clear to many who had been groping in the dark before; and the actual performance of old music has been undertaken not only by the Bach Choir, but by the Magpie Madrigal Society under Mr Lionel Benson's able direction. In vocal and instrumental music alike the musical side of the Inter- national Exhibition of 1885 did excellent work in its historical concerts; and in that branch of archaeology which is concerned with the structure and restoration of old musical instruments, important work has been done by Mr A. J. Hipkins (1826-1903; so long connected with the firm of Broad wood), the Rev. F. W. Galpin. Arnold Dolmetsch and others. The formation of the Folk-Song Society in 1899 drew attention to the importance and extent of English traditional music, and did much to popularize it with singers of the present day. Bibliography. — Among encyclopaedic dictionaries of music Sir George Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians (1878- 1889; new ed. by J. A. Fuller Maitland, 1904-1908), takes the first place among publications in English, while Robert Eitner's (d. 1905) monumental Quellenlexikon (1900-1904), in German, is an authority of the first rank. Among other modern works of value on various accounts may be mentioned F. J. Fetis's Biographic universelle des musiciens (2nd ed., 1860-1865; supplement by A. Pougin, 1878); G. Schilling's Encyklopadie der gesammlen musikalischen Wissen- schaft (1835-1838); Mendel and Reissmann's Musikalisches Con- versations-lexikon (2nd ed., 1883) ; H. Riemann's Musik-lexikon (5th ed., 1900; also an Eng. trans., with additions, by J. S. Shed- lock); the American Cyclopaedia of Music and Musicians (1889- 1891) ; and the Oxford History of Music (1901-1905). The literature of music generally is enormous, but the following selected list of works on various aspects may be useful : — Aesthetics, Theory^&c. — H. Ehrlich, Die Musik-Aesthelik in ihrer Entwickelung von Kant bis auf die Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1882); E. Hanslick, The Beautiful in Music (London, 1891); R. Wallaschek, Aeslhetik der Tonkunst (Stuttgart, 1886); R. Pohl, Die Hohenzuge der musikalischen Entwickelung (Leipzig, 1888); A. Schnez, Die Geheimnisse der Tonkunst (Stuttgart, 1891); J. A. Zahm, Sound and Music (Chicago, 1892); C. Bellaique, Psychologie musicale{ Paris, 1893-) ; W. Pole, Philosophy of Music (vol. xi. of the English and Foreign Philosophical Library, 1895); M. Seybel, Schopenhauers Metaphysik der Musik (Leipzig, 1895) ; L. Lacombe, Philosophic et musique (Paris, 1896); Sir C. H. H. Parry, The Evolution of the Art of Music (London,^ 1897); H. Riemann, Prdludien und Studien (Frankfort, 1896) ; Geschichte der Musiktheorie im IX. -XIX. Jahr- hundert (Leipzig, 1898) ; Systematische Modulationslehre (Hamburg, 1887) ; J. C. Lobe, Lehrbuch der musikalischen Komposition (Leipzig, 1884) ; A. B. Marx, Die Lehre von der musikalischen Komposition (Leipzig, 1887, 1890); M. L. C. Cherubini, Theorie des Kontra- punktes und der Fuge (Cologne, 1896); Sir J. F. Bridge and F. J. Sawyer, A Course of Harmony (London, 1899); E, Prout, Counter- point (London, 1890); Double Counterpoint and Canon (London, 1893); Musical Form (London, 1893); Applied Forms (London, 1895); B. Widmann, Die strengen Formen der Musik (Leipzig, 1882) ; S. Jadassohn, Die Formen in den Werken der Tonkunst (Leipzig, 1885) ; M. Steinitzer, P sychologische Wirkungen der musik- alischen Formen (Munich, 1885) ; J. Combarieu, Theorie du rhythme dans la composition moderne d'apres la doctrine antique (Paris, 1897) ; P. Goetschius, Homophonic Forms of Musical Composition (New York, 1898) ; William Wallace, The Threshold of Music (1907). English Music— W. Nagel, Geschichle der Musik in England (Strassburg, 1894) ; H. Davey, History of English Music (London, 1895); F. J. Crcwest, The Story of British Music (London, 1896); S. Vautyn, L' Evolution de la musique en Angleterre (Brussels, 1900); Ernest Walker, English Music (1907). America. — W. S. B. Mathews, A Hundred Years of Music in America (Chicago, 1889) ; L. C. Elson, The National Music of America and its Sources (Boston, 1900) ; T. Baker, Uber die Musik der nord-amerikanischen Wilden (Leipzig, 1882). France. — H. Laroix, La Musique francaise (Paris, 1891); N. M. Schletterer, Studien zur Geschichle der franzosischen Musik (Berlin, 1884-1885); T. Galino, La Musique francaise au moyen dge (Leipzig, 1890); A. Cognard, De la Musique en France depuis Rameau (Paris, 1891) ; G. Servieres, La Musique frangaise moderne (Paris, 1897). Germany. — W. Baeumker, Geschichte der Tonkunst in Deutschland bis zur Reformation (Freiburg, 1881); O. Ebben, Der volksthiimliche deutsche Mannergesang (Tubingen, 1887); L. Meinardus, Die deutsche Tonkunst; A. Soubies, Hisloire de la musique allemande (Paris, 1896). Italy.— O. Chilesotti, / nostri maestri del passato (Milan, 1882) ; V. Lee, II Settecento in Italia (Milan, 1881); G. Masutto, / Maestri di musica italiani del secolo XIX. (Venice, 1882). Russia. — A. Soubies, Histoire de la musique en Russie (Paris, 1898). Scandinavia. — A. Gronvoed, Norske Musikere (Christiania, 1883); C. Valentin, Studien uber die schwedischen Volksmelodien (Leipzig, 1885). Spain.— J. F. Riano, Notes on Early Spanish Music (London, 1887); J. Tort y Daniel, Noticia musical del " Lied " 6 Canco cata- lana (Barcelona, 1892) ; A. Soubies, Hist, de la mus. en Espagne (1899). Switzerland. — A. Niggli, La Musique aans la Suisse allemande (1900); F. Held, La Musique dans la Suisse romande (1900); A. Soubies, Hist, de la mus. dans la Suisse (1899). Church Music. — F. L. Humphreys, The Evolution of Church Music (New York, 1898) ; E. L. Taunton, History of Church Music (London, 1887) ; A. Morsch, Der italienische Kirchengesang bis Palestrina (Berlin, 1887) ; G. Masutto, Delia Musica sacra in Italia, (Venice, 1889) ; G. Felix, Palestrina et la musique sacree (Bruges, 1895); R. v. Liliencron, Liturgisch-musikalische Geschichte der evangelischen Gottesdienste (Schleswig, 1893). Instruments (see also the separate articles on each). — L. Arrigoni, Organografia ossia descrizione degli instrumenti musicali autichi (Milan, 1881) ; F. Boudoin, La Musique historique (Paris, 1886); A. Jacquot, Etude de I'art instrumental. Dictionnaire des instru- ments de musique (Paris, j886) ; H. Boddington, Catalogue of Musical Instruments illustrative of the History of the Pianoforte (Manchester 1888); M. E. Brown, Musical Instruments and their Homes (New York, 1888); A. J. Hipkins, Musical Instruments: Historic, Rare and Unique (Edinburgh, 1888); W. Lynd, Account of Ancient Musical Instruments and their Development (London, 1897); J. Weiss, Die musikalischen Instruments in den heiligen Schriften des Alien Testaments (Graz, 1895) ; E. Travers, Les Instruments de musique au xitf. siecle (Paris, 1882); E. A. v. Hasselt, L' Anatomic des instruments de musique (Brussels, 1899); E. W. Verney, Siamese Musical Instruments (London, 1888) ; C. R. Day, Music and Musical Instruments of Southern India (London, 1891); D. G. Brinton, Native American Stringed Musical Instruments (1897); J. Ruehl- mann, Die Geschichte der Bogeninstrumente (Brunswick, 1882); F. di Caffarelli, Gli Strumenti ad arco e la musica da camera (Milan, 1894) ; Kathleen Schlesinger, Instruments of the Orchestra (1910). Conducting. — W. R. Wagner, On Conducting (London, 1887); M. Kufferath, L'Art de diriger I'orchestre (Paris, 1891); F. Wein- gartner, Uber das Dirigiren (Berlin, 1896). Biography. — : F. Hueffer, The Great Musicians (London, 1881- 1884) ; F. Clement, Les Grands musiciens (Paris, 1882) ; C. E. Bourne, The Great Composers (London, 1887) ; G. T. Ferris, Great Musical Composers; Sir C. H. H. Parry, Studies of Great Composers (London, 1887); A. A. Ernouf, Compositeurs celibres (Paris, 1888); F. T. Bennassi-Desplantes, Les Musiciens celibres (Limoges, 1889); A. Haunedruche, Les Musiciens et compositeurs francais (Paris, 1890); N. H. Dole, A Score of Famous Composers (New York, 86 MUSIC AL-BOX— MUSICAL NOTATION 1891); L. T. Morris, Famous Musical Composers (London, 1891); H. de Br^mont, The World of Music (London, 1892); J. K. Paine, Famous Composers and their Works (Boston, 1 892-1 893); E. Polko, Meisler der Tonkunst (Wiesbaden, 1897); R. F. Sharp, Makers of Music (London, 1898); L. Nohl, Mosaik Denksteine aus dem Leben beruhmter Tonkiinsller (Leipzig, 1899); T. Baker, A Biographical Dictionary of Musicians (New York, 1900); M.Charles, Zeitgenos- sische Tondichter (Leipzig, 1888) ; A. Jullien, Musiciens d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1892). MUSICAL-BOX, an instrument for producing by mechanical means tunes or pieces of music. The modern musical-box is an elaboration of the elegant toy musical snuff-box in vogue during the 18th century. The notes or musical sounds are pro- duced by the vibration of steel teeth or springs cut in a comb or fiat plate of steel, reinforced by the harmonics generated in the solid steel back of the comb. The teeth are graduated in length from end to end of the comb or plate, the longer teeth giving the deeper notes; and the individual teeth are accurately attuned, where necessary, by filing or loading with lead. Each tone and semitone in the scale is represented by three or four separate teeth in the comb, to permit of successive repetitions of the same note when required by the music. The teeth are acted upon and musical vibrations produced by the revolution of a brass cylinder studded with projecting pins, which, as they move round, raise and release the proper teeth at due intervals according to the nature of the music. A single revolution of the cylinder com- pletes the performance of each of the several pieces of music for which the apparatus is set, but upon the same cylinder there may be inserted pins for performing as many as thirty-six separate airs. This is accomplished by making both the points of the teeth and the projecting pins which raise them very fine, so that a very small change in the position of the cylinder is sufficient to bring an entirely distinct set of pins in contact with the teeth. In the more elaborate musical-boxes the cylinders are removable, and may be replaced by others containing distinct sets of music. In these also there are combinations of bell, drum, cymbal and triangle effects, &c. The revolving motion of the cylinder is effected by a spring and clock-work which on some modern instru- ments will work continuously for an hour and a half without winding, and the rate of revolution is regulated by a fly regulator. The headquarters of the musical-box trade is Geneva, where the manufacture gives employment to thousands of persons. The musical-box is a type of numerous instruments for producing musical effects by mechanical means, in all of which a revolving cylinder or barrel studded with pins is the governing feature. The position of the pins on the barrel is determined by two considera- tions: those of pitch and of time or rhythm. The degrees of pitch or semitones of the scales are in the direction of the length of the cylinder, while those of time, or the beats in the bars, are in the path of the revolution of the cylinder. The action of the pins is practically the same for all barrel instruments; each pin serves to raise some part of the mechanism for one note at the exact moment and for the exact duration of time required by the music to be played, after which, passing along with the revolution of the cylinder, it ceases to act. The principle of the barrel operating by friction, by percussion or by wind on reeds, pipes or strings governs carillons or musical bells, barrel organs, mechanical flutes, celestial voices, harmoniphones, violin-pianos and the orchestrions and polyphons in which a combination of all orchestral effects is attemDted. In the case of wind instruments, such as flutes, trumpets, oboes, clarinets, imitated in the more complex orches- trions, the pins raise levers which open the valves admitting air, compressed by mechanical bellows, to various kinds of flue-pipes, and to others fitted with beating and free reeds. The sticks used for striking bells, drums, cymbals and triangles are set in motion in a similar manner. A fine set of full-page drawings, published at Frankfort in 1615, 1 makes the whole working of the pinned barrel quite clear, and establishes the exact relation of the pins to the music produced by the barrel so unmistakably that some bars of the piece of music set on the cylinder can be made out. The prototype of the 19th-century musical-box is to be found in the Netherlands where during the 15th century the dukes of Burgundy encouraged the invention of ingenious mechanical musical curiosities such as " organs which played of themselves," musical snuff-boxes, singing birds, curious clocks, &c. A principle of more recent introduction than the studded cylinder consists of sheets of perforated paper or card, somewhat similar to the Jacquard apparatus for weaving. The perforations correspond in position and length to the pitch and duration of the note they represent, 1 See S. de Caus, Lts forces mouvantes; and article Barrel Organ. and as the web or long sheet of paper passes over the instrument the perforated holes are brought in proper position and sequence under the influence of the suction or pressure cf air from a bellows, and thereby the notes are either directly acted on, as in the case of reed instruments, or the opening and closing of valves set in motion levers or liberate springs which govern special notes. The United States are the original home of the instruments controlled by perforated paper known as orguinettes, organinas, melodeons, &c. All these instruments are being gradually replaced in popular favour by the piano-players and the gramophone. (K. S.) MUSICAL NOTATION, a pictorial method of representing sounds to the ear through the medium of the eye. It is probable that the earliest attempts at notation were made by the Hindus and Chinese, from whom the legacy was transferred to Greece. The exact nature of the Greek notation is a subject of dispute, different explanations assigning 1680, 1620, 990, or 138 signals to their alphabetical method of delineation. To Boethius we owe the certainty that the Greek notation was not adopted by the Latins, although it is not certain whether he was the first to apply the fifteen letters of the Roman alphabet to the scale of sounds included within the two octaves, or whether he was only the first to make record of that application. The reduction of the scale to the octave is ascribed to St Gregory, as also the naming of the seven notes, but it is not safe to assume that such an ascription is accurate or final. Indications of a scheme of notation based, not on the alphabet, but on the use of dashes, hooks, curves, dots and strokes are found to exist as early as the 6th century, while specimens in illustration of this different method do not appear until the 8th. The origin of these signs, known as neumes (vev/xara, or nods), is the full stop (functus), the comma (virga), and the mound or undulating line (clivus), the first indicating a short sound, the second a long sound, and the third a group of two notes. The musical intervals were suggested by the distance of these signals from the words of the text. The variety of neumes employed at different times, and the fluctuations due to handwriting, have made them extremely difficult to decipher. In the 10th century a marked advance is shown by the use of a red line traced horizontally above the text to give the singer a fixed note (F = fa), thus helping him to approximate the intervals. To this was added a second line in yellow (for C = ut), and finally a staff arose from the further addition of two black lines over these. The difficulty of the subject is complicated for the student by the fact that an incredible variety of notations coexisted at one period, all more or less representing attempts in the direction of the modern system. A variety of experiments resulted in the assignment of the four-lined staff to sacred music and of the five-lined staff to secular music. The yellow and red colours were replaced by the use of the letters F and C (fa and ut) on the lines. This use of letters to indicate clef is forestalled in a manuscript of Guido of Arezzo's Micrologus, dating from the 12th century, in which is the famous hymn to St John, printed with neumes on a staff of three lines (see Guipo of Arezzo). The use of letters for indicating clefs has survived to the present day, our clef signatures being modified forms of the letters C, F and G, which have passed through a multitude of shapes. Before the 12th century there is no trace of a measured notation (i.e. of a numerical time division separating the component parts of a piece of music) . It is at the time of Franco of Cologne 2 that measured music takes its rise, together with the black notation in place of neumes, which disappeared altogether by the end of the 14th century. Writing four hundred years after St Gregory, Cottonius complains bitterly of the defects in the system of neumes: " The same marks which Master Trudo sang as thirds, were sung as fourths by Master Albinus; while Master Salomo asserts that fifths are the notes meant, so at last there were as many methods of singing as teachers of the art." Pos- sibly the reckless multiplication of lines in the staff may have contributed to the obscurity of which Cottonius complains. In the black notation, which led to the modern system, the square note with a tail d) is the long sound; the square note 2 The principles of Franco are found in the treatises of Walter Odington, a monk of Evesham who became archbishop of Canterbury in 1228. MUSIC HALLS 87 without a tail (■) is the breve; and the lozenge shape (♦) is the semibreve. In a later development there were added the double /ong^and the minum {(j). The breve, according to Franco of Cologne, was the unit of measure. The development of a fixed time division was further continued by Philippe de Vitry. It has been noted with well-founded astonishment that at this time the double time (i.e. two to the bar) was unknown, in spite of this being the time used in marching and also illustrated in the process of breathing. Triple time (i.e. three to the bar) was regarded as the most perfect because it Was indivisible. It was as if there lay some mysterious enchantment in a number that could not be divided into equal portions without the fraction. " Triple time, " says Jean de Muris, " is called perfect, according to Franco, a man of much skill in his art, because it hath its name from the Blessed Trinity which is pure and true perfection." Vitry championed the rights of imperfect time and invented signs to distinguish the two. The perfect circle O represented the perfect or triple time; the half circle C the imperfect or double-time. This C has survived in modern notation to indicate four-time, which is twice double-time; when crossed (J! it means double-time. The method of dividing into perfect and imperfect was described as prolation. The addition of a point to the circle or semi-circle (© Q ) indicated major pro- lation; its absence, minor prolation. The substitution of white for black notation began with the first year of the 14th century and was fully established in the 15th century. It has already been shown how the earlier form of alphabetical notation was gradually superseded by one based on the attempt to represent the relative height and depth of sounds pictorially. The alphabetical nomenclature, however, became inextricably associated with the pictorial system. The two conceptions reinforced each other; and from the hexachordal scale, endowed with the solmization of ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la — which was a device for identifying notes by their names when talked of, rather than by their positions when seen on a page of music — arose the use of what are now known as accidentals. Of these it may here be said that the flat originated from the necessity of sinking the B of the scale in order to form a hexachord on the note F in such a way as to cause the semitone to fall in the right place — which in the case of all hexachords was between the third and fourth notes. This softened B was written in a rounded form thus: b (rotundum) , while the original B remained square thus: (3 (quadrum). The original conception of the sharp was to cross or lattice the square B, by which it was shown that it was neither to be softened nor to remain unchanged. The flat, which originated in the 10th century, appears to have been of far earlier date than the sharp, the invention of which has been ascribed to Josquin Des Pres (1450-1521). The B-sharp was called B cancellatum, the cross being formed thus j%. The use of key signatures constructed out of these signs of sharp and flat was of comparatively late introduction. The key signature states at the beginning of a piece of music the sharps and fiats which it contains within the scale in which it is written. It is a device to avoid repeating the sign of sharp and flat with every fresh occasion of their occurring. The exact distinction between what were accidental sharps or flats, and what were sharps or flats in the key, was still undetermined in the time of Handel, who wrote the Suite in E containing the " Harmonious Black- smith " with three sharps instead of four. The double \>\> (some- times written fr or /3) and the double sharp X (sometimes written )&, "^ or ^ ) are Conventions of a much later date, called into existence by the demands of modern music, while the sign of natural (q) is the outcome of the original B quadra- tion or square B |j. The systems known as Tonic Sol Fa and the Galin-Paris- Cheve methods do not belong to the subject of notation, as they are ingenious mechanical substitutes for the experimentally devel- oped systems analysed above. The basis of these substitutes is the reference of all notes to key relationship and not to pitch. Authorities. — E. David and M. Lussy, Hisioire de la notation musicale (Paris, 1882) ; H. Riemann, Notenschrift und Notendrutk (1896) ; C. F. Abdy Williams, The Story of Notation (1903) ; Robert Eitner, Bibliographie der musik. Sammelwerke des 16. und 17. Jakr* hunderts (Berlin, 1877); Friedrich Chrysander, " Abriss einei Geschichte des Musikdrucks vom 15.-19. Jahrh.," Allgemeine musik^ alische Zeitung (Leipzig, 1879, Nos. 11-16); W. H. James Weale, A Descriptive Catalogue of Rare Manuscripts and Printed Works, chiefly Liturgical (Historical Music Loan Exhibition, Albert Hall, London, January-October, 1885); (London, 1886); W. Barclay Squire, " Notes on Early Music Printing," in the Zeitschrift biblio- graphica, p. IX. S. 99-122 (London, 1896) ; Grove's Diet, of Music. MUSIC HALLS. The " variety theatre " or " music-hall " of to-day developed out df the " saloon theatres " which existed in London about 1830-1840; they owed their form and existence to the restrictive action of the " patent " theatres at that time. These theatres had the exclusive right of representing what was broadly called the " legitimate drama," which ranged from Shakespeare to Monk Lewis, and from Sheridan and Goldsmith to Kotzebue and Alderman Birch of Cornhill, citizen and poet; and the founder of the turtle-soup trade. The patent houses defended their rights when they were attacked by the " minor " and " saloon " theatres, but they often acted in the spirit *f the dog in the manger. While they pursued up to fine and even imprisonment the poachers on their dramatic preserves, they too often neglected the " legitimate • drama " for the supposed meretricious attractions offered by their illegitimate competitors. The British theatre gravitated naturally to the inn Or tavern. The tavern was the source of life and heat, and warmed all social gatherings. The inn galleries offered rather rough stages, before the Shakespeare and Alleyn playhouses were built. The inn yards were often made as comfortable as possible for the " groundlings " by layers of straw, but the tavern character of the auditorium was never concealed. Excisable liquor was always obtainable, and the superior members of the audience, who chose to pay for seats at the side of the stage or platform (like the " avant-scene " boxes at a Parisian theatre);, were allowed to smoke Raleigh's Virginian weed, then a novel luxury. This was, of course, the first germ of a " smoking- theatre." While the drama progressed as a recognized public entertains ment in England, and was provided with its own buildings, in the town, or certain, booths at the fairs, the Crown exercised its patronage in favour of certain individuals, giving them power to set up playhouses at any time in any parts of London and Westminster. The first and most important grant was made by Charles II. to his " trusty and well-beloved " Thomas Killigrew " and Sir William Davenant." This was a personal grant, not connected with any particular sites or buildings, and is known in theatrical history as the " Killigrew and Davenant patent." Killigrew was the author of several unsuccessful plays, and Sir William Davenant, said to be an illegitimate child of William Shakespeare, was a stage manager of great daring and genius. Charles II. had- strong theatrical leanings, and had helped to arrange the court ballets at Versailles for Louis XIV. The Killigrew and Davenant patent in course of time descended, after a fashion, to the Theatres Royal, Covent Garden and Drury Lane, and was and still is the chief legal authority governing these theatres. The " minor " and outlying playhouses were carried on under the Music and Dancing Act of George II., and the annual licences were granted by the local magistrates. > The theatre proper having emancipated itself from the inn or tavern, it was now the turn of the inn or tavern to develop into an independent place of amusement, and to lay the foundation of that enormous middle-class and lower middle-class institution of interest which we agree to term the music hall. It rose fro* the most modest, humble and obscure beginning — from the public-house bar-parlour, and its weekly " sing-songs," chiefly supported by voluntary talent from the "harmonic meetings:" of the " long-room V upstairs, generally used as a Foresters' of Masonic club-room, where one or two professional singers, were engaged and a regular chairman was appointed, to the " assem- bly-room " entertainments at certain hotels, where private balls and school festivals formed part of an irregular series. The district " tea-garden," which was then an agreeable feature .of suburban life— the suburbs being next door to the city and the country next door to the Suburbs— was the first to show, dramatic 88 MUSIC HALLS ambition, and to erect in some portion of its limited but leafy grounds a lath-and-plaster stage large enough for about eight people to move upon without incurring the danger of falling off into the adjoining fish pond and fountain. A few classical statues in plaster, always slightly mutilated, gave an educational tone to the place, and with a few coloured oil-lamps hung amongst the bushes the proprietor felt he had gone as near the " Royal Vauxhall Gardens " as possible for the small charge of a sixpenny refreshment ticket. There were degrees of quality, of course, amongst these places, which answered to the German beer- gardens, though with inferior music. The Beulah Spa at Norwood, the White Conduit House at Pentonville, the York- shire Stingo in the Marylebone Road, the Monster at Pimlico, the St Helena at Rotherhithe, the Globe at Mile End, the Red Cow at Dalston, the Highbury Barn at Highbury, the Manor House at Mare Street, Hackney, the Rosemary Branch at Hoxton, and other rus-in-urbe retreats, were up to the level of their time, if rarely beyond it. The suspended animation of the law — the one Georgian act, which was mainly passed to check the singing of Jacobite songs in the tap-rooms and tea-gardens of the little London of 1730, when the whole population of the United Kingdom was only about six millions — encouraged the growth eventually of a number of " saloon theatres " in various London districts, which were allowed under the head of "Music and Dancing" to go as far on the light dramatic road as the patent theatres thought proper to permit. The 25 Geo. II. c. 36, which in later days was still the only act under which the music halls of forty millions and more of people were licensed, was always liberally interpreted, as long as it kept clear of politics. The " saloon theatres," always being taverns or attached to taverns, created a public who liked to mix its dramatic amuse- ments with smoking and light refreshments. The principal " saloons " were the Effingham in the Whitechapel Road, the Bower in the Lower Marsh, Lambeth, the Albert at Islington, the Britannia at Hoxton, the Grecian in the City Road, the Union in Shoreditch, the Stingo at Paddington and several others of less importance. All these places had good com- panies, especially in the winter, and many of them nourished leading actors of exceptional merit. The dramas were chiefly rough adaptations from the contemporary French stage, occasionally flying as high as Alexandre Dumas the elder and Victor Hugo. Actors of real tragic power lived, worked and died in this confined area. Some went to America, and acquired fame and fortune; and among others, Frederick Robson, who was trained at the Grecian, first when it was the leading saloon theatre and afterwards when it became the leading music hall (a distinction with little difference), fought his way to the front after the abolition of the " patent rights " and was accepted as the greatest tragi-comic actor of his time. The Grecian saloon theatre, better known perhaps, with its pleasure garden or yard, as the Eagle Tavern, City Road, which formed the material of one of Charles Dickens's Sketches by Boz, was a place managed with much taste, enterprise and discretion by its pro- prietor, Mr Rouse. It was the " saloon " where the one and only attempt, with limited means, was ever made to import almost all the original repertory of the Opera Comique in Paris, with the result that many musical works were presented to a sixpenny audience that had never been heard before nor since in England. Auber, Herold, Adolphe Adam, Boieldieu, Gretry, Donizetti, Bellini, Rossini and a host of others gave some sort of advanced musical education, through the Grecian, to a rather depressing part of London, long before board schools were established. The saloon theatres rarely offended the patent houses, and when they did the law was soon put in motion to show that Shake- speare could not be represented with impunity. The Union Saloon in Shoreditch, then under the direction of Mr Samuel Lane, who afterwards, with his wife, Mrs Sara Lane, at the Britannia Saloon, became the leading local theatrical manager of his day, was tempted in 1834 to give a performance of Othello. It was " raided " by the then rather " new police," and all the actors, servants, audience, directors and musicians were taken into custody and marched off to Worship Street police station, confined for the remainder of the night, and fined and warned in the morning. The same and only law still exists for those who are helping to keep a " disorderly house," but there are no holders of exclusive dramatic patent rights to set it in motion. The abolition of this privileged monopoly was effected about this time by a combination of distinguished literary men and drama- tists, who were convinced, from observation and experience, that the patent theatres had failed to nurse the higher drama, while interfering with the beneficial freedom of public amusements. The effect of Covent Garden and Drury Lane on the art of acting had resulted chiefly in limiting the market for theatrical employment, with a consequent all-round reduction of salaries. They kept the Lyceum Theatre (or English Opera House) for years in the position of a music hall, giving sometimes two performances a night, like a " gaff " in the New Cut or White- chapel. They had not destroyed the " star " system, and Edmund Kean and the boy Betty — the " Infant Roscius " — were able to command sensational rewards. In the end Charles Dickens, Sir Edward Bulwer-Lytton, Sir Thomas Noon Talfourd and others got the patents abolished, and the first step towards free trade in the drama was secured. The effect of this change was to draw attention to the " saloon theatres," where during the performances smoking, drinking, and even eating were allowed in the auditorium. An act was soon passed, known as the Theatres Act (1843), appointing a censor of stage-plays, and placing the London theatres under the control of a Crown officer, changing with ministries. This was the lord chamberlain for the time being. The lord chamber- lain of this period drew a hard-and-fast line between theatres under his control, where no smoking and drinking were allowed " in front," and theatres or halls where the old habits and customs of the audience were not to be interfered with. These latter were to go under the jurisdiction of the local magistrates, or other licensing authorities, under the 25 Geo. II. c. 36 — the Music and Dancing Act — and so far a divorce was decreed between the taverns and the playhouses. The lord chamberlain eventually made certain concessions. Refreshment bars were allowed at the lord chamberlain's theatres in unobstrusive positions, victualled under a special act of William IV., and private smoking-rooms were allowed at most theatres on appli- cation. All this implied that stage plays were to be kept free from open smoking and drinking, and miscellaneous entertain- ments were to enjoy their old social freedom. The position was accepted by those " saloon theatres " which were not tempted to become lord chamberlain houses, and the others, with many additions, started the first music halls. Amongst the first of these halls, and certainly the very first as far as intelligent management was concerned, was the Can- terbury in the Lower Marsh, Lambeth, which was next door to the old Bower Saloon, then transformed into a " minor theatre." The Canterbury sprang from the usual tavern germ, its creator being Mr Charles Morton, who honourably earned the name of the " doyen of the music halls." It justified its title by cultivating the best class of music, and exposed the prejudice and unfairness of Planche's sarcasm in a Haymarket burlesque — " most music hall — most melancholy." Mr Charles Morton added pictorial art to his other attractions, and obtained the support of Punch, which stamped the Canterbury as the " Royal Academy over the water." At this time by a mere accident Gounod's great opera of Faust, through defective inter- national registration, fell into the public domain in England and became common property. The Canterbury, not daring to present it with scenery, costumes and action, for fear of the Stage-play Act, gave what was called " An Operatic Selection," the singers standing in plain dresses in a row, like pupils at a school examination or a chorus in an oratorio at Exeter Hall. The music was well rendered by a thoroughly competent com- pany, night after night, for a long period, so that by the time the opera attracted the tardy attention of the two principal opera managers at Her Majesty's Theatre in the Haymarket and Covent Garden Theatre, the tunes most popular were being MUSIC HALLS 89 whistled by the " man in the street," the " boy in the gutter " and the tradesman waiting at the door for orders. With the Canterbury Hall, and its brother the Oxford in Oxford Street — a converted inn and coaching yard— built and managed on the same lines by Mr Charles Morton, the music halls were well started. They had imitators in every direction — some large, some small, and some with architectural pretensions, but all anxious to attract the public by cheap prices and physical comforts not attainable at any of the regular theatres. With the growth and improvement of these " Halls," the few old cellar " singing-rooms " gradually disappeared. Evans's in Covent Garden was the last to go. Rhodes's, or the Cyder Cellars in Maiden Lane, at the back of the Adelphi Theatre; the Coal Hole, in the Strand, which now forms the site of Terry's Theatre; the Doctor Johnson, in Fleet Street (oddly enough, within the precincts of the City of London) disappeared one by one, and with them the compound material for Thackeray's picture of " The Cave of Harmony." This " Cave," like Dickens's " Old Curiosity Shop," was drawn from the features of many places. To do the " cellars " a little justice, they represented the manners of a past time — heavy suppers and heavy drinks, and the freedom of their songs and recitations was partly due to the fact that the audience and the actors were always composed of men. Thackeray clung to Evans's to the last. It was his nightly " chapel of ease " to the adjoining Garrick Club. In its old age it became decent, and ladies were admitted to a private gallery, behind screens and a convent grille. Before its death, and its revival in another form as a sporting club, it admitted ladies both on and off the stage, and became an ordinary music hall. The rise and progress of the London music halls naturally excited a good deal of attention and jealousy on the part of the regular theatres, and this was increased when the first Great Variety Theatre was opened in Leicester Square. The building was the finest example of Moorish architec- ture on a large scale ever erected in England. It was burnt down in the ' eighties, and the present theatre was built in its place. Originally it was " The Panopticon," a palace of " recreative science," started under the most distinguished direction on the old polytechnic institution lineSj and with ample capital. It was a commercial failure, and after being tried as an " American Circus," it was turned into a great variety theatre, the greatest of its kind in Europe, under the name of the Alhambra Palace. Its founder was Mr E.T. Smith, the energetic theatrical manager, and its developer was Mr Frederick Strange, who came full of spirit and money from the Crystal Palace. He produced in 1865 an ambitious ballet — the Dagger Ballet from Auber's Enfant prodigue, which had been seen at Drury Lane Theatre in 1851, translated as " Azael." The Alhambra was prosecuted in the superior courts for infringing the Stage-play Act — the 6 & 7 Vict. c. 68. The case is in the law reports — Wigan v. Strange; the ostensible plaintiffs being the well-known actors and managers Horace Wigan and Benjamin Webster, supported by J. B. Buckstone, and many other theatrical managers. A long trial before eminent judges, with eminent counsel on both sides, produced a decision which was not very satisfactory, and far from final. It held that, as far as the entertainment went, according to the evidence tendered, it was not a ballet representing any distinct story or coherent action, but it might have been a " divertissement " — a term suggested in the course of the trial. A short time after this a pantomime scene was pro- duced at the same theatre, called Where's the Police? which had a clown, a pantaloon, a columbine and a harlequin, with other familiar characters, a mob, a street and even the traditional red-hot poker. This inspired proceedings by the same plaintiffs before a police magistrate at Marlborough Street, who inflicted the full penalties — £20 a performance for 12 performances, and costs. An appeal was made to the West- minster quarter sessions, supported by Serjeant Ballantine and opposed by Mr Hardinge Giffard (afterwards Lord Chan- cellor Halsbury), and the conviction was confirmed. Being heard at quarter sessions, there is no record in the law reports. These and other prosecutions suggested the institution of a parliamentary inquiry, and a House of Commons select committee was appointed in 1866, at the instigation of the music halls and variety theatres. The committee devoted much time to the inquiry, and examined many witnesses— amongst the rest Lord Sydney, the lord chamberlain, who had no personal objection to undertake the control of these comparatively young places of amusement and recreation. Much of the evidence was directed against the Stage-play Act, as the difficulty appeared to be to define what was not a. stage play. Lord Denman, Mr Justice Byles, and other eminent judges seemed to think that any song, action or recitation that excited the emotions might be pinned as a stage-play, and that the old 'definition — " the representation of any action by a person (or persons) acting, and not in the form of narration " — could be supported in the then state of the law in any of the higher courts. The variety theatres on this occasion were encouraged by what had just occurred at the time in France. Napoleon III., acting under the advice of M. Michel Chevalier, passed a decree known as La Liberte" des thidtres, which fixed the status of the Parisian and other music halls. Operettas, ballets of action, ballets, vaudevilles, pantomimes and all light pieces were allowed, and the managers were no longer legally confined to songs and acrobatic performances. The report of the select committee of 1866, signed by the chairman, Mr (afterwards Viscount) Goschen, was in favour of granting the variety theatres and music halls the privileges they asked for, which were those enjoyed in France and other countries. Parliamentary interference and the introduction of several private bills in the House of Commons, which came to nothing, checked, if they did not altogether stop, the prosecutions. The variety theatres advanced in every direction in number and im- portance. Ballets grew in splendour and coherency. The lighting and ventilation, the comfort and decoration of the various " palaces " (as many of them were now called) improved, and the public, as usual, were the gainers. Population in- creased, and the six millions of 1730 became forty millions and more. The same and only act (25 Geo. II. c. 36), adequate or inadequate, still remained. London is defined as the " administrative county of London," and its area — the 20-miles radius — is mapped out. The Metropolitan Board of Works retired or was discharged, and the London County Council was created and has taken its place. The London County Council, with extended power over structures and structural alterations, acquired the licensing of variety theatres and music halls from the local magistrates (the Middlesex, Surrey, Tower Hamlets and other magistrates) within the administrative county of London. The L. C. C. examine and enforce their powers. They have been advised that they can separate a music from a dancing licence if they like, and that when they grant the united licence the dancing means the dancing of paid performers on a stage, and not the dancing of the audience on a platform or floor, as at the short- lived but elegant Cremorne Gardens, or an old-time " Casino." They are also advised that they can withhold licences, unless the applicants agree not to apply for a drink licence to the local magistrates sitting in brewster sessions, who still retain their control over the liquor trade. Theatre licences are often with- held unless a similar promise is made — the drink authority in this case being the Excise, empowered by the Act of William IV. (5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 39, s. 7). The spread of so-called " sketches " — a kind of condensed drama or farce — in the variety theatres, and the action of the London County Council in trying to check the extension of refreshment licences to these establishments, with other grounds of discontent on the part of managers (individuals or " limited companies "), led to the appointment of a second select com- mittee of the House of Commons in 1892 and the production of another blue-book. The same ground was gone over, and the same objections were raised against a licensing authority 9<> MUSK— MUSKEGON which is elected by public votes, only exists for three years before another election is due, and can give no guarantee for the continuity of its judgments. The consensus of opinion (as in 1866) was in favour of a state official, responsible to parliament — like the Home Office or the Board of Trade — the preference being given to the lord chamberlain and his staff, who know much about theatres and theatrical business. The chairman of the committee was the Hon. David Plunkett (after- wards Lord Rathmore), and the report in spirit was the same as the one of 1866. Three forms of licence were suggested: one for theatres proper, one for music halls, and one for concert rooms. Though the rise and progress of the music hall and variety theatre interest is one of the most extraordinary facts of the last half of the 19th century, the business has little or no corporate organization, and there is nothing like a complete registration of the various properties throughout the United Kingdom. In London the " London Entertainments Pro- tection Association," which has the command of a weekly paper called the Music Hall and Theatre Review, looks after its interests. In London alone over five millions sterling of capital is said to be invested in these enterprises, employing 80,000 persons of all grades, and entertaining during the year about 25,000,000 people. The annual applications for music licences in London alone are over 300. (J. Hd.) MUSK (Med. Lat. tnuscus, late Gr. yhaxos, possibly Pers. tnushk, from Sansk. mushka, the scrotum), the name originally given to a perfume obtained from the strong-smelling substance secreted in a gland by the musk-deer (q.v.), and hence applied to other animals, and also to plant's, possessing a similar odour. The variety which appears in commerce is a secretion of the musk-deer; but the odour is also emitted by the musk-ox and musk-rat of India and Europe, by the musk-duck (Biziura lobata) of West Australia, the musk-shrew, the musk-beetle {Calichroma moschata), the alligator of Central America, and by several other animals. In the vegetable kingdom it is present in the common musk {Mimulus moschatus), the musk- wood of the Guianas and West Indies (Guarea, spp.), and in the seeds of Hibiscus Abelmoschus (musk-seeds). To obtain the perfume from the musk-deer the animal is killed and the gland com- pletely removed, and dried, either in the sun, on a hot stone, or by immersion in hot oil. It appears in commerce as " musk in pod," i.e. the glands are entire, or as " musk in grain," in which the perfume has been extracted from its receptacle. Three kinds are recognized: (1) Tong-king, Chinese or Tibetan, imported from China, the most valued; (2) Assam or Nepal, less valuable; and (3) Karbardin or Russian (Siberian), imported from Central Asia by way of Russia, the least valuable and hardly admitting of adulteration. The Tong-king musk is exported in small, gaudily decorated caddies with tin or lead linings, wherein the perfume is sealed down; it is now usually transmitted direct by parcel post to the merchant. Good musk is of a dark purplish colour, dry, smooth and unctuous to the touch, and bitter in taste. It dissolves in boiling water to the extent of about one-half; alcohol takes up one-third of the substance, and ether and chloroform dissolve still less. \ grain of musk will distinctly scent millions of cubic feet of air without any appreciable loss of weight, and its scent is not only more penetrating but more persistent than that of any other known substance. In addition to its odoriferous principle, it contains ammonia, cholesterin, fatty matter, a bitter resinous substance, and other animal principles. As a material in perfumery it is of the first importance, its powerful and enduring odour giving strength and permanency to the vegetable essences, so that it is an ingredient in many compounded perfumes. Artificial mttsk is a synthetic product, having a similar odour to natural musk. It was obtained by Baur in 1888 by condensing toluene with isobutyl bromide in the presence of aluminium chloride, and nitrating the product. It is a symtrinitro-^-butyl toluene. Many similar preparations have been made, and it appears that the odour depends upon the symmetry of the three nitro groups. MUSK-DEER (Moschus moschifems), an aberrant member of the deer family constituting the sub-family Cervidae Moschinae (see Deer). Both sexes are devoid of antler appendage; but in this the musk-deer agrees with one genus of true deer {Hydrelaphus), and as in the latter, the upper canine teeth of the males are long and sabre-like, projecting below the chin, with the ends turned somewhat backwards. In size the musk- deer is rather less than the European roe-deer, being about 20 in. high at the shoulder. Its limbs, especially the hinder pair, are long; and the feet remarkable for the great develop- ment of the lateral pair of hoofs and for the freedom of motion The Musk-deer {Moschus moschiferus) . they all present, which must be of assistance to the animal in steadying it in its agile bounds among the crags of its native haunts. The ears are large, and the tail rudimentary. The hair covering the body is long, coarse, and of a peculiarly brittle and pith-like character, breaking easily; it is generally of a greyish-brown colour, sometimes inclined to yellowish-red, and often variegated with lighter patches. The musk-deer inhabits the forest districts in the Himalaya as far west as Gilgit, always, however, at great elevations — being rarely found in summer below 8000 ft. above the sea-level, and ranging as high as the limits of the thickets of birch, rhododendron and juniper, among which it mostly conceals itself in the day- time. The range extends into Tibet, Siberia and north- western China; but the musk-deer of Kansu has been separated as a distinct species, under the name of M. sifanicus. Musk- deer are hardy, solitary and retiring animals, chiefly nocturnal in habits, and almost always found alone, rarely in pairs and never in herds. They are exceedingly active and surefooted, having perhaps no equal in traversing rocks and precipitous giound; and they feed on moss, grass, and leaves of the plants which grow on the mountains. Most mammals have certain portions of the skin specially modified and provided with glands secreting odorous and fatty substances characteristic of the particular species. The special gland of the musk-deer, which has made the animal so well known, and has proved the cause of unremitting persecution to its possessor, is found in the male only, and is a sac about the size of a small orange, situated beneath the skin of the abdomen, the orifice being immediately in front of the preputial aperture. The secretion with which the sac is filled is dark brown or chocolate in colour, and when fresh of the consistence of " moist gingerbread," but becoming dry and granular after keeping (see Musk). The Kansu (M. sifanicus) differs from the typical species in having longer ears, which are black on the outer surface. MUSKEGON, a city and the county-seat of Muskegon county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Muskegon lake, an expansion of Muskegon river near its mouth, about 4 m. from Lake Michigan and 38 m. N.W. of Grand Rapids. .Pop. (1890), 22,702; (1900), 20,818, of whom 6236 were foreign-born; MUSKET— MUSK-OX 9 1 (1910 census) 24,062. It is served by the Grand Trunk, the Pere Marquette, the Grand Rapids & Indiana, and the Grand Rapids, Grand Haven & Muskegon (electric) railways, and by steamboat lines to Chicago, Milwaukee and other lake ports. There are several summer resorts in the vicinity. As the gifts of Charles H. Hackley (1837-1905), a rich lumberman, the city has an endowment fund to the public schools of about $2,000,000; a manual training school, which has an endowment of $600,000, and is one of the few endowed public schools in the United States; a public library, with an endowment of $275,000; a public hospital with a $600,000 endowment; and a poor fund endowment of $300,000. In Hackley Park there are statues of Lincoln and Farragut, and at the Hackley School there is a statue of McKinley; all three are by C. H. Niehaus. The municipality owns and operates its water-works. Muskegon lake is 5 m. long and 15 m. wide, with a depth of 30 to 40 ft., and is ice-free throughout the year. The channel from Muskegon lake to Lake Michigan has been improved to a depth of 20 ft. and a width of 300 ft. by the Federal government since 1867. From Muskegon are shipped large quantities of lumber and market-garden produce, besides the numerous manufactures of the city. The total value of all factory products in 1904 was $6,319,441 (39-6% more than in 1900), of which more than one-sixth was the value of lumber. A trading post was established here in 181 2, but a permanent settlement was not established until 1834. Muskegon was laid out as a town in 1849, incorporated as a village in 1861, and chartered as a city in 1869. The name is probably derived from a Chippewa word, maskeg or muskeg, meaning " grassy bog," still used in that sense in north-western America. MUSKET (Fr. mousquet, Ger. Muskete, &c), the term generally applied to the firearm of the infantry soldier from about 1550 up to and even beyond the universal adoption of rifled small arms about 18 50- 1860. The word originally signified a male sparrowhawk (Italian moschetto, derived perhaps ultimately from Latin musca, a fly) and its application to the weapon may be explained by the practice of naming firearms after birds and beasts (cf. falcon, basilisk). Strictly speaking, the word is inapplicable both to the early hand-guns and to the arquebuses and calivers that superseded the hand-guns. The " musket " proper, introduced into the Spanish army by the duke of Alva, was much heavier and more powerful than the arquebus. Its bullet retained sufficient striking energy to stop a horse at 500 and 600 yards from the muzzle. A writer in 1598 (quoted s.v. in the New English Dictionary) goes so far as to say that " One good musket may be accounted for two callivers." Unlike the arquebus, it was fired from a rest, which the " musketeer " stuck into the ground in front of him. But during the 17th century the musket in use was so far improved that the rest could be dispensed with (see Gun). The musket was a matchlock, weapons with other forms of lock being distinguished as wheel-locks, firelocks, snaphances, &c, and soldiers were similarly distinguished as musketeers and fusiliers. On the disuse, about 1690-1695, of this form of firing mechanism, the term " musket " was, in France at least, for a time discon- tinued in favour of " fusil," or flint-lock, which thenceforward reigned supreme up to the introduction of a practicable per- cussion lock about ' 1830-1840. But the term " musket " survived the thing it originally represented, and was currently used for the firelock (and afterwards for the percussion weapon). To-day it is generically used for military firearms anterior to the modern rifle. The original meaning of the word musketry has remained almost unaltered since 1600; it signifies the fire of infantry small-arms (though for this " rifle fire " is now a far more usual term), and in particular the art of using them (see Infantry and Rifle). Of the derivatives, the only one that is not self-explanatory is musketoon. This was a short, large-bore musket somewhat of the blunderbuss type, originally designed for the use of cavalry, but afterwards, in the 18th century, chiefly a domestic or coachman's weapon. MUSKHOGEAN STOCK, a North American Indian stock. The name is from that of the chief tribe of the Creek confederacy, the Muskogee. It includes the Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, Seminoles and other tribes. Its territory was almost the whole state of Mississippi, western Tennessee, eastern Kentucky, Alabama, most of Georgia, and later nearly all Florida. Musk- hogean traditions assign the west and north-west as the original home of the stock.- Its history begins in 1527, on the first landing of the Spaniards on the Gulf Coast. The Muskhogean peoples were then settled agriculturists with an elaborate social organization, and living in villages, many of which were fortified (see Indians: North American). MUSKOGEE, a city and the county-seat of Muskogee county, Oklahoma, U.S.A., about 3 m. W. by S. of the confluence of the Verdigris, Neosho (or Grand) and Arkansas rivers, and about 130 m. E.N.E. of Oklahoma City. Pop. (1900), 4154; (1907), 14,418, of whom4298 were negroes and 332 Indians; (1910), 25, 278. It is served by the St Louis & San Francisco, the Midland Valley, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the Missouri, Oklahoma & Gulf railways. Fort Gibson (pop. in ig 10, 1344), about 5 m. N.E. on the Neosho, near its confluence with the Arkansas, is the head of steam-boat navigation of the Arkansas; if is the site of a former government fort and of a national cemetery. Muskogee is. the seat of Spaulding Institute (M.E. Church, South) and Nazareth Institute (Romajn Catholic), and at Bacone, about 2 m. north-east, is.Jniliaii University (Baptist, opened 1884). • Muskogee is the commercial centre of an agricultural and stock-raising region, is surrounded by an oil and natural gas field of considerable extent producing a high grade of petroleum, and has a large oil refinery, railway shops (of the Midland Valley and the Missouri, Oklahoma & Gulf railways), cotton gins, cotton compresses, and cotton-seed oil and flour mills. The municipality owns and operates the water-works, the water supply being drawn from the Neosho river. Muskogee was founded about 1870, and became the chief town of the Creek Nation (Muskogee) and the metropolis and administrative centre of the former Indian Territory, being the headquarters of the Union Indian Agency to the Five Civilized Tribes, of the United States (Dawes) Commission to the Five Civilized- Tribes, and of a Federal land office for the allotment of lands to the Creeks and Cherokees, and the seat of a Federal Court. The city was chartered in 1898; its area was enlarged in 1908, increasing its population. MUSK-OX, also known as musk-buffalo and musk-sheep, an Arctic American ruminant of the family Bovidae (q.v.), now representing a genus and sub-family by itself. Apparently the musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus) has little or no near relation- ship to either the oxen or the sheep; and it is not improbable that its affinities are with the Asiatic takin (Budorcas) and the extinct European Criotherium of the Pliocene of Samos. The musky odour from which the animal takes its name does not appear to be due to the secretion of any gland. In height a bull musk-ox stands about 5 ft. at the shoulder. The head is large and broad. The horns in old males have extremely broad bases, meeting in the middle line, and covering the brow and crown of the head. They are directed at first downwards by the side of the face, and then turn upwards and forwards, ending in the same plane as the eye. The basal half is dull white, oval in section and coarsely fibrous, the middle part smooth, shining and round, and the tip black. In females and young males the horns are smaller, and their bases separated by a space in the middle of the forehead- The ears are small, erect, pointed, and nearly concealed in the hair. The space between the nostrils and the upper lip is covered with short close hair, as in sheep and goats, without any trace of the bare muzzle of oxen. The greater part of the animal is covered with long brown hair, thick, matted and curly on the shoulders, so as to give the appearance of a hump, but elsewhere straight and hanging down — that of the sides, back and haunches reaching as far as the middle of the legs and entirely concealing the very short tail. There is also a thick woolly under-fur, shed in summer, when the whole coat comes off in blanket-like masses. The hair on the lower jaw, throat and chest is long and straight, and hangs down like a beard or dewlap,, thouglr 92 MUSK-RAT there is no loose fold of skin in this situation. The limbs are stout and short, terminating in unsymmetrical hoofs, the external being rounded, the internal pointed, and the sole partially covered with hair. Musk-oxen at the present day are confined to the most northern parts of North America, where they range over the rocky Barren Grounds between lat. 64 and the shores of the Arctic Sea. Its southern range is gradually contracting, and it appears that it is no longer met with west of the Mackenzie river, though formerly abundant as far as Eschscholtz Bay. The Musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus). Northwards and eastwards it extends through the Parry Islands and Grinnell Land to north Greenland, reaching on the west coast as far south as Melville Bay; and it also occurs at Sabine Island on the east coast. The Greenland animal is a distinct race (O. m. wardi), distinguished by white hair on the forehand; and it is suggested that the one from Grinnell Land forms a third race. As proved by the discovery of fossil remains, musk-oxen ranged during the Pleistocene period over northern Siberia and the plains of Germany and France, their bones occurring in river-deposits along with those of the rein- deer, mammoth, and woolly rhinoceros. They have also been found in Pleistocene gravels in several parts of England, as Maidenhead, Bromley, Freshfield near Bath, Barnwood near Gloucester, and in the brick-earth of the Thames valley at Cray- ford, Kent; while their remains also occur in Arctic America. Musk-oxen are gregarious in habit, assembling in herds of twenty or thirty head, or sometimes eighty or a hundred, in which there are seldom more than two or three full-grown males. They run with considerable speed, notwithstanding the shortness of their legs. They feed chiefly on grass, but also on moss, lichens and tender shoots of the willow and pine. The female brings forth one young in the end of May or begin- ning of June, after a gestation of nine months. The Swedish expedition to Greenland in 1899 found musk-oxen in herds of varying size — some contained only a few individuals, and in one case there were sixty-seven.' The peculiar musky odour was perceived from a distance of a hundred yards; but accord- ing to Professor Nathorst there was no musky taste or smell in the flesh if the carcase were cleaned immediately the animals were killed. Of late years musk-oxen have been exhibited alive in Europe; and two examples, one of which lived from 1899 till 1903, have been brought to England. The somewhat imperfect skull of an extinct species of musk-ox from the gravels of the Klondike has enabled Mr W. H. Osgood to make an important addition to our knowledge of this remarkable type of ruminant. The skull, which is probably that of a female, differs from the ordinary musk-ox by the much smaller and shorter horn-cores, which are widely separ- ated in the middle line of the skull, where there is a groove-like depression running the whole length of the forehead. The sockets of the eyes are also much less prominent, and the whole fore-part of the skull is proportionately longer. On account of these and other differences (for which the reader may refer to the original paper, published in vol. xlviii. of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections) its describer refers the Klondike skull to a new genus, with the title Symbos tyrrelli, the specific name being given in honour of its discoverer. This, however, is not all, for Mr Osgood points out that a skull discovered many years ago in the vicinity of Fort Gibson, Oklahoma, and then named Ovibos or Bootherium cavifrons, evidently belongs to the same genus. That skull indicates a bull, and the author suggests that it may possibly be the male of Symbos tyrrelli, although the wide separation of the localities made him hesitate to accept this view. Perhaps it would have been better had he done so, and taken the name Symbos cavifrons for the species. A third type of musk-ox skull is, however, known from North America, namely one from the celebrated Big-Bone Lick, Kentucky, on which the genus and species Bootherium bombifrons was estab- lished, which differs from all the others by its small size, convex forehead and rounded horn-cores, the latter being very widely separated, and arising from the sides of the skull. This specimen has been regarded as the female of Symbos cavifrons; but this view, as pointed out by Mr Osgood, is almost certainly incorrect, and it represents an entirely distinct form. This, however, is not the whole of the past history of the musk- ox group ; and in this connexion it may be mentioned that palaeonto- logical discoveries are gradually making it evident that the poverty of America in species of horned ruminants is to a great extent a feature of the present day, and that in past times it possessed a considerable number of representatives of this group. One of the latest additions to the list is a large sheep-like animal from a cave in California, apparently representing a new generic type, which has been described by E. L. Furlong in the publications of the University of California, under the name of Preptoceras sinclairi. It is represented by a nearly complete skeleton, and has doubly- curved horns and sheep-like teeth. In common with an allied ruminant from the same district, previously described as Eucera- therium, it seems probable that Preptoceras is related on the one hand to the musk-ox, and on the other to the Asiatic takin, while it is also supposed to have affinities with the sheep. If these extinct forms really serve to connect the takin with the musk-ox, their systematic importance will be very great. From a geographical point of view nothing is more likely, for the takin forms a type confined to Eastern Asia (Tibet and Szechuen), and it would be reasonable to expect that, like so many other peculiar forms from the same region, they should have representatives on the American side of the Pacific. (R. L.*) MUSK-RAT, or Musquash, the name of a large North Ameri- can rat-like rodent mammal, technically known as Fiber zibe- thicus, and belonging to the mouse-tribe (Muridae). Aquatic in habits, this animal is related to the English water-rat and therefore included in the sub-family Microtinae (see Vole). It is, however, of larger size, the head and body being about 12 in. The Musk-rat (Fiber zibethicus). in length and the tail but little less. It is rather a heavily- built animal, with a broad head, no distinct neck, and short limbs, the eyes are small, and the ears project very little beyond the fur. The fore-limbs have four toes and a rudimentary thumb, all with claws; the hind limbs are larger, with five distinct toes, united by short webs at their bases. The tail is laterally compressed, nearly naked, and scaly. The hair much resembles that of a beaver, but is shorter ; it consists of a thick soft under- fur, interspersed with longer stiff, glistening hairs, which overlie and conceal the former, on the upper surface and sides of the MUSK-SHREW— MUSPRATT, J. 93 body. The general colour is dark umber-brown, almost black on the back and grey below. The tail and naked parts of the feet are black. The musky odour from which it derives its name is due to the secretion of a large gland situated in the inguinal region, and present in both sexes. The ordinary musk-rat is one of several species of a genus peculiar to America, where it is distributed in suitable localities in the northern part of the continent, extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the Rio Grande to the barren grounds bordering the Arctic seas. It lives on the shores of lakes and rivers, swimming and diving with facility, feeding on the roots, stems and leaves of water-plants, or on fruits and vegetables which grow near the margin of the streams it inhabits. Musk-rats are most active at night, spending the greater part of the day concealed in their burrows in the bank, which consist cf a chamber with numerous passages, all of which open under the surface of the water. For winter quarters they build more elaborate houses of conical or dome-like form, composed of sedges, grasses and similar materials plastered together with mud. As their fur is an important article of commerce, large numbers are annually killed, being either trapped or speared at the mouths of their holes. (See also Rodentia.) MUSK-SHREW, a name for any species of the genus Crocidura of the family Soricidae (see Insectivora). The term is generally used of the common grey musk-shrew (C. coertdea) of India. Pr Dobson believed this to be a semi-domesticated variety of the brown musk-shrew (C. murina), which he considered the original wild type. The head and body of a full-grown specimen measure about 6 in.; the tail is rather more than half that length; and bluish-grey is the usual colour of the fur, which is paler on the under surface. Dr Blanford states that the story of wine or beer becoming impregnated with a musky taint in consequence of this shrew passing over the bottles, is less credited in India than formerly owing to the discovery that liquors bottled in Europe and exported to India are not liable to be thus tainted. MUSLIM IBN AL-HAJJAJ, the Imam, the author of one of the two books of Mahommedan tradition called Sahih, " sound," was born at Nishapur at some uncertain date after a.d. 815 and died there in 875. Like al-Bukhari (q.v.), of whom he was a close and faithful friend, he gave himself to the collecting, sifting and arranging of traditions, travelling for the purpose as far as Egypt. It is plain that his sympathies were with the traditionalist school or opposed to that which sought to build up the system of canon law on a speculative basis (see Mahommedan Law). But though he was a student and friend of Ahmad ibn Hanbal (q.v.) he did not go in traditionalism to the length of some, and he defended al-Bukhari when the latter was driven from Nishapur for lefusing to admit that the utterance (lafz) of the Koran by man was as uncreated as the Koran itself (see Mahommedan Religion; and Patton's Ahmad ibn Hanbal, 32 sqq.). His great collection of traditions is second in popularity only to that of al-Bukhari, and is commonly regarded as more accurate and reliable in details, especially names. His object was more to weed out illegitimate accretions than to furnish a traditional basis for a system of law. Therefore, though he arranged his material according to such a system, he did not add guiding rubrics, and he regularly brought together in one place the different parallel versions of the same tradition. His book is thus historically more useful, but legally less suggestive. His biographers give almost no details as to his life, and its early part was probably very obscure. One gives a list of as many as twenty works, but only his Sahih seems to have reached us. See further, de Slane's transl. of Ibn Khallikan, iii. 348 sqq, and of Ibn Khaldun's Prolegomenes, ii. 470, 475; Goldziher, Muhammedan- ische Studien, ii. 245 sqq., 255 sqq.; Brockelmann, Geschichte der arab. Lilt., i. 760 seq.; Macdonald, Development of Muslim Theology, 80, 147 seq.; Dhahabi Tadhkira (edit. 01 Hyderabad), ii. 165 sqq. (D. B. Ma.) MUSLIN (through Fr. tnousseline from It. mussolino, diminu- tive of Mussolo, i.e. the town Mosul in Kurdistan) a light cotton cloth said to have been first made at Mosul, a city of Mesopo- tamia. Muslins have been largely made in various parts of India, whence they were imported to England towards the end of the 17th century. Some of these Indian muslins were very fine and costly. Among the specialties are Ami muslin, made in the Madras presidency, and Dacca muslin, made at Dacca in Bengal. Muslins of many kinds are now made in Europe and America, and the name is applied to both plain and fancy cloths, and to printed calicoes of light texture. Swiss muslin is a light variety, woven in stripes or figures, originally made in Switzerland. Book muslin is made in Scotland from very fine yarns. Mulls, jaconets, lenos, and other cloths exported to the East and elsewhere are sometimes described as muslins. Muslin is used for dresses, blinds, curtains, &c. MUSONIUS RUFUS, a Roman philosopher of the 1st century A.D., was born in Etruria about a.d. 20-30. He fell under the ban of Nero owing to his ethical teachings, and was exiled to the island of Gyarus on a trumped-up charge of participation in Piso's conspiracy. He returned under Galba, and was the friend of Vitellius and Vespasian. It was he who dared to bring an accusation against P. Egnatius Celer (the Stoic philosopher whose evidence had condemned his patron and disciple Soranus) and who endeavoured to preach a doctrine of peace and good- will among the soldiers of Vespasian when they were advancing upon Rome. So highly was he esteemed in Rome that Vespasian made an exception in his case when all other philosophers were expelled from the city. As to his death, we know only that he was not living in the reign of Trajan. His philosophy, which is in most respects identical with that of his pupil, Epictetus, is marked by its strong practical tendency. Though he did not altogether neglect .logic and physics, he maintained that virtue is the only real aim of men. This virtue is not a thing of precept and theory but a practical, living reality. It is identical with philosophy in the true sense of the word, and the truly good man is also the true philosopher. Suidas attributes numerous works to him, amongst others a number of letters to Apollonius of Tyana. The letters are certainly unauthentic; about the others there is no evidence. His views were collected by Claudius (or Valerius) Pollio, who "wrote 'Axo- li.vriiwvtbna.Ta Movawvlov toO 4n\oa6ov, from which Stobaeus obtained his information. See Ritter and Preller §§ 477, 488, 489; Tacitus, Annals, xv. 71 and Histories, iii. 81; and compare articles Stoics and Epictetus. MUSPRATT, JAMES (1703-1886), British chemical manu- facturer, was born in Dublin on the 12th of August 1793. At the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to a wholesale druggist, but his apprenticeship was terminated in 1810 by a quarrel with his master, and in 181 2 he went to Spain to take part in the Peninsular War. Lack of influence prevented him from getting a commission in the cavalry, but he followed the British army on foot far into the interior, was laid up with fever at Madrid, and, narrowly escaping capture by the French, succeeded in making his way to Lisbon. There he joined the navy, but after taking part in the blockade of Brest he was led to desert, through the harshness of the discipline on the second of the two ships in which he served. Returning to Dublin about 1814, he began the manufacture of chemical products, such as hydro- chloric and acetic acids and turpentine, adding prussiate oi potash a few years later. He also had in view the manufacture of alkali from common salt by the Leblanc process, but on the one hand he could not command the capital for the plant, and on the other saw that Dublin was not well situated for the experi- ment. In 1822 he went to Liverpool, which was at once a good ^57 he was six times grand vizier. One of the greatest and most brilliant statesmen of his time, thoroughly acquainted with European politics, and well versed in affairs, he was a convinced if somewhat too ardent partisan of reform and the principal author of the legislative remodelling of Turkish administrative methods known as the Tanzimat. His ability was recognized alike by friend and by foe. In the settlement of the Egyptian question in 1840, and during the Crimean War and the ensuing peace negotiations, he rendered valuable services to the state. MUSTANG, the wild or semi-wild horse of the prairies of America, the descendant of the horses imported by the Spaniards after the conquest in the 16th century (see Horse). The word appears to be due to two Spanish words, mestrenco, or mostrenco, defined by Minsheu (1599) as "a strayer. " Mestrenco (now mesteno) means " wild, having no master," and appears to be derived from mesta, a grazier-association, which among other functions appropriated any wild cattle found with the herds. MUSTARD. The varieties of mustard-seed of commerce are produced from several species of the genus Brassica (a member of the natural order Cruciferae). Of these the principal are the black or brown mustard, Brassica nigra (Sinapis nigra), the white mustard, Brassica alba, and the Sarepta mustard, B. juncea. Both the white and black mustards are cultivated to some extent in various parts of England. The white is to be found in every garden as a salad plant; but it has come into increasing favour as a forage crop for sheep, and as a green manure, for which purpose it is ploughed down when about to come into flower. The black mustard is grown solely for its seeds, which yield the well-known condiment. The name of the condiment was in French moustarde, mod. moutarde, as being made of the seeds of the plant pounded and mixed with must (Lat. muslum, i.e. unf ermented wine) - 1 The word was thus transferred to the plant itself. When white mustard is cultivated for its herbage it is sown usually in July or August, after some early crop has been removed. The land being brought into a fine tilth, the seed, at the rate of 1 2 lb per acre, is sown broadcast, and covered in the way recommended for clover seeds. In about six weeks it is ready either for feeding off by sheep or for ploughing down as a preparative for wheat or barley. White mustard is not fastidious in regard to soil. When grown for a seed crop it is treated in the way about to be described for the other variety. For this purpose either kind requires a fertile soil, as it is an exhausting crop. The seed is sown in April, is once hoed in May, and requires no further culture. As soon as the pods have assumed a brown colour the crop is reaped and laid down in handf uls, which lie until dry enough for thrashing or stacking. In removing it from the ground it must be handled with great care, and carried to the thrashing-floor or stack on cloths, to avoid the loss of seed. The price depends much on its being saved in dry weather, as the quality suffers much from wet. This great evil attends its growth, that the seeds which are unavoidably shed in harvesting the crop remain in the soil, and stock it permanently with what proves a pestilent weed amongst future crops. White mustard is used as a small salad — generally accompanied by garden cress — while still in the seed leaf. To keep up a supply the seed should be sown every week or ten days. The sowings in the open ground may be made from March till October, earlier or later according to the season. The ground should be light and rich, and the situation warm and sheltered. Sow thickly in rows 6 in. apart, and slightly cover the seed, pressing the surface smooth with the back of the spade. When gathering the crop, cut the young plants off even with the ground, or pull 1 There were two kinds of mustum, one the best for keeping, produced after the first treading of the grapes, and called mustum lixivum; the other, mustum tortivum, obtained from the mass, of trodden grapes by the wine-press, was used for inferior purposes. 9 8 MUSTARD OILS— MUSURUS them up and cut off the roots, beginning at one end of a row. From October to March the seeds should be sown thickly in shallow boxes and placed in a warm house or frame, with a temperature not below 65°. Brassica nigra occurs as a weed in waste and cultivated ground throughout England and the south of Scotland, but is a doubtful native. It is a large branching annual 2 to 3 ft. high with stiff, rather rough, stem and branches, dark green leaves ranging from Jyrate below to lanceolate above, short racemes of small bright yellow flowers one-third of an inch in diameter and narrow smooth pods. B. alba is more restricted to cultivated ground and has still less claim to be considered a native of Great Britain; it is distinguished from black mustard by its smaller size, larger flowers and seeds, and spreading rough hairy pods with a long curved beak. The peculiar pungency and odour to which mustard owes much of its value are due to an essential oil developed by the action of water on two peculiar chemical substances contained in the black seed. These bodies are a glucoside termed by its discoverers myronate of potassium, but since called sinigrin, C10H18KNS2O10, and an albumi- noid body, myrosin. The latter substance in presence of water acts as a ferment on sinigrin, splitting it up into the essential oil of mustard, a potassium salt, and sugar. It is worthy of remark that this reaction does not take place in presence of boiling water, and therefore it is not proper to use very hot water (above 120 F.) in the preparation of mustard. The explanation is th?t myrosin is decomposed by water above this temperature. Essential oil of mustard is in chemical constitution an isothiocyanate of allyl CsHjMCS. It is prepared artificially by a process, discovered by Zinzin, which consists in treating bromide of allyl with thiocyanate of ammonium and distilling the resultant thiocyanate of allyl. The seed of white mustard contains in place of sinigrin a peculiar gluco- side called sinalbin, C30H44N2S2O16, in several aspects analogous to sinigrin. In presence of water it is acted upon by myrosin, present also in white mustard, splitting it up into acrinyl isothio- cyanate, sulphate of sinapin and glucose. The first of these is a powerful rubefacient, whence white mustard, although yielding no volatile oil, forms a valuable material for plasters. The seeds of Brassica juncea have the same constitution and properties as black mustard, as a substitute for which they are extensively cultivated in southern Russia; the plant is also cultivated abundantly in India. Both as a table condiment and as a medicinal substance, mustard has been known from a very remote period. Under the name of roiru it was used by Hippocrates in medicine. The form in which table mustard is now sold in the United Kingdom dates from 1720, about which time Mrs Clements of Durham hit on the idea of grinding the seed in a mill and sifting the flour from the husk. The bright yellow farina thereby produced under the name of " Durham mustard " pleased the taste of George I., and rapidly attained wide popularity. As it is now prepared mustard consists essentially of a mixture of black and white farina in certain proportions. Several grades of pure mustard are made containing nothing but the farina of mustard-seed, the lower qualities having larger amounts of the white cheaper mustard; and corresponding grades of a mixed preparation of equal price, but containing certain proportions of wheaten or starch flour, are also prepared and sold as " mustard condiment." The mixture is free from the unmitigated bitterness and sharpness of flavour of pure mustard, and it keeps much better. The volatile oil distilled from black mustard seeds after maceration with water is official in the British Pharmacopeia under the title Oleum sinapis volatile. It is a yellowish or colourless pungent liquid, soluble only in about fifty parts of water, but readily so in ether and in alcohol. From it is prepared, with camphor, castor oil and alcohol, the linimentum sinapis. The official sinapis consists of black and white mustard seeds powdered and mixed. The advan- tage of mixture depends upon the fact that the white mustard seeds have an excess of the ferment myrosin, and the black, whilst some- what deficient in myrosin, yield a volatile body as compared with the fixed product of the white mustard seeds. From this mixture is prepared the charta sinapis, which consists of cartridge paper covered with a mixture of the powder and the liquor caoutchouc, the fixed oil having first been removed by benzol, thus rendering the glucoside capable of being more easily decomposed by the ferment. Used internally as a condiment, mustard stimulates the salivary but not the gastric secretions. It increases the peristaltic move- ments of the stomach very markedly. One drachm to half an ounce of mustard in a tumblerful of warm water is an efficient emetic, acting directly upon the gastric sensory nerves, long before any of the drug could be absorbed so as to reach the emetic centre in the medulla oblongata. The heart and respiration are reflexly stimu- lated, mustard being thus the only stimulant emetic. Some few other emetics act without any appreciable depression, but in cases of Coisoning with respiratory or cardiac failure mustard should never e forgotten. In contrast to this may be mentioned, amongst the external therapeutic applications of mustard, its frequent power of relieving vomiting when locally applied to the epigastrium. The uses of mustard leaves in the treatment of local pains are well known. When a marked counter-irritant action is needed, mustard is often preferable to cantharides in being more manageable and in causing a less degree of vesication ; but the cutaneous damage done by mustard usually takes longer to heal. A mustard sitz bath will often hasten and alleviate the initial stage of menstruation, and is sometimes used to expedite the appearance of the eruption in measles and scarlatina. The domestic remedy of hot water and mustard for children's feet in cases of cold or threatened cold may be of some use in drawing the blood to the surface and thus tending to prevent an excessive vascular dilatation in the nose or bronchi. The proportion of an ounce of mustard to a gallon of water is a fair one and easily remembered. But by far the most important therapeutic application of mustard is as a unique emetic. MUSTARD OILS, organic chemical compounds of general formula R-NCS. They may be prepared by the action of carbon bisulphide on primary amines in alcoholic or ethereal solution, the alkyl dithio-carbamic compounds formed being then precipitated with mercuric chloride, and the mercuric salts heated in aqueous solution, 2RNH 2 ^GS^^ 3R H ^ l2 [RHNCS 2 ] 2 Hg_>HgS+H 2 S+ 2 RNCS; or the isocyanic esters may be heated with phosphorus penta- sulphide (A. Michael and G. Palmer, Amer. Chem. Jour., 1884, 6, 257). They are colourless liquids with a very pungent irritating odour. They are readily oxidized, with production of the corre- sponding amine. Nascent hydrogen converts them into the amine, with simultaneous formation of thio-formaldehyde, RNCS+4H = R-NH 2 +HCSH. When heated with acids to ioo° C, they decompose with formation of the amine and libera- tion of carbon bisulphide and sulphuretted hydrogen. They combine directly with alcohols, mercaptans, ammonia, amines and with aldehyde ammonia. Methyl mustard oil, CH 3 NCS, melts at 35° C. and boils at 119 C. Allyl mustard oil, CaHsNCS, is the principal constituent of the ordinary mustard oil obtained on distilling black mustard seeds. These seeds contain potassium myronate (CioH I8 NS20]oK) which in presence of water is hydrolysed by the myrosin present in the seed, CoHisNSsOioK = CeHnOs + KHSO4 +C 3 H 6 NCS. It may also be prepared by heating allyl sulphide with potassium, sulphocyanide. It is a colourless liquid boiling at I50'7° C. I. combines directly with potassium bisulphite. Phenyl mustard oi v C 6 H 6 N CS, is obtained by boiling sulphocarbanilide with concentrated hydrochloric acid, some triphenylguanidine being formed at the same time. It is a colourless liquid boiling at 222 C. When heated with copper powder it yields benzonitrile. MUSTER (Mid. Eng. mostre, moustre, adapted from the similar O. Fr. forms; Lat. monstrare) , originally an exhibition, show, review, an exhibition of strength, prowess or power. One of the meanings of this common Romanic word, viz. pattern, sample, is only used in commercial usage in English {e.g. in the cutlery trade), but it has passed into Teutonic languages, Ger. Muster, Du. monster. The most general meaning is for the assembling of soldiers and sailors for inspection and review, and more particularly for the ascertainment and verification of the numbers on the roll. This use is seen in the Med. Lat. monstrum and monstratio, "recensio militum" (Du Cange, Gloss, s.v.). In the "enlistment" system of army organization during the 1 6th and 17th centuries, and later in certain special survivals, each regiment was " enlisted " by its colonel and reviewed by special officers, "muster-masters," who vouched for the members on the pay roll of the regiment representing its actual strength. This was a necessary precaution in the days when it was in the power of the commander of a unit to fill the muster roll with the names of fictitious men, known in the military slang of France and England as passe-volants and "faggots" respectively. The chief officer at headquarters was the muster-master-general, later commissary general of musters. In the United States the term is still commonly used, and a soldier is " mustered out " when he is officially discharged from military service. MUSURUS, MARCUS (c. 1470-1517), Greek scholar, was born at Rhithymna (Retimo) in Crete. At an early age he became a pupil of John Lascaris at Venice. In 1505 he was made professor of Greek at Padua, but when the university was closed in 1509 during the war of the league of Cambrai he MUTE— MUTILATION 99 returned to Venice, where he filled a similar post. In 1516 he was summoned to Rome by Leo X., who appointed him arch- bishop of Monemvasia (Malvasia) in the Peloponnese, but he died before he left Italy. Since 1493 Musurus had been associated with the famous printer Aldus Manutius, and belonged to the "Neacademia," a society founded by Manutius and other learned men for the promotion of Greek, studies. Many of the Aldine classics were brought out under Musurus's supervision, and he is credited with the first editions of the scholia of Aristo- phanes (1498), Athenaeus (1514), Hesychius (1514), Pausanias (1516). See R. Menge's De M. Musuri vita studiis ingenio, in vol. 5 of M. Schmidt's edition of Hesychius (1868). MUTE (Lat. mutus, dumb), silent or incapable of speech. For the human physical incapacity see Deaf and Dumb. In phonetics iq.v.) a "mute" letter is one which (like p or g) repre- sents no individual sound. The name of "mutes" is given, for obvious reasons, to the undertaker's assistants at a funeral. In music a "mute" (Ital. sordino, from Lat. surdus, deaf) is a device for deadening the sound in an instrument by checking its vibra- tions. Its use is marked by the sign c.s. (con sordino), and its cessation by i.s. (senza sordino). In the case of the violin and other stringed instruments this object is attained by the use of a piece of brass, wood or ivory, so shaped as to fit on the bridge without touching the strings and hold it so tightly as to deaden or muffle the vibrations. In the case of brass wind instruments a leather, wooden or papier mache pad in the shape of a pear with a hole through it is placed in the bell of the instrument, by which the passage of the sound is impeded. The interference with the pitch of the instruments has led to the invention of elaborately constructed mutes. Players on the horn and trumpet frequently use the left hand as a mute. Drums are muted or "muffled" either by the pressure of the hand on the head, or by covering with cloth. In the side drum this is effected by the insertion of pieces of cloth between the membrane and the "snares," or by loosening the "snares." The muting of a pianoforte is obtained by the use of the soft-pedal. MUTIAN, KONRAD (14 71-15 26), German humanist, was born in Homberg on the 15th of October 147 1 of well-to-do parents named Mut, and was subsequently known as Konrad Mutianus Rufus, from his red hair. At Deventer under Alex- ander Hegiushehad Erasmus as schoolfellow ; proceeding( i486) to the university of Erfurt, he took the master's degree in 1492. From 1495 he travelled in Italy, taking the doctor's degree in canon law at Bologna. Returning in 1502, the landgraf of Hesse promoted him to high office. The post was not congenial; he resigned it (1503) for a small salary as canonicus in Gotha. Mutian was a man of great influence in a select circle especially connected with the university of Erfurt, and known as the Mutianiscker Bund, which included Eoban Hess, Crotus Rubeanus, Justus Jonas and other leaders of independent thought. He had no public ambition; except in correspondence, and as an epigrammatist, he was no writer, but he furnished ideas to those who wrote. He may deserve the title which has been given him as "precursor of the Reformation," in so far as he desired the reform of the Church, but not the establishment of a rival. Like Erasmus, he was with Luther in his early stage, but deserted him in his later development. Though he had personally no hand in it, the Epistolae obscurorum virorum (due especially to Crotus Rubeanus) was the outcome of the Reuchlinists in his Bund. He died at Gotha on the 30th of March (Good Friday) 1526. See F. W. Kampschulte, Die Universitdt Erfurt (1858-1860); C. Krause, Eobanus Hessus (1879); L. Geiger, in Allgemeine Deutsche Biog. (1886) ; C. Krause, Der Briefwechsel des Mutianus Rufus (1885) ; another collection by K. Gillert (1890). (A. Go.*) MUTILATION (from Lat. mulilus, maimed). The wounding, maiming and disfiguring of the body is a practice common among savages and systematically pursued by many entire races. The varieties of mutilation are as numerous as the instances of it are widespread. Nearly every part of the body is the object of mutilation, and nearly every motive common to human beings — vanity, religion, affection, prudence — has acted in giving rise to what has been proved to be a custom of great antiquity. Some forms, such as tattooing and depilation, have stayed on as practices even after civilization has banished the more brutal types; and a curious fact is that analogous mutilations are found observed by races separated by vast distances, and proved to have had no relations with one another, at any rate in historic times. Ethnical mutilations have in certain races a great sociological value. It is only after sub- mission to some such operation that the youth is admitted to full tribal rights (see Initiation). Tattooing, too, has a semi- religious importance, as when an individual bears a representa- tion of his totem on his body; and many mutilations are tribe marks, or brands used to know slaves. Mutilations may be divided into: (1) those of the skin; (2) of the face and head ; (3) of the body and limbs ; (4) of the teeth ; (5) of the sexual organs. 1. The principal form of skin-mutilation is tattooing (g.f.), the ethnical importance of which is very great. A practice almost as common is depilation, or removal of hair. This is either by means of the razor, e.g. in Japan, by depilatories, or by tearing out the hairs separately, as among most savage peoples. The parts thus mutilated are usually the eyebrows, the face, the scalp and the pubic regions. Many African natives tear out all the body hair, some among them (e.g. the Bongos) using special pincers. Depilation is common, too, in the South Sea Islands. The Andaman islanders and the Boto- cudos of Brazil shave the body, using shell-edges and other primitive instruments. 2. Mutilations of the face and head are usually restricted to the lips, ears, nose and cheeks. The lips are simply perforated or distended to an extraordinary degree. The Botocudos insert disks of wood into the lower lip. Lip-mutilations are common in North America, too, on the Mackenzie river and among the Aleutians. In Africa they are frequently practised. The Manganja women pierce the upper lips and introduce small metal shields or rings. The Mittu women bore the lower lip and thrust a wooden peg through. In other tribes little sticks of rock crystal are pushed through, which jingle together as the wearer talks. The women of Senegal increase the natural thickness of the upper lip by pricking it repeat- edly until it is permanently inflamed and swollen. The ear, and particularly the lobe, is almost universally mutilated, from the ear- rings of the civilized West to the wooden disks of the Botocudos. The only peoples who are said not. to wear any form of ear ornament are the Andaman islanders, the Neddahs, the Bushmen, the Fuegians and certain tribes of Sumatra. Ear mutilation in its most exag- gerated form is practised in Indo-China by the Mois of Annam and the Penangs of Cambodia, and in Borneo by the Dyaks. They extend the lobe by the insertion of wooden disks, and by metal rings and weights, until it sometimes reaches the shoulder. In Africa and Asia earrings sometimes weigh nearly half a pound. Livingstone said that the natives of the Zambesi distend the per- foration in the lobe to such a degree that the hand closed could be passed through. The Monbuttus thrust through a perforation in the body of the ear rolls of leaves, or of leather, or cigarettes. The Papuans, the inhabitants of the New Hebrides, and most Melanesian peoples carry all sorts of things in their ears, the New Caledonians using them as pipe-racks. Many races disfigure the nose with perforations. The young dandies of New Guinea bore holes through the septum and thrust through pieces of bone or flowers, a mutilation found, too, among New Zealanders, Australians, New Caledonians and other Polynesian races. In Africa the Bagas and Bongos hang metal rings and buckles on their noses; the Aleutians cords, bits of metal or amber. In women it is the side of the nose which is usually perforated; rings and jewelled pendants (as among Indian and Arabic ramen, the ancient Egyptians and Jews), or feathers, flowers, coral, &c. (as in Polynesia), being hung there. Only one side of the nose is usually perforated, and this is not always merely decorative. It may denote social position, as among the Ababdes in Africa, whose unmarried girls wear no rings in their noses. The male Kulus of the Himalaya wear a large ring in the left nostril. Malays and Polynesians sometimes deform the nose by enlarging its base, effecting this by compression of the nasal bones of the newly born. The cheeks are not so frequently mutilated. The people of the Aleutian and Kurile Islands bore holes through their cheeks and place in them the long hairs from the muzzles of seals. The Guaranis of South America wear feathers in the same manner. In some countries the top of the head or the skin behind the ears of children is burnt to preserve them from sickness, traces of which mutilation are said to be discoverable on some neolithic skulls; while some African tribes cut and prick the neck close to the ear. By many peoples the deformation of the skull was anciently practised. Herodotus, Hippocrates and Strabo mention such a custom among peoples of the Caspian and Crimea. Later similar practices were found existing among Chinese mendicant sects, some tribes of Turkestan, the Japanese priesthood, in Malaysia, Sumatra, Java and IOO MUTINY— MUTSU HITO the south seas. In Europe it was not unknown. But the discovery of America brought to our knowledge those races which made a fine art of skull-deformities. At the present day the custom is still observed by the Haidas and Chinooks, and by certain tribes of Peru and on the Amazon, by the Kurds of Armenia, by certain Malay peoples, in the Solomon Islands and the New Hebrides. The reasons for this type of mutilation are uncertain. Probably the idea of distinguishing themselves from lower races was predominant in most cases, as for example in that of the Chinook Indians, who deformed the skull to distinguish themselves from their slaves. Or it may have been through a desire to give a ferocious appearance to their warriors. The deformation was always done at infancy, and often in the case of both sexes. It was, however, more usually reserved for boys, and sometimes for a single caste, as at Tahiti. Different methods prevailed: by bands, bandages, boards, com- presses of clay and sandbags, a continued pressure was applied to the half-formed cranial bones to give them the desired shape. Hand-kneading may also possibly have been employed. 3. Mutilations of the body or limbs by maiming, lopping off or deforming, are far from rare. Certain races (Bushmen, Kaffirs and Hottentots) cut off the finger joints as a sign of mourning, especially for parents. The Tongans do the same, in the belief that the evil spirits which bring diseases into the body would escape by the wound. Diseased children are thus mutilated by them. Con- tempt for female timidity has caused a curious custom among the Gallas (Africa). They amputate the mammae of boys soon after birth, believing no warrior can possibly be brave who possesses them. The fashion of distorting the feet of Chinese ladies of high rank has been of long continuance and only recently prohibited. 4. Mutilations of the teeth are among the most common and the most varied. They are by breaking, extracting, filing, inlaying or cutting away the crown of the teeth. Nearly every variety of dental mutilation is met with in Africa. In a tribe north-east of the Albert Nyanza it is usual to pry out with a piece of metal the four lower incisors in children of both sexes. The women of certain tribes on the Senegal force the growth of the upper incisors outwards so as to make them project beyond the lower lips. Many of the aboriginal tribes of Australia extract teeth, and at puberty the Australian boys have a tooth knocked out. The Eskimos of the Mackenzie River cut down the crown of the upper incisors so as not to resemble dogs. Some Malay races, too, are said to blacken their teeth because dogs have white teeth. This desire to be unlike animals seems to be at the bottom of many dental mutilations. Another reason is the wish to distinguish tribe from tribe. Thus some Papuans break their teeth in order to be unlike other Papuan tribes which they despise. In this way such practices become traditional. Finally, like many mutilations, those of the teeth are trials of endurance of physical pain, and take place at ceremonies of initiation and at puberty. The Mois (Stiengs) of Cochin-China break the two upper middle incisors with a flint. This is always ceremoniously done at puberty to the accompaniment of feasting and prayers for those mutilated, who will thus, it is thought, be preserved from sickness. Among Malay races the filing of teeth takes place with similar ceremony at puberty. In Java, Sumatra and Borneo the incisors are thinned down and shortened. Deep transverse grooves are also made with a file, a stone, bamboo or sand, and the teeth filed to a point. The Dyaks of Borneo make a small hole in the transverse groove and insert a pin of brass, which is hammered to a nail-head shape in the hollow, or they inlay the teeth with gold and other metals. The ancient Mexicans also inlaid the teeth with precious stones. 5. Mutilations of the sexual organs are more ethnically important than any. They have played a great part in human history, and still have much significance in many countries. Their antiquity is undoubtedly great, and nearly all originate with the idea of initiation into full sexual life. The most important, circumcision (q.v.), has been transformed into a religious rite. Infibulation (Lat. fibula^ a clasp), or the attaching a ring, clasp, or buckle to the sexual organs, in females through the labia majora, in males through the prepuce, was an operation to preserve chastity very commonly practised in antiquity. At Rome it was in use; Strabo says it was prevalent in Arabia and in Egypt, and it is still native to those regions (Lane, Modern Egyptians, 1. 73; Arabic Lexicon, s.v. " hafada"). Niebuhr heard that it was practised bn both shores of the Persian Gulf and at Bagdad (Description de V Arabie, p. 70). It is common in Africa (see Sir H. H. Johnston, Kilimanjaro Expedition, 1886), but is there often replaced by an operation which consists in stitching the labia majora together when the girl is four or five years old. Castration is practised in the East to supply guards for harems, and was employed in Italy until the time of Pope Leo XIII. to provide " soprani ' for the papal choir; it has also been voluntarily submitted to from religious motives (see Eunuch). The operation has, however, been resorted to for other purposes. Thus in Africa it is said to have been used as a means of annihilating conquered tribes. The Hottentots and Bushmen, too, have the curious custom of removing one testicle when a boy is eight or nine years old, in the belief that this partial emasculation renders the victim fleeter of foot for the chase. The most dreadful of these mutilations is that practised by certain Australian tribes on their boys. It consists of cutting open and leaving exposed the whole length of the urethral canal and thus rendering sexual intercourse impossible. According to some authorities it is hatred of the white man and dread of slavery which are the reasons of this racial suicide. Among the Dyaks and in many of the Melanesian islands curious modes of ornamentation of the organs (such as the kalang) prevail, which are in the nature of mutilations. Penal Use. — Mutilation as a method of punishment was common in the criminal law of many ancient nations. In the earliest laws of England mutilation, maiming and dismemberment had a prominent place. " Men branded on the forehead, without hands, feet, or tongues, lived as examples of the danger which attended the com- mission of petty crimes and as a warning to all churls " (Pike's History of Crime in England, 1873). The Danes were more severe than the Saxons. Under their rules eyes were plucked out; noses, ears and upper lips cut off ; scalps town away ; and sometimes the whole body flayed alive. The earliest forest-laws of which there is record are those of Canute (1016). Under these, if a freedman offered violence to a keeper of the king's deer he was liable to lose freedom and property ; if a serf, he lost his right hand, and on a second offence was to die. One who killed a deer was either to have his eyes put out or lose his life. Under the first two Norman kings mutilation was the punishment for poaching. It was, however, not reserved for that, as during the reign of Henry I. some coiners were taken to Winchester, where their right hands were lopped off and they were castrated. Under the kings of the West Saxon dynasty the loss of hands had been a common penalty for coining (The Obsolete Punishments of Shropshire, by S. Meeson Morris). Morris quotes a case in John's reign at the Salop Assizes in 1203, where one Alice Crithecreche and others were accused of murdering an old woman at Lilleshall. Convicted of being accessory, Crithecreche was sentenced to death, but the penalty was altered to that of having her eyes plucked out. During the Tudor and Stuart periods mutilations were a common form of punishment extra- judicially inflicted by order of the privy council and the Star Chamber. There are said to be preserved at Playford Hall, Ipswich, instruments of Henry VIII. 's time for cutting off ears. This penalty appears to have been inflicted for not attending church. By an act of Henry VIII. (33 Hen. VIII. c. 12) the punishment for " striking in the king's court or house " was the loss of the right hand. For writing a tract on The Monstrous Regimen of Women a Nonconformist divine (Dr W. Stubbs) had his right hand lopped off. Among many cases of severe mutilations during Stuart times may be mentioned those of Prynne, Burton, Bastwick and Titus Oates. MUTINY (from an old verb " mutine," 0. Fr. mutin, meutin, a sedition; cf. mod. Fr. 6meule; the original is the Late Lat. mota, commotion, from mover e, to move), a resistance by fprce to recognized authority, an insurrection, especially applied to a sedition in any military or naval forces of the state. Such offences are dealt with by courts-martial. (See Military Law and Court Martial.) MUTSU, MUNEMITSU, Count (1842-1896), Japanese states- man, was born in 1842 in Wakayama. A vehement opponent of " clan government " — -that is, usurpation of administrative posts by men of two or three fiefs, an abuse which threatened to follow the overthrow of the Tokugawa shogunate — he con- spired to assist Saigo's rebellion and was imprisoned from 1878 until 1883. While in prison he translated Bentham's Utilitarian- ism. In 1886, after a visit to Europe, he received a diplomatic appointment, and held the portfolio of foreign affairs during the China- Japan War (1894-95), being associated with Prince (then Count) Ito as peace plenipotentiary. He negotiated the first of the revised treaties (tnat with Great Britain), and for these various services he received the title of count. He died in Tokyo in 1896. His statue in bronze stands before the foreign office in Tokyo. MUTSU HITO, Mikado, or Emperor, or Japan (1852- ), was born on the 3rd of November 1852, succeeded his father, Osahito, the former emperor, in January 1867, and was crowned at Osaka on the 31st of October 1868. The country was then in a ferment owing to the concessions which had been granted to foreigners by the preceding shogun Iyemochi, who in 1854 concluded a treaty With Commodore Perry by which it was agreed that certain ports should be open to foreign trade. This convention gave great offence to the more conservative daimios, and on their initiative the mikado suddenly decided to abolish the shogunate. This resolution was not carried out without strong opposition. The reigning shogun, Keiki, yielded to the decree, but many of his followers were not so complaisant, and it was only by force of arms that the new order of things was imposed on the country. The main object of those who had advocated the change was to lead to a reversion to the MUTTRA 101 primitive condition of affairs, when the will of the mikado was absolute and when the presence in Japan of the hated foreigner was unknown. But the reactionary party was not to be allowed to monopolize revolutions. To their surprise and discomfiture, the powerful daimios of Satsuma and Choshu suddenly declared themselves to be in favour of opening the country to foreign intercourse, and of adopting many far-reaching reforms. With this movement Mutsu Hito was cordially in agreement, and of his own motion he invited the foreign representatives to an audience on the 23rd of March 1868. As Sir Harry Parkes, the British minister, was on his way to this assembly, he was attacked by a number of two-sworded samurai, who, but for his guard, would doubtless have succeeded in assassinating him. The outrage was regarded by the emperor and his minis- ters as a reflection on their honour, and they readily made all reparation within their power. While these agitations were afoot, the emperor, with his advisers, was maturing a political constitution which was to pave the way to the assumption by the emperor of direct personal rule. As a step in this direction, Mutsu Hito transferred his capital from Kioto to Yedo, the former seat of the shoguns' government, and marked the event by renaming the city Tokyo, or Eastern Capital. In 1869 the emperor paid a visit to his old capital, and there took as his imperial consort a princess of the house of Ichijo. In the same year Mutsu Hito bound himself by oath to institute certain reforms, the first of which was the establishment of a deliberative assembly. In this onward movement he was supported by the majority of the daimios, who in a supreme moment of patriotism surrendered their estates and privileges to their sovereign. This was the death-knell of the feudalism which had existed for so many centuries in Japan, and gave Mutsu Hito the free hand which he desired. A centralized bureaucracy took the place of the old system, and the nation moved rapidly along the road of progress. Everything European was eagerly adopted, even down to frock-coats and patent-leather boots for the officials. Torture was abolished (1873), and a judicial code, adapted from the Code Napoleon, was authorized. The first railway— that from Yokohama to Tokyo — was opened in 1872; the European calendar was adopted, and English was introduced into the curriculum of the common schools. In all these reforms Mutsu Hito took a leading part. But it was not to be expected that such sweeping changes could be effected without opposition, and thrice during the period between 1876 and 1884 the emperor had to face serious rebellious movements in the provinces. These he succeeded in suppressing; and even amid these pre- occupations he managed to inflict a check on his huge neighbour, the empire of China. As the government of this state declared that it was incapable of punishing certain Formosan pirates for outrages committed on Japanese ships (1874), Mutsu Hito landed a force on the island, and, having inflicted chastisement on the bandits, remained in possession of certain districts until the compensation demanded from Peking was paid. The un- paralleled advances which had been made by the government were now held by the emperor and his advisers to justify a demand for the revision of the foreign treaties, and negotiations were opened with this object. They failed, however, and the consequent disappointment gave rise to a strong reaction against everything foreign throughout the country. Foreigners were assaulted on the roads, and even the Russian cesarevich, after- wards the tsar Nicholas II., was attacked by would-be assassins in the streets of Tokyo. A renewed attempt to revise the treaties in 1894 was more successful, and in that year Great Britain led the way by concluding a revised treaty with Japan. Other nations followed, and by 1901 all those obnoxious clauses suggestive of political inferiority had finally disappeared from the treaties. In the same year (1894) war broke out with China, and Mutsu Hito, in common with his subjects, showed the greatest zeal for the campaign. He reviewed the troops as they left the shores of Japan for Korea and Manchuria, and personally distributed rewards to those who had won distinction. In the war with Russia, 1904-5, the same was the case, and it was to. the virtues of their emperor that his generals loyally ascribed the Japanese victories. In his wise patriotism, as in all matters, Mutsu Hito always placed himself in the van of his countrymen. He led them out of the trammels of feudalism; by his progressive rule he lived to see his country advanced to the first rank of nations; and he was the first Oriental sovereign to form an offensive and defensive alliance with a first-rate European power. In 1869 Mutsu Hito married Princess Haru, daughter of Ichijo Tadaka, a noble of the first rank. He has one son and several daughters, his heir-apparent being Yoshi Hito, who was born on the 31st of August 1879, and married in 1900 Princess Sada, daughter of Prince Kujo, by whom he had three sons before 1909. Mutsu Hito adopted the epithet of Meiji, or " Enlightened Peace," as the nengo or title of his reign. Thus the year 1901, according to the Japanese calendar, was the 34th year of Meiji. MUTTRA, or Mathura, a city and district of British India in the Agra division of the United Provinces. The city is on the right bank of the Jumna, 30 m. above Agra; it is an important railway junction. Pop. (1901), 60,042. It is an ancient town, mentioned by Fa Hien as a centre of Buddhism about a.d. 400; his successor Hsiian Tsang, about 650, states that it then con- tained twenty Buddhist monasteries and five Brahmanical temples. Muttra has suffered more from Mahommedan plunder than most towns of northern India. It was sacked by Mah- mud of Ghazni in 1017-18; about 1500 Sultan Sikandar Lodi utterly destroyed all the Hindu shrines, temples and images; and in 1636 Shah Jahan appointed a governor expressly to " stamp out idolatry." In 1669-70 Aurangzeb visited the city and continued the work of destruction. Muttra was again captured and plundered by Ahmad Shah with 25,000 Afghan cavalry in 1756. The town still forms a great centre of Hindu devotion, and large numbers of pilgrims flock annually to the festivals. The special cult of Krishna with which the neighbour- hood is associated seems to be of comparatively late date. Much of the prosperity of the town is due to the residence of a great family of seths or native bankers, who were conspicuously loyal during the Mutiny. Temples and bathing-stairs line the river bank. The majority are modern, but the mosque of Aurangzeb, on a lofty site, dates from 1669. Most of the public buildings are of white stone, handsomely carved. There are an American mission, a Roman Catholic church, a museum of antiquities, and a cantonment for a British cavalry regiment. Cotton, paper and pilgrims' charms are the chief articles of manufacture. The District or Muttra has an area of 1445 sq. m. It consists of an irregular strip of territory lying on both sides of the Jumna. The general level is only broken at the south-western angle by low ranges of limestone hills. The eastern half con- sists for the most part of a rich upland plain, abundantly irrigated by wells, rivers and canals, while the western portion, though rich in mythological association and antiquarian remains, is comparatively unfavoured by nature. For eight months of the year the Jumna shrinks to the dimensions of a mere rivulet, meandering through a waste of sand. During the rains, how- ever, it swells to a mighty stream, a mile or more in breadth. Formerly nearly the whole of Muttra consisted of pasture and woodland, but the roads constructed as relief works in 1837-1838 have thrown open many large tracts of country, and the task of reclamation has since proceeded rapidly. The population in 1901 was 763,099, showing an increase of 7 % in the decade. The principal crops are millets, pulse, cotton, wheat, barley and sugar cane. The famine of 1878 was severely felt. The eastern half of the district is watered by the Agra canal, which is navigable, and the western half by branches of the Ganges canal. A branch of the Rajputana railway, from Achnera to Hathras, crosses the district; the chord line of the East India, from Agra to Delhi, traverses it from north to south; and a new line, connecting with the Great Indian Peninsula, was opened in 1905. The central portion of Muttra district forms one of the most sacred spots in Hindu mythology. A circuit of 84 kos around Gokul and Brindaban bears the name of the Braj-Mandal, and 102 MUTULE— MUZAFFARNAGAR carries with it many associations of earliest Aryan times. Here Krishna and his brother Balarama fed their cattle upon the plain; and numerous relics of antiquity in the towns of Muttra, Gobardhan, Gokul, Mahaban and Brindaban still attest the sanctity with which this holy tract was invested. During the Buddhist period Muttra became a centre of the new faith. After the invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni the city fell into insignificance till the reign of Akbar; and thenceforward its history merges in that of the Jats of Bharatpur, until it again acquired separate individuality under Suraj Mai in the middle of the 1 8th century. The Bharatpur chiefs took an active part in the disturbances consequent on the declining power of the Mogul emperors, sometimes on the imperial side, and at others with the Mahrattas. The whole of Muttra passed under British rule in 1804. See F. S. Growse, Maihura (Allahabad, 1883). MUTULE (Lat. mutulus, a stay or bracket), in architecture the rectangular block under the soffit of the cornice of the Greek Doric temple, which is studded with guttae. It is supposed to represent the piece of timber through which the wooden pegs were driven in order to hold the rafter in position, and it follows the rake of the roof. In the Roman Doric order the mutule was horizontal, with sometimes a crowning fillet, so that it virtually fulfilled the purpose of the modillion in the Corinthian cornice. MUZAFFAR-ED-DlN, shah of Persia (1853-1907), the second son of Shah Nasr-ed-Dln, was born on the 25th of March 1853. He was in due course declared vail ahd, or heir-apparent, and invested with the governorship of Azerbaijan, but on the assassination of his father in 1896 it was feared that his elder brother, Zill-es-Sultan, the governor of Isfahan, might prove a dangerous rival, especially when it was remembered that Muzaffar-ed-Din had been recalled to Teheran by his father upon his failure to suppress a Kurd rising in his province. The British and Russian governments, in order to avoid wide- spread disturbances, agreed however to give him their support. All opposition was thus obviated, and Muzaffar-ed-Din was duly enthroned on the 8th of June 1896, the Russian general Kosakowsky, commander of the Persian Cossacks, presiding over the ceremony with drawn sword. On this occasion the new shah announced the suppression of all purchase of civil and military posts, and then proceeded to remit in perpetuity all taxes on bread and meat, thus lightening the taxation on food, which had caused the only disturbances in the last reign. But whatever hopes may have been aroused by this auspicious beginning of the reign were soon dashed owing to the extrava- gance and profligacy of the court, which kept the treasury in a chronic state of depletion. Towards the end of 1896 the Amin-es-Sultan, who had been grand vizier during the last years of Nasr-ed-DIn's reign, was disgraced, and Muzaffar-ed- Dln announced his intention of being in future his own grand vizier. The Amin-ad-Dowla, a less masterful servant, took office with the lower title of prime minister. During his short administration an elaborate scheme of reforms was drawn up on paper, and remained on paper. The treasury continued empty, and in the spring of 1898 Amin-es-Sultan was recalled with the special object of filling it. The delay of the British government in sanctioning a loan in London gave Russia her opportunity. A Russian loan was followed by the establishment of a Russian bank at Teheran, and the vast expansion of Russian influence generally. At the beginning of 1900 a fresh gold loan was negotiated with Russia, and a few months later Muzaffar-ed-Din started on a tour in Europe by way of St Petersburg, where he was received with great state. He subsequently went to Paris to visit the Exhibition of 1900, and while there an attempt on his life was made by a madman named Francois Salson. In spite of this experience the shah so enjoyed his European tour that he determined to repeat it as soon as possible. By the end of 1901 his treasury was again empty; but a fresh Russian loan replenished it and in 1902 he again came to Europe, paying on this occasion a state visit to England. On his way back he stopped at St Petersburg, and at a banquet given in his honour by the tsar toasts were exchanged of unmistakable significance. None the less, during his visit to King Edward VII. the shah had been profuse in his expressions of friendship for Great Britain, and in the spring of 1903 a special mission was sent to Teheran to invest him with the Order of the Garter. The shah's misguided policy had created widespread dis- affection in the country, and the brunt of popular disfavour fell on the atabeg (the title by which the Amin-es-Sultan was now known), who was once more disgraced in September 1903. The war with Japan now relaxed the Russian pressure on Teheran, and at the same time dried up the source of supplies; and the clergy, giving voice to the general misery and discontent, grew more and more outspoken in their denunciations of the shah's misrule. Nevertheless Muzaffar-ed-Din defied public opinion by making another journey to Europe in 1905; but, though received with the customary distinction at St Petersburg, he failed to obtain further supplies. In the summer of 1006 popular discontent culminated in extraordinary demonstrations at Teheran, which practically amounted to a general strike. The shah was forced to yield, and proclaimed a liberal con- stitution, the first parliament being opened by him on the 12th of October 1906. Muzaffar-ed-Din died on the 8th of January 1907, being succeeded by his son Mahommed Ali Mirza. MUZAFFARGARH, a town and district of British India, in the Multan division of the Punjab. The town is near the right bank of the river Chenab, and has a railway station. Pop. (1901), 4018. Its fort and a mosque were built by Nawab Muzaffar Khan in 1 794-1 796. The District or Muzaffargarh occupies the lower end of the Sind-Sagar Doab. Area, 3635 sq. m. In the northern half of the district is the wild thai or central desert, an arid elevated tract with a width of 40 m. in the extreme north, which gradually contracts until it disappears about 10 m. south of Muzaffargarh town. Although apparently a table-land, it is really composed of separate sandhills, with intermediate valleys lying at a lower level than that of the Indus, and at times flooded. The towns stand on high sites or are protected by embankments; but the villages scattered over the lowlands are exposed to annual inundations, during which the people abandon their grass-built huts, and take refuge on wooden platforms attached to each house. Throughout the cold weather large herds of camels, belonging chiefly to the Povindah merchants of Afghanistan, graze upon the sandy waste. The district possesses hardly any distinct annals of its own, having always formed part of Multan (q.v.). The population in 1901 was 405,656, showing an increase of 6-4% in the decade, due to the extension of irrigation. The principal crops are wheat, pulse, rice and indigo. The most important domestic animal is the camel. The district is crossed by the North- western railway, and the boundary rivers are navigable, besides furnishing numerous irrigation channels, originally constructed under native rule. MUZAFFARNAGAR, a town and district of British India, in the Meerut division of the United Provinces. The town is 790 ft. above the sea, and has a station on the North-Western railway. Pop. (1901), 23,444. It is an important trading centre and has a manufacture of blankets. It was founded about 1633 by the son of Muzaffar Khan, Khan-i-Jahan, one of the famous Sayid family who rose to power under the emperor Shah Jahan. The District or Muzaffarnagar has an area of 1666 sq. m. It lies near the northern extremity of the Doab or great alluvial plain between the Ganges and the Jumna, and shares to a large extent in the general monotony of that level region. A great : portion is sandy and unfertile; but under irrigation the soil is rapidly improving, and in many places the villagers have succeeded in introducing a high state of cultivation. Before the opening of the canals Muzaff arnagar was liable to famines caused by drought ; but the danger from this has been mini- mized by the spread of irrigation. It is traversed by four main canals, the Ganges, Anupshahr, Deoband and Eastern Jumna.' Its trade is confined to the raw materials it produces. The* MUZAFFARPUR— MYCENAE 103 climate of the district is comparatively cool, owing to the proximity of the hills; and the average annual rainfall is $3 in. The population in 1901 was 877,188, showing an increase of J 3'5 % i Q tne decade, which was a period of unexampled prosperity. The principal crops are wheat, pulse, cotton and sugar-cane. The district is crossed by the North-Western railway from Delhi to Saharanpur. Hindu tradition represents Muzaffarnagar as having formed a portion of the Pandava kingdom of the Mahabharata; authentic history, however, dates from the time of the Moslem conquests in the 13th century, from which time it remained a dependency of the various Mahommedan dynasties which ruled at Delhi until the practical downfall of the Mogul Empire in the middle of the 18th century. In 1788 the district fell into the hands of the Mahrattas. After the fall of Aligarh, the whole Doab as far north as the Siwalik hills passed into the hands of the British without a blow, and Muzaffarnagar became part of Saharanpur. It was created a separate jurisdiction in 1824. During the Mutiny there was some disorder, chiefly occasioned by official weakness, but no severe fighting. See Muzaffarnagar District Gazetteer (Allahabad, 1903). MUZAFFARPUR, a town and district of British India, in the Patna division oif Bengal. The town is on the right bank of the Little Gandak river, and has a railway station. Pop. (1001), 45,617. The town is well laid out, and is an important centre of trade, being on the direct route from Patna to Nepal. It is the headquarters of the Behar Light Horse volunteer corps and has a college established in 1899. The District 03? Muzaitarpor has an area of 3035 sq. m. It was formed in January 1875 out of the great district of Tirhoot, which up to that time was the largest and most populous district of Lower Bengal. The district is an alluvial plain between the Ganges and the Great Gandak, the Baghmat and Little Gandak being the principal rivers within it. South of the Little Gandak the land is somewhat elevated, with depressions containing lakes toward the south-east. North of the Baghmat the land is lower and marshy, but is traversed by elevated dry ridges. The tract between the two rivers is lowest of all and liable to floods. Pop. (1901), 2,754,790, showing an increase o£ 1-5 % in the decade. Average density, 914 per sq. m., being exceeded in all India only by the neighbouring district of Saran. Indigo (superseded to some extent, owing to the fall in price, by sugar) and opium are largely grown. Rice is the chief grain crop, and cloth, carpets and pottery are manufactured. The district is traversed in several directions by the Tirhoot system of the Bengal and North-Western railway. It suffered from drought in 1873-1874, and again in 1897-1898. See Muzaffarpur District Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1907). MUZIANO, GIROLAMO (1528-1592), Italian painter, was 'born at Acquafredda, near Brescia, in 1528. Under Romanino, an imitator of Titian, he studied his art, designing and colouring according to the principles of the Venetian school. But it was riot until he had left his native place, still in early youth, and had repaired to Rome about 1550, that he came into notice. There his pictures soon gained for him the surname of II Giovane de' paesi (the young man of the landscapes) ; chestnut-trees are predominant in these works. He next tried the more elevated style of historical painting. He imitated Michelangelo in giving great prominence to the anatomy of his figures, and became fond of painting persons emaciated by abstinence or even disease. His great picture of the " Resurrection of Lazarus" at once established his fame. Michelangelo praised it, and pronounced its author one of the first artists of that age. It was placed in the church of Santa Maria Maggiore, but was afterwards transferred to the Quirinal Palace. Muziano, with dogged perseverance (at one time he shaved his head, so as not to be tempted to go out of doors), continued to proceed in the path on which he had entered. He grew excellent in depicting foreign and military costumes, and in introducing landscapes into his historical pieces after the manner of Titian. Mosaic working also occupied his attention while he was employed as superintendent at the Vatican; and it became under his hands a perfect imitation of painting. His ability and industry soon gained for him a handsome fortune. Part of this he expended in assisting to found the Academy of St Luke in Rome. He died in 1592, and was buried in the church of Santa Maria Maggiore. Many of Muziano's works are in the churches and palaces of Rome; he also worked in Orvieto and Loreto. In Santa Maria degli Angeli, Rome, is one of his chief works, " St Jerome preaching to Monks in the Desert " ; his " Circumcision " is in the church of the Gesu, his " Ascension " in the Araceli, and his " St Francis receiv- ing the Stigmata " in the church of the Conception. A picture by him, representing Christ washing the feet of His disciples, is in the cathedral of Reims. MUZZIOLI, GIOVANNI (1854-1894), Italian painter, was born in Modena, whither his family had removed from Castel- vetro, on the 10th of February 1854. From the time that he began to attend the local academy at the age of thirteen he was recognized as a prodigy, and four years later, by the unanimous vote of the judges, he gained the Poletti scholarship entitling him to four years' residence in Rome and Florence. After his return to Modena, Muzzioli visited the Paris Exhibition, and there came under the influence of Sir L. Alma Tadema. His first important picture was " In the Temple of Bacchus " (1881); and his masterpiece, " The Funeral of Britannicus," was one of the chief successes of the Bologna Exhibition of 1888. From 1878 to his death (August 5, 1894) Muzzioli lived in Florence, where he painted the altar-piece for the church of Castelvetro. See History of Modern Italian Art, by A. R. Willard (London, 1898). MWERU, a large lake of Eastern Central Africa, traversed by the Luapula or upper Congo. It lies 3000 ft. above the sea; measures about 76 m. in length by some 25 in breadth, and is roughly rectangular, the axis running from S.S.W. to N.N E. It is cut a little south of its centre by 9 S. and through its N.E. corner passes 29 E. At the south end a shallow bay extends to 9° 31' S. East of this, and some miles further north, the Luapula enters from a vast marsh inundated at high water; it leaves the lake at the north-west corner, making a sharp bend to the west before assuming a northerly direction. ' Besides the Luapula, the principal influent is the Kalungwizi, from the east. Near the south end of the lake lies the island of Kilwa, about 8 m. in length, rising into plateaus 600 ft. above the lake. Here the air is cool and balmy, the soil dry, with short turf and clumps of shady trees, affording every requirement for a sanatorium. Mweru was reached by David Livingstone in 1867, but its western shore was first explored in 1890 by Sir Alfred Sharpe, who two years later effected its circumnavigation. The eastern shores from the Luapula entrance to its exit, together with Kilwa Island, belong to British Central Africa; the western to the Belgian Congo. MYAUNGMYA, a district in the Irrawaddy division of lower Burma, formed in 1803 out of a portion of Bassein district, and reconstituted in 1903. It has an area of 2663 sq. m., and a population (1901) of 278,119, showing an increase of 49% in the decade and a density of 104 inhabitants to the square mile. Among the population were about 12,800 Christians, mostly Karens. The district is a deltaic tract, bordering south on the sea and traversed by many tidal creeks. Rice cultivation and fishing occupy practically all the inhabitants of the district. The town of Myaungmya had 47 11 inhabitants in 1901. MYCENAE, one of the most ancient cities of Greece, was situated on a hill above the northern extremity of the fertile Argive plain — fiuxco "Apyeos tirxo/36roto. Its situation is ex- ceedingly strong, and it commands all the roads leading from Corinth and Achaea into the Argive plain. The walls of Mycenae are the greatest monument that remains of the Heroic age in Greece; part of them is similar in style and doubtless con- temporary in date with the walls of the neighbouring town Tiryns. There can therefore be little doubt that the two towns were the strongholds of a single race, Tiryns commanding the sea-coast and Mycenae the inner country. Legend tells of the rivalry between the dynasties of the Pelopidae at Mycenae 104 MYCENAE and of the Proetidae at Argos. In early historic times Argos had obtained the predominance. The Mycenaeans, who had temporarily regained their independence with the help of Sparta, fought on the Greek side at Plataea in 479 B.C. The long warfare between the two cities lasted till 468 B.C., when Mycenae was dismantled and its inhabitants dispersed. The city never revived; Strabo asserts that no trace of it remained in his time, but Pausanias describes the ruins. For the character of Mycenaean art and of the antiquities found at Mycenae see Aegean Civilization. The extant remains of the town of Mycenae are spread over the hill between the village of Charvati and the Acropolis. They consist of some traces of town walls and of houses, and of an early bridge over the stream to the east, on the road leading to the Heraeum. The walls of the Acropolis are in of thin slabs of stone set up on end, with others laid across the top of them; at the part of this enclosure nearest to the Lion Gate is an entrance. Some have supposed the circle of slabs to be the retaining wall of a tumulus; but its structure is not solid enough for such a purpose, and it can hardly be anything but a sacred enclosure. It was within this circle that Dr H. Schliemann found the five graves that contained a marvellous wealth of gold ornaments and other objects; a sixth was sub- sequently found. Above one of the graves was a small circular altar, and there were also several sculptured slabs set up above them. The graves themselves were mere shafts sunk in the rock. Dr Schliemann identified them with the graves of Agamemnon, Cassandra, and their companions, which were shown to Pausanias within the walls; and there can be little doubt that they are the graves that gave rise to the tradition, Based on a plan in Schuchhardt's Schliemann' s Excavations. Fig. i. — Plan of the Citadel of Mvcenae. the shape of an irregular triangle, and occupy a position of great natural strength between two valleys. They are preserved to a considerable height on all sides, except where the ravine is precipitous and they have been carried away by a landslip; they are for the most part built of irregular blocks of great size in the so-called " Cyclopian " style; but certain portions, notably that near the chief gate, are built in almost regular courses of squared stones; there are also some later repairs in polygonal masonry. The main entrance is called the Lion Gate, from the famous triangular relief which fills the space above its massive lintel. This represents two lions confronted, resting their front legs on a low altar-like structure on which is a pillar which stands between them. The device is a translation into stone of a type not uncommon in gem-cutter's and goldsmith's work of the " Mycenaean " age. The gate is approached by a road commanded on one side by the city wall, on the other by a projecting tower. There is also a postern gate on the north side of the wall, and at its eastern extremity are two apertures in the thickness of the wall. One of these leads out on to the rocks above the southern ravine, the other leads to a long staircase, completely concealed in the wall and the rocks, leading down to a subterranean well or spring. Just within the Lion Gate is a projection of the wall surrounding a curious circular enclosure, consisting of two concentric circles though the historical identity of the persons actually buried in them is a more difficult question. Outside the circle, especially to the south of it, numerous remains of houses of the Mycenaean age have been found, and others, terraced up at various levels, occupy almost the whole of the Acropolis. On the summit, approached by a well-preserved flight of steps, are the remains of a palace of the Mycenaean age, similar to that found at Tiryns, though not so complicated or extensive. Above them are the foundations of a Doric temple, probably dating from the last days of Mycenaean independence in the 5th century. Numerous graves have been found in the slopes of the hills adjoining the town of Mycenae. Most of these consist merely of a chamber, usually square, excavated in the rock, and approached by a " dromos " or horizontal approach in the side of a hill. They are sometimes provided with doorways faced with stucco, and these have painted ornamentation. Many of these tombs have been opened, and their contents are in the Athens museum. Another and much more conspicuous kind of tomb is that known as the beehive tomb. There are eight of them at Mycenae itself, and others in the neighbourhood. Some of them were visible in the time of Pausanias, who calls them the places where Atreus and his sons kept their treasures. There can, however, be no doubt that they were the tombs of princely families. The largest and best preserved of them, now MYCETOZOA 105 commonly called the Treasury of Atreus, is just outside the Lion Gate. It consists of a circular domed chamber, nearly 50 ft. in diameter and in height; a smaller square chamber opens out of it. It is approached by a horizontal avenue 20 ft. wide and 115 II - long, with side walls of squared stone sloping up to a height of 45 ft. The doorway was flanked with columns of alabaster, with rich spiral ornament, now in the British Museum; and the rest of the facade was very richly decorated, as may be seen from Chipiez's fine restoration. The inside of the vault was ornamented with attached bronze ornaments, but not, as is sometimes stated, entirely lined with bronze. It is generally supposed that these tombs, as well as those excavated in the rock, belong to a later date than the shaft-tombs on the Acropolis. See H. Schliemann, Mycenae (1879) ; C. Schuchhardt, Schliemann's Excavations (Eng. trans., 1891) ; Chr. Tsountas, Mvurjixu ko.1 Mvk^cukAs ■rikiTiaiibs (1895); Tsountas and Manatt, Tlie Mycenaean Age (1897); Perrot and Chipiez, Histoire de Vart aans Vantiquiti, vol. vi., L'art Myctnienne. Various reports in Ilpaxrucd rfjt ipx- irmplas and in 'K^r)/«pJs dpx<"o*o7""7. (E. Gr.) MYCETOZOA (Myxomycetes, Schleimpilze) , in zoology, a group of organisms reproducing themselves by spores. These are produced in or on sporangia which are formed in the air and the spores are distributed by the currents of air. They thus differ from other spore-bearing members of the animal kingdom (which produce their spores while immersed in water or, in the case of parasites, within the fluids of their hosts), and resemble the Fungi and many of the lower green plants. In relation with this condition of their fructification the structures formed at the spore-bearing stage to contain or support the spores present a remarkable resemblance to the sporangia of certain groups of Fungi, from which, however, the Mycetozoa are essentially different. Although the sporangial and some other phases have long been known', and Fries had enumerated 192 species in 1829, the main features of their life-history were first worked out in 1859- 1860 by de Bary (1 and 2). He showed that in the Mycetozoa the spore hatches out as a mass of naked protoplasm which almost immediately assumes a free-swimming flagellate form (urospore), that after multiplying by division this passes into an amoeboid phase, and that from such amoebae the Plasmodia arise, though the mode of their origin was not ascertained by him. The Plasmodium of the MycetozOa is a mass of simple proto- plasm, without a differentiated envelope and endowed with the power of active locomotion. It penetrates the interstices of decaying vegetable matter, or, in the case of the species Badhamia utricularis, spreads as a film on the surface of living fungi; it may grow almost indefinitely in size, attaining under favourable conditions several feet in extent. It constitutes the dominant phase of the life-history. From the Plasmodium the sporangia take their origin. It was Cienkowski who (in 1863) contributed the important fact that the Plasmodia arise by the fusion with one another of numbers of individuals in the amoeboid phase — a mode of origin which is now generally recognized as an essential feature in the conception of a Plasmodium, whether as occurring among the Mycetozoa or in other groups (7). De Bary clearly expressed the view that the life-history of the Mycetozoa shows them to belong not to the vegetable but to the animal kingdom. The individual sporangia of the Mycetozoa are, for the most part, minute structures, rarely attaining the size of a mustard- seed, though, in the composite form of aethalia, they may form cake-like masses an inch or more across (fig. 21). They are found, stalked or sessile, in small clusters or distributed by the thousand over a wide area many feet in diameter, on the bark of decaying trees, on dead leaves or sticks, in woods and shrub- beries, among the stems of plants on wet moors, and, generally, at the surface in localities where there is a substratum of decaying vegetable matter sufficiently moist to allow the Plasmodium to live. Tan-heaps have long been known as a favourite habitat of Fuligo septica, the Plasmodia of which, emerging in bright yellow masses at the surface prior to the sporangial (in this case aethalial) phase, are known as " flowers of tan." The film-like, expanded condition of the Plasmodium, varying in colour in different species and traversed by a network of vein- like channels (fig. 5), has long been known. The plasmodial stage was at one time regarded as representing a distinct group of fungi, to which the generic name Mesenterica was applied. The species of Mycetozoa are widely distributed over the world in temperate and tropical latitudes where there is sufficient moisture for them to grow, and they must be regarded as not inconsiderable agents in the disintegrating processes of nature, by which complex organic substances are decomposed into simpler and more stable chemical groups. Classification. — The Mycetozoa, as here understood, fall into three main divisions. The Endosporeae, in which the spores are contained within sporangia, form together with the Exosporeae, which bear their spores on the surface of sporophores, a natural group characterized by forming true plasmodia. They con- stitute the Euplasmodida. Standing apart from them is the small group of the mould-like Sorophora, in which the amoeboid individuals only come together immediately prior to spore- formation and do not completely fuse with one another. A number of other organisms living on vegetable and animal bodies, alive or dead, and leading an entirely aquatic life, are included by Zopf (31) under the Mycetozoa, as the " Monadina," in distinction from the " Eumycetozoa," consisting of the three groups above mentioned. The alliance of some of these (e.g. Protomonas) with the Mycetozoa is probable, and was accepted by de Bary, but the relations of other Monadina are obscure, and appear to be at least as close with the Heliozoa (with which many have in fact been classed). The limits here adopted, following de Bary, include a group of organisms which, as shown by their life-history, belong to the animal stock, and yet alone among animals 1 they have acquired the habit, widely found in the vegetable kingdom, of developing and distributing their spores in air. Class MYCETOZOA. Sub-class 1. — Euplasmodida. 2 Division 1. — Endosporeae. Cohort 1 . — Amaurosporales. Sub-cohort 1. — Calcarineae. Order 1. Physaraceae. Genera: Badhamia, Physarum, Physarella, Trichamphora, Erionema, Cienkowskia, Fuligo, Craterium, Leocarpus, Chondrioderma, Diachaea. Order 2. Didymiaceae. Genera : Didymiwn, Spumaria, Lepido- derma. Sub-cohort 2. — Amaurochaetineae. Order 1. Stemonitaceae. Genera: Stemonitis, Comatricha, Ener- thenema, Echinostelium, Lamproderma, Clastoderma. Order 2. Amaurochaetaceae. Genera: Amaurochaete, Brefeldia. Cohort 2. — Lamprosporales. Sub-cohort I. — Anemineae. Order 1. Heterodermaceae. Genera: Lindbladia, Cribfaria, Dictydium. Order 2. Licaeceae. Genera : Licea, Orcadella. Order 3. Tubulinaceae. Genera : Tubulina, Siphoptychium, Alwisia. Order 4. Reticulariaceae. Genera: Dictydiaethalium, Enteridium, Reticularia. Order 5. Lycogalaceae. Genus : Lycogala. Sub-cohort 2. — Calonemineae. Order 1. Trichiaceae. Genera:. Trichia, Oligonema, Hemitrichia, Cornuvia. Order 2. Arcyriaceae. Genera: Arcyria, Lachnobolus, Perichaena. Order 3. Margaritaceae. Genera : Margarita, Dianema, Proto- trichia, Listerella. Division 2. — Exosporeae. Order I. Ceratiomyxaceae. Genus: Ceratiomyxa. Sub-class 2. — Sorophora. Order 1. Guttulinaceae. Genera: Copromyxa, Guttulina, Guttu- linopsis. Order 2. Dictyosteliaceae. Genera: Dictyostelium, Acrasis, Poly- sphondylium. 1 Bursulla, a member of Zopf's Monadina, likewise forms its spores in air. 2 The classification of the Euplasmodida here given is that of A. and G. Lister (22), the outcome of a careful study of the group extending over more than twenty-five years. The writer of this article desires to express his indebtedness to the opportunities he has had of becoming familiar with the work of his father, Mr A. Lister, F.R.S., whose views on the affinities and life-history of the Mycetozoa he has endeavoured herein to summarize. io6 MYCETOZOA LIFE-HISTORY OF THE MYCETOZOA EUPLASMODIDA Endosporeae. We may begin our survey of the life-history at the point where the spores, borne on currents of air, have settled among wet decaying vegetable matter. Shrunken when dry, they rapidly absorb water and resume the spherical ■© > shape which is found in ®' nearly all species. Each is surrounded by a spore wall, sheltered by which the protoplasm, though losing moisture by drying, may remain alive for as many as four years. In several cases it has been found to give the chemical reaction of cellulose. It is smooth or variously sculptured according to the species. Within the protoplasm may be seen the nucleus, and one or more contractile vacuoles c. . . ,. , . , , make their appearance. i.'— Stages in the Hatching of the After the spore has lain Spores of Dtdymtum difforme. in water f or a period The unruptured spore. varying from a few hours 1 he protoplasmic contents of the spore to a (j ay or two t h e wall emerging It contains a nucleus with bursts and the contained the (light) nucleolus, and a contractile protoplasm slips out and After A. Lister. Fig. a, b, vacuole (shaded). c, The same, free from the spore wall. d, Zoospore, with nucleus at the base of the flagellum, and contractile vacuole. e, A zoospore with pseudopodial processes at the posterior end, to one of which a bacillus adheres. Two digestive vacuoles in the interior contain in- gested bacilli. /, Amoeboid phase with .flagellum. lies free in the water as a minute colourless mass, presenting amoeboid movements (fig. i, c). It soon assumes an elongated piriform shape, and a flagellum is developed at the narrow end, attaining a length equal to the rest retracted f the body. The minute zoospore, thus equipped, swims away with a characteristic dancing motion. The proto plasm is granular within but hyaline externally (fig. I, d). The nucleus, lying at the end of the body where it tapers into the flagellum, is limited by a definite wall and contains a nuclear network and a nucleolus. It often presents the appearance of being drawn out into a point towards the flagellum, and a bell-like structure [first described by Plenge (27)], staining more darkly than the rest of the protoplasm, extends from the base of the flagellum and invests the nucleus (fig 2, a and c). The other end of the zoospore may be evenly rounded (fig. I, d) or it may be produced into short pseudo- podia (fig. 1, e). By means of these the zoospore Captures bacteria which are drawn into the body and enclosed in digestive vacuoles. A contractile vacuole is also present near the hind end. Considerable movement may be observed among the granules of the interior, and in the large zoospores of Amaurochaete atra this may amount to an actual streaming, though without the rhythm characteristic of the plasmodial stage. Other shapes may be temporarily assumed by the zoospore. Attaching itself to an object it may become amoeboid, either with (fig. I,/) or without (fig. 2, c) the temporary retraction of the flagel- lum ; or it may take an elongated slug-like shape and creep with the flagellum extended in front, with tactile and apparently exploratory movements. That the zoospores of many species of the Endosporeae feed on bacteria has been shown by A. Lister (18). New light has recently been thrown on the matter by Pinoy (26), who has worked chiefly with Sorophora, in which, as shown below, the active phase of the life-history is passed Fig. 2. — Zoospores of Badhamia panicea, stained. In a and c the bell-like struc- ture investing the nucleus is clearly seen. After A. Lister. Fig. 3. — Three stages in the division of the Zoospore of Reticularia Lycoperdon. mainly in the state of isolated amoebae. Pinoy' finds that the amoebae of this group live on particular species of bacteria, and that r the presence of the latter is a necessary condition for the develop-, ment of the Sorophora, and even (as has been recognized by other workers) for the hatching of their spores. Pinoy's results indicate, though not so conclusively, that bacteria are likewise the essential food of the Euplasmodida in the early phases of their life-history. The zoospores do, however, ingest other solid bodies, e.g. carmine granules (Saville Kent, 15). The zoospores multiply by binary fission, the flagellum being withdrawn and the nucleus undergoing mitotic division, with the; formation of a well-marked achromatic spindle (fig. 3). , It is probable that fission occurs more than once in the zoospore" stage; but there is not satisfactory evidence to show how often it may be repeated. 2 At this, as at other phases of the life-history, a resting stage may be assumed as the result of drying, but also from other and unknown causes. The flagel- lum is withdrawn and the protoplasm, becoming spheri- cal, secretes a cyst wall. The organism thus passes into the condition of a microcysi, from which when dry it may be awakened to renewed activity by wetting. At the end of the zoospore stage the organism finally withdraws its flagellum and assumes the amoeboid shape. It is now known as an amoe- bula. The amoebulae become endowed, as was first recog- nized by Cjenkowski, with mutual attraction, and on meeting fuse with one another. Fig. 4 represents a group of such amoebulae. Several have already united to form a common mass, to which others, stifl_ free, are verging, mass After A. Lister. Fig. 4. — Amoebulae of Didymium difforme uniting to form a Plas- modium. The common mass contains digestive vacuoles (v). The clear spherical bodies are ig. The protoplasmic microcysts and an empty spore- thus arising is the plas- shell is seen to the left. modium. The fusion between the protoplasmic bodies of the amoebulae which unite to form it is complete. Their nuclei may be traced for some time in the young Plasmodium and no fusion between them has been observed at this stage (20). As the Plasmodium increases in size by the addition of amoebulae the task of following the fate of the individual nuclei by direct observation becomes impossible. The appearance of an active Plasmodium of Badhamia- utricularis, which, as we have seen, lives and feeds on certain fungi, is shown, in fig. 5. It consists of a film of protoplasm, of a bright yellow colour, varying in size up to a foot or more in diameter. It is traversed by a network of branching and anastomosing channels, which divide up and are gradually lost as they approach the margin where the, protoplasm forms a uniform and lobate border. Elsewhere the 1 Figures I, 4, and 11-22 are from the British Museum Guide to the British Mycetozoa. The other figures are from Lankester's Treatise on Zoology, part 1. Introduction and Protozoa. Fascicle I. Article Mycetozoa. Fig. 5. — Part of the Plasmodium of Badhamia utricularis. main trunks of the network may lie free with little or no connecting film between them and their neighbours. The plasmodia of other species, which live in the interstices of decaying vegetable matter, are less easily observed, but on emerging on the surface prior to 2 Pinoy states (26) that the spores of Spumaria alba, cultivated with bacteria on solid media, hatch out into amoebae, which under these conditions do not assume the flagellate stage. The amoeba from a spore was observed to give rise by three successive divisions to eight amoebulae. , MYCETOZOA 107 ?>ore formation they present an essentially similar appearance, here is, however, great variety in the degree of concentration or expansion presented by Plasmodia, in relation with food supply, moisture and other circumstances. The plasmodia move slowly about over or, in the substratum, concentrating in regions where food supply is abundant, and leaving those where it is exhausted. On examining under the microscope a film which has spread over a cover-slip, the channels are seen to be streams of rapidly moving granular protoplasm. This movement is rhythmic in character, being directed alternately towards the margin of an advancing region of the plasmodium, and away from it. As a channel is watched the stream of granules is seen to become slower, and after a momentary pause to begin in the opposite direction. In an active Plasmodium the duration of the flow in either direction varies from a minute and a half to two minutes, though it is always longer when in the direction of the general advance over the substratum. When the flow of the protoplasm is in this latter direction the border be- comes turgid, and lobes of hyaline protoplasm are seen (under a high magnification) to start forward, and soon to become filled with granu- lar contents. When the flow is reversed, the margin becomes thin from the drainage away of its contents. A delicate hyaline layer invests the Plasmodium, and is apparently less fluid than the material flowing in the channels.' The phenomena of the rhythmic movement of the protoplasm are not inconsistent with the vievr that they result from alternating contraction and relaxation of the outer layer in different regions of the plasmodium, but any dogmatic statement as to their causation appears at present inadvisable. Fig. 6. a, Part of a stained Plasmodium of Badhamia utricularis. n, Nuclei. b, Nuclei, some in process of simple (amitotic) division. c, Part of a Plasmodium in which the nuclei are in simultaneous mitotic division. d-f, Other stages in this process. Minute contractile vacuoles may be seen in great numbers in the thin parts of the plasmodium between the channels. In stained preparations nuclei, varying (in Badhamia utricularis) from 2-5 to 5 micromillimeters in diameter, are found abundanlly in the granular protoplasm (fig. 6, b). They contain a nuclear reticulum and one or more well-marked nucleoli. In any stained plasmodium some nuclei may be found, as shown in the figure 6, which appear to be in some stage of simple (amitotic) division, and this is, presumably, the chief mode in which the number of the nuclei keeps pace with the rapidly growing plasmodium. There is, however, another mode of nuclear division in the plasmodium which has hitherto been observed in one recorded instance (19, p. 541), the mitotic (fig. 6, c-f), and this appears to befall all the nuclei of a plasmodium simul- taneously. What the relation of these two modes of nuclear division may be to the life-history is obscure. That the amitotic is the usual mode of nuclear division is indicated by the very frequent occurrence of these apparently dividing nuclei and also by the following experiment. A plasmodium of Badhamia utricularis spreading over pieces of the fungus Auricularia was observed to increase in size about fourfold in fourteen hours, and during this time a small sample was removed and stained every quarter of an hour. The later stainings showed no diminution in the number of nuclei in proportion to the protoplasm, and yet none of the sample showed any sign of mitotic division (20, p. 9). It would appear therefore that the mode of increase of the nuclei during this period was amitotic. Prowazek (28) has recently referred to nuclear stages, similar to those here regarded as of amitotic division, but has interpreted them as nuclear fusions. He does not, however, discuss the mode of multiplication of nuclei in the plasmodium. In the group of the Calcareae, granules of carbonate of lime are abundant in the plasmodia, and in all Mycetozoa other granules of undetermined nature are present. The colour of plasmodia varies in different species, and may be yellow, white, pink, purple or green. The colouring matter is in the form of minute drops, and in the Calcareae these invest the lime granules. Nutrition. — The plasmodium of Badhamia utricularis, advancing over the pilei of suitable fungi, feeds on the superficial layer dissolving the walls of the hyphae (17). The protoplasm may be seen to contain abundant foreign bodies such as spores of fungi or sclerotium cysts (vide infra) which have been taken in and are undergoing digestion. It has been found experimentally (11) that pieces of coagulated proteids are likewise taken in and digested in vacuoles. On the other hand it has been found that plasmodia will live, ultimately producing sporangia, in nutrient solutions (9). 1 It would appear therefore that the nutrition of plasmodia is effected in part by the ingestion of solid foodstuffs, and in part by the absorption of material in solution, and that there is great variety in the com- plexity of the substances which serve as their food. Sclerotium. — As the result of drought, the plasmodium, having become much denser by loss of water, passes into the sclerotial condition. Drawing together into a ■■». thickish layer, the protoplasm divides jP^^^S^ijeL^ ^S^i up into a number of distinct masses, "*' •*-**■"••- " !J /="=!».•■• •'- each containing some 10 to 20 nuclei, and a cyst wall is excreted round each mass (fig. 7). The whole has now a hard brittle consistency. In this state the protoplasm will remain alive for two or three years. On the addition - T of water the cvst walls are ruptured FlG - 7- — Section of the and in part absorbed, their contents Plasmodium of Badhamia join together, and the active streaming utricularis when passing into condition of the plasmodium is re- the condition of sclerotium. sumed. It is to be noted, however, ». The nuclei contained in that the sclerotial condition may be the young sclerotial cysts. assumed under other conditions than dryness, and sclerotia may even be formed in water. The existence of the sclerotial stage affords a ready means of obtaining the plasmodium for experimental purposes. If a cultiva- tion of the plasmodium of Badhamia utricularis on suitable fungi {Stereum, Auricularia) is allowed to become partially dry the Plas- modium draws together and would, if drying were continued, pass into the sclerotial stage on the fungus. If now strips of wet blotting- paper are placed so as to touch the plasmodium, the latter, attracted by the moisture, crawls on the blotting-paper. If this is now removed and allowed to dry rapidly, the plasmodium passes into sclerotium on it. 2 By this means the plasmodium is removed from the partially disintegrated and decayed fungus on which it has been feeding, and a clean sclerotium is obtained, which, as above stated, remains alive for years (21, p. 7). An easy method for obtaining small plasmodia for microscopic examination is to scatter small fragments, scraped from a piece of the hard sclerotium, over cover-slips wetted with rain- water and kept in a moist atmosphere. In twelve to twenty- four hours small plasmodia will be seen spreading on the cover-slips and these may be mounted for observation. The plasmodial stage ends by the formation of the sporangia. The plasmodium withdraws from the interstices of the material among which it has fed, and emerges on the surface in a diffuse or concentrated mass. In the case of Badhamia utricularis it may with- draw from the fungus on which it has been feeding, or change into sporangia on it. The mode of formation of the sporangia will be described in the case of Badhamia, some of the chief differences in the process and in the structure of the sporangia in other forms being subsequently noticed. When the change to sporangia begins the protoplasm of the Plasmodium becomes gradually massed in discrete rounded lobes, about a half to one millimeter in diameter and scattered in clusters over the area occupied by the plasmodium. The reticulum of channels of the plasmodium becomes meanwhile less and less marked. When the whole of the protoplasm is drawn in to the lobes, the circulation ceases. The lobes are the young sporangia. Meanwhile foreign bodies, taken in with the food, are ejected, and the protoplasm secretes on its outer surface a pellicle of mucoid, transparent substance which dries as the sporangia ripen. This invests the young sporangia, and as they rise above the substratum falls together at their bases forming the stalks; extended over the substratum it forms the hypothallus, and in contact with the rounded surface of the sporangium it forms the sporangium-wall. While the sporangium-wall is formed externally a secretion of 1 A solution which has thus been found favourable contains the following mineral salts: KH 2 P0 4 , K 2 HP0 4 ,MgS0 4 , KNOa, CA (NOi)j, a free acid, and 5 % of dextrine. 2 If the plasmodium is slowlv dried it is very apt to pass into sporangia. io8 MYCETOZO A similar material occurs along branching and anastomosing tracts through the protoplasm of the sporangium, giving rise to the capilhtiwn. The greater part of the lime granules pass out of the protoplasm and are deposited in the capillitium, which in the ripe sporangia of Badhamia is white and brittle with the contained lime (cf. fig. 8). In this genus some granules are found also in the sporangium-wall. Strasburger concludes that the sporangium-wall of Trichia is a modification of cellulose (29). Fig. 8. — Sporangia of Badhamia panicea, some intact, others (to left) ruptured, exposing the black masses of spores and the capillitium. The latter is white with deposited lime granules. An empty sporangium is seen above. It has been stated (16), but the observation requires confirmation, that a fusion of the nuclei in pairs occurs early in the development of the sporangium. Fig. 10. — Part of a section through a Sporangium of Trichia varia after the spores are formed. Fig. 9. — Part of a section through a young Sporangium of Trichivaria, showing the mitotic division of the nuclei («) prior to spore formation. c, Capillitium thread. At a later stage, after the capillitium is formed, the nuclei undergo a mitotic division which affects all the nuclei of a sporangium simul- taneously. This was first described by Strasburger (29). While it Fig. 11. — Badhamia utricularis, a, Sporangia. b, Capillitium spores. and cluster of Fig. 12.— Physarum nutans. Sporangia. Capillitium threads, with frag- ment of the sporangium-wall attached, lime knots at the junctions and spores. is in progress the protoplasm of the sporangium divides, into succes- sively smaller masses, until each daughter nucleus is the centre of a single mass of protoplasm. 1 These nucleated masses are the young 1 In some genera such as Arcyria and Trichia (illustrated in figs. 9 and 10) the division of the protoplasm does not occur until the nuclei have undergone this division. The protoplasm then divides up •bout the daughter nuclei to form the spores. spores. A spore-wall is soon secreted and the sporangium has now resolved itself into a mass of spores, traversed by the strands of the capillitium and enclosed in a sporangium-wall, connected with the substratum by a stalk. As ripening proceeds, the wall becomes membranous and readily ruptures, and the dry spores may be carried abroad on the currents of air or washed out by rain. Fig. 13- Chondrioderma testa- Fig. 14.- ceum. a, Group of three Sporangia. 6, Capillitium, fragment of spor- angium-wall and spores. Cralerium peduncula- tum. a, Two Sporangia, in one the lid has fallen away. b, Capillitium with lime knots and spores. We may now review some of the main differences in structure presented by the sporangia. They may be stalked or sessile (fig. 13). If the former, the stalk is usually, as in Badhamia utricidaris, Fig. 15. — Didymium effusum. a, Two Sporangia, one showing the columella and capillitium. b, Capillitium, fragment of spor- angium-wall with carbonate of lime in crystals, and spores. Fig. 16. — Lepidoderma tigrinum. a, Sporangium; the crystal-line disks of lime are seen attached to the sporangium-wall. b, Capillitium and spores. the continuation of the sporangium- walls (figs. 11 and 12), but in Stemonitis and its allies (figs. 17 and 18) it is an axial structure. A central columella may project into the interior of the sporangium, either in stalked (fig. 15) or sessile (fig. 13) forms. Fig. 17. — Lamproderma irlaeum. a, Sporangia. b, A Sporangium deprived of spores, showing the capillitium and remains of the sporangium- wall. a b Fig. 18. — Stemonitis splendens. a, Group of Sporangia (nat. size). b, Portion of columella and capil- litium, the latter branching to form a superficial network. The sporangium-wall may be most delicate and evanescent (fig. 17), or consist of a superficial network of threads (fig. 18), which in Dietydium (fig. 19) present a beautifully regular arrangement. Fig. 19. — Dietydium umblicatum. a, Group of Sporangia, nat. size. b, A Sporangium after dispersion of the spores. Fig. 20. — Arcyria puniest*. a, Group of Sporangia. b, Capillitium. c, Spore. In Chondrioderma (fig. 13) the wall is double, the inner layer being membranous, the outer thickly encrusted with lime granules. In Craterium the upper part of the sporangium-wall is lid-like and falls away, leaving the spores in an open cup (fig. 14). MYCETOZOA 109 The condition of the capillitium is very various. In the Calcari- neae the lime may be generally distributed through it (fig. 11), or a gf> re g at . e d at the nodes of the network in " lime-knots " (figs. 12 and 14) or it may be absent from the capillitium altogether. The capillitium attains its highest development in the Calonemineae in which the threads, distinct (in which case they are known as elaters, figs. 9 and 10) or united into a network (fig. 20), present regular thickenings in the form of spiral bands or transverse bars. These threads, altering their shape with varying states of moisture, are efficient agents in distributing the spores. In another group, the Anemineae, the capillitium is absent altogether. The Didymiaceae are characterized by the fact that the lime, though present in a granular form in the Plasmodium, is deposited on the sporangium-wall in the form of crystals, either in radiating groups (fig. 15) or in disks (fig. 16). In most Endosporeae the sporangia are separate symmetrical bodies, but in many genera a form of fructification occurs in which Fig. 22. — Licea flexuosa. a, Group of Plasmodiocarps. b, A continuous Plasmodiocarp Fig. 21. — Fuligo septica. a, Aethalium. b, Capillitium threads (with lime-knots) and two spores. c, Spores, the spores are produced in masses of more or less irregular outline, retaining in extreme cases much of the diffuse character of the Plas- modium. With the spores they contain capillitium, but there are no traces of sporangial walls to be found in their interior. They are known as plasmodiocarps (fig. 22). They are characteristic of certain species, but in others they may be formed side by side with separate sporangia from the same Plasmodium. There is indeed no sharp line to be drawn between sporangia and plasmodiocarps. On the other hand, the crowded condition of the sporangia of some species forms a transition to the large compound fructifications known as aethalta (fig. 21). These, either in their young stages or up to maturity, retain some evidence of their formation by a coalescence of sporangia, and in addition to the capillitium they are generally penetrated by the remains of the walls of the sporangia which have thus united. Exosporeae. It will be convenient to begin our survey of the life-history of Ceratiomyxa, the single representative of the Exo- sporeae, at the stage at which the Plasmodium emerges from the rotten wood in which it has fed. At this stage it has been observed to spread as a film over a slide, and to exhibit the network of channels and rhythmic flow of the proto- plasm in a manner precisely similar to that seen in the Endosporeae (20, p. 10). It soon, however, draws to- gether into compact masses, from the surface of which finger-like or antler-like lobes grow upwards. Here too the secretion of a trans- parent mucoid substance occurs, which is at first From Lankster's Treatise on Zoology; figs, a penetrated by the anasto- and c-h after A. Lister; fig. b after Famintzin mosing strands of the andWoronin. protoplasm, but gradually Fig. 23. — Ceratiomyxa mucida. the latter tends more and a, Ripe sporophore. more to form a reticular and b, Maturing sporophore showing the ultimately a nearly continu- development of the spores. ous superficial investment, c, Ripe spore. Instead of the single covering the mucoid ma- nucleus here indicated there should terial. The latter even- be four nuclei, as in d. tually dries and forms the d, Hatching spore. exceedingly delicate support e-h, Stages in the development of the of the spores or sporophore zoospores. (fig. 23, a). The investing proto- f)lasm, with its nuclei, having become arranged in an even ayer, undergoes cleavage and thus forms a pavement-like layer of protoplasmic masses, each occupied by a single nucleus (fig- 23, b). Each of these masses now grows out perpendicularly to the surface of the sporophore. As it does so an envelope is secreted, which, closing in about the base forms a slender stalk. The minute mass, borne on the stalk, becomes the ellipsoid spore, surrounded by the spore-wall. In this manner the whole of the protoplasmic substance of the Plasmodium is converted into spores, borne on supporting structures (stalks and sporophores) , which are formed by secretion of the protoplasm. In the course of the development of which the external features have now been traced nuclear changes occur of which accounts have been given by Jahn (14) and by Olive (24 and 25). Jahn has shown that prior to the cleavage of the protoplasm a mitotic division of the nuclei takes place, the daughter nuclei of which are those occupying the protoplasmic masses seen in fig. 23 b. 1 After the spore has risen on its stalk two further mitotic divisions occur in rapid succession, and the four-nucleated condition characteristic of the spore of Ceratiomyxa, is thus attained. The spores, on being brought into water, soon hatch (fig. 23, d), and the four nuclei contained in them undergo a mitotic division Meanwhile the protoplasm divides, at first into four, then into eight masses, and the latter acquire flagella, although for some time remaining con- nected with their fellows (fig. 23, e-h). On separating each is a free zoospore. From observation of cultivations of zoospores the impression is that here, as in the Endosporeae, they multiply by binary division, though no exact observations of the process have been recorded. The zoospores lose their flagella and become amoebulae, but the fusion of the iatter to form Plasmodia has not been directly observed in Ceratiomyxa, although from analogy with the Endosporeae it can hardly be doubted that such fusions occur. Sorophora. The Sorophora of Zopf (Acrasiae of Van Tieghem) are a group of microscopic organisms inhabit- ing the dung of herbivorous animals and other decaying vegetable matter. As Pmoy (26) has shown, the presence of a particular species of bacteria with the spores is necessary for their hatching and as the essential food of the amoebulae which emerge from them. There is no flagellate stage, and it is in the form of amoebulae, multiplying by fission, that the vegetative stage of the life- history is passed. At the end of this stage numbers of amoe- bulae draw together to form a " pseudo-plasmodium." This appears to be merely an aggre- gation of amoebulae prior to spore formation. The outlines of the individual amoebulae are maintained, and there is no fu- sion between them, as in the formation of the Plasmodium of the Euplasmodida. In some genera certain of the amoebulae constituting the pseudo-plasmodium are modi- fied into a stalk (simple in Guttulina and Dictyostelium, branched in Polysphondylium, fig. 24, d), along which the other units creep to encyst, and become spores at the end _ or ends of the stalk. In other FlG - 2 4- From cases (Copromyxa, fig. 24, a and b) the pseudo-plasmodium is transformed into a mass of encysted spores without the differentiation of supporting structures. It is not impossible that the Myxobacteriaceae of Thaxter Lankester's Treatise on Zoology. a and b after Fayod; c and d after Brefeld from Zopf. -a and 6, Copromyxa pro- tea, slightly magnified. c and d, Polysphondylium vio- laceum. c, A young sorus, seen in optical section. A mass of elongated amoebulae are grouped round the stalk, and others are ex- tended about the base, may, as that author suggests, be <^. A sorus approaching maturity, allied to the Sorophora (30). Review of the Life-Histories of the Mycetozoa — -The data for a comparison of the life-history of the Mycetozoa with those of other Protozoa in respect of nuclear changes are at present incomplete. « »/ ahn ^ described two mitotic divisions at this stage, but in Myxomycetenstudien 7— Ceratiomyxa," Ber. deut. bot. Gesellsch. xxvi. a (1908) he shows that only one mitotic division occurs in the maturing sporophore prior to cleavage. Olive gives a preliminary account of- a fusion of nuclei prior to cleavage, but as he has not seen the mitotic division which certainly occurs at this stage his results cannot be accepted as secure. I IO MYCONIUS, F.— MYDDELTON At some stage or other we are led by analogy to expect that a division of nuclei would occur in which the number of chromosomes would be reduced by one half, that this would be followed by the formation of gametes, and that the nuclei of the latter would subse- quently fuse in karyogamy. It is clear that both in the Endosporeae and Exosporeae a mitotic division of nuclei immediately precedes spore-formation. This is regarded by Jahn as a reduction division. If this is the case, the zoospores or the amoebulae must in some way represent the gametes. The fusion of the latter to form plasmodia appears to offer a pro- cess comparable with the conjugation of gametes, but though the fusion of the protoplasm of the amoebulae has been often observed no fusion of their nuclei (karyogamy) has been found to accompany it. A fusion of nuclei has indeed been described as occurring in the Plasmodium, or at stages in the development of the sporangia or sporophores, but in no case can the evidence be regarded as satis- factory. 1 Until we have clear evidence on this point the nuclear history of the mycetozoa must remain incomplete. Jahn's observation of the mitotic division of nuclei preceding spore-formation in Ceratiomyxa gives a fixed point for comparison of the Exosporeae with the Endosporeae. Starting from this divi- sion it seems clear that the spore of Ceratiomyxa is comparable with the spore of the Endosporeae except that the nucleus of the former has undergone two mitotic divisions. Literature. — (i) A. de Bary, " Die Mycetozoen," Zeitschr.f. wiss. Zool., x. 88 (i860). (2) " Die Mycetozoen," (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1864). (3) Comparative Morphology and Biology of the Fungi, Mycetozoa and Bacteria, translation (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1887). (4.) O. Bvitschli, " Protozoa, Abth. g, Sarcodina," Bronn's Thierreich, Bd. i. (5) L. Cienkowski, " Die Pseudogonidien," Pring- sheim's Jahrbiicher, i. 371. (6) " Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Myxomyceten," Pringsheim's Jahrbiicher, iii. 325 (pub. 1862). (7)" Das Plasmodium," ibid. p. 400(1863). (8)" Beitrage zur Kennt- niss der Monaden," Arch. f. mikr. Anal. i. 203 (1865). (9) J. C. Constantineanu, " Ueber die Entwicklungsbedingungen der Myxo- myceten," Annates mycologici, Vierter Jahrg. (Dec. 1906). (10) A. Famintzin and M. Woronin, " Ueber zwei neue Formen von Schleim- pilzen Ceratium hydnoides, A. und Sch., and C. porioides, A. und Sch., 1 ' Mem. de I'acad. imp. d. sciences de St Petersburg, series 7, T. 20, No. 3 (1873). (11) M. Greenwood and E. R. Saunders, " On the R61e of Acid in Protozoan Digestion," Jour, of Physiology, xvi. 441 (1894). (12) R. A. Harper, " Cell and Nuclear Division in Fuligo varians," Botanical Gazette, vol. 30, No. 4, p. 217 (1900). (13) E. Jahn, " Myxo- mycetenstudien 3. Kernteilung u. Geissefbildung bei den Schwarmern von Stemonitis flaccida, Lister," Bericht d. deutschen botanischen GeseUschaft, Bd. 22 p. 84 (1904). (14) " Myxomycetenstudien 6. Kernverschmelzungen und Reduktionsteilungen,' ibid. Bd. 25, p. 23 (1907). (15) W. Saville Kent, " The Myxomycetes or Myceto- zoa; Animals or Plants?" Popular Science Review, n.s., v. 97 (1881). (16) H. Kranzlin, " Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Spor- angien bei den Trichien und Arcyrien," Arch. f. Protislenkunde, Bd. ix. Heft. 1, p. 170 (1907). (17) A. Lister, " Notes on the Plasmo- dium of Badhamia utricularis and Brefeldia maxima" Ann. of Botany, vol. ii. No. 5 (1888). (18) " On the Ingestion of Food Material by the Swarm-Cells of the Mycetozoa," Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot) xxv - 435 (1889). (19) " On the Division of Nuclei in the Mycetozoa," Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot.) vol. xxix. (1893). (20) " A Monograph of the Mycetozoa," British Museum Catalogue (London, 1894). (21) " Presidential Address to the British Mycological Society," Trans. Brit. Mycological Sec. (1906). (22) A. and G. Lister, " Synopsis of the Orders, Genera and Species of Mycetozoa," Journal ofBotany, vol. xlv. (May 1907). (23) E. W. Olive, " Monograph of the Acrasiae," Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. History, vol. xxx. No. 6 (1902). (24) " Evidences of Sexual Reproduction in the Slime Moulds," Science, n.s., xxv. 256 (Feb. 1907). (25) " Cytological Studies in Ceratiomyxa, Trans. Wisconsin Acad, of Sciences, Arts and Letters, vol. xv., pt. ii. p. 753 (Dec. 1907). (26) E. Pinoy, " Role des bacteries dans le developpement de certains Myxomycetes." Ann. de I'institut Pasteur, T. xxi. pp. 622 and 686 (1907). (27) H. Plenge, " Ueber die Verbindungen zwischen Geissel u. Kern bei den Schwarmer- zellen d. Mycetozoen," Verh. d. naturhist.-med. Vereins zu Heidelberg, N.F. Bd. vi. Heft 3 .(1899). (28) S. von Prowazek " Kernverander- ungen in Myxomycetenplasmodien," Oesterreich. botan. Zeitschr. Bd. liv. p. 278 (1904). (29) E. Strasburger, " Zur Entwickelungs- geschichte d. Sporangien von Trichia fallax," Botanische Zeitung (1884). (30) R. Thaxter, " On the Myxobacteriaceae, a new order of Schizomyeetes," Botanical Gazette, xvii. 389 (1892). (31) W. Zopf, " Die Pilzthiere oder Schleimpilze," Schenk's Handbuch der Botanik (1887). (J.J.Lr.) MYCONIUS, FRIEDRICH (1490-1546), Lutheran divine, was born on the 26th of December 1490, at Lichtenfels on the Main, of worthy and pious parents, whose family name, Mecum, gave 1 In the work cited in the last footnote Jahn described a fusion of nuclei as occurring in Ceratiomyxa at the stage at which the plasmodium is emerging to form sporophores. Jahn was at first inclined to regard this fusion as the sexual karyogamy of the life- cycle, but the writer learns by correspondence (July 1910) that he is inclined to regard this fusion as pathological, and to look for the essential karyogamy elsewhere. rise to proud uses of the word as it appears in various places in the Vulgate, whereas Myconius, from the island Myconus, was a proverb for meanness. His schooling was in Lichtenfels and at Annaberg, where he had a memorable encounter with the Dominican, Tetzel, his point being that indulgences should be given pauperibus gratis. His teacher, Staffelstein, persuaded him to enter (July 14, 1510) the Franciscan cloister. That same night a pictorial dream turned his thoughts towards the religious standpoint which he subsequently reached as a Lutheran. From Annaberg he passed to Franciscan commu- nities at Leipzig and Weimar, where he was ordained priest (15 16); he had endeavoured to satisfy his mind with scholastic divinity, but next year his " eyes and ears were opened " by the theses of Luther, whom he met when Luther touched at Weimar on his way to Augsburg. For six years he preached his new gospel, under difficulties, in various seats of his order, lastly at Zwickau, whence he was called to Gotha (Aug. 1524) by Duke John at the general desire. Here he married Margaret Jacken, a lady of good family. He was intimately connected with the general progress of the reforming movement, and was especially in the confidence of Luther. Twice he was entrusted (1528 and 1533) with the ordering of the churches and schools in Thuringia. In all the religious disputations and conferences of the time he took a leading part. At the Con- vention of Smalkald (1537) he signed the articles on his own behalf and that of his friend Justus Menius. In 1 53S he was in England, as theologian to the embassy which hoped to induce Henry VIII. on the basis of the Augsburg Confession, to make common cause with the Lutheran reformation; a project which Myconius caustically observed might have prospered on con- dition that Henry was allowed to be pope. Next year he was employed in the cause of the Reformation in Leipzig. Not the least important part of his permanent work in Gotha was the founding and endowment of its gymnasium. In 1541 his health was failing, but he lived till the 7th of April 1546. He had nine children, four of whom were living in 1542. Though he published a good many tracts and pamphlets, Myconius was not distinguished as a writer. His Historia reformalionis, referring especially to Gotha, was not printed till 1 715. See Mel- chior Adam, Vitae iheologorum (1706); J. G. Bosseck, F. Myconii Memoriam . . . (1739) ; C. K. G. Lommatzsch, Narratio de F. Myconio (1825); K. F. Ledderhose, F. Myconius (1854); also in Allgemeine deutsche Biog. (1886); O. Schmidt and G. Kawerau in Hauck's Realencyklopadie (1903). (A. Go.*) MYCONIUS, OSWALD (1488-1552), Zwinglian divine, was born at Lucerne in 1488. His family name was Geisshiisler; his father was a miller; hence he was also called Molitoris. The name Myconius seems to have been given him by Erasmus. From the school at Rottweil, on the Neckar, he went (15 10) to the university of Basel, and became a good classic. From 1 5 14 he obtained schoolmaster posts at Basel, where he married, and made the acquaintance of Erasmus and of Holbein, the painter. In 1516 he was called, as schoolmaster, to Zurich, where (1518) he attached himself to the reforming party of Zwingli. This led to his being transferred to Lucerne, and again (1523) reinstated at Zurich. On the death of Zwingli (1531) he migrated to Basel, and there held the office of town's preacher, and (till 1541) the chair of New Testament exegesis. His spirit was comprehensive; in confessional matters he was for a union of all Protestants; though a Zwinglian, his readiness to compromise with the advocates of consubstantiation gave him trouble with the Zwinglian stalwarts. He had, however, .a distinguished follower in Theodore Bibliander. He died on the 14th of October 1552. Among his several tractates, the most important is De H. Zwinglii vita el obiiu (1536), translated into English by Henry Bennet (1561). See Melchior Adam, Vila Iheologorum (1620); M. Kirch- hofer, O. Myconius (1813) ; K. R. Hagenbach, J. Oekolampad und O. Myconius (1859); F. M. Ledderhose, in Allgemeine deutsche Biog. (1886) ; B. Riggenbach and Egli, in Hauck's Realencyklopadie (1903). (A. Go.*) MYDDELTON (or Middleton), SIR HUGH, Bart. ■(<;. 1560- 1631), contractor of the New River scheme for supplying London with water, was a younger son of Sir Richard Myddelton, governor of Denbigh Castle. Hugh became a successful London MYELAT— MYERS in goldsmith, occupying a shop in Bassihaw, or Basinghall Street; he made money by commercial ventures on the Spanish main, being associated in these with Sir Walter Raleigh; and he was also interested in cloth-making. He was an alderman, and then recorder of Denbigh, and was member of parliament for this borough from 1603 to 1628. In 1609 Myddelton took over from the corporation of London the projected scheme for supplying the city with water obtained from springs near Ware, in Hert- fordshire. For this purpose he made a canal about 10 ft. wide and 4 ft. deep and over 38 m. in length, which discharged its waters into a reservoir at Islington called the New River Head. The completion of this great undertaking put a severe strain upon Myddelton's financial resources, and in 1612 he was successful in securing monetary assistance from James I. The work was completed in 1613 and Myddelton was made the first governor of the company, which, however, was not a financial success until after his death. In recognition of his services he was made a baronet in 1622. Myddelton was also engaged in working some lead and silver mines in Cardiganshire and in reclaiming a piece of the Isle of Wight from the sea. He died on the 10th of December 163 1, and was buried in the church of St Matthew, Friday Street, London. He had a family of ten sons and six daughters. One of Sir Hugh's brothers was Sir Thomas Myddelton (c. 1550-1631), lord mayor of London, and another was William Myddelton (c. 1 5 56-1 62 1 ) , poet and seaman, who died at Antwerp on the 27th of March 1621. Sir Thomas was a member of parliament under Queen Eliza- beth and was chosen lord mayor on the 29th of September 1613, the day fixed for the opening of the New River. Under James I. and Charles I. he represented the city of London in parliament, and he helped Rowland Heylyn to publish the first popular edition of the Bible in Welsh. He died on the 12th of August 1 63 1. Sir Thomas's son and heir, Sir Thomas Myddelton 1586-1666), was a member of the Long Parliament, being an adherent of the popular party. After the outbreak of the Civil War he served in Shropshire and in north Wales, gaining a signal success over the royalists at Oswestry in July 1644, and another at Montgomery in the following September. In 1659, however, he joined the rising of the royalists under Sir George Booth, and in August of this year he was forced to surrender his residence, Chirk Castle. His eldest son, Thomas (d. 1663), was made a baronet in 1660, a dignity which became extinct when William the 4th baronet died in 17 18. MYELAT, a division of the southern Shan States of Burma, including sixteen states, none of any great size, with a total area of 3723 sq. m., and a population in 190a of 119,415. The name properly means " the unoccupied country," but it has been occupied for many centuries. All central Myelat and great parts of the northern and southern portions consist of rolling grassy downs quite denuded of jungle. It has a great variey of different races, Taungthus and Danus being perhaps the most numerous. They are all more or less hybrid races. The chiefs of the Myelat are known by the Burmese title of gwegunh- mii; i.e. chiefs paying the revenue in silver. The amount paid by the chiefs to the British government is Rs. 99,567. The largest state, Loi Long, has an area of 1600 sq. m., a great part of which is barren hills. The smallest, Nam Hkon, had no more than 4 sq. m., and has been recently absorbed in a neigh- bouring state. The majority of the states cover less than 100 sq. m. Under British administration the chiefs have powers of a magistrate of the second class. The chief cultivation besides rice is sugar-cane, and considerable quantities of crude sugar are exported. There is a considerable potato cultivation, which can be indefinitely extended when cheaper means of export are provided. Wheat also grows very well. MYELITIS (from Gr. /uu«A6s, marrow) a disease which by inflammation induces destructive changes in the tissues com- posing the spinal cord. In the acute variety the nerve elements in the affected part become disintegrated and softened, but repair may take place; in the chronic form the change is slower, and the diseased area tends to become denser (sclerosed), the nerve-substance being replaced by connective tissue. Myelitis may affect any portion of the spinal cord, and its symptoms and progress will vary accordingly. Its most frequent site is in the lower part, and its existence there is marked by the sudden or gradual occurrence of weakness of motor power in the legs (which tends to pass into complete paralysis), impairment or loss of sensibility in the parts implicated, nutritive changes affecting the skin and giving rise to bed-sores, together with bladder and bowel derangements. In the acute form, in which there is at first pain in the region of the spine and much con- stitutional disturbance, death may take place rapidly from extension of the disease to those portions of the cord connected with the muscles of respiration and the heart, from an acute bed-sore, which is very apt to form, or from some intercurrent disease. Recovery to a certain extent may, however, take place; or, again, the disease may pass into the chronic form. In the latter the progress is usually slow, the general health remaining tolerably good for a time, but gradually the strength fails, the patient becomes more helpless, and ultimately sinks exhausted or is cut off by some complication. The chief causes of myeiitis are injuries or diseases affecting the spinal column, extension of inflammation from the membranes of the cord to its substance (see Meningitis), exposure to cold and damp, and occasionally some pre-existing constitutional morbid condition, such as syphilis or a fever. Any debilitating cause or excess in mode of life will act powerfully in predisposing to this malady. The disease is most common in adults. The treatment for myelitis in its acute stage is similar to that for spinal meningitis. When the disease is chronic the most that can be hoped for is the relief of symptoms by careful nursing and attention to the condition of the body and its functions. Good is sometimes derived from massage and the use of baths and douches to the spine-. MYERS, FREDERIC WILLIAM HENRY (1843-1901), English poet and essayist, son of Frederic Myers of Keswick — author of Lectures on Great Men (1856) and Catholic Thoughts (first collected 1873), a book marked by a most admirable prose style — was born at Keswick, Cumberland, on the 6th of February 1843, and edu- cated at Cheltenham and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he won a long list of honours and in 1865 was appointed classical lecturer. He had no love for teaching, which he soon discon*- tinued, but he took up his permanent abode at Cambridge in 1872, when he became a school inspector under the Education Department. Meanwhile he published, in 1867, an unsuccessful essay for the Seatonian prize, a poem entitled St Paul, which met at the hands of the general public with a success that would be difficult to explain, for it lacks sincerity and represents views which the writer rapidly outgrew. It was followed by small volumes of collected verses in 1870 and 1882: both are marked by a flow of rhetorical ardour which culminates in a poem of real beauty, " The Renewal of Youth," in the 1882 collection. His best verse is in heroic couplets. Myers is more likely to be remembered by his two volumes of Essays, Classical and Modern (1883). The essay on Virgil, by far the best thing he ever wrote, represents the matured enthusiasm of a student and a disciple to whom the exquisite artificiality and refined culture of Virgil's method were profoundly congenial. Next to this in value is the carefully wrought essay on Ancient Greek Oracles (this had first appeared in Hellenica). Scarcely less delicate in phrasing and perception, if less penetrating in insight, is the monograph on Wordsworth (1881) for the " English Men of Letters " series. In 1882, after several years of inquiry and discussion, Myers took the lead among a small band of explorers (including Henry Sidgwick and Richard Hodgson, Edmund Gurney and F. Podmore), who founded the society for Psychical Research. He continued for many years to be the mouthpiece of the society, a position for which his perfervidutn ingenium, still more his abnormal fluency and alertness, admirably fitted him. He contributed greatly to the coherence of the society by steering a mid-course between extremes (the extreme sceptics on the one hand, and the enthusiastic spiritualists on the other), and by helping to sift and revise the cumbrous mass of 112 MYINGYAN— MYLODON Proceedings, the chief concrete results being the two volumes of Phantasms of the Living (1886), to which he contributed the in- troduction. Like many theorists, he had a faculty for ignoring hard facts, and in his anxiety to generalize plausibly upon the alleged data, and to hammer out striking formulae, his insight into the real character of the evidence may have left something to be desired. His long series of papers on subliminal conscious- ness, the results of which were embodied in a posthumous work called Human Personality and Us Survival of Bodily Death (2 vols. 1903), constitute his own chief contribution to psychical theory. This, as he himself would have been the first to admit, was little more than provisional; but Professor William James has pointed out that the series of papers on subliminal consciousness is " the first attempt to consider the phenomena of hallucination, hypnotism, automatism, double personality and mediumship, as connected parts of one whole subject." The last work published in his lifetime was a small collection of essays, Science and a Future Life (1893). He died at Rome on the 17th of January 1901, but was buried in his native soil at Keswick. MYINGYAN, a district in the Meiktila division of Upper Burma. It lies in the valley of the Irrawaddy, to the south of Mandalay, on the east bank of the river. Area, 3137 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 356,052, showing an increase of 1% in the decade and a density of 1 14 inhabitants to the square mile. The greater part of the district is flat, especially to the north and along the banks of the Irrawaddy. Inland the country rises in gently undulating slopes. The most noticeable feature is Popa hill, an extinct volcano, in the south-eastern corner of the district. The highest peak is 4962 ft. above sea-level. The climate is dry and healthy, with high south winds from March till September. The annual rainfall averages about 35 in. The temperature varies between 106 and 70 F. The ordinary crops are millet, sesamum, cotton, maize, rice, gram, and a great variety of peas and beans. The district as a whole is not well watered, and most of the old irrigation tanks had fallen into disrepair before the annexation. There are no forests, but a great deal of low scrub. The lacquer ware of Nyaung-u and other villages near Pagan is noted throughout Burma. A considerable number of Chinese inhabit Myingyan and the larger villages. The headquarters town, Myingyan, stands on the Irrawaddy, and had a population in 1901 of 16,139. It is the terminus of the branch railway through Meiktila to the main line from Mandalay to Rangoon. The steamers of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company also call here. A cotton-pressing machine was erected here in the time of independent Burma, and still exists. MYITKYINA, the most northerly of the districts of Upper Burma in the Mandalay division, separated from Bhamo district in 1895. It is cut up into strips by comparatively low parallel ranges of hills running in a general way north and south. The chief plain is that of Myitkyina, covering 600 sq. m. To the east of the Irrawaddy, which bisects the district, it is low-lying and marshy. To the west it rises to a higher level, and is mostly dry. Except in the hills inhabited by the Kachin tribes there are practically no villages off the line of the Irrawaddy. The Indawgyi lake, a fine stretch of water measuring 16 m. by 6, lies in the south-west of the district. A very small amount of cultivation is carried on, mostly without irrigation. Area, 10,640 sq. m.; estimated population (1901) 67,399, showing a density of six persons to the square mile. More than half the total are Kachins, who inhabit the hills on both sides of the Irrawaddy. The headquarters town, Myitkyina, had in 1901 a population of 3618. It is the limit of navigation on the Irrawaddy, and the terminus of the railway from Rangoon and Sagaing. MYLODON (Gr. for " mill-tooth " from nv\6iv and odovs), a genus of extinct American edentate mammals, typified by a species (M . harlani) from the Pleistocene of Kentucky and other parts of the United States, but more abundantly represented in the corresponding formations of South America, especially Argentina and Brazil. The mylodons belong to the group of ground-sloths, and are generally included in the family Megath- eriidae, although sometimes made the type of a separate family. From Megatherium these animals, which rivalled the Indian rhinoceros in bulk, differ in the shape of their cheek-teeth; these (five above and four below) being much smaller, with an ovate section, and a cupped instead of a ridged crown-surface, thus resembling those of the true sloths. In certain species of mylodon the front pair of teeth in each jaw is placed some distance in front of the rest and has the crown surface obliquely bevelled by From Owen. Skeleton of Mylodon robustus (Pleistocene, South America). wearing against the corresponding teeth in the opposite jaw. On this account such species have been referred to a second genus, under the name of Lestodon, but the distinction scarcely seems necessary. The skull is shorter and lower than in Megatherium, without any vertical expansion of the middle of the lower jaw, and the teeth also extend nearly to the front of the jaws; both these features being sloth-like. In the fore feet the three inner toes have large claws, while the two outer ones are rudimentary and clawless; in the hind-limbs the first tee is wanting, as in Megatherium, but the second and third are clawed. The skin was strengthened by a number of small deeply-embedded bony nodules. Although the typical M. harlani is North American, the mylodons are essentially a South American group, a few of the representatives of which effected an entrance into North America when that continent became finally connected with South America. Special interest attaches to the recent discovery in the cavern of Ultima Esperanza, South Patagonia, of remains of the genus Glossotherium, or Grypotherium, a near relative of Mylodon, but differing from it in having a bony arch connecting the nasal bones of the skull with the premaxillae; these include a considerable portion of the skin with the hair attached. Ossicles somewhat resembling large coffee-berries had been previously found in association with the bones of Mylodon, and in Glossotherium nearly similar ossicles occur embedded on the inner side of the thick hide. The coarse and shaggy hair is somewhat like that of the sloths. The remains, which include not only the skeleton and skin, but likewise the droppings, were found buried in grass which appears to have been chopped up by man, and it thus seems not only evident that these ground-sloths dwelt in the cave, but that there is a considerable probability of their having been kept there in a semi-domesti- cated state by the early human inhabitants of Patagonia. The extremely fresh condition of the remains has given rise to the idea that Glossotherium may still be living in the wilds of Patagonia. Scelidoiherium is another genus of large South American Pleisto- cene ground-sloths, characterized, among other features, by the elongation and slenderness of the skull, which thus makes a decided approximation to the anteater type, although retaining the full series of cheek-teeth, which were, of course, essential to an herbi- vorous animal. The feet resemble those of Megatherium. A much smaller South American species represents the genus Nothrotherium. In North America Mylodon was accompanied by another gigantic species typifying the genus Megalonyx, in which the fore part of the skull was usually wide, and the third and fourth front toes carried claws. Another genus has been described from the Pleistocene MYLONITE— MYRA 113 of Nebraska, as Param'ylodon; it has only four pairs of teeth, and an elongate skull with an inflated muzzle. All the above genera differ from Megatherium in having a foramen on the inner side of the lower end of the humerus. A presumed large ground-sloth from Mada- gascar has been described, on the evidence of a limb-bone, as Brady- therium, but it is suggested by Dr F. Ameghino that the specimen really belongs to a lemuroid. Be this as it may, the North American mammals described as Moropus and Morotherium, in the belief that they were ground-sloths, are really referable to the ungulate group Ancylopoda. Although a few of the Pleistocene ground-sloths, such as Nothro- pus and Nothrotherium ( = Coelodon) , were of comparatively small size, in the Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia few of the representatives of the family much exceeded a modern sloth in size. The best- known generic types are Eucholoeops, Hapalops and Pseudahapalops, of which considerable portions of the skeleton have been disinterred. In these diminutive ground-sloths the crowns of the cheek-teeth approached the prismatic form characteristic of Mega[lo]therium, as distinct from the subcylindrical type occurring in Mylodon, Glossotherium, &c. By many palaeontologists a group of North American Lower Tertiary mammals, known as Ganodonta, has been regarded as representing the ancestral stock of the ground-sloths and those of other South American edentates; but according to Professor W. B. Scott this view is incorrect and there is no affinity between the two groups. If this be so, we are still in complete darkness as to the stock from which the South American edentates are derived. See W. B. Scott, Mammalia of the Santa Cruz Beds, Edentata, Rep., Princeton Exped. to Patagonia, vol. v. (1903-1904); B. Brown A Xew Genus of Ground-Sloth from the Pleistocene of Nebraska, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., xix, 569 (1903). (R. L.*) MYLONITE (Gr. /xv\uv, a mill), in petrology, a rock which has been crushed and ground down by earth movement and at the same time rendered compact by pressure. Mylonites are fine- grained, sometimes even flinty, in appearance, and often banded in parallel fashion with stripes of varying composition. The great majority are quartzose rocks, such as quartzite and quartz- schist; but in almost any type of rock mylonitic structure may be developed. Gneisses of various kinds, hornblende-schists, chlorite-schists and limestones are not infrequently found in belts of mylonitic rock. The process of crushing by which mylonites are formed is known also as " granulitization " and " cataclasis," and mylonites are often described as granulites, though the two terms are not strictly equivalent in all their applications. Mylonites occur in regions where there has been considerable metamorphism. Thrust planes and great reversed faults are often bounded by rocks which have all been crushed to fine slabby mylonites, that split readily along planes parallel to the direction in which movement has taken place. These " crush-belts " may be only a few feet or several hundred yards broad. The movements have probably taken place slowly without great rise of temperature, and hence the rocks have not recrystallized to any extent. Crushing and movement on so extensive a scale are to be expected principally in regions consisting of rocks greatly folded and compressed. Hence mylonites are commonest in Archean regions, but may be found also in Carboniferous and later rocks where the necessary conditions have prevailed. Within a short space it is often possible to trace rocks from a normal to a highly mylonized condition, and to follow by means of the microscope all the stages of the process. A sandstone, grit, or fine quartzose conglomerate, for example, when it approaches a mylonitic zone begins to lose its clastic or pebbly structure. The rounded grains of quartz become cracked, especially near their edges, and are then surrounded bv narrow borders, consisting of detached granules: this is due to the pebbles being pressed together and forced to pass one another as the rock yields to the pressures which overcome its rigidity. Then each quartz grain breaks up into a mosaic of little angular fragments; the rounded pebbles are flattened out and become lenticular or cake- shaped. Finally only a small oval patch of fine interlocking quartz grains is left to indicate the position of the pebble, and if the matrix is quartzose this gradually blends with it and a uniform fine-grained quartzose rock results. If felspar is present it may become crushed like quartz, but often tends to recrystallize as quartz and muscovite, the minute scales of white mica being parallel to the foliation or banding of the rock, and a finely granulitic or mylonitic quartz- scliist is the product. In hornblendic rocks, such as epidiorite, amphibolitc and hornblende-schist, the mineral composition may remain unchanged, but very often chlorite, carbonates and biotite develop, epidote and sphene being also frequent. Biotite- and mus- covite-gneisses yield very perfect mylonites, in which the micas have parallel orientation, giving the rock a flat banding and marked schistosity (see Petrology, PI. iv., fig. 6). When these mylonitic gneisses contain pink garnet (often with kyanite or sillimanite) they pass into normal granulites ; limestones, if fossilif erous, become changed into finely crystalline masses, often fissile, sometimes with lenticular or augen structure. An interesting variety of mylonite, developed in granite-porphyry and gneiss, is fine, dark and almost vitreous in appearance, consisting mainly of very minute grains of quartz and felspar and resembling flint in appearance. These form threads and vein-like streaks ramifying through the normal rocks. Examples are furnished by the flinty-crushes of west Scot- land and the " trap-shotten " gneisses of south India. (J. S. F.) MYMENSINGH, or Maimansingh, a district of British India, in the Dacca division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It occupies a portion of the alluvial valley of the Brahmaputra east of the main channel (called the Jamuna) and north of Dacca. The administrative headquarters are at Nasirabad, sometimes called Mymensingh town. Area, 6332 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 3,915,068, showing an increase of 12-8% in the decade. The district is for the most part level and open, covered with well-cultivated fields, and intersected by numerous rivers. The Madhupur jungle is a slightly elevated tract, extending from the north of Dacca district into the heart of Mymensingh; its average height is about 60 ft. above the level of the surrounding country, and it nowhere exceeds 100 ft. The jungle contains abundance of sal, valuable both as timber and for charcoal. The only other elevated tract in the district is on the southern border, where the Susang hills rise. They are for the most part covered with thick thorny jungle, but in parts are barren and rocky. The Jamuna forms the western boundary of Mymensingh for a course of 94 m. It is navigable for large boats throughout the year; and during the rainy season it expands in many places to 5 or 6 m. in breadth. The Brahmaputra enters Mymensingh at its north-western corner near Karaibari, and flows south-east and south till it joins the Meghna a little below Bhairab Bazar. The gradual formation of chars and bars of sand in the upper part of its course has diverted the main volume of water into the present channel of the Jamuna, which has in consequence become of much more importance than the Brahmaputra proper. The Meghna only flows for a short distance through the south-east portion of the district, the eastern and south-eastern parts of which abound in marshes. The staple crops of the country are rice, jute and oil-seeds. A branch line of the Eastern Bengal railway runs north from Dacca through Nasirabad, &c, to the Jamuna. The district was severely affected by the earthquake of the 12th of June 1897. MYNGS, SIR CHRISTOPHER (1625-1666), British admiral, came of a Norfolk family. Pepys' story of his humble birth is said to be erroneous. It is probable that he saw a good deal of sea-service before 1648. He first appears prominently as the captain of the " Elisabeth," which after a sharp action brought in a Dutch convoy with two men-of-war as prizes. From 1653 to 1655 he continued to command the " Elisabeth," high in favour with the council of state and recommended for promotion by the flag officers under whom he served. In 1655 he was appointed to the " Marston Moor," the crew of which was on the verge of mutiny. His firm measures quelled the insubordinate spirit, and he took the vessel out to the West Indies, where he remained for some years. The Restoration government retained him in his command, and in 1664 he was made vice-admiral in Prince Rupert's squadron. As vice-admiral of the White he flew his flag at Lowestoft in 1665, and for his share in that action received the honour of knighthood. In the following year he served under the new lord high admiral, Sandwich, as vice- admiral of the Blue. He was on detachment with Prince Rupert when the great Four Days' Battle began, but returned to the main fleet in time to take part, and in this action he received a wound of which he died. MYONEMES, in Infusoria and some Flagellates, the differ- entiated threads of ectosarc, which are contractile and doubly refractive, performing the function of muscular fibres in the Metazoa. MYRA (mod. Dembre), an ancient town of Lycia situated a short distance inland between the rivers Myrus and Andracus. In common with that of most other Lycian towns its early history ii4 MYRIAPODA— MYRRH is not known, and it does not play any part of importance in either Greek or Roman annals. Its fame begins with Chris- tianity. There St Paul touched on his last journey westward (a.d. 62), and changed into " a ship of Alexandria sailing into Italy." In the 3rd century the great St Nicholas, born at Patara, was its bishop, and he died and was burfed at Myra. His tomb is still shown, but his relics are supposed to have been trans- lated to Bari in Italy in the nth century. Theodosius II. made Myra the Byzantine capital of Lycia, and as such it was besieged and taken by Harun al-Rashid in 808. The town seems shortly afterwards to have decayed. A small Turkish village occupied the plain at the foot of the acropolis, and a little Greek monastery lay about a mile westward by the church of St Nicholas. The latter has formed the nucleus of modern Dembre, which has been increased by settlers from the Greek island of Castelorizo. Myra has three notable sights, its carved cliff-cemetery, its theatre, and its church of St Nicholas. The first is the most remarkable of the Lycian rock-tomb groups. The western scarp of the acropolis has been sculptured into a number of sepulchres imitating wooden houses with pillared facades, some of which have pediment reliefs and inscriptions in Lycian. The theatre lies at the foot of this cliff and is partly excavated out of it, partly built. It is remarkable for the preservation of its corri- dors. The auditorium is perfect in the lower part, and the scena still retains some of its decoration — both columns and carved entablature. The church of St Nicholas lies out in the plain, at the western end of Dembre, near a small monastery and new church recently built with Russian money. Its floor is far below the present level of the plain, and until recently the church was half filled with earth. The excavation of it was undertaken by Russians about 1,804 an d it cost Dembre dear; for the Ottoman government, suspicious of foreign designs on the neighbouring harbour of Kekova, proceeded to inhibit all sale of property in the plain and to place Dembre under a minor state of siege. The ancient church is of the domed basilica form with throne and seats still existent in the tribunal. In the south aisle as a tomb with marble balustrade which is pointed out as that wherein St Nicholas was laid. The locality of the tomb is very probably genuine, but its present ornament, as well as the greater part of the church, seems of later date (end of 7th century ?). None the less this is among the most interest- ing early Christian churches in Asia Minor. There are also extensive ruins of Andriaca, the port of Myra, about 3 m. west, containing churches, baths, and a great grain store, inscribed with Hadrian's name. They lie along the course of the Andraki river, whose navigable estuary is still fringed with ruinous quays. See E. Petersen and F. v. Luschan, Reisen in Lykien, &c. (1889). (D. G. H.) MYRIAPODA (Gr. for " many-legged "), arthropod animals of which centipedes and millipedes are familiar examples. Linnaeus included them in his Insecta Aptera together with Crustacea and Arachnida; in 1796 P. A. Latreille designated them as Myriopodk, making of them, along with the Crustacean Oniscus, one of the seven orders into which he divided the Aptera of Linnaeus. Later on J. C. Savigny, by study of the mouth-parts, clearly distinguished them from Insects and Crus- tacea. In 1814 W. E. Leach defined them and divided them into Centipedes and Millipedes. In 1825 Latreille carried further the observations of Leach, and suggested that the two groups were very distinct, the millipedes being nearer Crustacea and the centipedes approaching Arachnida and Insecta. Although Latreille's suggestion has not been adopted, it is recognized that centipedes and millipedes are too far apart to be united as Myriapoda, and they are now treated as separate classes of the Arthropoda. See Centipede (Chiiopoda) and Millipede (Diplopoda). MYRMIDONES, in Greek legend, an Achaean race, in Homeric times inhabiting Phthiotis in Thessaly. According to the ancient tradition, their original home was Aegina, whence they crossed over to Thessaly with Peleus, but the converse view is now more generally accepted. Their name is derived from a supposed ancestor, son of Zeus and Eurymedusa, who was wooed by the god in the form of an ant (Gr. jtup/uij£); or from the repeopling of Aegina (when all its inhabitants had died of the plague) with ants changed into men by Zeus at the prayer of Aeacus, king of the island. The word " myrmidon " has passed into the English language to denote a subordinate who carries out the orders of his superior without mercy or consideration for others. See Strabo viii. 375, ix. 433; Homer, Iliad, ii. 681 ; schol. on Pindar Nem. iii. 21 ; Clem. Alex., Protrepticon, p. 34, ed. Potter. MYROBALANS, the name given to the astringent fruits of several species of Terminalia, largely used in India for dyeing and tanning and exported for the same purpose. They are large deciduous trees and belong to the family Combretaceae. The chief kinds are the chebulic or black myrobalan, from Terminalia Chebula, which are smooth, and the beleric, from T. belerica, which are five-angled and covered with a greyish down. MYRON, a Greek sculptor of the middle of the 5th century B.C. He was born at Eleutherae on the borders of Boeotia and Attica. He worked almost exclusively in bronze: and though he made some statues of gods and heroes, his fame rested principally upon his representations of athletes, in which he made a revolution, by introducing greater boldness of pose and a more perfect rhythm. His most famous works according to Pliny (Nat. Hist., 34, 57) were a cow, Ladas the runner, who fell dead at the moment of victory, and a discus-thrower. The cow seems to have earned its fame mainly by serving as a peg on which to hang epigrams, which tell us nothing about the pose of the animal. Of the Ladas there is no known copy. But we are fortunate in pos- sessing several copies of the discobolus, of which the best is in the Massimi palace at Rome (see Greek Art, PI. iv. fig. 68). The example in the British Museum has the head put on wrongly. The athlete is represented at the moment when he has swung back the discus with the full stretch of his arm, and is about to hurl it with the full weight of his body. The head should Ix, turned back toward the discus. A marble figure in the Lateran Museum (see Greek Art, PI. iii. fig. 64), which is now restored as a dancing satyr, is almost certainly a copy of a work of Myron, a Marsyas desirous of picking up the flutes which Athena had thrown away (Pausa- nias, i. 24, 1). The full group is copied on coins of Athens, on a vase and in a relief which represent Marsyas as oscillating between curiosity and the fear of the displeasure of Athena. The ancient critics say of Myron that, while he succeeded admirably in giving life and motion to his figures, he did not succeed in rendering the emotions of the mind. This agrees with the extant evidence, in a certain degree, though not per- fectly. The bodies of his men are of far greater excellence than the heads. The face of the Marsyas is almost a mask; but from the attitude we gain a vivid impression of the passions which sway him. The face of the discus-thrower is calm and unruffled; but all the muscles of his body are concentrated in an effort. A considerable number of other extant works are ascribed to the school or the influence of Myron by A. Furtwangler in his suggestive Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture (pp. 168-219). These attributions, however, are anything but certain, nor do the arguments by which Furtwangler supports his attributions bear abridgment. A recently discovered papyrus from Egypt informs us that Myron made statues of the athlete Timanthes, victorious at Olympia in 456 B.C., and of Lycinus, victorious in 448 and 444. This helps us to fix his date. He was a contemporary, but a somewhat older contemporary, of Pheidias and Polyclitus. (P.G.) MYRRH (from the Latinized form myrrha of Gr. jxv'ppa; the Arabic murr, bitter, was applied to the substance from its bitterness), a gum-resin highly esteemed by the ancients as an unguent and perfume, used for incense in temples and also in embalming. It was one of the gifts offered by the Magi, and a royal oblation of gold, frankincense and myrrh is still annu- ally presented by the sovereign on the feast of Epiphany in the Chapel Royal in London, this custom having been in MYRTLE— MYSIA ii existence certainly as early as the reign of Edward I. 1 True myrrh is the product of Balsamodendron {Commiphora) Myrrha, a small tree of the natural order Amyridaceae that grows in eastern Africa and Arabia, but the name is also applied to gum resins obtained from other species of Balsamodendt on. i. Baisa Bol, Bhesa Bol or Bissa Bol, from Balsamodendron Kataf, resembles true myrrh in appearance, but has a disagreeable taste and is scarcely bitter. It is used in China, mixed with food, to give to milch cows to improve the quality and increase the quantity of milk, and when mixed with lime as a size to impart a gloss to walls. (2) Opaque bdellium produced by B. Playfairii, when shaken with water forms a slight but permanent lather, and on this account is used by the Somali women for cleansing their hair, and by the men to whiten their shields ; it is known as meena harma in Bombay, and was formerly used there for the expulsion of the guinea-worm. (3) African bdellium is from B. africa'num, and like opaque bdellium lacks the white streaks which are characteristic of myrrh and bissa bol, both are acrid, but have scarcely any bitter- ness or aroma. (4) Indian bdellium, probably identical with the Indian drug googul obtained in Sind and Baluchistan from B. Mukul and B. pubescens, Hook, is of a dark reddish colour, has an acrid taste and an odour resembling cedar-wood, and softens in the hand. As met with in commerce true myrrh occurs in pieces of irregular size and shape, from § in. to 2 or 3 in. in diameter, and of a reddish-brown colour. The transverse fracture has a resinous appearance with white streaks; the flavour is bitter and aromatic, and the odour characteristic. It consists of a mixture of resin, gum and essential oil, the resin being present to the extent of 25 to 40%, with 25 to 8% of the oil, myrrhol, to which the odour is due. Myrrh has the properties of other substances which, like it, contain a volatile oil. Its only important application in medi- cine is as a carminative to lessen the griping caused by some purgatives such as aloes. The volatile oils have for centuries been regarded as of value in disorders of the reproductive organs, and the reputation of myrrh in this connexion is simply a survival of this ancient but ill-founded belief. MYRTLE. The juupros of the Greeks, the myrtus of the Romans, and the myrtle, Myrtus communis (see fig.), of botanists, as now found growing wild in many parts of the Mediterranean region, doubtless all belong to one and the same species. It is a low-growing, evergreen shrub, with opposite leaves, varying in Myrtle {Myrtus communis). 1. Vertical section of flower, 3. Berry, enlarged. enlarged. 4. Seed with contained embryo, 2. Plan of flower in horizontal e, much enlarged. plane. dimensions, but always small, simple, dark-green, thick in tex- ture, and studded with numerous receptacles for oil. When the leal is held up to the light it appears as if perforated with pin- 1 Liber quotidianus contra-rotulatoris garderobae Edw. I. (London, '787), pp, xxxii. and 27. holes owing to the translucency of these oil-cysts. The fragrance of the plant depends upon the presence of this oil. Another peculiarity of the myrtle is the existence of a prominent vein running round the leaf within the margin. The flowers are borne on short stalks in the axils of the leaves. The flower-stalk is dilated at its upper end into a globose or ovoid receptacle enclosing the 2- to 4-partitioned ovary. From its margin pro- ceed the five sepals, and within them the five rounded, spoon- shaped, spreading, white petals. The stamens spring from the receptacle within the petals and are very numerous, each consist- ing of a slender white filament and a small yellow two-lobed anther. The style surmounting the ovary is slender, terminating in a small button-like stigma. The fruit is a purplish berry, consisting of the receptacle and the ovary blended into one succulent investment enclosing very numerous minute seeds. The embryo-plant within the seed is usually curved. In cultiva- tion many varieties are known, dependent on variations in the size and shape of the leaves, the presence of so-called double flowers, &c. The typical species is quite hardy in the south of England. The Chilean species, M . Ugni. a shrub with ovate, dark green leaves and white flowers succeeded by globular red or black glossy truit with a pleasant smell and taste, is a greenhouse shrub, hardy in south-west Britain. The common myrtle is the sole representative in Europe of a large genus which has its headquarters in extra-tropical South America, whilst other members are found in Australia and New Zealand. The genus Myrtus also gives its name to a very large natural order, Myrtaceae, the general floral structure of which is like that of the myrtle above described, but there are great differences in the nature of the fruit or seed-vessel according as it is dry or capsular, dehiscent, indehiscent or pulpy; minor differences exist according to the way in which the stamens are arranged. The aromatic oil to which the myrtle owes its fragrance, and its use in medicine and the arts, is a very general attribute of the order, as may be inferred from the fact that the order includes, amongst other genera, Eucalyptus {q.v.), Pimenta and Eugenia (cloves). Myrlol, a constituent of myrtle oil, has been given in doses of 5-15 minims on sugar or in capsules for pulmonary tuberculosis, fetid bronchitis, bronchiectasis, and similar conditions. It appears to lessen expectoration in such cases. The leaves of Myrtus chekan are aromatic and expectorant, and have been used in chronic bronchitis. MYSIA, the district of N.W. Asia Minor in ancient times inhabited by the Mysi. It was bounded by Lydia and Phrygia on the S., by Bithynia on the N.E., and by the Propontis and Aegean Sea on the N. and W. But its precise limits are difficult to assign, the Phrygian frontier being vague and fluctuating, while in the north-west the Troad was sometimes included in Mysia,- sometimes not. Generally speaking, the northern portion was known as Mysia Minor or Hellespontica and the southern as Major or Pergamene. The chief physical features of Mysia (considered apart from that of the Troad) are the two mountain-chains, Olympus (7600 ft.) in the north and Temnus in the south, which for some distance separates Mysia from Lydia, and is afterwards prolonged through Mysia to the neighbourhood of the Gulf of Adramyttium. The only considerable rivers are the Macestus and its tributary the Rhyndacus in the northern part of the province, both of which rise in Phrygia, and, after diverging widely through Mysia, unite their waters below the lake of Apollonia about 15 m. from the Propontis. The Cai'cus in the south rises in Temnus, and from thence flows westward to the Aegean Sea, passing within a few miles of Pergamum. In the northern portion of the province are two considerable lakes, Artynia or Apolloniatis (Abulliont Geul), and Aphnitis (Maniyas Geul), which discharge their waters into the Macestus from the east and west respectively. The most important cities were Pergamum {q.v.) in the valley of the Cai'cus, and Cyzicus {q.v.) on the Propontis. But the whole sea-coast was studded with Greek towns, several of which were places of considerable importance; thus the northern portion included Parium, Lampsacus and Abydos, and the southern n6 MYSLOWITZ— MYSORE Assus, Adramyttium, and farther south, on the Elaitic Gulf, Elaea, Myrina and Cyme. Ancient writers agree in describing the Mysians as a distinct people, like the Lydians and Phrygians, though they never appear in history as an independent nation. It appears from Herodotus and Strabo that they were kindred with the Lydians and Carians, a fact attested by their common participation in the sacred rites at the great temple of Zeus at Labranda, as well as by the statement of the historian Xanthus of Lydia that their language was a mixture of Lydian and Phrygian. Strabo was of opinion that they came originally from Thrace (cf. Bithynia), and were a branch of the same people as the Mysians or Moesians (see Moesia) who dwelt on the Danube — a view not inconsistent with the preceding, as he considered the Phrygians and Lydians also as having migrated from Europe into Asia. According to a Carian tradition reported by Herodotus (i. 171) Lydus and Mysus were brothers of Car — an idea which also points to the belief in a common origin of the three nations. The Mysians appear in the list of the Trojan allies in Homer and are repre- sented as settled in the Caicus valley at the coming of Telephus to Pergamum; but nothing else is known of their early history. The story told by Herodotus (vii. 20) of their having invaded Europe in conjunction with the Teucrians before the Trojan War is probably a fiction; and the first historical fact we learn is their subjugation, together with all the surrounding nations, by Lydian Croesus. After the fall of the Lydian monarchy they remained under the Persian Empire until its overthrow by Alexander. After his death they were annexed to the Syrian monarchy, of which they continued to form a part until the defeat of Antiochus the Great (190 B.C.), after which they were trans- ferred by the Romans to the dominion of Eumenes of Pergamum. After the extinction of the Pergamenian dynasty (130 B.C.) Mysia became a part of the Roman province of Asia, and from this time disappears from history. The inhabitants probably became gradually Hellenized, but none of the towns of the interior, except Pergamum, ever attained to any importance. See C. Texier, Asie mineure (Paris, 1839) ; W. J. Hamilton, Researches (London, 1842); J. A. R. Munro in Geogr. Journal (1897, Hellespontica) ; W. von Diest, Petermanns Mirth. (Erganzungsheft 94; Gotha, 1889; Pergamene). (F. W. Ha.) MYSLOWITZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia. Pop. (1905), 1 5,845. It lies on the navigable Przemsa, across which an iron bridge leads to the Polish town of Modr- zejow, 120 m. S.E. from Breslau by rail, and an important junction of lines to Oswiecim-Lemberg and Vienna. It contains a Protestant and three Roman Catholic churches, a palace and a gymnasium, and other schools. Extensive coal-mines are worked, and among its other industries are flax-spinning and brick-making. It became a town in 1857. See Lustig, Geschichte von Myslowitz (Myslowitz, 1867). MYSORE, a native state of southern India, almost surrounded by the Madras presidency, but in political relations with the governor-general. It is naturally divided into two regions of distinct character — the hill country called the Malnad, on the west, and the more open country known as the Maidan, compris- ing the greater part of the state, where the wide-spreading valleys and plains are covered with villages and populous towns. The drainage of the country, with a slight exception, finds its way into the Bay of Bengal, and is divisible into three great river systems — that of the Kistna on the north, the Cauvery on the south, and the Northern and Southern Pennar and Palar on the east. Owing to either rocky or shallow beds none of the Mysore rivers is navigable, but some are utilized for floating down timber at certain seasons. The main streams, especially the Cauvery and its tributaries, support an extensive system of irrigation by means of channels drawn from immense dams (anicuts), which retain the water at a high level and permit only the overflow to pass down stream. The streams which gather from the hill-sides and fertilize the valleys are embanked at every favourable point in such a manner as to form a series of reservoirs or tanks, the outflow from one at a higher level supply- ing the next lower, and so on, all down the course of the stream at short intervals. These tanks, varying in size from small ponds to extensive lakes, are dispersed throughout the country to the number of 20,000; the largest is the Sulekere lake, 40 m. in circumference. Mysore is perhaps the most prosperous native state in India. Situated on a healthy plateau, it receives the benefit of both the south-west and north-east monsoons, a natural advantage which, in conjunction with its irrigation system, has brought to Mysore a larger degree of immunity from famine than almost any other internal tract of India (always excepting the great calamity of 1876-1877, when one-fourth of the population are believed to have perished). Coffee, sandal- wood, silk, gold and ivory are among the chief products. The famous Kolar gold-fields are worked by electric power, which is conveyed for a distance of 92 m. from the Cauvery Falls. This was the first electric power scheme of magnitude in Asia. A long period of administration by British officers led to the introduction of a system based on British models, which has been maintained under a series of exceptionally able native ministers, and the state can boast of public works, hospitals, research laboratories, &c, unsurpassed in India. The total area of the state is 29,433 S Q- m -> subdivided into 8 districts, namely: Bangalore, Kolar, Tumkur, Mysore, Hassan, Kadur, Shimoga and Chitaldrug. Pop. (1901), 5,539,399, showing an increase of 18% between 1881 and 1891, and of 12% between 1891 and 1901. The proportion of Hindus (92-1%) is larger than in any province of India, showing how ineffectual was the persecution of Hyder and Tippoo. The Christians (apart from native converts, who are chiefly Roman Catholics) largely consist of the garrison at Bangalore, the families of military pensioners at the same town, coffee- planters and gold-miners. The finances of the state have been very successfully managed under native rule, assisted by large profits from railways and gold-mines. The revenue amounts to about £1,400,000, of which nearly half is derived from land. In accordance with the " instrument of transfer," Mysore pays to the British government a tribute of £234,000, as contribution to military defence ; but the full amount was not exacted until 1896. The state maintains a military force, consisting of two regiments of silladar cavalry and three bat- talions of infantry — total, about 2800 men; and also a regiment of imperial service lancers, with a transport corps. An interest- ing political experiment has been made, in the constitution of a representative assembly, composed of 350 representatives of all classes of the community, who meet annually to hear an account of the state administration for the previous year. The assembly has no power to enact laws, to vote supplies, or to pass any resolution binding upon the executive. But it gives to the leading men of the districts a pleasant opportunity of visiting the capital, and to a limited extent brings the force of public opinion to bear upon the minister. Since 1891 this representa- tive assembly has been elected by local boards and other public bodies. In the earliest historical times the northern part of Mysore was held by the Kadamba dynasty, whose capital, Banawasi, is mentioned by Ptolemy; they reigned with more or less splendour during fourteen centuries, though latterly they became feuda- tories of the Chalukyas. The Cheras were contemporary with the Kadambas, and governed the southern part of Mysore till they were subverted by the Cholas in the 8th century. Another ancient race, the Pallavas, held a small portion of the eastern side of Mysore, but were overcome by the Chalukyas in the 7th cen- tury. These were overthrown in the 1 2th century by the Ballalas (Hoysalas), an enterprising and warlike race professing the Jain faith. They ruled over the greater part of Mysore, and portions of the modern districts of Coimbatore, Salem and Dharwar, with their capital at Dwarasamudra (the modern Halebid); but in 1310 the Ballala king was captured by Malik Kafur, the general of Ala-ud-din; and seventeen years later the town was entirely destroyed by another force sent by Mahommed Tughlak. After the subversion of the Ballala dynasty, a new and powerful Hindu sovereignty arose at Vijayanagar on the Tungabhadra. MYSORE— MYSTERY 117 In 1565 a confederation of the Mahommedan kingdoms de- feated the Vijayanagar sovereign at the battle of Talikota; and his descendants ultimately became extinct as a ruling house. During the feeble reign of the last king, the petty local chiefs (palcgars) asserted their independence. The most important of these was the wcdeyar of Mysore, who in 1610 seized the fort of Seringapatam, and so laid the foundation of the present state. His fourth successor, Chikka Deva Raja, during a reign of 34 years, made his kingdom one of the most powerful in southern India. In the middle of the 18th century the famous Mahommedan adventurer Hyder Ali usurped the throne, and by his military prowess made himself one of the most powerful princes of India. His dynasty, however, was as brief as it was brilliant, and ended with the defeat and death of his son Tippoo at Seringapatam in 1799. A representative of the ancient Hindu line was then replaced on the throne. This prince, Krishnaraja Wodeyar, was only five years old, and until he came of age in 181 1 the state was under the administration of Purnaiya, the Brahman minister of Hyder and Tippoo. When Krishnaraja took over the management of his state he received an orderly and contented principality with a surplus of two crores of rupees. Within twenty years he had driven his subjects into rebellion and involved himself and his state in heavy debt. The British government therefore assumed the administration in 1831, and placed it in the hands of com- missioners. In 1862 no less than 88 lakhs of state debts and of the maharaja!s own liabilities had been liquidated; the entire administration had been reformed, a revised system of land revenue introduced, and many public works executed. The maharaja therefore pressed his claims to a restoration of his powers, but the British government refused the application as incompatible with the true interests of the people of Mysore, and as.not justified by any treaty obligation. In the same year Chamarajendra Wodeyar, afterwards maharaja, was born of the Bettada Kote branch of the ruling house; and in June 1865 Maharaja Krishnaraja adopted him as his son and successor, although he had been informed that no adoption could be recognized except to his own private property, already once more heavily weighted with private debts. In 1867 the policy of government underwent a change; it was determined to secure the continuance of native rule in Mysore, by acknowledging the adoption upon certain conditions which would secure to the people the continued benefits of good administration enjoyed by them under British control. The old maharaja died on the 27th of March 1868, and Chamarajendra Wodeyar was publicly installed as the future ruler of Mysore on the 23rd of September 1868. His education was taken in hand, abuses which had grown up in the palace establishment were reformed, the late maharaja's debts were again paid off, and the whole internal administration perfected in every branch during the minority. On the 25th of March 1881 Maharaja Chamarajendra, having attained the age of 18 years, was publicly entrusted with the administration of the state. He made over to the British government, with full jurisdiction, a small tract of land at Bangalore, forming the " civil and military station," and received in return the island of Seringapatam. But the most important incident of the change was the signing of the " instrument of transfer," by which the young maharaja, for himself and his successors, undertook to perform the conditions imposed upon him. To that agree- ment the maharaja steadfastly adhered during his reign, and the instrument is a landmark in the history of British relations with the protected states of India. The maharaja's first minister was Ranga Charlu, who had been trained in the British administration of Mysore. He signalized the restoration of native rule by creating the representative assembly. In 1883 Sheshadri Aiyar succeeded Ranga Charlu, and to him Mysore is indebted for the extension of railways and schemes of irrigation, the development of the Kolar goldfields, and the maintenance of the high standard of its administration. The maharaja died at Calcutta on the 28th of December 1894. His eldest son, Krishnaraja Wodeyar, born in 1884, succeeded him, and his widow, Maharani Vanivilas, was appointed regent, until in 1902 the maharaja was formally invested with full powers by the viceroy in person. See B. L. Rice, Mysore {2nd ed., Bangalore, 1897); Mysore and Coorg Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1908). MYSORE, capital of the state of Mysore, India, 10 m. S.W. of Seringapatam on the Mysore State railway. Pop. (1901), 68,111. The city, which is spread over an area of about 7! sq. m., has its nucleus at the foot of the Chamundi hill, in a valley formed by two parallel ridges running north and south. The fort stands in the south of the town, forming a quarter by itself; the ground- plan is quadrangular, each of the sides being about 450 yds. long. The old palace of the maharaja within the fort, built in an extravagant style of Hindu architecture, was partly destroyed by fire in 1897, whereupon a new palace was built on the same site. The principal object of interest in the old palace was the throne, which is said to have been presented to Chikka Deva Raj by the emperor Aurangzeb. The houses of the European residents are for the most part to the east of the town. The residency or government house was built in 1805. The building afterwards used for the district offices was originally built by Colonel Wellesley (duke of Wellington) for his own occupation. The domed building for the public offices in Gordon Park, the Maharaja's College, the Victoria Jubilee Institute, and the law courts are conspicuous. Mysore, though the dynastic capital of the state, was superseded by Seringapatam as the seat of the court from 1610 to 1799, and in 1831, on the British occupation, the seat of administration was removed to Bangalore. MYSTERY (Gr. pvo-T-qpiov , from Awards, an initiate, fxvuv, to shut the mouth), a general English term for what is secret and excites wonder, derived from the religious sense (see below). It is not to be confounded with the other old word " mystery," or more properly " mistery," meaning a trade or handicraft (Lat. ministerium, Fr. tnStier). For the medieval plays, called mysteries, see Drama; they were so called (Skeat) because acted by craftsmen. Greek Mysteries. — It is important to obtain a clear conception of the exact significance of the Greek term p.varr\pwv , which is often associated and at times appears synonymous with the words reXeri7, opyia. We may interpret " mystery " in its original Greek meaning as a " secret " worship, to which only certain specially prepared people — ol ixvrjdkvres — were admitted after a special period of purification or other preliminary probation, and of which the ritual was so important and perilous that the " catechumen " needed a hierophant or expounder to guide him aright. In the ordinary public worship of the state or the private worship of the household the sacrifice with the prayer was the chief act of the ceremony; in the " mysterion " something other than a sacrifice was of the essence of the rite; something was shown to the eyes of the initiated, the mystery was a dpa/ia Iivotikov, and dpav and &pr)ap.ocfuvrj are verbal terms expressive of the mystic act. We have an interesting account given us by Theo Smyrnaeus 1 of the various elements and moments of the normal mystic ceremony: first is the KaBapfibs or preliminary purification; secondly, the TeXerijs irapadocns, the mystic com- munication which probably included some kind of X670S, a sacred exegesis or exhortation; thirdly, the kircnrTela or the revelation to sight of certain holy things, which is the central point of the whole; fourthly, the crowning with the garland, which is henceforth the badge of the privileged; and finally, that which is the end and object of all this, the happiness that, arises from the friendship or communion with the deity. This exposition is probably applicable to the Greek mysteries in general, though it may well have been derived from his know- ledge of the Eleusinian. We may supplement it by a statement of Lucian's that " no mystery was ever celebrated without dancing " (JDe saltat. 15), which means that it was in some sense a religious drama, ancient Greek dancing being generally mimetic, and represented some lepos Aoyos or sacred story as the theme of a mystery-play. Before we approach the problem as to the content of the mysteries, we may naturally raise the question why certal.) 1 De util. math., Herscher, p. 15. n8 MYSTERY ancient cults in Greece were mystic, others open and public. An explanation often offered is that the mystic cults are the Pelasgic or pre-Hellenic and that the conquered populations desired to shroud their religious ceremonies from the profane eyes of the invaders. But we should then expect to find them administered chiefly by slaves and the lower population; on the contrary they are generally in the hands of the noblest families, and the evidence that slaves possessed in any of them the right of initiation is only slight. Nor does the explanation in other respects fit the facts at all. The deities who are worshipped with mystic rites have in most cases Hellenic names and do not all belong to the earliest stratum of Hellenic religion. Besides those of Demeter, by far the most numerous in the Hellenic world, we have record of the mysteries of Ge at Phlye in Attica, of Aglauros and the Charities at Athens, of Hecate at Aegina; a shrine of Artemis Mvala on the road between Sparta and Arcadia points to a mystic cult of this goddess, and we can infer the existence of a similar worship of Themis. Now these are either various forms of the earth-goddess, or are related closely to her, being powers that we call " chthonian," associated with the world below, the realm of the dead. We may surmise then that the mystic setting of a cult arose in many cases from the dread of the religious miasma which emanated from the nether world and which suggested a prior ritual of purification as neces- sary to safeguard the person before approaching the holy presence or handling certain holy objects. This would explain the necessity of mysteries in the worship of Dionysus also, the Cretan Zagreus, Trophonius at Lebadeia, Palaemon-Melicertes on the Isthmus of Corinth. They might also be necessary for those who desired communion with the deified ancestor or hero, and thus we hear of the mysteries of Dryops at Asine, of Antinoiis the favourite of Hadrian at Mantineia. Again, where there was hope or promise that the mortal should by communion be able to attain temporarily to divinity, so hazardous an experiment would be safeguarded by special preparation, secrecy and mystic ritual; and this may have been the prime motive of the institution of the Attis-Cybele mystery. (See Great Mother of the Gods.) For the student of Hellenism, the Eleusinian and Orphic ceremonies are of paramount importance; the Samothracian, which vied with these in attractiveness for the later Hellenic world, were not Hellenic in origin, nor wholly hellenized in char- acter, and cannot be considered in an urticle of this compass. As regards the Eleusinia, we are in a better position for the investigation of them than our predecessors were; for the modern methods of comparative religion and anthropology have at least taught us to ask the right questions and to apply relevant hypotheses; archaeology . the study of vases, excavations on the site, yielding an ever-increasing hoard of inscriptions, have taught us much concerning the external organization of the mysteries, and have shown us the beautiful figures of the deities as they appeared to the eye or to the mental vision of the initiated. As regards the inner content, the secret of the mystic celebra- tion, it is in the highest degree unlikely that Greek inscriptions or art would ever reveal it; the Eleusinian scenes that appear on Attic vases of about the 5th century cannot be supposed to show us the heart of the mystery, for such sacrilegious rashness would be dangerous for the vase-painter. If we are to discover it, we must turn to the ancient literary records. These must be handled with extreme caution and a more careful scrutiny than is often applied. We must not expect full enlightenment from the Pagan writers, who convey to us indeed the poetry and the glow of this fascinating ritual, and who attest the deep and puri- fying influence that it exercised upon the religious temperament, but who are not likely to tell us more. It is to the Christian Fathers we must turn for more esoteric knowledge, for they would be withheld by no scruple from revealing what they knew. But we cannot always believe that they knew much, for only those who, like Clement and Arnobius, had been Pagans in their youth, could ever have been initiated. Many of them uncriti- cally confuse in the same context and in one sweeping verdict of condemnation Orphic, Phrygian-Sabazian and Attis-Mysteries with the Eleusinian; and we ought not too lightly to infer that these were actually confused and blended at Eleusis. We must also be on our guard against supposing that when Pagan or Christian writers refer vaguely to " mysteria," they always have the Eleusinian in their mind. The questions that the critical analysis of all the evidence may hope to solve are mainly these: (a) What do we know or what can we infer concerning the personality of the deities to whom the Eleusinian mysteries were originally consecrated, and were new figures admitted at a later period ? (&) When was the mystery taken over by Athens and opened to all Hellas, and what was the state-organization provided? (c) What was the inner significance, essential content or purport of the Eleusinia, and what was the source of their great influence on Hellas? (d) Can we attribute any ethical value to them, and did they strongly impress the popular belief in immortality? Limits of space allow us only to adumbrate the results that research on the lines of these questions has hitherto yielded. The paramount divine personalities of the mystery were in the earliest period of which we have literary record, the mother and the daughter, Demeter and Kore, the latter being never styled Persephone in the official language of Eleusis; while the third figure, the god of the lower world known by the euphemistic names of Pluto (Plouton) and at one time Eubouleus, the ravisher and the husband, is an accessory personage, comparatively in the background. This is the conclusion naturally drawn from the Homeric hymn to Demeter, a composition of great ritualistic value, probably of the 7th century B.C., which describes the abduction of the daughter, the sorrow and search of the mother, her sitting by the sacred well, the drinking of the Kvnedov or sacred cup and the legend of the pomegranate. An ancient hymn of Pamphos, from which Pausanias freely quotes and which he regards as genuine, 1 appears to have told much the same story in much the same way. As far as we can say, then, the mother and daughter were there in possession at the very beginning. The other pair of divinities known as 6 dibs fi 9ea, that appear in a 5th-century inscription and on two dedicatory reliefs found at Eleusis, have been supposed to descend from an aboriginal period of Eleusinian religion when deities were nameless, and when a peaceful pair of earth-divinities, male and female, were worshipped by the rustic community, before the earth-goddess had pluralized herself as Demeter and Kore, and before the story of the madre dolorosa and the lost daughter had arisen. 2 But for various reasons the contrary view is more probable, that 6 debs and 17 6ea are later cult-titles of the married pair Pluto-Cora (Plouton-Kore), the personal names being omitted from that feeling of reverential shyness which was specially timid in regard to the sacred names of the deities of the underworld. And it is a fairly familiar phenomenon in Greek religion that two separate titles of the same divinity engender two distinct cults. The question as to the part played by Dionysus in the Eleusinia is important. Some scholars, like M. Foucart, have supposed that he belonged from the beginning to the inner circle of the mystery; others that he forced his way in at a somewhat later period owing to the great influence of the Orphic sects who captured the stronghold of Attic religion and engrafted the Orphic-Sabazian iepbs Xoyos, the story of the incestuous union of Dionysus-Sabazius with Demeter-Kore, and of the death and rendering of Zagreus, upon the primitive Eleusinian faith. A saner and more careful criticism rejects this view. There is no genuine trace discovered as yet in the inner circle of the mysteries of any characteristically Orphic doctrine; the names of Zagreus and Phanes are nowhere heard, the legend of Zagreus and the death of Dionysus are not known, to have been mentioned there. Nor is there any print within or in the precincts of the reKtar^piov: the hall of the Minrrat, of the footsteps of the Phrygian deities, Cybele, Attis, Sabazius. *i- 38, 3; i- 39. 1. 2 See Dittenberger, Sylloge, 13; Corp. inscr. att. 2, 1620 c, 3, 1109; Ephem. archaiol. (1886), irlv. 3; Heberdey in Festschrift fur Benndorf, p. 3, Taf. 4; Von Prott in Aiken. Mittheil. (1899), p. 262. MYSTERY 119 The exact relation of Dionysus to the mysteries involves the question as to the divine personage called Iacchus; who and what was Iacchus? Strabo (p. 468), who is a poor authority on such matters, describes him as " the daemon of Demeter, the founder of the leader of the mysteries." More important is it to note that " Iacchus " is unknown to the author of the Homeric hymn, and that the first literary notice of him occurs in the well-known passage of Herodotus (viii. 65), who describes the procession of the mystae as moving along the sacred way from Athens to Eleusis and as raising the cry "Ia«xe. We find Iacchus the theme of a glowing invocation in an Aristophanic Ode (Frogs, 324-398), and described as a beautiful " young god "; but he is first explicitly identified with Dionysus in the beautiful ode of Sophocles' Antigone (11 19); and that this was in accord with the popular ritualistic lore is proved by the statement of the scholiast on Aristophanes (Frogs, 482) that the people at the Lenaea, the winter-festival of Dionysus, responded to the command of " Invoke the god!" with the invocation " Hail, Iacchus, son of Semele, thou giver of wealth! " We are sure, then, that in the high tide of the Attic religious history Iacchus was the youthful Dionysus, a name of the great god peculiar to Attic cult; and this is all that here concerns us to know. We can now answer the question raised above. This youthful Attic Dionysus has his home at Athens; he accompanies his votaries along the sacred way, filling their souls with the exalta- tion and ecstasy of the Dionysiac spirit; but at Eleusis he had no temple, altar or abiding home; he comes as a visitor and departs. His image may have been carried into the Hall of the Mysteries, but whether it played any part there in a passion-play we do not know. That he was a primary figure of the essential mystery is hard to believe, for we find no traces of his name in the other Greek communities that at an early period had insti- tuted mysteries on the Eleusinian model. Apart from Iacchus, Dionysus in his own name was powerful enough at Eleusis as in most other localities. And the votaries carried with them no doubt into the hall the Bacchic exaltation of the Iacchus proces- sion and the nightly revel with the god that preceded the full initiation; many of them also may have belonged to the private Dionysiac sects and might be tempted to read a Dionysiac signifi- cance into much that was presented to them. But all this is conjecture. The interpretation of what was shown would natur- ally change somewhat with the changing sentiment of the ages; but the mother and the daughter, the stately and beautiful figures presented to us by the author of the homeric hymn, who says no word of Dionysus, are still found reigning paramount and supreme at Eleusis just before the Gothic invasion in the latter days of Paganism. Triptolemus the apostle of corn- culture, Eubouleus — originally a euphemistic name of the god of the under-world, " the giver of good counsel," conveying a hint of his oracular functions — these are accessory figures of Eleusinian cult and mythology that may have played some part in the great mystic drama that was enacted in the hall. The development and organization of the Eleusinia may now be briefly sketched. The legends concerning the initiation of Heracles and the Dioscuri preserve the record of the time when the mysteries were closed against all strangers, and were the privilege of the Eleusinians alone. Now the Homeric hymn in its obvious appeal to the whole of the Greek world to avail themselves of these mysteries gives us to suppose that they had already been thrown open to Hellas; and this momentous change, abolishing the old gentile barriers, may have naturally coincided with, or have resulted from, the fusion of Eleusis and Athens, an event of equal importance for politics and religion which we may place in the prehistoric period. The reign of Peisistratus was an era of architectural activity at Eleusis; but the construction of the /xixtukos ayLa and reveal its true significance (Arnob. Adv. nat. 5. 119); and Firmicus Maternus (De error., p. 84) attests that the Cretans of his own day celebrated a funeral festival in honour of Dionysus in which they enacted the life and the death of the god in a passion-play and " rent a living bull with their teeth." But the most speaking record of the aspirations and ideas of the Orphic mystic is preserved in the famous gold tablets found in tombs near Sybaris, one near Rome, and one in Crete. These have been frequently published and discussed; and here it is only possible to allude to the salient features that concern the general history of religion. They contain fragments of a sacred hymn that must have been in vogue at least as early as the 3rd century B.C., and which was inscribed in order to 4 The name 'Op^eis first occurs in Ibycus, Frag. 10: 6vo/jicuc\vt6v 'O/xtrif. MYSTICISM 123 be buried with the defunct, as an amulet that might protect him from the dangers of his journey through the under-world and open to him the gates of Paradise. The verses have the power of an incantation. The initiated soul proclaims its divine descent : "I am the son of Earth and Heaven " : "I am perishing with thirst, give me to drink of the waters of memory ": " I come from the pure ": "I have paid the penalty of unrighteousness ": " I have flown out of the weary, sorrowful circle of life." His reward is assured him: " blessed and happy one, thou hast put off thy mortality and shalt become divine." The strange formula epi<£os « 7a\' 'iirerov, "la kid fell into the milk," has been interpreted by Dieterich (Eine Mithras — Liturgie, p. 174) with great probability as alluding to a conception of Dionysus himself as lpl The Eleusinian mysteries are far more characteristic of the older Hellenic mind. These later rites breathe an Oriental spirit, and though their forms appear strange and distorted they have more in common with the subsequent religious phenomena of Christendom. And the Orphic doctrine may have even contributed something to the later European ideals of private and personal morality. 2 Literature. — For citation of passages in classical literature bearing on Greek mysteries in general see Lobeck's Aglaophamus (1829) ; and the collection of material for Demeter mysteries in L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States (1906), iii. 343-367. For general theory and discussion see Dr Jevons, Introduction to the Study of Religion; Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, iii. 127-213; Dyer's The Gods of Greece (1891), ch. v.; M. P. Foucart, Les Grands mysthres d'Eleusis (1900); Andrew Lang, Myth,_ Ritual and Religion (1887), pp. 264-276; Goblet d'Alviella, Eleustnia (1903). See further articles Dionysus; Great Mother of the Gods; Demeter. (L. R. F.) MYSTICISM (from G'r. ixiiav, to shut the eyes; juiiott/s, one initiated into the mysteries), a phase of thought, or rather perhaps of feeling, which from its very nature is hardly suscep- tible of exact definition. It appears in connexion with the endeavour of the human mind to grasp the divine essence or the ultimate reality of things, and to enjoy the blessedness of actual communion with the Highest. The first is the philosophic side of mysticism ; the second, its religious side. The first effort is theoretical or speculative; the second, practical. The thought that is most intensely present with the mystic is that 1 Farnell, Cults, iii. 299-302. 1 See Archiv fur Religionswiss. (1906), article by Salomon Reinach. of a supreme, all-pervading, and indwelling power, in whom all things are one. Hence the speculative utterances oi mysticism are always more or less pantheistic in character. On the practical side, mysticism maintains the possibility of direct in- tercourse with this Being of beings — intercourse, not through any external media such as an historical revelation, oracles, answers to prayer, and the like, but by a species of ecstatic transfusion or identification, in which the individual becomes in very truth " partaker of the divine nature." God ceases to be an object to him and becomes an experience. In the writings of the mystics, ingenuity exhausts itself in the invention of phrases to express the closeness of this union. Mysticism differs, there- fore, from ordinary pantheism in that its inmost motive is religious; but, whereas religion is ordinarily occupied with a practical problem and develops its theory in an ethical refer- ence, mysticism displays a predominatingly speculative bent, starting from the divine nature rather than from man and his surroundings, taking the symbolism of religious feeling as literally or metaphysically true, and straining after the present realization of an ineffable union. The union which sound religious teaching represents as realized in the submission of the will and the ethical harmony of the whole life is then reduced to a passive experience, to something which comes and goes in time, and which may be of only momentary duration. Mysticism, it will be seen, is not a name applicable to any particular system. It may be the outgrowth of many differing modes of thought and feeling. Most frequently it appears historically, in relation to some definite system of belief, as a reaction of the spirit against the letter. When a religion begins to ossify into a system of formulas and, observances, those who protest in the name of heart-religion are not unfrequently known by the name of mystics. At times they merely bring into prominence again the ever-fresh fact of personal religious experience; at other times mysticism develops itself as a powerful solvent of definite dogmas. A review of the historical appearances of mysticism will serve to show how far the above characteristics are to be found, separately or in combination, in its different phases. In the East, mysticism is not so much a specific phenomenon as a natural deduction from the dominant philosophic systems, and the normal expression of religious feeling in the lands in which it appears. Brahmanic pantheism systems. and Buddhistic nihilism alike teach the unreality of the seeming world, and preach mystical absorption as the highest goal; in both, the sense of the worth of human person- ality is lost. India consequently has always been the fertile mother of practical mystics and devotees. The climate itself encourages to passivity, and the very luxuriance of vegetable and animal life tends to blunt the feeling of the value of life. Silent contemplation and the total deadening of consciousness by perseverance for years in unnatural attitudes are among the commonest forms assumed by this mystical asceticism. But the most revolting methods of self-torture and self-destruction are also practised as a means of rising in sanctity. The sense of sin can hardly be said to enter into these exercises — that is, they are not undertaken as penance for personal transgression. They are a despite done to the principle of individual or separate existence. The so-called mysticism of the Persian Sufis is less intense and practical, more airy and literary in character. Sufism (q.v.) appears in the 9th century among the Mahommedans of Persia as a kind of reaction against the rigid monotheism and formalism of Islam. It is doubtless to be regarded as a revival of ancient habits of thought and feeling among a people who had adopted the Koran, not by affinity, but by compulsion. Persian literature after that date, and especially Persian poetry, is full of an ardent natural pantheism, in which a mystic apprehension of the unity and divinity of all things heightens the delight in natural and in human beauty. Such is the poetry of Hafiz and Saadi, whose verses are chiefly devoted to the praises of wine and women. Even the most licentious of these have been fitted by Mahommedan theologians with a mystical interpretation. 124 MYSTICISM The delights of love are made to stand for the raptures of union with the divine, the tavern symbolizes an oratory, and intoxica- tion is the bewilderment of sense before the surpassing vision. Very often, if not most frequently, it cannot be doubted that the occult religious significance depends on an artificial exegesis; but there are also poems of Hafiz, Saadi, and other writers, religious in their first intentions. These are unequivo- cally pantheistic in tone, and the desire of the soul to escape and rest with God is expressed with all the fervour of Eastern poetry. This speculative mood, in which nature and beauty and earthly satisfaction appear as a vain show, is the counterpart of the former mood of sensuous enjoyment. For opposite reasons, neither the Greek nor the Jewish mind lent itself readily to mysticism: the Greek, because of its clear and sunny naturalism; the Jewish, because of its rigid monotheism and its turn towards worldly realism and statutory observance. It is only with the exhaustion of Greek and Jewish civilization that mysticism becomes a prominent factor in Western thought. It appears, therefore, contemporaneously with Christianity, and is a sign of the world-weariness and deep religious need that mark the decay of the old world. Whereas Plato's main problem had been the organization of tlje perfect state, and Aristotle's intellect had ranged with fresh interest over all departments of the knowable, political speculation had become a mockery with the extinction of free political life, and know- ledge as such had lost its freshness for the Greeks of the Roman Empire. Knowledge is nothing to these men if it does not show them the infinite reality which is able to fill the aching void within. Accordingly, the last age of Greek philosophy is theosophical in character, and its ultimate end is a practical satisfaction. Neoplatonism seeks this in the ecstatic intuition of the ineffable One. The systematic theosophy of Plotinus and his successors does not belong to the present article, except so far as it is the presupposition of their mysticism; but, inas- much as the mysticism of the medieval Church is directly derived from Neoplatonism through the speculations of the pseudo-Dionysius, Neoplatonic mysticism fills an important section in any historical review of the subject. Neoplatonism owes its form to Plato, but its underlying motive is the widespread feeling of self-despair and the longing for divine illumination characteristic ' of the age piat'oolsm. i n which it appears. Before the rise of Neoplaton- ism proper we meet with various mystical or semi- mystical expressions of the same religious craving. The contemplative asceticism of the Essenes of Judaea may be mentioned, and, somewhat later, the life of the Therapeutae on the shores of Lake Moeris. In Philo, Alexandrian Judaism had already seized upon Plato as " the Attic Moses," and done its best to combine his speculations with the teaching of his Jewish prototype. Philo's God is described in terms of absolute transcendency; his doctrine of the Logos or Divine Sophia is a theistical transformation of the Platonic world of ideas; his allegorical interpretation of the Old Testament represents the spiritualistic dissolution of historical Judaism. Philo's ethical ideal is renunciation, contemplation, complete surrender to the divine influence. Apollonius of Tyana and the so-called Neopythagoreans drew similar ethical consequences from their eclectic study of Plato. Wonder-workers like Alexander the Paphlagonian exhibit the grosser side of the longing for spiritual communion. The traits common to Neoplatonism and all these speculations are well summed up by Zeller (Phttos. der Grkchen, iii. 2. 214) as consisting in: " (1) the dualistic opposition of the divine and the earthly; (2) an abstract con- ception of God, excluding all knowledge of the divine nature; (3) contempt for the world of the senses, on the ground of the Platonic doctrines of matter and of the descent of the soul from a superior world into the body; (4) the theory of intermediate potencies or beings, through whom God acts upon the world of phenomena; (5) the requirement of an ascetic self-emancipa- tion from the bondage of sense and faith in a higher revelation to man when in a state called enthusiasm." Neoplatonism appears in the first half of the 3rd century, and has its greatest representative in Plotinus. He develops the Platonic philosophy into an elaborate system by means of the doctrine of emanation. The One, the Good, and the Idea of the Good were identical in Plato's mind, and the Good was therefore not deprived of intelligible essence. It was not separated from the world of ideas, of which it was represented as either the crown or the sum. By Plotinus, on the contrary, the One is explicitly exalted above the vovs and the "ideas"; it trans- cends existence altogether (hireiceiva ttjs obalas), and is not cognizable by reason. Remaining itself in repose, it rays out, as it were, from its own fullness an image of itself, which is called vovs, and which constitutes the system of ideas of the intelligible world. The soul is in turn the image or product of the vovs, and the soul by its motion begets corporeal matter. The soul thus faces two ways — towards the vovs, from which it springs, and towards the material life, which is its own product. Ethical endeavour consists in the repudiation of the sensible; material existence is itself estrangement from God. (Porphyry tells us that Plotinus was unwilling to name his parents or his birthplace, and seemed ashamed of being in the body.) Beyond the nadapo-us, or virtues which purify from sin, lies the further stage of complete identification with God {ova e£« afiaprias elvar, dXXa dtov tlvai) . To reach the ultimate goal, thought itself must be left behind; for thought is a form of motion, and the desire of the soul is for the motion- less rest which belongs to the One. The union with transcendent deity is not so much knowledge or vision as ecstasy, coalescence, contact (eKffTao-LS aifSwais, &r], Ennead., vi. 9. 8-9). But in our present state of existence the moments of this ecstatic union must be few and short; "I myself," says Plotinus simply, " have realized it but three times as yet, and Porphyry hitherto not once." It will be seen from the above that Neoplatonism is not mystical as regards the faculty by which it claims to apprehend philosophic truth. It is first of all a system of complete rationalism; it is assumed, in other words, that reason is capable of mapping out the whole system of things. But, inasmuch as a God is affirmed beyond reason, the mysticism becomes in a sense the necessary complement of the would-be all-embracing rationalism. The system culminates in a mystical act, and in the sequel, especially with Iamblichus and the Syrian Neoplatonists, mystical practice tended more and more to overshadow the theoretical groundwork. It was probably about the end of the 5th century, just as ancient philosophy was 'dying out in the schools of Athens, that the speculative mysticism of Neoplatonism made a definite lodgment in Christian thought through the literary forgeries of the pseudo-Dionysius (see Dionysius the Areopa- gite) . The doctrines of Christianity were by that time so firmly established that the Church could look upon a symbolical or mystical interpretation of them without anxiety. The author of the Thcologia mystica and the other works ascribed to the Areopagite proceeds, therefore, to develop the doctrines of Proclus with very little modification into a system of esoteric Christianity. God is the nameless and supra-essential One, elevated above goodness itself. Hence " negative theology," which ascends from the creature to God by dropping one after another every determinate predicate, leads us nearest to the truth. The return to God (evoxrw, dkoiats) is the consummation of all things and the goal indicated by Christian teaching. The same doctrines were preached with more of churchly fervour by Maximus the Confessor (580-622). St Maximus represents almost the last speculative activity of the Greek Church, but the influence of the pseudo-Dionysian writings were transmitted to the West in the 9th century by Erigena, in whose speculative spirit both the scholasticism and the mysticism of the middle ages have their rise. Erigena translated Dionysius into Latin along with the commentaries of Maximus, and his system is essentially based upon theirs. The negative theology is adopted, and God is stated to be predicateless Being, above all categories, and therefore not improperly called Nothing. Out of this Nothing or incomprehensible essence the world of ideas or MYSTICISM 125 primordial causes is eternally created. This is the Word or Son of God, in whom all things exist, so far as they have substantial existence. All existence is a theophany, and as God is the beginning of all things, so also is He the end. Erigena teaches the restitution of all things under the form of the Diony- sian adunatio or deificatio. These are the permanent outlines of what may be called the philosophy of mysticism in Christian times, and it is remarkable with how little variation they are repeated from age to age. In Erigena mysticism has not yet separated itself in any way from the dogma of the Church. There is no revulsion, as later, from dogma as such, nor is more stress laid upon one dogma than upon another; all are treated upon the same footing, and the whole dogmatic system is held, as it were, in solution by the philosophic medium in which it is presented. No distinction is drawn, indeed, between what is reached by reason and what is given by authority; the two are immediately identical for Erigena. In this he agrees with the speculative mystics everywhere, and differentiates himself from the scholas- tics who followed him. The distinguishing characteristic of scholasticism is the acceptance by reason of a given matter, the truth of which is independent of rational grounds, and which remains a presupposition even when it cannot be under- stood. Scholasticism aims, it is true, in its chief representatives, at demonstrating that the content of revelation and the teaching of reason are identical. But what was matter of immanent assumption with Erigena is in them an equating of two things which have been dealt with on the hypothesis that they are separate, and which, therefore, still retain that external relation to one another. This externality of religious truth to the mind is fundamental in scholasticism, while the opposite view is equally fundamental in mysticism. Mysticism is not the voluntary demission of reason and its subjection to an external authority. In that case, all who accept a revelation without professing to understand its content would require to be ranked as mystics; the fierce sincerity of Tertullian's credo quia ab- surdum, Pascal's reconciliation of contradictions in Jesus Christ, and Bayle's half-sneering subordination of reason to faith would all be marks of this standpoint. But such a temper of mind is much more akin to scepticism than to mysticism; it is characteristic of those who either do not feel the need of philosophizing their beliefs, or who have failed in doing so and take refuge in sheer acceptance. Mysticism, on the other hand, is marked on its speculative side by even an overweening confidence in human reason. Nor need this be wondered at if we consider that the unity of the human mind with the divine is its underlying presupposition. Hence where reason is discarded by the mystic it is merely reason overleaping itself; it occurs at the end and not at the beginning of his speculations. Even then there is no appeal to authority; nothing is accepted from without. The appeal is still to the individual, who, if not by reason then by some higher faculty, claims to realize absolute truth and to taste absolute blessedness. Mysticism first appears in the medieval Church as the protest of practical religion against the predominance of the dialectical spirit. It is so with Bernard of Clairvaux (1090- ciairvaux. JI 53)> wn0 condemns Abelard's distinctions and reasonings as externalizing and degrading the faith. St Bernard's mysticism is of a practical cast, dealing mainly with the means by which man may attain to the know- ledge and enjoyment of God. Reason has three stages, in the highest of which the mind is able, by abstraction from earthly things, to rise to contemplatio or the vision of the divine. More exalted still, however, is the sudden ecstatic vision, such as was granted, for example, to Paul. This is the reward of those who are dead to the body and the world. Asceticism is thus the counterpart of medieval mysticism; and, by his example as well as by his teaching in such passages, St Bernard unhappily encouraged practices which necessarily resulted in self-delusion. Love grows with the knowledge of its object, he proceeds, and at the highest stage self-love is so merged in love to God that we love ourselves only for God's sake or because God has loved us. " To lose thyself in some sort, as if thou wert not, and to have no consciousness of thyself at all — to be emptied of thyself and almost annihilated — such is heavenly conversation. ... So to be affected is to become God." " As the little water-drop poured into a large measure of wine seems to lose its own nature entirely and to take on both the taste and the colour of the wine; or as iron heated red-hot loses its own appearance and glows like fire; or as air filled with sunlight is transformed into the same brightness so that it does not so much appear to be illuminated as to be itself light — so must all human feeling towards the Holy One be self-dissolved in unspeakable wise, and wholly transfused into the will of God. For how shall God be all in all if anything of man remains in man? The substance will indeed remain, but in another form, another glory, another power " (De diligendo Deo, c. 10). These are the favourite similes of mysticism, wherever it is found. Mysticism was more systematically developed by Bernard's contemporary Hugh of St Victor (1096-1141). The Augustinian monastery of St Victor near Paris became the head- quarters of mysticism during the 12th century. It The Vlctorines. had a wide influence in awakening popular piety, and the works that issued from it formed the textbooks of mystical and pietistic minds in the centuries that followed. Hugh's pupil, Richard of St Victor, declares, in opposition to dialectic scholasticism, that the objects of mystic contemplation are partly above reason, and partly, as in the intuition of the Trinity, contrary to reason. He enters at length into the con- ditions of ecstasy and the yearnings that precede it. Walter; the third of the Victorines, carried on the polemic against the dialecticians. Bonaventura (1 221-1274) was a diligent student of the Victorines, and in his Itinerarium mentis ad Deum maps out the human faculties in a similar fashion. He introduces the terms " apex mentis " and " scintilla " (also " synderesis" or avvTT)pt)o-v<;) to describe the faculty of mystic intuition. Bonaventura runs riot in phrases to describe the union with God, and his devotional works were much drawn upon by mystical preachers. Fully a century later, when the system of scholasticism was gradually breaking up under the predomi- nance of Occam's nominalism, Pierre d'Ailly (1350-1425), and his more famous scholar John Gerson (1363-1429), chancellor of the university of Paris, are found endeavouring to com- bine the doctrines of the Victorines and Bonaventura with a nominalistic philosophy. They are the last representatives of mysticism within the limitations imposed by scholasticism. From the 12th and 13th centuries onward there is observable in the different countries of Europe a widespread reaction against the growing formalism and worldliness of the Church and the scandalous lives of many of the Bar,y clergy. Men began to feel a desire for a theology ^^fc" of the heart and an unworldly simplicity of life. Thus there arose in the Netherlands the Beguines and Beghards, in Italy the Waldenses (without, however, any mystical leaning), in the south of France and elsewhere the numerous sect or sects of the Cathari, and in Calabria the apocalyptic gospel of Joachim of Floris, all bearing witness to the commotion of the time. The lay societies of the Beghards and the Beguines (for men and women respectively) date from the end of the 12th century, and soon became extremely popular both in the Low Countries and on the Rhine. They were free at the outset from any heretical taint, but were never much in favour with the Church. In the beginning of the 13th century the foundation of the Dominican and Franciscan orders furnished a more ecclesiastical and regular means of supplying the same wants, and numerous convents sprang up at once throughout Germany. The German mind was a peculiarly fruitful soil for mysticism, and, in connexion either with the Beguines or the Church organization, a number of women appear about this time, combining a spirit of mystical piety and asceticism with sturdy reformatory zeal directed against the abuses of the time. Even before this we hear of the prophetic visions of Hildegard of Bingen (a contemporary of St Bernard) and Elizabeth of Schonau. In the 13th century 126 MYSTICISM Elizabeth of Hungary, the pious landgravine of Thuringia, assisted in the foundation of many convents in the north of Germany. (For an account of the chief of these female saints see the first volume of W. Preger's Geschichte der deutschen Mystik.) Mechthild of Magdeburg appears to have been the most influential, and her book Das fliessende Licht der Gottheit is important as the oldest work of its kind in German. It proves that much of the terminology of German mysticism was current before Eckhart's time, Mechthild's clerico-political utterances show that she was acquainted with the " eternal gospel " of Joachim of Floris. Joachim had proclaimed the doctrine of three world-ages — the kingdom of the Father, of the Son, and of the Spirit. The reign of the Spirit was to begin with the year 1 260, when the abuses of the world and the Church were to be effectually cured by the general adoption of the monastic life of contemplation. Very similar to this in appear- ance- is the teaching of Amalric of Bena (d. 1207); but, while the movements just mentioned were reformatory without being heretical, this is very far from being the case with the mystical pantheism derived by Amalric from the writings of Erigena. His followers held a progressive revelation of God in the ages of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Just as the Mosaic dispensation came to an end with the appearance of Christ, so the sacraments of the new dispensation have lost their meaning and efficacy since the incarnation of God as Holy Spirit in the Amalricans. With this opposition to the Church they combine a complete antinomianism, through the identification of all their desires with the impulses of the divine Spirit. Amalric's teaching was condemned by the Church, and his heresies led to the public burning of Erigena's De divisione naturae in 1223. The sect of the New Spirit, or of the Free Spirit as it was afterwards called, spread widely through the north of France and into Switzerland and Germany. They were especially numerous in the. Rhineland in the end of the 13th and during the 14th cen- tury; and they seem to have corrupted the originally orthodox communities of Beghards, for Beghards and Brethren of the Free Spirit are used henceforward as convertible terms, and the same immoralities are related of both. Such was the seed- ground in which what is specifically known as German mysticism sprang up. In Meister Eckhart ( ? 1 260-1 3 27) the German mind definitively asserts its pre-eminence in the sphere of speculative mysticism. Eckhart was a distinguished son of the Church; but in reading his works we feel at once that we have passed into quite a different sphere of thought from that of the churchly mystics; we seem to leave the cloister behind and to breathe a freer atmosphere. The scholastic mysticism was, for the most part, practical and psychological in character. It was largely a devotional aid to the realization of present union with God; and, so far as it was theoretical, it was a theory of the faculties by which such a union is attainable. Mysticism was pieced on somewhat incongruously to a scholastically accepted theology; the feelings and the intellect were not brought together. But in Eckhart the attitude of the churchman and traditionalist is entirely abandoned. Instead of systematizing dogmas, he appears to evolve a philosophy by the free exercise of reason. His system enables him to give a profound signifi- cance to the doctrines of the Church; but, instead of the system being accommodated to the doctrines, the doctrines — and especially the historical facts — acquire a new sense in the system, and often become only a mythical representation of speculative truth. The freedom with which Eckhart treats historical Christianity allies him much more to the German idealists of the 19th century than to his scholastic predecessors. The political circumstances of Germany in the first half of the 14th century were in the last degree disastrous. The war between the rival emperors, Frederick of Austria and Louis of Bavaria, and the interdict under which the latter was placed in 1324 inflicted extreme misery upon the unhappy people. From some places the interdict was not removed for twenty-six years. Men's minds were pained and disquieted by the conflict of duties and the absence of spiritual consolation. The country Eckhart Ruysbroeck. was also visited by a succession of famines and floods, and in 1348 the Black Death swept over Europe like a terrible scourge. In the midst of these unhappy surroundings religion became more inward in men of real piety and the desire grew among them to draw closer the bonds that united them to one another. Thus arose the society of the Friends of God (Gotiesfreunde) in the south and west of Germany, spreading as far as Switzerland on the one side and the Nether- e ' lands on the other. They formed no exclusive freunde." sect. They often took opposite sides in politics and they also differed in the type of their religious life; but they uniformly desired to strengthen one another in living intercourse with God. Among them chiefly the followers of Eckhart were to be found. Such were Heinrich Suso of Con- stance (1 295-1366) and Johann Tauler of Strassburg (1300-1361) , the two most celebrated of his immediate disciples. Nicolas of Basel, the mysterious layman from whose visit Tauler dates his- true religious life, seems to have been the chief organizing force among the Gottesfreunde. The society counted many members among the pious women in the convents of southern Germany. Such were Christina Ebner of Engelthal near Nuremberg, and Margaretha Ebner of Medingen in Swabia. Laymen also belonged to it, like Hermann of Fritzlar and Rulman Merswin, the rich banker of Strassburg (author of a mystical work, Buck der neun Felsen, on the nine rocks or upwards steps of contemplation). It was doubtless one of the Friends who sent forth anonymously from the house of the Teutonic Order in Frankfort the famous handbook of mystical devotion called Eine deutsche Theologie, first published in 15 16 by Luther. Jan van Ruysbroeck (1 294-1381), the father of mysticism in the Netherlands, stood in connexion with the Friends of God, and Tauler is said to have visited him in his seclusion at Groenendal (Vauvert, Griinthal) near Brussels. He was decisively influenced by Eckhart, though there is no- ticeable occasionally a shrinking back from some of Eckhart's phraseology. Ruysbroeck's mysticism is more of a practical than a speculative cast. He is chiefly occupied with the means whereby the unio mystica is to be attained, whereas Eckhart dwells on the union as an ever-present fact, and dilates on its metaphysical implications. Towards the end of Ruysbroeck's life, in 1378, he was visited by the fervid lay-preacher Gerhard Groot (1340-1384), who was so impressed by the life of the com- munity at Groenendal that he conceived the idea of founding a Christian brotherhood, bound by no monastic vows, but living together in simplicity and piety with all things in common, after the apostolic pattern. This was the origin of the Brethren of the Common Lot (or Common Life). The first house of the Brethren was founded at Deventer by Gerhard Groot and his youthful friend Florentius Radewyn; and here Thomas a. Kempis (q.v.) received his training. Similar brother-houses soon sprang up in different places throughout the Low Countries and Westphab'a, and even Saxony. It has been customary for Protestant writers to represent the mystics of Germany and Holland as precursors of the Reformation. In a sense this is true. But Mystics it would be false to say that these men protested andthe Re- against the doctrines of the Church in the way the formation. Reformers felt themselves called upon to do. There is no sign that Tauler, for example, or Ruysbroeck, or Thomas a Kempis had felt the dogmatic teaching of the Church jar in any single point upon their religious consciousness. Never- theless, mysticism did prepare men in a very real way for a break with the traditional system. Mysticism instinctively recedes from formulas that have become stereotyped and mechanical. On the other hand its claim for spiritual freedom was soon to be found in opposition also to the Reformers. The wild doctrines of Thomas Munzer and the Zwickau prophets, merging eventually into the excesses of the Later Peasants' War and the doings of the Anabaptists in Qermai Miinster, first roused Luther to the dangerous Mystha. possibilities of mysticism as a disintegrating force. He was MYSTICISM 127 also called upon to do battle for his principle against men like Caspar Schwenkfeld (1490-1561) and Sebastian Franck (1500- 1545), the latter of whom developed a system of pantheistic mysticism, and went so far in his opposition to the letter as to declare the whole of the historical element in Scripture to be but a mythical representation of eternal truth. Valentin Weigel (1 533-1 588), who stands under manifold obligations to Franck, represents also the influence of the semi-mystical physical speculation that marked the transition from scholasticism to modern times. The final breakdown of scholasticism as a rationalized system of dogma may be seen in Nicolas (or Nicolaus) of Cusa (1401-1464), who distinguishes between the intellectus and the discursively acting ratio almost precisely in the style of later distinctions between the reason and the understanding. The intellect combines what the understanding separates ; hence Nicolas teaches the principle of the coincidentia contradictoriorum. If the results of the understanding go by the name of knowledge, then the higher teaching of the intellec- tual intuition may be called ignorance— ignorance, however, that is conscious of itself, docta ignorantia. " Intuitio," " specu- late, " " visio sine comprehensione," " comprehensio incom- prehensibilis," " mystica theologia," " tertius caelus," are some of the terms he applies to this knowledge above knowledge; but in the working out of his system he is remarkably free from extravagance. Nicolas's doctrines were of influence upon Giordano Bruno and other physical philosophers of the 15th and 1 6th centuries. All these prrysical theories are blended with a mystical theosophy, of which the most remarkable example is, perhaps, the chemico-astrological speculations of Paracelsus (1493-1541). The influence of Nicolas of Cusa and Paracelsus mingled in Valentin Weigel with that of the Deutsche Theologie, Andreas Osiander, Schwenkfeld and Franck. Weigel, in turn, handed on these influences to Jakob Boehme (1575-1624), philosophas teutonicus, and father of the chief developments of theosophy in modern Germany (see Boehme). Mysticism did not cease within the Catholic Church at the Reformation. In St Theresa (1515-1582) and John of the Cross Other the counter-reformation can boast of saints second Forms of to none in the calendar for the austerity of their Mysticism, mortifications and the rapture of the visions to which they were admitted. But, as was to be expected, their mysticism moves in that comparatively narrow round, and consists simply in the heaping up of these sensuous experiences. The speculative character has entirely faded out of it, or rather has been crushed out by the tightness with which the directors of the Roman Church now held the reins of discipline. Their mysticism represents, therefore, no widening or spiritualizing of their theology; in all matters of belief they remain the docile children of their Church. The gloom and harshness of these Spanish mystics are absent from the tender, contemplative spirit of Francois de Sales (1 567-1622); and in the quietism of Mme Guyon (1648-1717) and Miguel de Molinos (1627-1696) there is again a sufficient implication of mystical doctrine to rouse the suspicion *of the ecclesiastical authorities. Quietism, name and thing, became the talk of all the world through the bitter and protracted controversy to which it gave rise between Fenelon and Bossuet. In the 17th century mysticism is represented in the philo- sophical field by the so-called Cambridge Platonists, and especially by Henry More (1614-1687), in whom the influence of the Kabbalah is combined with a species of christianized Neoplatonism. Pierre Poiret (1646-1719) exhibits a violent reaction against the mechanical philosophy of Descartes, and especially against its consequences in Spinoza. He was an ardent student of Tauler and Thomas a Kempis, and became an adherent of the quietistic doctrines of Mme Bourignon. His philosophical works emphasize the passivity of the reason. The first influence of Boehme was in the direction of an obscure religious mysticism. J. G. Gichtel (1638-1710), the first editor of his complete works, became the founder of a sect called the Angel-Brethren. All Boehme's works were translated into English in the time of the Commonwealth, and regular societies of Boehmenisls were formed in England and Holland. Later in the century he was much studied by the members of the Philadelphian Society, John Pordage, Thomas Bromley, Jane Lead, and others. The mysticism of William Law (1686-1761) and of Louis Claude de Saint Martin in France (1 743-1 803), who were also students of Boehme, is of a much more elevated and spiritual type. The " Cherubic Wanderer," and other poems, of Johann Scheffler (1624-1677), known as Angelus Silesius, are more closely related in style and thought to Eckhart than to Boehme. The religiosity of the Quakers, with their doctrines of the " inner light " and the influence of the Spirit, has decided affinities with mysticism; and the autobiography of George Fox (1624-1691), the founder of the sect, proceeds throughout on the assumption of supernatural guidance. Stripped of its definitely miraculous character, the doctrine of the inner light may be regarded as the familiar mystical protest against for- malism, literalism, and scripture-worship. Swedenborg, though selected by Emerson in his Representative Men as the typical mystic, belongs rather to the history of spiritualism than to that of mysticism as understood in this article. He possesses the cool temperament of the man of science rather than the fervid God ward aspiration of the mystic proper; and the specu- lative impulse which lies at the root of this form of thought is almost entirely absent from his writings. Accordingly, his supernatural revelations resemble a course of lessons in celestial geography more than a description of the beatific vision. Philosophy since the end of the 1 8th century has frequently shown a tendency to diverge into mysticism. This has been espe- cially so in Germany. The term mysticism is indeed often extended by popular usage and philosophical partisanship to the whole activity of the post-Kantian idealists. In this usage the word would be equivalent to the more recent and scarcely less abused term, tran- scendentalism, and as such it is used even by a sympathetic writer like Carlyle; but this looseness of phraseology only serves to blur important distinctions. However absolute a philosopher's idealism may be, he is erroneously styled a mystic if he moves towards his conclusions only by the patient labour of the reason. Hegel there- fore, to take an instance, can no more fitly be' classed as a mystic than Spinoza can. It would be much nearer the truth to take both as types of a thoroughgoing rationalism. In either case it is of course open to anyone to maintain that the apparent completeness of synthesis really rests on the subtle intrusion of elements of feeling into the rational process. But in that case it might be difficult to find a systematic philosopher who would escape the charge of mysticism; and it is better to remain by long-established and serviceable distinctions. So, again, when Rccdjac defines mysti- cism as " the tendency to draw near to the Absolute in moral union by symbolic means," the definition, as developed by him, is one which would apply to the philosophy of Kant. Recejac's interesting work, Les Fondements de la connaissance mystique (Eng. trans. 1899), though it touches mysticism at various points, and quotes from mystic writers, is in fact a protest against the limitations of experi- ence to the data of the senses and the pure reason to the exclusion of the moral consciousness and the deliverances of " the heart." But such a position is not describable as mysticism in any recognized sense. On the other hand, where philosophy despairs of itself, exults in its own overthrow, and yet revels in the " mysteries " of a speculative Christianity, as in J. G. Hamann (1730-1788), the term mysticism may be fitly applied. So, again, it is in place where the movement of revulsion from a mechanical philosophy takes the form rather of immediate assertion than of reasoned demonstration, and where the writers, after insisting generally on the spiritual basis of phenomena, either leave the position without further defini- tion or expressly declare that the ultimate problems of philosophy cannot be reduced to articulate formulas. Examples of this are men like Novalis, Carlyle and Emerson, in whom philosophy may be said to be impatient of its own task. Schelling's explicit appeal in the Identitats-philosophie to an intellectual intuition of the Absolute, is of the essence of mysticism, both as an appeal to a supra- rational faculty and as a claim not merely to know but to realize 1 God. The opposition of the reason to the understanding, as formu- lated by S. T. Coleridge, is not free from the first of these faults. The later philosophy of Schelling and the philosophy of Franz von Baader, both largely founded upon Boehme, belong rather to theosophy (q.v.) than to mysticism proper. Authorities. — Besides the sections on mysticism in the general histories of philosophy by Erdmann, Ueberweg and Windelband, and in works on church history and the history of dogma, reference may be made for the medieval period to Heinrich Schmid, Der Mysticismus in seiner Entstehungsperiode (1824); Charles Schmidt, Essai sur les mystiques du i4 me siecle (1836); Ad. Helfferich, Die christliche Mystik (1842); L. Noack, Die christliche Mystik des 128 MYTHOLOGY Mittelalters (1853); J. Gorres, Die christliche Mysiik (new ed., 1879- 1880) ; Rufus M. Jones, Studies in Mystical Religion (1909). On the German mystics see W. Preger's Geschichte der deutschen Mystik (vol. i. 1874; vol. ii. 1881; vol. iii. 1893). The works of Eckhart and his precursors are contained in F. Pfeiffer's Deutsche Mystiker des 14. Jahrhunderts (1845-1857). (A. S. P.-P.) MYTHOLOGY (Gr. nvdohoyia, the science which examines hWol, myths or legends of cosmogony and of gods and heroes. Mythology is also used as a term for these legends themselves. Thus when we speak of " the mythology of Greece " we mean the whole body of Greek divine and heroic and cosmo- gonic legends. When we speak of the" science of mythology " we refer to the various attempts which have been made to explain these ancient narratives. Very early indeed in the history of human thought men awoke to the consciousness that their religious stories were much in want of explanation. The myths of civilized peoples, as of Greeks and the Aryans of India, contain two elements, the rational and what to modern minds seems the irrational. The rational myths are those which represent the gods as beautiful and wise beings. The Artemis of the Odyssey " taking her pastime in the chase of boars and swift deer, while with her the wild wood-nymphs disport them, and high over them all she rears her brow, and is easily to be known where all are fair," is a perfectly rational mythic representation of a divine being. We feel, even now, that the conception of a " queen and huntress, chaste and fair," the lady warden of the woodlands, is a beautiful and natural fancy which requires no explanation. On the other hand, the Artemis of Arcadia, who is confused with the nymph Callisto, who, again, is said to have become a she-bear, and later a star, and the Brauronian Artemis, whose maiden ministers danced a bear-dance, are goddesses whose legend seems unnatural, and is felt to need explanation. Or, again, there is nothing not explicable and natural in the conception of the Olympian Zeus as represented by the great chryselephantine statue of Zeus at Olympia, or in the Homeric conception of Zeus as a god who " turns everywhere his shining eyes " and beholds all things. But the Zeus whose grave was shown in Crete, or the Zeus who played Demeter an obscene trick by the aid of a ram, or the Zeus who, in the shape of a swan, became the father of Castor and Pollux, or the Zeus who was merely a rough stone, or the Zeus who deceived Hera by means of a feigned marriage with an inanimate object, or the Zeus who was afraid of Attes, is a being whose myth is felt to be unnatural and in great need of explanation. It is this irrational and unnatural element — as Max Miiller says, " the silly, savage and senseless element " — that makes mythology the puzzle which men have so long found it. Early Explanations of Myths. — The earliest attempts at a crude science of mythology were efforts to reconcile the legends of the gods and heroes with the religious sentiment which recognized in these beings objects of worship and respect. Closely as religion and myth are intertwined, it is necessary to hold them apart for the purposes of this discussion. Religion may here be defined as the conception of divine, or at least supernatural powers entertained by men in moments of gratitude or of need and distress, in hours of weakness, when, as Homer says, " all folk yearn after the gods." Now this conception may be rude enough, and it is nearly related to purely magical ideas, to efforts to secure supernatural aid by magical ceremonies. Still the roughest form of spiritual prayer has for its basis the hypothesis of beneficent beings, visible or invisible. The senseless stories or myths about the gods are soon felt to be at variance with this hypothesis. As an example we may take the instance of Qing, the Bushman hunter. Qing, when first he met white men, was asked about his religion. He began to explain, and mentioned Cagn. Mr Orpen, the chief magistrate of St John's Terri- tory, asked: " Is Cagn good or malicious? how do you pray to him?" Answer (in a low imploring tone): " 'O Cagn! O Cagn! are we not your children? do you not see our hun- ger? give us food;' and he gives us both hands full " (Cape Monthly Magazine, July 1874). Here we see the religious view of Cagn, the Bushman god. But in the mythological account of Cagn given by Qing he appears as a kind of grass- hopper, supernaturally endowed, the hero of a most absurd cycle of senseless adventures. Even religion is affected by these irrational notions, and the gods of savages and of many civilized peoples are worshipped with cruel, obscene, and irrational rites. But, on the whole, the religious sentiment strives to transcend the mythical conceptions of the gods, and is shocked and puzzled by the mythical narratives. As soon as this sense of perplexity is felt by poets, by priests, or by most men in an age of nascent criticism, explanations of what is most crude and absurd in the myths are put forward. Men ask themselves why their gods are worshipped in the form of beasts, birds, and fishes; why their gods are said to have prosecuted their amours in bestial shapes; why they are represented as lustful and passion- ate — thieves, robbers, murderers and adulterers. The answers to these questions sometimes become myths themselves. Thus both the Mangaians and the Egyptians have been puzzled by their own gods in the form of beasts. The Egyptians invented an explanation — itself a myth — that in some moment of danger the gods concealed themselves from their foes in the shapes of animals. 1 The Mangaians, according to W. W. Gill, hold that " the heavenly family had taken up their abode in these birds, fishes, and reptiles." 2 A people so curious and refined as the Greeks were certain to be greatly perplexed by even such comparatively pure mythical narratives as they found in Homer, still more by the coarser legends of Hesiod, and above all by the ancient local myths preserved by local priesthoods. Thus, in the 6th century before Christ, Xenophanes of Colophon severely blamed the poets for their unbecoming legends, and boldly called certain myths "the fables of men of old." 3 Theagenes of Rhegium (520 B.C.?), according to the scholiast on Iliad, xx. 67/ was the author of a very ancient system of mythology. Admitting that the fable of the battle of the gods was " unbecoming," if literally understood, Theagenes represented it as an allegorical account of the war of the elements. Apollo, Helios, and Hephaestus were fire, Hera was air, Poseidon was water, Artemis was the moon, kgu t& Xowra 6/*oia». Or, by another system, the names of the gods represented moral and intellectual qualities. Heraclitus, too, disposed of the myth of the bondage of Hera as allegorical philosophy. Socrates, in the Cratylus of Plato, expounds " a philosophy which came to him all in an instant," an explanation of the divine beings based on crude philological analyses of their names. Metrodorus, rivalling some recent flights of conjecture, resolved not only the gods but even heroes like Agamemnon, Hector and Achilles " into elemental combina- tions and physical agencies." 6 Euripides makes Pentheus (but he was notoriously impious) advance a " rationalistic " theory of the story that Dionysus was stitched up in the thigh of Zeus. When Christianity became powerful the heathen philosophers evaded its satire by making more and more use of the allegorical and non-natural system of explanation. That method has two faults. First (as Arnobius and Eusebius reminded their heathen opponents), the allegorical explanations are purely arbitrary, depend upon the fancy of their author, and are all equally plausible and equally unsupported by evidence. 6 Secondly, there is no proof at all that, in the distant age when the myths were developed, men entertained the moral notions and physical philosophies which are supposed to be " wrapped up, " as Cicero says, " in impious fables." Another system of explanation is that associated with the name of Euemerus (316 B.C.). According to this author, the myths are history in disguise. All the gods were once men, whose real feats have been decorated and distorted by later fancy. This view suited Lactantius, St Augustine and other early Christian writers 1 Plutarch, De Iside et Osiride. 2 Myths and Songs from the South Pacific, p. 35 (1876). 3 Xenoph. Fr. i. 42. * Dindorf's ed., iv. : 6 Grote, Hist, of Greece, (ed. 1869) i. 404. 6 Cf. Lobeck, Aglaophamus, i. 151-152, on allegorical interpreta- tion of myths in the mysteries. 231. MYTHOLOGY 129 very well. They were pleased to believe that Euemerus " by historical research had ascertained that the gods were once but mortal men." Precisely the same convenient line was taken by Sahagun in his account of Mexican religious myths. As there can be no doubt that the ghosts of dead men have been worshipped in many lands, and as the gods of many faiths are tricked out with attributes derived from ancestor-worship, the system of Euemerus retains some measure of plausibility. While we need not believe with Euemerus and with Herbert Spencer that the god of Greece or the god of the Hottentots was cnce a man, we cannot deny that the myths of both these gods have passed through and been coloured by the imaginations of men who practised the worship of real ancestors. For example, the Cretans showed the tomb of Zeus, and the Phocians (Pausanias x. 5) daily poured blood of victims into the tomb of a hero,' obviously by way of feeding his ghost. The Hottentots show many tombs of their god, Tsui-Goab, and tell tales about his death; they also pray regularly for aid at the tombs of their own parents. 1 We may therefore say that, while it is rather absurd to believe that Zeus and Tsui-Goab were once real men, yet their myths are such as would be developed by people accustomed, among other forms of religion, to the worship of dead men. Very probably portions of the legends of real men have been attracted into the mythic accounts of gods of another character, and this is the element of truth at the bottom of Euemerism. Later Explanations of Mythology. — The ancient systems of explaining what needed explanation in myths were, then, physical, ethical, religious and historical. One student, like Theagenes, would see a physical philosophy underlying Homeric legends. Another, like Porphyry, would imagine that the meaning was partly moral, partly of a dark theosophic and religious character. Another would detect moral allegory alone, and Aristotle expresses the opinion that the myths were the inventions of legislators "to persuade the many, and to be used in support of law " {Met. xi. 8, 19). A fourth, like Euemerus, would get rid of the supernatural element altogether, and find only an imaginative rendering of actual history. When Christians approached the problem of heathen mythology, they sometimes held, with St Augustine, a form of the doctrine of Euemerus. 2 In other words, they regarded Zeus, Aphrodite and the rest as real persons, diabolical not divine. Some later philosophers, especially of the 17th century, misled by the resem- blance between Biblical narratives and ancient myths, came to the conclusion that the Bible contains a pure, the myths a distorted, form of an original revelation. The abbe Banier published a mythological compilation in which he systematically resolved all the Greek myths into ordinary history. 3 Bryant published (1774) A New System, or an Analysis of Ancient Mythology, wherein an ■Attempt is made to divest Tradition of Fable, in which he talked very learnedly of " that wonderful people, the descendants of Cush," and saw everywhere symbols of the ark and traces of the Noachian deluge. Thomas Taylor, at the end of the 1 8th century, indulged in much mystical allegorizing of myths, as in the notes to his translation of Pausanias (1794). At an earlier date (1760) De Brosses struck on the true line of interpretation in his little work Du Culte des dicux fetiches, oil paraU'ele de I'ancienne religion de TEgypte avec la religion actuclle de Nigritie. In this tract De Brosses explained the animal-worship of the Egyptians as a survival among a civilized people of ideas and practices springing from the intellectual condition of savages, and actually existing among negroes. A vast symbolical explanation of myths and mysteries was attempted by Friedrich Creuzer. 4 The learning and sound sense of Lobeck, in his Aglaophamus, exploded the idea that the Eleusinian and other mysteries revealed or concealed matter of momentous religious importance. It ought not to be forgotten 1 Hahn, Tsuni-Coam, the Supreme Being of the Khoi-Khoi, p. 1 13. 2 De civ. dei., vii. 18; viii. 26. 3 La Mythologie el les fables expliquees par I'histoire (Paris, 1738; 3 vols. 4to). * Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Volker (Leipzig and Darm- stadt, 1836-1843)- that Lafitau, a Jesuit missionary in North America, while inclined to take a mystical view of the secrets concealed by Iroquois myths, had also pointed out the savage element surviving in Greek mythology. 5 Recent Mythological Systems. — Up to a very recent date students of mythology were hampered by orthodox traditions, and still more by ignorance of the ancient languages and of the natural history of man. Only recently have Sanskrit and the Egyptian and Babylonian languages become books not absolutely sealed. Again, the study of the evolution of human institutions from the lowest savagery to civilization is essentially a novel branch of research, though ideas derived from an unsystematic study of anthropology are at least as old as Aristotle. The new theories of mythology are based on the belief that " it is man, it is human thought and human language combined, which naturally and necessarily pro- duced the strange conglomerate of ancient fable." 6 But, while there is now universal agreement so far, modern mythologists differed essentially on one point. There was a school (with internal divisions) which regarded ancient fable as almost entirely " a disease of language," that is, as the result of con- fusions arising from misunderstood terms that have survived in speech after their original significance was lost. Another school (also somewhat divided against itself) believes that misunder- stood language played but a very slight part in the evolu- tion of mythology, and that the irrational element in myths is merely the survival from a condition of thought which was once common, if not universal, but is now found chiefly among savages, and to a certain extent among children. The former school considered that the state of thought out of which myths were developed was produced by decaying language; the latter maintains that the corresponding phenomena of language were the reflection of thought. For the sake of brevity we might call the former the " philological " system, as it rests chiefly on the study of language, while the latter might be styled the " historical " or " anthropological " school, as it is based on the study of man in the sum of his manners, ideas and insti- tutions. The System of Max Matter. — The most distinguished and popular advocate of the philological school was Max Muller, whose views may be found in his Selected Essays and Lectures on Language. The problem was to explain what he calls " the silly, savage and senseless element " in mythology (Sel. Ess. i. 578). Max Muller says (speaking of the Greeks), " their poets had an instinctive aversion to every- thing excessive or monstrous, yet they would relate of their gods what would make the most savage of Red Indians creep and shudder " — stories, that is, of the cannibalism of Demeter, of the mutilation of Uranus, the cannibalism of Cronus, who swallowed his own children, and the like. " Among the lowest tribes of Africa and America we hardly find anything more hideous and revolting." Max Muller refers the beginning of his system of mythology to the discovery of the connexion of the Indo-European or, as they are called, " Aryan " languages. Celts, Germans, speakers of Sanskrit and Zend, Latins and Greeks, all prove by their languages that their tongues may be traced to one family of speech. The comparison of the various words which, in different forms, are com- mon to all Indo-European languages must inevitably throw much light on the original meaning of these words. Take, for example, the name of a god, Zeus, or Athene, or any other. The word may have no intelligible meaning in Greek, but its counterpart in the allied tongues, especially in Sanskrit or Zend, may reveal the original significance of the terms. " To understand the origin and meaning of the names of the Greek gods, and to enter into the original intention of the fables told of each, we must take into account the collateral evidence supplied by Latin, German, Sanskrit and Zend philology " (Led. on Lang., 2nd series, p. 406). A name may be intelligible in Sanskrit which has no sense in Greek. Thus Athene is a divine name without meaning in Greek, but Max Muller advances reasons for supposing that it is identical with ahana, " the dawn," in Sanskrit. It is his opinion, apparently, that whatever story, is told of Athene must have originally been told of the dawn, and that we must keep this before us in attempting to understand the legends of Athene. Thus again (op. cit. p. 410), he says, " we have a right to explain all that is told of him " (Agni, " fire ") " as originally meant for fire." The system is simply this : the original meaning of the names of gods must be ascertained by comparative philology. The names, as a rule, will be found to denote elemental phenomena. And the silly, 6 Mceurs des sauvages (Paris, 1724). 6 Max Muller, Lectures on Language (1864), 2nd series, p. 410. 11 i3° MYTHOLOGY savage and senseless elements in the legends of the gods will be shown to have a natural significance, as descriptions of sky, storms, sunset, water, fire, dawn, twilight, the life of earth, and other celestial and terrestrial existences. Stated in the barest form, these results do not differ greatly from the conclusions of Theagenes of Rhegium, who held that " Hephaestus was fire, Hera was air, Poseidon was water, Artemis was the moon, ko.1 raXoixd ofioius." But Max Miiller's system is based on scientific philology, not on conjecture, and is supported by a theory of the various processes in the evolution of myths out of language. It is no longer necessary to give an elaborate analysis of this theory, because neither in its philological nor mythological side has it any advocates who need be reckoned with. The attempt to disengage the history of times forgotten and unknown, by means of analysis of roots and words in Aryan languages, has been unsuccessful, or has at best produced disputable results. Max Miiller's system was a result of the philological theories that indicated the linguistic unity of the Indo-European or " Aryan " peoples, and was founded on an analysis of their language. But myths precisely similar in irrational and repulsive character, even in minute details, tc those of the Aryan races, exist among Australians, South Sea Islanders, Eskimo, Bushmen in Africa, among Solomon Islanders, Iroquois, and so forth. The facts being identical, an identical explanation should be sought, and, as the languages in which the myths exist are essen- tially different, an explanation founded on the Aryan language is likely to prove too narrow. Once more, even if we discover the original meaning of a god's name, it does not follow that we can explain by aid of the significance of the name the myths about the god. For nothing is more common than the attraction of a more ancient story into the legend of a later god or hero. Myths of un- known antiquity, for example, have been attracted into the legend of Charlemagne, just as the bans mots of old wits are transferred to living humorists. Therefore, though we may ascertain that Zeus means " sky " and Agni " fire," we cannot assert, with Max Miiller, that all the myths about Agni and Zeus were originally told of fire and sky. VVhen these gods became popular they would inevit- ably inherit any current exploits of earlier heroes or gods. These exploits would therefore be explained erroneously if regarded as originally myths of sky or fire. We cannot convert Max Miiller's proposition " there was nothing told of the sky that could not in some form or other be ascribed to Zeus" into " there was nothing ascribed to Zeus that had not at some time or other heen told of the sky." This is also, perhaps, the proper place to observe that names derived from natural phenomena — sky, clouds, dawn and sun — are habitually assigned by Brazilians, Ojibways, Australians and other savages to living men and women. Thus the story originally told of a man or woman bearing the name " sun," " dawn," " cloud," may be mixed up later with myths about the real celestial dawn, cloud or sun. For all these reasons the information obtained from philological analysis of names is to be distrusted. We must also bear in mind that early men when they conceived, and savage men when they conceive, of the sun, moon, wind, earth, sky and so forth, have no such ideas in their minds as we attach to these names. They think of sun, moon, wind, earth and sky as of living human beings with bodily parts and passions. Thus, even when we dis- cover an elemental meaning in a god's name, that meaning may be all unlike what the word suggests to civilized men. A final objection is that philologists differ widely as to the true analysis and real meaning of the divine names. Max Miiller, for example, connects Kronos (Kpoms) with xporos, "time"; Prellerwith upaivw, " I fulfil," and so forth. The civilized men of the Mythopoeic age were not obliged, as Max Miiller held, to believe that all phenomena were persons, because the words which denoted the phenomena had gender- terminations. On the other hand, the gender-terminations were survivals from an early stage of thought in which personal character- istics, including sex, had been attributed to all phenomena. This condition of thought is demonstrated to be, and to have been, universal among savages, and it may notoriously be observed among children. Thus Max Miiller's theory that myths are " a disease of language " seems destitute of evidence, and inconsistent with what is historically known about the relations between the language and the social, political and literary condition of men. Theory of Herbert Spencer. — The system of Herbert Spencer, as explained in Principles of Sociology, has many points in common with that of Max Miiller. Spencer attempts to account for the state of mind (the foundation of myths) in which man personifies and animates all phenomena. According to his theory, too, this habit of mind may be regarded as the result of degeneration, for in his view, as in Max Miiller's, it is not primary, but the result of miscon- ceptions. But, while language is the chief cause of misconceptions with Max Miiller, with Spencer it is only one of several forces all working to the same result. Statements which originally had a different significance are misinterpreted, he thinks, and names of human beings are also misinterpreted in such a manner that early races are gradually led to believe in the personality of phenomena. He too notes " the defect in early speech " — that is, the " lack of words free from implications of vitality " — as one of the causes which " favour personalization." Here, of course, we have to ask Spencer, with Max Miiller, why words in early languages " imply vitality." These words must reflect the thought of the men who use them before they react upon that thought and confirm it in its mis- conceptions. So far Spencer seems at one with the philological school of mythologists, but he warns us that the misconstructions of language in his system are " different in kind, and the erroneous course of thought is opposite in direction." According to Spencer (and his premises, at least, are correct), the names of human beings in an early state of society are derived from incidents of the moment, and often refer to the period of the day or the nature of the weather. We find, among Australian natives, among Abipones in South America, and among Ojibways in the North, actual people named Dawn.Gold Flower of Day, Dark Cloud, Sun, and so forth. Spencer's argument is that, given a story about real people so named, in process of time and forgetfulness the anecdote which was once current about a man named Storm and a woman named Sunshine will be transferred to the meteorological phenomena of sun and tempest. Thus these purely natural agents will come to be " personalized " (Prin. Soc. 392), and to be credited with purely human origin and human adventures. Another misconception would arise when men had a tradition that they came to their actual seats from this moun- tain, or that lake or river, or from lands across the sea. They will mistake this tradition of local origin for one of actual parentage, and will come to believe that, like certain Homeric heroes, they are the sons of a river (now personified), or of a mountain, or, like a tribe mentioned by Garcilasso de la Vega, that they are descended from the sea. Once more, if their old legend told them that they came from the rising sun, they will hold, like many races, that they are actually the children of the sun. By this process of forgetfulness and misinterpretation, mountains, rivers, lakes, sun and sea would receive human attributes, while men would degenerate from a more sensible condition into a belief in the personality and vitality of inanimate objects. As Spencer thinks ancestor-worship the first form of religion, and as he holds that persons with such names as sun, moon and the like became worshipped as ancestors, his theory results in the belief that nature- worship and the myths about natural phenomena — dawn, wind, sky, night and the rest — are a kind of transmuted worship of ancestors and transmuted myths about real men and women.. " Partly by confounding the parentage of the race with a conspicuous object marking the natal region of the race, partly by literal interpretation of birth names, and partly by literal interpretation of names given in eulogy " (such as Sun and Bull, among the Egyptian kings), and also through " implicit belief in the statements of forefathers," there has been produced belief in descent from mountains, sea, dawn, from animals which have become constellations, and from persons once on earth who now appear as sun and moon. A very common class of myths (see Totemism) assures us that certain stocks of men are descended from beasts, or from gods in the shape of beasts. Spencer explains these by the theory that the remembered ancestor of a stock had, as savages often have, an animal name, as Bear, Wolf, Coyote, or what not. In time his descendants came to forget that the name was a mere name, and were misled into the opinion that they were children of a real coyote, wolf or bear. This idea, once current, would naturally .stimulate and diffuse the belief that such descents were possible, and that the animals are closely akin to men. The chief objection to these processes is that they require, as a necessary condition, a singular amount of memory on the one hand and of forgetfulness on the other. The lowest contemporary savages remember little or nothing of any ancestor farther back than the- grandfather. But men in Spencer's Mythopoeic age had much longer memories. On the other hand, the most ordinary savage does not misunderstand so universal a custom as the imposition of names peculiar to animals or derived from atmospheric phenomena. He calls his own child Dawn or Cloud, his own name is Sitting Bull or Running Wolf, and he is not tempted to explain his great-grand- father's name of Bright Sun or Lively Raccoon on the hypothesis that the ancestor really was a raccoon or the sun. Moreover, savages do not worship ancestresses or retain lively memories of their great-grandmothers, yet it is through the female line in the majority of cases that the animal or other ancestral name is derived. The son of an Australian male, whose kin or totem name is Crane, takes, in many tribes, his mother's kin-name, Swan or Cockatoo, or whatever it may be, and the same is a common rule in Africa and America among races who rarely remember their great-grandfathers. On the whole, then (though degeneracy, as well as progress, is a force in human evolution), we are not tempted to believe in so strange a combination of forgetfulness with long memory, nor so excessive a degeneration from common sense into a belief in the personality of phenomena, as are required no less by Spencer's system than by that of Max Miiller. Preliminary Problems. — We have stated and criticized the more prominent modern theories of mythology. It is now necessary first to recapitulate the chief points in the problem, and then to attempt to explain therri by a comparison of the myths of various races. The difficulty of mythology is to account for the following among other apparently irrational elements in myths: the wild and senseless stories of the MYTHOLOGY 131 beginnings of things, of the origin of men, sun, stars, animals, death, and the world in general; the infamous and absurd adven- tures of the gods; why divine beings are regarded as incestuous, adulterous, murderous, thievish, cruel, cannibals, and addicted to wearing the shapes of animals, and subject to death in some stories; the myths of metamorphosis into plants, beasts and stars; the repulsive stories of the state of the dead; the descents of the gods into the place of the dead, and their return thence. It is extremely difficult to keep these different categories of myths separate from each other. If we investigate myths of the origin of the worid, we often find gods in animal form active in the work of world-making. If we examine myths of human descent from animals, we find gods busy there, and if we try to investigate the myths of the origin of the gods, the subject gets mixed up with the mythical origins of things in general. Our first question will be, Is there any stage of human society, and of the human intellect, in which facts that appear to us to be monstrous and irrational are accepted as ordinary occur- rences of every day life ? E. W. Lane, in his preface to the Arabian Nights, says that the Arabs have an advantage over us as story-tellers. They can introduce such incidents as the change of a man into a horse, or of a woman into a dog, or the intervention of an afreet, without any more scruple than our own novelists feel in describing a duel or the concealment of a will. Among the Arabs the actions of magic and of spirits are regarded as at least as probable and common as duels and concealments of wills in European society. It is obvious that we need look no farther for the explanation of the supernatural events in Arab romances. Now let us apply this system to mythology. It is admitted that Greeks, Romans, Aryans of India in the age of the Sanskrit commentators, Egyptians of the Ptolemaic and earlier ages, were as much puzzled as we are by the mythical adventures of their gods. But is there any known stage of the human intellect in which these divine adventures, and the metamorphoses of men into animals, trees, stars, and converse with the dead, and all else that puzzles us in the civilized mythologies, are regarded as possible incidents of daily human life? Our answer is that everything in the civilized mythologies which we regard as irrational seems only part of the accepted and rational order of things (at least in the case of " medicine-men " or magicians) to contemporary savages, and in the past seemed equally rational and natural to savages concerning whom we have historical information. Our theory is, therefore, that the savage and senseless element in mythology is, for the most part, a legacy from ancestors of the civilized races who were in an intellectual state not higher than that of Australians, Bushmen, Red Indians, the lower races of South America, Mincopies, and other worse than barbaric . peoples. As the ancestors of the Greeks, with the Aryans of India, the Egyptians, and others advanced in civilization, their religious thought was shocked and surprised by myths (originally dating from the period of savagery, and natural in that period) which were preserved down to the time of Pausanias by local priesthoods, or which were stereotyped in the ancient poems of Hesiod and Homer, or in the Brahmanas and Vedas of India, or were retained in the popular religion of Egypt. This theory recommended itself to Lobeck. " We may believe that ancient and early tribes framed gods like themselves in action and in experience, and that the allegorical element in myths is the addition of later peoples who had attained to purer ideas of divinity, yet dared not reject the religion of their ancestors" (Aglaoph. i. 153). The senseless clement in the myths would by this theory be for the most part a " survival." And the age and condition of human thought from which it survived would be one in which our most ordinary ideas about the nature of things and the limits of possibility did not yet exist, when all things were conceived of in quite other fashion — the age, that is, of savagery. It is universally admitted that " survivals " of this kind do account for many anomalies in out institutions, in law, politics, society, even in dress and manners. If isolated fragments of an earlier age abide in these, it is still more probable that other fragments will survive in anything so closely connected as mythology with the conservative religious sentiment. If this view of mythology can be proved, much will have been done to explain a problem which we have not yet touched, namely, the distribution of myths. The science of mythology has to account, if it can, not only for the existence of certain stories in the legends of certain races, but also for the presence of stories practically the same among almost all races. In the long history of mankind it is impossible to deny that stories may conceivably have spread from a single centre, and been handed on from races like the Indo-European and the Semitic to races as far removed from them in every way as the Zulus, the Australians, the Eskimo, the natives of the South Sea Islands. But, while the possibility of the diffusion of myths by borrowing and transmission must be allowed for, the hypothesis of the origin of myths in the savage state of the intellect supplies a ready explanation of their wide diffusion. Archaeologists are acquainted with objects of early art and craftsmanship, rude clay pipkins and stone weapons, which can only be classed as " human," and which do not bear much impress of any one national taste and skill. Many myths may be called " human " in this sense. They are the rough products of the early human mind, and are not yet characterized by the differentiations of race and culture. Such myths might spring up anywhere, among untutored men, and anywhere might survive into civilized literature. Therefore where similar myths are found among Greeks, Australians, Egyptians, Mangaians and others, it is unnecessary to account for their wide diffusion by any hypothesis of borrowing, early or late. The Greek " key " pattern found on objects in Peruvian graves was not necessarily borrowed from Greece, nor did Greeks necessarily borrow from Aztecs the " wave " pattern which is common to both. The same explanation may be applied to Greek and Aztec myths of the deluge, to Australian and Greek myths cf the original theft of fire. Borrowed they may have been, but they may as probably have been independent inventions. It is true that some philologists deprecate as unscientific the com- parison cf myths which are found in languages not connected with each other. The objection rests on the theory that myths are a disease of language, a morbid offshoot of language, and that the legends in unconnected languages must therefore be kept apart. But, as the theory which we are explaining does not admit that language is more than a subordinate cause in the development of myths, as it seeks for the origin of myths in a given condition of thought through which all races have passed, we need do no more than record the objection. The Intellectual Condition of Savages. — Our next step must be briefly to examine the intellectual condition of savages, that is, of races varying from the condition of the Andaman Islanders to that of the Solomon Islanders and the ruder Red Men of the American continent. In a developed treatise on the subject of mythology it would be necessary to criticize, with a minuteness which is impossible here, our evidence for the very peculiar mental condition of the lower races. Max Muller asked (when speaking of the mental condition of men when myths were developed), " was there a period of temporary madness through which the human mind had to pass, and was it a madness identically the same in the south of India and the north of Iceland? " To this we may answer that the human mind had to pass through the savage stage of thought, that this stage was for all practical purposes " identically the same " everywhere, and that to civilized observers it does resemble " a temporary madness." Many races are still abandoned to that temporary madness; many others which have escaped from it were observed and described while still labouring under its delusions. Our evidence for the intellectual ideas of man in the period of savagery we derive partly from the reports of voyagers, historians, missionaries, partly from an examination of the customs, institutions, and laws in which the lower races gave expression to their notions. As to the first kind of evidence, we must be on our guard against several sources of error. Where religion is concerned, travellers in general and missionaries in particular are biased in several distinct 132 MYTHOLOGY ways. The missionary is sometimes anxious to prove that religion can only come by revelation, and that certain tribes, having received no revelation, have no religion or religious myths at all. Sometimes the missionary, on the other hand, is anxious to demonstrate that the myths of his heathen flock are a corrupted version of the Biblical narrative. In the former case he neglects the study of savage myths ; in the latter he unconsciously accommodates what he hears to what he calls " the truth." The traveller who is not a missionary may either have the same prejudices, or he may be a sceptic about revealed religion. In the latter case he is perhaps unconsciously moved to put burlesque versions of Biblical stories into the mouths of his native informants, or to represent the savages as ridiculing the Scriptural traditions which he communicates to them. Yet again we must remember that the leading questions of a European inquirer may furnish a savage with a thread on which to string answers which the questions themselves have suggested. " Have you ever had a great flood ? " " Yes " " Was any one saved ? " The question starts the invention of the savage on a deluge-myth, of which, perhaps, the idea has never before entered his mind. There still remain the difficulties of all conversation between civilized men and unsophisticated savages, the tendency to hoax, and other sources of error and confusion. By this time, too, almost every explorer of savage life is a theorist. He is a Spencerian, or a believer in the universal prevalence of the faith in an " All-Father," or he looks everywhere for gods who are " spirits of vegetation." In receiving this kind of evidence, ther, we need to know the character of our informant, his means of communicating with the heathen, his power of testing evidence, and his good faith. His testimony will have additional weight if supported by the " undesigned coin- cidences " of other evidence, ancient and modern. If Strabo and Herodotus and Pomponius Mela, for example, describe a custom, rite or strange notion in the Old World, and if mariners and mission- aries find the same notion or custom or rite in Polynesia or Australia or Kamchatka, we can scarcely doubt the truth of the reports. The evidence is best when given by ignorant men, who are astonished at meeting with an institution which ethnologists are familiar with in other parts of the world. Another method of obtaining evidence is by the comparative study of savage laws and institutions. Thus we find in Asia, Africa, America and Australia that the marriage laws of the lower races are connected with a belief in kinship or other relationship with animals. The evidence for this belief is thus entirely beyond sus- picion. We find, too, that political power, sway and social influence are based on the ideas of magic, of metamorphosis, and of the power which certain men possess to talk with the dead and to visit the abodes of death. All these ideas are the stuff of which myths are made, and the evidence of savage institutions, in every part of the world, proves that these ideas are the universal inheritance of savages. Savage men are like ourselves in curiosity and anxiety causas cognoscere rerum, but with our curiosity they do not possess Savage ideas our powers of attention. They are as easily satisfied about the with an explanation of phenomena as they are eager World. £ p 0S3ess an explanation. Inevitably they furnish themselves with their philosophy out of their scanty stock of acquired ideas, and these ideas and general conceptions seem almost imbecile to civilized men. Curiosity and credulity, then, are the characteristics of the savage intellect. When a phenomenon presents itself the savage requires an explanation, and that explanation he makes for himself, or receives from tradition, in the shape of a myth. The basis of these myths, which are just as much a part of early conjectural science as of early religion, is naturally the experience of the savage as construed by himself. Man's ■ craving to know " the reason why " is already " among rude savages an intellectual appetite," and " even to the Australian scientific speculation has its germ in actual experience." 1 How does he try to satisfy this craving? E. B. Tylor replies, "When the attention of a man in the myth-making stage of intellect is drawn to any phenomenon or custom which has to him no obvious reason, he invents and tells a story to account for it. " Against this statement it has been urged that men in the lower stages of culture are not curious, but take all phenomena for granted. If there were no direct evidence in favour of Tylor's opinion, it would be enough to point to the nature of savage myths them- selves. It is not arguing in a circle to point out that almost all of them are nothing more than explanations of intellectual difficulties, answers to the question, How came this or that phenomenon to be what it is ? Thus savage myths answer the questions — What was the origin of the world, and of men, and of beasts? How came the stars by their arrangement 1 E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, i. 369 (1871). and movements? How are the motions of sun and moon to be accounted for? Why has this tree a red flower, and this bird a black mark on the tail? What, was the origin of the tribal dances, or of this or that law of custom or etiquette? Savage mythology, which is also savage science, has a reply to all these and all similar questions, and that reply is always found in the shape of a story. The answers cannot be accounted for without the previous existence of the questions. We have now shown how savages come to have a mythology. It is their way of satisfying the early form of scientific curiosity, their way of realizing the world in which they move. But they frame their stories, necessarily and naturally; in harmony with their general theory of things, with what we may call " savage metaphysics." Now early man, as Max Muller says, " not only did not think as we think, but did not think as we suppose he .ought to have thought." The chief distinction between his mode of conceiving the world and ours is his vast extension of the theory of personality. To the savage, and apparently to men more backward than the most backward peoples we know, all nature was a congeries of animated personalities. The savage's notion of personality is more a universally diffused feeling than a reasoned conception, and this feeling of a personal self he impartially distributes all over the world as known to him. One of the Jesuit missionaries in North America thus describes the Red Man's philosophy: 2 " Les sauvages se persuadent que non seulement les hommes et les autres animaux, mais aussi que toutes les autres choses sont animees." Crevaux, in the Andes, found that the Indians believed that the beasts have piays (sorcerers and doctors) like themselves. 3 This opinion we may name personalism, and it is the necessary condition of savage (and, as will be seen, of civilized) mythology. The Jesuits could not understand how spherical bodies like sun and moon could be mistaken for human beings. Their catechu- mens put them off with the answer that the drawn bows of the heavenly bodies gave them their round appearance. " The wind was formerly a person; he became a bird," say the Bushmen, and g' 00 kal kai, a respectable Bushman once saw the personal wind at Haarfontein. 4 The Egyptians, according to Herodotus (iii. 16), believed fire to be 6r\plov e^vxov, a live beast. The Bushman who saw the Wind meant to throw a stone at it, but it ran into a hill. From the wind as a person the Bhinyas in India (Dalton, p. 140) claim descent, and in Indian epic tradition the leader of the ape army was the son of the wind. The Wind, by certain mares, became the father of wind-swift steeds mentioned in the Iliad. The loves of Boreas are well known. These are examples of the animistic theory applied to what, in our minds, seems one of the least personal of natural phenomena. The sky (which appears to us even less personal) has been re- garded as a personal being by Samoyeds, Red Indians, Zulus, 5 and traces of this belief survive in Chinese, Greek and Roman religion. We must remember, however, that to the savage, Sky, Sun, Sea, Wind, are not only persons, but they are savage persons. Their conduct is not what civilized men would attribute to characters so august; it is what uncivilized men think probable and befitting among beings like themselves. The savage regards all animals as endowed with personality. " lis tiennent les poissons raisonnables, comme aussi les cerfs," says a Jesuit father about the North-American Savase Indians {Relations, loc. cit.). In Australia the Theory of natives believe that the wild dog has the power Maa's Reia' of speech, like the cat of the Coverley witch in the t j2 n ^ ,,t !i Spectator. The Breton peasants, according to P. Sebillot, credit all birds with language, whichvthey even attempt to interpret. The old English and the Arab superstitions about the language of beasts are examples of this opinion sur- viving among civilized races. The bear in Norway is regarded as almost a man, and his dead body is addressed and his wrath deprecated by Samoyeds and Red Indians. " The native bear 2 Relations (1636), p. 114. 3 Voyages, p. 159. 4 South African Folk-Lore Journal (May 1880). 6 E. B. Tylor, op. cit. ii. 256. MYTHOLOGY 133 Kur-bo-roo is the sage counsellor of the aborigines in all their difficulties. When bent on a dangerous expedition, the men will seek help from this clumsy creature, but in what way his opinions are made known is nowhere recorded." 1 H.R.School- craft mentions a Red Indian story explaining how "the;bear does not die," but this tale Schoolcraft (like Herodotus in Egypt) " cannot bring himself to relate." He also gives examples of Iowas conversing with serpents. These may serve as examples of the savage belief in the human intelligence of animals. Man is on an even footing with them, and with them can interchange his ideas. But savages carry this opinion much further. Man in their view is actually, and in no figurative sense, akin to the beasts. Certain tribes in Java " believe that women when delivered of a child are frequently delivered at the same time of a young crocodile." 2 The common European story of a queen accused of giving birth to puppies shows the survival of the belief in the possibility of such births among civilized races, while the Aztecs had the idea that women who saw the moon in certain circumstances would produce mice. But the chief evidence for the savage theory of man's close kinship with the lower animals is found in the institution called iotemism (q.v.) — the belief that certain stocks of men in the various tribes are descended by blood descent from, or are developed out of, or otherwise connected with, certain objects animate or inani- mate, but especially with beasts. The strength of the opinion is proved by its connexion with very stringent marriage laws. No man (according to the rigour of the custom) may marry a woman who bears the same kin name as himself, that is, who is descended from the same inanimate object or animal. Nor may people (if they can possibly avoid it) eat the flesh of animals who are their kindred. Savage man also believes that many of his own tribe-fellows have the power of assuming the shapes of animals, and that the souls of his dead kinsfolk revert to animal forms. "E. W. Lane, in his introduction to the Arabian Nights (i. 58), says he found the belief in these transmigrations accepted seriously in Cairo. H. H. Bancroft brings evidence to prove that the Mexicans supposed pregnant women would turn into beasts, and sleeping children into mice, if things went wrong in the ritual of a certain solemn sacrifice. There is a well-known Scottish legend to the effect that a certain old witch was once fired at in her shape as a hare, and that where the hare was hit there the old woman was found to be wounded. J. F. Lafitau tells the same story as current among his Red Indian flock, except that the old witch and her son took the form of birds, not of hares. A Scandinavian witch does the same in the Egil saga. In Lafitau's tale the birds were wounded by the magic arrows of a medicine man, and the arrow-heads were found in the bodies of the human culprits. In Japan 3 people chiefly transform themselves into badgers. The sorcerers of Honduras (Bancroft, i. 740) " possessed the power of transforming men into wild beasts." J. F. Regnard, the French dramatist, found in Lap- land (1681) that witches could turn men into cats, and could them- selves assume the forms of swans, crows, falcons and geese. Among the Bushmen 4 " sorcerers assume the form of beasts and jackals." M. Dobrizhofer, a missionary in Paraguay (1717-1791), learned that " sorcerers arrogate to themselves the power of changing men into tigers " (Eng. trans., i. 63). He was present at a conversion of this sort, though the miracle beheld by the people was invisible to the missionary. Near Loanda Livingstone noted that " a chief may metamorphose himself into a lion, kill any one he chooses, and resume his proper form." The same accomplishments distinguish the Barotse and Balonda. 6 Among the Mayas of Central America sorcerers could transform themselves " into dogs, pigs and other animals; their glance was death to a victim " (Bancroft, ii. 797). The Thlinkeets hold that their shamans have the same powers. 6 A bamboo in Sarawak is known to have been a man. Metamor- phoses into stones are as common among Red Indians and Australians as in Greek mythology. Compare the cases of Niobe and the victims of the Gorgon's head. 7 Zulus, Red Indians, Aztecs, 8 Andaman Islanders and other races believe that their dead assume the shapes of serpents and of other creatures, often reverting to the form of the animal from which they originally descended. In ancient Egypt 1 R. Brough Smyth, Aborigines of Victoria, i. 446 (1878). 2 J. Hawkesworth, Voyages, iii. 756. 3 Lord Redesdale, Tales of Old Japan (1871). 4 Bleek, Brief Account of Bushman Folk-Lore, pp. 15, 40. 6 Missionary Travels, pp. 615, 642. •W. H. Dall, Alaska, p. 423 (1870). 7 Dorman, Origin of Primitive Superstitions, pp. 130, 134. 8 Sahagun, French trans., p. 226. " the usual prayers demand for the deceased the power of going and coming from and to everywhere under any form they like."* A trace of this opinion may be noticed in the Aeneid. The serpent that appeared at the sacrifice of Aeneas was regarded as possibly a " manifestation " of the soul of Anchises (Aeneid, v. 84) — " Dixerat haec, adytis quum lubricus anguis ab imis Septem ingens gyros, septena volumina, traxit," and Aeneas is " Incertus, geniumne loci, famulumne parentis Esse putet." On the death of Plotinus, as he gave up the ghost, a snake glided from under his bed into a hole in the wall. 10 Compare Pliny u on the cave " in quo manes Scipionis Africani majoris custodire draco dicitur." The last peculiarity in savage philosophy to which we need call attention here is the belief in spirits and in human intercourse with the shades of the dead. With the savage natural death is not a universal and inevitable ordinance. " All men must die " is»a generalization which he has scarcely reached; in his philosophy the proposition is more like this — " all men who die die by violence." A natural death is explained as the result of a sorcerer's spiritual violence, and the disease is attributed to magic or to the action of hostile spirits. After death the man survives as a spirit, sometimes taking an animal form, sometimes invisible, sometimes to be observed " in his habit as he lived " (see Apparitions). The philosophy of the subject is shortly put in the speech of Achilles (Iliad, xxiii. 103) after he has beheld the dead Patroclus in a dream: " Ay me, there remaineth then even in the house of Hades a spirit and phantom of the dead, for all night long hath the ghost of hapless Patroclus stood over me, wailing and making moan." It is almost superfluous to quote here the voluminous evidence for the intercourse with spirits which savage chiefs and medicine men are believed to maintain. They can call up ghosts, or can go to the ghosts, in Australia, New Caledonia, New Zealand, North America, Zululand, among the Eskimo, and generally in every quarter of the globe. The men who enjoy this power are the same as they who can change themselves and others into animals. They too command the weather, and, says an old French missionary, " are regarded as very Jupiters, having in their hands the lightning and the thunder " (Relations, loc. cit.). They make good or bad seasons, and control the vast animals who, among ancient Persians and Aryans of India, as among Zulus and Iroquois, are supposed to grant or withhold the rain, and to thunder with their enormous wings in the region of the clouds. Another fertile source of myth is magic, especially the magic designed to produce fertility, vegetable and animal. From the natives of northern and central Australia to the actors in the ritual of Adonis, or the folk among whom arose the customs, of crowning the May king or the king of the May, all peoples have done magic to encourage the breeding of animals as part of the food supply, and to stimulate the growth of plants, wild or cultivated. In the opinion of J. G. Frazer, the human repre- sentatives or animal representatives, in the rites, of the spirit of vegetation; of the corn spirit; of the changing seasons, winter or summer, have been developed into many forms of gods, with appropriate myths, explanatory of the magic, and of the sacrifice of the chief performer. In the same way the adoration of living human beings, the deification of living kings — whose title survives in our king or queen of the May, and in the rex nemorensis, the priest of Diana in the grove of Aricia — has been most fruitful in myths of divine beings. These human beings are often sacrificed, for various reasons, actual or hypothetical, and gods and heroes are almost as likely to be explained as spirits of vegetation now, as they were likely to become solar mythological figures in the system of Max Miuler. It is certainly true that divine beings in most mythologies are apt to acquire solar with other elemental attributes, including vegetable attributes. But that the origins of such mythical beings were, ab initio, either solar or vegetable, or, for that matter, animal, it would often be hard to prove. Frazer's ideas are to be found in a work of immense erudition, The Golden Bough (London, 1900). Two studies by him, pursuing 9 Records of the Past, x. 10. 10 Plotini vita, pp. 2, 95. 11 H. N. xv. 44, 85. 134 MYTHOLOGY the same set of ideas in more detail, are Adonis, Attis, Osiris (1906) and Lectures on the Early History of the Kingship (1905). See A. Lang, Magic and Religion (London, 1901), for a criticism in detail of the general theory as set forth in The Golden Bough. Whatever may be said, Frazer has certainly made the most important of recent contributions to the study of mythology. He has fixed the attention of students on a mass of early ideas, previously much neglected save by VV. Mannhardt, and on the facts of ritual, which preserve these ideas and represent them in a kind of mystery plays. We are now in a position to sum up the ideas of savages about man's relations to the world. We started on this inquiry because we found that savages regarded sky, wind, sun, earth and so forth as practically men, and we had then to ask, what sort of men, men with what powers ? The result of our exam- ination, so far, is that in savage opinion sky, wind, sun, sea and many other phenomena have, being personal, all the powers attributed to real human persons. These powers and qualities are: (1) relationship to animals and ability to be transformed and to transform others into animals and other objects; (2) magical accomplishments, as — (a) power to visit or to procure the visits of the dead; (b) other magical powers, such as control over the weather and over the fertility of nature in all depart- ments. Once more, the great forces of nature, considered as persons, are involved in that inextricable confusion in which men, beasts, plants, stones, stars, are all on one level of person- ality and animated existence. This is the philosophy of savage life, and it is on these principles that the savage constructs his myths, while the^e, again, are all the scientific explanations of the universe with which he has been able to supply himself. Examples of Mythology. — Myths of the origin of the world and man are naturally most widely diffused. Man has every- where asked himself whence things came and how, and his myths are his earliest extant form of answer to this question. So confused and inconsistent are the mythical answers that it is very difficult to classify them according to any system. If we try beginning with myths of creative gods, we find that the world is sometimes represented as pre-existent to the divine race. If we try beginning with myths of the origin of the world, we frequently find that it owes its origin to the activity of pre- existent supernatural beings. According to all modern views of creation, the creative mind is prior to the universe which it created. There is no such consistency of opinion in myths, v/hether of civilized or savage races. Perhaps the plan least open to objection is to begin with myths of the gods. But when we speak of gods, we must not give to the word a modern signifi- cance. As used here, gods merely mean non-natural and powerful beings, sometimes " magnified non-natural men," sometimes beasts, birds or insects, sometimes the larger forces and phenomena of the universe conceived of as endowed with human personality and passions. When Plutarch examined the Osirian myth (De Isid. xxv.) he saw that the " gods " in the tale were really " demons," " stronger than men, but having the divine part not wholly unalloyed " — "magnified non- natural men," in short. And such are the gods of mythology. In examining the myths of the gods we shall begin with the conceptions of the most backward tribes, and advance to the divine legends of the ancient civilized races. It will appear that, while the non-civilized gods are often theriomorphic, made in accordance with the ideas of non-civilized men, the civilized gods retain many characteristics of the savage gods, and these characteristics are the " irrational element " in the divine myths. Myths of Gods: Savage Ideas. — It is not easy to separate the dis- cussion of savage myths of gods from the problem, Whence and how arose the savage belief in gods? The orthodox anthropological explanation has been that of E. B. Tylor, which closely resembles Herbert Spencer's " ghost theory." By reflection on -dreams, in which the self, or " spirit," of the savage seems to wander free from the bounds of time and space, to see things remote, and to meet and recognize dead friends or foes; by speculation on the experiences of trance and of phantasms of the dead or living, beheld with waking eyes; by pondering on the phenomena of shadows, of breath, of death and life, the savage evolved the idea of a separable soul or spirit capable of surviving bodily death. The spirit of the dead may tenant a material object, a " fetish," or may roam hungry and comfortless and need propitiation by food, for unpropitiated it is dangerous, or may be reincarnated, or may " go to its own herd " in another world. Again, it is naturally kind to its living kinsfolk, and so may be addressed in prayer. These are the doctrines of animism (q.v.), and, according to the usual anthropological theory, these spirits come to thrive to god's estate in favourable circum- stances, as where the dead man, when alive, had great mana or wakan, a great share of the ether, so to speak, which, in savage metaphysics, is the viewless vehicle of magical influences. Thus the ghost of the hero or medicine man of a kin or tribe may be raised to divine rank, while again — the doctrine of spirits once developed, and spirits once allotted to the great elemental forces and phenomena of nature, sky, thunder, the sea, the forests — we have the beginnings of depart- mental deities, such as Agni, god of fire; Poseidon, god of the sea; Zeus, god of the sky — though in recent theories Zeus appears to be regarded as primarily the god of the oak tree, a spirit of vegetation. On this theory animism, the doctrine of spirits, is the source of all belief in gods. But it is found that among the lowest or least cultured races, such as the south-eastern tribes of Australia, who do not propitiate ancestral spirits by offerings of food, or address them in prayer, there often exists a belief in an " All-Father," to use Howitt's convenient expression. This being cannot have been evolved out of the cult of ancestors, where ancestors are not wor- shipped; and he is not even regarded as a spirit, but, in Matthew Arnold's phrase, as " a magnified non-natural man." He existed before death came into the world, and he still exists. His home is in or above the sky, but there was a time when he walked the earth, a potent magic- worker ; endowed mankind with such arts and institu- tions as they possess; and left to them certain rules of life, ethics and ritual. Often he is regarded as the maker of things, or of most things, and of mankind; or mankind are his children, descended from disobedient sons of his, whom he cast out of heaven. Very frequently he is the judge of souls, and sends the good and bad to their own places of reward and punishment. He is usually supposed to watch over human conduct, but this is by no means invariably the case. Sometimes he, like the Atnatu of the Kaitish tribe of central Australia, is only vigilant in matters of ritual, such as cir- cumcision, subincision and the use of the sacred bull-roarer, the Greek pbn(3os. As an almost universal rule, in the lowest culture, no prayers are addressed to this being; he has no sacrifices, no dwell- ing made with hands; and the images of him, in clay, that are made and danced round with invocations of his name at the tribal cere- monies of initiation, are destroyed at the close of the performances. If the name of " god " is denied to such beings because they receive little cult, it may still be admitted that the belief might easily develop into a form of theism, independent of and underived from animism, or the ghost theory. The best account of this All-Father belief in the lowest culture is to be read in R. Howitt's Native Races of South-East A ustralia. Under the names of Baiame, Pundjcl, Mulkari, Daramulun and many others, the south-eastern tribes (both those Australian who reckon descent in the female and those who reckon Savages. by the male line) have this faith in an All-Father, the attributes varying in various communities. The most highly developed All-Father is the Baiame or Byamee of the Euahlayi tribe of north-western New South Wales, to whom prayers for the welfare of the souls of the dead are, or recently were, addressed- — the tribe dwelling a hundred miles away from the nearest missionary station (Protestant). 1 In the centre of Australia, Atnatu, self-created, is known, as has been said, to the Kaitish tribe, next neighbours of the Arunta of the Macdonnell Hills. Among the Arunta, Mr Strehlow (Globus, May 1907) finds such a being as Atnatu, and also among some other adjacent tribes, as the Luritja. See, too, Strehlow and von Leon- hardi, in Verbffenilichungen aus dem siadlischen V biker-Museum (Frankfurt-am-Main, 1907, vol. i.). But Messrs B. Spencer and F. J. Gillcn, who discovered Atnatu, did not find any trace of an All-Father among the Arunta, or any other of the tribes to the north and north-east of the centre. Mr Strehlow's branch of the Arunta they did not examine. It is plain that the All-Father belief, in favourable circumstances, especially if ghost worship remained undeveloped, might be evolved into theism. But all over the savage world, especially in Africa, spirit worship has sprung up and choked the All-Father, who, how- ever, in most savage regions, abides as a name, receiving no sacrifice, and, save among the Masai, seldom being addressed in prayer. A list of such otiose great beings in the background of religion is given in Lang's The Making of Religion (1898).. Since the publica- tion of that book much additional evidence has accrued from Africa and Melanesia, where the belief occurs in a few islands, but, in the majority, is absent or unrecorded. Most of the fresh evidence is given in La Notion de I'itre supreme chez les peuples non-civilises, by Rene Hoffmann (Geneva, 1907). See also the Journal of the Anthropological Institute (1899-1907), vols, xxix., xxxii., xxxiv., xxxv., and the works of Miss Mary Kingsley, and Spieth, Die Ewe- Stamme, Reimer (Berlin, 1906), and Sundermarn in Warneck's Allgemeine Missionszeiischrift, vol. xi. An excellent statement is that of Pere Schmidt, S.V.D., in Anthropos, Bd. III., lift. 3 (1908), pp. 559-611. Tylor's efforts to show that these All-Fathers were derived from missionary or other European influences (Nineteenth 1 See Mrs Langloh Parker's The Euahlayi Tribe. MYTHOLOGY x 35 Century, 1892) have not been successful (see La.ng,Magic and Religion, " The Theory of Loan Gods ") and N.W.Thomas in Man (1905), v., 49 et seq. The All-Father belief is most potent among the lowest races, and always tends to become obsolete under the competition of serviceable ancestral spirits, or gods made in the image of such spirits, who can be bribed by sacrifices or induced by prayers to help man in his various needs. The belief in the All-Father in south-eastern Australia is concealed from the women and children who, at most, know his exoteric name, often meaning " Our Father," and is revealed only to the initiate, among whom are a very few white men, like Howitt. Mrs Langloh Parker, of course, vvas not initiated (indeed, no white man has gone through the actual and very painful rites), but confidences were made to her with great secrecy. The All-Father, even at his best, among the Kurnai, Kamilaroi and Euahlayi, is the centre of many grotesque and sportive myths. He usually has a wife and children, not in all cases born, but rather they are emanations. One of these children is often his mediator with men, and has the charge of the rites and the mystic bull-roarer. The relation is that of Apollo to Zeus in Greek myth. Many of the wilder myths are the expressions of the sportive and humorous faculties. Some arise naturally thus: Baiame, say, originated everything, therefore he originated the grotesque mummeries and dances of the mysteries. To explain these, myths have been developed to show that they arose in some grotesque incident of Baiame's personal existence on earth. Many Greek myths, most derogatory to the dignity of Demeter, Dionysus, Zeus or Hera, arose in the same way, as explanations of buffooneries in the Eleusinian or other mysteries. In medieval literature the most sacred persons of our religion have grotesque associations attached to them in the same manner. While the All-P'ather belief is common in the tribes of south- eastern Australia, the tribes round Lake Eyre, the Arunta (as known to Messrs Spencer and Gillen), and the other central and northern tribes, are credited with no germs of belief in what is called a supreme, and may truly be styled a superior being. That being, in many cases, but not so commonly in Australia, has a malevolent opposite who thwarts his workman Ahriman to his Ormuzd. In one district, where the superior being is a crow, his opposite is an eagle-hawk. These two birds in many tribes give names to the two great exogamous and intermarrying divisions ; in their case there is a . va et vient of divine, human and theriomorphic elements, just as in the Greek myths of Zeus. As a rule, however, the Australian All- Father is anthropomorphic, and fairly well described in the native term when they speak English as " the Big Man," powerful, death- less, friendly, " able to go everywhere and do everything," " to see whatever you do." The existence of the belief in this being was accepted by T. VVaitz, and, though disputed by many squatters and most anthropologists, is now admitted on the strength of the evidence of Howitt, Cameron, Mrs Langloh Parker, Dav/son, W. E. Roth in Ethnological Studies, and many other close observers. The belief being esoteric, a secret of the initiated, necessarily escaped casual inquirers. Meanwhile, among some of the Arunta of the centre, among the Dieri and Urabunna tribes near Lake Eyre and their congeners, and among the tribes north by east of the Arunta, no such belief has been discovered by Messrs Spencer and Gillen, from whom the tribes kept no secrets, or by Mr Siebert, a missionary among the now all but extinct Dieri. There is just a trace of a dim sky-dwelling being, Arawotja, possibly an all but obliterated survival of an All- Father. Howitt speaks too of the Dieri Kutchi, who inspires medicine-men with ideas, but about him our information is scanty. Among all these tribes religion now takes another line, the belief in a supernormal race of Titanic beings, with no superior, who were the first dwellers on earth ; who possessed powers far exceeding those of the medicine-men of to-day; and who, in one way or another, were connected with, or developed from, the totem animals,vege- tables and other objects. These beings modified the face of the country; in Arunta belief rocks and trees arose to mark the places where they finally " went into the ground " (Oknanikilla) , and their spirits still haunt certain places such as these; and are reincarnated in native women who pass by. These beings, in Arunta called " the people of the Alcheringa, or dream time " (but cf. Strehlow in Globus, ut supra), originated the tribal rites of initiation. In Dieri they are called Mura-Mura, and to them prayers are made for rain, accompanied by rain-making magic ceremonies, which in this case may be a symbolical expression of the prayers. There is a large body of myths about the Alcheringa folk, or Mura-Mura (see Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, Native Tribes of Northern Australia, and Howitt, Native Tribes of South- Eastern Australia), and the myths of their wanderings, prodigies and institution of rites and magic are represented in the dances of the mysteries. Most of the magic is worked (Intichiuma in Arunta) by the members of each totem kin or group for the behoof of the totem as an article of food supply. These rites are common in North America, but are worked by members of gilds or societies, not by totem kins. The belief in these Mura-Mura or Alcheringa folk may obviously develop, in favourable circumstances, into a polytheism like that of Greece, or of Egypt, or of the Maoris. The old Irish gods in the poetic romances appear to have the same origin and shade away into the fairies. The baser Greek myths of the wanderings, amours and adventures of the gods, myths ignored by Homer, are parallel to the adventures of the Alcheringa people, and the fable of the mutilation of Osiris and the search for the lost organ by Isis, actually occurs among the Alcheringa tales of Messrs Spencer and Gillen. Among the Arunta, the Alcheringa folk are part of a strangely elaborate theory of evolution and of animism, which leaves no room for a creative being, or for a future life of the spirit, which is merely reincarnated at intervals. Thus the doctrines of evolution and of creation, or the making of things, stand apart, or blend, in the metaphysics and religion of the lowest and least progressive of known peoples. The question as to which theory came first, whether Alcheringaism is a scientific effort that swept away All-Fatherism, or whether All-Fatherism is a religious reaction in despair of science and of the evolutionary doctrine, is settled by each inquirer in accordance with his personal bias. It has been argued that All-Fatherism is an advance, con- ditioned by coastal influences — more rain and more food — con- comitant with a social advance to individual marriage, and reckon- ing of kin in the male line. But tribes far from the sea, as in northern New South Wales and Queensland, have the All-Father belief, with individual marriage and female descent, while tribes of the north coast, with male descent, are credited with no All-Father; and the Arunta, as far as possible from the sea, have no All-Father (save in Strehlow's district), and have individual marriage and male reckon- ing of descent in matters of inheritance; while the Urabunna and Dieri, with female descent and the custom of pirrauru (called " group marriage " by Howitt), are not credited with the All-Father belief. Thus coastal conditions have clearly no causal influence on the development of the All-Father belief. If they had, the natives of central Queensland, remote from the sea, should not have their All-Father (Mulkari), and the natives of the northern and north- eastern coasts should have an All-Father, who is still to seek. The Arunta of Messrs Spencer and Gillen may have possessed and deposed the Altjira superior being of the Arunta known to Mr Strehlow, like the Atnatu of the adjacent Kaitish, or the All-Father of the neighbouring Luritja ; or these beings may be more recent diver- gences of doctrine, departures from pure Alcheringaism with no All- Father. At present, at least, it is premature to dogmatize on these problems. 1 The chief being among the supernatural characters of Bushman mythology is the insect called the Mantis. 2 Cagn or Ikaggen, the Mantis, is sometimes regarded with religious respect as a benevolent god. But his adventures are the merest nightmares of puerile fancy. He has a wife, an adopted daughter, whose real father is the " swallower " in Bushman swallow- ing myths, and the daughter has a son, who is the Ichneumon. The Mantis made an eland out of the shoe of his son-in-law. The moon was also created by the Mantis out of his shoe, and it is red, because the shoe was covered with the red dust of Bushman-land. The Mantis is defeated in an encounter with a cat which happened to be singing a song about a lynx. The Mantis (like Poseidon, Hades, Metis and other Greek gods)was once swallowed, but dis- gorged alive. The swallower was the monster Ilkhwai-hemm. Like Heracles when he leaped into the belly of the monster which was about to swallow Hesione, the Mantis once jumped down the throat of a hostile elephant, and so destroyed him. The heavenly bodies are gods among the Bushmen, but their nature and adventures must be discussed among other myths of sun, moon and stars. As a creator Cagn is sometimes said to have " given orders, and caused all things to appear to be made." He struck snakes with his staff and turned them into men, as Zeus did with the ants in Aegina. But the Bushmen's mythical theory of the origin of things must, as far as possible, be kept apart from the fables of the Mantis, the Ichneumon and other divine beings. Though animals, these gods have human passions and character, and possess the usual magical powers attributed to sorcerers. Concerning the mythology of the Hottentots and Namas, we have a great deal of information in a book named Tsuni-Goam, the Supreme Beingof the Khoi-Khoi (1881), by DrT. Hahn. This author collected the old notices of Hottentot myths, and added material from his own researches. The chief god of the Hottentots is a being named Tsuni-Goam, who is universally regarded by his worshippers as a deceased sorcerer. According to one old believer, " Tsui-Goab " (an alternative reading of the god's name) " was a great powerful chief of the Khoi-Khoi — in fact, he was the first Khoi-Khoib from whom all the Khoi-Khoi tribes took their name." He is always 1 The drawback to knowledge is the rarity of full acquaintance with native languages. Strehlow, Roth and Ridley seem best equipped on the linguistic side. Spencer and Gillen do not tell us that they have a colloquial knowledge of any Australian language. Gason, author of a work on the Dieri tribe, knew their language well, but several of his statements appear to be inaccurate. Mrs Langloh Parker describes her methods of checking and controlling native statements made in English. 2 Accounts of the Mantis and of his performances will be found in the Cape Monthly MagazineQuly 1874), and in Dr Bleek's Brief Account of Bushman Folk-Lore. African Savages. 136 MYTHOLOGY represented as at war (in the usual crude dualism of savages) with " another chief " named Gaunab. The prayers addressed to Tsui- Goab are simple and natural in character, the " private ejaculations " of men in moments of need or distress. As usual, religion is more advanced than mythology. It appears that, by some accounts, Tsui-Goab lives in the red sky and Gaunab in the dark sky. The neighbouring race of Namas have another old chief for god, a being called Heitsi Eibib. His graves are shown in many places, like those of Osiris, which, says Plutarch, abounded in Egypt. He is propi- tiated by passers-by at his sepulchres. He has intimate relations in peace and war with a variety of animals whose habits are some- times explained (like those of the serpent in Genesis) as the result of the curse of Heitsi Eibib. Heitsi Eibib was born in a mysterious way from a cow, as Indra in the Black Yajvr- Veda entered into and was born from the womb of a being who also bore a cow. The Rig-Veda (iv. 18, 1) remarks, " His mother, a cow, bore Indra, an unlicked calf " — probably a metaphorical way of speaking. Heitsi Eibib, like countless other gods and heroes, is also said to have been the son of a virgin who tasted a particular plant, and so became pregnant, as in the German and Gallophrygian marchen of the almond tree, given by Grimm and Pausanias. Incest is one of the feats of Heitsi Eibib. Tsui-Goab, in the opinion of his worshippers, as we have seen, is a deified dead sorcerer, whose name means Wounded Knee, the sorcerer having been injured in the knee by an enemy. Dr Hahn tries to prove (by philology's " artful aid ") that the name really means " red dawn," and is a Hottentot way of speaking of the infinite. The philological arguments advanced are extremely weak, and by no means convincing. If we grant, however, for the sake of argument, that the early Hottentots wor- shipped the infinite under the figure of the dawn, and that, by for- getting their own meaning, they came to believe that the words which really meant " red dawn" meant " wounded knee " we must still admit that the devout have assigned to their deity all the attri- butes of an ancestral sorcerer. In short, " their Red Dawn," if red dawn he be, is a person, and a savage person, adored exactly as the actual fathers and grandfathers of the Hottentots are adored. We must explain this legend, then, on these principles, and not as an allegory of the dawn as the dawn appears to civilized people. About Gaunab (the Ahriman to Tsui-Goab s Ormuzd) Dr Hahn gives two distinct opinions. " Gaunab was at first a ghost, a mischief-maker and evil-doer " {op. cit. p. 85). But Gaunab he declares to be " the night-sky " (p. 126). Whether we regard Gaunab, Heitsi EiWb and Tsui-Goab as originally mythological representations of natural phenomena, or as deified dead men, it is plain that they are now venerated as non-natural human beings, possessing the custom- ary attributes of sorcerers. Thus of Tsui-Goab it is said, " He could do wonderful things which no other man could do, because he was very wise. He could tell what would happen in future times. He died several times, and several times he rose again " (statement of old Kxarab in Hahn, p. 61). The mythology of the Zulus as reported by H.Callaway {Unkulun- kulu, 1868-1870) is very thin and uninteresting. The Zulus are great worshippers of ancestors (who appear to men in the form of snakes), and they regard a being called Unkulunkulu as their first p.ncestor, and sometimes as the creator, or at least as the maker of men. It does not appear they identify Unkulunkulu, as a rule, with " the lord of heaven," who, like Indra, causes the thunder. The word answering to our lord is also applied," even to beasts, as the lion and the boa." The Zulus, like many distant races, sometimes attribute thunder to the'" thunder-bird," which, as in North America, is occasionally seen and even killed by men. " It is said to have a red bill, red legs and a short red tail like fire. The bird is boiled for the sake of the fat, which is used by the heaven- doctors to puff on their bodies, and to anoint their lightning-rods." The Zulus are so absorbed in propitiating the shades of their dead (who, though in serpentine bodies, have human dispositions) that they appear to take little pleasure in mythological narratives. At the same time, the Zulus have many " nursery tales," the plots and incidents of which often bear the closest resemblance to the heroic myths of Greece, and to the marchen of European peoples. 1 These indications will give a general idea of African divine myths. On the west coast the " ananzi " or spider takes the place of the mantis insect among the Bushmen. For some of his exploits Dasent's Tales from the Norse (2nd ed., Appendix) may be consulted. For South African religion see Lang. Magic and Religion; Dennett, At the Back of the Black Man's Mind; Junod, Les Barotsa; Spieth, Die Ewe-Stdmme; Frazer, The Golden Bough. Turning from the natives of Australia, and from African races of various degrees of culture, to the Papuan inhabitants of Melanesia, Mebmeslaa we ^ n< ^ t * iat m yth°l°gical ideas are scarcely on a higher _ level. An excellent account of the myths of the Banks ' Islanders and Solomon Islanders was given in Journ. Anthropol. Inst. (Feb. 1881) by the Rev. R. H. Codrington. The article contains a critical description of the difficulty with which mis- sionaries obtain information about the prior creeds. The people of the 1 These are collected by Callaway, Zulu Nursery Tales (1 Similar Kafir stories, also closely resembling the popular fictions of European races, have been published by Theal. Many other examples are published in the South African Folk-Lore Journal (1879, 1880). Banks Islands are chiefly ancestor-worshippers, but they also believe in, and occasionally pray to, a being named I Qat, one of the prehuman race endowed with supernatural powers who here, as elsewhere, do duty as gods. Here is an example of a prayer to Qat — the devotee is supposed to be in danger with his canoe: " Qate! Marawa! look down on me, smooth the sea for us two that I may go safely on the sea. Beat down for me the crests of the tide-rip ; let the tide-rip settle down away from me, beat it down level that it may sink and roll away, and I may come to a quiet landing-place." Compare the prayer of Odysseus to the river, whose mouth he had reached after three days' swimming on the tempestuous sea. " ' Hear me, O king, whosoever thou art, unto thee I am come as to one to whom prayer is made . . . nay, pity me, O king, for I avow myself thy suppliant.' So spake he, and the god stayed his stream, and with- held his waves, and made the water smooth before him " {Odyssey v. 450). The prayer of the Melanesian is on rather a higher religious level than that of the Homeric hero. The myths of Qat's adventures, however, are very crude, though not so wild as some of the Scan- dinavian myths about Odin and Loki, while they are less immoral than the adventures of Indra and Zeus. Qat was born in the isle of Vanua Levu; his mother was either a stone at the time of his birth, or was turned into a stone afterwards, like Niobe. The mother of Apollo, according to Aelian, had the misfortune to be changed into a wolf. Qat had eleven brothers, not much more reputable than the Osbaldistones in Rob Roy. The youngest brother was " Tangaro Loloqong, the Fool." His pastime was to make wrong all that Qat made right, and he is sometimes the Ahriman to Qat's Ormuzd. The creative achievements of Qat must be treated of in the next section. Here it may be mentioned that, like the hero in the Breton marchen, Qat " brought the dawn " by introducing birds whose notes proclaimed the coming of morning. Before Qat's time there had been no night, but he purchased a sufficient allowance of darkness from I Qong, that is, night considered as a person in accordance with the law of savage thought already ex- plained. Night is a person in Greek mythology, and in the four- teenth book of the Iliad we read that Zeus abstained from punishing Sleep " because he feared to offend swift Night." Qat produced dawn, for the first time, by cutting, the darkness with a knife of red obsidian. Afterwards " the fowls and birds showed the morning." On one occasion an evil power (Vui) slew all Qat's brothers, and hid them in a food-chest. As in the common " swallowing-myths " which we have met among bushmen and Australians, and will find among the Greeks, Qat restored his brethren to life. Qat is always accompanied by a powerful supernatural spider named Marawa. He first made Marawa's acquaintance when he was cutting down a tree for a canoe. Every night (as in the common European story about bridge-building and church-building) the work was all undone by Marawa, whom Qat found means to conciliate. In all his future adventures the spider was as serviceable as the cat in Puss in Boots Or the other grateful animals in European legend. Qat's great enemy, Qasavara, was dashed against the hard sky, and was turned into stone, like the foes of Perseus. The stone is still shown in Vanua Levu, like the stone which was Zeus in Laconia. Qat, like so many other " culture-heroes," disappeared mysteriously, and white men arriving in the island have been mistaken for Qat. His departure is sometimes connected with the myth of the deluge. In the New Hebrides, Tagar takes the r&le of Qat, and Suqe of the bad principle, Loki, Ahriman, Tangaro Loloqong, the Australian Crow and so forth. 1'hese are the best known divine myths of the Melanesians. For their All-Fathers see Holmes, /. A. I., vol. xxxv., and O'Farrell, /. A. I., vol. xxxiv., with Sundermann in Warneck's Allgemeine Missionszeitschrifl, vol. xi. 1884. It is " a far cry " from Vanua Levu to Vancouver Island, and, ethnologically, the Ahts of the latter region are extremely remote from the Papuans with their mixture of Malay and A mer i caa Polynesian blood. The Ahts, however, differ but little savaees. in their mythological beliefs from the races of the Banks ' Islands or of the New Hebrides. In SprOat's Scenes from Savage Life (1868) there is a good account of Aht opinions by a settler who had won the confidence of the natives between i860 and 1868. " There is no end to the stories which an old Indian will relate," says Mr Sproat, when " one quite possesses his confidence." "The first Indian who ever lived " is a divine being, something of a creator, something of a first father, like Unkulunkulu among the Zulus. His name is Quawteaht. He married a pre-existent bird, the thunder- bird T°°tah (we have met him among the Zulus), and by the bird he became the father of Indians. Wispohahp is the Aht Noah, who, with his wife, his two brothers and their wives escaped from the deluge in a canoe. Quawteaht is inferior as a deity to the Sun and Moon. He is the Yama of an Aht paradise, or home of the dead, where " everything is beautiful and abundant." From all that is told of Quawteaht he seems to be an ideal and powerful Aht, imaginatively placed at the beginning of things, and quite capable of intermarriage, with a bird. His creative exploits must be con- sidered later. Quawteaht is the Aht Prometheus Purphoros, or fire : stealer. Passing down the American continent from the north-west, we find Yehl the chief hero-god and mythical personage among the Tlingits. Like many other heroes or gods, Yehl had a miraculous 1 birth. His mother, a Tlingit woman, whose sons had all been MYTHOLOGY 137 slain, met a friendly dolphin, which advised her to swallow a pebble and a little sea-water. The birth of Yehl was the result. In his youth he shot a supernatural crane, and can always fly about in its feathers, like Odin and Loki in Scandinavian myth. He is usually, however regarded as a raven, and holds the same relation to men and the world as the eagle-hawk Pund-jel does in Australia. His great opponent (for the eternal dualism comes in) is Khanukh, who is a wolf, and the ancestor or totem of the wolf-race of men as Yehl is of the raven. The opposition between the Crow and Eagle-hawk in Australia will be remembered. Both animals or men or gods take part in creation. Yehl is the Prometheus Purphoros of the Tlingits, but myths of the fire-stealer would form matter for a separate section. Yehl also stole water, in his bird-shape, exactly as Odin stole " Suttung's mead " when in the shape of an eagle. 1 Yehl's powers of metamorphosis and of flying into the air are the common accomplishments of sorcerers, and he is a rather crude form of first father, " culture-hero " and creator. 2 Among the Karok Indians we find the great hero and divine benefactor in the shape of, not a raven, nor an eagle-hawk, nor a mantis insect, nor a spider, but a coyote. Among both Karok and Navaho the coyote is the Prometheus Purphoros, or, as the Aryans of India call him, Matarisvan the fire-stealer. Among the Papagos, on the eastern side of the Gulf of California, the coyote or prairie wolf is the creative hero and chief supernatural being. In Oregon the coyote is also the " demiurge," but most of the myths about him refer to his creative exploits, and will be more appro- priately treated in the next section. Moving up the Pacific coast to British Columbia, we find the musk-rat taking the part played by Vishnu, when in his avatar as a boar he fished up the earth from the waters. Among the Tinneh a miraculous dog, who, like an enchanted fairy prince, could assume the form of a handsome young man, is the chief divine being of the myths. He too is chiefly a creative or demiurgic being, answering to Purusha in the Rig Veda. So far the peculiar mark of the wilder American tribe legends is the bestial character of the divine beings, which is also illustrated in Australia and Africa, while the bestial clothing, feathers or fur, drops but slowly off Indra, Zeus and the Egyptian Ammon, and the Scandinavian Odin. All these are more or less anthropomorphic, but retain, as will be seen, numerous relics of a theriomorphic condition. See C. Hill-Tout and F. Boas in various publications, and, generally, the volumes of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, U.S.A. For Ti-ra-wa, " the Ruler of the Universe," also styled A-ti-us, " father," among the Pawnees, see G. B. Grinnell, Pawnee Hero Stories (1893). Maori and Polynesian Beliefs. — Passing from the lower savage myths, of which space does not permit us to offer a larger selection, we turn to races in the upper strata of barbarism. Among these the Maoris of New Zealand, and the Polynesian people generally, are remarkable for a mythology largely intermixed with early attempts at more philosophical speculation. The Maoris and Mangaians, and other peoples, have had speculators among them not very far removed from the mental condition of the earliest Greek philosophers, Empedocles, Anaximander, and the rest. In fact the process from the view of nature which we call personalism to the crudest theories of the physicists was apparently begun in New Zealand before the arrival of Europeans. In Maori mythology it is more than usually difficult to keep apart the origin of the world and the origin and nature of the gods. Long traditional hymns give an account of the " becoming out of nothing " which resulted in the evolution of the gods and the world. In the beginning (as in the Greek myths of Uranus and Gaea), Heaven (Rangi, conceived of as a person) was indissolubly united to his wife Earth (Papa), and be- tween them they begat gods which necessarily dwelt in darkness. These gods were some in vegetable, some in animal form; some traditions place among these gods Tiki the demiurge, who (like Prometheus) made men out of clay. The offspring of Rangi and Papa (kept in the dark as they were) held a council to determine how they should treat their parents, " Shall we slay them, or shall we separate them?" In the Hesiodic fable, Cronus separates the heavenly pair by mutilating his oppressive father Uranus. Among the Maoris- the god Tutenganahan cut the sinews which united Earth and Heaven, and Tane Mahuta wrenched them apart, and kept them eternally asunder. The new dynasty now had earth to themselves, but Tawhiramatea, the wind, abode aloft with his father. Some of the gods were in the forms of lizards and fishes; some went to the land, some to the water. As among the gods and Asuras of the Vedas, there were many wars in the divine race, and as the incantations of the Indian Brahnianas are derived from those old experiences of the Vedic gods, so are the incantations of the Maoris. The gods of New Zealand, the greater gods at least, may be called " departmental "; each person who is an elementary force is also the god of that force. As Te Heu, a powerful chief, said, there is division of labour among men, and so there is among gods. " One made this, another that; Tane made trees, Ru moun- tains, Tanga-roa fish, and so forth." 3 The " departmental " arrangement prevails among the polytheism of civilized peoples, 1 Dasent, Bragi's Telling: Younger Edda, p. 94. 2 Bancroft, vol. iv< 3 Taylor, New Zealand, p. 108 and is familiar to all from the Greek examples. Leaving the high gods whose functions are so large, while their forms (as of lizard, fish and tree) are often so mean, we come to Maui, the great divine hero of the supernatural race in Polynesia. Maui in some respects answers to the chief of the Adityas in Vedic mythology ; in others he answers to Qat, Quawteaht, and other savage divine personages. Like the son of the Vedic Aditi, 4 Maui is a rejected and abortive child of his mother, but afterwards attains to the highest reputation. As Qat brought the hitherto unknown night, so Maui settled the sun and moon in their proper courses. He induced the sun to move orderly by giving him a violent beating. A similar feat was per- formed by the Sun-trapper, a famous Red Indian chief. These tales belong properly to the department of solar myths. Maui him- self is thought by E. B. Tylor to be a myth of the sun, but the sun could hardly give the sun a drubbing. Maui slew monsters, invented barbs for fish-hooks, frequently adopted the form of various birds, acted as Prometheus Purphoros the fire-stealer, drew a whole island up from the bottom of the deep ; he was a great sorcerer and magician. Had Maui succeeded in his attempt to pass through the body of Night (considered as a woman) men would have been immortal. But a little bird which sings at sunset wakened Night, she snapped up Maui, and men die. This has been called a myth of sunset, but the sun does what Maui failed to do, he passes through the body of Night unharmed. The adventure is one of the myths of the origin of death, which are almost universally diffused. Maui, though regarded as a god, is not often addressed in prayer. 5 The whole system, as far as it can be called a system, of Maori mythology is obviously based on the savage conceptions of the world which have already been explained. The Polynesian system differs mainly in detail; we have the separation of heaven and earth, the animal-shaped gods, the fire-stealing, the exploits of Maui, and scores of minor myths in W. W. Gill's Myths and Songs of the South Pacific, in the researches of W. Ellis, of Williams, in G. Turner's Polynesia, and in many other accessible works. Mexican and Peruvian Beliefs. — The Maoris and other Polynesian peoples are perhaps the best examples of a race which has risen far above the savagery of Bushmen and Australians, but has not yet arrived at the stage in which great centralized monarchies appear. The Mexican and Peruvian civilizations were far ahead of Maori culture, in so far as they possessed the elements of a much more settled and highly-organized society. Their religion had its fine lucid intervals, but their mythology and ritual were little better than savage ideas, elaborately worked up by the imagination of a cruel and superstitious priesthood. In cruelty the Aztecs surpassed perhaps all peoples of the Old World, except certain Semitic stocks, and their gods, of course, surpassed almost all other gods in blood- thirstiness. But in grotesque and savage points of faith the ancient Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Vedic Indians ran even the Aztecs pretty close. Bernal Diaz, the old " conquistador," has described the hideous aspect of the idols which Cortes destroyed, " idols in the shape of hideous dragons as big as calves," idols half in the form of men, half of dogs, and serpents which were worshipped as divine. The old contemporary missionary Sahagun has left one of the earliest detailed accounts of the natures and myths of these gods, but, though Sahagun took great pains in collecting facts, his speculations must be accepted with caution. He was convinced (like Caxton in his Destruction of Troy, and like St Augustine) that the heathen gods were only dead men worshipped. Ancestor-worship is a great force in early religion, and the qualities of dead chiefs and sorcerers are freely attributed to gods, but it does not follow that each god was once a real man, as Sahagun supposes. Euemerism cannot be judiciously carried so far as this. Of Huitzilopochtli, the famed god, Sahagun says that he was a necromancer, loved " shape- shifting," like Odin, metamorphosed himself into animal forms, was miraculously conceived, and, among animals, is confused with the humming-bird, whose feathers adorned his statues." 6 This hum- ming-bird god should be compared with the Roman Picus (Servius, 189). That the humming-bird (Nuitziton), which was the god's old shape, should become merely his attendant (like the owl of Pallas, the mouse of Apollo, the goose of Priapus, the cuckoo of Hera), when the god received anthropomorphic form, is an example of a process common in all mythologies. Plutarch observes that the Greeks, though accustomed to the conceptions of the animal attendants of their own gods, were amazed when they found animals worshipped as gods by the Egyptians. Miiller 7 mentions the view that the humming-bird, as the most beautiful flying thing, is a proper symbol of the heaven, and so of the heaven-god, Huitzilopochtli. This vein of symbolism is so easy to work that it must be regarded with distrust. Perhaps it is safer to attribute theriomorphic shapes of 4 Rig Veda, x. 72, 1,8; Muir, Sanskrit Texts, iv. 13, where the fable from the Satapatha-Brakmana is given. B The best authorities for the New Zealand myths are the old traditional priestly hymns, collected and translated in the works of Sir George Grey, in Taylor's New Zealand, in Shortland's Traditions of New Zealand (1857), in Bastian's Heilige Sage der Polynesier, and in White's Ancient History of the Maori, i. 8-13. 6 See also Bancroft, iii. 288-290, and Acosta, pp. 352-361. 7 Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen, p. 592. 138 MYTHOLOGY gods, not to symbolism (Zeus was a cuckoo), but to survivals from that quality of early thought which draws no line between man and god and beast and bird and fish. If spiders may be great gods, why not the more attractive humming-birds ? Like many other gods, Huitzilopochtli slew his foes at his birth, and hence received names analogous to Acim°s and $6|3os: Tylor (Primitive Culture, ii. 307) calls Huitzilopochtli an " inextricable compound partheno- genetic god." His sacrament, when paste idols of him were eaten by the communicants, was at the winter solstice, whence it may, perhaps, be inferred that Huitzilopochtli was not only a war-god but a nature-god — in both respects anthropomorphic, and in both bearing traces of the time when he was but a humming-bird, as Yehl was a raven (Miiller, op. cit. p. 595). As a humming-bird, Huitzilo- pochtli led the Aztecs to a new home, as a wolf led the Hirpini, and as a woodpecker led the Sabines. Quetzalcoatl, the Toltec deity, is as much a sparrow (or similar small bird) as Huitzilopochtli is a humming-bird. Acosta says he retained the sparrow's head in his statue. For the composite character of Quetzalcoatl as a "culture- hero " (a more polished version of Qat), as a " nature-god," and as a theriomorphic god see Miiller {op. cit. pp. 583-584). Miiller frankly recognizes that not only are animals symbols of deity and its attributes, not only' are they companions and messengers of deity (as in the period of anthropomorphic religion), but they have been divine beings in and for themselves during the earlier stages of thought. The Mexican " departmental " gods answer to those of other polytheisms; there is an Aztec Ceres, an Aztec Lucina, an Aztec Vulcan, an Aztec Flora, an Aztec Venus. The creative myths and sun myths are crude and very early in character. Egyptian Myths. — On a much larger and more magnificent scale, and on a much more permanent basis, the society of ancient Egypt somewhat resembled that of ancient Mexico. The divine myths of the two nations had points in common, but there are few topics more obscure than Egyptian mythology. Writers are apt to speak of Egyptian religion as if it were a single phenomenon of which all the aspects could be observed at a given time. In point of fact Egyptian religion (conservative though it was) lasted through per- haps five thousand years, was subject to innumerable influences, historical, ethnological, philosophical, and was variously represented by various schools of priests. We cannot take the Platonic specula- tions of Iamblichus about the nature and manifestations of Egyptian godhead as evidence for the belief of the peoples who first worshipped the Egyptian gods an innumerable series of ages before Iamblichus and Plutarch. Nor can the esoteric and pantheistic theories of priests (according to which the various beast-gods were symbolic manifestations of the divine essence) be received as an historical account of the origin of the local animal-worships. It has already been shown that the lowest and least intellectual races indulge in local animal-worship, each stock having its parent bird, beast, fish, or even plant, or inanimate object. It has also been shown that these backward peoples recognize a non-natural race of men or animals, or both, as the first fathers, heroes, and, in a sense, gods. Such ideas are consonant with, and may be traced to the confused and nebulous condition of, savage thought. Precisely the same ideas are found at various periods among the ancient Egyptians. If we are to regard the Egyptian myths about the gods in animal shape, and about the non-natural superhuman heroes, and their wars and loves, as esoteric allegories devised by civilized priests, perhaps we should also explain Pund-jel, Qat, Quawteaht, the Mantis god, the Spider creator, the Coyote and Raven gods as priestly inventions, put forth in a civilized age, and retained by Australians, Bushmen, Hottentots, Ahts, Thlinkeets, Papuans, who preserve no other vestiges of high civilization. Or we may take the opposite view, and regard the story of Osiris and his war with Seth (who shut him up in a box and mutilated him) as a dualistic myth, originally on the level of the battle between Gaunab andTsui-Goab, or between Tagar and Suqe. We may regard the local beast- and plant-gods of Egypt as survivals of totems and totem-gods like those of Australia, India, America, Africa, Siberia and other countries. In this article the latter view is adopted. The beast-gods and dualistic and creative myths of savages are looked on as the natural product of the savage reason and fancy. -The same beast-gods and myths in civilized Egypt are looked on as survivals from the rude and early condition of thought to which such conceptions are natural. In the most ancient Egyptian records the gods are not pictorially represented, and we have not obtained from these records any descriptions of adoration and sacrifice. There is a prayer to the Sky on the coffin of the king of Dynasty IV., known as Mycerinus to the Greeks. The king describes himself as the child of Sky and Earth. He also somewhat obscurely identifies himself with Osiris. We thus find Osiris very near the beginning of what is known about Egyptian religion. This being is rather a culture-hero, a member of a non-natural race of men like Qat or Manabozho, than a god. His myth, to be afterwards narrated, is found pictorially represented in a tomb and in the late temple of Philae, is frequently alluded to in the litanies of the dead about 1400 B.C., is indicated with reverent awe by Herodotus, and after the Christian era is described at full length by Plutarch. Whether the same myth was current in the far more distant days of Mycerinus, it is, of course, impossible to say with dogmatic certainty. The religious history of Egypt, from perhaps Dynasty X. to Dynasty XX., is interrupted by an invasion of Semitic conquerors and Semitic ideas. Prior to that invasion the gods, when mentioned in monuments, are always represented by animals, and these animals are the object of strictly local worship. The name of each god is spelled in hieroglyphs beside the beast or bird. The jackal stands for Anup, the hawk for Har, the frog for Hekt, the baboon for Tahuti, and Ptah, Asiri, Hesi, Nebhat, Hat-hor, Neit, Khnum and Amun-hor are all written out phonetically, but never represented in pictures. Different cities had their different beast-gods. Pasht, the cat, was the god of Bubastis; Apis, the bull, of Memphis; Hapi, the wolf , of Sioot; Ba, the goat, of Mendes. The evidence of Herodotus, Plutarch and the other writers shows that the Egyptians of each district refused to eat the flesh of the animal they held sacred. So far the identity of custom with savage totemism is absolute. Of all the explanations, then, of Egyptian animal-worship, that which regards the practice as a survival of totemism and of savagery seems the most satis- factory. So far Egyptian religion only represented her gods in theriomorphic shape. Beasts also appeared in the royal genealogies, as if the early Egyptians had filled up the measure of totemism by regarding themselves as actually descended from animals. With one or two exceptions, " the first (semi-anthropomorphic) figures of gods known in the civilized part3 ot Egypt are on the granite obelisk of Bezig in the Fayyum, erected by Usertesen I. of Dynasty XII., and here we find the forms all full-blown at once. The first group of deities belongs to a period and a district in which Semitic influences had undoubtedly begun to work " (Petrie). From this period the mixed and monstrous figures, semi-theriomorphic, semi- anthropomorphic, hawk-headed and ram-headed and jackal-headed gods become common. This may be attributed to Semitic influence, or we may suppose that the process of anthropomorphizing therio- morphic gods was naturally developing itself ; for Mexico has shown us and Greece can show us abundant examples of these mixed figures, in which the anthropomorphic god retains traces of his theriomorphic past. The heretical worship of the solar disk inter- rupted the course of Egyptian religion under some reforming kings, but the great and glorious Ramesside Dynasty (XIX.) restored 11 Orus and Isis and the dog Anubis " with the rest of the semi- theriomorphic deities. These survived even their defeat by the splendid human gods of Rome, and only " fled from the folding star of Bethlehem." Though Egypt was rich in gods, her literature is not fertile in myths. The religious compositions which have survived are, as a rule, hymns and litanies, the funereal service, the " Book of the Dead." In these works the myths are taken for granted, are alluded to in the course of addresses to the divine beings, but, naturally, are not told in full. As in the case of the Vedas, hymns are poor sources for the study of mythology, just as the hymns of the Church would throw little light on the incidents of the gospel story or of the Old Testament. The " sacred legends " which the priests or temple servants freely communicated to Herodotus are lost through the pious reserve of the traveller. Herodotus constantly alludes to the most famous Egyptian myth, that of Osiris, and he recognizes the analogies between the Osirian myth and mysteries and those of Dionysus. But we have to turn to the very late authority of Plutarch (De Iside et Osiride) for an account, confessedly incomplete and expurgated, of what mythology had to tell about the great Egyptian " culture-hero," " daemon," and god. Osiris, Horus, Typhon (Seth), Isis and Nephthys were the children of Seb (whom the Greeks identified with Cronus) ; the myths of their birth were peculiarly savage and obscene. Osiris introduced civilization into Egypt, and then wandered over the world, making men acquainted with agriculture and the arts, as Pund-jel in his humbler way did in Australia. On his return Typhon laid a plot for him. He had a beautiful carved chest made which exactly fitted Osiris, and at an entertainment offered to give it to any one who could lie down in it. As soon as Osiris tried, Typhon had the box nailed up, and threw it into the Tanaite branch of the Nile. Isis wandered, mourning, in search cf the body, as Demeter sought Persephone, and perhaps in Plutarch's late version some incidents may be borrowed from the Eleusinian legend. At length she found the chest, which in her absence was again discovered by Typhon. He mangled the body of Osiris (as so many gods of all races were mangled), and tossed the fragments about. Wherever Isis found a portion of Osiris she buried it ; hence Egypt was as rich in graves of Osiris as Namaqualand in graves of Heitsi Eibib. The phallus alone she did not find, but she consecrated a model thereof ; hence (says the myth) came the phallus-worship of Egypt. Afterwards Osiris returned from the shades, and (in the form of a wolf) urged his son Horus to revenge him on Typhon. The gods fought in animal shape (Birch, in Wilkinson, iii. 144). Plutarch purposely omits as " too blasphe- mous " the legend of the mangling of Horus. Though the graves of these non-natural beings are shown, the priests {De Is. et Os. xxi.) also show the stars into which they were metamorphosed, as the Eskimo and Australians and Aryans of India and Greeks have recog- nized in the constellations their ancient heroes. Plutarch remarked the fact that the Greek myths of Cronus, of Dionysus, of Apollo and the Python, and of Demeter, " all the things that are shrouded in mystic ceremonies and are presented in rites," " do not fall short in absurdity of the legends about Osiris and Typhon." Plutarch naturally presumed that the myths which seem absurd shrouded MYTHOLOGY 139 some great moral or physical mystery. But we apply no such explanation to similar savage legends, and our theory is that the Osirian myth is only one of these retained to the time of Plutarch by the religious conservatism of a race which, to the time of Plutarch, preserved in full vigour most of the practices of totemism. As a slight confirmation of the possibility of this theory we may mention that Greek mysteries retained two of the features of savage mysteries. The first was the rite of daubing the initiated with clay. 1 This custom prevails in African mysteries, in Guiana, among Australians, Papuans, and Andaman Islanders. The other custom is the use of the turndun, as the Australians call a little fish-shaped piece of wood tied to a string, and waved so as to produce a loud booming and whirring noise and keep away the profane, especially women. It is employed in New Mexico, South Africa, New Zealand and Australia. This instrument, the kuto, was also used in Greek mysteries. 2 Neither the use of the nuras nor of the clay can very well be regarded as a civilized practice retained by savages. The hypothesis that the rites and the stories are savage inventions surviving into civilized religion seems better to meet the difficulty. That the Osirian myth (much as it was elaborated and allegorized) originated in the same sort of fancy as the Tacullie story of the dismembered beaver out of whose body things were made is a con- clusion not devoid of plausibility. Typhon's later career, " commit- ting dreadful crimes out of envy and spite, and throwing all things into contusion," was parallel to the proceedings of most of the divine beings who put everything wrong, in opposition to the being who makes everything right. This is perhaps an early " dualistic " myth. Among other_ mythic Egyptian figures we have Ra, who once destroyed men in his wrath with circumstances suggestive of the Deluge; Khnum, a demiurge, is represented at Philae as making man out of clay on a potter's wheel. Here the wheel is added to the Maori conception of the making of man. Khnum is said to have reconstructed the limbs of the dismembered Osiris. Ptah is the Egyptian Hephaestus; he is represented as a dwarf; men are said to have come out of his eye, gods out of his mouth — a story like that of Purusha in the Rig Veda. As creator of man, Ptah is a frog. Bubastis became a cat to avoid the wrath of Typhon. Ra, the sun, fought the big serpent Apap, as Indra fought Vrittra. Seb is a goose, called " the great cackler "; he laid the creative egg. 3 Divine Myths of the Aryans of India. Indra. — The gods of the Vedas and Brahmanas (the ancient hymns and canonized ritual-books of "Aryan India) are, on the whole, of the usual polytheistic type. More than many other gods they retain in their titles and attributes the character of elemental phenomena personified. That personifica- tion is, as a rule, anthropomorphic, but traces of theriomorphic personification are still very apparent. The ideas which may be gathered about the gods from the hymns are (as is usual in heathen religions) without consistency. There is no strict orthodoxy. As each bard of each bardic family celebrates his favourite god he is apt to make him for the moment the pre-eminent deity of all. This way of thinking about the gods leads naturally in the direction of a pantheistic monotheism in which each divine being may be regarded as a manifestation of the one divine essence. No doubt this point of view was attained in centuries extremely remote by sages of the civilized Vedic world. It is easy, however, to detect certain peculiar characteristics of each god. As among races much less advanced in civilization than the Vedic Indians, each of the greater powers has his own separate department, however much his worshippers may be inclined to regard him as an absolute premier with undisputed latitude of personal government. Thus Indra is mainly concerned with thunder and other atmospheric phenomena; but Vayu is the wind, the Maruts are wind-gods, Agni is fire or the god of fire, and so connected with lightning. Powerful as Indra is in the celestial world, Mitra and Varuna preside over night and day. Ushas is the dawn, and Tvashtri is the mechanic among the gods, correspond- ing to the Egyptian Ptah and the Greek Hephaestus. Though lofty moral qualities and deep concern about the conduct of men are attributed to the gods in the Vedic hymns, yet the hymns contain traces (and these are amplified in the ritual books) of a divine chronique scandaleuse. In this chroniaue the gods, like other gods, are adventurous warriors, adulterers, incestuous, homicidal, given to animal_ transformations, cowardly, and in fact charged with all human vices, and credited with magical powers. 4 It would be difficult to speak too highly of the ethical nobility of many Vedic hymns. The " hunger and thirst after righteousness " of the sacred 1 Demosthenes, De corona, p. 313, ko.1 KaSalpuiv toiis Tthovptvovs ko.1 2 Kcotos JvXapiov ov f£?j:7T<« to anapriov, koX ii> toTj TeXtrais iSovtiro tva poifrj . Quoted by Lobeck, Aglaophamus, i. 700, from Bastius ad Gregor., 241, and from other sources; cf. Arnobius, v. c. 19, where the word turbines is the Latin term. 3 Wilkinson, iii. 6.2, see note by Dr Birch. A more detailed account of Egyptian religion is given under Egypt. Unfortunately Egyptologists have rarely a wide knowledge of the myths of the lower races, while anthropologists are seldom or never Egyptologists. * For examples of the lofty morality sometimes attributed to the gods, see Max Muller, Hibbert Lectures, p. 284; Rig-Veda, ii. 28; iv. 12, 4; viii. 93 seq. ; Muir, Sanskrit Texts, v. 218. poet recalls the noblest aspirations and regrets of the Hebrew psalmist. But this aspect of the Vedic deities is essentially matter for the science of religion rather than of mythology, which is con- cerned with the stories told about the gods. Religion is always forgetting, or explaining away, or apologizing for these stories. Now the Vedic deities, so imposing when regarded as vast natural forces (as such forces seem to us), so benignant when appealed to as forgivers of sins, have also their mythological aspect. In this aspect they are natural phenomena still, but phenomena as originally conceived of by the personifying imagination of the savage, and credited, like the gods of the Maori or the Australian, with all manner of freaks, adventures and disguises. The Veda, it is true, does not usually dilate much on the worst of these adventures. The Veda contains devotional hymns; we can no more expect much Narrative here than in the Psalms of David. Again, the religious sentiment of the Veda is half-consciously hostile to the stories. As M. A. Barth says, " Le sentiment religieux a ecarte la plupart de ces mythes, mais il ne les a ecartes tous." The Brahmanas, on the other hand, later compilations, canonized books for the direction of ritual and sacrifice, are rich in senseless and irrational myths. Sometimes these myths are probably later than the Veda, mere explanations of ritual incidents devised by the priests. Sometimes a myth probably older than the Vedo-s, and maintained in popular tradition, is reported in the Brahmanas. The gods in the Veda are by no means always regarded as equal in supremacy. There were great and small, young and old gods (R. V. i. 27, 13). Elsewhere this is flatly contradicted : " None of you, oh gods, is small or young, ye are all great " (R. V. viii. 30, 1). As to the immortality and the origin of the gods, there is no orthodox opinion in the Veda. Many of the myths of the origin of the divine beings are on a level with the Maori theory that Heaven and Earth begat them in the ordinary way. Again, the gods were represented as the children of Aditi. This may be taken either in a refined sense, as if Aditi were the " infinite region from which the solar deities rise, 5 or we may hold with the Taittirya-Brahmana 6 that Aditi was a female who, being desirous of offspring, cooked a brahmandana offering for the Sadhyas. Various other fathers and mothers of the gods are mentioned. Some gods, particularly Indra, are said to have won divine rank by " austere fervour " and asceticism, which is one of the processes that makes gods out of mortals even now in India. 7 The gods are not always even credited with inherent immortality. Like men, they were subject to death, which they overcame in various ways. Like most gods, they had struggles for pre-eminence with Titanic opponents, the Asuras, who partly answer to the Greek Titans and the Hawaiianfoes of the divine race, or to the Scandinavian giants and the enemies who beset the savage creative beings. Early man, living in a state of endless warfare, naturally believes that his gods also have their battles. The chief foes of Indra are Vrittra and Ahi, serpents which swallow up the waters, precisely as frogs do in Austra- lian and Californian and Andaman myths. It has already been shown that such creatures, thunder-birds, snakes, dragons, and what not, people the sky in the imagination of Zulus, Red Men, Chinese, Peruvians, and all the races who believe that beasts hunt the sun and moon and cause eclipses. 8 Though hostile to Asuras, Indra was once entangled in an intrigue with a woman of that race, accord- ing to the Atharva-Veda (Muir, S. T. v. 82). The gods were less numerous than the Asuras, but by a magical stratagem turned some bricks into gods (like a creation of new peers to carry a vote) — so says the Black Yajur-Veda." Turning to separate gods, Indra first claims attention, for stories of Heaven and Earth are better studied under the heading of myths of the origin of things. Indra has this zoomorphic feature in common with Heitsi Eibib, the Namaqua god, 10 that his mother, or one of his mothers, was a cow (R. V. iv. 18, 1). This statement may be a mere way of speaking in the Veda, but it is a rather Hottentot way." Indra is also referred to as a ram in the Veda, and in one myth this ram could fly, like the Greek ram of the fleece of gold. He was certainly so far connected with sheep that he and sheep and the Kshatriya caste sprang from the breast and arms of Prajapati, a kind of creative being. Indra was a great drinker of soma juice; a drinking-song by Indra, much bemused with soma, is in R. V. x. 119. On one occasion Indra got at the soma by assuming the shape of a quail. In the Taitt. Samh. (ii. 5; i. 1) Indra is said to " have been guilty of that most hideous crime, the killing of a Brahmana." 12 Once, though uninvited, Indra drank some soma that had been prepared for another being. The soma disagreed with Indra; part of it which was not drunk up became Vrittra the serpent, Indra's 6 Muller, Hibbert Lectures, p. 230. 6 Muir, S. T.,v. 55;i-27. 7 See Sir A. Lyall, Asiatic Studies. For Vedic examples, see R.-V. x. 167, 1 ; x. 159, 4; Muir, S. T. v. 15. 8 See Tylpr, Primitive Culture, i. 288, 329, 356. 9 The_ chief authority for the constant strife between gods and Asuras is the Satapatha-Branmana, of which one volume is translated in Sacred Books of the East (vol. xii.). 10 Hahn, Tsuni-Goam, the Supreme Being of the Hottentots, p. 68. 11 See Muir, 5. T., v. 16, 17, for Indra's peculiar achievements with a cow. 12 Sacred Books of the East, xii. 1, 48. 140 MYTHOLOGY enemy. Indra cut him in two, and made the moon out of half of his body. This serpent was a universal devourer of everything and everybody, like Kwai Hemm, the all-devourer in Bushman mytho- logy. If this invention is a late priestly one, the person who intro- duced it into the Satapalha-Brahmana must have reverted to the intellectual condition of Bushmen. In the fight with Vrittra, Indra lost his energy, which fell to the earth and produced plants and shrubs. In the same way plants, among the Iroquois, were made of pieces knocked off Chokanipok in his fight with Manabozho. Vines, in particular, are the entrails of Chokanipok. In Egypt, wine was the blood of the enemies of the gods. The Aryan versions of this sensible legend will be found in Satapatha-Brahmana. 1 The civilized mind soon wearies of this stuff, and perhaps enough has been said to prove that, in the traditions of Vedic devotees, Indra was not a god without an irrational element in his myth. Our argument is, that all these legends about Indra, of which only a sample is given, have no necessary connexion with the worship of a pure nature-god as a nature-god would now be constructed by men. The legends are survivals of a time in which natural phenomena were regarded, not as we regard them, but as persons, and savage persons, Alcheringa folk, in fact, and became the centres of legends in the savage manner. Space does not permit us to recount the equally puerile and barbarous legends of Vishnu, Agni, the loves of Vivasvat in the form of a horse, the adventures of Soma, nor the Vedic amours (paralleled in several savage mythologies) of Pururavas and Urvasi. 2 Divine Myths of Greece. — If any ancient people was thoroughly civilized the Greeks were that people. Yet in the mythology and religion of Greece we find abundant survivals of savage manners and of savage myths. As to the religion, it is enough to point to the traces of human sacrifice and to the worship of rude fetish stones. The human sacrifices at Salamis in Cyprus and at Alos in Achaia Phthiotis may be said to have continued almost to the conversion of the empire (Grote i. 125, ed. 1869). Pausanias seems to have found human sacrifices to Zeus still lingering in Arcadia in the 2nd century of our era. " On this altar on the Lycaean hill they sacrifice to Zeus in a manner that may not be spoken, and little liking had I to pry far into that sacrifice. But let it be as it, is, and as it hath been from the beginning." Now " from the beginning " the sacrifice, according to Arcadian tradition, had been a human sacrifice. In other places there were manifest commutations of human sacrifice, as at the altar of Artemis the Implacable at Patrae, where Pausanias saw the wild beasts being driven into the flames. 3 . Many other exam- ples" of human sacrifice are mentioned in Greek legend. Pausanias gives full and interesting details of the worship of rude stones, the oldest worship, he says, among the Greeks. Almost every temple had its fetish stone on a level with the pumice stone, which is the Poseidon of the Mangaians. 4 The Argives had a large stone called Zeus Cappotas. The oldest idol of the Thespians was a rude stone. Another has been found beneath the pedestal of Apollo in Delos. In Achaean Pharae were thirty squared stones, each named by the name of a god. Among monstrous images of the gods which Pausanias, who saw them, regarded as the oldest idols, were the three-headed Artemis, each head being that of an animal, the Demeter with the horse's head, the Artemis with the fish's tail, the Zeus with three eyes, the ithyphallic Hermes, represented after the fashion of the Priapic figures in paintings on the walls of caves among the Bushmen. We also hear of the bull and the bull-footed Dionysus. Phallic and other obscene emblems were carried abroad in processions in Attica both by women and men. The Greek custom of daubing people all over with clay in the mysteries results as we saw in the mysteries of negroes, Australians and American races, while the Australian turndun was exhibited among the toys at the mysteries of Dionysus. The survivals of rites, objects of worship, and sacrifices like these prove that religious conservatism in Greece retained much of savage practice, and the Greek mythology is not less full of ideas familiar to the lowest races. The authorities for Greek mythology are numerous and various in character. The oldest sources as literary docu- ments are the Homeric and Hesiodic poems. In the Iliad and Odyssey the gods and goddesses are beautiful, powerful and immortal anthropomorphic beings. The name of Zeus (Skr. Dyaus) clearly indicates his connexion with the sky. But in Homer he has long ceased to be merely the sky conceived of as a person ; he is the 1 Sacred Books of the East, xii. 176, 177. 2 On the whole subject, Dr Muir's Ancient Sanskrit Texts, with translations, Ludwig's translation of the Rig Veda, the version of the Satapatha-Brahmana already referred to, and the translation of the Aitareya-Brahmana by Haug, are the sources most open to English readers. Max Muller's translation of the Rig Veda unfor- tunately only deals with the hymns to the Maruts. The Indian epics and the Puranas belong to a much later date, and are full of deities either unknown to or undeveloped in the Rig Veda and the Brahmanas. It is much to be regretted that the Atharva-Veda, which contains the magical formulae and incantations of the Vedic Indians, is still untranslated, though, by the very nature of its theme, it must contain matter of extreme antiquity and interest. ' Pausanias iii. 16; vii. 18. Human sacrifice to Dionysus, Paus. vii. 21 ; Plutarch, De Is. et Os. 35; Porphyry, De Abst. ii. 55. * Gill, Myths and Songs '^rn the South Pacific, p. 60. chief personage in a society of immortals, organized on the type of contemporary human society. " There is a great deal of human nature " in his wife Hera (Skr. Svar, Heaven). 6 It is to be remem- bered that philologists differ widely as to the origin and meaning of the names of almost all the Greek gods. Thus the light which the science of language throws on Greek myths is extremely uncertain. Hera is explained as " the feminine side of heaven " by some authori- ties. The quarrels of Hera with Zeus (which are a humorous anthropomorphic study in Homer) are represented as a way of speak- ing about winter and rough weather. The other chief Homeric deities are Apollo and Artemis, children of Zeus by Leto, a mortal mother raised to divinity. Apollo is clearly connected in some way with light, as his name <£oi/3os seems to indicate, and with purity. 6 Homer knows the legend that a giant sought to lay violent hands on Leto (Od. xi. 580). Smintheus, one of Apollo's titles in Homer, is connected with the field-mouse (oiiivdos), one of his many sacred animals. His names, Au/aos, AvKi)ytvqs, were connected by an- tiquity with the wolf, by most modern writers with the light. According to some legends Leto had been a were-wolf. 7 The whole subject of the relations of Greek gods to animals is best set forth in the words of Plutarch (De Is. et Os. lxxi.), where he says that the Egyptians worship actual beasts, " whereas the Greeks both speak and believe correctly, saying that the dove is the sacred animal of Aphrodite, the raven of Apollo, the dog of Artemis," and so forth. Each Greek god had a small menagerie of sacred animals, and it may be conjectured that these animals were originally the totems of various stocks, subsumed into the worship of the anthropomorphic god. For the new theory of vegetation spirits and corn spirits see The Golden Bough. Apollo, in any case, is the young and beautiful archer-god of Homer ; Artemis, his sister, is the goddess of archery, who takes her pastime in the chase. She holds no considerable place in the Iliad; in the Odyssey, Nausicaa is compared to her, as to the pure and lovely lady of maidenhood. Her name is commonly connected with apTenfc — pure, unpolluted. Her close relations (un-Homeric) with the bear and bear-worship have suggested a derivation from aparos — "Apurcfiis. In Homer her " gentle shafts " deal sudden and painless death ; she is a beautiful Azrael. A much more important daughter of Zeus in Homer is Athene, the " grey- eyed " or (as some take yXavuwins, rather improbably) the " owl- headed "goddess. Her birth from the head of Zeus is not explicitly alluded to in Homer. 8 In Homer, Athene is a warlike maiden, the patron-goddess of wisdom and manly resolution. In the twenty- second book of the Odyssey she assumes the form of a swallow, and she can put on the shape of any man. She bears the aegis, the awful shield of Zeus. Another Homeric child of Zeus, or, according to Hesiod (Th. 927), of Hera alone, is Hephaestus, the lame craftsman and artificer. In the Iliad'' will be found some of the crudest Homeric myths. Zeus or Hera throws Hephaestus or Ate out of heaven, as in the Iroquois myth of the tossing from heaven of Ataentsic. There is, as usual, no agreement as to the etymology of the name of Hephaestus. Preller inclines to a connexion with i)00cu, to kindle fire, but Max Miiller differs from this theory. About the close relations of Hephaestus with fire there can be no doubt. He is a rough, kind, good-humoured being in the Iliad. In the Odyssey he is naturally annoyed by the adultery of his wife, Aphrodite, with Arcs. Ares is a god with whom Homer has no sympathy. He is a son of Hera, and detested by Zeus (Iliad, v. 890). He is cowardly in war, and on one occasion was shut up for years in a huge brazen pot. This adventure was even more ignominious than that of Poseidon and Apollo when they were compelled to serve Laomedon for hire. The payment he refused, and threatened to " cut off their ears with the sword " (Iliad, xxi. 455). Poseidon is to the sea what Zeus is to the air, and Hades to the underworld in Homer. 10 His own view of his social position may be stated in his own words (Iliad, xv. 183, 211). " Three brethren are we, and sons of Cronus, sons whom Rhea bare, even Zeus and myself, and Hades is the third, the ruler of the people in the underworld. And in three lots were all things divided, and each drew a lot of his own, 11 and to me fell the hoary sea, and Hades drew the mirky darkness, and Zeus the wide heaven in clear air and clouds, but the earth and high Olympus are yet common to all." Zeus, however, is, as Poseidon admits, the elder-born, and there- fore the revered head of the family. Thus Homer adopts the system 6 Cf. Preller, Griechische Mythologie,-\. 128, note I, for this and other philological conjectures. 6 The derivation of 'AttoKKuv remains obscure. The derivation of Leto from XaOelv, and the conclusion that her name means " the concealer " — that is, the night, whence the sun is born — is disputed by Curtius (Preller i. 190, 191, note 4), but appears to be accepted by Max Miiller (Selected Essays, i. 386) Latmos being derived from the same root as Leto, Latona, the night. 7 Aristotle, H. An. 6; Aelian, N. A. iv. 4. 8 Her name, as usual, is variously interpreted by various etymolo- gists. 9 xiv. 257; xviii. 395; xix. 91, 132. 10 The root of his name is sought in such words as tt&tos and Trorauds. 11 We learn from the Odyssey (xiv. 209) that this was the custom of sons on the death of their father. MYTHOLOGY 141 of primogeniture, while Hesiod is all for the opposite and probably earlier custom of Jiingsten-recht, and makes supreme Zeus the youngest of the sons of Cronus. Among the other gods Dionysus is but slightly alluded to in Homer as the son of Zeus and Semele, as the object of persecution, and as connected with the myth of Ariadne. The name of Hermes is derived from various sources, as from opixav and bpuri, or, by Max Muller, the name is connected with Sarameya (Sky). If he had originally an elemental character, it is now difficult to distinguish, though interpreters connect him with the wind. He is the messenger of the gods, the bringer of good luck, and the conductor of men's souls down the dark ways of death. In addition to the great Homeric gods, the poet knows a whole " Olympian consistory " of deities, nymphs, nereids, sea-gods and goddesses, river-gods, Iris the rainbow goddess, Sleep, Demeter who lay with a mortal, Aphrodite the goddess of love, wife of Hephaes- tus and leman of Ares, and so forth. As to the origin of the gods, Homer is not very explicit. He is acquainted with the existence of an older dynasty now deposed, the dynasty of Cronus and the Titans. In the Iliad (viii. 478) Zeus says to Hera, " For thine anger reck I not, not even though thou go to the nethermost bounds of e?rth and sea, where sit Iapetus and Cronus . . . and deep Tartarus « round about them." " The gods below that are with Cronus " are mentioned (//. xiv. 274; xv. 225). Rumours of old divine wars echo in the Iliad, as (i. 400) where it is said that when the other immortals revolted against and bound Zeus, Thetis brought to his aid Aegaeon of the hundred arms. The streams of Oceanus (i7. xiv. 246) are spoken of as the source of all the gods, and in the same book (290) " Oceanus and mother Tethys " are regarded as the parents of the immortals. Zeus is usually called Cronion and Cronides, which Homer certainly understood to mean " son of Cronus," yet it is expressly stated that Zeus " imprisoned Cronus beneath the earth and the unvintaged sea." The whole subject is only alluded to incidentally. On the whole it may be said that the Homeric deities are powerful anthropomorphic beings, departmental rulers, united by the ordinary social and family ties of the Homeric age, capable of pain and pleasure, living on heavenly food, but refreshed by the sacrifices of men (Od- v. 100, 102), able to assume all forms at will, and to intermarry and propagate the species with mortal men and women. Their past has been stormy, and their ruler has attained power after defeating and mediatizing a more ancient dynasty of his own kindred. From Hesiod we receive a much more elaborate — probably a more, ancient, certainly a more barbarous — story of the gods and their origin. In the beginning the gods (here used in a wide sense to denote an early non-natural race) were begotten by Earth and Heaven, conceived of as beings with human parts and passions (Hesiod, Theog. 45). This idea recurs in Maori, Vedic and Chinese mythology. Heaven and Earth, united in an endless embrace, produced children which never saw the light. In New Zealand, Chinese, Vedic, Indian and Greek myths the pair had to be sundered. 1 Hesiod enumerates the children whom Earth bore " when couched in love with Heaven." They are Ocean, Coeus, Crius, Hyperion, Iapetus, Theia, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Tethys and the youngest, Cronus, " and he hated his glorious father." Others of this early race were the Cyclopes, Bronte, Sterope and Arge, and three children of enormous strength, Cottus, Briareus (Aegaeon) and Gyes, each with one hundred hands and fifty heads. Uranus detested his offspring, and hid them in crannies of Earth. Earth excited Cronus to attack the father, whom he castrated with a sickle. From the blood of Uranus (this feature is common in Red Indian and Egyptian myths) were born furies, giants, ash-nymphs and Aphrodite. A number of monsters, as Echidna, Geryon and the hound of hell, were born of the loves of various elemental powers. The chief stock of the divine species was continued by the marriage of Rhea (probably another form of the Earth) with Cronus. Their children were Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades and Poseidon. All these Cronus swallowed; and this " swallow-myth " occurs in Australia, among the Bushmen, in Guiana, in Brittany (where Gargantua did the swallow-trick) and elsewhere. At last Rhea bore Zeus, and gave Cronus a stone in swaddling bands, which he disposed of in the usual way. Zeus grew up, administered an emetic to Cronus, (some say Metis did this), and had the satis- faction of seeing all his brothers and sisters disgorged alive. The stone came forth first, and Pausanias saw it at Delphi (Paus. x. 24). Then followed the wars between Zeus and the gods he had rescued from the maw of Cronus against the gods of the elder branch, the children of Uranus and Gaea — Heaven and Earth. The victory remained with the younger branch, the immortal Olympians of Homer. The system of Hesiod is a medley of later physical speculation and of poetic allegory, with matter which we, at least, regard as savage survivals, like the mutilation of Heaven and the swallow- myth. 2 1 See Tylor, Prim. Cult. i. 326. 2 Bleek, Bushman. Folk-Lore, pp. 6-8. Max Muller suggests another theory {Selected Essays, i. 460) : " Kpovos did not exist till long after Zeus in Greece." The name Kpoviuv, or KpoviS-qs, looks like a patronymic. Muller, however, thinks it originally meant only " connected with time, existing through all time." Very much later the name was mistaken for a genuine patronymic, In Homer and in Hesiod myths enter the region of literature, and become, as it were, national. But it is probable that the local myths of various cities and temples, of the " sacred chapters " which were told by the priests to travellers and in the mysteries to the initiated, were older in form than the epic and national myths. Of these " sacred chapters " we have fragments and hints in Hero- dotus, Pausanias, in the mythographers, like Apollodorus, in the tragic poets, and in the ancient scholia or notes on the classics. From these sources come almost all the more inhuman, bestial and discreditable myths of the gods. In these we more distinctly perceive the savage element. The gods assume animal forms: Cronus becomes a horse, Rhea a mare; Zeus begets separate families of men in the shape of a bull, an ant, a serpent, a swan. His mistress from whom the Arcadians claim descent becomes a she-bear. It is usual with mythoiogists to say that Zeus is the " Ail-Father," and that his amours are only a. poetic way of stating that he is the parent of men. But why does he assume so many animal shapes ? Why did various royal houses claim descent from the ant, the swan, the she-bear, the serpent, the horse and so forth ? We have already seen that this is the ordinary pedigree of savage stocks in Asia, Africa, Australia and America, while animals appear among Irish tribes and in Egyptian and ancient English genealogies. 3 It is a plausible hypothesis that stocks which once claimed descent from animals, sans phrase, afterwards regarded the animals as avatars of Zeus. In the same way " the Minas, a non-Aryan tribe of Rajpu- tana, used to worship the pig; when the Brahmans got a turn at them, the pig became an avatar of Vishnu " (Lyall, Asiatic Studies). The tales of divine cannibalism to which Pindar refers with awe, the mutilation of Dionysus Zagreus, the unspeakable abominations of Dionysus, the loves of Hera in the shape of a cuckoo, the divine powers of metamorphosing men and women into beasts and stars — these tales come to us as echoes of the period of savage thought. Further evidence on this point will be given below in a classification of the principal mythic legends. The general conclusion is that many of the Greek deities were originally elemental, the elements being personified in accordance with the laws of savage imagina- tions. But we cannot explain each detail in the legends as a myth of this or that natural phenomenon or process as understood by ourselves. Various stages of late and early fancy have contributed to the legends. Zeus is the sky, but not our sky; he had originally a personal character, and that, a savage or barbarous character. He probably attracted into his legend stories that did not origi- nally belong to him. He became anthropomorphic, and his myth was handled by local priests, by family bards, by national poets, by early philosophers. His legend is a complex embroidery on a very ancient tissue. The other divine myths are equally complex. See L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States; Miss Jane Harrison, Prolegomena to Greek Religion; and Frazer, The Golden Bough, especially as regards the vegetable or " probably arboreal " aspect of Zeus. Scandinavian Divine Myths. — The Scandinavian myths of the gods are numerous and interesting, but the evidence on which they have reached us demands criticism for which we lack space. That there are in the Eddas and Sagas early ideas and later ideas tinged by Christian legend seems indubitable, but philological and historical learning has by no means settled the questions of relative purity and antiquity in the myths. The Eddie songs, according to F. Y. Powell, one of the editors of the Corpus poeticum septentrionale (the best work on the subject), " cannot date earlier " in their present form " than the 9th century," and may be vaguely placed between a.d. 800-1100. The collector of the Edda probably had the old poems recited to him in the 13th century, and where there was a break in the memory of the reciters the lacuna was filled up in prose. " As one goes through the poems, one is ever and anon face to face with a myth of the most childish and barbaric type," which " carries one back to prae-Aryan days." Side by side with these old stories come fragments of a different stratum of thought, Christian ideas, the belief in a supreme God, the notion of Doomsday. The Scandinavian cosmogonic myth (with its parallels among races savage and civilized) is given elsewhere. The most important god is Odin, the son of Bestla and Bor, the husband of Frigg, the father of Balder and many other sons, the head of the Aesir stock of gods. Odin's name is connected with that of Wuotan, and referred to the Old High-German verb watan wuot = meare, cum impetu ferri (Grimm, Teut. Myth., Eng. transl., and " Zeus the ancient of days " became " Zeus the son of Cronus." Having thus got a Cronus, the Greeks — and " the misunderstanding could have happened in Greece only " — needed a myth of Cronus. They therefore invented or adapted the " swallow-myth " so familiar to Bushmen and Australians. This singular reversion to savagery itself needs some explanation. But the hypothesis that Cronus is a late derivation from KpoviSr/s and Kpovlwv is by no means universally accepted. Others derive KpSvos from upalvai, and connect it with Kpovia, a kind of harvest-home festival. Schwartz (Prahistorisch-anthropologische Studien) readily proves Cronus to be the storm, swallowing the clouds. Perhaps we may say of Schwartz's view, as he says of Preller's — " das ist Gedanken- spiel, aber nimmermehr Mythologie." 3 Elton, Origins of English History, pp. 298—301. 142 MYTHOLOGY i. 131). Odin would thus (if we admit the etymology) be the swift goer, the " ganger," and it seems superfluous to make him (with Grimm) " the all-powerful, all-permeating being," a very abstract and scarcely an early conception. Odin's brethren (in Gylfi's Mocking) are Vile and Ve, who with him slew Ymir the giant, and made all things out of the fragments of his body. They also made man out of two stocks. In the Hava-Mal Odin claims for himself most of the attributes of the medicine-man. In Loka Senna, Loki, the evil god, says that " Odin dealt in magic in Samsey." The goddess Frigg remarks, " Ye should never talk of your old doings before men, of what ye two Aesir went through in old times." But many relics of these " old times," many traces of the medicine-man and the " skin-shifter," survive in the myth of Odin. When he stole Suttung's mead (which answers somewhat to nectar and the Indian soma), he flew away in the shape of an eagle. 1 The hawk is sacred to Odin; one of his names is " the Raven-god." He was usually represented as one-eyed, having left an eye in pawn that he might purchase a draught from Mimir's well. This one eye is often explained as the sun. Odin's wife was Frigg; their sons were Thor (the thunder-god) and Balder, whose myth is well known in English poetry. The gods were divided into two — not always friendly — stocks, the Aesir and Vanir. Their relations are, on the whole, much more amicable than those of the Asuras and Devas in Indian mythology. Not necessarily immortal, the gods restored their vigour by eating the apples of Iduna. Asa Loki was a being of mixed race, half god, half giant, and wholly mischievous and evil. His legend includes animal metamorphoses of the most obscene character. In the shape of a -mare he became the mother of the eight-legged horse of Odin. He borrowed the hawk-dress of Freya, when he recovered the apples of Iduna. Another Eddie god, Hoene, is described in phrases from lost poems as " the long-legged one," " lord of the ooze," and his name is connected with that of the crane. The con- stant enemies of the gods, the giants, could also assume animal forms. Thus in Thiodolf's Haust-long (composed after the settle- ment of Iceland) we read about a shield on which events from myth- ology were painted; among these was the flight of " giant Thiazzi in an ancient eagle's feathers." The god Herindal and Loki once fought a battle in the shapes of seals. On the whole, the Scan- dinavian gods are a society on an early human model, of beings indifferently human, animal and divine — some of them derived from elemental forces personified, holding sway over the elements, and skilled in sorcery. Probably after the viking days came in the conceptions of the last war of gods, and the end of all, and the theory of Odin All-Father as a kind of emperor in the heavenly world. The famous tree that lives through all the world is regarded as " foreign, Christian, and confined to few poems." There is, almost undoubtedly, a touch of the Christian dawn on the figure and myth of the pure and beloved and ill-fated god Balder, and his descent into hell. The whole subject is beset with critical diffi- culties, and we have chiefly noted features which can hardly be regarded as late, and which correspond with widely distributed mythical ideas. Dasent's Prose or Younger Edda (Stockholm, 1842); the Corpus Septentrionale already referred to; C. F. Keary's Mythology of the Eddas (1882); Pigott's Manual of Scandinavian Mythology (1838); and Laing's Early Kings of Norway may be consulted by English students. Classification of Myths. — It is now necessary to cast a hasty glance over the chief divisions of myths. These correspond to the chief problems which the world presents to the curiosity of untutored men. They ask themselves (and the 'answers are given in myths) the following questions: What is the Origin of the World ? The Origin of Man ? Whence came the Arts of Life? Whence the Stars? Whence the Sun and Moon? What is the Origin of Death? How was Fire procured by Man? The question of the origin of the marks and characteristics of various animals and plants has also produced a class of myths in which the marks are said to survive from some memorable adventure, or the plants and animals to be metamorphosed human beings. Examples of all these myths are found among savages and in the legends of the ancient civilizations. A few such examples may now be given. Myths of the Origin of the World. — We have found it difficult to keep myths of the gods apart from myths of the origin of the world and of man, because gods are frequently regarded as creative powers. The origin of things is a problem which has everywhere 1 Indra was a hawk when, " being well-winged, he carried to men the food tasted by the gods " (R. V. iv. 26, 4). Yehl, the Tlingit god-hero, was a raven or a crane when he stole the water (Bancroft iii. 100-102). The prevalence of animals, or of god- animals, in myths of the stealing of water, soma and fire, is very remarkable. Among the Andaman Islanders, a kingfisher steals fire for men from the god Puluga (Anthrop. Journal, November 1882). exercised thought, and been rudely solved in myths. These vary in quality with the civilization of the races in which they are current, but the same ideas which we proceed to state pervade all cosmo- gonical myths, savage and civilized. All these legends waver between the theory of creation, or rather of manufacture, and the theory of evolution. The earth, as a rule, is supposed to have grown out of some original matter, perhaps an animal, perhaps an egg which floated on the waters, perhaps a fragment of soil fished up out of the floods by a beast or a god. But this conception does not exclude the idea that many of the things in the world — minerals, plants, people, and what not — are fragments of the frame of an animal or non-natural magnified man, or are excretions from the body of a god. We proceed to state briefly the various forms of these ideas. The most backward races usually assume the prior existence of the earth. The aborigines of the northern parts of Victoria (Australia) believe that the earth was made by Pund-jel, the bird-creator, who sliced the valleys with a knife. Another Australian theory is that the men of a previous race, the Nooralie (very old ones), made the earth. The problem of the origin of the world seems scarcely to have troubled the Bushmen. They know about " men who brought the sun," but their doctrines are revealed in mysteries, and Qing, the informant of Mr Orpen (Cape Monthly Magazine, July 1874), " did not dance that dance " — that is, had not been initiated into all the secret doctrines of his tribe. According to Qing, creation was the work of Cagn (the mantis insect), " he gave orders and caused all things to appear." Elsewhere in the myth Cagn made or manufactured things by his skill. As a rule the most backward races, while rich in myths of the origin of men, animals, plants, stones and stars, do not say much about the making of the world. Among people a little more ad- vanced, the earth is presumed to have grown out of the waters. In the Iroquois myth (Lafitau, Mceurs des sauvages, 1724), a heavenly woman was tossed out of heaven, and fell on a turtle, which developed into the world. Another North-American myth assumes a single island in the midst of the waters, and this island grew into the world. The Navaho and the Digger Indians take earth for granted as a starting-point in their myths. The Winnebagos, not untouched by Christian doctrine, do not go farther back. The Great Manitou awoke and found himself alone. He took a piece of his body and a piece of earth and made a man. Here the existence of earth is assumed (Bancroft iv. 228). Even in Guatemala, though the younger sons of a divine race succeed in making the earth where the elder son (as usual) failed, they all had a supply of clay as first material. The Pima, a Central-American tribe, say the earth was made by a pcverful being, and at first appeared " like a spider's web." Thir -eminds one of the Ananzi or spider creator of West Africa. The more metaphysical Tacullies of British Columbia say that in the beginning nought existed but water and a musk-rat. The musk-rat sought his food at the bottom of the water, and his mouth was frequently filled with mud. This he kept spitting out, and so formed an island, which developed into the world. Among the Tinneh, the frame of a dog (which could assume the form of a handsome young man) became the first material of most things. The dog, like Osiris, Dionysus, Purusha and other gods, was torn to pieces by giants; the fragments became many of the things in the world (Bancroft i. 106). Even here the existence of earth for the dog to live in is assumed. Coming to races more advanced in civilization, we find the New Zealanders in possession of ancient hymns in which the origin of things is traced back to nothing, to darkness, and to a metaphysical process from nothing to something, from being to becoming. The hymns may be read in Sir George Grey's Polynesian Mythology, and in Taylor's New Zealand. It has been suggested that these hymns bear traces of Buddhist and Indian influence ; in any case, they are rather metaphysical than mystical. Myth comes in when the Maoris represent Rangi and Papa, Heaven and Earth, as two vast beings, male and female, united in a secular embrace, and finally severed by their children, among whom Tane Mahuta takes the part of Cronus in the Greek myth. The gods were partly elemental, partly animal in character; the lists of their titles show that every human crime was freely attributed to them. In the South Sea Islands, generally, the fable of the union and separation of Heaven and Earth is current ; other forms will be found in Gill's Myths and Songs from the South Pacific. The cosmogonic myths of the Aryans of India are peculiarly interesting, as we find in the Vedas and Brahmanas and Puranas almost every fiction familiar to savages side by side with the most abstract metaphysical speculations. We have the theory that earth grew, as in the Iroquois story of the turtle, from a being named Uttanapad (Muir v. 335). We find that Brahmanaspati " blew the gods forth from his mouth," and one of the gods, Tvashtri, the mechanic among the deities, is credited with having fashioned the earth and the heaven (Muir v. 354). The " Purusha Sukta," the 90th hymn of the tenth book of the Rig Veda, gives us the Indian version of the theory that all things were made -out of the mangled limbs of Purusha, a magnified non-natural man, who was sacrificed by the gods. As this hymn gives Pin account of the origin of the castes (which elsewhere are scarcely recognized in the MYTHOLOGY H3 Rig Veda), it is sometimes regarded as a late addition. But we can scarcely think the main conception late, as it is so widely scattered that it meets us in most mythologies, including those of Chaldaea and Egypt, and various North-American tribes. Not satisfied with this myth, the Aryans of India accounted for the origin of species in the following barbaric style. A being named Purusha was alone in the world. He differentiated himself into two beings, husband and wife. The wife, regarding union with her producer as incest, fled from his embraces as Nemesis did from those of Zeus, and Rhea from Cronus, assuming various animal disguises. The husband pursued in the form of the male of each animal, and from these unions sprang the various species of beasts (Satapatha- Brahmana, xiv. 4, 2; Muir i. 25). The myth of the cosmic egg from which all things were produced is also current in the Brah- manas. In the Puranas we find the legend of many successive creations and destructions of. the world a myth of world-wide distribution. As a rule, destruction by a deluge is the most favourite myth, but destructions by fire and wind and by the wrath of a god are common in Australian, Peruvian and Egyptian tradition. The idea that a boar, or a god in the shape of a boar, fished up a bit of earth, which subsequently became the world, out of the waters, is very well known to the Aryans of India, and recalls the feats of American musk-rats and coyotes already described. 1 The tortoise from which all things sprang, in a myth of the Satapatha-Brahmana, reminds us of the Iroquois turtle. The Greek and Mangaian myth of the marriage of Heaven and Earth and its dissolution is found in the Aitareya-Brahmana (Haug's trans, ii. 308; Rig Veda, i. lxii.). So much for the Indian cosmogonic myths, which are a collection of ideas familiar to savages, blended with sacerdotal theories and ritual mummeries. The philosophical theory of the origin of things, a hymn of remarkable stateliness, is in Rig Veda, x. 129. The Scandinavian cosmogonic myth starts from the abyss, Ginnungagap, a chaos of ice, from which, as it thawed, was produced the giant Ymir. Ymir is the Scandinavian Purusha. A man and woman sprang from his armpit, like Athene from the head of Zeus. A cow licked the hoar-frost, whence rose Bur, whose children, Odin, Vile and Ve, slew the giant Ymir. " Of his flesh they formed the earth, of his blood seas and waters, of his bones mountains, of his teeth rocks and stones, of his hair all manner of plants." This is the story in the Prose Edda, derived from older songs, such as the .Grimnersmal. However the distribution of this singular myth may be explained, its origin can scarcely be sought in the imagination of races higher in culture than the Tinneh and Tacullies, among whom dogs and beavers are the theriomorphic form of Purusha or Ymir. . ' ' _" ;. Myths of the Origin of Man. — These partake of the conceptions of evolution and of creation. Man was made out of clay by a super- natural being. Australia: man was made by Pund-jel. New Zealand: man was made by Tiki; " he took red clay, and kneaded it with his own blood." Mangaia: the woman of the abyss made a child from a piece of flesh plucked out of her own side. Melanesia: " man was made of clay, red from the marshy side of Vanua Levu"; woman was made by Qat of willow twigs. Greece: men were vXa/Tfiara mjXou, figures baked in clay by Prometheus. 2 India: men were made after many efforts, in which the experimental beings did not harmonize with their environment, by Prajapati. In another class of myths, man was evolved out of the lower animals — lizards in Australia; coyotes, beavers, apes and other beasts in America. The Greek myths of the descent of the Arcadians, Myrmidons, children of the swan, the cow, and so forth, may be compared. Yet again, men came out of trees or plants or rocks: as from the Australian wattle-gum, the Zulu bed of reeds, the great tree of the Ovahereros, the rock of the tribes in Central Africa, the cave of Bushman and North-American and Peruvian myth, " from tree or stone " (Odyssey, xix. 163). This view was common among the Greeks, who boasted of being autochthonous. The Cephisian marsh was one scene of man's birth according to a fragment of Pindar, who mentions Egyptian and Libyan legends of the same description. Myths of the Arts of Life. — These are almost unanimously attributed to " culture-heroes," beings theriomorphic or anthropo- morphic, who, like Pund-jel, Qat, Quawteaht, Prometheus, Manabozho, Quetzalcoatl, Cagn and the rest, taught men the use of the bow, the processes (where known) of pottery, agriculture (as Demeter), the due course of the mysteries, divination, and everything else they knew. Commonly the teacher disappears mysteriously. He is often regarded by modern mythologists as the sun> Star Myths. — " The stars came otherwise," says Browning's Caliban. In savage and civilized myths they are usually meta- morphosed men, women and beasts. In Australia, the Pleiades, as in Greece, were girls. Castor and Pollux in Greece, as in Australia, were young men. Our Bear was a bear, according to Charlevoix and Lafitau, among the North-American Indians; the Eskimo, 1 Black Yajur-Veda and Satapatha-Brahmana; Muir, i. 52. 2 Aristophanes, Aves, 686; Etym. Magn., s.v. 'Uoviov, Pausanias jaw the clay (Paus. x. iv.). The story is also quoted by Lactantius '.rem Hesiod. according to Egede, who settled the Danish colony in Greenland, regarded the stars " very nonsensically," as " so many of their ancestors"; the Egyptian priests showed Plutarch the stars that had been Isis and Osiris. Aristophanes, in the Pax, shows us that the belief in the change of men into stars survived in his own day in Greece. The Bushmen (Bleek) have the same opinion. The Satapatha-Brahmana (Sacred Books of the East, xii. 284) shows how Prajapati, in his incestuous love, turned himself into a roe- buck, his daughter into a doe, and how both became constellations. This is a thoroughly good example of the savage myths (as in Peru, according to Acosta) by which beasts and anthropomorphic gods and stars are all jumbled together. 3 The Rig Veda contains examples of the idea that the good become stars. Solar and Lunar Myths. — These are universally found, and are too numerous to be examined here. The sun and moon, as in the Bulgarian ballad of the Sun's Bride (a mortal girl), are looked on as living beings. In Mexico they were two men, or gods of a human character who were burned. The Eskimo know the moon as a man who visits earth, and, again, as a girl who had her face spotted by ashes which the Sun threw at her. The Khasias make the sun a woman, who daubs the face of the moon, a man. The Homeric hymn to Helios, as Max Miiller observes, " looks on the sun as a half-god, almost a hero, who had once lived on earth." This is precisely the Bushman view; the sun was a man who irradiated light from his armpit. In New Zealand and in North America the sun is a beast, whom adventurers have trapped and beaten. Medicine has been made with his blood. In the Andaman Islands the Sun is the wife of the Moon (Jour, of Anlh. Soc, 1882). Among aboriginal tribes in India (Dalton, p. 186) the Moon is the Sun's bride; she was faithless and he cut her in two, but occasionally lets her shine in full beauty. The Andaman Islanders account for the white brilliance of the moon by saying that he is daubing himself with white clay, a custom common in savage and Greek mysteries. The Red Men accounted to the Jesuits for the spherical forms of sun and moon by saying that their appearance was caused by their bended bows. The Moon in Greek myths loved Endymion, and was bribed to be the mistress of Pan by the present of a fleece, like the Dawn in Australia, whose unchastity was rewarded by a gift of a red cloak of opossum skin. Solar and lunar myths usually account for the observed phenomena of eclipse, waning and waxing, sunset, spots on the moon, and so forth by various mythical adventures of the animated heavenly beings. In modern folk-lore the moon is a place to which bad people are sent, rather than a woman or a man. The mark of the hare in the moon has struck the imagination of Germans, Mexicans, Hottentots, Sinhalese, and produced myths among all these races. 4 Myths of Death. — Few savage races regard death as a natural event. All natural deaths are supernatural with them. Men are assumed to be naturally immortal, hence a series of myths to account for the origin of death. Usually some custom or " taboo " is represented as having been broken, when death has followed. In New Zealand, Maui was not properly baptized. In Australia, a woman was told not to go near a certain tree where a bat lived ; she infringed the prohibition, the bat fluttered out, and men died. The Ningphoos were dismissed from Paradise and became mortal, because one of them bathed in water which had been tabooed (Dalton, p. 13). In the Atharva Veda, Yama, like Maui in New Zealand, first " spied out the path to the other world," which all men after him have taken. In the -Rig Veda (x. 14), Yama " sought out a road for many." In the Solomon Islands (Jour. Anth, Inst., Feb. 1881), " Koevari was the author of death, by resuming her cast-off skin." The same story is told in the Banks Islands. In the Greek myth (Hesiod, Works and Days, 90), men lived without " ill diseases that give death to men " till the cover was lifted from the forbidden box of Pandora. As to the myths of Hades, the place of the dead, they are far too many to be mentioned in detail. In almost all the gates of hell are guarded by fierce beasts, and in Ojibway, Finnish, Greek, Papuan and Japanese myths no mortal visitor may escape from Hades who has once tasted the food of the dead. Myths of Fire-stealing. — Those current in North America (where an animal is commonly the thief) will be found in Bancroft, vol. iv. The Australian version, singularly like one Greek legend, is given by Brough Smyth. Stories of the theft of Prometheus are recorded by Hesiod, Aeschylus, and their commentators. Muir and Kuhn may be consulted for Vedic fire-stealing. Heroic and Romantic Myths. — In addition to myths which are clearly intended to explain facts of the universe, most nations have their heroic and romantic myths. Familiar examples are the stories of Perseus, Odysseus, Sigurd, the Indian epic stories, the adventures of Ilmarinen and Wainamoinen in the Kalewala, and so forth. To discuss these myths as far as they can be considered apart from divine and explanatory tales would demand more space than we have at our disposal. It will become evident to any student of the romantic myths that they consist of different arrange- 3 See also Vishnu Purana, i. 131. 4 See Cornhill Magazine, " How the Stars got their Names " (1882, p. 35), and " Some Solar and Lunar Myths " (1882, p. 440)% Max Miiller, Selected Essays, i. 609-611. i 4 4 MYXOEDEMA— MYZOSTOMIDA ments of a rather limited set of incidents. * These incidents have been roughly classified by Von Hahn. 1 We may modify his arrange- ment as follows. There is (i) the story of a bride or bridegroom who transgresses a commandment of a mystic nature, and disappears as a result of the sin. The bride sins as in Eros and Psyche, Freja and Oddur, Puraravas and Urvasi. 2 The sin of Urvasi and Psyche was seeing their husbands — naked in the latter case. The sin was against " the manner of women." Now the rule of etiquette which forbids seeing or naming the husband (especially the latter) is of the widest distribution. The offence in the Welsh form of the story is naming the partner — a thing forbidden among early Greeks and modern Zulus. Presumably the tale (with its example of the sanction) sur- vives the rule in many cases. (2) " Penelope formula." The man leaves the wife and returns after many years. A good example occurs in Chinese legend. (3) Formula of the attempt to avoid fate or the prophecy of an oracle. This incident takes numerous shapes, as in the story of the fatal birth of Perseus, Paris, the Egyptian prince shut up in a tower, the birth of Oedipus. (4) Slaughter of a monster. This is best known in the case of Andro- meda and Perseus. (5) Flight, by aid of an animal usually, from cannibalism, human sacrifice, or incest. The Greek example is Phrixus, Helle, and the ram of the golden fleece. (6) Flight of a lady and her lover from a giant father or wizard father. Jason and Medea furnish the Greek example. (7) The youngest brother the successful adventurer, and the head of the family. We have seen the example of Greek mythic illustrations of " Jiingsten- recht," or supremacy of the youngest, in the Hesiodic myth of Zeus, the youngest child of Cronus. (8) Bride given to whoever will accomplish difficult adventures or vanquish girl in race. The custom of giving a bride without demanding bride-price, in reward for a great exploit, is several times alluded to in the Iliad. In Greek heroic myth Jason thus wins Medea, and (in the race) Milanion wins Atalanta. In the Kalewala much of the Jason cycle, including this part, recurs. The rider through the fire wins Brunhild but this may belong to another cycle of ideas. (9) The grateful beasts, who, having been aided by the hero, aid him in his adventures. Melampus and the snakes is a Greek example. This story is but one specimen of the personal human character of animals in myths, already referred to the intellectual condition of savages. (10) Story of the strong man and his adventures, and stories of the comrades Keen-eye, Quick-ear, and the rest. Jason has comrades • like these, as had Ilmarinen and Heracles, the Greek " strong man." (11) Adventure with an ogre, who is blinded and deceived by a pun of the hero's. Odysseus and Polyphemus is the Greek ex- ample. (12) Descent into Hades of the hero. Heracles, Odysseus, Wainamoinen in the Kalewala, are the best-known examples in epic literature. These are twelve specimens of the incidents, to which we may add (13) " the false bride," as in the poem of Berte aux grans Pies, and (14) the legend of the bride said to produce beast-children. The belief in the latter phenomenon is very common in Africa, and in the Arabian Nights, and we have seen it in America. Of these formulae (chosen because illustrated by Greek heroic legends) — (1) is a sanction of barbarous nuptial etiquette; (2) is an obvious ordinary incident; (3) is moral, and both (3) and (1) may pair off with all the myths of the origin of death from the infringe- ment of a taboo or sacred command ; (4) would naturally occur wherever, as on the West Coast of Africa, human victims have been offered to sharks or other beasts; (5) the story of flight from a horrible crime, occurs in some stellar myths, and is an easy and natural invention; (6) flight from wizard father or husband, is found in Bushman and Namaqua myth, where the husband is an elephant ; (7) success of youngest brother, may have been an ex- planation and sanction of " Jiingsten-recht " — Maui in New Zealand is an example, and Herodotus found the story among the Scythians; (8) the bride given to successful adventurer, is consonant with heroic manners as late as Homer; (9) is no less consonant with the belief that beasts have human sentiments and supernatural powers; (10) the " strong man," is found among Eskimo and Zulus, and was an obvious invention when strength was the most admired of qualities; (11) the baffled ogre, is found among Basques and Irish, and turns on a- form of punning which inspires an " ananzi " story in West Africa; (12) descent into Hades, is the natural result of the savage conception of Hades, and the tale is told of actual living people in the Solomon Islands and in New Caledonia; Eskimo Angekoks can and do descend into Hades — it is the prerogative of the necromantic magician; (13) " the false bride," found among the Zulus, does not permit of such easy explanation — naturally, in Zululand, the false bride is an animal; (14) the bride accused of bearing beast-children, has already been disposed of; the belief is inevitable where no distinction worth mentioning is taken between men and animals. English folk-lore has its woman who bore rabbits. The formulae here summarized, with others, are familiar in the marchen of Samoyeds, Zulus, Bushmen, Hottentots and Red Indians. For an argument intended to show that Greek heroic 1 Griechische una" albanesische Marchen, i. 45. •Tenth Book of Rig Veda and " Brahmana " of Yajur-Veda; Miiller Selected Essays, i. 410. myths may be adorned and classified marchen, in themselves survivals of savage fancy, see Fortnightly Review, May 1872, " Myths and Fairy Tales." The old explanation was that marchen are degenerate heroic myths. This does not explain the marchen of African, and perhaps not of Siberian races. In this sketch of mythology that of Rome is not included, because its most picturesque parts are borrowed from or adapted into harmony with the mythology of Greece. Greece, India and Scandi- navia will supply a fair example of Aryan mythology (without entering on the difficult Slavonic and Celtic fields). (A. L.) MYXOEDEMA (or athyrea), the medical term for a constitu- tional disease (see Metabolic Diseases) due to the degeneration of the thyroid gland, and occurring in adults; it may be con- trasted with cretinism, which is a condition appearing in early childhood. There are two forms, myxoedema proper and opera- tive myxoedema (cachexia strumipriva) . (1) Myxoedema has been termed " Gull's Disease" from Sir William Gull's observa- tions in 1873. Women are more often the victims than men, in a ratio of 6 to 1. It frequently affects members of the same family and may be transmitted through the mother, and it has been observed sometimes to follow exophthalmic goitre. The symptoms are a marked increase in bulk and weight of the body, puffy appearance of skin which does not pit on pressure, the line of the features becoming obliterated and getting coarse and broad, the lips thick and nostrils enlarged, with loss of hair, subnormal temperature and marked mental changes. There is striking slowness of thought and action, the memory becomes defective, and the patient becomes irritable and suspicious. In some instances the condition progresses to that of dementia. The thyroid gland itself is diminished in size, and may become completely atrophied and converted into a fibrous mass. The untreated disease is progressive, but the course is slow and the symptoms may extend over 12 to 15 years, death from asthenia or tuberculosis being the most frequent ending. (2) Symptoms similar to the above m?y follow complete removal of the thyroid gland. Kocher of Bern found that, in the total removal of the gland by operation, out of 408 cases operative myxoedema occurred in 69, but it is thought that if a small portion of the gland is left, 01 if accessory glands are present, these symptoms will not develop. The treatment of myxoedema is similar to that of cretinism. MYZOSTOMIDA, a remarkable group of small parasitic worms which live on crinoid echinoderms; they were first dis- covered by Leuckart in 1827. Some species, such as Myzostoma cirriferum, move about on the host; others, such as M. glabrum, remain stationary with the pharynx inserted in the mouth of the crinoid. M. dejormator gives rise to a " gall " on the arm of the host, one joint of the pinnule growing round the worm so as to enclose it in a cyst (see fig. E) ; whilst M. pulvinar lives actually in the alimentary canal of a species of Anledon. A typical myzostomid (see A, B, C) is of a flattened rounded shape, with a thin edge drawn out into delicate radiating cirri. The skin is ciliated. The dorsal surface is smooth ; ventrally there are five pairs of parapodia, armed with supporting and hooked setae, by means of which the worm adheres to its host. Beyond the parapodia are four pairs of organs, often called suckers, but probably of sensory nature, and comparable to the lateral sense organs of Capitellids (Wheeler). The mouth and cloacal aperture are generally at opposite ends of the ventral surface. The former leads to a protrusible pharynx (B), from which the oesophagus opens into a wide intestinal chamber with branching lateral diver- ticula. There appears to be no vascular system. The nervous system consists of a circumoesophageal nerve, with scarcely differ- entiated brain, joining below a large ganglionic mass no doubt representing many fused ganglia (B). The dorsoventral and the parapodial muscles are much developed, whilst the coelom is re- duced mostly to branched spaces in which the genital products ripen. Full-grown myzostomids are hermaphrodite. The male organ (C) consists of a- branched sac opening to the exterior on each side. The paired ovaries discharge their products into a median coelemic chamber with lateral branches (C), often called the uterus, from which the ripe ova are discharged by a median dorsal pore into the terminal region of the rectum (cloaca). Into this same cloacal chamber open ventrally a pair of ciliated tubes communicating by funnels with the coelom (Nansen and Wheeler); these are possibly nephridia, and excretory in function. The Myzostomida are protandric hermaphrodites, being functional males when small, hermaphrodite later, and finally MZABITES H5 functional females (Wheeler). Small " males " are in some species constantly associated with large hermaphrodites, but according to Beard there are in some cases true dwarf males, comparable to the complementary males described by Darwin in the Cirripedia. The embryology of Myzostoma has been A, Ventral view of Myzostoma. B, Diagram of Myzostoma, show- ing the nervous and alimen- tary systems. C, Diagram of M yzostoma, show- ing the genital organs (from v. Graf and Wheeler). D, Larva of Myzostoma glabrum. (After Beard.) E, Portion of the arm of Penta- crinus, showing a cyst containing Myzostoma. a, Cloacal aperture. n, Ciliated tube (nephridium?). ar, Arm. o, Opening. c, Cirrus. ov, Ovary. cl, " Cloaca." p, Parapodium. coe, Coelom. ph, Pharynx. ct, Swollen pinnule forming a s, Sense organ. cyst. sp, Sperm-sac. i. Intestine and its caeca. vn, Ventral ganglionic mass. Is, Larval setae. j, Male opening. m, Mouth. 9 , Female opening. studied by Metchnikoff and Beard. Cleavage leads to the formation of an epibolic gastrula and ciliated embryo which hatches as a free-swimming larva remarkably like that of a Polychaete worm (D). The larva is provided with postoral and perianal ciliated bands, and on either side with a bunch of long provisional setae. The mesoderm becomes segmented, and the parapodia subsequently develop from before backwards; but almost all internal traces of segmentation are lost in the adult. The structure and development of the Myzostomida seem to show that they are nearly related to Polychaeta (see Chaetopoda), though highly modified in relation to their parasitic mode of life. Authorities. — L. v. Graff, Das Genus Myzostoma (Leipzig, 1877); and " The Myzostomida," Challenger Reports (1884), vol. x. ; E. Metchnikoff, Zeit. Wiss. Zool. (1866), vols, v., xyi.; J. Beard, Mitth. Z. St Neapel (1884), vol. v.; W. M. Wheeler, ibid. (1896), vol. xii. (E. S. G.) MZABITES, or Beni-Mzab, a confederation of Berber tribes, now under the direct authority of France. Of all the Berber peoples the Mzabites have remained freest from foreign admix- ture. Their own country is a region of the Algerian Sahara, about 100 m. south of El-Aghuat. It consists of five oases close together, viz. Ghardaia, Beni-Isguen, El-Ateuf, Melika and Bu Nura, and two isolated oases farther north, Berrian and Guerrara. The total population numbered at the 1906 census 45,996, of whom about 100 were Europeans and a very small proportion Arabs and Jews. The Mzabites are of small and slender figure, with very short necks and under-developed legs. Their faces are flat, with short nose, thick lips and very deep-set eyes, and their complexion pale. Their dress is a shirt of thick wool, usually many-coloured. They are agriculturists, and are also famed as traders. The butchers, fruiterers, bath-house keepers, road-sweepers and carriers of the African littoral from Tangier to Tripoli are nearly all Mzabites. Their industries, too, are highly organized. The Mzabite burnouses and carpets are found throughout North Africa. Their commercial honesty is proverbial. Nearly all read and write Arabic, though in talking among themselves they use the Zenata dialect of the Berber language, for which, in common with other Berber peoples, they have no written form surviving. They are Mahomme- dans, of the Ibadite sect, and are regarded as heretics by the Sunnites. According to tradition the Ibadites, after their overthrow at Tiaret by the Fatimites, took refuge during the 10th century in the country to the south-west of Wargla, where they founded an independent state. In 1012, owing to further persecutions, they fled to their present quarters, where they long remained invulnerable. After the capture of El-Aghuat by the French, the Mzabites concluded with the Algerian government, in 1853, a convention by which they engaged to pay an annual con- tribution of £1800 in return for their independence. In Novem- ber 1882 the Mzab country was definitely annexed to Algeria. Ghardaia (pop. 7868) is the capital of the confederation, and next in importance is Beni-Isguen (4916), the chief commercial centre. Since the establishment of French control, Beni-Isguen has become the depot for the sale of European goods. French engineers have rendered the oases much more fertile than they used to be by a system of irrigation works. (See also Algeria.) See A. Coyne, Le Mzab (Algiers, 1879); Rinn, Occupation du Mzab (Algiers, 1885); Amat, Le M'Zab el les M'Zabites (Paris, 1888). Also Algeria and Berbers. 14,6 N— NABATAEANS NA letter which regularly follows M in the alphabet, and, like it in its early forms has the first limb longer than the others; thus, written from right to left, V\. The Semitic languages gradually diminish the size of the other two limbs, while the Greek and Latin alphabets tend to make all three of equal length. The earliest name of the symbol was Nun, whence comes the Greek ny (vv). The sound of n varies according to the point at which the contact of the tongue with the roof of the mouth is made; it may be dental, alveolar, palatal or guttural. In Sanskrit these four sounds are dis- tinguished by different symbols: the last two occur in com- bination with stops or affricates of the same series. The French or German n when standing by itself is dental, the English alveolar, i.e. pronounced like the English t and d against the sockets of the teeth instead of the teeth themselves. The guttural nasal is written in English ng as in ring; for the palatal n as in lynch there is no separate symbol. The sound of n stands in the same relation to d as m stands to b; both are ordinarily voiced and the mouth position for both is the same, but in pronouncing n the nasal passage is left open, so that the sound of n can be continued while that of d cannot. This is best observed by pronouncing syllables where the consonant comes last as in and id. When the nasal passage is closed, as when one has a bad cold, m and n cannot be pronounced; attempts to pronounce moon result only in hood. Two important points arise in connexion with nasals: (i) sonant nasals, (2) nasalization of vowels. The discovery of sonant nasals by Dr Karl Brugman in 1876 (Curtius, Studien, 9, pp. 285-338) explained many facts of language which had been hitherto obscure and elucidated many difficulties in the Indo-European vowel system. It had been observed, for ex- ample, that the same original negative prefix was represented in Sanskrit by a, Greek by a, in Latin by in and in Germanic by tin, and these differences had not been accounted for satisfactorily. Dr Brugman argued -that in these and -similar cases the syllable was made by the consonant alone, and the nasal so used was termed a sonant nasal and written n. In most cases Sanskrit and Greek lost the nasal sound altogether and replaced it by a vowel a, a, while in Latin and Germanic a vowel was developed independently before the nasal. In the accusative singular of consonant stems Sans, padam, Gr. iroda, Lat. pedem, Sanskrit and Greek did not, as generally, agree, but it was shown that in such cases there were originally two forms according to the nature of the sound beginning the next word in the sentence. Thus an original Indo-European *pedm, would not be treated precisely in the same way if the next word began with a vowel as it would when a consonant followed. Sanskrit had adopted the form used before vowels, Greek the form before consonants and each had dropped the alternative form. The second point — ■ the nasalizing of vowels — is difficult for an Englishman to under- stand or to produce, as the sounds do not exist in his language. Thus in learning to pronounce French he tends to replace the nasalized vowels by the nearest sounds in English, making the Fr. on a nasalized vowel (0), into Eng. ong, a vowel followed by a guttural consonant. The nasalized vowels are produced by drawing forward the uvula, the " tab " at the end of the soft palate, so that the breath escapes through the nose as well as the mouth. In the French nasalized vowels, however, many phoneticians hold that, besides the leaving of the nasal passage open, there is a change in the position of the tongue in passing from a to a. The nasalized vowels are generally written with a hook below, upon the analogy of the transliteration of such sounds in the Slavonic languages, but as the same symbol is often used to distinguish an " open " vowel from a " close " one, the use is not without ambiguity. On the other hand, it is not admissible to write d for the nasalized vowel in languages which have accent signs, e.g. Lithuanian. It is possible to nasalize some consonants as well as vowels; nasalized spirants play an important part in the so-called " Yankee " pronunciation of Americans. (P. Gi.j NAAS (pron. Nace, as in place), a market town of Co. Kildare, Ireland, 20 m. S.W. from Dublin on branches of the Great Southern and Western railway and of the Grand Canal. Pop. (1901) 3836. It is situated among the foothills of the Wicklow Mountains, close to the river Liffey. The town is of great antiquity, and was a residence of the kings of Leinster, the place of whose assemblies is marked by a neighbouring rath or mound. Naas returned two members to the Irish parliament from 1559 until the union in 1800. Of a castle taken by Cromwell in 1650, and of several former abbeys, there are no remains. Punchestown racecourse, 2§ m. S.E., is the scene of well-known steeplechases. NABATAEANS, a people of ancient Arabia, whose settlements in the time of Josephus {Ant. i. 12. 4; comp. Jerome, Quaest. in Gen. xxv.) gave the name of Nabatene to the border-land between Syria and Arabia from the Euphrates to the Red Sea. Josephus suggests, and Jerome, apparently following him, affirms, that the name is identical with that of the Ishmaelite tribe of Nebaioth (Gen. xxv. 13; Isa. lx. 7), which in later Old Testament times had a leading place among the northern Arabs, and is associated with Kedar (Isa. lx. 7) much as Pliny v. n (12) associates Nabataei and Cedrei. The identification is rendered uncertain by the fact that the name Nabataean is properly spelled with t not t (on the inscriptions, cf. also Arabic Nabat, Nabit, &c.) . Thus the history of the Nabataeans cannot certainly be carried back beyond 312 B.C., at which date they were attacked without success by Antigonus I. Cyclops in their mountain fortress of Petra. They are described by Diodorus (xix. 94 seq.) as being at this time a strong tribe of some 10,000 warriors, pre-eminent among the nomadic Arabs, eschewing agriculture, fixed houses and the use of wine, but adding to pastoral pursuits a profitable trade with the seaports in myrrh and spices from Arabia Felix, as well as a trade with Egypt in bitumen from the Dead Sea. Their arid country was the best safeguard of their cherished liberty; for the bottle-shaped cisterns for rain-water which they excavated in the rocky or argillaceous soil were, carefully concealed from invaders. Petra (q.v.) or Sela" was the ancient capital of Edom; the Nabataeans must have occupied the old Edomite country, and succeeded to its commerce, after the Edomites took advantage of the Babylonian captivity to press forward into southern Judaea. 1 This migration, the date of which cannot be determined, also made them masters of the shores of the Gulf of 'Akaba and the important harbour of Elath. Here, according to Agatharchides (Geog. Gr. Min., i. 178), they were for a time very troublesome, as wreckers and pirates, to the reopened commerce between Egypt and the East, till they were chastised by the Greek sovereigns of Alexandria. The Nabataeans had already some tincture of foreign culture when they first appear in history. That culture was naturally Aramaic; they wrote a letter to Antigonus "in Syriac letters," and Aramaic continued to be the language of their coins and inscriptions when the tribe grew into a kingdom, and profited by the decay of the Seleucids to extend its borders northward over the more fertile country east of the Jordan. They occupied Hauran, and about 85 B.C. their king Aretas (Haritha) became lord of Damascus and Coele-Syria. Allies of the first Hasmonaeans in their struggles against the Greeks (1 Mace, v. 25, ix. 35; 2 Mace. v. 8), they became the rivals of the Judaean dynasty in the period of its splendour, and a chief element in the disorders which invited Pompey's intervention in Palestine. The Roman arms were not very successful, and King Aretas retained his whole possessions, including Damascus, as a Roman 1 See Edom, and (for the view that Mai. i. 1-5, refers to the expulsion of Edomites from their land) Malachi. NABBES— NACHMANIDES J 47 vassal. 1 As " allies " of the Romans the Nabataeans continued to flourish throughout the first Christian century. Their power extended far into Arabia, particularly along the Red Sea; and Petra was a meeting-place of many nations, though its commerce was diminished by the rise of the Eastern trade-route from Myoshormus to Coptos on the Nile. Under the Roman peace they lost their warlike and nomadic habits, and were a sober, acquisitive, orderly people, wholly intent on trade and agri- culture (Strabo xvi. 4). They might have long been a bulwark between Rome and the wild hordes of the desert but for the short- sighted cupidity of Trajan, who reduced Petra and broke up the Nabataean nationality (105 a.d.). The new Arab invaders who soon pressed forward into their seats found the remnants of the Nabataeans transformed into felldhin, and speaking Aramaic like their neighbours. Hence Nabataeans became the Arabic name for Aramaeans, whether in Syria or Irak, a fact which has been incorrectly held to prove that the Nabataeans were origin- ally Aramaean immigrants from. Babylonia. It is now known, however, that they were true Arabs — as the proper names on their inscriptions show — who had come under Aramaic influence. See especially on this last point (against Quatremere, Journ. asiat. xv., vol. ii., 1835), Noldekc in Zeit. d. morgenldnd. Gesell. xvii. 705 seq., xxv. 122 seq. The so-called " Nabataean Agriculture " {Faldha Nabatlya), which professes to be an Arabic translation by Ibn Wahshiya from an ancient Nabataean source, is a forgery of the 10th century (see A. von Gutschmid, Z. d. morgenl. Ges. xv. 1 seq.; Noldeke, ib. xxix. 445 seq.). Complete bibliographical information is given by E. Schurer in his sketch of Nabataean history appended to Gesch. d. Jiid. Volkes (1901, vol. i. ; cf. Eng. edition, 1890, i. 2, pp. 345 sqq.); to this may be added the article by H. Vincent, Rev. bibl. vii. 567 sqq., and, for more general informa- tion, R. Dussaud, Les Arabes en Syrie (1907). For early external evidence see H. Winckler, Keil. u. Alte Test. 3 p. 151 seq.; M. Streck, Mitteil. d. vordcrasiat. Gesell. (1906). pt. iii., andKlio, 1906, p. 206 seq. The Nabataean inscriptions (see Semitic Languages) are collected in the Corpus Inscr. Semiticarum of the French Academy, pt. ii.; see also the Academy's Repertoire d'epigr. sem.; and the discussions, &c.,-in the writings of Clermont-Ganneau (Rec. d'archeol. Orient.) and M. Lidzbarski (Handbuch d. nord-semit. Epig.; Ephemeris f. scm. Epig.). For English readers the selection in G. A. Cooke, North-Semitic Inscriptions (Oxford, 1903) is the most useful. (W. R. S.;S. A. C.) NABBES, THOMAS (b. 1605), English dramatist, was born in humble circumstances in Worcestershire. He entered Exeter College, Oxford, in 1621, but left the university without taking a degree, and about 1630 began a career in London as a dramatist. His works include: Co-cent Garden (acted 1633, printed 1638), a prose comedy of small merit; Tottenham Court (acted 1634, printed 1638), a comedy the scene of which is laid in a holiday resort of the London tradesmen; Hannibal and Scipio (acted I0 35, printed 1637), a historical tragedy; The Bride (1638), a comedy; The Unfortunate Mother (1640), an unacted tragedy; Microcosmus, a Morall Maske (printed 1637) ; two other masques, Spring's Glory and Presentation intended for the Prince his Highnesse on his Birthday (printed together in 1638); and a continuation of Richard Knolles's Generall Historie of the Turkcs (1638). His verse is smooth and musical, and if his language is sometimes coarse, his general attitude is moral. The masque of Microcosmus — really a morality play, in which Physander after much error is reunited to his wife Bellanima, who personifies the soul — is admirable in its own kind, and the other two masques, slighter in construction but ingenious, show Nabbes at his best. Nabbes's plays were collected in 1639; and Microcosmus was printed in Dodsley'sOW Plays (1744). All his works, with the exception of his continuation of Knolles's history, were reprinted by A. H. Bullen in his Old English Plays (second series, 1887). See also F. G. Fleay, Biog. Chron. of the English Drama (1891). NABHA, a native state of India, within the Punjab. Area, 966 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 297,949. Its territories are scattered; one section, divided into twelve separate tracts, lies among the territories of Patiala and Jind, in the east and south of the Punjab; the other section is in the extreme south-east. The whole of the territories belong physically to a plain; but they vary in character from the great fertility of the Pawadh region to the aridity of the Rajputana desert. Nabha is one of the Sikh 1 Compare 2 Cor. xi. 32. The Nabataean Aretas or Aeneas there mentioned reigned from 9 B.C. to A.D. 40. states, founded by a member of the Phulkian family, which estab- lished its independence about 1763. The first relations of the state with the British were in 1807-1808, when the raja obtained protection against the threatened encroachments of Ranjit Singh. During the Mutiny in 1857 the raja showed distinguished loyalty, and was rewarded by grants of territory to the value of over £10,000. The imperial service troops of the raja Hira Singh (b. c. 1843; succeeded in 1871) did good service during the Tirah campaign of 1897-98. The chief products of the state are wheat, millets, pulses, cotton and sugar. The estimated gross revenue is £100,000; no tribute is paid. The territory is crossed by the main line and also by several branches of the North- western railway, and is irrigated by the Sirhind canal. The town of Nabha, founded in 1755, has a station on the Rajpura-Bhatinda branch of the North- Western railway. Pop. (1901) 18,468. See Phulkian States Gazetteer (Lahore, 1909). NABIGHA DHUBYANl [Ziyad ibn Mu'awiyya] (6th and 7th centuries), Arabian poet, was one of the last poets of pre-Islamic times. His tribe, the Bani Dhubyan, belonged to the district near Mecca, but he himself spent most of his time at the courts of Hira and Ghassan. In Hira he remained under Mondhir (Mund- hir) III., and under his successor in 562. After a sojourn at the court of Ghassan, he returned to Hira under Nu'rnan. He was, however, compelled to flee to Ghassan, owing to some verses he had written on the queen, but returned again about 600. When Nu'rnan died some five years later he withdrew to his own tribe. The date of his death is uncertain, but he does not seem to have known Islam. His poems consist largely of eulogies and satires, and are concerned with the strife of Hira and Ghassan, and of the Bani Abs and the Bani Dhubyan. He is one of the six eminent pre-Islamic poets whose poems were collected before the middle of the 2nd century of Islam, and have been regarded as the standard of Arabian poetry. Some writers consider him the first of the six. His poems have been edited by W. Ahlwardt in the Diwans of the six ancient Arabic Poets (London, 1870), and separately by H. Derenbourg (Paris, 1869, a reprint from the Journal asiatique for 1868). (G.W.T.) NABOB, a corruption of the Hindostani nawab, originally used for native rulers. In the 18th century, when Clive's victories made Indian terms familiar in England, it began to be applied to Anglo-Indians who returned with fortunes from the East. NABUA, a town in the extreme S. of the province of Ambos Camarines, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on the Bicol river, about 22 m. S.S.E. of Nueva Caceres, the capital. Pop. (1903) 18,893. Nabua is in the district known as La Rinconada — a name originally given to it on account of its inaccessibility. It is connected by road, railway and the Bicol river (navigable for light-draft boats) with Nueva Caceres. Nabua is the centre of an agricultural region, which produces much rice and some Indian corn, sugar and pepper. The language is Bicol. NACAIRE, Nakeb, Naquaire (Arab, naqdra), the medieval name for the kettledrum, the earliest representation of which appears in the unique MS. known as the Vienna Genesis (5th or 6th century) . The nacaire was, according to Froissart, among the instruments used at the triumphal entry of Edward III. into Calais. The Chronicles of Joinville describe the instrument as a kind of drum: " Lor il fist sonner les tabours que 1' on appelle nacaires." Chaucer, in his description of the tournament in the Knight's Tale, line 1653, also refers to this early kettledrum. NACHMANIDES (Nahmanides), the usual name of Moses ben Naijman (known also as Ramban), Jewish scholar, was born in Gerona in n 94 and died in Palestine c. 1270. His chief work, the Commentary on the Pentateuch, is distinguished by originality and charm. The author was a mystic as well as a philologist, and his works unite with peculiar harmony the qualities of reason and feeling. He was also a Talmudist of high repute, and wrote glosses on various Tractates, Responsa and other legal works. Though not a philosopher, he was drawn into the controversy that arose over the scholastic method of Maimonides (q.v.). He endeavoured to steer a middle course between the worshippers 148 NACHOD— NADIA and the excommunicators of Maimonides, but he did not succeed in healing the breach. His homiletic books, Epistle on Sanctity (Iggereth ha-qodesh) and Law of Man (Torath ha-Adam), which deal respectively with the sanctity of marriage and the solemnity of death, are full of intense spirituality, while at the same time treating of ritual customs — a combination which shows essential Rabbinism at its best. He occupies an important position in the history of the acceptance by medieval Jews of the Kabbala (q.v.); for, though he made no fresh contributions to the philo- sophy of mysticism, the fact that this famous rabbi was himself a mystic induced a favourable attitude in many who would other- wise have rejected mysticism as Maimonides did. In 1263 Nahmanides was forced to enter into a public disputation with a Jewish-Christian, Pablo Christiani, in the presence of King James of Aragon. Though Nachmanides was assured that perfect freedom of speech was conceded to him, his defence was pronounced blasphemous and he was banished for life. In 1267 he went to Palestine and settled at Acre. He died about 1270. See S. Schechter, Studies in Judaism, first series, pp. 120 seq.; Graetz, History of the Jews (English translation vol. iii. ch. xvi. and xvii.). (I. A.) NACHOD, a town of Bohemia, Austria, 109 m. E.N.E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 9899, mostly Czech. It is situated on the Mettau river, at the entrance of the Lewin-Nachod pass. The old castle contains a collection of historical paintings and archives, and there are several old churches, of which that of St Lawrence is mentioned as the parish church in 1350. The town originally gathered round the castle of Nachod, of which the first lord was a member of the powerful family of Hron, in the middle of the 13th century. It suffered much during the Hussite Wars, and in 1437 was captured by the celebrated robber knight Kolda of 2ampach, and retaken by George of Podebrad in 1456 and included in his estates. It was sold in 1623, and in .1634 given to Ottavio Piccolomini; finally, after many changes of ownership, the castle and titular lordship came in 1840 to the princes of Schaumburg-Lippe. The important engagements fought near the town on the 27th and 28th of June 1866 opened Bohemia to the victorious Prussians. NACHTIGAL, GUSTAV (1834-1885), German explorer in Central Africa, son of a Lutheran pastor, was born at Eichstedt in the Mark of Brandenburg, on the 23rd of February 1834. After medical study at the universities of Halle, Wurzburg and Greifswald, he practised for a few years as a military surgeon. Finding the climate of his native country injurious to his health, he went to Algiers and Tunis, and took part, as a surgeon, in several expeditions into the interior. Commissioned by the king of Prussia to carry gifts to the sultan of Bornu in acknowledgment of kindness shown to German travellers, he set out in 1869 from Tripoli, and succeeded after two years' journeyings in accomplishing his mission. During this period he visited Tibesti and Borku, regions of the central Sahara not previously known to Europeans. From Bornu he went to Bagirmi, and, proceeding by way of Wadai and Kordofan, emerged from darkest Africa, after having been given up for lost, at Khartum in the winter of 1874. His journey, graphically described in his Sahara und Sudan (3 vols., 1870-1889), placed the intrepid explorer in the front rank of discoverers. On the establishment of a protectorate over Tunisia by France, Nachtigal was sent thither as consul-general for the German empire, and remained there until 1884, when he was despatched by Prince Bismarck to West Africa as special commissioner, ostensibly to inquire into the condition of German commerce, but really to annex territories to the German flag. As the result of his mission Togoland and Cameroon were added to the German empire. On his return voyage he died at sea off Cape Palmas on the 20th of April 1885, and was buried at Grand Bassam. Nachtigal's travels are summarized in Guslav NachtigaVs Reisen in der Sahara und im Sudan, by Dr Albert Frankel (Leipzig, 1887). A French translation, by J. van Vollenhoven, of that part of his work concerning Wadai, appeared in the Bull, du comite del'Afriq. francaise for 1903 under the title of " Le Voyage de Nachtigal au Ouadai." Nachtigal died before transcribing his notes on Wadai, and they were edited in the German edition by E. Groddeck. NADASDY, TAMAS I„ Count, called the great palatine (1498-1562), Hungarian statesman, was the son of Francis I. Nadasdy and was educated at Graz, Bologna and Rome. In 1 52 1 he accompanied Cardinal Cajetan (whom the pope had sent to Hungary to preach a crusade against the Turks) to Buda as his interpreter. In 1525 he became a member of the council of state and was sent by King Louis II. to the diet of Spires to ask for help in the imminent Turkish war. During his absence the Mohacs catastrophe took place, and Nadasdy only returned to Hungary in time to escort the queen-widow from Komarom to Pressburg. He was sent to offer the Hungarian crown to the archduke Ferdinand, and on his coronation (Nov. 3rd, 1527) was made commandant of Buda. On the capture of Buda by Suleiman the Magnificent, Nadasdy went over to John Zapolya. In 1530 he successfully defended Buda against the imperialists. In J 533 hi s jealousy of the dominant influence of Ludovic Gritti caused him to desert John for Ferdinand, to whom he afterwards remained faithful. He was endowed with enormous estates by the emperor, 3 and from 1537 onwards became Ferdinand's secret but most influential counsellor. Subsequently, as ban of Croatia-Slavonia, he valiantly defended that border province against the Turks. He did his utmost to promote education, and the school which he founded at TJj-Sziget, where he also set up a printing-press, received a warm eulogy from Philip Melanchthon. In 1 540 Nadasdy was appointed grand- justiciar; in 1547 he presided over the diet of Nagyszombat, and finally, in 1 559, was elected palatine by the diet of Pressburg. In his declining years he aided the heroic Mikl6s Zrinyi against the Turks. See Mihaly Horvath, The Life of Thomas Nadasdy (Hung.) (Buda, 1838); T. Nadasdy, Family correspondence of Thomas Nadasdy (Hung.) (Budapest, 1882). (R. N. B.) NADEN, CONSTANCE CAROLINE WOOBHILL (1858-1889), English author, was born at Edgbaston, on the 24th of January 1858, her father being an architect. Her mother died just after the child's birth, and Constance was brought up in the home of her grandfather. In 1881 she began to study physical science at Mason College, Birmingham. In 1881 she published Songs and Sonnets of Springtime; in 1887, A Modern Apostle, and other Poems. Her poems made such an impression on W. E. Gladstone that he included her, in an article in the Speaker, among the fore- most English poetesses of the day. After her grandfather's death Miss Naden found herself rich, and she travelled in the East and then (1888) settled in London. She died on the 23rd of December 1889. After 1876 she had paid increasing attention to philosophy, with her friend Dr Robert Lewins, and the two had formulated a system of their own, which they called " Hylo- Idealism." Her main ideas on the subject are contained in a posthumous volume of her essays (Induction and Deduction, 1890), edited by Dr Lewins. NADIA, or Nuddea, a district of British India, in the Presidency division of Bengal. The administrative head- quarters are at Krishnagar. Area, 2793 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 1,667,491. It is a district of great rivers. Standing at the head of the Gangetic delta, its alluvial surface, though still liable to periodical inundation, has been raised by ancient deposits of silt sufficiently high to be permanent dry land. Along the entire north-eastern boundary flows the main stream of the Ganges or Padma, of which all the remaining rivers of the district are offshoots. The BhagirathI on the eastern border, and the Jalangi and the Matabhanga meandering through the centre of the district, are the chief of those offshoots, called distinctively the " Nadia rivers." But the whole surface of the country is interlaced with a network of minor streams, communicating with one another by side channels. All the rivers are navigable in the rainy season for boats of the largest burthen, but during the rest of the year they dwindle down to shallow streams, with dangerous sandbanks and bars. In former times the Nadia rivers afforded the regular means of communication between the upper valley of the Ganges and the seaboard; and much of the trade of the district still comes down to Calcutta by this route during the height of the rainy season. But the railways, NADIM— NAEVIUS 149 with the main stream of the Ganges and the Sundarbans route, now carry by far the larger portion of the traffic. Rice is the staple crop; but the district is not as a whole fertile, the soil being sandy and the methods of cultivation backward. It is traversed by the main line and also by several branches of the Eastern Bengal railway. The battlefield of Plassey was situated in this district, but the floods of the BhagirathI have washed away some part of it. Nadia or Nabadwip, an ancient capital of Bengal, was formerly situated on the east bank of the Bhagirathi, which has since changed its course. Pop. (1001) 10,880. It is celebrated for the sanctity and learning of its pundits, and as the birthplace of Chaitanya, the Vaishnav reformer of the 16th century. Its Sanskrit schools, called tols, are well known and of ancient foundation. NADIM [Abulfaraj Mahommed ibn Ishaq ibn abl Ya'qub un-Nadiml (d. 995), of Bagdad, the author of one of the most interesting works in Arabic literature, the Fihrist ul-Ulum (" list of the books of all nations that were to be found in Arabic ") with notices of the authors and other particulars, carried down to the year 988. A note in the Leiden MS. places the death of the author eight years later. Of his life we know, nothing. His work gives us a complete picture of the most active intellectual period of the Arabian empire. He traces the rise and growth of philology and belles-lettres, of theology, orthodox and heretical, of law and history, of mathematics and astronomy, of medicine and alchemy; he does not despise the histories of knights errant, the fables of Kalila and Dimna, the facetiae of the " boon com- panions," the works of magic and divination. But to us no part of his work is more interesting than his account of the beliefs of sects and peoples beyond Islam. Here, fortunately, still more than in other parts of his work, he goes beyond the functions of the mere cataloguer; he tells what he learned of China .from a Christian missionary of Nejran, of India from a de- scription of its religion compiled for the Barmecide Yahya; his full accounts of the Sabians of Harran and of the doctrines of Mani are of the first importance for the historian of Asiatic religions. Imperfect manuscripts of the Fihrist exist in Paris, Leiden and Vienna. The text was prepared for publication by G. Fliigel, and edited after his death by J. Rodiger and A. Miiller (2 vols., Leipzig, 1871-1872). Fliigel had already given a full analysis of the work in the Journal of the German Oriental Society, vol. xiii. (1859), pp. 559-650; cf. E. G. Browne, A Literary History of Persia (London, 1902), pp. 383-387. T. Houtsma supplied a lacuna in Fliigel's edition in the Vienna Oriental Journal, vol. iv. pp. 217 sqq. NADIR (Arabic nadir, " opposite to," used elliptically for nadir -es-semt, " opposite to the zenith ") , a term used in astronomy for the point in the heavens exactly opposite to the zenith, the zenith and nadir being the two poles of the horizon. It is thus used figuratively of the lowest depth of a person's spirits or the lowest point in a career. NAEGELI, KARL WILHELM VON "(1817-1891), Swiss botanist, was born on the 27th of March 18 17 near Zurich. He studied botany under A. P. de Candolle at Geneva, and graduated with a botanical thesis at Zurich in 1840. His attention having been directed by M. J. Schleiden, then professor of botany at Jena, to the microscopical study of plants, he engaged more particularly in that branch of research. Soon after graduation he became Privatdozent and subsequently professor extra- ordinary, in the university of Zurich; in 1852 he was called to fill the chair of botany in the university of Freiburg-in- Breisgau; and in 1857 he was promoted to Munich, where he remained as professor until his death on the nth of May 1891. Among his more important contributions to science were a series of papers in the Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Botanik (1844- 1846); Die neuern Algensysleme (1847); Gattungen einzelliger Algen (1849); Pflanzenphysiologische Untersuchnngen (1855— 1858), with C. E. Cramer; Beitriige zur •wissenschaftlichen Botanik (1858-1868); a number of papers contributed to the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences, forming three volumes of Botanische Mitteilungen (1861-1881); and, finally, his volume, Mechanisch-physiologische Theorie der Abstammungslehre, pub- lished in 1884. The more striking of his many and varied discoveries are embodied in the Zeitsch. fiir wiss. Bot. In this we begin with Naegeli's extension of Robert Brown's discovery of the nucleus to the principal families of Cryptogams, and the assertion of its universal occurrence in plants, together with the recognition of its vesicular structure. There is further his investigation of the " mucous layer " (Schleimschickt) lining the wall of all normal cells, where he shows that it consists of granular " mucus," which, at an earlier stage, filled the cell-cavity, and which differs chemically from the cell-wall in that it is nitro- genous. This layer he proved to be never absent from living cells — to be, in fact, itself the living part of the cell, a discovery which was simultaneously (1846) made by Hugo von Mohl (1805-1872), who gave to the living matter of the plant-body the name " protoplasm." In connexion with these discoveries, Naegeli controverted Schleiden's view of the universality of free-cell-formation as the mode of cell- multiplication, and showed that in the vegetative organs, at least, new cells are formed by division. In the Zeitschrift, too, is Naegeli's most important algological work — such as the paper on Caulerpa, which brought to light the remarkable unseptate structure of the Siphoneae, and his research on Delesseria, which resulted in the discovery of growth by a single apical cell. This discovery led Naegeli on to the study of the growing-point in other plants. He consequently gave the first accurate account of the apical cell, and of the mode of growth of the stem in various Mosses and Liverworts. Subsequently he observed that in Lycopodium and in Angiosperms the growing-point has no apical cell, but consists of a small-celled meristem, in which the first differentiation of the permanent tissues can be traced. One of the most remarkable discoveries recorded in the Zeitschrift is that of the antheridia and spermatozoids of Ferns and of Pilularia. The Beitrdge zur wiss. Botanik consists almost entirely of researches into the anatomy of vascular plants, while the main feature of the Pflanzenphysiologische Untersuchnngen is the exhaustive work on the structure, development and various forms of starch-grains. The Botanische Mitteilungen include a number of papers in all departments of botany, many of them being continuations and extensions of his earlier work. In his Theorie der Abstammungslehre Naegeli introduced the idea of a definite material basis for heredity; the substance he termed " idioplasm." His theory of evolution is that the idioplasm of any one generation is not identical with that of either its progenitors or its progeny: it is always increasing in complexity, with the result that each succes- sive generation marks an advance upon its predecessor. Hence variation takes place determinately, and in the higher direction only; while variability is the result of internal causes, and natural selection plays but a small part in evolution. Whereas, on the Darwinian theory, all organization is adaptive, according to Naegeli the develop- ment of higher organization is the outcome of the spontaneous evolution of the idioplasm. More detailed accounts of Naegeli's life and work are to be found in Nature, 16th October 1891, and in Proc. Roy. Soc, vol. li. (S. H. V.*) NAESTVED, a town of Denmark, in the ami (county) of Praesto, near the S.W. coast of Zealand, 59 m. by rail S.W. of Copenhagen. Pop. (1901) 7162. From 1140 to the Reformation it was one of the most important towns of the kingdom, though dependent upon the monastery of St Peter (founded here in 1135). North of the town (i| m.) lies Herlufsholm, where Admiral Herluf Trolle founded a Latin school in 1567, still extant. NAEVIUS, GNAEUS (c. 264-? 194 B.C.), Latin epic poet and dramatist. There is great uncertainty in regard to his life. From the expression of Gellius (i. 24. 1) characterizing his epitaph as written in a vein of " Campanian arrogance " it has been inferred that he was born in one of the Latin communities settled in Campania. But the phrase " Campanian arrogance " seems to have been used proverbially for "gasconade"; and, as there was a plebeian gens Naevia in Rome, it is quite as probable that he was by birth a Roman citizen. He served either in the Roman army or among the socii in the first Punic War, and thus must have reached manhood before 241. His career as a dramatic author began with the exhibition of a drama in or about the year C35, and continued for thirty years. Towards the close he incurred the hostility of some of the nobility, espe- cially, it is said, of the Metelli, by the attacks which he made upon them on the stage, and at their instance he was imprisoned (Plautus, Mil. Glor. 211). After writing two plays during his imprisonment, in which he is said to have apologized for his former rudeness (Gellius iii. 3. 15), he was liberated through the interference of the tribunes of the commons; but he had shortly afterwards to retire from Rome (in or about 204) to Utica. It may have been during his exile, when withdrawn from his active career as a dramatist, that he composed or completed his i5o NAEVUS— NAGA HILLS r oem on the first Punic war. Probably his latest composition was the epitaph already referred to, written like the epic in Saturnian verse: — " Immortales mortales si foret fas flere, Flerent divae Camenae Naevium poetam ; Itaque postquam est Orci traditus thesauro Obliti sunt Romai loquier lingua Latina." l If these lines were dictated by a jealousy of the growing ascend- ancy of Ennius, the life of Naevius must have been prolonged considerably beyond 204, the year in which Ennius began his career as an author in Rome. As distinguished from Livius Andronicus, Naevius was a native Italian, not a Greek; he was also an original writer, not a mere adapter or translator. If it was due to Livius that the forms of Latin literature were, from the first, moulded on those of Greek literature, it was due to Naevius that much of its spirit and substance was of native growth. Like Livius, Naevius professed to adapt Greek tragedies and comedies to the Roman stage. Among the titles of his tragedies are Aegisthus, Lycurgus, Andromache or Hector Proficiscens, Equus Trojanus, the last named being performed at the opening of Pompey's theatre (55). The national cast of his genius and temper was shown by his deviating from his Greek originals, and producing at least two specimens of the fabula praelexta (national drama) one founded on the childhood of Romulus and Remus {Lupus or Alimonium Romuli et Remi), the other called Clastidium, which celebrated the victory of M. Claudius Marcellus over the Celts (222). But it was as a writer of comedy that he was most famous, most productive and most original. While he is never ranked as a writer of tragedy with Ennius, Pacuvius or Accius, he is placed in the canon of the grammarian Volcacius Sedigitus third (immediately after Caecilius and Plautus) in the rank of Roman comic authors. He is there characterized as ardent and impetuous in character and style. He is also appealed to, with Plautus and Ennius, as a master of his art in one of the prologues of Terence. His comedy, like that of "Plautus, seems to have been rather a free adaptation of his originals than a rude copy of them, as those of Livius probably were, or an artistic copy like those of Terence. The titles of most of them, like those of Plautus, and unlike those of Caecilius and Terence, are Latin, not Greek. He drew from the writers of the old political comedy of Athens, as well as from the new comedy of manners, and he attempted to make the stage at Rome, as it had been at Athens, an arena of political and personal wartare. A strong spirit of partisanship is iecognized in more than one of the fragments; and this spirit is thoroughly popular and adverse to the senatorial ascendancy which became more and more confirmed with the progress of the second Punic war. Besides his attack on the Metelli and other members of the aristocracy, the great Scipio is the object of a censorious criticism on account of a youthful escapade attributed to iiim. Among the few lines still remaining from his lost comedies, we seem to recognize the idiomatic force and rapidity of movement characteristic of the style of Plautus. There is also found that love of alliteration which is a marked feature in all the older Latin poets down even to Lucretius. In one considerable comic fragment attributed to him — the description of a coquette — there is great truth and shrewdness of observation. But we find no trace of the exuberant comic power and geniality of his great con- temporary. He was not only the oldest native dramatist, but the first author of an epic poem (Bellum Punicum) — which, by combining the representation of actual contemporary history with a mythical background, may be said to have created the Roman type of epic poetry. The poem was one continuous work, but was divided into seven books by a grammarian of a later age. The earlier part of it treated of the- mythical adventures of Aeneas in Sicily, Carthage and Italy, and borrowed from the interview of Zeus and Thetis in the first book of the Iliad the idea of the interview of Jupiter and Venus ; which Virgil has made one of the cardinal passages in the Aeneid. The later part treated of the events of the first Punic war in the style of a metrical chronicle. An important influence in Roman literature and belief, which had its origin in Sicily, first appeared in this poem — the recognition of the mythical connexion of Aeneas and his Trojans with the foundation of Rome. The few remaining fragments produce the impression of vivid and rapid narrative, to which the flow of the native Saturnian verse, in contradistinction to the weighty and complex structure of the hexameter, was naturally adapted. The impression we get of the man is that, whether or not he actually enjoyed the full rights of Roman citizenship, he was a 1 " If it were permitted that immortals should weep for mortals, the divine Camenae would weep for Naevius the poet; for since he hath passed into the treasure-house of death men have forgotten at Rome how to speak in the Latin tongue." vigorous representative of the bold combative spirit of the ancient Roman commons. He was one of those who made the Latin language into a great organ of literature. The phrases still quoted from him have nothing of an antiquated sound, while they have a genuinely idiomatic ring. As a dramatist he worked more in the spirit of Plautus than of Ennius, Pacuvius, Accius or Terence; but the great Umbrian humorist is separated from his older contemporary, not only by his breadth of comic power, but by his general attitude of moral and political indifference. The power of Naevius was the more genuine Italian gift — the power of satiric criticism — which was employed in making men ridiculous, not, like that of Plautus, in extracting amusement from the humours, follies and eccentricities of life. Although our means of forming a fair estimate of Naevius are scanty, all that we do know of him leads to the conclusion that he was far from being the least among the makers of Roman literature, and that with the loss of his writings there was lost a vein of national feeling and genius which rarely reappears. Fragments (dramas) in L. Muller, Livi Andronici et Cn. Naevi Fabularum Reliquiae (1885), and (Bellum Punicum) in his edition of Ennius (1884); monographs by E. Klussmann (1843); M. J. Berchem (1861); D. de Moor (1877); Mommsen, History of Rome, bk, iii., ch. 14. On Virgil's indebtedness to Naevius and Ennius, see V. Crivellari, Quae praecipue hausit Vergilius ex Naevio et Ennio (1889). NAEVUS, a term in surgery signifying that form of tumour which is almost entirely composed of enlarged blood-vessels. There are three principal varieties: (1) the capillary naevus, consisting of enlarged capillaries, frequently of a purplish colour, hence the term " port-wine stain "; (2) the venous naevus, in which the veins are enlarged, of a bluish colour; (3) the arterial naevus, in which there is distinct pulsation, it being composed of enlarged and tortuous arteries. The naevus can be lessened in size by pressure. It generally occurs in the skin or immediately under it; sometimes it lies in the mouth in connexion with the mucous membrane. It is often congenital, hence the term " mother's mark," or it may appear in early childhood. It often grows rapidly, sometimes slowly, and sometimes growth is checked, and it may gradually diminish in size, losing its vascu- larity and becoming fibrous and non-vascular. This natural cure is followed by less deformity than a cure by artificial means. Various methods are used by surgeons when an operation is called for: (1) the tumour may be excised; (2) a ligature tightly tied may be applied to the base of the tumour; (3) inflammation may be set up in the growth by the injection of irritating agents, — in this way its vascularity may be checked and the formation of fibrous tissue encouraged; (4) the blood in the enlarged vessels may be coagulated by the injection of coagulating agents or by electrolysis. NAGA HILLS, a district of British India in the Hills division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It forms part of the mountainous borderland lying between the Brahmaputra valley and Upper Burma. Area, 3070 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 102,402. Towards the N. lie the Patkoi hills, over which British jurisdiction has never been extended; but since 1904 the southern tract, formerly known as the " area of political control," has been incorporated in the district, thus extending its E. boundary from the Dikho to the Tizic river. The whole country forms a wild expanse of forest, mountain and stream. The valleys are covered with dense jungle, dotted with small lakes and marshes. Coal is known to exist in many localities, as well as iron ore and petro- leum. The administrative headquarters of the district are at Kohima (pop. 3093), which is garrisoned by two companies of native infantry and a battalion of military police. The Dimapur- Manipur cart-road crosses the hills, connecting Kohima with the Assam-Bengal railway. Naga means " naked," and is the term applied by the Assamese to the wild tribes of the hills, of which the chief clans are called Angami, Ao, Shota, Sema and Rengma. These tribes have shown extraordinary obstinacy in their resistance to the British arms. Between 1832 and 1849 ten armed expeditions were despatched to chastise them, and from 1866 to 1887 there were eight more, a record which exceeds that of the most turbulent NAGAR— NAGOYA 151 tribes on the North-West Frontier. Since 1892, however, little trouble has been experienced. See Naga Hills District Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1905). NAGAR, formerly Bednur, a village and ruined city of Mysore, India; pop. (1901) 715. About 1640 the seat of government of the rajas of Keladi was transferred to this place. When taken by Hyder Ali in 1763, it is said to have yielded a plunder of twelve millions. In 1783 it surrendered to a British detachment under General Matthews, but being shortly after invested by Tippoo Sultan, the garrison capitulated on condition of safe conduct to the coast. Tippoo violated the stipulation, put General Matthews and the principal officers to death, and imprisoned the remainder of the force. NAGARJUNA, a celebrated Buddhist philosopher and writer. He is constantly quoted in the literature of the later schools of Buddhism, and a very large number of works in Sanskrit is attributed to him. None of these has been critically edited or translated; and there is much uncertainty as to the exact date of his career, and as to his opinions. The most probable date seems to be the early part of the 3rd century a.d. He seems to have been born in the south of India, and to have lived under the patronage of a king of southern Kosala, the modern Chattisgarh. Chinese and Tibetan authorities differ as to the name of this monarch ; but it apparently is meant to represent an Indian name Satavahana, which is a dynastic title, not a personal name. Of the works he probably wrote one was a treatise advocating the Madhyamaka views of which he is the reputed founder; another a long and poetical prose work on the stages of the Bodhisattva career; and a third a voluminous commentary on the Mahdprajnd-pdrdmitd Sutra. Chinese tradition ascribes to him special knowledge of herbs, of astrology, of alchemy and of medicine. Two medical treatises, one on prescriptions in general, the other on the treatment of eye-disease, are said, by Chinese writers, to be by him. Several poems of a didactic character are also ascribed to him. The best known of these poems is The Friendly Epistle addressed to King Udayana. A translation into English of a Tibetan version of this piece has been published by Dr Wenzel. Authorities. — H. Wenzel, Journal of the Pali Text Society (1866), pp. 1-32; T. Watters, On Yuan Chwdng, ed. by Rhys Davids and S. W. Bushcll (London, 1904-1905). Taranatha's Geschichte des Buddhismus in Indien, trans. Anton Schiefner (Leipzig, 1869); W. Wassiljew, Der Buddhismus (Leipzig, i860). (T. W. R. D.) NAGASAKI, a town on the south-west of the island of Kiushiu, Japan, in 32° 44' N., 129 51' E., with 163,324 (1905) inhabitants, and a foreign settlement containing a population of 400 (ex- cluding Chinese). The first port of entry for ships coming from the south or the west to Japan, it lies at the head of a beautiful inlet some 3 m. long, which forms a splendid anchorage, and is largely used by ships coming to coal and by warships. Marine products, coal and cotton goods are the chief exports, and raw cotton, iron, as well as other metals and materials used for ship- building, constitute the principal imports. The value of imports approaches £2,000,000 annually. That of exports has fluctuated considerably. In 1889 it was £1,005,367, but in 1894 it was only £444,839, and does not generally exceed £450,000. The most important industries of the town are represented by the engine works of Aka-no-ura, three large docks and a patent, slip, the property of the Mitsu Bishi Company. Steamers of over 6000 ' tons have been constructed at these docks, which, as well as the engine works, are situated on the western shore of the inlet. The brisk atmosphere of business that pervades them does not reach the town on the eastern side, which lies under the shadow of forests of tombstones that cover the over-looking hills. Nagasaki is noted as a coaling station. The coal is obtained chiefly from Takashima, an islet -8 m. S.E. of the entrance to the harbour, and in lesser quantities from two other islets, Naka-no-shima and Ha-shima, which lie about 1 m. farther out. These sources of supply, however, show signs of exhaustion. There are several favourite health resorts in the neighbourhood of Nagasaki, notably Unzen, with its sulphur springs. Nagasaki owed its earliest importance to foreign intercourse. Originally called Fukae-no-ura (Fukae Bay), it was included in the fief of Nagasaki Kotaro in the 12th century, and from him it took its name. But it remained an insignificant village until the 16th century, when, becoming the headquarters of Japanese Christianity, and subsequently the sole emporium of foreign trade in the hands of the Dutch and the Chinese, it developed considerable prosperity. The opening of the port of Moji for export trade deprived Nagasaki of its monopoly as a coaling station, and the visits of war vessels were reduced when Russia acquired Port Arthur, Great Britain Wei-hai-wei and Germany Kiaochow. On the north side of the channel by which the harbour is entered there stands a cliff called Takaboko, which, under the name of Pappenberg, has long been rendered notorious by a tradition that thousands of Christians were precipitated from it in the 17 th century because they refused to trample on the Cross. It has been conclusively proved that the legend is untrue. NAGAUR or Nagore, a town in India, in Jodhpur state of Rajputana, with a station on the Jodhpur-Bikanir railway. Pop. (1901) 13,377. Nagaur is surrounded by a wall more than 4 m. in circuit. It has given its name to a famous breed of cattle. NAGELSBACH, CARL FRIEDRICH (1806-1859), German classical scholar, was born at Wohrd near Nuremburg on the 28th of March 1806. After studying at Erlangen and Berlin, he accepted in 1827 an appointment at the Nuremberg gymnasium, and was professor of classics at Erlangen from 1842 till his death on the 21st of April 1859. Nagelsbach is chiefly known for his excellent Lateinische Stilistik (1846; 9th ed. by Ivan Miiller, 1905). Two other important works by him are Die Homerische Theologie (1840; 3rd ed. by G. Autenrieth, 1886) and Die Nachhomerische Theologie (1857). See J. L. Doederlein, Gedachtnissrede fiir Herrn K. F. Nagelsbach (1859); article by G. Autenrieth in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, xxiii. (16 " NAGINA, a town of British India, in Bijnor district of the United Provinces, on the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway, 48 ni. N.W. of Moradabad. Pop. (1901) 21,412. There is considerable trade in sugar, besides manufactures of guns, glassware (especially bottles for the use of pilgrims carrying the sacred water of the Ganges from Hardwar), ebony wares, hemp-sacking and cotton cloth. NAGODE, a native state of Central India, in the Baghelkhand agency. Area, 501 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 67,092, showing a de- crease of 20% in the decade, due to famine; estimated revenue, £1 1,000. The chief, whose title is raja, is a Rajput of the Parihar clan. The town of Nagode is 17 m. W. of the British station of Sutna. Pop. (1901) 3887. It was formerly a military canton- ment, and has an Anglo-vernacular school and dispensary. The former capital (until 1720) was Unchahra. NAGOYA, the capital of the province of Owari, Japan, on the great trunk railway of Japan, 235 m. from Tokyo and 94 m. from Kioto. Pop. (1903) 284,829. It is the fifth of the chief cities in Japan. It lies near the head of the shallow Isenumi Bay, about 30 m. from the port of Yokkaichi, with which it communicates by light-draught steamers and by rail. The castle of Nagoya, erected in 1610, never suffered in war, but in modern times became a military depot; the interior contains much splendid decoration. The central keep of the citadel is a remarkable structure, covering close upon half an acre, but rapidly diminishing in each of its five storeys till the top room is only about 12 yds. square. Gabled roofs and hanging rafters break the almost pyramidal outline; and a pair of gold-plated dolphins 8 ft. high form a striking finial. Both were removed in 1872, and one of them was at the Vienna Exhibition in 1873; but they have been restored to their proper site. The religious buildings of Nagoya include a very fine Buddhist temple, Higashi Hongwanji. Nagoya is well known as one of the great seats of the pottery trade; 13J m. distant are the potteries of Seto, where the first glazed pottery made in Japan was produced by Kato Shirozaemon, after a visit to China in 1229. From Kato's time Seto continued, during several centuries, to be the chief centre of ceramic production in Japan, the manufacture of porcelain being added to that of pottery in the 19th century. All the !52 NAGPUR— NAGY-VARAD products of the flourishing industry now carried on there and at other places in the province are transported to Nagoya, for sale there or for export. Cotton mills have been established, and an extensive business is carried on in the embroidery of handker- chiefs. Another of its celebrated manufactures is arimatsu- shibori, or textile fabrics (silk or cotton), dyed so as to show spots in relief from which the colour radiates. It is further distin- guished as the birthplace of cloisonne enamelling in Japan, all work of that nature before 1838 — when a new departure was made by Kaji Tsunekichi — having been for purposes of subordinate decoration. Quantities of cloisonne enamels are now produced in the town. NAGPUR, a city, district and division of British India, in the Central Provinces. The city is 1125 ft. above the sea; railway station, 520 m. E. of Bombay. Pop. (1001) 127,734. The town is well laid out, with several parks and artificial lakes, and has numerous Hindu temples. The prettily wooded suburb of Sita- baldi contains the chief government buildings, the houses . of Europeans, the railway station and the cantonments, with fort and arsenal. In the centre stands Sitabaldi Hill, crowned with the fort. Beyond the station lies the broad sheet of water known as the Jama Talao, and farther east is the city, completely hidden in a mass of foliage. Handsome tanks and gardens, constructed by the Mahratta princes, lie outside the city. The palace, built of black basalt and profusely ornamented with wood carving, was burnt down in 1864, and only the great gate- way remains. The garrison consists of detachments of European and native infantry from Kampti. Nagpur is the headquarters of two corps of rifle volunteers. It is the junction of two im- portant railway systems — the Great Indian Peninsula to Bombay and the Bengal-Nagpur to Calcutta. The large weaving popu- lation maintain their reputation for producing fine fabrics. There are steam cotton mills and machinery for ginning and pressing cotton. The gaol contains an important printing establishment. Education is provided by two aided colleges — the Hislop and the Morris, called after a missionary and a former chief commissioner; four high schools; a law school; an agricultural school, with a class for the scientific training of teachers; a normal school; a zenana mission for the manage- ment of girls' schools; an Anglican and two Catholic schools for Europeans. There are several libraries and reading rooms, and an active Anjuman or Mahommedan society. The District op Nagpur has an area of 384 sq. m. Pop. (iqoi) 751,844. It lies immediately below the great tableland of the Satpura range. A second line of hills shuts in the district on the south-west, and a third runs from north to south, parting the country into two plains of unequal size. These hills are all offshoots of the Satpuras, and nowhere attain any great ele- vation. Their heights are rocky and sterile, but the valleys and lowlands yield rich crops of corn and garden produce. The western plain slopes down to the river Wardha, is watered by the Jam and Madar, tributaries of the Wardha, and contains the most highly-tilled land in the district, abounding in fruit trees and the richest garden cultivation. The eastern plain (six times the larger), stretching away to the confines of Bhandara and Chanda, consists of a rich undulating country, luxuriant with mango groves and dotted towards the east with countless small tanks. It is watered by the Kanhan, with its tributaries, which flows into the Wainganga beyond the district. The principal crops are millets, wheat, oil-seeds and cotton. There are steam factories for ginning and pressing cotton at the military canton- ment of Kampti, which was formerly the chief centre of trades. An important new industry is manganese mining. The district is traversed by the two lines of railway which meet at Nagpur city, and several branches are under construction. The Division of Nagpur comprises the five districts of Nagpur, Bhandara, Chanda, Wardha and Balaghat. Area, 23,521 sq. m. Pop. (iqoi) 3,728,063, showing a decrease of 9% in the decade. See Nagpur District Gazetteer (Bombay, 1908). NAGYKANIZSA, a town of Hungary, in the county of Zala, 137 m. S.W. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 23,255. It possesses distilleries and brick-making factories, and has trade in cereals and cattle. Nagykanizsa once ranked as the second fortress of Hungary, and consequently played an important part during the wars with the Turks, who, having gained possession of it in 1600, held it until, in 1690, after a siege of two years, it was recovered by the Austrian and Hungarian forces. In 1 702 the fortifications were destroyed. NAGYKIKINDA, a town of Hungary, in the county of Torontal, 152 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 24,843, of which about 60% are Servians. Being one of the centres of production of the famous wheat of the Banat, its flour industry is important. Fruit-farming and cattle-rearing are extensively carried on in the neighbourhood. NAGYSZEBEN (Ger. Hermannstadt, Rumanian Sibiu), a town of Hungary, in Transylvania, the capital of the county of Szeben, 122 m. S.S.E. of Kolozsvar by rail. Pop. (1900) 26,077, of whom 16,141 were Saxons (Germans), 7106 Rumanians, and 5747 Magyars. It is beautifully situated at an altitude of 141 1 ft. in the fertile valley of the Cibin (Hungarian, Szeben), encircled on all sides by the Transylvanian Alps. It is the seat of a Greek Orthodox (Rumanian) archbishop, and of the super- intendent of the Protestants for the Transylvanian circle. Some parts of Nagyszeben have a medieval appearance, with houses built in the old German style. The most noteworthy of its public buildings is the handsome Protestant Church, begun in the 14th century and finished in 1520, in the Gothic style, containing a beautiful cup-shaped font, cast by Meister Leonhardus in 1438, and a large mural painting of the Crucifixion by Johannes von Rosenau (144s)- In the so-called New Church, comprising the west part of the whole building, which is an addition of the 1 6th century, are many beautiful memorials of Saxon notables. Other buildings are: the Roman Catholic parish church, founded in 1726; the church of the Ursuline nuns, built in 1474; the town hall, an imposing building of the 15th century, purchased by the municipality in 1545 and containing the archives of the " Saxon nation." The Brukenthal palace, built in 1777-1787 by Baron Samuel von Brukenthal (1721-1803), governor of Transylvania, contains an interesting picture-gallery with good examples of the Dutch school, and a library. The museum contains a natural history section with the complete fauna and flora of Transylvania, and a rich ethnographical section. Nagyszeben has a law academy, a seminary for Greek Orthodox priests, a military academy and several secondary schools. There are manufactures of cloth, linen, leather, caps, boots, soap, candles, ropes, as well as breweries and distilleries. The German name of the town is traceable to Hermann, a citizen of Nuremberg, who about the middle of the 12th century established a colony on the spot. In the 13th century it bore the name of Villa Hermanni. Under the last monarchs of the native Magyar dynasty Hermannstadt enjoyed exceptional privileges, and its commerce with the East rose to importance. In the course of the 15th and 16th centuries it was several times besieged by the Turks. At the beginning of 1849 it was the scene of several engagements between the Austrians and Hungarians; and later in the year it was several times taken and retaken by the Russians and Hungarians. NAGYSZOMBAT (Ger. Tyrnau), a town of Hungary, in the county of Pozsony, 115 m. N.W. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 12,422. It is situated on the Trnava, and has played an important role in the ecclesiastical history cf Hungary. It gained prominence after 1543, when the archbishop of Esztergom and primate of Hungary made it his residence after the capture of Esztergom by the Turks. In consequence numerous churches and convents were built, and the town acquired the title of " Little Rome." It possesses a Roman Catholic seminary for priests, and was the seat of a university founded, in- 1635, which was transferred to Budapest in 1777. In 1820 the archbishop's residence was again removed to Esztergom. It has an active trade in cereals and cattle. NAGY-VARAD (Ger. Grosswardein), a town of Hungary, capital of the county of Bihar, 153 m. E.S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 47,018. It is situated in a plain on both banks of the river Sebeskoros, and is the seat of a Roman Catholic NAHE— NAIL *53 and of a Greek (Old-United) bishopric. Among its principal buildings are the St Ladislaus parish church, built in 1723, which contains the remains of the king St Ladislaus (d. 1095), the Roman Catholic cathedral, built in 1752-1779, the Greek cathedral, the large palace of the Roman Catholic bishop, built in 1778 in the rococo style, the archaeological and historical museum, with an interesting collection of ecclesiastical art, and the county and town hall. Among the educational establishments are a law academy, a seminary for priests, a modern school, a Roman Catholic and a Calvinistic gymnasium, a commercial academy, a training school for teachers and a secondary school for girls. Nagy-Varad is an important railway junction; it possesses extensive manufactures of pottery and large distilleries, and carries on a brisk trade in agricultural produce, cattle, horses, fruit and wine. About 6 m. S. of the town is the village of Hajo, which contains the Piispok Fiirdo or Bishop's Baths, with warm saline and sulphurous waters (92 to 103 F.), used both for drinking and bathing in cases of anaemia and scrofula. Nagy-Varad is one of the oldest towns in Hungary. Its bishopric was founded by St Ladislaus in 1080. The town was destroyed by the Tatars in 1241. Peace was concluded here on the 24th of February 1538 between Ferdinand I. of Austria and his rival John Zapolya, voivode of Transylvania. In 1556 it passed into the possession of Transylvania, but afterwards reverted to Austria. In 1598 the fortress was un- successfully besieged by the Turks, but it fell into their hands in 1660 and was recovered by the Austrians in 1692. The Greek Old- United or Catholic bishopric was founded in 1776. NAHE, a river of Germany, a left-bank tributary of the Rhine, rises near Selbach in the Oldenburg principality of Birkenfeld. For some distance it forms the boundary between the Bavarian Palatinate and the Prussian Rhine Province, and it falls into the Rhine at Bingen. Its length is 78 m., but it is too shallow and rocky to be navigable. Its picturesque valley, through which runs" the railway from Bingerbriick to Neunkirchen, is largely visited by tourists. See Schneegans, Geschichte des Nahetals (Kreuznach, 1890). NAHUATLAN STOCK, a North and Central American Indian stock. Nahuas or Nahuatlecas was the collective name for the dominant Indian peoples of Mexico at the time of the Spanish conquest, and the Nahuatlan stock consisted of the Nahuas (or Aztecs) and a few scattered tribes in Central America. NAHUM (Hebrew for " rich in comfort [is God] "), an Old Testament prophet . The name occurs only in the book of Nahum ; in Nehemiah vii. 7 it is a scribal error for " Rehum." Of the prophet himself all that is known is the statement of the title that he was an Elkoshite. But the locality denoted by the designation is quite uncertain. Later tradition associated Nahum with the region of Nineveh, against which he prophesied, and hence his tomb has been located at a place bearing the name of Alkush near Mosul (anc. Nineveh) and is still shown. 1 Accord- ing to Jerome, the prophet was a native of a village in Galilee, which bore the name of Elkesi in the 4th century a.d. (the Galilean town of Capernaum, which probably means " village of Nahum," may also point in the same direction; but cf. John vii. 29, which seems to imply that in the time of Christ no prophet was supposed to have come out of Galilee). E. Nestle has proposed to locate Elkesi " beyond Betogabra " {i.e. Eleuthero- polis, mod. Beit Jibrin) in the tribe of Simeon (cf. Pal. Expl. Fund Quart. Statement, 1879, pp. 136-138). Book of Nahum. — The original heading of Nahum's prophecy is contained in the second part of the superscription: " [The book of] the vision of Nahum the Elkoshite " (cf. the similar headings in Isaiah, Obadiah and Habakkuk). The first part (" Oracle concerning Nineveh ") is a late editorial insertion, but correctly describes the main contents of the little book. Contents of the Book. (1) Chapters i. and ii. — The prophecy against Nineveh in its present form really begins with chap. ii. I, followed immediately by v. 3, and readily falls into three parts, viz. (a) ii. 1, 3-10; (6) ii. 11- 13; and (c) iii. Here (a) describes in language of considerable descriptive power the assault on Nineveh — 1 Jonah's grave has been located similarly in Nineveh itself. the city is mentioned by name in ii. 8 (9 Heb. text) — its capture and sack; (b) contains an oracle of Yahweh directed against the king of Assyria (" Behold, I am against thee, saith the Lord of Hosts," v. 13); (c) again gives a vivid picture of war and desolation which are to overtake and humiliate Nineveh, as they have already overtaken No-Amon {i.e. Egyptian Thebes, w. 8-10); the defence is pictured as futile and the ruin complete. The absence of dis- tinctly religious motive from these chapters is remarkable; the divine name occurs only in the repeated refrain, " Behold, I am against thee, saith the Lord of Hosts," ii. 13, iii. 5. They express little more than merely human indignation at the oppression of the world-power, and picture with undisguised satisfaction the storm of war which overwhelms the imperial city. (2) Chapter i. forms the exordium to the prophecy of doom against Nineveh in the book as it lies before us. Its tone is exalted, and a fine picture is given of Yahweh appearing in judgment: "The Lord (Yahweh) is a jealous God and avengeth; the Lord avengeth and is full of wrath." The effects of the divine anger on the physical universe are forcibly described {yv. 3-6) ; on the other hand, God cares for those " that put their trust in Him " {v. 7), but overwhelms His enemies {w. 8-120); in the following verses (126-15) the joyful news is conveyed to Judah of the fall of the oppressor: — " Behold upon the mountains the feet of him that bringeth good tidings, that publisheth peace! Keep thy feasts, O Judah, perform thy vows; for the wicked one shall no more pass through thee; he is utterly cut off " {v. 15). Regarding chap. i. and ii. 2(=i. and ii. 1, 3, Heb. text) there has been much discussion in recent years. It was long ago noticed that traces of an alphabetic acrostic survive in this section of the book; throughout the whole of chap. i. there is no reference to Nineveh, though in some of the verses (8-l2a, 14) the enemies of Yahweh are addressed, who have usually been identified with the people or city of Nineveh; in w. 126, 13 and (certainly) v. 15 ( = ii. I Heb.) Judah appears to be addressed. The text of i. 1-15, ii. 1-2 has been reconstructed by H. Gunkel and G. Bickell so as to form a complete alphabetic psalm with contents of an eschatological character, and is regarded by them as a later addition to the book. It may be a " generalizing supplement " prefixed by the editor, possibly because the original introduction to the oracle had been mutilated. It is generally held by critical scholars that i. 1-8, 13, 15, and ii. 2 cer- tainly do not proceed from Nahum; i. 9-12 may, however, belong to the prophet. The phenomena are conflicting and a completely satisfactory solution seems to be impossible. Date of Nahum's Oracle. — The date of the composition of Nahum's prophecy must lie between 607-606, when Nineveh was captured and destroyed by the Babylonians and Medes, and the capture of Thebes (No-Amon) which is alluded to in iii.. 8-10. This was effected for the second time and most completely by Assur-bani-pal in 663 or 662 B.C. The tone of the prophecy suggests, on the one hand, that the fall of Nineveh is imminent, while, on the other, the reference to Thebes suggests that the disaster that had befallen it was still freshly remembered. On the whole a date somewhat near 606 is more probable. It is noteworthy that no reference is made to the restoration of the northern kingdom of Israel, or the return of its exiles. The poetry of the book is of a high order. Bibliography. — The Commentaries on the Minor Prophets, especially those of J. Wellhausen, D. W. Nowack and K. Marti (all German) ; G. A. Smith, The Book 0} the Twelve Prophets (2 vols.) ; A. B. Davidson, Nahum, Habakkuk and Zephaniah (Camb. Bible, 1896). (G. H. Bo.) NAIK, or Nayak, from a Sanskrit word meaning a leader, a title used in India in various senses. In the army it denotes a rank corresponding to that of corporal; and Hyder Ali of Mysore was proud of being called Haidar Naik, analogous to " le petit caporal " for Napoleon. It was also the title of the petty dynasties that arose in S. India on the downfall of the Hindu empire of Vijayanagar in the 16th century. NAIL (O. Eng. naegal, cf. Dutch, Ger.,Swed.«age/; the word is also related to Lat. unguis, Gr. &vv^, Sans, nakhds) a word applied both to the horny covering to the upper surface of the extremities of the fingers and toes of man and the Quadrumana (see Skin and Dermal Skeleton), and also to a headed pin or spike of metal, commonly of iron. The principal use of nails is in wood- work (joinery and carpentery), but they are also employed in numerous other trades. Size, form of head, nature of point, and special uses all give names to different classes of nails. Thus we have tacks, sprigs and brads for very small nails; rose, clasp and clout, according to the form of head; and flat points or sharp points according to the taper of the spike. According to 154 NAIL VIOLIN— NAIRNE the method of manufacture nails fall into four principal classes: (i) hand-wrought nails; (2) machine-wrought and cut nails; (3) wire or French nails; and (4) cast nails. The nailer handicraft was formerly a great industry in the country around Birmingham. The nails are forged from nail- rods heated in a small smith's hearth, hammered on an anvil, the nail length cut off on a chisel and the head formed by dropping the spike into a hole in a " bolster " of steel, from which enough of the spike is left projecting to form the head. In the case of clasp nails the head is formed with two strokes of the hammer, while rose nails require four. The heads of the larger-sized nails are made with an " Oliver " or mechanical hammer, and for ornamental or stamped heads " swages " or dies are employed. The conditions of life and labour among the hand nailers in England were exceedingly unsatisfactory: married women and young children of both sexes working long hours in small filthy sheds attached to their dwellings; their employment was con- trolled by middle-men or nail-masters, who supplied them with the nail-rods and paid for work done, sometimes in money and sometimes in kind on the truck system. Machine-wrought and cut nails have supplanted most corresponding kinds of hand-made nails. Horse nails are still made by hand-labour. These are made from the finest Swedish charcoal iron, hammered out to a sharp point. They must be tough and homogeneous throughout, so that there may be no danger of their breaking over and leaving portions in the hoof. In 1617 Sir D. Bulmer devised a machine for cutting nail-rods, and in 1790 T. Clifford patented a device for shaping the rods, but the credit of perfecting machinery mainly belongs to American enterprise (the first American patent appears to be that of Ezekiel Reed, dated 1786). The machine, fed with heated (to black heat only) strips of metal, usually mild steel, having a breadth and thickness sufficient for the nail to be made, shears off by its slicer the " nail blank," which, falling down, is firmly clutched at the neck till a heading die strikes against its upper end and forms the head, the completed nail passing out through an inclined shoot. In large nails the taper of the shank and point is secured by the sectional form to which the strips are rolled; brads, sprigs and small nails, on the other hand, are cut from uniform strips in an angular direction from head to point, the strip being turned over after each blank is cut so that the points and heads are taken from opposite sides alternately, and a uniform taper on two opposite sides of the nail, from head to point, is secured. The machines turn out nails with wonderful rapidity, varying with the size of the nails produced from about 100 to 1000 per minute. Wire or French nails are made from round wire, which is unwound, straightened, cut into lengths and headed by a machine either by intermittent blows or by pressure, but the pointing is accomplished by the pressure of dies. Cast nails, which are cast in sand moulds by the ordinary process, are used principally for horticultural purposes, and the hob-nails or tackets of shoemakers are also cast. See Peter Barlow, Encyclopaedia of ' Arts, Manufactures and Machinery (1848); Bucknall Smith, Wire, Its Manufacture and Uses (New York, 1891). NAIL VIOLIN (Ger. -Nagelgeige, Nagelharmonica), a musical curiosity invented by Johann Wilde, a musician in the imperial orchestra at St Petersburg. The nail violin or harmonica consists of a wooden soundboard about 13 ft. long and 1 ft. wide bent into a semicircle. In this soundboard are fixed a number of iron or brass nails of different lengths, tuned to give a chromatic scale. Sound is produced by friction with a strong bow, strung with black horsehair. An improved instrument, now in the collection of the Hochschule in Berlin, has two half-moon sound-chests of different sizes, one on the top of the other, forming terraces. In the rounded wall of the upper sound-chest are two rows of iron staples, the upper giving the diatonic scale, atid the lower the intermediate chromatic semitones. History records the name of a single virtuoso on this instrument, which has a sweet bell-like tone but limited technical possibilities; he was a Bohemian musician called Senal, who travelled all over Germany with his instrument about 1 780-1 790. (K. S.) NAINI TAL, a town and disf.nct of British India, in the Kumaon division of the United Provinces. The town is 6400 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 7609. Naini Tal is a popular sanatorium for the residents in the plains, and the summer head- quarters of the government of the province. It is situated on a lake, surrounded by high mountains, and is subject to landslides; a serious catastrophe of this kind occurred in September 1880. The approach from the plains is by the Rohilkhand and Kumaon railway from Bareilly, which has its terminus at Kathgodam, 22 m. distant by cart road. There are several European schools, besides barracks and convalescent depot for European soldiers. The District or Naini Tal comprises the lower hills of Kumaon and the adjoining Tarai or submontane strip. Area, 2677 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 311,237, showing a decrease of 15-4% in the decade. The district includes the Gagar and other foothills of the Himalayas, which reach an extreme height of nearly 9000 ft. The Bhabar tract at their base consists of boulders from the mountains, among which the hill streams are swallowed up. Forests cover vast tracts of the hill-country and the Bhabar. Beyond this is the Tarai, moist and extremely unhealthy. Here the principal crops are rice and wheat. In the hills a small amount of tea is grown, and a considerable quantity of fruit. The only railway is the line to Kathgodam. See Naini Tal District Gazetteer (Allahabad, 1904). NAIRN, a royal, municipal and police burgh and county town of Nairnshire, Scotland. Pop. of the royal burgh (1901) 5089. It is situated on the Moray Firth, at the mouth of the Nairn and on its left bank, 15! m. N.E. of Inverness by the Highland railway. The town, though of immemorial age, shows no signs of its antiquity, being bright, neat and modern. It attracts many summer visitors by its good sea bathing and excellent golf-course. The industries include salmon fishing, deep-sea fishing, the making of rope and twine and the freestone quarries of the neighbourhood. There is a commodious harbour with breakwater and pier. Nairn belongs to the Inverness district group of parliamentary burghs (Forres, Fortrose, Inverness and Nairn). Nairn was originally called Invernarne. (the mouth of the Nairn) . It was made a royal burgh by Alexander I. (d. 1 1 24) , but this charter having been lost it was confirmed by James VI. in 1589. NAIRNE, CAROLINA, Baroness (1766-1845), Scottish song writer, was born in the " auld hoose " of Gask, Perthshire, on the 16th of August 1766. She was descended from an old family which had settled in Perthshire in the 13th century, and could boast of kinship with the royal race of Scotland. Her father, Laurence Oliphant, was one of the foremost supporters of the Jacobite cause, and she was named Carolina in memory of Prince Charles Edward. In the schoolroom she was known as " pretty Miss Car," and afterwards her striking beauty and pieasing manners earned for her the name of the " Flower of Strathearn." In 1806 she married W. M. Nairne, who became Baron Nairne (see below) in 1824. Following the example set by Burns in the Scots Musical Museum, she undertook to bring out a collection of national airs set to appropriate words. To the collection she contributed a large number of original songs, adopting the signature " B. B." — " Mrs Bogan of Bogan." The music was edited by R. A. Smith, and the collection was published at Edinburgh under the name of the Scottish Minstrel (1821- 1824). After her husband's death in 1830 Lady Nairne took up her residence at Enniskerry, Co. Wicklow, but she spent much time abroad. She died at Gask on the 26th of October 1845- Her songs may -be classed under three heads: (1) those illustrative of the characters and manners of the old Scottish gentry, such as " The Laird o' Cockpen," " The Fife Laird," and "John Tod"; (2) Jacobite songs, composed for the most part to gratify her kinsman Robertson, the aged chief of Strowan, among the best known of which are perhaps " Wha '11 be King but Charlie? " " Charlie is my darling," " The Hundred Pipers," "He's owre the Hills," and "Bonnie Charlie's noo awa "; and (3) songs' not included under the above heads, ranging over a variety of subjects from " Caller Herrin' " to the " Land o' the NAIRNSHIRE— NAIROBI iS5 Leal." For vivacity, genuine pathos and bright wit her songs are surpassed only by those of Burns. Lady Nairne's husband, William Murray Nairne (1757-1830). He was descended from Sir Robert Nairne of Strathord (c. 1620- 1683), a supporter of Charles II., who was created Baron Nairne in 1681. After his death without issue the barony passed to his son-in-law, Lord William Murray (c. 1665-1726), the husband of his only daughter Margaret (1669-1747) and a younger son of John Murray, 1st marquess of Athole. William, who took the name of Nairne and became 2nd Baron Nairne, joined the standard of the Jacobites in 171 5; he was taken prisoner at the battle of Preston and was sentenced to death. He was, however, pardoned, but his title was forfeited. His son John (c. 1691- 1770), who but for this forfeiture would have been the 3rd Baron Nairne, was also taken prisoner at Preston, but he was soon set at liberty. In the rising of 1745 he was one of the Jacobite leaders, being present at the battles of Prestonpans, of Falkirk and of Culloden, and consequently he was attainted in 1746; but escaped to France. His son John (d. 1782) was the father of William Murray Nairne, who, being restored to the barony of Nairne in 1824, became the 5th baron. The male line became extinct when his son William, the 6th baron (1808-1837), died unmarried. The next heir was a cousin, Margaret, Baroness Keith of Stonehaven Marischal (1788-1867), wife of Auguste Charles Joseph, comte de Flahaut de la Billarderie, but she did not claim the title. In 1874, however, the right of her daughter, the wife of the 4th marquess of Lansdowne, was allowed by the House of Lords. For Lady Nairne's songs, see Lays from Strathearn, arranged with Symphonies and Accompaniments for the Pianoforte by Finlay Dun (1846); vol. i. of the Modern Scottish Minstrel (1857); Life and Songs of the Baroness Nairne, with a Memoir and Poems of Caroline Oliphant the Younger, edited by Charles Rogers (1869, new ed. 1886). See also T. L. Kington-Oliphant, Jacobite Lairds of Cask (1870). NAIRNSHIRE, a north-eastern county of Scotland, bounded \V. and S. by Inverness-shire, E. by Elginshire and N. by the Moray Firth. It has an area of 103,429 acres or 161 -6 sq..m., and a coast line of 9 m. and is the fourth smallest county in Scotland. The seaboard, which is skirted by sandbanks danger- ous to navigation, is lined by low dunes extending into Elginshire. Parallel with the coast there is a deposit of sand and gravel about 90 ft. high stretching inland for 4 or 5 m. This and the undulating plain behind are a continuation westward of the fertile Laigh of Moray. From this region southward the land rises rapidly to the confines of Inverness-shire, where the chief heights occur. Several of these border hills exceed 2000 ft. in altitude, the highest being Cam Glas (2162 ft.). The only rivers of importance are the Findhorn and the Nairn, both rising in Inverness-shire. The Findhorn after it leaves that county takes a mainly north-easterly direction down Strathdearn for 17 m. and enters the sea to the north of Forres in Elginshire after a total course of 70 m. The Nairn, shortly after issuing from Strathnairn, flows towards the N.E. for 12 m. out of its complete course of 38 m. and falls into the Moray Firth at the county town. There are eight lochs, all small, but the loch of Clans is of particular interest because of its examples of crannogs, i>r lake-dwellings. Nairnshire contains many beautiful woods and much picturesque and romantic scenery. Geology. — The county is divided geologically into two clearly- marked portions. The southern and larger portion is composed i)f the eastern, Dalradiar. or younger Highland schists with associated granite masses; this forms all the higher ground. The low-lying northern part of the country bordering Moray Firth is occupied by Old Red Sandstone. The schistose rocks are mainly thin bedded micaceous gneisses, schists and quartzites; between Dallaschyle and Creag an Dairnb a more massive higher horizon appears in the centre of a synclinal fold. Porphyritic gneiss is found on the rianks of Cam nan tri-tighearnan. The schists are frequently intersected by dikes of granite, amphibolite, &c. Three masses of granite are found penetrating the schists; the largest lies on the eastern boundary and extends from about Lethen Bar Hill southward by Ardclach and Glenferness to the Bridge of Dulsie. The second mass on the opposite side of the county belongs mainly to Inverness but the granite reaches into Nairn on the slopes of Bein nan Creagan &nd Ben Buidhe Mhor. A smaller mass near Rait Castle, with large pink crystals of orthoclase, has been employed as a building stone. On the denuded surface of the schists the Old Red Sandstone was deposited and formerly doubtless covfered most of the county; outlying patches still remain near Drynachan Lodge and near Highland Boath in Muckle Burn. The Lower Old Red rocks are basal breccias followed by shales with calcareous nodules containing fossil fish. The Upper Old Red, which is found usually nearer the coast, is unconformable on the Lower series; it consists of red shales and clays and obliquely bedded sandstones. Glacial deposits are widely spread ; they comprise a Lower Boulder Clay, a series of gravels and sands, followed by an Upper. Boulder Clay, above which comes a series of gravel deposits forming ridges on the moor- land between the Nairn and Findhorn rivers. A fine kame, resting on the plain of sand and gravel, lies between Meikle Kildrummie and Loch Flemington, south of the railway. Traces of the old marine terraces at 100 ft., 50 ft. and 25 ft. are found near the coast, as well as considerable accumulations of blown sand. Climate and Industries.-, — The climate is healthy and equable. The temperature for the year averages 47 F., for January 38° F., and for July, 58 F. The mean annual rainfall is 25 in. The soil of the alluvial plain, or Laigh, is light and porous and careful cultiva- tion has rendered it very fertile; and there is some rich land on the Findhorn. Although the most advanced methods of agriculture are in use, but a small proportion of the surface is capable of tillage, only one-fifth of the whole area being under crops. The hills are mostly covered with heath and pasture, suitable for sheep, and cattle are kept on the lower lying ground. The county accords many facilities for sport. A few distilleries, some sandstone and granite quarries and the sea and salmon fisheries of the Nairn practically represent flie industries of the shire, apart from agriculture. The Highland Railway from Forres to Inverness crosses the north of the shire. Population and Government. — In 1891 the population numbered 9155 and in 1901 it was 9291, or 57 persons to the sq. m. Besides the county town of Nairn (pop. 5089), there are the parishes of Ardclach (pop. 772), and Auldearn (pop. of parish 1292, of village 313). Nairn and Elgin shires combine to return one member to parliament, and the county town belongs to the Inverness district group of parliamentary burghs (Forres, Fortrose, Inverness and Nairn). The shire forms a sheriffdom with Inverness and Elgin and a sheriff-substitute sits alternately at Nairn and Elgin. History. — The country was originally peopled by the Gaelic or northern Picts. Stone circles believed to have been raised by them are found at Moyness, Auldearn, Urchany, Ballinrait, Dalcross and Croy, the valley of the Nairn being especially rich in such relics. To the north of Dulsie Bridge is a monolith called the Princess Stone. A greater number of the mysterious prehistoric stones with cup-markings occur in Nairn than any- where else in Scotland. Mote hills are also common. Whether there was any effective Roman occupation of the land so far north is an open question, but there is little evidence of it in Nairn, beyond the occasional finding of Roman coins. Columba and his successors made valiant efforts to Christianize the Picts, but it was long before their labours began to tell, although the saint's name was preserved late in the 19th century in the annual fair at Auldearn called " St Colm's Market," while to his biographer Adamnan — corrupted into Evan or Wean — was dedicated the church at Cawdor, where an old Celtic bell also bears this name. By the dawn of the 10th century the Picts had been subdued with the help of the Norsemen, and Nairn, which was one of the districts colonized by the Scandinavians, as part of the ancient province of Moray, soon afterwards became an integral portion of the kingdom of Scotland. Macbeth was one of the kings that Moray gave to Scotland, and his name and memory survive to the present day. Hardmuir, between Brodie and Nairn, is the reputed heath where Macbeth met the witches. Territorially Moray was greatly contracted in the reign of David I. , and thenceforward the history of Nairn merges in the main in that of the bishopric and earldom of Moray (see Elgin). The thane of Cawdor was constable of the king's castle at Nairn, and when the heritable sheriffdom was established towards the close of the 14th century this office was also filled by the thane of the time. Bibliography. — Charles J. G. Rampint, History of Moray and Nairn (Edinburgh, 1897); Book of the Thanes of Cawdor (Spalding Club) (Edinburgh, 1859); Brodie Cruickshank, Place Names of Nairnshire (1897); G. Bain, The Clova Cairns and Circles (Nairn, 1899). NAIROBI, capital of the British East Africa protectorate and of the province of Ukamba, 327 m. by rail N.W. of Mombasa and 257 m. S.E. of Port Florence on Victoria Nyanza. Pop. 156 NAIVASHA— NAKSKOV (1907) 4737, including 350 Europeans and 1752 Indians. Nairobi is built on the Athi plains, at the foot of the Kikuyu hills and 5450 ft. above the sea; it commands magnificent views of Kilimanjaro and Mt. Kenya. It is the headquarters of the Uganda railway, of the military forces in the protectorate, and of the Colonists' Association. It is divided into European, Indian and native quarters. Midway between the European and Indian quarters stands the town hall. The other public buildings include railway works, places of worship (Protestant, Roman Catholic, Mahommedan and Hindu) and schools, an Indian bazaar, a general hospital and waterworks — the water being obtained from springs 13 m. distant. The site of Nairobi was selected as the headquarters of the Uganda railway, and the first buildings were erected in 1899. For some time nearly all its inhabitants were railway officials and Indian coolies engaged in the construction of the line. In 1902 the surrounding highlands were found to be suitable for European settlement, and Nairobi speedily grew in importance; in 1907 the headquarters of the administration were transferred to it from Mombasa. The town is provided with clubs, cricket and athletic grounds and a racecourse. NAIVASHA, the name of a lake, town and province, in British East Africa. The lake, which is roughly circular with a diameter of some 13 m., lies at an altitude of 6135 ft. on the crest of the highest ridge in the eastern rift-valley between the Kikuyu escarpment on the east and the Mau escarpment on the west. It is fed from the north by the rivers Gilgal and Morendat, but has no known outlet. The rivers, which have a minimum dis- charge of 100 cub. ft. per second, run in deep gullies. The water of the lake is fresh; the shore in many places is lined with papyrus. North and north-west the lake is closed in by the volcanic Buru hills; to the south towers the extinct volcano of Longonot. Hippopotami and otters frequent the lake, and on an island about 1 m. from the shore are large numbers of antelopes and other game. Naivasha was discovered in 1883 by Gustav Adolf Fischer (1848-1886), one of the early explorers of the Tana and Masai regions, and the first to demonstrate the continuance of the rift-valley through equatorial Africa. Fischer was followed later in the same year by Joseph Thomson, the Scottish explorer. The railway from Mombasa to Victoria Nyanza skirts the eastern side of the lake, and on the railway close to the lake is built the town of Naivasha, 6230 ft. above the sea, 391 m. N.W. by rail of Mombasa and 193 m. S.E. by rail of Port Florence on Victoria Nyanza. Naivasha province contains much land suitable for colonization by white men, and large areas were leased to Europeans by the British authorities in 1903 and subsequent years. The East Africa Syndicate acquired a lease of 500 sq. m. in the valley of the Gilgal and surrounding country north of Lake Naivasha. North-west of the lake and along the Molo river the 3rd Lord Delamere obtained a grant of 155 sq. m. NAJARA, ISRAEL BEN MOSES, Hebrew poet, was born in Damascus and wrote in the latter part of the 16th century (1587- 1599). He was inspired by the mystical school, and his poems are marked by their bold, sensuous images, as well as by a depth of feeling unequalled among the Jewish writers of his age. He often adapted his verses to Arabic and Turkish melodies. To tunes which had been associated with light and even ribald themes, Najara wedded words which reveal an intensity of religious emotion which often takes a form indistinguishable from love poetry. Some pietist contemporaries condemned his work for this reason; but this did not prevent many of his poems from attaining wide popularity and from winning their way into the prayer-book. In fact, Najara could claim the authority of the Biblical " Song of Songs " (mystically inter- preted) for his combination of the language of human love with the expression of the relationship between God and humanity. He published during his lifetime a collection of his poems, Songs of Israel (Zemiroth Israel), in Safed in 1587; an enlarged edition appeared in Venice (1599- 1600). Others of his poems were published at various times, and W. Bacher has described some previously unknown poems of Najara {Revue des gtudes juives, Nos. 116 sec.'). NAJIBABAD, a town of British India, in the Bijnor district of the United Provinces, 31 m. S.E. of Hardwar. Pop. (1901) 19,568. It was founded in the middle of the 18th century by a Rohilla chief, and still contains several architectural monuments of Rohilla magnificence. It has a station on the Oudh & Rohil- khand railway, with a junction for the branch to Kotdwara. There is considerable trade in timber, sugar and grain, and manufactures of metal-ware, shoes, blankets and cotton cloth. NAKHICHEVAN, or Nakhjevan, a city of Russian Armenia, in the government of Erivan, 85 m. S.E. of the town of Erivan. It occupies the brow of a spur of the Kara-bagh mountains, 2940 ft. above the sea, and looks out over the valley of the Aras. Pop. (1863) 6251, (1897) 8845. Built and rebuilt again and again, Nakhichevan is full of half -obliterated evidences of former prosperity. The present houses have for the most part been quarried from ancient ruins; of the palace of the princes of Azerbaijan there remains a gateway with a Persian inscription, flanked by two brick towers; and at a little distance stands the so-called Tower of the Khans, a richly decorated twelve-sided structure, 102 ft. in circumference and 75 ft. in height, dating, to judge by the inscription which runs around the cornice, from the 1 2th century. There are also ruins of a large mosque. Situated on the highroad to Tabriz and Teheran, Nakhichevan has a large transit trade. In the Persian period the city is said to have had 40,000 inhabitants; the population now consists chiefly of Tatars and Armenians, who carry on gardening, make wine and produce silk, salt and millstones. Armenian tradition claims Noah as the founder of Nakhichevan (the Naxuana of Ptolemy), and a mound of earth in the city is still visited by many pilgrims as his grave. Laid waste by the Persians in the 4th century, Nakhichevan sank into comparative insignificance, but by the 10th century had recovered its prosperity. In 1064 it was taken by Alp Arslan, sultan of the Seljuk Turks, and in the 13th century it fell a prey to the Mongols of Jenghiz Khan. It afterwards suffered frequently during the wars between the Persians, Armenians and Turks, and it finally passed into Russian possession by the peace of Turkman-chai in 1828. NAKHICHEVAN-ON-THE-DON, a town of southern Russia, in the Don Cossacks territory, 6 m. by rail N.E. of the town of Rostov and on the right bank of the Don. Pop. (1900) 30,883. It was founded in 1780 by Armenian immigrants. It soon became a wealthy place, and still is the administrative centre of the " Armenian district," a narrow strip along the banks of the Don, with a population of 27,250. The town has tobacco and wadding factories, tallow-melting works, soap-works, brickworks and tanneries. There is a large trade in cereals and timber. NAKHON SRI TAMMARAT (also known as Lakhon and formerly as Ligoee), a town of southern Siam, in the division of the same name, about 380 m. S. of Bangkok, on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula. It is one of the most ancient cities of Siam, and contains many buildings and ruins of antiquarian interest. The trade consists chiefly of the export of rice. In the bay, a short distance off, ships can lie safely at all seasons. The population (7000) is chiefly Siamese, but there is an ad- mixture of Burmese, the descendants of prisoners of war and of refugees from Tenasserim. The town is the headquarters of a governor under the high commissioner at Singora. It has for long been a centre of the American Presbyterian Mission to Siam. It was once the capital of a feudatory state, the chief of which ruled the greater part of the Malay Peninsula in the name of the kings of Siam and bore the brunt of all the wars with Malacca and other Malay states. It lies, however, north of the limit of Malay expansion, and has never at any time come under Malay rule. With the fall of the Siamese capital of Ayuthia in 1767 it became independent, but returned to its allegiance on the founding of Bangkok. In the 17th century British, Portuguese and Dutch merchants had factories here and carried on an extensive trade. ' NAKSKOV, a seaport of Denmark, in the amt (county) of Maribo, on a wide bay of the Laalands belt at the west end of the island of Laaland, 31 m. by rail W. of Nykjobing. Pop. (1001) 8310. The church dates from the beginning of the f 25th century. There is a large sugar factory. A great dike, NAMAQU ALAND— NAME i57 extending S.E. to Rodby (20 m.), protects the coast against inundation, a serious inroad of the sea having occurred in 1872. NAMAQUALAND, a region of south-western Africa, extending along the west coast over 600 m. from Damaraland (22° 43' S.) on the north to 31 S., and stretching inland 80 to 350 m. It is divided by the lower course of the Orange river into two portions— Little Namaqualand to the south and Great Namaqua^ land to the north. Little Namaqualand forms part of Cape Colony (q.v.), and Great Namaqualand is the southern portion of German South- West Africa (q.v.). The people of Namaqua- land are the purest surviving type of Hottentots, and number some twenty to thirty thousand. NAMASUDRA, the name adopted by the great caste or tribe who inhabit the swamps of Eastern Bengal, India, whom the higher castes are wont to designate by the opprobrious term of Chandal. Their number in 1001 exceeded 2 millions; but if the cognate Pods and also the Mahommedans of the same ethnical stock were to be added, the total would probably reach n millions. NAME (O. Eng. nama; cognate forms in Teutonic languages are Dutch naam, Ger. Name, &c, but the word is common to all Indo-European languages; cf. Gr. ovo/xa, Lat. nomen, Sans. naman, &c), the distinguishing appellation by which a person, place, thing or class of persons or things is known. Local Names. — The study of names and of their survival in civilization enables us in some cases to ascertain what peoples inhabited districts now tenanted by races of far different speech. Thus the names of mountains and rivers in many parts of England are Celtic — for example, to take familiar instances, Usk, Esk and Avon. There are also local names (such as Mona, Monmouth, Mynwy and others) which seem to be relics of tribes even older than the Celtic stocks, and " vestiges of non-Aryan people, whom the Celts found in possession both on the Continent and in the British Isles." 1 The later English name is sometimes the mere translation, perhaps unconscious, of the earlier Celtic appellation, often added to the more ancient word. Penpole Point in Somerset is an obvious example of this redoubling of names. The pre-Aryan place-names of the Aegean are much discussed by philologists. Such a name as Corinthos, with all other words in nthos, as hyacinthos, is thought to be pre-Hellenic. The river-names Gade, Ver, Test and many other monosyllabic river-names in the home counties, appear to be neither English nor Celtic, but have been neglected, being known to few but anglers and rustics. As to the meaning and nature of ancient local names, they are as a rule purely descriptive. A river is called by some word which merely signifies "the water"; a hill has a name which means no more than " the point," " the peak," " the castle." Celtic names are often of a more romantic tone, as Ardnamurchan, " the promontory by the great ocean," an admirable description of the bold and steep headland which breasts the wash of the Atlantic. As a general rule the surviving Celtic names, chiefly in Ireland, Wales and Scotland, all contain some wide meaning of poetic appropriateness. The English names, on the other hand, commonly state some very simple fact, and very frequently do no more than denote property, such and such a town or hamlet, " ton " or " ham," is the property of the Billings, Uffings, Tootings, or whoever the early English settlers in the district may have been. The same attachment to the idea of property is exhibited in even the local names of petty fields in English parishes. Occasionally one finds a bit of half-humorous description, as when a sour, starved and weedy plot is named " starvacre " ; but more usually fields are known as " Thompson's great field," " Smith's small field," " the fouracre," or the like. The name of some farmer or peasant owner or squatter of ancient date survives for centuries, attached to what was once his property. Thus the science of local names has a double historical value. The names indicate the various races (Celtic, Roman and English in Great Britain) who have set in the form of names the seal of their possession on the soil. Again, the meanings of the names illustrate the characters of 'Elton, Origins of English History, p. 165; Rhys, Lectures on Celtic Phtlology, pp. 181, 182. the various races. The Romans have left names connected with camps (castra, chesters) and military roads; the English have used simple descriptions of the baldest kind, or have ex- hibited their attachment to the idea of property; the Celtic names (like those which the red men have left in America, or the blacks in Australia) are musical with poetic fancy, and filled with interest in the aspects and the sentiment of nature. The British race carries with it the ancient names of an older people into every continent, and titles perhaps originally given to places in the British Isles by men who had not yet learned to polish their weapons of flint may now be found in Australia, America, Africa and the islands of the farthest seas. Local names were originally imposed in a handy local manner. The settler or the group of cave-men styled the neighbouring river " the water," the neighbouring hill " the peak," and these terms often still survive in relics of tongues which can only be construed by the learned. Personal Names. — The history of personal names is longer and more • complex, but proceeds from beginnings almost as simple. But in personal names the complexity of human character, and the gradual processes of tangling and disentangling the threads of varied human interest, soon come in, and per- sonal names are not imposed once and for all. Each man in very early societies may have many names, in different char- acters and at different periods of his life. The oldest personal names which we need examine here are those which indicate, not an individual, but a group, held together by the conscious sense or less conscious sentiment of kindred, or banded together for reasons of convenience. An examination of customs prevalent among the most widely separated races of Asia, Africa, Australia and America proves that groups conceiving themselves to be originally of the same kin are generally styled by the name of some animal or other object (animate or inanimate) from which they claim descent. This object is known as the " totem " (see Totemism). The groups of supposed kin, however widely scattered in local distribution, are known as wolves, bears, turtles, suns, moons, cockatoos, reeds and what not, according as each group claims descent from this or that stock, and some- times wears a mark representing this or that animal, plant or natural object. Unmistakable traces of the same habit of naming exist among Semitic and Teutonic races, and even among Greeks and Romans. The names chosen are commonly those of objects which can be easily drawn in a rude yet recognizable way, and easily expressed in the language of gesture. In addition to the totem names (which indicate, in each example, supposed blood-kindred), local aggregates of men received local names. We hear of the " hili-men," " the cave-men," " the bush-men," " the coast-men," the " men of the plain," precisely as in the old Attic divisions of Aktaioi, Pediaioi and so forth. When a tribe comes to recognize its own unity, as a rule it calls itself by some term meaning simply " the men," all other tribes being regarded as barbarous or inferior. Probably other neighbouring tribes also call themselves " the men " in another dialect or language, while the people in the neighbourhood are known by an opprobrious epithet, as Rakshasas among the early Aryan dwellers in India, or Eskimo (raw-eaters) in the far north of the American continent. Tribal names in Australia are often taken from the tribal term for " yes " or " no "; cf. Languedoc. Leaving social for personal names, we find that, among most uncivilized races, a name (derived from some incident or natural object) is given at the time of birth by the parents of each new- born infant. Occasionally the name is imposed before the child is born, and the proud parents call themselves father and mother of such an one before the expected infant sees the light. In most cases the name (the earliest name) denotes some phenomenon of nature; thus Dobrizhofer met in the forests a young man styled " Gold flower of day," that is, " Dawn," his father having been named " Sun." Similar names are commonly given by the natives of Australia, while no names are more common among North-American Indians than those derived from sun, moon, cloud and wind. The names of savage persons are not permanent. The name i 5 8 NAME first given is ordinarily changed (at the ceremony answering to confirmation in the church) for some more appropriate and descriptive nickname, and that, again, is apt to be superseded by various " honour-giving names " derived from various exploits. The common superstition against being " named " has probably produced the custom by which each individual has a secret name and is addressed, when possible, by some wide term of kinship — " brother," " father " and the like. The bad luck which in Zulu customs as in Vedic myths attends the utterance of the real name is evaded by this system of addresses. Could we get a savage — an Iroquois, for example — to explain his titles, we would find that he is, say, " Morning Cloud " (by birth-name), " Hungry Wolf " (by confirmation name). " He that raises the white fellow's scalp " (by honour- giving name), of the Crane totem (by kinship and hereditary name, as understood by ourselves). When society grows so permanent that male kinship and paternity are recognized, the custom of patronymics is introduced. The totem 'name gives place to a gentile name, itself probably a patronymic in form; or, as in Greece, the gentile name gives place to a local name, derived from the deme. Thus a Roman is called Caius; Julius is his gentile name (of the Julian clan); Caesar is a kind of hereditary nickname A Greek is Thucydides (the name usually derived from the grandfather), the son of Olorus, of the deme of Halimusia. This system of names answered the purposes of Greek and Roman civilization. In Europe, among the Teutonic races, the stock-names (conceivably totemistic in origin) survive in English local names, which speak of the " ton " or " ham " of the Billings or Tootings. An examination of these names, as collected in Kemble's Anglo-Saxons, proves that they were frequently derived from animals and plants. Such English names as " Noble Wolf " (Ethelwulf), " Wolf of War " and so forth, certainly testify to a somewhat primitive and fierce stage of society. Then came more vulgar nicknames and personal descriptions, as " Long," " Brown," " White " and so forth. Other names are directly derived from the occupation or craft (Smith, Fowler, Sadler) of the man to whom they were given, and yet other names were derived from places. The noble and landowner was sailed " of " such and such a place (the German von and Prench dc), while the humbler man was called not " of " but " at " such a place, as in the name " Attewell," or merely by the local name without the particle. The " de " might also indicate merely the place of a person's birth or residence; it was not a proof of noblesse. If we add to these names patronymics formed by the addition of " son," and terms derived from Biblical characters (the latter adopted after the Reformation as a re- action against the names of saints in the calendar), we have almost exhausted the sources of modern English and European names. A contrhual development of custom can be traced, and the analysis of any man's family and Christian names will lead us beyond history into the manners oi races devoid of literary records. ' (A. L.) Creek Names. — The Greeks had only one, and no family, name; hence the name of a child was left to the discretion of the parents. The eldest son generally took the name of his paternal grand- father, girls that of their grandmother. Genuine patronymics (Phocion, son of Phocus), analogous compounds (Theophrastus, son of Theodorus), or names of similar meaning (Philumenus, son of Eros) also occur. Athenaeus divides names generally into (i) deexfiopa, chiefly derivatives or compounds of the names of gods (Demetrius, Apollonius, Theodorus, Diodotus, Heraclitus, Diogenes); (2) cbea, simple or variously compounded names, especially such as were of good omen for a son's future career (Aristides, Pericles, Sophocles, Alexander), although such hopes were frequently belied by the results. Instances of a subsequent change of name are not uncommon: thus, Plato and Theo- phrastus were originally Aristocles and Tyrtamus. To obviate the ambiguit3<- and confusion arising from the use of a single name, various expedients were adopted, the commonest being to add the father's name — A-nnoo-devrjs Arinoodkvovs, 'A.Kia@ia.8vis 6 KKavlov. Sometimes the birthplace was added — 'HpoSoros 'AXt/cappcKTcreiis, GovKvSiSris 'AOrjvaios, and some- times the name of the deme (see Cleisthenes), e.g. Arifj-oadevrj's Tlaiavevs , Nicknames denoting mental or bodily defects or striking peculiarities (e.g. colour of hair) were also favourite methods of discrimination (eg. Savdos, yellow). Roman Names. — Towards the end of the republic free-born Romans were distinguished by three names and two (or even four) secondary indications. In an inscription the name of Cicero is givenin the following form: M. Tullius M.f. M.n. M.pr. Cor(nelia tribu) Cicero. M ( = Marcus) is the praenomen; Tullius, the nomen, the gentile or family name; Cicero, the cognomen. This order, always preserved, is the correct one. M.f. ( = Marci Alius), M.n. ( = Marci nepos), M.pr. ( = Marci pronepos),Cor(nelia tribu) are only used in formal description. Praenomen (corresponding to the modern Christian name). — Varro gives a list of 32 praenomina, of which 14 had fallen out of use in Sulla's time, the remaining 18 being confined to patrician families. Some of these appear to have been appropriated by particular families, e.g. Appius by the Claudii, Mamercus by the Aemilii. In the case of plebeian families there was greater latitude and a larger variety of names, but those which became ennobled followed the patrician usage. After the time of Sulla some of the old praenomina were revived, unless they are rather to be regarded as cognomina, which in some families displaced the praenomen proper, as in the case of a certain Africanus Aemilius Regulus. The nomen {gentile, gentilicium) belonged to all the individual members of the gens and those in any way connected with it (wives, clients, freedmen). In patrician gentes the nomina nearly all ended in -ius (-aeus, -eius, -eus), and are perhaps a sort of patronymic (Iulius from lulus). In some cases the name indicates the place of origin (Norbanus, Acerranus) ; -acus (Divitiacus) is peculiar to Gallic, -na (Caecina, Perperna) to Etruscan, -enus (Arulenus) to Umbrian names. Verres as a gentile name stands by itself; perhaps it was originally a cognomen. The cognomen (" surname ") was the name given to a Roman citizen as a member of a familia or branch of the gens, whereby the family was distinguished from other families belonging to the same gens. Cognomina were either of local origin (Calatinus, Sabinus) ; or denoted physical peculiarities or moral characteristics (Crassus, Longus, Lentulus, Lepidus, Calvus, Naso) ; or they were really praenomina (Cossus, Agrippa) or derivatives from praenomina or cognomina (Sextinus, Corvinus, Laevinus). The tria nomina (" three names ") in the well-known passage of Juvenal (v. 127) was probably at that time a mark of ingenuitas rather than of nobilitas. In addition to these three regular names, many Romans had a fourth, cognomen secundum [agnomen was an introduction of the grammarians of the 4th century). These " second surnames " were chiefly bestowed in recognition of great achievements — Asiaticus, Africanus, Creticus, or were part of the terminology in cases of adoption. Persons adopted took all the three names of their adoptive father, but at the same time, to keep his origin in mind, they added a second cognomen, a derivative in -anus or -inus from his old gentile name; thus, Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus, son of Lucius Aemilius Paullus, adopted by Publius Cornelius Scipio. After the time of Sulla, the derivative was no longer used, one of the old names being substituted without change — Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus. Under the empire no fixed rule was observed, the most remarkable thing being the very large number of names borne by one person (as many as ?6 occur on an inscription). Especially in the army and amongst the lower orders, nicknames {signa, vocabula) are of frequent occurrence. Well-known examples are: Caligula; cedo alteram ("another stick, please! "), given to a centurion of flogging pro- pensities; manus ad ferrum ("hand on sword,") of Aurelian when tribune. Women originally took the name of the head of the family — Caecilia (filia) Metelli, Metella Crassi (uxor). Later, f. ( = fiiia) was added after the name of a daughter. Towards the end of the republic women are denoted by their gentile name alone, while under the empire they always have two — the nomen and cognomen of the father (Aeniilia Lepida, daughter of, Lucius Aemilius Lepidus Paullas), or the nomen of both father and mother (Valeria Attia, daughter of Attius Atticus and Valeria Sextina). Slaves originally had no name, but simply took their master'. praenomen in the genitive followed by -por (=puer): Marcipor, Publipor, Quintipor. Later, when the number of slaves was largely increased, by way of distinction names similar to those common in Greece (national, physical or moral qualities) or simply foreign names were given them. The word puer was subsequently replaced by se.rvus and the form of the name ran: ^phrodisius Ploti Gai servus; under the empire, Eleutherus C. Julii Florentini (the natural order being preserved in the master's name). When a slave exchanged one master for another, he adopted the name of his old master in an adjectival form in -anus . Cissus Caesaris (.servus) Maecenatianus (formerly a slave of Maecenas). Freedmen used their own name as I a cognomen and took the nomen of him who gave them their freedom NAMUR *59 and any praenomen they pleased: L. Livius Andronicus, freedman of M. Livius Salinator. In the time of Caesar, the freedman took the praenomen of the patronus and the gentile name of one of the friends of the latter; thus, Cicero calls his slave Dionysius M. Pomponius Dionysius as a token of friendship for T. Pomponius Atticus. a- H. F.) Law. — The Christian name, i.e. the name given to a person on admission to baptism into the Christian church, dates back to the early history of the Church. It has been said that the practice of giving a name on baptism was possibly imitated from the Jewish custom of giving a personal name at circumcision. In England individuals were for long distinguished by Christian names only, and the surname (see. below) or family name is still totally ignored by the Church'. As population increased and intercourse became general, it became necessary to employ some further name by which one man might be known from another, and in process of time the use of surnames became universal, the only exceptions in England being the members of the royal family, who sign by their baptismal names only. Where the ecclesiastical law does not come into conflict with the common law or has not been changed by it, it still prevails, and therefore it may be said that the name given at baptism may be regarded as practically unalterable. But that a baptismal name is not altogether unalterable has been a matter of contention. A constitution of Archbishop Peckham (ob. 1292) directs that " ministers shall take care not to permit wanton names to be given to children baptized, and if otherwise it be done, the same shall be changed by the bishop at confirmation." And before the Reformation the Office for Confirmation must have contemplated the possibility of such a change, as the bishop is directed therein to ask the child's name before anointing him with the chrism, and afterwards, naming him, to sign him with the cross. But in the second and subsequent Prayer-books all mention of the name in the Office for Confirmation is omitted. Lord Coke was of opinion that such a change was permissible and gives examples (1 Inst. p. 3), but Dr Burn {Ecc. Law, i. 80) held a contrary opinion. Phillimore, however, gives several instances when such a change was made, one, in the diocese of Liverpool, on the nth of June 1886 (see Phillimore, Ecc. Law, i. 517, 518; and also Notes and Queries, 4th ser. vol. vi. p. 17, 7th ser.Vol. ii. p. 17). Inthecaseof those who have not been baptized, but have a name (other than a surname) given them by their parents, such a name acquires force only by repute. The Registration of Births Act, which requires the registration of every birth, makes provision for the insertion of a name, but such provision is purely permissive, and the only object of entering a name on the register is to have an authoritative record of the commencement of repute. A clergyman of the Church of England is compelled to perform the ceremony of baptism when required by a parishioner, and to give whatever name or names the godparents select, but although the rubrics do not expressly say so, he can object to any name on religious or moral grounds. The freedom enjoyed in England and the United States as to the kind of Christian name which may be given to a child is somewhat limited in France and Germany. In France, by a decree of the 11 Germinal, an XL, the only names permitted to be recorded in the civil register as Christian names (prenoms) of children were those of saints in the calendar and the names of personages known in ancient history. Even at the present day an official list is issued (revised from time to time) containing a selection of forenames, and no name of a child will be registered unless it occurs in this list. A limitation more or less similar prevails in Germany and other European countries. As regards the surname (Fr. surnom, name in addition), custom has universally decreed that a man shall be known by the name of his father. But in England and the United States, at least, this custom is not legally binding; there is no law preventing a man from taking whatever name he has a fancy for, nor are there any particular formalities required to be observed on adopting a fresh surname; but, on the other hand, if a man has been known for a considerable time by the name of his father, or by a name of repute, and he changes it for another, he cannot compel others to address him or designate him by the new one. Neither does the English law recognize the absolute right of any person in any particular name to the extent of preventing anothcr'person from assuming it (Du Boulay v. Du Boutay, 1869, L.R. 2 P.C. 430). If, however, a person adopts a new name and wishes to have it publicly notified and recog- nized in official circles, the method of procedure usually adopted is that by royal licence. This is by petition, prepared and presented through the Heralds' Office. If granted, the royal licence is given under the sign manual and privy seal of the sovereign, counter- signed by the home secretary. In wills and settlements a clause is often inserted whereby a testator or settler imposes upon the takers of the estate an obligation to assume his name and bear his arms. The stamp duty payable for a royal licence in this case is fifty pounds, but if the application is merely voluntary the stamp duty is ten pounds. Where there is a more formal adoption of a surname, it is usual, for purposes of publicity and evidence, to advertise the change of name in the newspapers and to execute a deed poll setting out the change, and enrol the same in the central office of the Supreme Court. Both in France and Germany official authorization must be ob- tained for any change of name. By the German Code 1900 (s. 12) if the right to a new- name is disputed by another or his interest is injured thereby, the person entitled can compel the abandonment of the new name. In England, a wife on marriage adopts the surname of her husband, disregarding entirely her maiden surname; in Scotland the practice usually is for the wife to retain her maiden name for all legal purposes, adding the name of her husband as an alias. On remarriage the rule is for the wife to adopt the name of the new husband, but an ex- ception to this is tacitly recognized in the case of a title acquired by marriage when the holder remarries a commoner. This exception was very fully discussed in Cowley v. Cowley, 1901 , A.C. 450. Peers of the United Kingdom when signing their names use only their surnames or peerage designations. It is merely a privileged custom, which does not go back further than the Stuart period. Peeresses sign by their Christian names or initials followed by their peerage designation. Bishops sign by their initials followed by the name of the see. In Scotland it is very usual for landowners to affix to their names the designation of their lands, and this was expressly sanctioned by an act of 1672. See Ency. Eng. Law, tits. "Christian Name," "Surname"; W. P. W. Phillimore, Law and Practice of Change of Name; Fox- Davies and Carlyon-Britton, Law concerning Names and Changes of Name. (T. A. I.) NAMUR, one of the nine provinces of Belgium. It lies between Hainaut on the one side and Liege and Luxemburg on the other, and extends from Brabant up the Meuse valley to the French frontier. Area, 1414 sq. m.; pop. (1904) 357,759. The part north of the Meuse is very fertile, but the rest is covered with forest and is little suited for agriculture. There are a few iron and coal-mines between the Sambre and Meuse, and the quarries are of great importance. Arboriculture, and especially fruit-tree plantation, is on the increase. The province is divided into the three arrondissements of Namur, Dinant and Philippeville, and there are fifteen cantons for judicial purposes. NAMUR (Flemish, Namen), a town of Belgium, capital of the province of Namur. Pop. (1004) 31,940. It is most pictur- esquely situated at the junction of the rivers Sambre and Meuse, the town lying on the left banks of the two rivers, while the rocky promontory forming the fork between them is crowned with the old citadel. This citadel is no longer used for military purposes, and the hill on which it stands has been converted into a public park, while the crest is occupied by an enormous hotel to which access is gained by a cogwheel railway. Namur is connected with the citadel by two bridges across the Sambre, and from the east side of the promontory there is a fine stone bridge to the suburb of Jambes. This bridge was constructed in the nth century and rebuilt in the reign of Charles V. It is the only old bridge in existence over the Meuse in the Belgian portion of its course. The cathedral of St Aubain or Albin was built in the middle of the 18th century. The church of St Loup is a century older, and is noticeable for its columns of red marble from the quarry at St Remy near Rochefort. There is a considerable local industry in cutlery, and there are numerous tanneries along the river-side. The hill of the citadel is perhaps identical with Aduaticum, the fortified camp of the Aduatici captured and destroyed by Julius Caesar after the defeat of the Nervii, although many authorities incline to the plateau of Hastedon, north of the Sambre and of Namur itself, as the more probable site of the Belgic position. Many antiquities of the Roman-Gallic period have been discovered in the neighbourhood and are preserved in the local archaeological museum. Here also are deposited the human fossils of the Stone Age discovered at Furfooz on the Lesse. In the feudal period Namur was always a place of some import- ance, and long formed a marquisate in the Courtenay family. One institution of the medieval period came down to modern times, and was only discontinued in consequence of the fatalities with which it was generally accompanied. This was the annual encounter on the Place d'Armes of rival parties mounted on stilts. Galliot, the historian of Namur, says the origin of these jousts is lost in antiquity, but considers the use of stilts was due i6o NANA FARNAVIS— NANCY to the frequency with which the town was flooded before the rivers were embanked. Don John of Austria made Namur his headquarters during the greater part of his stay in the Nether- lands, and died here in 1578. As a fortress Namur did not attain the first rank until after its capture by Louis XIV. in 1692, when Vauban endeavoured to make it impregnable; but it was retaken by William III. in 1695. The French recaptured it in 1 702 and retained possession for ten years. In 181 5 Marshal Grouchy on his retreat into France fought an action here with the Prussians under General Pirch. In 1888, under the new scheme of Belgian defence, the citadel and its detached works were abandoned, and in their place nine outlying forts were constructed at a distance of from 3 to 5 m. round the town. All these forts are placed on elevated points. They are in their order, beginning on the left bank of the Meuse and ending on the right bank of the same river: (1) St Heribert, (2) Malonne, (3) Suarlee, (4) Emines, (5) Cognelee, (6) Gelbressee, (7) Maizeret, (8) Andoy and (9) Dave. The whole position is correctly de- scribed as the " tete de pont " of Namur, and in addition to its strong bomb-proof forts it possesses great natural advantages for the defence of the intervals. NANA FARNAVIS (1 741-1800), the great Mahratta minister at Poona at the end of the 18th century. His real name was Balaji Janardhan Bhanu; but, like many other Mahrattas, he was always known by a kind of nickname. Nana properly means a maternal grandfather; Farnavis is the official title of the finance minister, derived from /arc/ = an account and navis = a writer. He was born at Satara on the 4th of May 1741, and was the son of a Chitpavan Brahman, of the same class as the Peshwa, who held the hereditary office of Farnavis. He escaped from the fatal battle of Panipat in 1761; and from about 1774 was the leading personage in directing the affairs of the Mahratta confederacy, though never a soldier. This was the period when Peshwas rapidly succeeded one another, and there was more than one disputed succession. It was the policy of Nana Farnavis to hold together the confederacy against both internal dissensions and the growing power of the British. He died at Poona on the 13th of March 1800, just before the Peshwa placed himself in the hanls of the British and thus* broke up the Mahratta confederacy. In an extant letter to the Peshwa, the Marquess Wellesley thus describes him: " The able minister of your state, whose upright principles and honourable views and whose zeal for the welfare and prosperity both of the dominions of his own immediate superiors and of other powers were so justly cele- brated." See Captain A. Macdonald, Memoir of Nana Furnuwees (Bombay, 1851). NANAIMO, a city of British Columbia, on the east coast of Vancouver Island. Pop. (1906) about 6500. It is connected with Victoria by the Esquimalt and Nanaimo railway, and has a daily steamer service to Vancouver, as well as to Comox, Sydney and other points on the coast. It is favourably situated for growing fruit, and mixed farming is carried on to a consider- able extent. There is a large export trade in coal from the neighbouring mines, which is sent chiefly to San Francisco. NANA SAHIB, the common designation of Dandu Panth, an adopted son of the ex-peshwa of the Mahrattas, Baji Rao, who took a leading part in the great Indian Mutiny, and was proclaimed peshwa by the mutineers. Nana Sahib had a griev- ance against the British government because they refused to continue to him the pension of eight lakhs of rupees (£80,000) which was promised to Baji Rao by Sir John Malcolm on his surrender in 1818. This pension, however, was only intended to be a life grant to Baji Rao himself. For this refusal the Nana bore the British a lifelong grudge, which he washed out in the blood of women and children in the massacres at Cawnpore. In 1859, when the remnants of the rebels disappeared into Nepal, the Nana was among the fugitives. His death was reported some time afterwards, but his real fate remains obscure. NANCY, a town of north-eastern France, the capital formerly of the province of Lorraine, and now of the department of Meurthe-et-Moselle, 219 m. E. of Paris on the railway to Strass- burg. Pop. (1906), town, 98,302; commune (including troops), 110,570. Nancy is situated on the left bank of the Meurthe 6 m. above its junction with the Moselle and on the Marne- Rhine canal. The railway from Paris to Strassburg skirts the city on the south-west side; other railways — to Metz, to Epinal by Mirecourt, to Chateau Salins— join the main line near Nancy, and make it an important junction. The town consists of two portions — the Ville-Vieille in the north-west between the Cours Leopold and the Pepiniere gardens, with narrow and winding streets, and the Ville-Neuve in the south-east with wide straight streets, allowing views of the hills around the city. Between the two lies, the Place Stanislas, a square worthy of a capital city: in the centre stands the statue of Stanislas Leczinski, ruler of Lorraine, and on all sides rise imposing buildings in the 18th- century style— the town hall, episcopal palace, theatre, &c. A fine triumphal arch erected by Stanislas in honour of Louis XV. leads from the Place Stanislas to the Place Carriere, which forms a beautiful tree-planted promenade, containing at its further end the government palace (1760) now the residence of the general commanding the XX. army corps, and adjoins the so-called Pepiniere (nursery) established by Stanislas. Other open spaces in the city are the Place d'AUiance (formed by Stanislas, with a fountain in memory of the alliance between Louis XV. and Maria Theresa in 1756), the Place de l'Academie, the Place St Epvre with a statue of Duke Rene II., the Place Dombasle and the Place de Thiers, the two latter embellished with the statues of Mathieu Dombasle, the agri- culturist, and Adolphe Thiers. • The cathedral in the Ville- Neuve, built in the 18th century, has a wide facade flanked by two dome-surmounted towers, and a somewhat frigid and sombre interior. Of particular interest is the church of the Cordeliers, in the old town, built by Rene II. about 1482 to commemorate his victory over Charles the Bold. Pillaged during the Revolution period, but restored to religious uses in 1825, it contains the tombs of Antony of Vaudemont and his wife Marie d'Harcourt, Philippe of Gueldres, second wife of Rene II., Henry III., count of Vaudemont, and Isabella of Lorraine his wife, Rene II. (a curious monument raised by his widow in 1515) and Cardinal de Vaud6mont (d. 1587). Here also is a chapel built at the beginning of the 17th century to receive the tombs of the princes of the house of Lorraine. The church of St Epvre, rebuilt between 1864 and 1874 on the site of an old church of the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries, has a fine spire and belfry and good stained glass windows. Bonsecours Church, at the end of the St Pierre Faubourg, contains the mausoleums of Stanislas (by whom it was built) and his wife Catherine, and the heart of their daughter Marie, queen of France, as well as the statue of Notre- Dame de Bonsecours, the object of a well-known pilgrimage. Of the old ducal palace, begun in the 15th century by Duke Raoul and completed by Rene II., there remains but a single wing, partly rebuilt after a fire in 1871. The entrance to this wing, which contains the archaeological museum of Lorraine, is a beautiful specimen of the late Gothic of the beginning of the 16th century. One of the greatest treasures of the collection is the tapestry found in the tent of Charles the Bold after the battle of Nancy. Of the old gates of Nancy the most ancient and remarkable is the Porte de la Craffe (1463). The town hall contains a museum of painting and sculpture, arid there is a rich municipal library. A monument to President Carnot, and statues of Jacques Callot, the engraver, and of General Drouot, both natives of Nancy, and of Claude Gellee stand in various parts of the town. Nancy is the seat of a bishop, a prefect, a court of appeal and a court of assizes, headquarters of the XX. army corps, and centre of an academie (educational division) with a university comprising faculties of law, medicine, science and letters, and a higher school of pharmacy. There are also tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, lycees and training colleges for both sexes, a higher ecclesiastical seminary, a school of agriculture, the national school of forestry, a higher school of commerce, a technical school {ecole professionnelle), a school of arts and crafts (ecole preparatoire des arts et metiers), a chamber NANDAIR— NANKEEN 161 of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. The industries of Nancy include printing, brewing, cotton- and wool-spinning and the weaving of cotton and woollen goods, and the manufacture of tobacco (by the State), of boots and shoes, straw hats, pottery, casks, embroidery, machinery, engineering material, farm im- plements and iron goods. At the close of the nth century Odelric of Nancy, brother of Gerard of Alsace, possessed at Nancy a castle which enabled him to defy the united assaults of the bishops of Metz and Treves and the count of Bar. In the 12th century the town was sur- rounded with walls, and became the capital of the dukes of Lorraine; but its real importance dates from the 15th century, when on the 5th of January 1477 Charles the Bold was defeated by Rene II, and perished at its gates. 1 Enlarged, embellished and admirably refortified by Charles III., it was taken by the French in 1633 (Louis XIII. and Richelieu being present at the siege). After the peace of Ryswick in 1607 it was restored and Duke Leopold set himself to repair the disasters of the past. He founded academies, established manufactures and set about the construction of the new town. But it was reserved for Stanislas Leczinski, to whom Lorraine and Bar were assigned in 1736, to carry out the plans of improvement in a style which made Nancy one of the palatial cities of Europe, and rendered himself the most popular as he was the last of the dukes of Lorraine. The city, which became French in 1766, was occupied by the allies in 1814 and 1815, and put to ransom by the Prussians in 1870. After the Franco-German war the population was greatly increased by the immigration of Alsatians and of. people from Metz and its district. See C. Pfister, Histoire de Nancy (Paris and Nancy, 1902) ; J. Cayon, Histoire physique, civile, morale et politique de Nancy (Nancy, 1846). NANDAIR, or Nander, a town of India, in the state of Hyderabad, on the left bank of the Godaveri, with a station on the Hyderabad-Godaveri valley railway, 174 m. N.E. of Hyderabad city. Pop. (1901) 14,184. It is a centre of local trade, with a special industry of fine muslin and gold bordered scarves. As the scene of the murder of Guru Govind, it contains a shrine visited by Sikhs from all parts of India. NANDGAON, a feudatory state of India, in the Chhattisgarh division of the Central Provinces. Area, 871 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 126,356, showing a decrease of 31% in the decade, due to famine; estimated revenue £23,000; tribute £4600. The state has a peculiar history. Its foundation is traced to a religious celibate, who came from the Punjab towards the end of the 18th century. From the founder it passed through a succession of chosen disciples until 1879, when the British government recognized the ruler as an hereditary chief and afterwards conferred upon his son the title of Raja Bahadur. The state has long been well administered, and has derived additional prosperity from the construction of the Bengal-Nagpur railway, which has a station at Raj-Nandgaon, the capital (pop. 11,094). Here there is a steam cotton mill. NANDI, an East African tribe of mixed Nilotic, Bantu and Hamitic origin. With them are more or less closely allied the Lumbwa (correctly Kipsikls), Buret (or Puret) and Sotik (Soot) tribes, as well as the Elgonyi (properly Kony) of Mount Elgon. They have also affinities with the Masai tribes. The Nandi-Lumbwa peoples inhabit the country stretching south from Mount Elgon to about 1° S. and bounded east by the escarp- ment of the eastern rift-valley and west by the territory of the tribes, such as the Kavirondo, dwelling round the Victoria Nyanza. They have given their name to the Nandi plateau. The Hamitic strain in these allied tribes is derived from the Galla; they also exhibit Pygmy elements. Their original home was in the north, and they probably did not reach their present home until the beginning of the 19th century. They differ considerably 1 The battle raged in the district to the S., E. and N. of the town, the operations extending from St Nicolas du Port (S.) to the bridge of Bouxieres (N.). The chief struggle took place on the banks of the stream of Bon Secours, which now runs entirely underground, flowing from the S.W. into the Meurthe. Much of the battlefield is now covered by modern buildings, but S.W. of the town a cross marks the spot where the body of Charles the Bold was discovered. XTX. 6 in physical appearance; some resemble the Masai, being men of tall stature with features almost Caucasian, other are dwarfish with markedly negro features. Like the Masai, Turkana and Suk, the Nandi-Lumbwa tribes were originally nomadic, but they have become agriculturists. They own large herds of cattle. They have a double administrative system, the chief medicine man or Orkoiyol being supreme chief and regulating war affairs, while representatives of the people, called Kiruogik, manage the ordinary affairs of the tribe. The medicine men are of Masai origin and the office is hereditary. The young men form a separate warrior class to whom is entrusted the care of the country. A period of about 7! years is spent in this class, and the ceremony of handing over the country from one " age " to the succeeding " age " is of great importance. The arms of the warriors are a stabbing spear, shield, sword and club. Many also possess rifles. All the Nandi are divided into clans, each having its sacred animal or totem. They have no towns, each family living on the land it cultivates. The huts are of circular pattern. The Nandi believe in a supreme deity — Asis — who takes a benevolent interest in their welfare, and to whom prayers are addressed daily. They also worship ancestors and consider earthquakes to be caused by the spirits moving in the underworld. They practise circumcision, and girls undergo a similar operation. Spitting is a sign of blessing. Their scanty clothing consists chiefly of dressed skins. The tribal mark is a small hole bored in the upper part of the ear. Their language is Nilotic and in general construction resembles the Masai. It has been slightly influenced by the Somali tongue. The primitive hunting tribe known as the Wandorobo speak a dialect closely resembling Nandi. The Nandi at one time appear to have been subject to the Masai, but when the country was first known to Europeans they were independent and occupied the plateau which bears their name. Hardy mountaineers and skilful warriors, they closed their territory to all who did not get special permission, and thus blocked the road from Mombasa to Uganda alike to Arab and Swahili. Caravans that escaped the Masai frequently fell victims to the Nandi, who were adepts at luring them to destruction. When the railway to the Victoria Nyanza was built it had to cross the Nandi country. The tribesmen, who had already shown hostility to the whites, attacked both the railway and the telegraph line and raided other tribes. Eventually (1905-1906) the Nandi were removed by the British to reserves somewhat north of the railway zone (see British East Africa). The Lumbwa reserve lies south of the railway, and farther south still are the reserves of the Buret and Sotik. See A. C. Hollis, The Nandi: Their Language and Folk-lore, with introduction by Sir Charles Eliot (Oxford, 1909), and the works there cited. NANDIDRUG, a hill fortress of southern India, in the Kolar district of Mysore, 4851 ft. above the sea. It was traditionally held impregnable, and its storming by Lord Cornwallis in 1791 was one of the most notable incidents of the first war against Tippoo Sultan. It was formerly a favourite resort for British officials during the hot season. NANGA, the most primitive form of the ancient Egyptian harp. The nanga consisted of a boat-shaped or vaulted body of wood, the back of which was divided down the centre by a sound bar built into the back; on this bar was fixed a cylindrical stick round which one end of the strings was wound, the soundboard or parchment being stretched over the back without interfering with the stick. The other end of the strings was fastened to pegs set in the side of a curved neck, so that the strings did not lie directly over the soundboard. There were but 3 or 4 strings, one note only being obtained from each. Some of these nangas are to be seen at the British Museum. NANKEEN, a cotton cloth originally made in China, and now imitated in various countries. The name is derived from Nanking, the city in which the cloth is said to have been originally manufactured. The characteristic yellowish colour of nankeen is attributed to the peculiar colour of the cotton from which it was originally made. l62 NANKING— NANSEN, F. NANKING (" the southern capital "), the name by which Kiang-ning, the chief city in the province of Kiangsu, China, has been known for several centuries. Pop. about 140,000. The city stands in 32 5' N., 118° 47' E., nearly equidistant between Canton and Peking, on the south bank of the Yangtsze Kiang. It dates only from the beginning of the Ming dynasty (1368), although it is built on the site of a city which for more than two thousand years figured under various names in the history of the empire. The more ancient city was originally known as Kin-ling; under the Han dynasty (206 B.C. to a.d. 25) its name was con- verted into Tan-yang; by the T'ang emperors (a.d. 618-907) it was styled Kiang-nan and Sheng Chow; by the first sovereign of the Ming dynasty (a.d. 1368-1644) it was created the " southern capital " (Nan-king), and was given the distinctive name of Ying-t'ien; and since the accession to power of the present Manchu rulers it has been officially known as Kiang-ning, though still popularly called Nan-king. It was the seat of the imperial court only during the reigns of the first two emperors of the Ming dynasty, and was deserted for Shun-t'ien (Peking) by Yung-lo, the third sovereign of that line, who in 1403 captured the town and usurped the crown of his nephew, the reigning emperor. The T'aip'ing rebels, who carried the town by assault in 1853, swept away all the national monuments and most of the more conspicuous public buildings it contained, and destroyed the greater part of the magnificent wall which surrounded it. This wall is said by Chinese topographers to have been 96 li, or 32 m., in circumference. This computation has, however, been shown to be a gross exaggeration, and it is probable that 60 li, or 20 m., would be nearer the actual dimensions. The wall, of which only small portions remain, was about 70 ft. in height, measured 30 ft. in thickness at. the base, and was pierced by thirteen gates. Encircling the north, east, and south sides of the city proper was a second wall which enclosed about double the space of the inner enclosure. In the north-east corner of the town stood the imperial palace reared by Hung-wu, the imperial founder of the modern city. After suffering mutilation at the overthrow of the Ming dynasty, this magnificent building was burnt to the ground on the recapture of the city from the T'aip'ing rebels in 1864. But beyond comparison the most conspicuous public building at Nanking was the famous porcelain tower, which was designed by the emperor Yung-lo (1403-1428) to commemorate the virtues of his mother. Twelve centuries previously an Indian priest deposited on the spot where this monument afterwards stood a relic of Buddha, and raised over the sacred object a sm^ii pagoda of three stories in height. During the disturbed times which heralded the close of the Yuen dynasty (1368) this pagoda was utterly destroyed. It was doubtless out of respect to the relic which then perished that Yung-lo chose this site for the erection of his " token-of-gratitude " pagoda. The building was begun in 1413. But before it was finished Yung-lo had passed away, and it was reserved for his successor to see the final pinnacle fixed in its place, after nineteen years had been consumed in carrying out the designs of the imperial architect. In shape the pagoda was an octagon, and was about 260 ft. in height, or, as the Chinese say, with that extraordinary love for inaccurate accuracy which is peculiar to them, 32 chang (a chang equals about 1 20 in.) 9 ft. 4 in. and -ft,- of an inch. The outer walls were cased with bricks of the finest white porcelain, and each of the nine stories into which the building was divided was marked by overhanging eaves composed of green glazed tiles of the same material. The summit was crowned with a gilt ball fixed on the top of an iron rod, which in its turn was encircled by nine iron rings. Hung on chains which stretched from this apex to the eaves of the roof were five large pearls of good augury for the safety of the city. One was supposed to avert floods, another to prevent tires, a third to keep dust-storms at a distance, a fourth to allay tempests, and a fifth to guard the city against disturbances. From the eaves of the several stories there hung one hundred and fifty-two bells and countless lanterns. In bygone days Nanking was one of the chief literary centres of the empire, besides being famous for its manufacturing industries. Satin, crape, nankeen, cloth, paper, pottery, and artificial flowers were among its chief products. At Nanking, after its capture by British ships in 1842, Sir Henry Pottinger signed the " Nanking treaty." It was made a treaty port by the French treaty of 1858, but was not formally opened. Its proximity to Chinkiang, where trade had established itself while Nanking was still in the hands of the rebels, made its opening of little advantage, and the point was not pressed. In 1899 it was voluntarily thrown open to foreign trade by the Chinese government, and in 1909 it was connected by railway (192 m. long) with Shanghai. Since 1880 Nanking has been slowly recovering from the ruin caused by the T'aip'ing rebellion. Barely one-fourth of the area within the walls has been reoccupied, and though its ancient industries are reviving, no great progress has been made. As the seat of the provincial government of Kiang-nan, however, which embraces the three provinces of Kiang-su, Kiang-si, and Ngan-hui, Nanking is a city of first-class importance. The viceroy of Kiang-nan is the most powerful of all the provincial satraps, as he controls a larger revenue than any other, and has the command of larger forces both naval and military. He is also superintendent of foreign trade for the southern ports, including Shanghai, a position which gives him great weight in all political questions. The city contains an arsenal for the manufacture of munitions of war, also powder-mills. A naval college was opened in 1890, and an imperial military college a few years later under foreign instructors. The only foreign residents are missionaries (mostly American), and employes of the Chinese government. The only remaining features of interest in Nanking are the so-called Ming Tombs, being the mausolea of Hung-wu, the founder of the Ming dynasty, and of one or two of his successors, which lie outside the eastern wall of the city. They are ill cared for and rapidly going to decay. Since 1899 the foreign trade has shown a steady increase. NANNING. a treaty port in the province of Kwangsi, China, on the West river, 250 m. above Wuchow and 470 m. from Canton. Pop. about 40,000. It is the highest point accessible for steam traffic on the West river. From Canton to Wuchow the river has a minimum depth of 8 ft., but on the section from Wuchow to Nanning not more than 3 or 4 ft. are found during winter. The town is the chief market on the southern frontier. Its opening was long opposed by the French government, who had acquired the right to build a railway to it from Tongking, by which they hoped to divert the trade through their own possessions. Navigation by small native boats is open west- wards as far as Paise. NANSEN, FRIDTJOF (1861- ), Norwegian scientist, ex- plorer and statesman, was born at Froen near Christiania on the 10th of October 1861. His childhood was spent at this place till his fifteenth year, when his parents removed to Christiania, where he went to school. He entered Christiania university in 1880, where he made a special study of zoology; in March 1882 he joined the sealing-ship " Viking " for a voyage to Greenland waters. On his return in the same year he was appointed curator of the Bergen Museum, under the eminent physician and zoologist Daniel Cornelius D an ielssen (1815-1894). In 1886 he spent a short time at the zoological station at Naples. During this time he wrote several papers and memoirs on zoological and histological subjects, and for one paper on " The Structure and Combination of the Histological Elements of the Central Nervous System " (Bergen, 1887) the Christiania university conferred upon him the degree of doctor of philosophy. But his voyage in the " Viking " had indicated Greenland as a possible field for exploration, and in 1887 he set about preparations for a crossing of the great ice-field which covers the interior of that country. The possibility of his success was discountenanced by many Arctic authorities, and a small grant he had asked for was refused by the Norwegian government, but was provided by Augustin Game], a merchant of Copenhagen, while he paid from his private means the greater part of the expenses of the expedition. As companions Nansen had Otto Neumann Sverdrup (b. 1855), NANSEN, H. 163 Captain O. C. Dietrichson (b. 1856), a third compatriot, and two Lapps. The expedition started in May 1888, proceeding from Leith to Iceland, and there joining a sealing-ship bound for the east coast of Greenland. On the 17th of July Nansen decided to leave the ship and force a way through the ice-belt to the land, about 10 m. distant, but the party encountered great difficulties owing to ice-pressures, went adrift with the ice, and only reached the land on the 29th, having been carried far to the south in the interval. They made their way north again, along the coast inside the drift ice, and on the 16th of August began the ascent of the inland ice. Suffering severely from storms, intense cold, and other hardships, they reached the highest point of the journey (8920 ft.) on the 5th of September, and at the end of the month struck the west coast at the Ameralik Fjord. On reaching the settlement of Godthaab it was found that the party must winter there, and Nansen used the oppor- tunity to study the Eskimos and gather material for his book, Eskimo Life (English translation, London, 1893). The party returned home in May 1889, and Nansen's book, The First Crossing of Greenland (English translation, London, 1890), demonstrates the valuable scientific results of the journey. A report of the scientific results was published in Petermanns Mitteilungen (Gotha, 1892). On his return from Greenland Nansen accepted the curatorship of the Zootomic Museum of Christiania university. In September 1889 he married Eva, daughter of Professor Michael Sars of Christiania university, and a noted singer (d. 1907). In 1890 he propounded his scheme for a polar expedition before the Norwegian Geographical Society, and in 1892 he laid it before the Royal Geographical Society in London (see " How can the North Polar Region be crossed ?" Geogr. Journal, vol. L), by which time his preparations were well advanced. His theory, that a drift-current sets across the polar regions from Bering Strait and the neighbourhood of the New Siberia Islands towards the east coast of Greenland, was based on a number of indications, notably the discovery (1884), on drift ice off the south-west coast of Greenland, of relics of the American north polar expedition in the ship " Jeannette," which sank N.E. of the New Siberia Islands in 1881. His intention was therefore to get his vessel fixed in the ice to the north of Eastern Siberia and let her drift with it. His plan was adversely criticized by many Arctic authorities, but it succeeded. The Norwegian parliament granted two- thirds of the expenses, and the rest was obtained by subscription from King Oscar and private indi- viduals. His ship, the " Fram " (i.e. " Forward "), was specially built of immense strength and peculiar form, being pointed at bow and stern and having sloping sides, so that the ice-floes, pressing together, should tend, not to crush, but merely to slip beneath and lift her. She sailed from Christiania on the 24th of June 1893. Otto Sverdrup was master; Sigurd Scott Hansen, a Norwegian naval lieutenant, was in charge of the astronomical and meteorological observations; Henrik Greve Blessing was doctor and botanist; and among the rest was Frederik Hjalmar Johansen, lieutenant in the Norwegian army, who shipped as fireman. On the 22nd of September the " Fram " was made fast to a floe in 78 50' N.f 133 37' E.; shortly afterwards she was frozen in, and the long drift began. She bore the pressure of the ice perfectly. During the winter of 1894-1895 it was decided that an expedition should be made northward over the ice on foot in the spring, and on the 14th of March 1895 Nansen, being satisfied that the "Fram" would continue to drift safely, left her in 84 N., 101 55' E., and started northward accompanied by Johansen. On the 8th of April they turned back from 86° 14' N., the highest latitude then reached by man; and they shaped their course for Franz Josef Land. They suffered many hardships, including shortage of food, and were compelled to winter on Frederick Jackson Island (so named by Nansen) in Franz Josef Land from the 26th of August 1895 to the 19th of May 1896. They were uncertain as to the locality, but, after having reached 80° N. on the south coast of the islands, they were travelling westward to reach Spitsbergen, when, on the 17th of June 1896, they fell in with Frederick Jackson and his party of the Jackson-Harmsworth expedition, and returned to Norway in his ship, the " Windward," reaching Vardo on the 13th of August. A week later the " Fram " also reached Norway in safety. She had drifted north after Nansen had left her, to 85 57', and had ultimately returned by the west coast of Spitsbergen. An unprecedented welcome awaited Nansen. In England he gave the narrative of his journey at a great meeting in the Albert Hall, London, on the 8th of February 1897, and elsewhere. He received a special medal from the Royal Geographical Society, honorary degrees from the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and a presentation of books (the " Chal- lenger " Reports) from the British government, and similar honours were paid him in other countries. The English version of the narrative of the expedition is entitled Farthest North (London, 1897), and the scientific results are given in The Norwegian North Polar Expedition i8g3~i8g6; Scientific Results (London, &c, 1900 sqq.). In 1905, in connexion with the crisis between Norway and Sweden, which was followed by the separation of the kingdoms, Nansen for the first time actively intervened in politics. He issued a manifesto and many articles, in which he adopted an attitude briefly indicated by the last words of a short work published later in the year: "Any union in which the one people is restrained in exercising its freedom is and will remain a danger " (Norway and the Union with Sweden, London, 1905). On the establishment of the Norwegian monarchy Nansen was appointed minister to England (1906), and in the same year he was created G.C.V.O.; but in 1908 he retired from his post, and became professor of oceanography in Christiania university. NANSEN, HANS (1598-1667), Danish statesman, son of the burgher Evert Nansen, was born at Flensburg on the 28th of November 1598. He made several voyages to the White Sea and to places in northern Russia, and in 1621 entered the service of the Danish Icelandic Company, then in its prime. For many years the whole trade of Iceland, which he frequently visited, passed through his hands, and he soon became equally well known at Gluckstadt, then the chief emporium of the Iceland trade, and at Copenhagen. In February 1644, at the express desire of King Christian IV., the Copenhagen burgesses elected him burgomaster. During his northern voyages he had learnt Russian, and was employed as interpreter at court when- ever Muscovite embassies visited Copenhagen. His travels had begotten in him a love of geography, and he published in 1633 a " Kosmografi," previously revised by the astronomer Longo- montanus. During the siege of Copenhagen by the Swedes in 1658 he came prominently forward. At the meeting between the king and the citizens to arrange for the defence of the capital, Nansen urged the necessity of an obstinate defence. It was he who on this occasion obtained privileges for the burgesses of Copenhagen which placed them on a footing of equality with the nobility; and he was the life and soul of the garrison till the arrival of the Dutch fleet practically saved the city. These eighteen months of storm and stress established his influence in the capital once for all and at the same time knitted him closely to Frederick III., who recognized in Nansen a man after his own heart, and made the great burgomaster his chief instrument in carrying through the anti-aristocratic Revolution of 1660. Nansen used all the arts of the agitator with extraordinary energy and success. ■ His greatest feat was the impassioned speech by which, on October 8th, he induced the burgesses to accede to the proposal of the magistracy of Copen- hagen to offer Frederick III. the realm of Denmark as a purely hereditary kingdom. How far Nansen was content with the result of the Revolution — absolute monarchy — it is impossible to say. It appears to be pretty certain that, at the beginning, he did not want absolutism. Whether he subsequently regarded the victory of the monarchy and its corollary, the admittance of the middle classes to all offices and dignities, as a satisfactory equivalent for his original demands; or whether he was so overcome by royal favour as to sacrifice cheerfully the political liberties of his country, can only be a matter for conjecture. After the Revolution Nansen continued in high honour, but 164 NANTERRE— NANTES he chiefly occupied himself with commerce, and was less and less consulted in purely political matters. He died on the 12th of November 1667. Bibliography. — Oluf Nielsen, Kjobenhavns Hislorie, iii. (Copen- hagen, 1877) ; Julius Albert Fridericia, Adelsvaeldens sidste Dage (Copenhagen, 1894) ; Danmarks Riges Historic, v. (Copenhagen, 1897-1905). (R. N. B.) NANTERRE, a town of northern France, with a port on the Seine, in the department of Seine, at the foot of Mount Valerien, 8 m. N.W. of Paris on the railway to St Germain. Pop. (igo6), town, 11,874; commune, 17,434. The principal manufactures are chemicals, tallow and aluminium; stone quarried in the vicinity; the town is noted also for its cakes. The combined prison and mendicity depot for the department is a large institution, about 2 m. from the town. Nanterre (the ancient Nemptodurum or Nemetodurum) owes its origin to the shrine of Ste Genevieve (420-512), the patron-saint of Paris, whose name is still associated with various places in the town and district. The shrine is the object of a pilgrimage in September. NANTES, a city of western France, capital of the department of Loire-Inferieure, on the right bank of the Loire, 35 m. above its mouth, at the junction of the Orleans, Western and State railways, 55 m. W.S.W. of Angers by rail. In population (town, 118,244; commune, 133,247, in 1906) Nantes is the first city of Brittany. The Loire here divides into several branches forming islands over portions of which the city has spread. It receives on the left hand the Sevre Nantaise, and on the right the Erdre, which forms the outlet of the canal between Nantes and Brest. The maritime port of Nantes is reached by way of the Loire and the ship canal between the island of Carnet and La Martiniere (9 J m.). Vessels drawing as much as 20 ft. 8 in., and at spring tides, 22 ft., can reach the port, which extends over a length of about i| m. The outer port as far as the industrial suburb of Chantenay has a length of over half a mile. The principal quays extend along the right bank of the branch which flows past the town, and on the western shore of the island of Gloriette. Their total length used for trading purposes is 5 m., and warehouses cover an area of 17 acres. A slipway facilitates the repairing of ships. The river port occupies the St Felix and Madeleine branches, and has quays extending for half a mile. Finally, on the Erdre is a third port for inland navigation. The quays are bounded by railway lines along the right bank of the river, which the railway to St Nazaire follows. The older quarter of Nantes containing the more interesting buildings is situated to the east of the Erdre. The cathedral, begun in 1434 in the Gothic style, was unfinished till the 19th century when the transept and choir were added. There are two interesting monuments in the transept — on the right Michel Colomb's tomb of Francis II., duke of Brittany, and his second wife Marguerite de Foix (1507), and on the left that of General Juchault de Lamoriciere, a native of Nantes, by Paul Dubois (1879). Of the other churches the most interesting is St Nicolas, a modern building in the style of the 13th century, on the right bank of the Erdre. Between the cathedral and the Loire, from which it is separated only by the breadth of ths quay, stands the castle of Nantes, founded in the 9th or 10th century. Rebuilt by Francis II. and the duchess Anne, it is flanked by huge towers and "by a bastion erected by Philip Emmanuel duke of Mercceur in the time of the League. A fine facade in the Gothic style looks into the courtyard. From being the residence of the dukes of Brittany, the castle became a state prison in which Jean-Francois Paul de Gondi, Cardinal de Retz, Nicholas Fouquet, and Marie Louise of Naples, duchess of Berry, were at different times confined; it is now occupied as the artillery headquarters. The chapel in which the marriage of Louis XII. with Anne of Brittany was celebrated was destroyed by an explosion in 1800. The Exchange (containing the tribunal and chamber of commerce), the Grand Theatre, the Prefecture and the town hall are buildings of the last half of the 18th or early 19th century; the law courts date from the middle of the 19th century. Nantes has an archaeological collection in the Dobree Museum, and in the museum of fine arts a splendid collection of paintings, modern French masters being well represented; it also has a natural history museum, a large library rich in manuscripts and a botanical garden to the east. The Pommeraye Passage, which connects streets on different levels and is built in stages connected by staircases, dates from 1843. Between the Loire and the Erdre run the Cours St Pierre and the Cours St Andre, adorned at the two ends of the line by statues of Anne of Brittany and Arthur III., Bertrand du Guesclin and Olivier de Clisson, and separated by the Place Louis XVI., with a statue of that monarch on a lofty column. The Place Royale, to the west of the Erdre, the great meeting- place of the principal thoroughfares of the city, contains a monumental fountain with allegorical statues of Nantes and the Loire and its affluents. A flight of steps at the west end of the town leads up from the quay to the colossal cast-iron statue of St Anne, whence a splendid view may be obtained over the valley of the Loire. Several old houses of the 15th and 16th centuries, the fish market and the Salorges (a vast granite building now used as a bonded warehouse) are of interest. Nantes has two great hospitals — St Jacques on the left bank of the Loire, and the Hotel-Dieu in Gloriette Island. It is the seat of a bishopric and a court of assizes, and headquarters of the XL army corps; it has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. The educational institu- tions include lycees for both sexes, a training college for girls schools of medicine and pharmacy and law, a preparatory school to higher instruction, science and letters, schools of music, art and navigation, technical and commercial schools, and a school for deaf-mutes and the blind. Among the more important industries of Nantes are sugar- refining, flour-milling, rice-husking, the manufacture of oil, soap, flour pastes and biscuits, and the preparation of tinned provisions (sardines, vegetables, &c); the manufacture of tin boxes, tiles, chemical manures, acid from chestnut bark, tobacco, leather, wood-pulp for paper, rope, boots and shoes, brushes and glass; saw-milling, shipbuilding, metal founding and the construction of engineering material; and wool and cotton- spinning and the manufacture of cotton and other fabrics, hosiery and knitted goods. Coal and patent fuel (chiefly from Great Britain) are the most important imports; next come phosphates and pyrites; other imports are timber and pulp-wood. The principal exports are bunker-coal (to French colonies), pyrites, slate, hoops and provisions. In the ten years 1898- 1907 the average annual value of the imports was £2,657,000; of the exports £795,000. In 1907 there entered from foreign countries 738 vessels (209 British) with tonnage of 584,850, and cleared 778 with 154,720 tons of cargo, and 458,538 tons of ballast. Reckoning ships carrying cargo only the figures for the first and last years of the decade 1898- 1907 were: 1898, ships entered, French 209 (tonnage 75,249), foreign 250 (tonnage 154,936); ships cleared, French 173 (tonnage 32,591), foreign 97 (tonnage 27,836): 1907, ships entered, French 186 (tonnage 127,635), foreign 419 (tonnage 361,002); ships cleared, French 126 (tonnage 81,299), foreign 128 (tonnage 45,181). Before the Roman occupation Nantes was the chief town of the Namnetes and consisted of Condovicnum, lying on the hills away from the river, and of Portus Namnetum, on the river. Under the Romans it became a great commercial and admini- strative centre, though its two parts did not coalesce till the 3rd or 4th century. In the middle of the 3rd century Christianity was introduced by St Clair. Clotaire I. got possession of the city in 560, and placed it under the government of St Felix the bishop, who executed enormous works to cause the Loire to flow under the walls of the castle. After being several times subdued by Charlemagne, Brittany revolted under his successors, and Nominoe, proclaimed king in 842, ordered the fortifications of Nantes to be razed because it had sided with Charles the Bald. The Normans held the town from 843 to 936. About this time began the rivalry between Nantes and Rennes, whose counts disputed the sovereignty of Brittany. Pierre de Dreux, declared duke of Brittany by Philip Augustus, made Nantes his capital, NANTES, EDICT OF— NANTICOKE 165 surrounded it with fortifications and defended it valiantly against John of England. During the Breton wars of succession Nantes took part first with Jean de Montfort, but afterwards with Charles of Blois, and did not open its gates to Monfort till his success was assured and his English allies had retired. In 1560 Francis II. granted Nantes a communal constitution. In the course of the 15th and 16th centuries the city suffered from several epidemics. Averse to Protestantism, it joined the League along with the duke of Mercceur, governor of Brittany, who helped to raise the country into an independent duchy; and it was not till 1598 that it opened its gates to Henry IV., who here signed on the 2nd of May of that year the famous Edict of Nantes which until its revocation by Louis XIV. in 1685 was the charter of Huguenot liberties in France. It was at Nantes that Henry de Talleyrand, count of Chalais, was punished in 1626 for plotting against Richelieu, that Fouquet was arrested in 1661, and that the Cellamare conspirators were executed under the regent Philip of Orleans. Having warmly embraced the cause of the Revolution in 1789, the city was in 1793 treated with extreme rigour by J. B. Carrier, envoy of the Committee of Public Safety, whose noyades or wholesale drownings of prisoners became notorious. Nantes on more than one occasion vigorously resisted the Vendeans. It was here that the duchess of Berry was arrested in 1832 while trying to stir up La Vendee against Louis Philippe. NANTES, EDICT OF, the law promulgated in April 1598 by which the French king, Henry IV., gave religious liberty to his Protestant subjects, the Huguenots. The story of the struggle for the edict is part of the history of France, and during the thirty-five years of civil war which preceded its grant, many treaties and other arrangements had been made between the contending religious parties, but none of these had been satis- factory or lasting. The elation of the Protestants at the accession of Henry IV. in 1 589 was followed by deep depression, when it was found that not only did he adopt the Roman Catholic faith, but that his efforts to redress their grievances were singularly ineffectual. In 1594 they took determined measures to protect themselves; in 1597, the war with Spain being practically over, long negotiations took place between the king and their repre- sentatives, prominent among whom was the historian J. A. de Thou, and at last the edict was drawn up. It consisted of 95 general articles, which were signed by Henry at Nantes on the 13th of April 1598, and of 56 particular ones, signed on the 2nd of May. There was also some supplementary matter. The main provisions of the edict of Nantes may be briefly summarized under six heads: (1) It gave liberty of conscience to the Protestants throughout the whole of France. (2) It gave to the Protestants the right of holding public worship in those places where they had held it in the year 1576 and in the earlier part of 1577; also in places where this freedom had been granted by the edict of Poitiers (1577) and the treaties of Nerac (1579) and of Felix (1580). The Protestants could also worship in two towns in each bailliage and senichausee. The greater nobles could hold Protestant services in their houses; the lesser nobles could do the same, but only for gatherings of not more than thirty people. Regarding Paris, the Protestants could conduct worship within five leagues of the city; previously this prohibition had extended to a distance of ten leagues. (3) Full civil rights were granted to the Protestants. They could trade freely, inherit property and enter the universities, colleges and schools. All official positions were open to them. (4) To deal with disputes arising out of the edict a chamber was estab- lished in the parlement of Paris {le chambre de Vidit). This was to be composed of ten Roman Catholic, and of six Protestant members. Chambers for the same purpose, but consisting of Protestants and Roman Catholics in equal numbers, were estab- lished in connexion with the pravincial parlements. (5) The Protestant pastors were to be paid by the state and to be freed from certain burdens, their position being made practically equal to that of the Roman Catholic clergy. (6) A hundred places of safety were given to the Protestants for eight years, the expenses of garrisoning them being undertaken by the king. In many ways the terms of the edict were very generous to the Protestants, but it must be remembered that the liberty to hold public worship was made the exception and not the rule; this was prohibited except in certain specified cases, and in this respect they were less favourably treated than they were under the arrangement made in 1576. The edict was greatly disliked by the Roman Catholic clergy and their friends, and a few changes were made to conciliate them. The parlement of Paris shared this dislike, and succeeded in reducing the number 6f Protestant members of the chambre de Vidit from six to one. Then cajoled and threatened by Henry, the parlement registered the edict on the 25th of February 1 599. After similar trouble it was also registered by the provincial parlements, the last to take this step being the parlement of Rouen, which delayed the registration until 1609. The strong political position secured to the French Protestants by the edict of Nantes was very objectionable, not only to the ardent Roman Catholics, but also to more moderate persons, and the payments made to their ministers by the state were viewed with increasing dislike. Thus about 1660 a strong move- ment began for its repeal, and this had great influence with the king. One after another proclamations and declarations were issued which deprived the Protestants of their rights under the edict; their position was rendered intolerable by a series of persecutions which culminated in the dragonnades, and at length on the 18th of October 1685 Louis revoked the edict, thus depriv- ing the Protestants in France of all civil and religious liberty. This gave a new impetus to the emigration of the Huguenots, which had been going on for some years, and England, Holland and Brandenburg received numbers of thrifty and industrious French families. The history of the French Protestants, to which the edict of Nantes belongs, is dealt with in the articles France : History, and Huguenots. For further details about the edict see the papers and documents published as Le Troisieme centenaire de I' edit de Nantes (1898); N. A. F. Puaux, Histoire du Protestantisme francais (Paris, 1894) ; H. M. Baird, The Huguenots and the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (London, 1895); C. Benoist, La Condition des Protestants sous le regime de I'edit de Nantes et apres sa revocation (Paris, 1900) ; A. Lods, L'£dit de Nantes devant le parlement de Paris (1899) ; and the Bulletin historique et litteraire of the Societe de l'Histoire du Protestantisme Francais. NANTEUIL, ROBERT (1623-1678), French line-engraver, was born about 1623, or, as other authorities state, in 1630, the son of a merchant of Reims. Having received an excellent classical education, he studied engraving under his brother-in- law, Nicholas Regncsson; and, his crayon portraits having attracted attention, he was pensioned by Louis XIV. and appointed designer and engraver of the cabinet to that monarch. It was mainly due to his influence that the king granted the edict of 1660, dated from St Jean de Luz, by which engraving was pronounced free and distinct from the mechanical arts, and its practitioners were declared entitled to the privileges of other artists. He died at Paris in 1678. The plates of Nanteuil, several of them approaching the scale of life, number about three hundred. In his early practice he imitated the technique of his predecessors, working with straight lines, strengthened, but not crossed, in the shadows, in the style of Claude Mellan, and in other prints cross-hatching like Regnesson, or stippling in the manner of Jean Boulanger; but he gradually asserted his full individuality, modelling the faces of his portraits with the utmost precision and completeness, and employing various methods of touch for the draperies and other parts of his plates. Among the finest works of his fully developed period may be named the portraits of Pomponne de Bellievre, Gilles Menage, Jean Loret, the due de la Meilleraye and the duchess de Nemours. A list of his works will be found in Dumesnil's Le Peintre-graveur francais, vol. iv. NANTICOKE, a borough of Luzerne county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the North Branch of the Susquehanna river, opposite West Nanticoke, and 8 m. S.W. of Wilkes-Barre. Pop. (1880), 3884; (1890), 10,044; (1900), 12,116, of whom 5055 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 18,877. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western and the i66 NANTUCKET Central of New Jersey railways, and by an interurban electric line. Nanticoke is situated in the anthracite coal region, is surrounded by mines, and its industries consist chiefly in mining and shipping coal; it also has various manufactures, and in 1905 the factory product was valued at $358,091. Nanticoke was laid out in 1793, and was incorporated as a borough in 1874. The name is that of an Algonquian tribe of Indians, conspicuous for their dark complexion, who originally lived in Maryland, were conquered by the Iroquois in 1678 and subsequently scattered; the main body removed to lands along the eastern branch of the Susquehanna, where some of them became merged with the Iroquois, and others removed to the Ohio and became merged with the Delaware. NANTUCKET, a county and township (coextensive) of Massa- chusetts, U.S.A. Its principal part is an island of the same name, 28 m. S. of Cape Cod peninsula; it also includes the island of Tuckernuck, which has an area of 1-97 sq. m., and is used for sheep grazing; Muskeget Island, which has excellent hunting, and of which about one-half is a public park; and the Gravel Islands and other islets. Pop. of the county (1905 state census), 2930; (1910) 2962. The island, with a minimum length of 15 m., an average width of 25 m., and an area of about 47 sq. m., has a coast-line of 88 m.; it lies within the 10-fathom line, but is separated from the mainland by Nantucket Sound, which is 25 to 30 m. across and has a maximum depth of 50 ft. The surface of Nantucket Island is open, nearly treeless, with a few hills, the highest being 91 ft. above sea-level. The soil is sandy but affords good pasture in some places, and has been farmed with some success; the flora is rich, and includes some rare species. There are a score of fresh-water ponds, the largest being Hummock (320 acres). Copaum (21 acres) was, at the time of the first settlement, a bay and the commonly used harbour, but the present harbour (6 m. long) is that formed by Coatue Beach, a long narrow tongue of land on the N. side of the island. The northern part of Coatue Beach is known as Coskata Beach, and curves to the N.W. ; near its tip is Great Point, where a lighthouse was first built in 1784. There have been many terrible wrecks on the coast, and there are life-saving stations on Muskeget Island, near Maddaket, at Surfside and on Coskata Beach. At the W. end of the island is Tuckernuck Bank, a broad submarine platform, on whose edge are the island of Tuckernuck, on which is a village of the same name, and Muskeget Island. In the S.E. extremity of Nantucket Island is Siasconset (locally 'Sconset), a summer resort of some vogue; it has a Marconi wireless telegraph station, connecting with incoming steamers, the Nantucket shoals lightship and the mainland. On a bluff on the S. is the small village of Surfside. Other hamlets are Maddaket, at the \V. end of the island; and Polpis, Quidnet and Wauwinet (at the head of Nantucket harbour) in its E. part. The principal settlement and /summer resort is the town of Nantucket (on the S.W. end of the harbour), which is served by steamers from New Bedford, Martha's Vineyard and Wood's Hole, and is connected with Siasconset by a primitive narrow- gauge railway. Here there are large summer hotels, old resi- dences built in the prosperous days of whaling, old lean-to houses, old graveyards and an octagonal towered windmill built in 1746. There are two libraries; one founded in 1836, and now a public library in the Atheneum building; and the other in what is now the School of Industrial and Manual Training (1904), founded in 1827 as a Lancasterian school by Admiral Sir Isaac Coffin (17 59-1 839), whose ancestors were Nantucket people. The jethro Coffin House was built in 1686, according to tradition; the Old North Vestry, the first Congregational meeting-house, built in 1711, was moved in 1767, and again in 1834 to its present site on Beacon Hill. The old South Church Tower, a steeple and clock tower, 144 ft. above sea-level, has a fine Portuguese bell, made in 1810. Another old house, built in 1725, was the home of Elihu Coleman, an anti-slavery minister of the Society of Friends, who were very strong here until the close of the first quarter of the 19th century. Near the old Friends' School is the building of the Nantucket Historical Society, which has a collection of relics. Nantucket was the home of Benjamin Franklin's mother, Abiah, whose father, Peter Folger, was one of the earliest settlers (1663); of Maria Mitchell, and of Lucretia Mott. Adjoining the Maria Mitchell homestead is a memorial astronomical observatory and library, containing the collections of Miss Mitchell and of her brother, Professor Henry Mitchell ( 1 830-1 902), a distinguished hydrographer. The industries of the island are unimportant; there is considerable cod and scallop fishing. Sheep-raising was once an important industry. Nan- tucket was long famous as a whaling port. As early as the beginning of the 18th century its fleets vied with those of eastern Long Island. In 171 2 a Nantucket whaler, Christopher Hussey, blown out to sea, killed some sperm whales and thus introduced the sperm-oil industry and put an end to the period in which only drift- and shore- or boat-whaling had been carried on — the shore fishery died out about 1760. In 1757 whaling was the only livelihood of the people of Nantucket; and in 1750-1775, although whaling fleets were in repeated danger from French and Spanish privateers, the business, with the allied coopers and other trades, steadily increased. In 1775 the Nantucket fleet numbered 150, and the population was between 5000 and 6000, about 90% being Quakers; but by 1785 the fleet had been shattered, 134 ships being destroyed or captured during the war. Tallow candles as a substitute for whale-oil had been introduced, and the British market was closed by a duty of £18 a ton on oil; a bounty offered by the Massachusetts legis- lature (£5 on white and £3 on yellow or brown spermaceti, and £2 on whale-oil per ton) was of slight assistance. During the war of 181 2 the Nantucket fleet was the only one active; it suffered severely during the war, and in the decade 1820-1830 Nantucket lost its primacy to New Bedford, whose fleet in 1840 was twice as large. Nantucket's last whaler sailed in 1869. Subsequently the island has been chiefly important as a summer resort. Title to Nantucket and the neighbouring islands was claimed under grants of the Council for New England both by William Alexander, Lord Stirling, and by Sir Ferdinando Gorges. Lord Stirling's agent sold them in 1641 to Thomas Mayhew (1592- 1682) of Watertown, Mass,, and his son Thomas (c. 1616- 1657) for £40, and a little later the elder Mayhew obtained another deed for Martha's Vineyard from Gorges. In 1659 the elder Mayhew sold a joint interest in the greater part of the island of Nantucket for £30 and two beaver hats to nine partners; early in the following year the first ten admitted ten others as equal proprietors, and later, in order to encourage them to settle here, special half-grants were offered to tradesmen. The original twenty proprietors, however, endeavoured to exclude the trades- men from any voice in the government, and this caused strife. Both factions appealed to the governor of New York, that pro- vince having claimed jurisdiction over the islands under the grant to the duke of York in 1664, and, becoming increasingly dissatisfied with that government, sought a union with Massa- chusetts until the islands were annexed to that province by its new charter of 1691. The town of Nantucket was settled in 1661 and was incorporated in 1671. By order of Governor Francis Lovelace it was named Sherburne in 1673, but in 1795 the present name was adopted. Its original site was Maddaket on the W. end of the island; in 1672 it was moved to its present site, then called Wescoe. When counties were first organized in New York, in 1683, Nantucket and the neighbouring islands were erected into Dukes county, but in 1695, after annexation to Massachusetts, Nantucket Island, having been set apart from Dukes county, constituted Nantucket county, and in 1713 Tuckernuck Island was annexed to it. See the bulletins (1896 sqq.) of the Nantucket Historical Society, established in 1894; F. B. Hough, Papers relating to the Island of Nantucket . . . while under the Colony of New York (Albany, N.Y., 1856); M. S. Dudley, Nantucket Centennial Celebration; Historic Sites and Historic Buildings (Nantucket, 1895) ; Obed Macy, History of Nantucket (Boston, 1835) ; L. S. Hinchman, Early Settlers of Nantucket (Philadelphia, 1896; 2nd ed., 1901); W. S. Bliss, Quaint Nantucket (Boston, 1896) ; and N. S. Shaler, Geology of Nantucket (Washington, 1889), being U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin, No. 53. NANTWICH— NAPHTHALENE 167 NANTWICH, a market town in the Crewe parliamentary division of Cheshire, England, 161 m. N.W. of London, on the London & North-Western and Great Western railways. Pop. of urban district (1901) 7722. It lies on the river Weaver, in the upper part of its fiat, open valley. The church of St Mary and St Nicholas is a cruciform building in red sandstone, of the Decorated and Perpendicular periods, with a central octagonal tower. The fine old carved stalls are Said to have belonged to Vale Royal Abbey, near Winsford in this county. Nantwich re- tains not a few old timbered houses of the 16th and 17th centuries, but the town as a whole is modern in appearance. The grammar school was founded in 161 1. The salt industry, still the staple of several towns lower down the vale of the Weaver, was so important here in the time of Henry VIII. that there were three hundred salt-works. Though this industry has lapsed, there are brine baths, much used in cases of rheumatism, gout and general debility, and the former private mansion of Shrewbridge Hall is converted into a hotel with a spa. Nantwich has tanneries, a manufacture of boots and shoes, and clothing factories; and corn-milling and iron-founding are carried on. The town is one of the best hunting centres in the county, being within reach of several meets. From the traces of a Roman road between Nantwich and Middle- wich, and the various Roman remains that have been found in the neighbourhood, it has been conjectured that Nantwich was a salt-' town in Roman times, but of this there is no conclusive evidence. The Domesday Survey contains a long account of the laws, customs and values of the salt-works at that period, which were by far the most profitable in Cheshire. The salt-houses were divided between the king, the earl of Chester and certain resident freemen of the neighbourhood. The name of the town appears variously as Wych Manbank, Wie Malban, Nantwich, Lache Mauban, Wysmanban, Wiens Malbanus, Namptewiche. About the year 1070 William Malbedeng or Malbank was created baron of Nantwich, which barony he held of the earl of Chester. In the 13th century the barony fell to three daughters and co-heiresses, and further subdivisions followed. This probably accounts for the lack of privileges belonging to Nant- wich as a corporate town. The only town charter is one of 1567- 1568, in which Queen Elizabeth confirms an ancient privilege of the burgesses that they should not be upon assizes or juries with strangers, relating to matters outside the town. It is stated in the charter that the right to this privilege had been proved by an in- quisition taken in the 14th century, and had then already been held from time immemorial. There was a gild merchant and also a town bailiff, but the latter office was of little real significance and was soon dropped. There is documentary evidence of a castle at Nant- wich in the 13th century. There is a weekly market on Saturday, held by prescription. In 1283 a three-days' fair to be held at the feast of St Bartholomew was granted to Robert Burnell, bishop of Bath and Wells (then holder of a share of the barony of Nantwich). This is the " Old Fair " or " Great Fair " now held on the 4th of September. Earl Cholmondeley received a grant of two fairs in 1723. Fairs are now held on the first Thursday in April, June, September and December, and a cheese fair on the first Thursday in each month except January. The salt trade declined altogether in the 1 8th century, with the exception of one salt-works, which was kept open until 1856. There was a shoe trade in the town as early as the 17th century, and gloves were made from the end of the 16th century until about 1863. Weaving and stocking trades also flourished in the 18th century. The one corn-mill of Nantwich was converted into a cotton factory in 1789, but was closed in 1874. See James Hall, A History of Nantwich or Wich Milbank (1883). NAOROJI, DADABHAI (1825- ), Indian politician, was born at Nasik on the 4th of September 1825, the son of a Parsi priest. During a long and active life, he played many parts: professor of mathematics at the Elphinstone college (1854); founder of the Rast Goftar newspaper; partner in a Parsi business firm in London (1855); prime minister of Baroda (1874); member of the Bombay legislative council (1885); M.P. for Central Finsbury (1802-1895), being the first Indian to be elected to the House of Commons; three times president of the Indian National Congress. Many of his numerous writings are collected in Poverty and Un-British Rule in India (1901). NAP, the pile on cloth, the surface of short fibres raised by special processes, differing with the various fabrics, and then smoothed and cut. Formerly the word was applied to the roughness on textiles before shearing. " Nap " in this sense appears in many Teutonic languages, cf . Ger. Noppe, Dutch nop, Nor. napp; the verbal form is noppen or nappen, to trim, cut short. The word nap also means a short sleep or doze (O. Eng. hnappian). In " napkin," a square of damask or other linen, used for wiping the hands and lips or for protecting the clothes at meals, the second part is a common English suffix, sometimes of diminutive force, and the first is from " nape," x Low Lat. napa or nappa, a corrupt form of mappa, table-cloth. Nape still survives in " napery," a name for household linen in general. NAPHTALI, in the Bible, the name of an Israelite tribe, the " son " of Jacob by Bilhah, Rachel's maid, and the uterine brother of Dan (Gen. xxx. 8). It lay to the south of Dan in the eastern half of upper Galilee (Josh. xix. 32-39), a fertile mountain- ous district (cf. Gen. xlix. 21; Deut. xxxiii. 23), open to the surrounding influences of Phoenicia and Aram. Apart from its share in the war against Sisera (Judg. iv. seq., see Deborah), little is known of it. It evidently suffered in the bloody conflicts of Damascus with Israel (1 Kings xv. 20), and was depopulated by Tiglath-Pileser IV. (2 Kings xv. 29; Isa. ix. 1). ^ Naphtali and Dan are " brothers," perhaps partly on geographical grounds, but Dan also had a seat in the south (south-west of Ephraim), and the name of the " mother " Bilhah is apparently connected with Bilhan, an Edomite and also a Benjamite name (Gen. xxxvi. 27; 1 Chron. vii. 10). For the view connecting Naphtali (perhaps a geographical rather than a tribal term), or rather its Israelite inhabitants, with the south see the full discussion by H. W. Hogg, Ency. Bib. iii. col. 3332 sqq. with references. NAPHTHA, a word originally applied to the more fluid kinds of petroleum, issuing from the ground in the Baku district of Russia and in Persia. It is the va6a of Dioscorides, and the naphtha, or bitumen liquidum candidum of Pliny. By the alchemists the word was used principally to distinguish various highly volatile, mobile and inflammable liquids, such as the ethers, sulphuric ether and acetic ether having been known respectively as naphtha sulphurici and naphtha aceti. The term is now seldom used, either in commerce or in science, without a distinctive prefix, and we thus have the following : — 1. Coal-tar Naphtha. — A volatile commercial product obtained by the distillation of coal-tar (see Coal-tar). 2. Shale Naphtha. — Obtained by distillation from the oil pro- duced by the destructive distillation of bituminous shale (see Paraffin). 3. Petroleum Naphtha. — A name sometimes given (e.g. in the United States) to a portion of the more volatile hydrocarbons distilled from petroleum (see Petroleum). 4. Wood Naphtha. — Methyl alcohol (q.v.). 5. Bone Naphtha. — Known also as bone oil or Dippel's oil. A volatile product of offensive odour obtained in the carbonization of bones for the manufacture of animal charcoal. 6. Caoutchouc Naphtha. — A volatile product obtained by the destructive distillation of rubber. (B. R.) NAPHTHALENE, CioH 8 , a hydrocarbon discovered in the " carbolic " and " heavy oil " fractions of the coal-tar distillate (see Coal-tar) in 1819 by A. Garden. It is a product of the action of heat on many organic compounds, being formed when the vapours of ether, camphor, acetic acid, ethylene, acetylene,, &c, are passed through a red-hot tube (M. Berthelot, Jahresb., 1 851), or when petroleum is led through a red-hot tube packed with charcoal (A. Letny, Ber., 1878, n, p. 1210). It may be synthesized by passing the vapour of phenyl butylene bromide over heated soda lime (B. Aronheim, Ann., 1874, 171, p. 219); and by the action of ortho-xylylene bromide on sodium ethane tetracarboxylic ester, the resulting tetra-hydronaphthalene tetracarboxylic ester being hydrolysed and heated, when it yields hydronaphthalene dicarboxylic acid, the silver salt of which decomposes on distillation into naphthalene and other products (A. v. Baeyer and W. H. Perkin, junr., Ber., 1884, 17, p. 451):— r tt ^CH 2 Br , Na-C(C0 2 R) 2 . r tt ^CH 2 -C(CO»R) 2 Le 4< -CH 2 Br + Na-C(C0 2 R) 2 "^ 6 4 ^CH 2 -C(C0 2 R) 2 I CH 2 -CHC0 2 H , n „ ^-CH 2 -C(C0 2 H) 2 C 10 H a