THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST SECOND THIRD FOURTH FIFTH SIXTH SEVENTH EIGHTH NINTH TENTH ELEVENTH edition, published in three volumes, 1768 — 1771. ten „ 1777— 1784. eighteen „ 1788 — 1797. twenty „ 1801 — 1810. twenty „ 1815 — 1817. twenty „ 1823 — 1824. twenty-one „ 1830 — 1842. twenty-two „ 1853 — 1860, twenty-five „ 1875 — i88o. ! ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903. published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911. COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE All rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XVIII MEDAL to MUMPS New York Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. 342 Madison Avenue Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company. INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XVIII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS, 1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. A. Ca • A. E. G. A. E. S. A F. P. A. Go.* A. G. D. A. Ha. A. H.-S. A J. G, A. J. L. A. L. A. M. C A. N. A. Se.* A. v. G. A Wa. Arthur Cayley, LL.D., F.R.S. See the biographical article, Cayley, Arthur. Monge, Gaspard. Rev. Alfred Ernest Garvie, M.A., D.D. f Principal of New College, Hampstead. Member of the Board of Theology and the J ]irj|. ae i e Board of Philosophy, London University. Author of Studies in the inner Life of ■ nur * re * Jesus; &c. L Arthur Everett Shipley, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. f Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge University, 1 Mesozoa* Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History. I Alfert Frederick Pollard, M.A., F.R.Hist.S. Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893- 1901. Lothian Prizeman (Oxford), 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c. Morton, John. Rev. Alexander Gordon, M.A. Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester. i Millennium; Montanism. \ Meshed. (Menius; Mennonites; Menno, Simons; Morone. Arthur George Doughty, M.A., Litt.D., C.M.G. f" Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of Canada. J „ . „ Author of The Cradle of New France; &c. Joint-editor of Documents relating to the\ "WCier, Honore. Constitutional History of Canada. I Adolf Harnack. See the biographical article, Harnack, Adolf. Sir A. Houtum-Schindler, CLE. General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. Rev. Alexander James Grieve, M.A., B.D. r Professor of New Testament and Church History at the United Independent College, J . ,. Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University and Member of Mysore 1 Missions \m part). Educational Service. (_ Andrew Jackson Lamoureux. f Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Formerly Editor of the -j Mexico: Geography. Rio News, Rio de Janeiro. [ Andrew Lang. f m ... See the biographical article, Lang, Andrew. ' MOUere. Agnes Mary Clerke. See the biographical article, Clerke, A. M. { Mouchez. Alfred Newton, F.R.S. See the biographical article, Newton, Alfred. {Megapode; Merganser; Mocking Bird; Moor-Hen; Morillon; Motmot; Mouse-Bird, Adam Sedgwick, M.A., F.R.S. f Professor of Zoology at the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London. J «„*„„, „_v •„ Fellow, and formerly Tutor, of Trinity College, Cambridge. Professor of Zoology 1 «WiamorpnosiS. in the University of Cambridge, 1907-1909. Baron Alfred von Gutschmid. See the biographical article, Gutschmid, Alfred, Baron von. Arthur Waugh, M.A. r New College, Oxford. Newdigate Prize, 1888. Author of Gordon in Africa; A Ifred, J m orr j s William Lord Tennyson. Editor of Johnson's Lives of the Poets; editions of Dickens, Tenny- 1 ' son, Arnold, Lamb; &c. |_ 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. -I Moses of Chorene {in pari). VI B.J. B. M.* C.A. C. B. W.* C.E1. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Bernhard Julg (1825-1886). f Formerly Professor of Classical Philology in the University of Innsbruck. Author J Mongols: Language. of Mongolische M archensammlung; t)ber Wesen und Aufgabe der Sprachwissenschaft; 5 • s s- and On the Present Stale of Mongolian Researches. *■ Budgett Meakin (1866-1906). f Formerly Editor of the Times of Morocco. Author of The Land of the Moors; The\ Morocco (in part), Moorish Empire; Life in Morocco; &c. L Cleveland Abbe, A.M., LL.D. Professor of Meteorology, U.S. Weather Bureau, Washington. Director of the Cincinnati Observatory, 1 863-1 873. Editor of Monthly Weather Review; and -j Meteorology. Bulletin of Mount Weather Observatory. Author of Meteorological Apparatus and Methods; &c. Charles Bertie Wedd, F.G.S. Joint-author of various memoirs and maps of the Geological Survey. Millstone Grit; Miocene. part); c. P. A. c. P.B. c. O.Ala. c. J. B. c. J.F„* e. J. L Charles Creighton, M.A., M.D. [Monster (in King's College, Cambridge. Author of A History of Epidemics in Britain; .Tenner -j Morgagni. and Vaccination ; Plague in India ; &c. I L Sir Charles Norton Edgcumbe Eliot, K.C.M.G., C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.CL. Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East Africa Protectorate; Agent and Consul-general at Zanzibar; and Consul-general for German East Africa, 1900-1904. Charles Francis Atkinson. f Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal \ ,. Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. I \1n4part). Charles Francis Bastable, M.A., LL.D. r Regius Professor of Laws and Professor of Political Economy in the University 1 Monetary Conferences! of Dublin. Author of Public Finance; Commerce of Nations; Theory of International ] Monev Trade; &c. ' I Mordvinians. Medal: War Decoration, { Money-Lending. Served through i Mohmand Campaign. I Morelli. C.Hi. C. Mo. C. PL C. R. B. C. R. W. B. C. S. R. C. We. D. B. Ma. D. F. T. D.GI. Chaloner Grenville Alabaster. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Charles Jasper Blunt, A.O.D. Major, Royal Artillery. Chief Ordnance Officer, Singapore. Chitral Campaign. Constance Jocelyn Ffoulkes. Translator of Morelli's Italian Painters; &c. Sir Charles James Lyall, K.C.S.I., CLE., LL.D. (Edin.). r Secretary, Judicial and Public Department, India Office. Fellow of King's College, London. Secretary to Government of India in Home Department, 1889-1894,-1 MofaddallySt. Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces, India, 1 895-1 808. Author of Translations of Ancient Arabic Poetry; &c. L Chedomille Mijatovich. r Michael Obremovicta III.; Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. ^ Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipo- -i MilOSB Obrenovich I tentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James's, 1 895-1900, and 1902-1903. William Cosmo Monkhouse. See the biographical article, Monkhouse, William Cosmo. Christian Pfister, D-es.-L. f" Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author -< Merovingians, of Htudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux. [_ Charles Raymond Beazley, M.A., D.Litt., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S. Professor of Modern History In the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. C, R. W. Biggar, M.A., K.C J Millais. Mela, Pomponius {in part); Mercator; Monte Corvino. Hon. Charles Stewart Rolls, M.A., F.R.G.S. (1877-1910). Trinity College, Cambridge. British Pioneer of Motoring and Aviation. Formerly -< Managing Director of Rolls-Royce, Ltd. Cecil Weatherly. Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Duncan Black Macdonald, M.A., D.D. Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S.A. Author of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory;' Selections from Ibn Khaldun ; Religious A ttitude and Life in Islam ; &c. Mowat, Sir 01iver„ Motor Vehicles: Light Vehicles. Monument. Mufti. Donald Francis Tovey. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. f Melody; The J Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, I (in part); { Motet; Mozart (in par(). Sir David Gill, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., D.Sc. H.M. Astronomer at Cape of Good Hope, 1879-1907. Served on Geodetic Survey of Egypt, and on the expedition to Ascension Island to determine the Solar Parallax by observations of Mars. Directed Geodetic Survey of Natal, Cape Colony, and Rhodesia. Author of Geodetic Survey of South Africa; Catalogues of Stars for the Equinoxes, 1830, i860, 1885, 1890, 1000; &c. Micrometer. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES vi i D. G. H. D. H. D. LI. T. D. Ma. D. Mn. D. N. P. D. R.-M. D. S. M.* E. A. M. E. B. T. E. C. B. E. E. A. E. F. S. D E. Gr. E. H. B. E. H. M. E. K. Ed. M. E. 0.* E.Pr. Mersina; Miletus. Meloria; Mina. David George Hogarth, M.A. Keeper of the Ashraolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College Oxford Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis 1890 and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. David Hannay. Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal ■ Navy; Life of Emilio Castelar; &c. Daniel Lleufer Thomas. Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Rhondda. David Masson, LL.D. See the biographical article, Masson, David. Rev. Dugald Macfadyen, M.A. Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Congregational Ideals; &c. Diarmid Noel Paton, M.D., F.R.C.P. (Edin.). r Regius Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. Formerly Super- intendent of Research Laboratory of Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh. ^ Metabolic Diseases. Biological Fellow of Edinburgh University, 1884. Author of Essentials of Human Physiology; &c. ' I David Randall-MacIver, M.A., D.Sc. r Curator of Egyptian Department, University of Pennsylvania. Formerly Worcester J MonomotaDa Reader in Egyptology, University of Oxford. Author of Medieval Rhodesia; &c. [ David Samuel Margoliouth, M.A., D.Litt. r Laudian Professor of Arabic, Oxford. Fellow of New College. Author of Arabic Papyri of the Bodleian Library; Mohammed and the Rise of Islam; Cairo, Jerusalem ' and Damascus. , Edward Alfred Minchin, M.A., F.Z.S., f Professor of Protozoology in the University of London. Formerly Fellow of Merton \ Medusa. Stipendiary Magistrate at Pontypridd and \ Merthyr Tydfil. I Milton {in part). Author of Constructive \ Melville, Andrew. Meroe. College, Oxford. Edward Burnett Tylor, D.C.L., LL.D. See the biographical article, Tylor, Edward Burnett. Right Rev. Edward Cuthbert Butler, O.S.B., D.Litt. Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius in Cambridge Texts and Studies, vol. vi. J" Mexico: Ancient History \ {in part). (Mendicant Movement and Orders; Monasticism; Monte Cassino. Ernest E. Austen. r Assistant in Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington, j Mosquito. Lady Dilke. f > See the biographical article, Dilke, Sir C. W., Bart. \ Millet, Jean Francois. Ernest Arthur Gardner, M.A. See the biographical article, Gardner, Percy. Sir Edward Herbert Bunbury, Bart., M.A., F.R.G.S.(d. 1895). M.P. for Bury St Edmunds, 1847-1852. Author of A History of Ancient Geography; ■ Ellis Hovell Minns, M.A. University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian - at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. Edmund Knecht, Ph.D., M.Sc.Tech. (Manchester), F.I.C. Professor of Technological Chemistry, Manchester University. Head of Chemical Department, Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. Examiner in Dyeing, - City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of A Manual of Dyeing; See. Editor of Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists. Eduard Meyer, Ph.D., D.Litt. (Oxon.), LL.D. Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des Alterlhums; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbar- stdmme. Edmund Owen, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Late Examiner J in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of] A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. [ Edgar Prestage. Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Commendador, j Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy " of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society ; &c. Editor of Letters of a Portuguese Nun; Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea; &c. ' Megalopolis; Megara Kin part); Melos. Mela, Pomponius {in part). Melanchlaeni. Mercerizing. Media; Memnon of Rhodes; Menander (Milinda) {in part); Mentor of Rhodes; Mithradates. Mortification; Mouth and Salivary Glands {Surgery). Moraes. viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES E. R. L. E.St. E, S. S. F. C. C. F. G. M. B. F. G. P. F. H. Ne. F. J. H. F. LI. G. F. N. H. F. 0. B. F. We. F. W .R.* G. A. B. G C. W. G. E. D, G. F.B. G. G. S. G. H. Fo. G. P.R. G. Sa. G Sn. Metamerism; Molluscs (in part). j Missions (in part). [Motor Vehicles: Heavy Commercial Vehicles. Moses of Chorene (in part). Mercia. J Mouth and Salivary 1 Glands. j Metallography (in part). Sir Edwin Ray Lankester, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.A., D.Sc, LL.D. Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. President of the British Association, 1906. Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in University College. London, 1874-1890. Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Oxford, 1891-1898. Director of the Natural History Departments of the British Museum, 1898-1907. Vice-President of the Royal Society, 1896. Romanes Lecturer at Oxford, 1905. Author of Degeneration; The Advancement of Science; The Kingdom of Man; &c. Eugene Stock. Formerly Editorial Secretary of the Church Missionary Society. Edward Shrapnell Smith. Editor of The Commercial Motor. Hon. Treasurer of the Commercial Motor Users -< Association. Organiser of the Lancashire Heavy Motor Trials of 1898, 1 899-1 901. Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare, M.A., D.Th. (Giessen). Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. . Editor of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle. Author of Myth, Magic and Morals; &c Frederick George Meeson Beck, M.A. Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. Frederick Gymer Parsons, F.R.CS., F.Z.S., F.R.Anthrop.Inst. Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women, London. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. Francis Henry Neville, M.A., F.R.S. Fellow and Lecturer in Natural Science, Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge. Francis John Haverfield, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. r Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of J M na Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Monographs on 1 Roman History, especially Roman Britain; &c. L Francis Llewellyn Griffith, M.A., Ph.D., F.S.A. r Memphis; Menes; Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey] fli oe j.j s Lake of - and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial ] M ' ' German Archaeological Institute. I Mummy. Colonel Frederic Natusch Maude, C.B. Lecturer in Military History, Manchester University. Policy; The Leipzig Campaign; The Jena Campaign. Frederick Orpen Bower, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. Regius Professor of Botany in the University of Glasgow. Botany for Beginners; &c. Frederick Wedmore. See the biographical article, Wedmore, Frederick. Frederick William Rudler, I.S.O., F.G.S. C Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. ■< Moldavite. President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. I George A. Boulenger. D.Sc, Ph.D., F.R.S. f In charge of the collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British -I Mormyr. Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London. |_ George Charles Williamson, Litt.D. r Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures; Life of Richard J Miniature; Cosway, R.A . ; George Engleheart ; Portrait Drawings ; &c. Editor of new edition of 1 Morland, George. Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers. [ Surgeon-Major George Edward Dobson,M.A.,M.B.,F.Z.S., F.R.S. (1848-1895). f Army Medical Department, 1 868-1 888. Formerly Curator of the Royal Victoria J Mole (in ■bartS Museum, Netley. Author of Monograph of the Asiatic Chiroptera, &c; A Monograph 1 * of the Insectivora, Systematic and Anatomical. I . George F. Barwick. f Assistant Keeper of Printed Books and Superintendent of Reading-room, British -! Midhat Pasha. Museum. |_ George Gregory Smith, M.A. r Professor of English Literature, Queen's University, Belfast. Author of The Days J Montgomerie. of James IV. ; The Transition Period; Specimens of Middle Scots; &c. [ George Herbert Fowler, F.Z.S., F.L.S., Ph.D. r Formerly Berkeley Research Fellow, Owens College, Manchester; and Assistant \ Microtomy. Professor of Zoology at University College, London. [ Gerald Philip Robinson. r President of the Society of Mezzotint Engravers. Mezzotint Engraver to Queen J Mezzotint. Victoria and to King Edward VII. I Author of War and the World's Metz. Author of Practical \ Mohl, Hugo von, J Meryon. George Saintsbury, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article, Saintsbury, G. rMerimee; Michelet, Jules; J Montaigne; Montesquieu; [ Montpensier, Duchesse dft Grant Showerman, A.M., Ph.D. f Professor of Latin in the University of Wisconsin. Member of the Archaeological J jun+hrac Institute of America. Member of American Philological Association. Author of | With the Professor ; The Great Mollter of the Gods ; &c. L G. W. T. H. B. Wo. H. Ch. H.E. H.Fr. H. F. B. H. F. G. H. H. L. H. L. H. H. L. S. H. H. S. H. N. D. H.O. H.St H.S. J. H.S. M. H.S. W H. T. A. H. W. H. H. W. C. D. H. W. R.* I. A. I. A. C. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Rev. Griffithes Wheeler Thatcher, M.A., B.D f Warden of Camden College Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old ] Mubarrad. Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. j_ ittuualrttu - Horace Boongbroke Woodward, F.R.S., F.G.S f PrJc?H rly . ^ ssi f ta ? t . director of the Geological Survey of England and Wales. ] MUler, Hugh. President, Geologists' Association, 1893-1894. Wollaston Medallist, 1908. I 5 Hugh Chisholm M.A [Meredith, George; „r lh?l y 7 1 ar J 9f Corpus Chnsti College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition 4 Milan Obrenovitch IV • of the Encyclopaedia Bntanmca. Co-editor of the loth edition. [ Morley Viseouilt Karl Hermann Ethe, M.A., Ph.D. r Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Aberystwyth (University of J „. , . . Wales). Author of Catalogue of Persian Manuscripts in the India Office Library 1 Mirkhond London (Clarendon Press) ; &c. •" y ' I Henri Frantz. Art Critic, Gazette des beaux arts, Paris. Horatio Robert Forbes Brown, LL.D. IX ■\ Meissonier. Editor of the Calendar of Venetian Staie"Pap S rs, for the Public Record Office. Author J „ ' , ot Life on the Lagoons; Venetian Studies; John Addington Symonds, a Biography; 1 Milan (*» P<"~t). Hans Friedrich Gadow, F.R.S., Ph.D. Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. Author ot Amphibia and Reptiles," in the Cambridge Natural History. Henry Harvey Littlejohn, M.A., M.B., CM., F.R.C.S. (Edin ) Professor of Forensic Medicine in the University of Edinburgh. ' Harriet L. Hennessy, M.D. (Brux.), L.R.C.P.I., L.R.C.S.I. J Migration: Zoology; [_Moa. H. Lawrence Swinburne (d. .1907). Henry Morse Stephens, M.A. Balliol College, Oxford. Professor of History and Director of University Extension, University of California. Author of History of the French Revolution; Modern' European History ; &c. Henry Newton Dickson, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. (Edin.), F.R.G S Professor of Geography at University College, Reading. Formerly Vice-President Royal Meteorological Society. Lecturer in Physical Geography, Oxford. Author' of Meteorology; Elements of Weather and Climate; &c. Hermann Oelsner, M.A., Ph.D. Taylorian Professor of the Romance Languages in University of Oxford. Member ofCouncil of the Philological Society. Author of A History of Provencal Literature;' F.R.S. (Edin.) f Medical Jurisprudence I (in part). /"Medical Education, U.S.A. I (in pari). /Medal: War Decorations X (in part). Mirabeau, Honored Mediterranean Sea; Mexico, Gulf of. Mistral. Henry Sturt, M.A. Author of Idola Theatri; The Idea of a Free Church; Personal Idealism ■I Mining. 4 Metempsychosis. Henry Stuart Jones, M.A. r Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Oxford, and Director of the British ]„.,., School at Rome. Member of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute 1 Mosaic: Ancient (in part). Author of The Roman Empire; &c. L Henry Smith Munroe, D.Sc, Ph.D. Professor of Mining, Columbia University, New York. Henry Spenser Wilkinson, M.A. rlliwt 16 P A r ^ f r SOr f °U!™i tal } r H «*»Y. University of Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' ■! Moltke, Count von. College. Author of The Brain of an Army; &c. ] Rev. Herbert Thomas Andrews. f Professor of New Testament Exegesis, New College, London. Author of "The Mud™, c j. A Commentary on Acts in the Westminster New Testament; Handbook on the] Mlssi0ns (*» W- Apocryphal Books in the " Century " Bible. I Hope W. Hogg, M.A. r Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures in the University of Manchester. \ Mes °P°tamia. Henry William Carless Davis, M.A. r isfHo^ T A U ,^h r n°/ ? a p Iiol i C f eg ^' °, x , {or ^- Fellow ^ f . An Souls ' Colle s e - 0xf ° r d. I Montfort, Simon de. 1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. \ Rev. Henry Wheeler Robinson, M.A. r Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Seniar Kennicott Scholar J „, ul - n ?■ Z A> I i < iJv^, utho J of ^Z™ Ps y ch °l°&y ^ Relation to Pauline Anthropology] m °* h (*« P art ^- (in Mansfield College Essays) ; &c. I Israel Abrahams, M.A. Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridee Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Sfor'r History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c. Sir Joseph Archer Crowe, K..C.M.G. See the biographical article, Crowe, Sir J. A. Meir; Meir of Rothenburg; Menasseh ben Israel; Mendelssohn, Moses; Mocatta; Molko. S Memlinc (in part). X J. A. F. J. A. S. J. A. V. J.Bt. J. B. T. J. D. B. J. E. H. J. F. K. J. F. P. J. G. H. J. 6. R. J. G. Sc. J. H. F. J. H. Je. J. H. M. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES J. H. B. J. HI R. J. Le J. L. W. J. M. Bu J. M. M. Jno. S. John Ambrose Fleming, M.A., F.R.S., D.Sc. Pender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow of University College, London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and Lecturer on Applied Mechanics in the University. Author of Magnets and Electric Currents. John Addington Symonds, LL.D. See the biographical article, Symonds, John Addington. Rev. J. A. Vanes. . Professor of New Testament Exegesis, Wesleyan College, Richmond. James Bartlett. Meter, Electric. j Metastasis -! Methodism {in part). Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c, at King's College, J „ , London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of Junior) "^OTia.!. Engineers. Sir John Batty Tuke, M.D., F.R.S. (Edin.), D.Sc, LL.D. . f President of the Neurological Society of the United Kingdom. Medical Director J Medical Education. of New Saughton Hall Asylum, Edinburgh. M. P. for the Universities of Edinburgh | and St Andrews, 1900-1910. t James David Bourchier, M.A., F.R.G.S. f King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. J Montenegro. Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria. *- Rev. Joseph Edmund Hutton, M.A. J* Moravian Brethren. Author of History of the Moravian Church. \ James Furman Kemp, D.Sc. f Professor of Geology, Columbia University, New York. Geologist to United States i Mineral Deposits, and New York Geological Surveys. Author of Handbook of Rocks ; £Tc. I Joseph Frank Payne, M.A., M.D., F.R;C.P.(i84o-ioio). f Formerly Harveian Librarian, Royal College of Physicians, London. Hon. Fellow J m .jj„.. A . rr- , /• ., ,\ of Magdalen College, Oxford. Fellow of the University of London. Author of] Medicine. History (m part). Lectures on Anglo-Saxon Medicine; &c. L Joseph G. Horner, A.M.I.Mech.E. Author of Plating and Boiler Making; Practical Metal Turning; &c. John George Robertson, M.A., Ph.D. Professor of German at the University of London. Formerly Lecturer on the English Language, Strassburg University. Author of History of German Literature; &c. \ Metal-Work: Industrial. \ Meistersinger. Sir James George Scott, K.C.I.E. Superintendent and Political Officer, The Upper Burma Gazetteer. Southern Shan States. Author of Burma; \ Mekong; Minbu. John Henry Freese, M.A. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. f Menander; -i Mirror: Ancient; [ Moesia. James Hopwood Jeans, M.A., F.R.S. C Stokes Lecturer in the University of Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Trinity < Molecule. College. Author of Mathematical Theory of Electricity and Magnetism ; &c. ^ John Henry Middleton, M.A., Litt.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1 886-1895. Director of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South Kensington Museum, 1 892-1 896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Times; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times. Art Metal-Work: (in part); Monreale; Mosaic: Ancient {in part). John Horace Round, M.A., LL.D. fMortain; Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage and\ M 0W nrav Familv John Holland Rose, M.A. , Litt.D. r Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local Lectures Syndicate. J Mollien, Count; Author of Life of Napoleon I. ; Napoleonic Studies ; The Development of the European ] Montholon, Marquis de. Nations ; The Life of Pitt ; &c. I Rev. James Legge, D.D. See the biographical article, Legge, James. . Jessie Latdlay Weston. Author of Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory. { Mencius. J Merlin. Rev. James Monroe Buckley, D.D., LL.D. Editor of the Christian Advocate, New York. the United States ; &c. " Author of History of Methodism in -j Methodism: United States. John Malcolm Mitchell. Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. Mill, John Stuart {in pari); Miltiades; Mnemonics. Sir John Scott, K.C.M.G., M.A., D.C.L. f Formerly Deputy Judge-Advocate-General to His Majesty's Forces. Judge, jur-yt t am afterwards Vice-President, International Court of Appeal in Egypt. 1874-1882. 1 MlUiary Law. Judge of High Court, Bombay, 1882-1890. Judicial Adviser to the Khedive of Egypt, 1890-1898. Vice-President, International Law Association. (_ INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi J. S. BI. J. S. F. J. S. G. J. S. Ma. J. T. Be. J. T. C. J. T. S.* K. A. M.* K. S. L.B1. L. Bo. L.P. I. J. S. H. H. C. H. H. S. M. N. T. M. 0. B. C M.P. M. W. T. O.Ba. 0. C. W. John Sutherland Black, M.A., LL.D. Assistant Editor, 9th edition, Encyclopaedia Encyclopaedia Biblica. Britannica. Joint-editor of ,f. theH Missal. John Smith Flett, D.Sc, F.G.S. Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society of London. Metamorphism; Metasomatism; Mica-Schist; Micropegmatite; Monzonite. John Starkie Gardner, F.S.A. [„ . . *„„„,,. tr A .,. Expert Metal Worker. Authorof Armour in England; Ironwork (for the Educationall me«""W0rK. Modern Art. Department) ; &c. <- Professor of Greek atl Mexico: Modern History. Merv; Minsk(«i part); Moscow(i« part). James Saumarez Mann, M.A. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Trinity College, Oxford. Bedford College, London. Joint-editor of Social England. John Thomas Bealby. Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical - Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. Joseph Thomas Cunningham, M.A., F.Z.S. \ ik n c f\ Lecturer on Zoology at the South- Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow J Mollusea (*» part); of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in the J Mullet. University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. . *■ James Thomson Shotwell, Ph.D. Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Kate A. Meakin (Mrs Budgett Meakin). Kathleen Schlesinger. J Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the\ Monochord; Mouthpiece. Orchestra. L Louis Bell, Ph.D. f Consulting Engineer, Boston, U.S.A. Chief Engineer, Electric Power Transmission . :. Department, General Electric Co., Boston. Formerly Editor of Electrical World, New York. Author of Electric Power Transmission; &c. *- LUDWIG BOLTZMANN (1844-1906). f Formerly Professor of Theoretical Physics, Universities of Munich, Vienna and J Model. Leipzig. Author of Lectures on the Theory of Gas; Lectures on Maxwell's Theory of Electricity and Light. "- Lazarus Fletcher, M.A., F.R.S. Director of Natural History Departments of the British Museum. Keeper of Minerals, British Museum, 1880-1909. Secretary to the Mineralogical Society. i Meteorite. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Author of Introduction to the Study of Meteorites ; &c. \ Middle Ages. Morocco {in part). Motors, Electric. Leonard James Spencer, M.A. Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Icgical Magazine. Formerly Scholar of . Editor of the Minera- Melaconite; Mica; Microcline; Miller ite; Mimetite; Mineralogy; Mispickel; Molybdenite; I Monazite. Montague Hughes Crackanthorpe, M.A., D.C.L., K.C. Honorary Fellow, St John's College, Oxford. Bencher of Lincoln's Inn. Formerly Member of the General Council of the Bar and of the Council of Legal Education, and Standing Counsel to the University of Oxford. President of the Eugenics Education Society. Marion H. Spielmann, F.S.A. Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art. Member of Fine Art Committee of International Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos Aires, Rome, and the Franco- British Exhibition, London. Author of History of "Punch"; British Portrait Painting to the opening of the Nineteenth Century; Works of G. F. Watts, R.A.; British Sculpture and Sculptors of To-Day ; Henriette Ronner ; &c. Marcus Niebuhr Tod, M.A. f Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy.^ Messene; Messenia* Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. \_ Maximilian Otto Bismarck Caspari, M.A. ( Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birming- -J Megara {in part). ham University, 1905-1908. [ Mediation. Medal {in part). Rev. Mark Pattison. See the biographical article, Pattison, Mark. More, Sir Thomas. Northcote Whitridge Thomas, M.A. ' (" Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the J Medium. Soci6t6d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and \ Marriage in A ustralia ; &c. I Oswald Barron, F.S.A. f Montagu (Family) Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the-' • Honourable Society of the Baronetage. Owen Charles Whitehouse, M.A., D.D. Theological Tutor and Lecturer in Hebrew, Cheshunt College, Cambridge. ' [ Mortimer {Family). i Messiah {in part). Xll 0. Hr. P. A. K. P. C. M. P. Ge. P. G. K. P. La. P. V. R. A S. M. R. C. P. R. H. C. R. I. P. R. K. D. R. L.* R. M.-S. R. N- B. R. P. S. R. S C. S. A. C. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Otto Henker, Ph.D. On the Staff of the Carl Zeiss Factory, Jena, Germany. Prince Peter Alexeivitch Kropotkin. See the biographical article, Kropotkin, Prince P. A. Peter Chalmers Mitchell, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc, LL.D. Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-181 Author of Outlines of Biology ; &c. \ Microscope. /Minsk (in part); I Mongolia; Moscow. Monster (in part); Morphology (in part). Patrick Geddes, F.R.S. (Edin.). r Professor of Botany, University College, Dundee. Formerly Lecturer on Natural J Moipholoev (in ■bart) History in School of Medicine, Edinburgh. Part-author of Evolution of Sex. 1 " Author of Chapters in Modern Botany. V Paul George Konody. Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of The Artist. Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c. Philip Lake, M.A., F.G.S. Memlinc (in part). Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly J wr OY j,, n . r„ 1 of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian 1 raeA1LU - wowgy. Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Keyser's Comparative Geology. I i Medici (Family). Pasquale Villari. See the biographical article, Villari, Pasquale. Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister, M.A., F.S.A. St John's College, Cambridge, tion Fund. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Explora- J Michmash; Mizpah; 1 Moriah. Reginald Crundall Punnett, M.A. Professor of Biology in the University of Cambridge. College. Superintendent of the Museum of Zoology. Fellow of Gonville and Caius -j Mendelism. Rev. Robert Henry Charles, M.A., D.D., D.Litt. (" Grinfield Lecturer, and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford. Fellow of the British J Moses Assumotion of Academy. Formerly Professor of Biblical Greek, Trinity College, Dublin. Author 1 ' ' of Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life ; Book of Jubilees ; &c. I f Millipede; Mimicry; I Mite. Mongols. Reginald Innes Pocock, F.Z.S. Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. Sir Robert Kennaway Douglas. Formerly Keeper of Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at the British Museum; and Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Author of The Language and' Literature of China; &c. L Richard Lydekker, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. f Megatherium; Mole (in Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of J Monodelphia; Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum; The Deer of\ Monotremata; Mouse; All Lands; The Game Animals of Africa; &c. [ Multituberculata. Richmond Mayo-Smith, Ph.D. See the biographical article, Mayo-Smith, Richmond. ■I Migration (in part). Robert Nisbet Bain (d. 1909). Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia, the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, , 1613-1725; Slavonic Europe, the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1460 to 1796; &c. R. Phene Spiers, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, ■ London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c. Robert Seymour Conway, M.A., D.Litt. (Cantab.). Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville" and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. Stanley Arthur Cook, M.A. _ Lecturer in flebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Council of Royal Asiatic Society, - 1 904-1905. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions; The Law of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c. f Menshikov; Michael, Tsar; Moltke, Count A. Moltke, Count A. G.; W. Mosque; Mouldings. Messapii. Melchizedek (in part); Menahem; Midrash; Mizraim; Moab; Moloch (in part); Moses. S. C. St. C. S.N. Sidney Colvin, LL.D. See the biographical article, Colvin, Sidney. Viscount St. Cyres. See the biographical article, Iddesleigh, ist Earl of. Simon Newcomb, D.Sc, LL.D. See the biographical article, Newcomb, Simon. -j Michelangelo. { Molinos. -j Mercury; Moon. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xm J. As. T. A, L T. Ca. T. C. A. T. H. H.* T« 1\. K. Th.N. T. S. W. T. W. R„ » W. A. B. C, W. A. P. W. B. Ri. ». B. S.* W. C. R.-A W. F. C. W. F. D. W. F. Sh. W. H. F. ff. H. H. W. H. M. W.JL* Thomas Ashby, M.A., D.Litt. (Oxon.). Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topography of the Roman Campagna. Thomas Allan Ingram, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College. Dublin. Thomas Case, M.A. President of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Formerly Waynflete Professor of Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of " Magdalen College. Sir Thomas Clifford Allbutt, K.C.B., M.A., M.D., D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S. Regius Professor of Physic in the University of Cambridge. Physician to Adden- . brooke's Hospital, Cambridge. Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Editor of Systems of Medicine. Colonel Sir Thomas Hungerford Holdich, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc. Superintendent Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898, Gold Medallist, R.G.S. . (London), 1887. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Countries of the King's Award; India; Tibet; &c. L Thomas Kirke Rose, D.Sc. f" Chemist and Assay er, The Royal Mint, London. Author of Metallurgy of Gold; The i Mint. Precious Metals; &c. \_ Mediolanum; Megara Hyblaea; Messina; Metapontum; Milan (in part); Minturnae; Misenum; Monreale(£« pari); Monteleone Cal&bro; Motya; Monument: Italy. Medical Jurisprudence {in part); Midwife; Migration (in part). Metaphysics. Medicine: Modern Progress. Mohmand. { Mo'allakSt Theodor Noldeke, Ph.D. See the biographical article, Noldeke, Theodor. Theodore Salisbury Woolsey, LL.D. _ r Professor of International Law, Yale University. Editor of Woolsey's International J Monroe Doctrine. Law. Author of America's Foreign Policy; &c. [ Thomas William Rhys Davids, LL.D.,, Ph.D. Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University. President of the Pali Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of Royal Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the Buddhists; Early Buddhism; Buddhist India; Dialogues of the Buddha; &c. Rev. William Augustus Brevoort Coolidge, M.A., F.R.G.S., Ph.D. (Bern). Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haut DauphinS; The Range of the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in History; &c. Editor of The Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; &c. Walter Alison Phillips, M.A. Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Author of Modern Europe ; &c. Sir William Blake Richmond, K.C.B. See the biographical article, Richmond, Sir William Blake. William Barclay Squire, M.A. Assistant in Charge of Printed Music, British Museum. Sir William Chandler Roberts-Austen, K.C.B. , D.C.L., F.R.S. See the biographical article, Roberts-Austen, Sir W. C. William Feilden Craies, M.A. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (23rd edition). William Frederick Denning, F.R.A.S. Gold Medallist, R.A.S. President, Liverpool Astronomical Society, 1877-1878. Author of Telescopic Work for Starlight Evenings; The Great Meteoric Shower; &c. William Fleetwood Sheppard, M.A. Senior Examiner in the Board of Education. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Senior Wrangler, 1884. Sir William Henry Flower, F.R.S. See the biographical article, Flower, Sir W. H. William Henry Howell, M.D., Ph.D., LL.D. Dean of the Medical Faculty and Professor of Physiology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. President of the American Physiological Association. Associate-editor of American Journal of Physiology. William Herrick Macaulay, M.A. Fellow and Tutor of King's College, Cambridge. Walter Lehmann, D.M. Directorial Assistant, Royal Ethnographical Museum, Munich. Author of Methods and Results in Mexican Research; &c. Medhankara; Menander (Milinda). Meiringen; Meran; Merian; Mont Cenis; Morat; Mttller, Johannes von. Mehemet Ali; Mephistopheles; Metternich; Minister; Mitre. -I Mosaic: Modern. Morley, Thomas. J Metallography (in part). Misdemeanour. Meteor. { 4 Mensuration. Mink. { J Medical Education, UJS A 1 (in part). /Motion, Laws of. Mexico: Ancient History (in part). XIV w. M. w. M. C. w. M. S. w. P. A. w. R. M. W. R. S. W. R. S.* W. S. R. INITIALS AND . HEADINGS OF ARTICLES William Minto, LL.D. See the biographical article, Minto, William. Sir W. Martin Conway. See the biographical article, Conway, Sir W. M. f Mill, John Stuart 1 (in pari). < Mountaineering. William Michael Rossetti. f Moroni. See the biographical article, Rossetti, Dante, G. \ LlEUT.-COLONEL WlLLIAM PATRICK ANDERSON, M.lNST.C.E., F.R.G.S. [ Chief Engineer, Department of Marine and Fisheries of Canada. Member of the -1 Michigan, Lake. Geographic Board of Canada. Past President of Canadian Society' of Civil Engineers. [ William Richard Morftll, M.A. (d. 1910). r Formerly Professor of Russian and the other Slavonic Languages in the University J Miolrioiuini jj am of Oxford. Curator of the Taylorian Institution Oxford. Author of Russia; 1 lmcKlewlcz > Adam. Slavonic Literature ; &c. t William Robertson Smith, LL.D. See the biographical article, Smith, William Robertson. William Roy Smith, M.A., Ph.D. Associate Professor of History, Bryn Mawr College, Pennsylvania. Sectionalism in Pennsylvania during the Revolution ; &c. Medina; Melchizedek (in part) ; Messiah (in part); Micah (in part); .Moloch (in part). Author oH Missouri Compromise. William Smyth Rockstro. f Mendelssohn-Bartholdy Author of A General History of Music from the Infancy of the Greek Drama to the J. U n part) • I Mozart (in part). Present Period; and other works on the history of music. PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES Melbourne. Melon. Meningitis. Mercantile System. Mercury (Chemistry). Mermaids. Metal. Metallurgy. Michigan. Micronesia. Militia. Milk. Mineral Waters. Ministry. Minnesingers. Minnesota. Mississippi. Mississippi River. Missouri. Monaco. Monmouthshire. Monopoly. Montana. Moors. Moravia. Mormons. Morphine. Mortgage. Mounted Infantry. ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XVIII MEDAL (Fr. mtdaille, from Lat. metallum), strictly the term given to a memorial piece, originally of metal, and generally in the shape of a coin, used however not as currency but as an artistic product. " Medallion " is a similar term for a large medal, but is now usually restricted to a form of bas-relief in sculpture. The term " medal " is, artistically, extended by analogy to pieces of the same character not neces- sarily shaped like coins. The history of coins and medals is inseparable, and is treated under the general heading of Numismatics. That article may be supplemented here by an account of (i) the more recent progress in the art of the medallist, and (2) the use of medals for war decorations. ' 1. The medal — as it is understood to-day — enjoys a life entirely independent of the coin on the one hand, and, on the other, of the sculptured medallion, or bas-relief; and its' renais- sance is one of the chief phenomena in art during the period since about 1870. It is in France that it has risen to the greatest perfection. Its popularity there is well-nigh universal; it is esteemed not only for memorials of popular events and of public men, but also for private celebrations of all kinds. No other nation approaches in excellence — in artistic feeling* treatment, and sensitiveness of execution — the artists and the achievements of France. In England, although the Royal Academy seeks to encourage its students to practise the art, the prize it offers commonly induces no competition. The art of the medallist is not properly appreciated or understood, and receives little or no support. The prevailing notion concerning it is that it consists in stamping cheap tokens out of white metal or bronze, on which a design, more or less vulgar, stands out in frosty relief from a dazzling, glittering background. These works, even the majority of military and civic medals, demonstrate how the exquisite art of the Renaissance had been degraded in England — almost without protest or even recognition — so that they are, to a work of Roty or Chaplain, what a nameless daub would be to a picture by Rembrandt or Velasquez. It is probable that Jacques Wiener (d. 1899), of Belgium, was the last of the medallists of note who habitually cut his steel dies entirely with his own hand without assistance, though others in some measure do so still. Although most modern workers, exclusively medallists, have themselves cut dies, they now take advantage of the newest methods; and the graveur en midailles has become simply a midailleur. His knowledge of effect is the same — though the effect sought is different: in earlier times the artist thought chiefly of his shadows; now he mainly regards his planes. Otherwise his aims are not dissimilar. At the present day the medallist, after making conscientious studies from life (as if he were about to paint a picture), commonly works out his design in wax, or similar substance, upon a disk of plaster about 12 or 14 inches xvta. 1 in diameter. From that advanced model a simple mould, or matrix, is made, and a plaster cast is taken, whereupon the artist can complete his work in the utmost perfection. Then, if a struck medal is required, a steel cast is made, and from that a reduction to the size required for the final work is pro- duced by means of the machine — the tour a riduire. It is this machine which has made possible the modern revival, and has revolutionized the taste of designers and public alike. It was invented by Gontamin, who based it upon that tour a portrait which Houlot produced in 1766, and which helped to fame several engravers now celebrated. This machine was first exhibited in Paris in 1839, and was sold to the Munich Mint; while a similar invention, devised at the same time by the English engraver Hill, was acquired by Wyon for £2000, and was ultimately disposed of to a private mint in Paris. From that city comes the machine, based by the French inventor M. Ledru upon the two already referred to, now in use at the Royal Mint in London. A well-served medallist, therefore, need trouble himself nowadays about little beyond the primary modelling and the final result, correcting with his own hand only the slightest touches — refining, perfecting — but sometimes merely confining himself to giving his directions to the profes- sional engraver. 1 The great majority of the artistic medals at present in the world (in the great, collection of France there is a total of not fewer than 200,000 medals) are cast, not struck. There is in them a charm of surface, of patina, of the metal itself, which the struck medal, with all the added beauties which it allows of delicate finish and exquisite detail, can hardly give. But the production of the cast medal is much slower, much more uncertain, and the number of fine copies that can be produced is infinitely smaller. All the early medals were cast, being first modelled in wax, and then cast by the cire perdue (waste wax) 1 The method of preparing the dies, &c, is the same for medals as for coins, save that for larger and heavier work more strokes are required, as in the case of L. Coudray's popular " Orphee " — rather a sculpture-relief than a medal. The dies are capable of a great yield before becoming quite worn-out ; it is said that no fewer than three million Copies were struck of Professor J. Tautenhayn's Austrian jubilee medal of the Emperor Francis Joseph. In France, Thonelier's perfected machine, substituting the lever for the screw, has been in use for coins since 1844; but for the striking of medals the same old- fashioned screw-press is retained which had till then been employed both for coins and medals since the time of Louis XIV. In its present form the machine consists of an iron or bronze frame, of which the upper part is fitted with a hollow screw wherein works an inner screw. This screw, moved by steam or electricity, drives the dies, set in iron collars, so that they strike the blank placed between them. This machine can deliver a strong blow to produce a high relief, or a delicate touch tb add the finest finish. In the Paris Mint large medals can be struck with comparative ease and rapidity. A hydraulic press of nearly two million pounds pressure is utilized for testing the dies II MEDAL process, and were usually worked over by the chaser afterwards; indeed, it was not until the beginning of the 16th century that dies, hitherto used only for coins executed in low relief, were employed for larger and bolder work. The medallists of those days always cast in bronze or lead, and only proceeded to use silver and gold as a luxurious taste began to demand the more precious metals. There is little doubt that the material to be preferred is dull silver ( mat or sable — sand-blasted), as the work, with all its variations of light and Shade, can be better seen in the delicate grey of the surface. The medal, properly considered, is not sculpture. Vasari was happy in his definition when he described the medallic art as the link between sculpture and painting — that is to say, painting in the round with the colour left out. Less severe than sculpture, it need not be less dignified; it is bound down by the conventions of low relief, and by compulsions of com- position and design, dependent on shape, from which sculpture, even when the relief is the lowest, is in a great measure free.' In the medal, otherwise than in sculpture, elaborate perspective and receding planes are not out of place. The genius of the modern Frenchman rebelled against the rule that commonly governed the medal during the decadence, and has triumphed in his revolt, justifying the practice by his success. The modern medal and the plaquette aim at being decorative yet vigorous, reticent and dignified, delicate and tender, graceful and pure; it may be, and often is, all these in turn. Imagination, fancy, symbolism, may always be brought into play, allied to a sense of form and colour, of arrangement and execution. By the demonstration of these qualities the artist is to be differentiated from the skilful, mechanical die-sinker, who spreads over the art the blight of his heavy and insensitive hand and brain. So with portraiture. Accurate likeness of feature as well as character and expression are now to be found in all fine works, such as are seized only by an artist of keenly sensitive tempera- ment. It is thus that he casts the events and the actions of to-day into metallic history, beautifully seen and exquisitely recorded; thus that the figure on the medal is no longer a mere sculpturesque symbol, but a thing of flesh and blood, suave and graceful in composition, and as pleasing in its purely decora- tive design as imagination can inspire or, example suggest. It is thus that the art, while offering easy means of permanent memorial, has afforded to men of restricted means the eagerly seized opportunity of forming small collections of masterpieces of art at a small outlay. France. — In France the example of Oudine\ coming after that of David d' Angers, did much to revolutionize the spirit animating the modern medallist, but Chapu, by his essentially modern treat- ment, did more. To Ponscarme (pupil of Oudine) is chiefly due the idea of rendering mat the ground as well as the subject on the medal, the suppression of the raised rim, and the abandonment of the typographic lettering hitherto in vogue, together with the mechanical regularity of its arrangement. Degeorge, with his semi-pictorial treatment, was followed by Daniel Dupuis, whose delicate and playful fancy, almost entirely pictorial, makes us forget alike the material and the die. J. C. Chaplain is unsurpassed as a modeller of noble heads, including those of four presidents of the French Republic — Macmahon, Casimir-Perier, Faure and Loubet — and his allegorical designs are finely imagined and admirably worked out (see Plate) ; but L. Oscar Roty (pupil of Ponscarme) is at the head of the whole modern school, not only by virtue of absolute mastery of the technique of his art, but also of his originality of arrangement, of the poetic charm of his symbolism and his allegories, the delicate fancy, the exquisite touch, the chasteness and purity of taste — wedding a modern sentiment to an obvious feeling for the Greek. Though expressly less virile than Chaplain, Roty is never effeminate. To Roty belongs the credit of having first revived the form of the plaquette, or rectangular medal, which had been aban- doned and forgotten along with many other traditions of the Renais- sance (see Plate). Alphee Dubois, Lagrange, and Borrel must be mentioned among those who are understood to engrave their own dies. Followers are to be found in Mouchon, Lechevrel, Vernon, Henri Dubois, Patey, Bottee (see Plate) — all sterling artists if not innovators. Medallists of more striking originality but less finish, and of far less elegance are Michel Cazin, Levillain (who loves as much as Bandinelli to make over-display of his knowledge of muscular anatomy), Charpentier, and their school, who aim at a manner which makes less demand of highly educated artistry such as that of Roty or of Chaplain. It is learned and accomplished in its way, but lumpy in its result; breadth is gained, but refinement and distinction are in a great measure lost. It may be added — to give some idea of the industry of the modern medallist, and the encouragement accorded to him — that between 1879 and 1900 M. Roty executed more than 150 pieces, each having an obverse and a reverse. Austria. — The two leading medallists of the Austrian school are Josef Tautenhayn (see Plate) and Anton Scharff, both highly accomplished, yet neither displaying the highest qualities of taste, ability and " keeping," which distinguishes the French masters. About 330 pieces have come from the hand,of Anton Scharff, Stefan Schwartz, Franz Pawlik, Staniek, Marschall and J. Tautenhayn, junior, are the only other artists who have risen to eminence. Germany. — A characteristically florid style is here cultivated, such as lends itself to the elaborate treatment of costume, armorial bearings, and the like; but delicacy, distinction, and the highest excellence in modelling and draughtsmanship — qualities which should accompany even the most vigorous or elaborate designs — are lack- ing in a great degree. Professors Hildebrand and Kowarzik have wrought some of the most artistic works there produced. Belgium. — Although sculpture so greatly flourishes in Belgium, medal work shows little promise of rivalling that of France. The influence of the three brothers Wiener (Jacques, Leopold and Charles) — good medallists of the old school — has not yet been shaken off. The remarkable architectural series by the first-named, and the coinage of the second, have little affinity with the spirit of the modern medal. Lemaire has perhaps done as well as any, followed by Paul Dubois, J. Dillens (a follower of the French), G. Devreese and Vingotte (see Plate)— whose plaquette for the Brussels Exhibition award (1887) is original, but more admirable in design than in finish. Holland. — In Holland not very much has been done. Patriotism has called forth many medals of Queen Wilhelmina, and the best of them are doubtless those of Bart van Hove and Wortman. Baars is a more virile artist, who follows Chaplain at a distance. Wienecke is interesting for the sake of his early Netherlandic manner; the incongruity is not unpleasant. Switzerland. — The medal is also popular in Switzerland. Here Bovy is the leader of the French ^adition and Hans Frei of a more national sentiment. The last-named, however, is more remarkable as a revivalist than as an original artist. Great Britain. — In England only two medallists of repute can be counted who practically confine themselves to their art — G. W. de Saulles, of the Royal Mint, best known by the Diamond Jubilee medal of Queen Victoria and by his medal of Sir Gabriel Stokes, and Frank Bowcher (see Plate) by that of Thomas Huxley. These artists both cut their own dies when necessary. Emil Fuchs, working in England in the manner of the French medallists, but with greater freedom than is the wont of the older school, has pro- duced several examples of the art: the medals commemorative of the South African War and of Queen Victoria (two versions), all of 1900 ; and many portrait medals and plaquettes of small size have come from the same hand. Besides these, the leading English sculptors have produced medals — Lord LeightOn, Sir Edward Poynter, Hamo Thornycroft, T. Brock, Onslow Ford, G. Framptbn and Goscombe John ; but, practising more continually in sculpture, they do not claim rank as medallists, nor have they sought to acquire that class of dexterity which constant habit alone can give. Alphonse Legros, who has cast a certain number of portrait medals, is usually included in the French school. United States. — Among American medallists Augustus St Qaudens (see Plate) is perhaps the most prominent; but he is not, strictly speaking, a medallist, but a sculptor who can model in the flat. Authorities. — F. Parkes Weber, Medals and Medallions of the ZQth Century relating to England by Foreign Artists (London, 1894); Roger Marx, " The Renaissance of the Medal in France," The Sluaw (vol. xv. 1898) ; M. H. Spielmann, " Frank Bowcher, Medallist, with some Comment on the Medallic Art," The Magazine of Art (February 1900) ; Spink & Son's Monthly Numismatic Circular {passim}, 1892 onwards (in English, French and German) ; Roger Marx, Les MSdailleurs francais depuis 1780 (Paris, 1897) ; Les Medailleurs francais contemporains (Plates) (Paris, 1899) ; La Monnaie it Paris a V Exposition Vniverselle (Paris, 1900) ; Cent ans de numis- matique francaise (2 vols., 1893-1895); F. Mazerolle, L. 0. Roty: Biographie et catalogue de son ozuvre (Paris, 1897); J- F. Chaplain: Biographie et catalogue de I'ceuvre (Paris, 1897) ; Dr H. J. de Domptere de Chaufepie, Les Medailles et plaquettes modernes (in Dutch and French) (Haarlem, 1897) ; A. R. v. Loehr, Wiener Medail- leure, i8qq. (Vienna, 1899); A. Lichtwark, " Die Wiedererweckunf der Medaine," Pan, 1895, pp. 34-40; 1896, pp. 311-318; Die Modern. Medaille (a monthly magazine, passim) (Vienna) ; L. Forrer, Bio- graphical Dictionary of Medallists, vol. i. A-D. (London, 1902). (M. H. S.) Medals as War Decorations Although the striking of medals to commemorate important events is a practice of considerable antiquity, yet the custom' of using the medai as a decoration, and especially as a decoratidil to do honour to those who have rendered service to the staW MEDAL Plate I. P**-'."" DUPLESSIS PLAQUETTE. Rotv. MAURICE ALBERT PORTRAIT. ROTY. STUDY. Rotv. WEDDING MEDAL. ROTY. BOULANGER PLAQUETTE. ROTY. AMBROISINE MERLIN From the Medal by Michel Cazin. 1 ~l^pll .'"4 • Pi tiftl •' ■ <««l ^*. -Jt* fp|jtfc jtPZ- ^ ^fcl^t. ^!^!^:.^" % ■ jit*' . "*"" * *. ' * ...... MEDALS AND PLAQUETTES. Jules Chaplain. PLATE II. MEDAL HENRI DUBOIS. MEDAL OF AWARD FOR THE COPE AND NICOL SCHOOL OF PAINTING. F. BoWCHER. FRANCE, 1870. ROTY. GOLD MEDAL, VIENNA 1894. By Joseph Tautenhayn. GREAT GOLD MEDAL, BRUSSELS, 1898. Designed by P. Wolfers. Engraved by V1N90TTE. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION, 18 By Louis Bottee. INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, CHICAGO, 1893. By Augustus St Gaudens. MEDAL in time of war, is comparatively modern. It has been supposed that the circular ornaments on the Roman standards had medals in their centres, but there is no evidence to show that this was the case, and the standards shown on the column of Trajan appear only to have had plain bosses in their centres. It is true that the Chinese are said to have used military medals during the Han dynasty (ist century A.D.), but, as far as the West is concerned, we have to come to the 16th century before we find the custom of wearing medals as decorations of honour a recognized institution. The wearing of decorative medals was common in England in the reign of Henry VIII., but the first medals commemorating a particular event that were evidently intended as a personal decoration, and were in all probability (though there is no absolute proof) bestowed as reward for military services rendered to the Crown, are the " Armada " medals of Queen Elizabeth, 1 588-1 589. Of these there are two. The earliest, generally styled the " Ark in flood " medal, is a large oval medal of silver (2 by 1-75 in.), and bears on the obverse a profile bust of the queen surrounded by the inscription, ELIZABETH D. G. ANGLIAE. F. ET HI. REG. On the reverse is an ark on waves, with above the rays of the sun, and around the legend, SAEVAS TRANQVILLA PER VNDAS. This medal dates from 1588, and in the following year there was given another medal, a little larger (2-3 by 2-1 in.) and struck in gold, silver and copper. The obverse of this second medal bore a full-face bust of Elizabeth, with the legend, characteristic both of the monarch and the period, DITIOR IN TOTO NON ALTER CIRCULUS ORBE. The reverse has an island around which ships are sailing and sea-monsters swimming, and on the island there are houses, a flourishing bay-tree, standing uninjured by a storm of wind, and lightning emerging from heavy clouds above. The island is inscribed NON IPSA PERICVLA TANGVNT. These medals are of special interest as demonstrating thus early the existence of a doctrine of sea-power. In fact, in the medals of James I. (1603-1625), none of which have a distinct reference to war services, the " ark in flood " design was again reproduced on the reverse, this time with the legend slightly altered, viz. STET SALVVS IN VNDIS. Other European nationalities were also about this period conferring decorative medals as a reward for war services, as for example, the " Medal to Volunteers " issued in Holland in 162 2-1.623 and the " Military Medal of Gustavus Adolphus " issued in Sweden in 1630. Here it may be noted that in follow- ing the history of medals as used as a decoration to reward military services, only those of British origin need be dealt with in detail, since Great Britain has utilized them in a much greater degree than any other nationality. The countless minor wars of the 19th century, waged by the forces of the Crown of every class, navy, army and auxiliary, have no equiva- lent in the history of other states, even in that of France, the United States and Russia. The great wars of the 19th century were divided by long intervals of peace, and the result is that with most of the great military powers the issue of campaign medals has been on a small scale, and in the main decorations have taken the form of " Orders " (see Knighthood and Chivalry: Orders), or purely personal decorations for some meritorious or exemplary service. During the reign of Charles I. (1625-1649), we come across numerous medals and badges; a considerable number of these were undoubtedly associated with, and given, even system- atically given, as rewards for war services; for a royal warrant " given at our Court of Oxford, the eighteenth day of May, 1643," which directed " Sir William Parkhurst, Knight, and Thomas Bushell, Esquire, Wardens of our Mint, to provide from time to time certain Badges of silver, containing our Royal image, and that of our dearest son, Prince Charles, to be delivered to wear on the breast of every man who shall be certified under the hands of their Commanders-in-Chief to have done us faithful service in the Forlorn-hope." From the foregoing it must not be deduced that this medal was in any way intended to reward special valour. In those days " forlorn-hopes " were not volunteers for some desperate enterprise, as to-day, but a tactical advanced guard which naturally varied, both in numbers and arm of the service, according to ground and circumstances. That a very free distribution of the award was contemplated is evident from the fact that " soldiers " alone were specified as recipients and that a clause was inserted in the warrant strictly forbidding the sale of the medal. This letter ran: — " And we do, therefore, • most straitly command, that no soldier at any time do sell, nor any of our subjects presume to buy, or wear, any of these said Badges, other than they to whom we shall give the same, and that under such pain and punishment as our Council of War shall think fit to inflict, if any shall presume to offend against this our Royal command." As there are in existence several medals of this period which bear the effigies of both the king and Prince Charles, it is uncertain which in particular was used for the " forlorn-hope " award. Very probably it is one, an oval silver-gilt medal (1-7 by 1-3 in.) which bears on the obverse a three-quarters (r.) bust of Charles I., and on the reverse a profile (1.) bust of Prince Charles (see Mayo, Medals and Decorations of the British Army and Navy, vol. 1. No. 16, Plate 5, No. 3). During the Commonwealth (1649-1660), parliament was lavish in the award of medals in recognition of war services, and for the first time we find statutory provision made for their bestowal as naval awards, in the shape of acts of parliament passed Feb. 22, 1648 and April 7, 1649 (cap. 12, 1648 and cap. 21, 1649), and Orders in Council of May 8 and Nov. 19 and 21, 1649, and Dec. 20, 1652. There is no doubt whatever that there was a " Medal of the Parliament " for sea service issued in 1649. This medal, oval (-95 by -85 in.) and struck in gold and silver, had on the obverse an anchor, from the stock of which are suspended two shields, one bearing the cross of St George, and the other the Irish harp. The motto is MERVISTI. On the anchor stock, T. S. 1 The reverse has on it the House of Commons with the Speaker in the chair. This medal is referred to in a minute of the Council of State of Nov. 15, 1649: — " (5) That the Formes of the medalls which are now brought in to be given to the severall Mariners who have done good service this last Sumer be approved off, viz': the Armes of the Cofhon wealth on one side with Meruisti written above it, and the picture of the House of Cofnons on the other." That there was a " Medal of the Parliament " for land service as well, is proved by the following extract from the Journals of the House of Commons (vii. 6, 7) : — " Resolved, That a Chain of Gold, with the Medal of the Parlia- ment, to the Value of One Hundred Pounds, be sent to Colonel Mackworth, Governor of Shrewsbury, as a mark of the Parliament's Favour, and good acceptance of his fidelity: And that the Council of State do take care for the providing the same, and sending it forth- with." This order was duly carried out, as is shown in the minutes of the Council of State, June 2 and July 30, 1652, but there is no trace to-day of either medal or chain. It is not un- likely that this medal is one figured at page 117 of Evelyn's Numismata (the engraving, unnumbered, is placed between* Nos. 39 and 40, and there is no allusion to it in the text), which has On the obverse a representation of the parliament, and on the reverse a bust of the Protector with a camp and troops in the background. The most splendid of all the naval awards of this period were those given for the three victories over the Dutch in 1653, namely: — 1 Thomas Simon, master and chief graver of the mint. Most of the medals of this period were his work, and they are considered to be amongst the best specimens of the medallic art that have been produced in the country. MEDAL i. The fight of Feb. 18/20, when Blake, Deane and Monk defeated Van Tromp and De Ruyter, the battle beginning off Portland and ending near Calais; (2) the fight of June 2 and 3, off the Essex coast, when Monk, Deane (killed), Penn and Blake, again defeated Van Tromp and De Ruyter; (3) the fight of 31st of July off the Texel, in which Monk, Penn and Lawson beat Van Tromp in what was the decisive action of the war. The authorization for these awards will be found recorded in the Journals of the House of Commons (vii. 296, 297), under date Aug. 8, 1653. The medals, all oval, and in gold, were given in three sizes, as described below: — A (2-2 by 2 in.). Only four of these medals were issued, to Admirals Blake and Monk, each with a gold chain of the value of £300, and to Vice-Admiral Penn and Rear-Admiral Lawson, each with a gold chain of the value of £100. On the obverse is an anchor, from the stock of which are suspended three shields, bearing respectively St George's cross, the saltire of St Andrew, and the Irish harp, the whole encircled by the cable of the anchor. On the reverse is depicted a naval battle with, in the foreground, a sinking ship. Both obverse and reverse have broad, and very handsome, borders of naval trophies, and on the obverse side this border has imposed upon it the arms of Holland and Zeeland. Of these four medals three are known to be in existence. One, lent by the warden and fellows of Wadham College, Oxford (Blake, it may be noted, was a member of Wadham College) was exhibited at the Royal Naval Exhibi- tion of 1891. A second is in the royal collection at Windsor Castle. The third, with its chain, is in the possession of the family of Stuart of Tempsford House, Bedfordshire. This latter medal is known to have been the one given to Vice- Admiral Penn, an ancestor of the Stuart family. The one at Windsor is presumably Blake's, as Tancred states " the medal given to Blake was purchased for William IV. at the price of 150 guineas (Tancred, Historical Records of Medals, p. 30). The medal at Wadham was formerly in Captain Hamilton's collection. He purchased it at a low figure, but secrecy was kept as to the owner, and the original chain that was with it went into the melting-pot: there is therefore nothing to show whether it was Monk's or Lawson's, as the chain would have done. It was sold at Sotheby's in May 1882 for £305. B (2 by i-8 in.). Four of these medals were issued, each with a gold chain of the value of £40, to the " Flag Officers," i.e. to the flag captains who commanded the four flag-ships. The obverse and reverse of this medal are, with the exception of the borders, precisely as in (A). The borders on both sides are a little narrower than those of (A), and of laurel instead of trophies. One of these medals — that given to Captain William Haddock, who was probably Monk's flag-captain in the " Van- guard," in the February fight, as he had been in that ship in the previous year, and who commanded the " Hannibal," (44) in the June battle — is now (1909) in the possession of Mr C. D. Holworthy, who is maternally descended from Captain Haddock. C (i-6 by 1-4 in.). This medal is precisely the same as (B). but has no border of any kind, and also was issued without the gold chains. It was in all probability one that was issued in some numbers to the captains and other senior officers of the fleet. Some of these medals have in the plate of the reverse an inscription: FOR EMINENT SERVICE IN SAVING Y TRIUMPH FIERED IN FIGHT WH Y DVCH IN JULY 1653. The medal so inscribed was given only to those who served in the " Triumph," and commemorates a special service. Blake, incapacitated by wounds received in the fight of February, took no part in this action, but his historic flag-ship, the " Triumph," formed part of the fleet) and early in the battle was fired by the Dutch fire-ships. Many of the crew threw themselves overboard in a panic, but those who remained on board succeeded by the most indomitable and heroic efforts in subduing the flames, and so saving the vessel. But undoubtedly the most interesting of all the medals of the Commonwealth period, is that known as the " Dunbar Medal," authorized by parliament, Sept. 10, 1650, in a resolu- tion of which the following is an extract : — "Ordered, that it be referred to the Committee of the Army, to consider what Medals may be prepared, both for Officers and Soldiers, that were in this Service in Scotland; and set the Proportions and Values of them, and their number; and present the Estimate of them to the House. (Journals of the House of Commons, vi. 464-465.) So came into being, what, in a degree, may be regarded as the prototype of the " war medal " as we know it to-day, for the " Dunbar Medal" is the very earliest that we know was issued to all ranks alike, to the humblest soldiers as well as to the commander-in-chief. It differed however in one very material point from the war medal of to-day — in that it was issued in two sizes, and in several different metals. There is no evidence to show what Was the method that governed the issue of this medal; but the medal itself undoubtedly varied in size or metal, or both, according to the rank of the recipient. Of the two sizes in which the medal was issued the smaller, 1 by -85 in. was apparently intended for seniors in the respective grades, for it was struck in gold, silver and copper. The larger, 1-35 by 1-15 in. was struck in silver, copper and lead (see Mayo. op. cit. i. 20-21). 1 On the obverse of both issues of the " Dunbar Medal " is a left profile bust of Oliver Cromwell, with, in the distance, a battle. The reverse of the larger medal has the parliament assembled in one House with the Speaker; and, on the left, a member standing addressing the chair. The reverse of the smaller medal is the same as that of the larger, except that the member addressing the House is omitted. Cromwell himself expressed a wish to the " Com- mittee of the Army, at London," in a letter dated the 4th of February 1650/51, that his likeness, to procure which accurately the committee had sent Mr Simon to Scotland, should not appear on the medal. He writes: — " If my poor opinion may not be rejected by you, I have to offer to which I think the most noble end, to witt, The Commemoracon of that great Mercie att Dunbar, and the Gratuitie to the Army, which might be better expressed upon the Medall, by engraving, as on the one side the Parliament which I hear was intended and will do singularly well, so on the other side an Army, with this inscription over the head of it, The Lord of Hosts which was our Word that day. Wherefore, if I may beg it as a favour from you, I most earnestly beseech you, if I may do it without offence, that it may be soe. And if you think not ntt to have it as I offer, you may alter it as you see cause ; only I doe think I may truly say, it will be very thankfully acknowledged by me, if you will spare the having my Effigies in it." In spite of this request Cromwell's " Effigies " is made the prominent feature of the obverse of the medal, to which the representation of the " Army " is entirely subordinated. His wish that the " word " for the day should be commemorated is, however, observed in the legend on the obverse, as is also, on the reverse, his suggestion that on one side of the medal there should be a representation of the parliament. During the reign of Charles II. the issue of medals was numer- ous, and though we have it on the authority of Evelyn that many of these were bestowed as "gratuities of respect," yet many were given as naval awards; and, for the first time, there appears official authorization for the conferring of particu- lar awards on those who had succeeded in the very hazardous service of destroying an enemy's vessel by the use of fire-ships. In what are probably the earliest " Fighting Instructions " issued- — those of Sir William Penn, in 1653, and again in an abridged form in 1655 — no allusion to these awards is made, but that the custom of rewarding this special service prevailed, there is a piece of strong indirect evidence to show, in the shape of an amusing letter from a certain Captain Cranwill, of " ye Hare Pinke," to the Admiralty Committee, dated Feb. 4, 1655:— 1 An excellent reproduction of this medal, both obverse and re- verse, is given in Plate 8, figs. 4 and 5, of the same work, and pa Plate 9 will be found equally well reproduced facsimiles of the three medals for " Victories over the Dutch, 1653," figs. 1, 2 and 3 and of the " Medal of the Parliament, for Sea Service, 1649," fig. r. MEDAL 5 " As for ye Pay yor Honrs were please to order mee for my service in ye Hare Pinke, I return most humble thankes, and am ready to serve yor Honrs and my Country for ye future Fpr though ye Hare be mewsed in ye sand yet Cranwell at your mercy still doth stand A fire Ship now doth hee Crave, And the Fox fain would he Have, then has hee had both Fox and Hare, then Spanish Admirall stand you cleare, For Cranwell means ye Chaine of goold to ware ; Sett penn to paper it is done, for Cranwell still will be your man," aD of which goes to show that it had not been unusual to bestow gold chains, with or without medals, on the captains of fire- ships. By the " Fighting Instructions" issued 20th of April, 1665, by James, duke of York, lord high admiral, it was pro- vided as follows. In the case of the destruction of an enemy's vessel of forty guns or more, each person remaining on board the fire-ship till the service was performed was to receive £10, " on board ye Admirall imediately after ye service done," and the captain a gold medal and " shuth other future encourage- ment by preferment and commande as shall be fitt both to reward him and induce others to perform ye like Service." If it was a flag-ship that was fired " ye Recompense in money shall be doubled to each man performing itt, and ye medall to ye Commander shall be shuth as shall particularly ezpress ye Eminensye of ye . Service, and his with ye other officers preferement shalbe suitable to ye meritt of itt." This was followed by an " Oder of the King in Council " dated Whitehall 12th of January 1669-1670, in which the lord high admiral is authorized " to distribute a Medall and Chaine to such Captaines of Fire Shipps as in the last Dutch Warr have burnt any Man of Warr, as also to any of them that shall perform any such service in the present Warr with Algiers. Which Medalls and Chaines are to be of the price of Thirty Pounds each or thereabouts " To complete the story of fire-ship awards, it may here be noted (though out of chronological order) that in 1703 revised " Fighting Instructions " were issued by Admiral Sir George Rocke, in which it was provided that the captain was to have his choice between a gratuity of £100, or a gold medal and chain of that value. Lastly an order of the king in council, dated, St James's, 16th of December, 1742, ordered that all lieutenants of fire-ships (which originally carried, no officers of this rank) should be entitled to a gratuity of £50 " in all cases where the Captain is entituled to the Reward of £100." Though probably others were conferred, so thorough an investi- gator as the late John Horsley Mayo, for many years assistant military secretary at the India office, who had special opportun- ities of access to official records,. traced but three authenticated fire-ship awards. Those were: (1) to Captain John Guy, who blew up his fire-ship the " Vesuvius " under the walls of St Malo in 1693; (2) to Captain Smith Callis who, with his fire- ship the " Duke," in 1742, destroyed five Spanish galleys which had put into St Tropez, to the eastward of Marseilles; (3) to Captain James Wooldridge, who commanded the British fire-ships in Aix Roads on the nth of April 1809, when four French sail of the line were burnt. This latter is believed to be the last award of the kind that was issued. Fire-ships awards are of special interest as affording a precedent, in future naval wars, for the award of special decorations for torpedo services. It is in this reign also that we first find a case of medals being granted by the Honourable East India Company. The earliest of these would appear to have been a gold medal of the value of £20, conferred on Sir George Oxinden, president at Sural, 1622-1669, in 1668, for considerable civil and military services. Surat was then and until 1687, when Bombay took its place, the seat of government of the Western Presidency, and the most eminent of Sir George's services was the defence of the Company's treasures and possessions at that place against Sivajee and the Mahrattas in 1664. It is not known what has become of this medal, but there is indirect evidence to show that it was a circular medal, three inches in diameter. On the obverse the "Arms of the Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading to the East Indies, with creast, supporters, and mottoes," and around the legend NON MINOR EST VIRTVS QUAM QVAERERE PARTA TVERI. The reverse was probably blank to admit of an inscription. This award was the forerunner of many given by the H.E.I. Co., several of which were " general distributions " of the very highest interest, which will be dealt with together later on. The awards made in the reigns of James II., William and Mary, William III., Anne, George I., George II., may be very briefly dealt with. Almost without an exception they were either naval or conferred by the Hon. East India Company, and with only perhaps one or two exceptions, they were " per- sonal " as distinct from " general " awards. Of the very few medals awarded by James II., one was an undoubted military award, though curiously enough the recipient was a bishop. This was Peter Mew, who had been made bishop of Bath and Wells in 1672, was translated to Winchester 1684, " and next year was commanded by the king, in compliance with the re- quest of the gentry of Somerset, to go against Monmouth, and did eminent service at the battle of Sedgmoor, where he managed the artillery; for which he was rewarded with a rich medal " (Hutchins's History of Dorset, 3rd ed., vol. iv. p. 149). The possible exceptions in the way of a " general " distribu- tion of a medal during the reigns under review are the cases of the medals struck after the battles of La Hogue, 1692, and Culloden, 1746. By an act of parliament passed in 1692 (4 Gul. and Mar. c. 25), it was enacted that a tenth part of the prize money taken by the navy should be set apart " for Medalls and other Rewards for Officers, Mariners, and Seamen in their Majesties Service at Sea who shall be found to have done any signal or extraordinary service." (Later a Royal Declaration of Queen Anne, the 1st of June 1702, provided that all medal and monetary awards " shall be also paid out of Her Majesties Shares of Prizes.") This is the first case in naval records authorizing the issue of medals to men as well as to officers, and the conferring of the "La Hogue" medal was the first case in which the enactment was carried into effect, at any rate as far as admirals and officers are concerned. Seamen and soldiers had a more substantial reward, for the queen sent £30,000 to be distributed amongst them, whilst gold and silver medals were struck for the admirals and officers. The medal, which was circular, 1-95 in. in diameter, had on the obverse the busts conjoined of William and Mary, r., with around GVL ET MAR D G M B F ET H REX ET REGINA. On the reverse was a representation of the fight, showing the French flag-ship, " Le Soleil Royal," in flames, with above the legend, NOX NVLLA SECVTA EST, and, in the exergue, PVGN NAV INT ANG ET FR 21 MAY 1692. As regards the medal struck after Culloden, fought on the 1 6th of April 1746, and in which the adherents of the young Pretender were completely routed, there is nothing even to show that it was issued even by the authority of the government, though it was undoubtedly worn, and (if a contemporary portrait is to be relied upon, that of an ancestor of Mr W. Chandos-Pole of Radbourne Hall in Derbyshire) around the neck attached to a crimson ribbon with a green edge. There is no doubt it was struck in gold, silver and copper, but how it was awarded there is no proof, probably only to officers. The obverse had an r., bust of the duke of Cumberland, with above CUMBER- LAND, below YEO f (Richard Yeo fecit), and, on the reverse, an Apollo, laureate, leaning upon his bow and pointing to a dragon wounded by his arrow. The reverse legend was ACTUM EST ILICET PERIIT, and, in the exergue PROEL COLOD AP XVI MDCCXLVI. The medal is a strikingly handsome one, with an ornamental border and ring for suspension, oval, 1-75 by 1 -45 in., but very few specimens are known to exist. Those in gold were probably only given to officers commanding regiments and a very fine specimen of these, originally conferred on Brigadier-General Fleming (at one time in command of the 36th Foot) is now in the collection of Major-General Lord MEDAL Cheylesmore. In his monograph, Naval and Military Medals, Lord Cheylesmore mentions another " Culloden " medal in his collection, " a slightly larger one in white metal, which leads one to suppose that it was given in inferior metal to the more junior branches, probably officers; but whether this was the case or no I am unable authoritatively to state." However, one thing is fairly certain, that the issue of the " Culloden " medal was in no sense " general," as we now understand the term, nor as were the issues for " Dunbar " or the issues of the Honourable East India Company, which will next be dealt with. No medal awards were made to either the naval or military services for the Seven Years' War, and the American War of Independence. In fact George III. had been more than thirty years on the throne when the first medal award by the Crown was given, in the shape of the navy gold medals, first issued in 1 794. It will however be more convenient to deal later with these medals and the army gold medals and crosses given for services in the long and arduous struggle of 1793-1815, and to describe here in sequence those medals which were issued by the Honourable East India Company, the issue of which was, with certain limitations, " general," thus reverting to the precedent first established in the " Dunbar " award-, namely an issue to all ranks. They are nine in number, and are described below in the chronological order of the military operations for which they were awarded. 1. The " DECCAN " medal. Authorized, first in 1784, and again 1785. Obverse: Figure of Britannia seated on a military trophy, with her right hand holding a wreath of laurel and extended towards a fortress over which the British flag flies. Reverse: Persian in- scriptions — In centre, " Presented by the Calcutta Government in memory of good service and intrepid valour, a.d. 1784, a.h. i 199 ;" around, " Like this coin may it endure in the world, and the exer- tions of those lion-hearted Englishmen of great name, victorious from Hindostan to the Deccan, become exalted." This medal was issued in two sizes, diameters i-6 and 1-25 in. The larger medal was struck both in gold and silver, the smaller in silver only, and both were worn round the neck suspended from a yellow cord. This medal was awarded to two large detachments of the Bengal army, denominated the " Bombay Detachment "(authorized 1784), and the " Carnatic Detachment " (authorized 1785), which respectively fought in the west of India and Guzerat, 1778-84, and in the south of India, 1780-84. The medal was not given to any Europeans, only to natives; the larger medal in gold to Subadars, and in silver to Jemadars; the smaller silver medal to non-commissioned officers and sepoys. By a minute of council, dated the 15th of July 1784, a further boon was granted to the " Bombay Detachment," inasmuch as it exempted all Hindus of that detachment from payment of the duties levied by the authorities on pilgrims to Coya in Behar. As the large majority of the troops were high caste Hindus, and Coya was, and is the Mecca of Hinduism, this favour must have been much appreciated by the recipients of the medal. This is the earliest Anglo-Indian example of a medal issued alike to all ranks. 2. The "MYSORE" medal. Authorized, 1793. Obverse: A sepoy holding in his right hand the British colours, in his left an enemy's standard reversed, whilst his left foot rests on a dismounted cannon. A fortified town is in the background. Reverse: Within a wreath; "For Services in Mysore, a.d. 1791-1792." Between wreath and rim is an inscription in Persian: " A memorial of devoted services to the English government at the war of Mysore. Christian Era, 1791-1792, equivalent to the Mahomedan Era, 1205-1206." Like the " Deccan ' this medal was in two sizes, diameters 17 in. and 1*5 in., the larger being struck both in gold and silver, the smaller in silver only, and both were worn suspended from the neck by a yellow cord. The medal was awarded for the operations against Tippoo Sultan, and was bestowed on the " Native Officers and Sepoys of the Infantry and Cavalry, and on the Artillery Lascars, who either marched by land, or proceeded by sea to the Carnatic and returned to Bengal. The large gold medals were given to Subadars, the large silver to " Jemadars and Serangs," the small silver medals to " Havildars, Naicks, Tindals, Sepoys and Lascars." The award therefore, followed precisely the precedent set in the " Deccan " medal. One of the very rare gold specimens of this medal is in the collection of Captain Whitaker, late 5th Fusiliers, whose collection, and that of Lord Cheylesmore, are probably the two finest that have as yet been brought together. 3. The " CEYLON " medal. Authorized, 1807. Obverse: An English inscription: " For Services on the Island of Ceylon, a.d. 1795-6." Reverse: A Persian inscription: "This Medal was presented to commemorate good services in Ceylon during the years of the Hegira 1209-10." This medal was issued in only one size, 2 in. diameter, and was awarded to a small force of Bengal native artillery which formed a fraction of a large body of British and native troops (the rest did not receive the medal) which captured Ceylon from the Dutch in 1795-96. It is the only instance of a war medal that has merely a verbal design on both obverse and reverse, and moreover it sets a precedent that was destined to be followed only too often in that it was only granted twelve years after the services that had earned it had been rendered. Only 123 medals were struck, two in gold for native officers, and 121 in silver for other ranks. Like the two preceding, it was worn from the neck suspended from a yellow cord. 4. The "SERINGAPATAM "medal. Authorized, 1799, for services in Lord Harris's campaign of that year, and the storm of Seringa- patam. Obverse: A representation of the storming of the breach at Seringapatam, with the meridian sun denoting the time of the storm. In the exergue is a Persian inscription: "The Fort of Seringapatam, the gift of God, the 4th May 1799." Reverse: A British lion overcoming a tiger, the emblem of Tippoo Sultan. Above is a standard, with, in the innermost part of the hoist im- mediately contiguous to the staff, the Union badge, and, in the fly, an Arabic legend signifying " The Lion of God is the Conqueror." Intheexergue: IV. MAY, MDCCXCIX. (the date of the assault). It was in one size, 1-9 in. but of five different kinds. Although the medal was authorized in 1799, it was 1801 before orders, for the preparation of 30 gold medals, 185 silver-gilt, 850 silver, 5006 copper bronzed, and 45,000 pure tin, were given, the artist being C. H. Kuchler, and the medals made by Matthew Boulton at the Soho Mint, Birmingham. It was 1808 before they came out to India for distribution, and it was not till 1815 that the Company's European officers had the prince regent's sanction to wearing them on public occasions. For the first time the issue was absolutely " general," to Europeans as well as natives, to Crown troops as well as to those of the H.E.I. Co., but it was not till 1851, when the First India G.S. Medal was awarded, that official sanction was given to their being worn by Europeans in uniform. The medal was given in gold to general officers, in silver-gilt to field officers, in silver to captains and subalterns, in copper bronzed to non-commissioned officers, and in pure grain tin to privates and sepoys. With regard to this medal there ,is an incident that is worth recording. The bulk of the troops engaged at Seringapatam were Crown forces, or belonged to the Madras and Bombay presidencies; the only Bengal troops taking part being five battalions of infantry, and artillery detachments. On their return to Bengal no steps were taken with regard to medals till 1807, when medals copied from the Soho Mint one, but 1-8 in. only in diameter, were made at the Calcutta Mint. Following the Bengal precedents as set in the " Deccan," " Mysore " and " Ceylon " medals, the medals were struck in gold for officers, and in silver for the other ranks. A Bengal native officer therefore wore just the same medal as a general officer of any of the other forces, and similarly a Bengal sepoy wore the same medal as a British captain or subaltern of the Crown. The Bengal medal can easily be distinguished from the others, for in the reverse the artist s initials C.H.K. are rendered "C.5I.H." Some officers, amongst them Lord Harris himself and h'is second-in-command Sir David Baird, wore the medal with the red, blue-bordered ribbon, which is the same as that worn with the Army Gold Medal (see below) and was in fact the only authorized military ribbon then in use; but though no ribbon was issued with the medal, recipients were given to understand that the ribbon would be of a deep maize colour and watered, the shading on the ribbon symbolizing the stripes in the fur of the tiger, Tippoo Sultan's favourite emblem. The duke of Wellington's medal (silver gilt), has the maize (or yellow as it is often termed) ribbon, and the medal was undoubtedly more generally worn with this ribbon than with, the red and blue one. There are also apparently occasional instances of it having been worn with a plain red ribbon. 5. The "EGYPT" medal. Authorized, 1802. Obverse: A Sepoy holding the Union Flag in his right hand ; in the background a camp. In exergue, in Persian: " This medal has been presented in commemoration of the defeat of the French Army in Egypt by the victorious and brave English Army." Reverse: A British ship sailing towards the coast of Egypt. In the background, an obelisk and four pyramids. In the exergue, MDCCCI. This medal was only awarded to native officers and men of the small force of Bengal and Bombay troops which formed part of the expeditionary force from India, that co-operated in Sir Ralph Abercromby's descent on Egypt in 1801 (see Baird, Sir David). This was another case of a belated issue (181 1 for the Bengal troops and two years later for the Bombay troops). The medal was issued in only one size, 1-9 in. in diameter. For the Bengal troops 776 medals were struck, 16 in gold for commissioned officers, 760 in silver for other ranks. The Bombay government obtained the approval of the court of directors for the issue of the medal to their troops in 1803, but apparently did nothing till 1812, when they asked the Calcutta Mint for a copy of the medal to enable them to prepare similar ones. The Bombay Mint would not however appear to have been equal to the occasion, for the sample was returned to Calcutta with the request that 1439 medals might be struck there. This was accordingly done, but ail of these medals were made of silver, and so the medal went to the Bombay troops in all ranks alike. As in the case of the " Deccan " medal, Hindu sepoys, who had volunteered for Egypt, were exempted from the duties levied on pilgrims. This medal was worn suspended from the neck by a yellow cord. MEDALS AND DECORATIONS Plate I. Z O a § o > « m a OS B fa O s I 4 PI - ••i»:; tlj -^ .$1'*l 1 it,,. ..... >.",-; If ""•'......jf h"lj * as ■a ■i 09 IS ■ r ■iJ 2~ I 33 ■ »ip « ■■! » . . . . ■ . » ' 2* 5 I 1 B a M 9 ! | 3 -3 MEDALS AND DECORATIONS Plate I. ifiiiiJFtBii o < 55 § *-3 o > o 25 OS fa W fa o s * I'! fS 18. Baltic, 1854-55. — Awarded by Queen Victoria, 1856- Ob- verse : Head of Queen Victoria as in First China Medal. Reverse : Britannia seated and holding a trident in her right hand. In the background forts. Above, BALTIC. In exergue, 1854-1855. Ribbon: Yellow, with pale blue borders (Plate I.). Clasps: Nil. This award, notified by Admiralty Order, June 5, 1856, was granted " to the officers and crews of Her Majesty's ships, as well as to such officers and Men of Her Majesty's Army as were employed in the operations in the Baltic in the years 1854 and 1855." The medal is, of course, practically a naval one, but two officers and ninety-nine men of the Royal Engineers were employed in the expedi- tion, especially at Bomarsund, and received it. 19. Turkish Crimea Medal. — Awarded by the Sultan, 1856. Obverse: A trophy composed of a field piece, a mortar, and an anchor, the field piece standing on the Russian Imperial Standard, and having a map of the Crimea spread over the wheel and breech. Behind are the Turkish, British, French and Sardinian flags. The flag of the nation to which the recipient belonged is in the front with that of Turkey, the flags of the other two nationalities behind. In exergue, " Crimea 1855," " La Crimee 1855," or " La Crimea 1855," according as to whether the medal was intended for British, French or Sardinian recipients. Reverse: The Sultan's cypher, below, in Turkish, "Crimea," and the year of the Hegira, 1271. Ribbon: Crimson watered, with bright green edges (Plate I.). Clasps: Nil. This medal was distributed to all of the Allied Forces, both naval and military, which shared in the operations in the Black Sea and the Crimea. As the ship that conveyed a majority of the English medals was sunk, the remainder were issued indiscriminately, and a large number of the British received medals which were originally intended either for the French or Sardinians. 1 20. Arctic, 181 8-1 855 (First Arctic). — Awarded by Queen Victoria, 1857. Obverse: Head of Queen Victoria, wearing a tiara. Legend, VICTORIA REGINA. Reverse: A ship blocked in the ice, icebergs to right and left, and in foreground a sledging party. Above, FOR ARCTIC DISCOVERIES. In exergue, 1818-1855. Ribbon: White (Plate II.). Clasps: Nil. This award was first notified in an Admiralty Notice dated, January 30, 1857. It was given to the crews of Her Majesty's ships employed in Arctic exploration, and also " to the officers of the French Navy, and to such volunteers as accompanied those expeditions "; also to those engaged in expeditions " equipped by the government and citizens of the United States ": also to the " commanders and crews of the several expeditions which originated in the zeal and humanity of Her Majesty's subjects ": and finally to those who served " in the several land expeditions, whether equipped by Her Majesty's government, by the Hudson's Bay Company, or from private resources." The medal is worn on the left breast and takes rank as a war medal. It is octagonal in shape, I -3 in., and has affixed to the upper edge a five-pointed star to which is attached a ring for suspension. The head of the queen, which is the work of L. C. Wyon, has never been reproduced on any other medal. 21. Indian Mutiny, 1857-58. — Awarded by the Government of India, 1858. Obverse: Head of Queen Victoria as on First China Medal. Reverse: Britannia standing facing left with a lion on her right side ; her right arm is extended holding out a wreath ; on her left arm is the Union shield, and in her left hand a wreath. Above, INDIA. In exergue, 1857-1858. Ribbon: White, with two red stripes, forming five i-inch stripes (Plate I.). Clasps: DELHI (May 30 to Sep. 14, 1857); DEFENCE OF LUCKNOW (June 29 to Sep. 25, 1857); RELIEF OF LUCKNOW (Nov., 1857); LUCK- NOW (March 2 to 21, 1858); CENTRAL INDIA (Jan. to June 1858). The grant of this award was first notified in a despatch from the Court of Directors to the Government which stated that " the Queen has been graciously pleased to command that a Medal shall be granted to the troops in the Service of Her Majesty, and of the East India Company, who have been, or may be, employed in the suppression of the Mutiny in India." This is the last medal given by the Honourable East India Company. The medal without clasp was awarded to all, including civilians, who had taken part in operations against the mutineers or rebels, and with the clasps enumerated above to those who shared in the operations specified. Some two or three artillery men are known to have received the medal with the clasps " Delhi," " Relief of Lucknow," " Luck- now " and " Central India." The medal with three clasps, viz. " Delhi," " Relief of Lucknow " and " Lucknow " was given only to the 9th Lancers and the Bengal Horse Artillery, and of course 1 In addition to this award the French emperor sent five hundred of the French " Military Medal," to be distributed amongst specially selected non-commissioned officers and men of the army and Royal Marines, and petty officers and seamen of the Royal Navy. Only two of these medals were given to officers, viz. the duke of Cambridge and Sir William Codrington, the latter being presented by Pelissier with his own medal. The king of Sardinia also distributed 450 medals to tbe British forces, of which 50 were given to the Royal Navy and Royal Marines, and 243 to officers and 157 to non-com- missioned officers and privates of the army. various officers who served on the staff, as, for example, Field Marshals Earl Roberts and Sir Henry Norman. With regard to the Royal Navy and Royal Marines, the " Shannon's " brigade, under Captain Peel, received the medal with one, or both, of the clasps " Relief of Lucknow," " Lucknow," the " Pearl's " brigade, under Captain Sotheby received the medal without clasp. This is the last medal that had on it the beautiful head of Queen Victoria which was first used for the China Medal of 1842, and of which W. Wyon, R.A., was the artist. 22. Abyssinia, 1867-68. — Awarded by Queen Victoria, 1868. Obverse: Bust of Queen Victoria, with diadem and veil; around an indented border, between the nine points of which are the letters A.B.Y.S.S.I.N.I.A. Reverse: Within a beaded circle the name of recipient, his corps, regiment or ship, the whole surrounded with a wreath of laurel. Ribbon: Red, with broad white borders Plate I.). Clasps: Nil. The sanction of this award is to be found in a letter from Sir J. S. Pakington, secretary of state for war, to H.R.H. the duke of Cambridge, field-marshal commanding-in-chief, which notifies the queen's pleasure " that a medal be granted to all Her Majesty's Forces and Indian Forces, Naval and Military, employed in the operations in Abyssinia, which resulted in the capture of Magdala." In all 20,000 medals were struck. The medal is smaller than the usual, i\ in. in diameter, and it is surmounted by an Imperial Crown, and a large silver ring for suspension. It is altogether an unusual type of medal, and in the use of an indented border it follows a very old precedent, that of a medal commemorating the victory of Valens over Procopius, A. n. 365. (See Les Medallions de I' 'empire romain, by W. Froehner, Paris, 1878). The artists responsible for this medal are Joseph S. Wyon and Alfred B. Wyon, and this bust of the queen is reproduced on only one other medal, the New Zealand. 23. New Zealand, 1845-47, 1860-66. — Awarded by Queen Victoria, 1869. Obverse: Bust of Queen Victoria as on Abyssinia medal, but larger. Legend : VICTORIA D :G :BRITT : REG :F :D : Reverse: Dated, within a wreath of laurel, according to the period in which the recipient served. Above, NEW ZEALAND; below, VIRTUTIS HONOR. Ribbon: Blue, with a broad red stripe down centre (Plate I.). Clasps: Nil. The grant of this award to the Army was notified in an Army Order, dated March 1, 1869, and its extension to the Royal Navy and Royal Marines by an Admiralty Order, dated June 3, 1869. Owing to incompleteness in the returns many medals were issued undated. The dates on the reverse, in those issued dated, varied considerably; for the First Maori War, the medal was issued to the Army with one, and to the Navy with five different dates; for the Second Maori War, the medal was issued to the Army with twenty- one, and to the Navy with five different dates. No medal was dated 1862, though many of the Army medals bore date of a period covering that year, although no naval medals did. 24. West Africa, 1873-1900. — Awarded (originally as the " Ash- antee " medal) by Queen Victoria in 1874, with the exception of the last issue, with clasp " 1900," which was awarded by H.M. King Edward VII. Obverse: Head of Queen Victoria, with diadem, and veil behind, by L. C. Wyon. Legend: VICTORIA REGINA. Reverse: British soldiers fighting savages in thick bush, by Sir E. J. Poynter. Ribbon: Yellow, with black borders, and two narrow black stripes (Plate II.). Clasps: COOMASSIE, 1887-8, 1891-2, 1892, 1893-94; WITU, 1890;* LIWONDI, 1893;' WITU, August 1893; 3 JUBA RIVER, 1893; 3 LAKE NYASSA, 1893; 2 GAMBIA, 1894; 2 BENIN RIVER, 1894; 3 BRASS RIVER, 1895;' MWELE, 1895; 3 'NIGER, 1897; BENIN, 1897; 3 SIERRA LEONE, 1898-99; 1896-98, 1807-98, 1898, 1899, 1900. This medal was first awarded by Army Order 43, dated June I, 1874, to " all of Her Majesty's Forces who have been employed on the Gold Coast during the operations against the King of Ashantee," and in addition a clasp, " Coomassie," "in the case of those who were present at Amoaful and the actions between that place and Coomassie (including the capture of the capital), and of those who, during the five days of those actions, were engaged on the north of the Prah in maintaining and protecting the communi- cations of the main army." In all, with and without the clasp, 11,000 medals were issued for the Ashantee campaign to both Services. Over eighteen years later this same medal was re-issued as a " general service " medal, the award being for operations in Central Africa, and on the East and West Coasts, during the period 1887-92, which were covered by the dated, clasps " i887~'8 > i' " 1891-2," and " 1892." As such the issue was continued for operations down to the year 1900, although the official title " West 8 These clasps were all naval awards, but two companies of the West India Regiment took part in the operations for which the clasp " Gambia, 1894," was awarded. 3 Were awarded by the Admiralty to certain local forces which oo-operated with the Naval Brigades. 4 " Mwele, 1895," is not strictly speaking a clasp, as it is engraved on the edge of the medal. Recipients already in possession of the medal were entitled to have the action and date engraved thereon. It corresponds, however, to a clasp in that it commemorates a particular service, and so has been included. 14 MEDAL Africa Medal" (see Army Order 253, of Dec. 1894) is somewhat of a misnomer, for very frequently the medal has been granted for services in Central Africa and in the Hinterland of the East Coast as for services on the West Coast. In all issues since the original " Ashantee " medal, the clasp only was given to those who already had the medal, so subsequent issues do not make it a new award. As will be seen later, the same medal was subsequently issued with a different ribbon, and so constituted as an entirely new decoration, that could be worn in conjunction with the older one. With the exception of those issued with " Mwele, 1895 " engraved on the medal, none of these medals have been issued without a clasp since the original issue for the campaign of 1873-7^; and the clasp " Coomassie " that accompanied the first issue is the only one that has been issued to regimental units of the British Army as apart from the West India Regiment and local troops. The duke of Edinburgh was married in January of the year in which this medal was first awarded, and it is said that yellow and black (the Imperial Russian colours) were chosen as the colours of the ribbon, in compliment to his consort the grand duchess Marie of Russia. 25. Arctic, 1876 (2nd Arctic Medal). — Awarded by Queen Victoria, 1876. Obverse: Bust of Queen Victoria, crowned and with veil by G. G: Adams. Legend: VICTORIA REGINA; underneath bust, 1876. Reverse: A ship packed in floe ice; above, an Arctic sky with fleecy clouds in a clear horizon. Ribbon: White (Plate II.). Clasps: Nil. The award of this grant was notified in an Admiralty Order, dated Nov. 28, 1876, and the award is specified " to all persons, of every rank and class, who were serving on board Her Majesty's ships ' Alert ' and ' Discovery ' during the Arctic Expedition of 1875-1876, and on board the yacht ' Pandora,' in her voyage to the Arctic Regions in 1876." The 'Pandora' was owned and sailed by Commander (Sir Allen) Young, R.N.R., whose officers and crew rendered valuable services to Her Majesty's ships when in the Polar seas. Sixty-three medals were given on board the " Alert," fifty- seven on board the " Discovery." The bust on the obverse of this medal has not been reproduced on any other. The reverse (by L. C. Wyon) is copied from a photograph taken during the expedition of the " Alert ' and " Discovery ' under Sir George Nares, K.C.B. 26. Afghanistan, 1878-80 (2nd Afghan). Awarded by Queen Victoria, 1880. Obverse: Bust of Queen Victoria, crowned and with veil, by J. E. Boehm. This is the first war medal bearing the imperial title. Legend: VICTORIA REGINA ET IMPERA- TRIX. Reverse: A column of troops emerging from a mountain- pass, headed by a heavy battery elephant carrying a gun; behind, mounted troops. Above, AFGHANISTAN. In exergue, 1878- -79-80. Ribbon: Green, with crimson borders (Plate I.). Clasps: ALI MUSJID, PEIWAR KOTAL, CHARASIA, KABUL, AHMED KHEL, KANDAHAR. At the conclusion of the first phase of the Second Afghan War, it was proposed that the (Second) India G.S. Medal should be issued for this campaign with clasps " Afghanistan," " AH Musjid," " Peiwar Kotal," but, after the massacre of Sir P. L. N. Cavagnari and the members and escort of the Embassy at Kabul, Sep. 3, 1879, an d the consequent renewal of the war, it was decided to grant a separate medal. The first official intimation of the award is in a telegram from the secretary of state for India to the viceroy, dated Aug. 7, 1880. The award, with the regulations to govern the issue, was promulgated in a G.O. by the governor-general, Dec. 10, 1880, and subsequent G.O.'s. The medal without clasp was awarded to all who had served across the frontier between Nov. 22, 1878, and May 26, 1879 (first phase of the war), and be- tween Sep. 1879, and Aug. 15, 1880 for the Khyber and Kurram Lines, and Sep. 20, 1880, for Southern Afghanistan (second phase of the war). The " Kabul " clasp was awarded to all who had shared in the operations " at and near that place from the loth to the 23rd Dec, 1879, including the column under the command of Brigadier-General C. J. S. Gough, C.B., which joined Sir Frederick Roberts on the 24th Dec, 1879." The clasp for " Kandahar " did not include the whole garrison of the beleaguered city, but only the troops that were actually " engaged in the action fought under Sir Frederick Roberts' command against Sirdar Mahomed Ayub Khan on, the 1st Sep., 1880." The greatest number of clasps with which the medal was issued was four, and the units to which such medals were issued are the 72nd Highlanders, 5th Ghoorkas, 5th Punjab Infantry and 23rd Punjab Pioneers. The bust of the Queen by Sir Edgar Boehm, R.A., has not been re- produced on other war medals. 27. Kabul to Kandahar, 1880. — Awarded by Queen # Victoria, 1880. This decoration took the form of a five-pointed st'ar, 1-9 in. across from point to point, with a ball between the points; between the two topmost points of the star is an Imperial Crown and ring for suspension. Obverse: In the centre the imperial monogram V.R.I. , surrounded by a band inscribed KABUL TO KANDAHAR, 1880. Reverse: Plain, with a hollow centre, round which the recipient's name and regiment are indented in capital letters. The old rainbow-coloured military ribbon is worn with this star. The grant of this award was first notified in a despatch from the secretary of state for India to the viceroy, dated Nov. 30, 1880. This awarded the decoration " to the force which marched from Kabul to Kandahar," and later, Aug. 26, 1881, a G.O. by the Governor-General extended the grant " to the troops which then composed the garrison of Kelat-i-Ghilzai, and accompanied the force under the command of Lieutenant-General Sir F. S. Roberts, G.C.B., V.C., from that place to Kandahar." 28. Egypt, 1882-1889. — Awarded by Queen Victoria, 18821 Obverse: Head of Queen Victoria as in the West African Medal; Legend: VICTORIA REGINA ET IMPERATRIX. Reverse: A Sphinx; above, EGYPT; below, 1882. Ribbon: Blue, with two white stripes, forming five J-inch stripes (Plate I.). Clasps: ALEX- ANDRIA, nth July 1 ; TEL-EL-KEBIR, SUAKIN, 1884; EL TEB, TAMAAI, EL-TEB-TAMAAI, 2 THE NILE, 1884-85; ABU KLEA, KIRBEKAN, SUAKIN, 1885; TOFREK, GEMAI- ZAH, 1888; TOSKI, 1889. 3 This medal was first awarded .(Admi- ralty Circular, Oct. 1882; G.O. by the commander-in-chief, Oct. 17, 1882; and G.O. by governor-general of India, Oct. 27, 1882); to all the Forces, naval and military, present and serving in Egypt between July 16, and Sep. 14, 1882. The first two clasps were also given with this issue. One military officer (Major-General Sir A. B. Tulloch, then of the Welsh Regiment) received the clasp " Alexandria, nth July," as he was serving in the fleet as military adviser to Admiral Sir Beauchamp Seymour. A second issue was made in 1884, and with it the next four clasps were given; " Suakin, 1884," for those who landed at Suakin or Trinkitat between Feb. 19 and March 26, 1884, was, however, only given to those with the 1882 medal, those not so possessed receiving the medal without a clasp. A third issue was made in 1885, the next five clasps accompanying it. " The Nile, 1884-85," was given to those who served south of Assouan on or before March 7, 1885; " Suakin, 1885," to those who were engaged in the operations at Suakin between March and May 14, 1885; but the former clasp was only to go to those already possessed of the medal, others received the medal only. The medal alone was also given to all on duty at Suakin between March 27, 1884, and May 14, 1885. No medals were issued with single clasps for " Tofrek," recipients of which also got clasp " Suakin, 1885," or " Abu Klea " and " Kirbekan," recipients of which got also clasp " The Nile, 1884-85." In 1886, the medal without was issued to those who had not previ- ously received it and had served at, and south of Wady Haifa, between Nov. 30, 1885 and Jan. 11, 1886, but no clasps went with this issue, although the operations included the battle of Ginnis, The last issue was made in 1890. The medal with clasp " Gemaizah, 1888," to all who were present at that action near Suakin, Dec. 20, 1888; the medal alone to all employed on the Nile at, and south of Korosko, on Aug. 3, 1889, and with clasp " Toski, 1889," to aH present at that action, Aug. 3, 1889. Besides those already enumer- ated who received the medal without clasp, it was given to officers of hired transports of the mercantile marine, to some civilians, native and European,, to the Australian contingent that landed at Suakin, and to the Canadian boatmen employed on the Nile, k fact, not far short of fifty thousand of these medals have been struck, and the numbers issued have exceeded that of any other medal with the exception of that given for the South African War. Seven clasps: " Tel-el-Kebir," " Suakin, 1884 "; " El-Teb-Tamaai"; "The Nile, 1884-85"; "Abu Klea"; "Gemaizah, 1888"; and " Toski, 1889," were awarded to one officer, Major Beech, late 20th Hussars, who also received the Bronze Star with the clasp " Tokar, 1890." The medal with six clasps was earned by four men of the 19th Hussars who were Lord Wolseley's orderlies, and who after having earned the first five clasps enumerated in Major Beech's medal, went with Lord Wolseley to Suakin and so got the " Suakin, 1885 " clasp. 29. Egypt Bronze Star, 1882-93. — Awarded by the Khedive 1883. This decoration is in the shape of a five-pointed star (1-9 in. diameter) connected by a small star and crescent to a laureated bar to which the ribbon is attached. Obverse : A front view of the Sphinx, with the desert and pyramids in the rear. Around a double band, upon which are, above, EGYPT, 1882, and below', in Arabic, " Khedive of Egypt, 1299 " (the Hegira date). In the second and third issues the dates are respectively altered to 1884, 1301 and 1884-86 and 1301-4; the fourth and fifth issues are dateless. Reverse: A large raised circle inside which is thfe Khedivial monogram, T. M. (Tewfik Mahomed), surmounted fcy a Crown and Crescent and Star. Ribbon : Dark blue (Plate 11 Clasps: TOKAR, 1890. This star was awarded for the same operations as was the British Egyptian medal above described, but, except for a few officers and men of the Royal Navy, the issue of the clasp TOKAR was confined to British and native officers and men of the Egyptian service. • (H. L. S.) 30. Canada, 1885. — Awarded by Queen Victoria, 1885. Obverse: Head of Queen Victoria as on the West African ("Ashantee") Medal. Reverse: NORTH WEST CANADA and date, within a maple leaf. Ribbon: Blue-grey, with a crimson stripe on each side (Plate II.). Clasp: SASKATCHEWAN. This medal, commemorative of services in the Riel Rebellion:, was awarded to Canadian forces only. 1 Issued to the Royal Navy and Royal Marines only. 2 For combatants present at both actions. 3 Only clasp not issued to Royal Navy and Royal Marines. MEDALS AND DECORATIONS Plate II. Iti 11 * ill &: SO •"* ■ ** M ~25 Jf I R 00 4> o a - •s c a "8 "8 "J' a ■H B m in 13 mi q ■3" I a u MEDALS AND DECORATIONS Plate II. ■a. 111 o II - a 5. .22: 5 li MEDAL !5 31. Canada (General Service) .—Awarded, 1899. Obverse: Head of Queen Victoria, as in Third India G. S. Medal. Reverse: Within a maple wreath, the Dominion flag, above, CANADA. Ribbon: Red, with white centre (Plate II.). Clasps: FENIAN RAID, 1866; FENIAN RAID, 1870; RED RIVER, 1870. One battalion of the King's Royal Rifles received this medal with the Red River Clasp. Otherwise issue confined to Canadian forces. 32. " Queen's " Sudan, 1896-1898. — Awarded by Queen Victoria, 1899. Obverse: Half-length effigy of Queen Victoria holding sceptre, by De Saulles, as in " Uganda " medal described below. Reverse: A winged Victory, seated, with, on either hand, the Union Jack and the Egyptian flag. The left hand holds a laurel wreath, the right a palm branch. On a tablet below, SUDAN, and below this lotus leaves. Ribbon: Half black, half yellow, divided by a narrow red stripe (Plate I.). Clasps: none. Given for the operations under the command of Sir Herbert (Lord) Kitchener, which led to the reconquest of the Sudan, 1898; issued in bronze to followers. 33. " Khedive's " Sudan, 1896-1900. — Awarded by the khedive in 1897. Obverse: "Abbas Hilmi II." and date, in Arabic. Re- verse: A trophy of arms with a shield in the centre, on a tablet below " Recovery of the Sudan," in Arabic. Ribbon: Yellow, with blue centre (Plate I.). Clasps: FIRKET, HAFIR, SUDAN, 1897; SUDAN, 1898; ABU HAMED, THE ATBARA, KHAR- TOUM GEDAREF, 1 SUDAN, 1899 ; l SUDAN, 1900 ; l CEDID, 1 BAHR-EL-GHAZAL, 1900-1902; 1 TEROK, 1 NY AM NYAM, 1 TALODI. 1 This medal was awarded to officers and men of the British Navy and Army, to the Egyptian Army engaged in the reconquest of the Sudan and (in bronze without clasps) to followers. 34. Cape Colony General Service, 1900. — Awarded by the govern- ment of Cape Colony. Obverse: Bust of Queen Victoria as on the Volunteer Long Service Medal. Reverse: Arms of Cape Colony. Ribbon: Dark blue, with yellow centre (Plate II.). Clasps: BASUTOLAND, TRANSKEI, BECHUANALAND. Issued to Colonial troops only, for services in various minor campaigns. 35. Matabeleland, 1893 (called the Rhodesia Medal).— -Awarded by the British South Africa Company, 1896. Obverse: Bust of Queen Victoria. Reverse: A fighting lion. Ribbon: Orange, with three dark blue stripes (Plate II.). Clasps: RHODESIA and MASHONALAND, with dates. This is the first war medal issued by a chartered company since the close of the Company's rule in India. It was awarded to British officers and men of the British service, to the Cape Mounted Rifles, Bechuanaland police, and the Chartered Company's own forces, engaged in the Matabeleland and Mashonaland Campaigns 1893, 1896 and 1897. 36. East and Central Africa, 1891-98. — Awarded by Queen Victoria in 1895. Obverse and Reverse: as in West African (or original Ashantee) Medal described above. Ribbon: Terra-cotta, white and black stripes (Plate II.). Clasps: CENTRAL AFRICA, 1894-96; CENTRAL AFRICA, 1899. This medal only differs from the West African in that it has a different ribbon. It is suspended by a ring. Practically only the local forces (and of course their British officers) received this medal. But a few officers and men of the Indian Army and of the Royal Navy have also received it. 37. East and Central Africa, 1899 {the" Uganda" Medal). — Awarded by Queen Victoria in 1899. Obverse: Half-length effigy of Queen Victoria, by De Saulles. Reverse: Britannia with lion, gazing over a desert towards a rising sun. Ribbon: Half red, half yellow (Plate II.). Clasps: LUBWA'S, UGANDA, 1897-98; UGANDA, 1899; UGANDA, 1900. This medal was awarded to the local forces and also to officers and men of the Indian Army and Royal Navy. 38. Ashanti Star, 1896. — Awarded by Queen Victoria in 1896. Obverse: An imperial crown with " Ashanti, 1896 " round it. Reverse: Inscribed " from the Queen." The star is four-pointed, and is crossed by a saltire or St Andrew's cross. Ribbon: Yellow with black stripes (Plate II.). This medal was issued for the expedition against Prempeh in 1896. As there was no actual fighting, no medal was given, but sickness claimed many victims, amongst them Prince Henry of Battenberg. The decoration was issued to officers and men of the British Army, Royal Navy and local troops. 39. Ashanti Medal, 1900. — Awarded by King Edward VII. in 1901. Obverse: Head and bust of King Edward VII. in the uniform of a field-marshal, by De Saulles. Reverse: a lion standing on a cliff, in the background the rising sun. Ribbon: Green with black edges and black central stripe (Plate II.). Clasp: KUMASSI. This medal was the first which was issued with an effigy of King Edward VII. It was given only to local forces, and the British officers employed on the staff or in commands. 40. Africa General Service, 1899- . — Awarded by King Edward VII. in 1902. Obverse: As in Ashanti Medal of 1900. Reverse: As in "Uganda" Medal above described. Ribbon: Yellow, with black edges and two narrow green stripes (Plate II.). Clasps: N. NIGERIA, with various dates ; S. NIGERIA, with various Awarded to Egyptian Army only. dates; UGANDA, 1900; JUBALAND, GAMBIA, LANGO, 1901 and 1902; JIDBALLI, KISSI, 1905; SOMALILAND, 1901 and 1902-04; BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA, 1899-1900; ARO, 1901-02. This medal represents an almost incessant warfare of a minor, but exacting, nature. In the first eighteen months, eleven clasps were awarded, some awards being of course retrospective. The clasp " Jubaland " is chiefly a naval award, but all the rest are almost exclusively earned by the West African Frontier Force and the King's African Rifles. It is worthy of remembrance, however, that a contingent of Boer mounted riflemen took part in the Somali- land Campaign, within one year of the peace of Vereeniging, and received the medal and clasp. The "Somaliland, 1 902-1904 " clasp represents indeed a considerable campaign in which contingents from Great Britain and India took part. 41. "Queen's" South African, 1899-1902. — Awarded by King Edward VII. in 1901 shortly after Queen Victoria's death. Obverse: Bust of Queen Victoria, by De Saulles. Reverse: Britannia holding an outstretched laurel wreath towards a body of troops, in the background a coast line, the sea and war-ships. Ribbon: Centre orange bordered with blue, outside edges red (Plate II.). Clasps; see below. The " Queen's " medal for troops engaged in the South African War was authorized, shortly after Queen Victoria's death, by Army Order 94 of 1901. It was given "to all officers, warrant officers, non-commissioned officers and men, of the British, Indian and Colonial forces, and to all Nurses and Nursing Sisters, who actually served in South Africa between nth of October 1899, and a date to be fixed hereafter " (the war not being concluded) " to all troops stationed in Cape Colony and Natal at the outbreak of hostili- ties, and to troops stationed at St Helena between the 14th of April 1900, and a date to be fixed hereafter." The last provision shows a widening of the signification hitherto attaching to " war service," for the troops at St Helena were employed in guarding Boer prisoners. The A.O. referred to was supplemented by others in iqoi and 1902. Clasps were authorized as follows: BELMONT (Nov. 23, 1899); MODDER RIVER (Nov. 28, 1899): PAARDE- BERG (Feb. 17-26, 1900); DREIFONTEIN (March 10, 1900); WEPENER (April 9-25, 1900); JOHANNESBURG (May 29, 1900); DIAMOND HILL (June 11-12, 1900); BELFAST (Aug. 26-27, 1900); WITTEBERGEN (July 1-29, 1900); DE- FENCE OF KIMBERLEY (Oct. 14, 1899, Feb.. 15, 1900), RELIEF OF KIMBERLEY (Feb. 15, 1900); DEFENCE OF MAFEKING (Oct. 13, 1899— May 17, 1900); RELIEF OF MAFEKING (May 17, 1900) ; TALANA (Oct. 20, 1899) ; ELANDS- LAAGTE (Oct. 21, 1899); DEFENCE OF LADYSMITH (Nov. 3, 1899— Feb. 28, 1900); TUGELA HEIGHTS (Feb. 14- 27, 1900); RELIEF OF LADYSMITH (Dec. 15, 1899— Feb. 28 1900); LAING'S NEK (June 2-9, 1900). Clasps: for CAPE COLONY, NATAL, ORANGE FREE STATE and RHO- DESIA, were given to troops who served within the limits of the respective colonies and states named during the war, without being present at any action, fought inside those limits, for which a clasp was awarded. Non-enlisted men, of whatever nationality, who drew military pay, were awarded the medal in bronze instead of silver and without clasps. Militia units which volunteered and were sent to Mediterranean stations to release the regulars for field service were awarded (Feb. 1902) the medal without clasp, Mediterranean " being substituted for " South Africa " on the reverse. This was not, of course, issued to any one entitled to the Queen's Medal for South Africa. 43. The " King's " South African Medal was awarded by King Edward VII. in 1902, to be worn in addition to the "Queen's " by those who completed eighteen months' service in South Africa during the war. On the obverse of the medal is the effigy of King Edward, by De Saulles (as on the " Ashanti, 1900," Medal); the reverse is the same as that of the "Queen's" Medal. Ribbon: Green, white and orange (Plate II.). The two clasps awarded were, in accordance with the terms of the award, general in character, to wit, SOUTH AFRICA, 1901 and SOUTH AFRICA, 1902. 44. China, 1900. — Awarded by King Edward VII., 1902. Ob- verse: Bust of Queen Victoria as on "Queen's" South African Medal. Reverse : As on first China Medal, but with date altered. Ribbon: As in first China Medal (Plate I.). Clasps: DEFENCE OF LEGATIONS, RELIEF. OF PEKIN, TAKU FORTS. This medal was issued to the Royal Navy (including some Naval volunteers), British and Indian Armies, and the (Wei-hai-Wei). Chinese Regiment, for operations during the Boxer rebellion. " This was the last war medal, as the " First China " was the first to bear Queen Victoria's effigy. Sir E. H. Seymour, the commander of the Tientsin relieving column, who had taken part in the former China War, received the new medal as well as the old. 45. India, 1895 (Third India General Service). — Awarded by Queen Victoria in 1896. Obverse: Bust of Queen Victoria, by T. Brock, R.A. Reverse: A British and Indian soldier supporting a standard; below, INDIA, 1895. Ribbon: Three red and two green stripes of equal width (Plate I.). Clasps: DEFENCE OF CHITRAL, 1895; RELIEF OF CHITRAL, 1895; MALAKAND, 1898; PUNJAB FRONTIER, 1898; TIRAH, 1897: TIRAH 1898; WAZIRISTAN, 1901-02. The ribbon of this medal is perhaps more frequently seen than i6 MEDAL that of any other British war medal except those for South Africa. In 1903 the medal was re-issued with the military effigy of King Edward VII. (as on the Ashanti, 1900, medal) on the obverse, and the date was omitted from the reverse. The medal is issued in bronze, without clasps, to followers. 46. Tibet, 1903-04. — Awarded by King Edward VII in 1905. Obverse: Military effigy of the king as on Ashanti, 1900, medal. Reverse: a representation of the Potala at Lhasa. Ribbon: Purple-red, edged with green and white stripes (Plate II.). Clasp: GYANTSE. 47. India, 1908. — A new India General Service Medal was authorized in 1908, to take the place of the medal granted by A.O. 43 of 1903. This was to be issued in silver to officers and men, and in bronze to non-enlisted men of all sorts. This medal with clasp bearing the name and date was given to the troops which took part in the North Western Frontier Expedition of 1 908. The ribbon is dark blue edged with green. 48. Transport Medal. — Awarded by King Edward VII. in 1902. Obverse : Head and bust of the king in naval uniform, by De Saulles. Reverse; A steamer at sea, and the five continents. Ribbon: red, with two thin stripes near the edge (Plate II.). Clasps: SOUTH AFRICA, 1899-1902; CHINA, 1900. This medal is restricted to officers of the mercantile marine serving in chartered troop-ships. It is a sort of general service medal, clasps being added as earned. Up to 1910 only the above clasps had been authorized. 49. Polar Medal (or Antarctic Medal). — Awarded by King Edward VII., 1904. Obverse: Naval effigy of the king as on Transport Medal. Reverse : In the foreground a sledge and travel- lers, in the background the steamer " Discovery " (Capt. R. F. Scott's Expedition, 1904). Ribbon: As for 1st and 2nd Arctic Medals, white (Plate I.). The medal, like the 1st Arctic Medal, is octagonal. First awarded to officers and men of the " Discovery," whether belonging to the Royal Navy or not. It is given with a dated clasp for Antarctic exploration service. Other Medals and Decorations. — The above forty-nine medals are given as rewards for participating in the operations they commemorate, and issued generally to all concerned, irrespective of individual distinction or bravery. There are other classes of medals and decorations, civil as well as military, which must be grouped with them, as being allied in character. These are either (i.) awards personal to the recipient, being an acknow- ledgment of or reward for special individual services or good conduct (these are civil as well as military in respect of awards for bravery), or (ii.) awards that are simply of a commemorative kind, though worn as war medals and for the most part given to officers and soldiers. The more important of these two classes will be named. Orders given for service are dealt with, for the most part in the article Knighthood; but particulars are given here of certain distinctively military orders that have no knighthood rights and duties, and indeed little meaning apart from the deeds or services which led to the award — being so to speak, records of the past, rather than badges of a present membership. Individual decorations for Services may be classed as (i.) for gallantry, (ii.) for special merit, and (iii.) for long service and good conduct. 1. Indian Order of Merit. — Awarded by H.E.I. Company and notified by G.O. of governor-general, April 17, 1837. Obverse: 1st Class— A Gold Star, ij in. diameter; in the centre, in gold on a ground of dark blue enamel, crossed swords within a circle around which is the legend, REWARD OF VALOUR, the whole encircled by a gold laurel wreath. 2nd Class — Star similar to that of 1st Class, but in silver. Wreath and centre as in 1st Class.. 3rd Class — Star exactly similar to that of 2nd Class, but the wreath and centre in silver, and dark blue enamel and silver, respectively. Reverse: Engraved 1st, 2nd and 3rd Class Order of Merit, respectively, but the name of the recipient is not engraved on the decoration when issued. Ribbon: Dark blue, with red edges. This decoration is to be obtained only by a " conspicuous act of individual gallantry " in the field or in the attack or defence of fortified places. It is open to all native officers or soldiers of the Indian Army, " without distinction of rank or grade." The 3rd Class is bestowed for the first act of gallantry for which the recipient is recommended. The 2nd Class is given only to those who possess the third, and for a second act of conspicuous gallantry. The 1st Class is given only to those who hold the 2nd, and for a third act of bravery. A recipient of the decoration receives an additional allowance equivalent in the 3rd Class to one-third, in the 2nd to two-thirds, and in the 1st to the whole of the ordinary pay of his rank, over and above that pay or his pension. The widow (in the case of plurality of wives, the first married) receives the pension of the Order for three years after her husband's death. 2. Victoria Cross. — Instituted by Royal Warrant, January 29, 1856. A bronze Maltese Cross, 1^ in. diameter, with, in the centre, the Royal Crest (lion and crown), and below it a scroll inscribed "FOR VALOUR." There is a bronze laureated bat for suspension, connected with the cross by a V. The reverse is plain, but the name, rank and corps of the recipient are engraved on the back of the laureated bar. Ribbon: Red for the army; blue for the navy. Clasp: For every additional act of bravery a clasp, bearing the date of such act, may be awarded. Nothing save " the merit of conspicuous bravery " gives claim for the decoration, and it must be evinced by " some signal act of valour or devotion to their country " performed " in me presence of the enemy." (The regulation italicized was for a short time abrogated, but soon restored to force.) The original Royal Warrant has been supplemented by various Royal Warrants (Oct. 1857, Aug. and Dec. 1858, Jan, 1867, April and Aug. 1881), and now every grade and rank of all ranks of all branches of His Majesty's Forces, British and Colonial, are eligible, with the single exception of native ranks of the Indian army, who have an equivalent decora- tion in their own Order of Merit. In the case of recipients who are not of commissioned rank, the Cross carries with it a pension of £10 a year, and an additional £5 a year for each clasp. A larger grant is sometimes given to holders of the V.C. who are in need of monetary help. In all, up to 1904, the Cross was awarded to 521 recipients (including 15 posthumous awards). 3. Distinguished Conduct in the Field (Army). — Instituted by Royal Warrant, September 30, 1862. Obverse: A military trophy, with, in the centre, the Royal Arms (as in the Long Service and Good Conduct Medals). Reverse: inscribed " FOR DISTIN- GUISHED CONDUCT IN THE FIELD." Ribbon: Three stripes equal width, outside red, centre blue (Plate II.). Clasp: Royal Warrant, 7th of February 1 881, authorized award of clasps for subsequent acts of gallantry. " Individual acts of distinguished conduct in the field in any part of the world " entitle to this medal, and only non-commissioned officers and men of the British forces are eligible for the award. Prior to its institution, distinguished gallantry was rewarded by the " Meritorious Service " medal. Single clasps have been con- stantly conferred, and there is more than one case of a recipient having earned two clasps to his medal. 4. Albert Medal (for saving life at sea). — Instituted by Royal Warrant, 7th of March 1866. Gold oval badge, enamelled in dark blue, with a monogram composed of the letters V and A, inter- laced with an anchor erect, all in gold, surrounded with a' garter in bronze, inscribed in raised letters of gold " FOR GALLANTRY IN SAVING LIFE AT SEA," and surmounted by a representation of the crown of the prince consort, the whole edged with gold. Ribbon: dark blue, with two white stripes. Clasps are awarded for any subsequent acts ' of bravery. By a subsequent Royal Warrant of the 12th of April 1867, the decoration was- re-constituted in two classes, as follows. 1st Class — Badge precisely as already described. Ribbon: Dark blue, with four white stripes (if in. wide). Clasps: As authorized in original warrant. 2nd Class-^ Badge exactly similar to that of the 1st Class, except that it is entirely worked in bronze, instead of gold and bronze. Ribbon: Dark blue, with too white stripes. Clasps: As authorized for 1st Class. The decoration is awarded only to those who " have, in saving or endeavouring to save the lives of others from shipwreck or other peril of the sea, endangered their own lives." The 1st Class is confined " to cases of extreme and heroic daring " ; the 2nd for acts which, though great courage may be shown, " are not sufficiently distinguished to deserve " the 1st Class of the decoration. 5. New Zealand Cross. — Instituted by an Order of the governor of New Zealand in council, 10th of March, 1869. Silver Maltese Cross with gold star on each of the four limbs and in the centre, in a circle within a gold laurel wreath, NEW ZEALAND. Above the Cross a crown in gold, and connected at the top by a V, to a silver bar ornamented with laurel in gold. The name of recipient is engraved on reverse. Width of Cross, 1 1 in. Ribbon : Crimson. Clasps: Authorized for subsequent acts of valour. In authorizing this decoration Sir G. F. Bowen, the then governor, went outside his authority, but the queen ratified the colonial order in council, and intimated " Her gracious desire that the arrangements made by it may be considered as established from that date by Her direct authority." It was, however, stipulated that the occasion was in no way to form a precedent. The award was to be for those " who may particularly distinguish themselves by their bravery in action, or devotion to their duty while on service," and only local " Militia, Volunteers or Armed Constabulary " were to be eligible. In all only nineteen of these decorations were awarded. No clasps were awarded. 6. Conspicuous Gallantry (Navy). — Instituted by an Order of the queen in Council, 7th of July, 1874. Obverse: Head of Queen Victoria, by W. Wyon, R.A. (as on China Medal). 1 Reverse: A laurel wreath, and within FOR CONSPICUOUS GALLANTRY. Above, a crown. Ribbon : Three stripes of equal_ width, outside blue, centre white (Plate II.). Clasps: none authorized. To reward " acts of pre-eminent bravery in Action with the Enemy." Only petty officers and seamen of the Royal Navy, 1 Now naval effigy of King Edward VII., as on Transport Service 1 Medal MEDAE *7 and non-commissioned officers and privates of the Royal Marines, are eligible for this decoration. Prior to the institution of this decoration, acts of gallantry by sailors and marines were rewarded by the same medal as that given to the army before the "medal for distinguished conduct in the field " was instituted, viz. the " Meritorious Service " medal. If the holder be a Chief or First Class Petty Officer, or a Sergeant of Marines, the award carries with it an annuity of £20 per annum; and if a recipient's service ends before his reaching one of those ranks, he may receive a gratuity of £20 on discharge. 7. Albert Medal (for saving life on land).— Instituted by Royal Warrant, 30th of April 1877. 1st Class — Similar to that of the 1st Class for saving life at sea, but the enamelling is in red instead of blue, and there is no anchor interlaced with, the mono- gram V.A. Ribbon: Crimson, with four white stripes. Clasps: for subsequent acts of same character. 2nd Class — Badge similar to that of the 2nd Class for saving life at sea, but the enamelling is in red instead of blue, and there is no anchor interlaced with the monogram V.A. Ribbon: Crimson, with two white stripes. Clasps: As authorized for 1st Class. The conditions governing the award of this decoration are the same that govern the award for saving life at sea. Originally the award was restricted to acts of gallantry performed within British dominions, but this restriction was removed by Royal Warrant, 5th of June 1905. 8. Distinguished Conduct in the Field {Colonial). — Instituted by a Royal Warrant, 24th of May 1894, which was later cancelled and superseded by Royal Warrant, 31st of May 1895. Obverse: same as " Distinguished Conduct in the Field " (Army). Reverse: same as " Army " medal, but with the name of the colony inscribed above the words " For Distinguished Conduct in the Field." Ribbon : Crimson, with a line of the colonial .colour in the centre. Clasps: Authorized for subsequent acts of valour. Every colony or protectorate, having permanently embodied forces, draws up regulations to govern the issue of these medals as suit its own particular requirements, but in all essentials these regulations are modelled on those that govern the award of the Distinguished Conduct in the Field (Army). 9. Conspicuous Service Cross. — Instituted by an Order in Council, 15th of June 1901. Silver -cross, with the reverse side plain; on the obverse, in the centre, the Imperial and Royal Cypher, E.R.I., surmounted by the imperial crown. Ribbon: Three stripes equal width, outside white, centre blue. Clasps: none authorized. This award is to recognize "■ Distinguished Service before the Enemy." Its grant is confined to " Warrant Officers or Sub- ordinate Officers " of the Royal Navy. Such, not being of " lower- deck rating," are not eligible for the " Conspicuous Gallantry " medal; also, they, " by reason of not holding a commission in the Royal Navy, are not eligible to any existing Order or Decoration." 10. Edward Medal. — Founded in 1907 to reward acts of courage in saving life in mines, this medal was extended in 1909 (R.W. Dec. 3) so as to be awarded " to those who in course of industrial employment endanger their own lives in saving or endeavouring to save the lives of others from perils incurred in connexion with such industrial employment." Certain important medals and decorations for saving life are not the gift of the Crown. These are allowed to be worn in uniform on the' right breast. They are the medals of the Royal Humane Society, those given by the Board of Trade for gallantry in saving life at sea, the medals of the Royal National Lifeboat Institution, those of the Shipwrecked Fisher- men and Mariners' Royal Benevolent Society, Lloyd's Honorary Silver Medal, Liverpool Shipwrecked and Humane Society's Medals, and the Stanhope Gold Medal. AH these are suspended from a dark blue ribbon with the exception of the medals of the S.F. and M. Royal Benevolent Society, which has a light blue ribbon, and the Stanhope Gold Medal which has a broad dark blue centre, edged with yellow, and black borders. These medals are usually struck in silver or bronze, but occasionally gold medals are awarded. The Stanhope Gold Medal is annually awarded for the most gallant of all the acts of rescue for which the society have awarded medals during the year. This award has been frequently earned by officers or men of the Royal Navy. It is, in fact, the " Victoria Cross " of awards of this character. The following are decorations for special merit: — I. Order of British India. — Instituted by General Order of Governor-General of India, 17th of April 1837. 1st Class— A gold star of eight points radiated, if in. in diameter, between the two top points the crown of England. In the centre, on a ground of light blue enamel, a gold lion statant, within a band of dark blue enamel, containing in gold letters ORDER OF BRITISH INDIA, the whole encircled by a gold laurel wreath. The whole hangs from the ribbon by a gold loop attached by a ring to the top of the crown, and is worn round the neck, outside the uniform. Ribbon: originally sky-blue, changed to crimson 1838. 2nd Class — Gold star similar to that of the 1 st Class, but smaller, I § in. diameter, and without the crown. The centre also is similar to that of the 1st Class star, but the enamelling is all dark blue. Suspended and worn as in the 1st Class. Ribbon: As in 1st Class. This, the highest military distinction to which in the ordinary course native officers of the Indian Army can attain, and confined to them, is a reward for long, honourable and specially meritorious service. The 1st Class is composed exclusively of officers of and above the rank of Subadar in the artillery and infantry, or of a corresponding rank in the other branches of the service. The 2nd Class is open to all native commissioned officers, irrespective of their rank. Originally the order was limited to 100 in the 1st Class and the same number in the 2nd, but it now comprises 215 in the 1st Class and 324. in the 2nd Class. Officers in the 1st Class are entitled to the title of " Sirdar Bahadur," and receive a daily allowance of two rupees in addition to the pay, allowances or pension of their rank, while those of the 2nd Class are styled " Bahadur," and receive an extra one rupee per diem. 2. Ability and Good Conduct. — Instituted in 1842. Obverse: A paddle-wheel steamship. Reverse: Crown and anchor, and inscribed, FOR ABILITY AND GOOD CONDUCT. Ribbon: None authorized. No official documents as regards the institution of this decoration are now to be found at the Admiralty, but only engineers were eligible for the award, and it carried no gratuity or annuity. Only six were ever awarded. When, in 1847, engineers were raised to the rank of warrant officers, the issue of this decoration was dis- continued. It had a ring for suspension, and was probably worn with the narrow navy blue ribbon of the " Long Service and Good Conduct " medal of the period. 3. Meritorious Service {Army and Royal Marines). — Instituted by Royal Warrant, 19th December 1845, for army only; grant extended to Royal Marines by Order in Council, 15th January 1849. Obverse: Head of Queen Victoria as on China medal. 1 Reverse: FOR MERITORIOUS SERVICE, within a laurel wreath. Ribbon: ^Crimson for army (Plate II.); navy blue for Royal Marines. Only non-commissioned officers of or above the rank of sergeant are eligible for this decoration. It carries with it an annuity not exceeding £20 per annum ; but, as the total sum avail- able is strictly limited, the number of these medals that is issued is small, and a non-commissioned officer who is recommended may have to wait many years before his turn comes and he receives the award. The qualification for recommendation is long, efficient and meritorious service, and need not necessarily, although in many cases it does, include any special display of personal gallantry in action. For many years the " meritorious service " medal was considered to cancel the " long service and good conduct " medal, but by A.O. 250 of 1902 both medals can be worn together. 2 ; 4. The Distinguished Service Order (see Knighthood) is giyert only to officers (and naval and military officials of officer rank, not including Indian native officers) for services in war. Often it is the reward of actual conspicuous gallantry under fire, but its purpose, as defined in the Royal Warrant instituting the order, is to reward " individual instances of meritorious or distinguished service, in war; " and the same document declares that only those shall be eligible who have been mentioned " in despatches for meritorious or distinguished service in the field, or before the enemy." In the main, therefore, it is awarded for special services in war, and not necessarily under fire; and although the services rewarded are as a fact generally rendered in action, the order is in no sense a sort of second class of the Victoria Cross. Like the latter, the Dis- tinguished Service Order is generally referred to by its initials. §. The Royal Red Cross is also an Order. Membership is re- stricted to women (not necessarily British subjects), and is given as a reward for naval or military nursing service. Instituted 1883. 6. The Kaisar-i-Hind Medal is given for public services in India. 7. The Volunteer Officers' Decoration. — Instituted in 1892. Ah oval of silver, crossed at intervals with gold, in the centre the monogram V.R. and crown in gold. Worn from a ring. Ribbon: Dark green. . This decoration was instituted in 1892, and is the reward of twenty years' service in the commissioned ranks of the volunteer force. It is generally called the " V.D. " Since the conversion of the Volunteer into the Territorial Force (1908) it has been replaced by THE TERRITORIAL OFFICERS' DECORATION. Officers of the Royal Naval Reserve and of the Royal Na„val Volunteer Reserve are eligible for a similar decoration (1910). 8. The Long Service and Good Conduct {Army) Medal was instituted in 1833. Obverse: A trophy of arms. 3 Reverse: FOR LONG SERVICE AND GOOD CONDUCT. Ribbon: Crimson, as for " Meritorious Service " medal (Plate II.). This is a reward for " long service with irreproachable character and conduct," t he qualifying period of service being 18 years. , 1 Now naval effigy of King Edward VII., as on Transport Service medal. s Other " Meritorious " or " Long Service " medals worn with a crimson ribbon are the former Long Service medal of the H.E.I. Company's European troops and the Meritorious and Long Service medals of the Indian Native Army. ' Now replaced by military effigy of King Edward VII. i8 MEDEA 9. The Long Service and Good Conduct (Navy) Medal was in- tituted in 1831. Ribbon: Blue, with white edges (Plate II.). 10. The Volunteer Long Service Medal. — Instituted in 1894 Has a green ribbon. Obverse: Effigj' of Queen Victoria. Reverse: A scroll within a wreath, inscribed FOR LONG SERVICE IN THE VOLUNTEER FORCE. Replaced by the Territorial Long Service Medal (1908), of which the ribbon is green with a yellow centre; And the obverse a bust of the king. The Militia Long Service Medal (1904) has a light blue ribbon, the Imperial Yeomanry Long Service Medal a yellow ribbon, the Honourable Artillery Company's Medal a black, red and yellow ribbon. All these are shown on Plate II. 1 11. The Medal for the Best Shot in the Army was instituted in (869 Obverse: Bust of Queen Victoria (now effigy of King Edward VII.). Reverse: A winged Victory crowning a warrior. Ribbon : Red, with two narrow black stripes on each edge, the two black stripes being divided by a narrow white one. There is also a " Best Shot " Medal for the Indian Native Army, which has an o'range ribbon. 12. The Medal for Naval Gunnery was instituted in 1903. Ribbon: Red centre, flanked by two narrow white stripes, two broad blue stripes at edges (Plate II.). Amongst medals of the last class may be mentioned the Jubilee Medals of 1887 and. 1897, the Coronation Medal of 1902, the Royal Victorian Medal (this, however, is a sort of sixth class of the Royal Victorian Order, for which see Knighthood) and the medals awarded for Durbars. United States. — The war medals and decorations of the United States, although few in number, are interesting, as they follow a peculiar system in the colours of the ribbons. The principal military decoration of the United States is the " Medal of Honor," which was founded for the reward of unusual bravery or special good conduct during the Civil War. In its present form it is a five-pointed star, with a medallion in the centre bearing a head of Minerva and round it UNITED STATES OF AMERICA in relief. On each ray of the star is an oak-leaf, and the points themselves are trefoil shaped. A laurel wreath, in green enamel, encircles the whole, and this wreath is surmounted by VALOR, which in turn is surmounted by an eagle that attaches the decoration to its ribbon. This last is blue, with thirteen white stars worked on it in silk. Accompanying this decoration there is a badge or lapel button, hexagonal, and made of blue silk with the thirteen stars in white. The original form of the decoration had no encircling wreath ; on the rays, instead of the oak-leaves, were small wreaths of laurei and oak, and the design in the central medallion was a figure of Minerva standing, with her left hand resting upon a consul's fasces and her right warding off with a shield the figure of Discord. The background was formed by thirty-four stars. The decoration was surmounted by a trophy of crossed guns, swords, &c, with eagle above, and the ribbon was designed of the national colours, as follows: thirteen alternate red and white stripes, and across the ribbon at the top a broad band of blue (palewise gules and argent and a chief azure). The ribbon was attached to the coat by a clasp badge bearing two cornucopias and the arms of the U.S. The present decoration does not have this badge, but is suspended from a concealed bar brooch. Another special decoration is the " Merit " Medal. This bears on the obverse an eagle, surrounded by the inscription VIRTVTIS ET AVDACIAE MONVMENTVM ET PRAEMIVM, and on the reverse the inscription FOR MERIT, surrounded by an oak-leaf wreath; in the upper part of the exergue is UNITED STATES ARMY, in the lower thirteen stars. The ribbon is red, white and blue, in six stripes, two red stripes divided by a fine white line in the centre, two white on either side of the red and two blue forming the two outer edges. We come now to the war medals proper, issued generally to all those who took part in the events commemorated. The Civil War Medal bears on the obverse the portrait of Lincoln, surrounded by an inscription taken from his famous Second Inau- gural— WITH MALICE TOWARDS NONE, WITH CHARITY FOR ALL. On the reverse is the inscription THE CIVIL WAR, 1861-1865 surrounded by a wreath of oak leaves and olive branches. The ribbon is somewhat similar to that last described; the blue stripe, however, is in the centre, divided as before by a white line, and the red stripes form the outer edges. The " Indian Wars " Medal is interesting from the fact that its reverse was copied on other medals, this making it, in a sense, a " general service " medal. On the obverse is a mounted Indian in war costume bearing a spear, in the upper part of the exergue INDIAN WARS, in the lower a buffalo's skull with arrow-heads on either side. What we have called the " general service " design 1 By Royal Warrant of 31st of May 1895, medals both for distinguished conduct in the field and for long service were author- ized to be awarded by the various colonies possessing regular or volunteer troops, " under regulations similar, as far as circumstances permit, to those now ranking for Our Regular and Auxiliary Forces." on the reverse is composed of (a) an eagle perched on a cannon, supported by five standards (typifying the five great wars of the United States), rifles, Indian shield, spear and arrows, Filipino dagger and Cuban machete; (b) below this trophy the words FOR SERVICE; (c) in exergue, above, UNITED STATES ARMY, below, thirteen stars. Ribbon of the Indian Medal, vermilion, with deep red edges. The " War with Spain " Medal bears on the obverse a castle with two flanking towers; in exergue, above, WAR WITH SPAIN, below, the date 1898, with, on one side of it, a branch of the tobacco- plant, and on the other a sugar-cane. Reverse: As for " Indian Wars " Medal. Ribbon: Centre golden-yellow, with two red stripes close to the edges, the edges themselves being narrow stripes of blue. The " Philippine Insurrection " Medal bears on the obverse a coco-nut palm tree, with, on the left of it, a lamp (typifying En- lightenment), and on the right a balance (representing Justice). This is encircled by the inscription PHILIPPINE INSURRECTION 1899. The ribbon is blue, with two red stripes near the edges. Reverse: As in " Indian Wars " Medal. Another medal connected with the Filipino insurrection is the so-called " Congressional " Medal, which was designed to commemo- rate the participation in the war of regulars and volunteers, North- erners and Southerners, side by side. On the obverse is a colour- party of infantry with the national flag, the fly of the flag extending almost to the edge of the medal. Below is the date, 1899, and above, in a semicircle, PHILIPPINE INSURRECTION. The reverse has the inscription FOR PATRIOTISM, FORTITUDE AND LOYALTY, surrounded by a wreath of oak-leaves (typifying the North) and palm branches (typifying the South). The ribbon is blue, edged by narrow stripes of the national colours, the blue being nearest the edge and the red nearest the centre. The " China Relief " Medal bears on the obverse a Chinese dragon, surrounded by the inscription CHINA RELIEF EX- PEDITION, and at bottom, the date 1900-1. Reverse: As for "Indian Wars" medal. Ribbon: Lemon-yellow, with narrow blue edges. It is interesting to note that in the case of two of these medals the national colours of the enemy (Spain and China) furnish those of the ribbon. The national colours adopted by the Filipinos were red and blue, and these also figure, in spite of their similarity to the U.S. national colours, on the ribbons of the " Filipino " and " Congressional " Medals. The Indian ribbon is, similarly, of the colour of the enemy's war paint — vermilion. See, for illustrations and further details of all these medals and decorations, Journal of the [U.S.] Military Service Institution, May-June 1909. Some of the badges of membership of associations of veterans, such as the Loyal Legion, are allowed to be worn as war medals in uniform. The " Rescue " Medal, in gold or silver, is awarded for bravery in saving life by land or sea. Other Countries. — As has been mentioned above, foreign decorations for military service usually take the form of Orders in many classes. There are, however, numerous long service decorations, which need not be specified. The most famous of the European war and service decorations are the Prussian Iron Cross, the French Medaille Militaire, and the Russian St George's Cross; all these are individual decorations. The Iron Cross is given to officers and soldiers for distinguished service in war. It was founded, in the enthusiasm of the War of Liberation movement, on the loth of March 1813, and revived at the outbreak of the " War for Unity " against France, 19th of July 1870. The cross is a Maltese cross of cast iron edged with silver. The 1813-15 crosses have the initials F. W. (Friedrich Wilhelm) in the centre, a crown in the upper limb of the cross, and the date in the lower. Those of 1870 have W. (Wilhelm) in the centre, crown on the upper and date on the lower limb of the cross. There are certain distinctions between the Grand Cross, which is worn at the neck, the 1st Class Cross which is worn as an Order suspended from a ribbon, and the 2nd Class Cross, which is worn on the breast. In 1870 war medals were given, bearing on the obverse a Maltese cross superposed on a many-pointed star, and having in its centre 1870-1871 within a wreath. The reverse has W. and a crown, with, for combatants the inscription Dem siegreichen Heere, and for non-combatants Fur Pflichttreue im Kriege, in each case sur- rounded by the words Gott war mit uns. Ihm sei die Ehre. The award of the Iron Cross to the rank and file carries with it an allow- ance of 3-6 marks monthly. (H. L. S. ; C. F. A.) MEDEA (Gr. MrjSaa), in Greek legend, a famous sorceress, daughter of Aeetes, king of Colchis. Having been thrown into prison by her father, who was afraid of being injured by her witchcraft, she escaped by means of her art and fled to the temple of Helios the Sun-god, her reputed grandfather. She fell in love with Jason the Argonaut, who reached Colchis at this time, and exacted a terrible revenge for his faithlessness (see Argonauts and Jason). After the murder of Jason's MEDELLIN— MEDFORD 19 second wife and her own children, she fled from Corinth in her car drawn by dragons, the gift of Helios, to Athens, where she married king Aegeus, by whom she had a son, Medus. But the discovery of an attempt on the life of Theseus, the son of Aegeus, forced her to leave Athens (Apollodorus i. 9, 28; Pausanias ii. 3, 6-11; Diod. Sic. iv. 45, 46, 54-56). Accom- panied by her son, she returned to Colchis, and restored her father to the throne, of which he had been deprived by his own brother Perses. Medus was regarded as the eponymous hero and progenitor of the Medes. Medea was honoured as a goddess at Corinth, and was said to have become the wife of Achilles in the Elysian fields. The chief seat of her cult, however, was Thessaly, which was always regarded as the home of magic. As time went on her character was less favourably described. In the case of Jason and the Argonauts, she plays the part of a kindly, good-natured fairy; Euripides, however, makes her a barbarous priestess of Hecate, while the Alexandrian writers depicted her in still darker colours. Some authorities regard Medea as a lunar divinity, but the ancient conception of her as a Thessalian sorceress is probably correct. The popularity of the story of Jason and Medea in antiquity is shown by the large amount of literature on the subject. The original story was probably contained in an old epic poem called Mivvas ToiT/tns, the authorship of which was ascribed to Prodicus of Phocaea. It is given at some length in the fourth Pythian ode of Pindar, and forms the subject of the Argonautica of Apollonius Rhodius. There is a touching epistle {Medea to Jason) in the Heroides of Ovid. Medea is the heroine of extant tragedies of Euripides and Seneca; those of Aeschylus and Ennius (adapted from Euripides) are lost. Neophron of Sicyon and Melanthius wrote plays of the same name. Among modern writers on the same theme may be mentioned T. Corneille, F. Grillparzer and M. Cherubini (opera). The death of Glauce and the murder of her children by Medea Was frequently represented in ancient art. In the famous picture of Tomomachus of Byzantium Medea is deliberating whether or not she shall kill her children; there are copies of this painting in the mural decorations of Herculaneum and Pompeii. See Leon Mallinger, Medee: etude sur la litlerature comparSe, an account of Medea in Greek, Roman, middle age and modern literature (1898); and the articles in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites and Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie. MEDELLIN, a city of Colombia and capital of the department of Antioquia, 1 50 m. N.W. of Bogota, on a plateau of the Central Cordillera, 4823 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1006 estimate), 50,000. Medellin, the foundation of which dates from 1674, stands in the valley of the Porce, a tributary of the Cauca, and is reputed to be one of the healthiest as well as one of the most attractive cities of the republic. It has a university, national college, school of mines and other educational institutions, assaying and refining laboratories, a public library and a mint. The principal industry of the surrounding country is mining, and gold and silver are exported in considerable quantities. Coffee and hides are also exported, but the trade of the city has been greatly impeded by difficulties of transportation. A railway from Puerto Berrio, on the Magdalena, was begun many years before the end of the 19th century, but political 'and financial difficulties interposed and work was suspended when only 43 m. were finished. The completion of the remaining 80 m. was part of a larger scheme proposed in 1906 for bring- ing the Cauca Valley into railway communication with the national capital. MEDEMBLIK, a seaport of Holland, on the Zuider Zee, the terminus of a branch railway from Hoorn, 105 m. S. Pop. (1903), 3012. Once the capital of West Friesland and a pro- sperous town, many of its streets and quays are now deserted, though the docks and basins constructed at the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries could still afford excellent accommodation for many ships. Close to the harbour entrance stands the castle built by Florens V., count of Holland, in 1285. It has been restored, and is used as a court of justice. The West church, formerly called after St Boniface, the apostle of Germany, was once the richest in Friesland, and belonged from an early date to the cathedral chapter at Utrecht, where, until the Reformation, the pastor of Medemblik had a seat in the cathedral. It contains the tomb of Lord George Murray (q.v.). Among the public buildings are the town-hall (17th century), weigh-house, orphanage, the old almshouse, the house (1613) of the Water Commissioners, and a large building formerly belonging to the admiralty and now used as a state lunatic asylum. There are many interesting brick houses, dating chiefly from the first half of the 17th century, with curious gables and picturesque ornamentation, carvings and inscriptions. MEDFORD, a city, including several villages, of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the Mystic river and Lakes, 5 m. N. by W. of Boston. Pop. (1900), 18,244, of whom 4327 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 23,150. The city is served by the Southern Division and a branch of the Western Division of the Boston & Maine railroad, and is connected with Boston and neighbouring cities by electric railways. The Mystic River, a tidewater stream, is navigable for small craft as far as the centre of the city. There are manufactures of considerable importance, including bricks and tiles, woollen goods, carriages and wagons, food products, iron and steel building materials and machinery. The city covers a land area of about 8 sq. m., along the Mystic river, and extending to the hills. The western portion borders the Upper and Lower Mystic Lakes, which are centres for boating. In the north-west portion of Medford is a part of the Middlesex Fells, a heavily wooded reserve belonging to the extensive Metropolitan Park System maintained by the state. The broad parkways of this system also skirt the Mystic Lakes, and here is the greater part (1907, 267 out of 291 acres) of the Mystic River Reservation of the Metropolitan System. Among the city parks are Hastings, Brooks, Logan, Tufts and Magoun. Within the city limits are some of the oldest and most interesting examples of colonial domestic architecture in America, including the so-called " Cradock House " (actually the Peter Tufts house, built in 1677-1680), the " Wellington House," built in 1657, and the " Royall House." The last was built originally by Governor John Winthrop for the tenants of his Ten Hills Farm, and was subsequently enlarged and occupied by Lieut.-Governor John Usher, and by Isaac Royall ' (c. 1720-1781) and his son, Isaac Royall, Jun. Medford has a public library of about 35,200 volumes, housed in the colonial residence (reconstructed) of Thatcher Magoun. The city has also a city hall, a high school and manual training school, an opera house, and one of the handsomest armory buildings in the country (the home of the Lawrence Light Guard), presented by General Samuel C. Lawrence (b. 1832), a liberal benefactor of Medford institutions and the first mayor of the city (1892-1894). The Salem St. Burying Ground, dating from 1689, is one of the oldest burial places in America. The Medford Historical Society maintains a library and museum in the birthplace of Lydia Maria Child. Medford is the seat of Tufts College, planned and founded as a Universalist institu- tion in 1852 by Hosea Ballou, its first president, and others, and named in honour of Charles Tufts (1781-1876), a successful manufacturer, who gave the land on which it stands. The college, which had 1120 students and 217 instructors in 1909, comprises a college of letters, a divinity school, and a school of engineering (all in Medford), and medical and dental schools in Boston; it is now undenominational. Among the twelity college buildings, the Barnum Museum of Natural History (r885) founded by Phineas T. Barnum, and the Eaton Memorial Library (1907), presented by Mrs Andrew Carnegie in memory of her pastor, are noteworthy. The college endowment amounted in 1908 to $2,300,000. Medford was first settled in 1630. A considerable portion of its area formed the plantation of Matthew Cradock (d. 1641), first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Company, who in 1630 1 A prominent Loyalist, whose estate was seized during the War of Independence, but was restored to his heirs about 1800. He endowed the first professorship of law in America — at Harvard College. 20 MEDHANKARA— MEDIA sent out agents to settle his lands. John Winthrop's " Ten Hills Farm," partly within the present limits of Medford, was settled soon afterwards. One of the earliest industries was ship-building, John Winthrop's " Blessing of the Bay," built on the Mystic in 1631-^632, being one of the first keels laid on the continent. In 1802 Thatcher Magoun began building sea-going vessels, and many of the famous privateers of the War of 181 2 were constructed here. By 1845 Medford employed fully a quarter of all the shipwrights of the state. The industry gradually lost its importance after the introduction of steamships, and the last keel was laid in 1873. Another early industry was the distilling of rum; this was carried on for two centuries, especially by the Hall family and, after about 1830, by the Lawrence family, but was discontinued in 1905. The manufac- ture of brick and tile was an important industry in the 17th century. The Cradock bridge, the first toll-bridge in New England, was built across the Mystic in 1638; over it for 1 50 years ran the principal thoroughfare, from Boston to Maine and New Hampshire. The course of Paul Revere's ride lay through Medford Square and High Street, and. within a half- hour of his passage the Medford minute men were on their way to Lexington and Concord, where they took part in the engage- ments with the British. After the Battle of Saratoga many of Burgoyne's officers were quartered here for the winter. The Middlesex Canal was opened through Medford in 1803, and the Boston & Lowell railroad (now the southern division of the Boston & Maine) in i83r. Medford was chartered as a city in 1892. See Charles Brooks, History of the Town of Medford (Boston, 1855 ; enlarged by J. M. Usher, Boston, 1886); Historical Register of the Medford Historical Society (1898 et seq.); Proceedings of the 2J$th Anniversary of the Settlement of Medford (Medford, 1905) ; S. A. Drake, History of Middlesex County (2 vols., Boston, 1880) and Helen Tilden Wild, Medford in the Revolution (Medford, 1903). MEDHANKARA, the name of several distinguished members, in medieval times, of the Buddhist order. The oldest flourished about a.d. 1200, and was the author of the Vinaya Artha Samuccaya, a work in the Sinhalese language on Buddhist canon law. Next to him came Arannaka Medhankara, who presided over the Buddhist council held at Polonnaruwa, then the capital of Ceylon, in 1250. The third Vanaratana Medhan- kara, flourished in 1280, and wrote a poem in Pali, Jina Carita, on the life of the Buddha. He also wrote the Payoga Siddhi. The fourth was the celebrated scholar to whom King Parakrama Bahu IV. of Ceylon entrusted in 1307 the translation from Pali into Sinhalese of the Jalaka book, the most voluminous extant work in Sinhalese. The fifth, a Burmese, was called the Sang- haraja Nava Medhankara, and wrote in Pali a work entitled the Loka Padipa Sura, on cosmogony and allied subjects. See the Journal of the Pali Text Society, 1882, p. 126; 1886, pp. 62, 67, 72; 1890, p. 63; 1896, p. 43; Mahavamsa, ch. xl., verse 85. (T. W. R. D.) MEDHURST, WALTER HENRY (1796-1857), English Con- gregationalist missionary to China, was born in London and educated at St Paul's school. He learned the business of a printer, and having become interested in Christian missions he sailed in 1816 for the London Missionary Society's station at Malacca, which was intended to be a great printing-centre. He became proficient in Malay, in a knowledge of the written characters of Chinese, and in the colloquial use of more than one of its dialects. He was ordained at Malacca in 1819, and engaged in missionary labours, first at Penang, then at Batavia, and finally, when peace was concluded with China in 1842, at Shanghai. There he continued till 1856, laying the foundations of a successful mission. His principal labour for several years, as one of a committee of delegates, was in the revision of existing Chinese versions of the Bible. The result was a version (in High Wen-li) marvellously correct and faithful to the original. With John Stronach he also translated the New Testament into the Mandarin dialect of Nanking. His Chinese-English and English- Chinese dictionaries (each in 2 vols.) are still valuable, and to him the British public owed its understanding of the teaching of Hung-Sew-Tseuen, the leader of the Tai-ping rising (1851-64). The university of New York conferred upon him in 1843 the degree of D.D. Medhurst left Shanghai in 1856 in failing health, and died two days after reaching London, on the 24th of January 1857. His son, Sir Walter Henry Medhurst (1822- 1885), was British consul at Hankow and afterwards at Shanghai. MEDIA, the ancient name of the north-western part of Iran, the country of the Medes, corresponding to the modern provinces of Azerbaijan, Ardelan, Irak Ajemi, and parts of Kurdistan. It is separated from Armenia and the lowlands on the Tigris (Assyria) by the mighty ranges of the Zagros (mountains of Kurdistan; in its northern parts probably called Choatras, Plin. v. 98), and in the north by the valley of the Araxes (Aras). In the east it extends towards the Caspian Sea; but the high chains of mountains which surround the Caspian Sea (the Parachoathras of the ancients and the Elburz, separate it from the coast, and the narrow plains on the border of the sea (Gilan, the country of the Gelae and Amardi, and Mazandaran, in ancient times inhabited by the Tapuri) cannot be reckoned as part of Media proper. The greater par t of Media is a mountain- ous plateau, about 3000-5000 ft. above the sea; but it contains some fertile plains. The climate is temperate, with cold winters, in strong contrast to the damp and unwholesome air of the shores of the Caspian, where the mountains are covered with a rich vegetation. Media contains only one river, which reaches the sea, the Send Rud (Amardus), which flows into the Caspian; but a great many, streams are exhausted after a short course,, and in the north-west is a large lake, the lake of Urumiah or Urmia. 1 From the mountains in the west spring some great tributaries of the Tigris, viz. the Diyala (Gyndes) and the Kerkheh (Choaspes). Towards the south-east Media passes into the great central desert of Iran, which eastwards of Rhagae (mod. Rai, near Teheran), in the region of the " Caspian gates," reaches to the foot of the Elburz chain. On a tract of about 150 m. the western part of Iran is connected with the east (Khoiasan, Parthyaea) only by a narrow district (Choarene and Comisene), where human dwellings and small villages can exist. The people of the Mada, Medes (the Greek form Mrj&oi. is Ionian for Mddoi.) appear in history first in 836 B.C., when the Assyrian conqueror Shalmaneser II. in his wars against the tribes of the Zagros received the tribute of the Amadai (this form, with prosthetic a-, which occurs only here, has many analogies in the names of Iranian tribes). His successors under- took many expeditions against the Medes (Madai). Sargon in 715 and 713 subjected them "to the far mountain Bikni," i.e. the Elburz (Demavend) and the borders of the desert. They were divided into many districts and towns, under petty local chieftains; from the names which the Assyrian inscriptions mention, we learn that they were an Iranian tribe and that they had already adopted the religion of Zoroaster. In spite of different attempts of some chieftains to shake off the Assyrian yoke (cf. the information obtained from prayers to the Sun-god for oracles against these rebels: Knudtzon, Assyrische Gebete an den Sonnengott), Media remained tributary to Assyria under Sargon's successors, Sennacherib, Esar-haddon and Assur-bani- pal. Herodotus, i. 101, gives a list of six Median tribes (yivta), among them the Paraetaceni, the inhabitants of the mountainous highland of Paraetacene, the district of Isfahan, and the Magoi, i.e. the Magians, the hereditary caste of the priests, who in Media took the place of the " fire-kindlers " (athravan) of the Zoroastrian religion, and who spread from Media to Persia and to the west. But the Iranian Medes were not the only inhabitants of the country. The names in the Assyrian inscrip- tions prove that the tribes in the Zagros and the northern parts of Media were not Iranians nor Indo-Europeans, but an aboriginal population, like the early inhabitants of Armenia, perhaps connected with the numerous tribes of the Caucasus. 1 Anc. Mantiane, Strabo xi. 529; Martiane, Ptol. vi. 2, 5, probably identical with the name Matiane, Matiene, by which Herodotus i. 189, 202, iii. 94, v. 49, 52 (in i. 72 and vii. 72 they seem to be a different people in Asia Minor); Polyb. v. 44, 9; Strabo i. 49, ii. 73, xi. 509, 514, 523, 525; Plin vi. 48, designate the northern part of Media. MEDIA We can see how the Iranian element gradually became dominant: princes with Iranian names occasionally occur as rulers of these tribes. But the Gelae, Tapuri, Cadusii, Amardi, Utii and other tribes in northern Media and on the shores of the Caspian were not Iranians. With them Polybius v. 44, 9, Strabo xi. 507, 508, 514, and Pliny vi. 46, mention the Anariaci, whom they consider as a particular tribe; but in reality their name, the " Not-Arians," is the comprehensive designation of all these small tribes. In the second half of the 7th century the Medians gained their independence and were united by a dynasty, which, if we may trust Herodotus, derived its origin from Deioces (q.v.), a Median chieftain in the Zagros, who was, with his kinsmen, transported by Sargon to Hamath (Hamah) in Syria in 715 b.c. The kings, who created the Median Empire, were Phraortes and his son Cyaxares. Probably they were chieftains of a nomadic Median tribe in the desert, the Manda, mentioned by Sargon; for the Babylonian king Nabonidus designates the Medians and their kings always as Manda. The origin and history of the Median Empire is quite obscure, as we possess almost no contemporary information, and not a single monument or inscription from Media itself. Our principal source is Herodotus, who wrongly makes Deioces the first king and uniter of the whole nation, and dates their independence from c. 710 — i.e. from the time when the Assyrian supremacy was at its height. But his account contains real historical elements, whereas the story which Ctesias gave (a list of nine kings, begin- ning with Arbaces, who is said to have destroyed Nineveh about 880 B.C., preserved in Diod. ii. 32 sqq. and copied by many later authors) has no historical value whatever, although some of his names may be derived from local traditions. According to, Herodotus, the conquests of Cyaxares were interrupted by an invasion of the Scythians, who founded an empire in western Asia, which lasted twenty-eight years. From the Assyrian prayers to the Sun-god, mentioned above, we learn that the Median dynasts, who tried rebellions against the Assyrians in the time of Esar-haddon and Assur-bani-pal, were allied with chieftains of the Cimmerians (who had come from the northern shore of the Black Sea and invaded Armenia and Asia Minor), of the Saparda, Ashguza and other tribes; and from Jeremiah and Zephaniah we know that a great invasion of Syria and Palestine by northern barbarians really took place in 626 B.C. With these facts the traditions of Herodotus must in some way be connected; but at present it is impossible to regain the history of these times. The only certain facts are that in 606 Cyaxares succeeded in destroying Nineveh and the other cities of Assyria (see Phraortes and Deioces). From then the Median king ruled over the greatest part of Iran, Assyria and northern Mesopotamia, Armenia and Cappa- docia. His power was very dangerous to their neighbours, and the exiled Jews expected the destruction of Babylonia by the Medes (Isa. xiii., xiv., xxi.; Jerem. 1. Ii.). When, Cyaxares attacked Lydia, the kings of Cilicia and Babylon intervened and negotiated a peace in 585, by which the Halys was established as the boundary. Nebuchadrezzar married a daughter of Cya- xares, and an equilibrium of the great powers was maintained till the rise of Cyrus. About the internal organization of the Median Empire we know only that the Greeks derive a great part of the ceremonial of the Persian court, the costume of the king, &c, from Media. But it is certain that the national union of the Median clans was the work of their kings; and probably the capital Ecbatana (q.v.) was created by them. By the rebellion of Cyrus, king of Persia, against his suzerain Astyages, the son of Cyaxares, in 553, and his victory in 550, the Medes were subjected to the Persians. In the new empire they retained a prominent position; in honour and war they stood next to the Persians; the ceremonial of their court was adopted by the new sovereigns who in the summer months resided in Ecbatana, and many noble Medes were employed as officials, satraps and generals. After the assassination of the usurper Smerdis, a Mede Fravartish (Phraortes), who pretended 21 to be of the race of Cyaxares, tried to restore the Median kingdom, but was defeated by the Persian generals and executed in Ecbatana (Darius in the Behistun inscr.). Another rebellion in 409, against Darius II. (Xenophon, Hellen. i. 2, 19) was of -short duration. But the non-Aryan tribes of the north, especially the Cadusians, were always troublesome; many abortive expe- ditions of the later kings against them are mentioned. Under the Persian rule the country was divided into two satrapies. The south, with Ecbatana and Rhagae (Rai) Media proper, or " Great Media," as.it is often called, formed in Darius' organization the eleventh satrapy (Herodotus iii. 92), together with the Paricanians and Orthocorybantians; the north, the district of Matiane (see above), together with the mountainous districts of the Zagros and Assyria proper (east of the Tigris) was united with the Alarodians and Saspirians in eastern Armenia, and formed the eighteenth satrapy (Herod, ni. 94; cf. v. 49, 52, vii. 72). When the empire decayed and the Carduchi and other mountainous tribes made themselves independent, eastern Armenia became a special satrapy, while Assyria seems to have been united with Media; therefore Xenophon in the Anabasis ii. 4, 27; iii. 5, 15; vii. 8, 25; cf. iii. 4, 8 sqq. always designates Assyria by the name of Media. Alexander occupied Media in the summer of 330; in 328 he appointed Atropates, a former general of Darius (Arrian iii. 8, 4), as satrap (iv. 18, 3, vi, 29, 3), whose daughter was married to Perdiccas in 324 (Arrian vii. 4, S ). In the partition of his empire, southern Media was given to the Macedonian Peithon; but the north, which lay far off and was of little importance for the generals who fought for the inheritance of Alexander, was left to Atropates. While southern Media with Ecbatana passed to the rule of Antigonus, and afterwards (about 310) to Seleucus I.; Atropates maintained himself in his satrapy and succeeded in founding an independent kingdom. Thus the partition of the country, which the Persian had introduced, became lasting; the north was named Atropatene (in Plin. vi. 42, Atrapatene; in Ptolem. vi. 2, 5, Tropatene; in Polyb s v. 44 and 55 corrupted in ra ffarpajrua KaKov/itva) , after the founder of the dynasty, a name which is preserved in the modern Azerbaijan; cf. Noldeke, " Atropatene," in Zeitschrift der deutscken morgenl. Gesellschaft, 34, 692 sqq. and Marquart, Eranshahr, p. 108 sqq. The capital was Gazaca in the central plain, and the strong castle Phraaspa (Dio Cass. xlix. 26; Plut. Anton. 38; Ptol. vi. 2, 10) or Vera (Strabo xi. 523), probably identical with the great ruin Takhti Suleiman, with remains of Sassanid fire-altars and of a later palace. The kings had a strong and warlike army, especially cavalry (Polyb. v. 55; Strabo xi. 253). Nevertheless, King Artabazanes was forced by Antiochus the Great in 220 to conclude a disadvantageous treaty (Polyb. v. 55), and in later times the rulers became in turn dependent on the Parthians, on Tigranes of Armenia, and in the time of Pompey who defeated their king Darius (Appian, Mithr. 108), on Antonius (who invaded Atropatene) and on Augustus of Rome. In the time of Strabo (a.d. 17), the dynasty existed still (p. 523); in later times the country seems to have become a Parthian province. Atropatene is that country of western Asia which was least of all influenced by Hellenism; there exists not even a single coin of its rulers. But the opinion of modern authors— that it had been a special refuge of Zoroastrianism— is based upon a wrong etymology of the name (which is falsely explained as " country of fire-worship "), and has no foundation whatever. There ^can be no doubt that the kings adhered to the Persian religiSn; but it is not probable that it was deeply rooted among their subjects, especially among the non-Aryan tribes. Southern Media remained a province of the Seleucid Empire for a century and a half, and Hellenism was introduced every- where. " Media is surrounded everywhere by Greek towns, in pursuance of the plan of Alexander, which protect it against the neighbouring barbarians," says Polybius (x. 27). Only Ecbatana retained its old character. But Rhagae became a Greek town, Europus; and with it Strabo (xi. 524) names Laodicea, Apamea^ Heraclea or Achais (cf. Plin. vi. 48). Most of them were founded 22 MEDIATION—-MEDIATIZATION by Seleucus I. and his son Antiochus I. In 221, the satrap Molon tried to make himself independent (there exist bronze coins with his name and the royal title), together with his brother Alexander, satrap of Persis, but they were defeated and killed by Antiochus the Great. In the same way, in 161, the Median* satrap Timarchus took the diadem and conquered Babylonia; on his coins he calls himself " the great king Timarchus"; but this time again the legitimate king, Demetrius I., succeeded in subduing the rebellion, and Timarchus was slain. But with Demetrius I. the dissolution of the Seleucid Empire begins, which was brought on chiefly by the intrigues of the Romans, and shortly afterwards, about 150, the Parthian king, Mithradates I. (q.v.), conquered Media (Justin xli. 6). From this time Media remained subject to the Arsacids, who changed the name of Rhagae, or Europus, into Arsacia (Strabo xi. 524), and divided the country into five small provinces (Isidorus Charac). From the Arsacids or Parthians, it passed in a.d. 226 to the Sassanids, together with Atropatene. By this time the old tribes of Aryan Iran had lost their character and had been amalgamated into the one nation of the Iranians. The revival of Zoroastrianism, which was enforced everywhere by the Sassanids, completed this development. It was only then that Atropatene became a principal seat of fire-worship, with many fire-altars. Rhagae now became the most sacred city of the empire and the seat of the head of the Zoroastrian hierarchy; the Sassanid Avesta and the tradition of the Parsees therefore consider Rhagae as the home of the family of the Prophet. Henceforth the name of Media is used only as a geographical term and begins to disappear from the living language; in Persian traditions it occurs under the modern form Mah (Armen. Mai; in Syriac the old name Madai is preserved; cf. Marquart, Eranshahr, 18 seq.). For Mahommedan history see Caliphate; for later history Seljuks and Persia. (Ed. M.) MEDIATION (Lat. medius, middle), in the international sense, the intervention of a third power, on the invitation or with the consent of two other powers, for the purpose of arranging differences between the latter without recourse to war. Mediation may also take place after war has broken out, with a view to putting an end to it on terms. In either case the mediating power negotiates on behalf of the parties who invoke or accept its aid, but does not go farther. Unlike an arbitrating power the mediator limits his intervention to suggestion and advice. His action is liable to be arrested at any time at the will of either party unless otherwise agreed, in which case to arrest it prematurely would be a breach of good faith. The difference between mediation and arbitration may be stated in the words of the Digest (lib. iv. tit. 8, § 13): " Recepisse autem arbitrium videtur, ut ait Pedius, qui judicis partes suscepit finemque se sua sententia controversiis imposi- turum pollicetur. Quod si hactenus intervenit ut experiretur an concilio suo vel auctoritate discuti litem paterentur, non videtur arbitrium recepisse." Some writers distinguish mediation from " good offices," but the distinction is of little practical value. We may, if we please, regard " good offices " as inchoate mediation, and " mediation " as good offices brought to the birth. Thus we may say that a third power renders " good offices " when it brings the parties together so as to make diplomatic negotia- tions between them possible; whilst if it takes an active part in those negotiations it becomes for the time being a mediator. The spontaneous yet successful effort made by President Roosevelt in 1905 to bring together the Russian and Japanese governments, and to secure their appointing delegates to discuss terms of peace, although not strictly mediation, was closely akin to it. Of successful mediation in the strict sense there have been many instances: that of Great Britain, in 1825, between Portugal and Brazil; of France, in 1849-1850, when differences arose between Great Britain and Greece ; of the Great Powers, in 1 868-1869, when the relations of Greece and Turkey were strained to breaking-point by reason of the insurrection in Crete; of Pope Leo XIII., in 1885, between Germany and Spain in the matter of the Caroline Islands. In these cases mediation averted war. The Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the war between Chile and Peru in 1882, and that between Greece and Turkey in 1897, are instances of wars brought to a close through the mediation of neutral powers. Mediation has also been occasion- ally employed where differences have arisen as to the interpreta- tion of treaties or as to the mode in which they ought to be carried out: as when Great Britain mediated between France and the United States with regard to the Treaty of Paris of the 4th of July 1830. In one case at least mediation has been successful after a proposal for arbitration had failed. In 1844, when war between Spain and Morocco was threatened by reason of the frequent raids by the inhabitants of the Rif on the Spanish settlement of Ceuta, Spain declined arbitration on the ground that her rights were too clear for argument. But both she and Morocco subsequently accepted joint mediation at the hands of Great Britain and France. The cause of mediation was considerably advanced by the Declaration of Paris of 1856. The plenipotentiaries of Great Britain, France, Austria, Russia, Sardinia and Turkey recorded in a protocol, at the instance of Lord Clarendon, their joint wish that " states between which any misunderstanding might arise should, before appealing to arms, have recourse so far as circum- stances might allow {en tant que les drconstances I'admettraient) to the good offices of a friendly power." Article 8 of the Treaty of Paris, concluded in the same year, stipulated that " if there should arise between the Sublime Porte and one or more of the other signing powers any misunderstanding which might endanger the maintenance of their relations, the Porte and each of such powers, before having recourse to the use of force, shall afford the other contracting parties the opportunity of preventing such as extremity by means of mediation." These precedents (in which it will be seen that " good offices " and " mediation " are used interchangeably) were followed in the general act agreed to at the Conference held at Berlin in 1884-1885 the object of which was to secure religious and commercial liberty and to limit warlike operations in the Congo basin. A special form of mediation was proposed by a delegate from the United States at the Peace Conference held at the Hague in 1899, and was approved by the representatives of the powers there assembled. The clause in which this proposal was embodied provided in effect that, whenever there is danger of a rupture between two powers, each of them shall choose a third power to which these differences shall be referred, and that, pending such reference, for a period not exceeding thirty days (unless the time is extended by agreement) the powers at issue shall cease to negotiate with each other and leave the dispute entirely in the hands of the mediating powers. The powers thus appealed to occupy a position analogous to that of seconds in a duel, who are authorized to arrange an " affair of honour " between their principals. This novel device has the advantage of toning down, if not of eliminating, personal and national prejudices by which controversy is frequently em- bittered. It also gets over the difficulty, often met with in arbitration, of choosing a referee satisfactory to both parties. The closer the relations between states become, the more their commercial interests are intertwined, the larger the part which mediation seems destined to play. It is true that states which have accepted the intervention of a mediator remain free to adopt or reject any advice he may give, but the advice ef a disinterested power must always add considerable moral weight " to the side towards which it inclines. (M. H. C.) MEDIATIZATION (Ger. Mediatisierung, from Lat. mediatus, mediate, middle), the process by which at the beginning of the 19th century, a number of German princes, hitherto sovereign as holding immediately of the emperor, were deprived of their sovereignty and mediatized by being placed under that of other sovereigns. This was first done on a large scale in 1803, when by a recess of the imperial diet many of the smaller fiefs were mediatized, in order to compensate those German princes who had been forced to cede their territories on the left bank of the MEDICAL EDUCATION 23 Rhine to France. In 1806 the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine involved an extension of this mediatizing process, though the abolition of the empire itself deprived the word " mediatization " of its essential meaning. After the downfall of Napoleon the powers were besieged with petitions from the mediatized princes for the restoration of their " liberties "; but the congress of Vienna (181 5) further extended the process of mediatization by deciding that certain houses hitherto immediate (i.e. Salm, Isenburg, Leyen) should only be represented mediately in the diet of the new Confederation. On the other hand, at Aix-la-Chapelle (1818) the powers, in response to the representations of the aggrieved parties, admonished the German sovereigns to respect the rights of the mediatized princes subject to them. Of these rights, which included the hereditary right to a seat in the estates, the most valued is that of Ebenburtigkeit (equality of birth), which, for purposes of matrimonial alliance, ranks the mediatized princes with the royal houses of Europe. See August Wilhelm Heffter, Die Sonderrechte der Souveranen und der Mediatisirten; vormals reichsstandischen Hduser Deutschlands (Berlin, 1871). The mediatized families are included in the Almanack deGotha. MEDICAL EDUCATION. Up to 1858 each University, Royal College of Physicians or of Surgeons, and Apothecaries' areat Hall in Great Britain and Ireland laid down its Britain and own regulations for study and examination, and ' granted its degree or licence without any State supervision. In that year, pursuant to the Medical Act, 21 & 22 Vict. c. 90, the General Medical Council of Medical Education and Registration was established, consisting of twenty-three members, of whom seventeen were appointed by the various licensing bodies and six by the Crown. This number -was increased by the amended act of 1886 to twenty- nine, three of the six additional members being elected by the profession as " direct " representatives. The object of the act was " to enable persons requiring medical aid to distinguish qualified from unqualified practitioners." To this end the " Medical Register " was established, on which no person's name could be inscribed who did not hold a diploma or licence from one or more of the licensing bodies after examination. By the 1886 act a qualifying examination was defined as "an examination in medicine, surgery, and midwifery," conducted by universities or by medical corporations, of which one .must be capable of granting a diploma in medicine, and one in surgery. The Council is authorized to require from the licensing bodies information as to courses of study and examinations, and generally as to the requisites for obtaining qualifications; and to visit and inspect examinations either personally or by deputy. If the visitors think the course of study and exami- nation of any licensing body is not sufficient to ensure that candidates obtaining its qualification possess the requisite knowledge and skill for the efficient practice of their profession the Council, on a report being made, may represent the same to the Privy Council. The Privy Council may, if it sees fit, deprive the accused body of its power to grant registrable qualifications. From this statement it will be seen that the powers of the Council are limited; nevertheless, by their cautious application, and by the loyal manner in which the licensing bodies have acted on the recommendations and suggestions which have from time to time been made, the condition of medical education has been improved; and although there is not a uniform standard of examination throughout the United Kingdom, the Council has ensured that the minimum require- ments of any licensing body shall be sufficient for the production of trustworthy practitioners. One of the first subjects to which the Council applied itself was the establishment of a system of examinations in general" knowledge. Such examinations have to be passed before beginning medical study. On presentation of a certificate to the registrars of the Council, and on evidence being produced that the candidate is sixteen years of age, his name is inscribed on the " Students' Register." The subjects of examinations are: (a) English language, including grammar and composition (marks not exceeding 5% of the total obtainable in this section may be assigned to candidates who show a competent knowledge of shorthand); (b) Latin, including grammar, translation from specified authors, and translation of easy passages not taken from such authors; (e) mathematics, comprising arithmetic; algebra, as far as simple equations inclusive; geometry, the subject-matter of Euclid, Books I., II. and III., with easy deductions; (d) one of the following optional subjects — Greek, French, German, Italian or any other modern language. Certificates are accepted from all the universities of Great Britain and Ireland, from the leading Indian and colonial universities, from government examination boards, and from certain chartered bodies. The German Abiturienten Examen of the gymnasia and reoZ-gymnasia, the French diplomas of Bachelier es Lettres and Bachelier es Sciences, and corresponding entrance examinations to other continental universities are also accepted. As regards professional education, the Council divided its resolu- tions into "requirements" and "recommendations"; the former consisting of demands on the licensing bodies, non-compliance with which renders them liable to be reported to the Privy Council; the latter are regarded merely as suggestions for the general conduct of education and examination. The requirements may be sum- marized as follows: (a) Registration as a medical student, (b) Five years of bona-fide study between the date of registration and the date of the final examination for any diploma entitling the holder to be registered under the Medical Acts, (c) In every course of professional study and examination the following subjects must be contained, the Council offering no opinion as to the manner in which they should be distributed or combined for the purposes of teaching or examination, this being left to the discretion of the bodies or of the student — (i.) physics, including the elementary mechanics of solids and fluids, and the rudiments of heat, light and electricity ; (ii.) chemistry, including the principles of the science, and the details which bear on the study of medicine; (iii.) elementary biology; (iv.) anatomy; (v.) physiology; (vi.) materia medica and pharmacy; (vii.) pathology; (viii.) therapeutics; (ix.) medicine, including medical anatomy and clinical medicine; (x.) surgery, including surgical anatomy and clinical surgery; (xi.) midwifery, including diseases peculiar to women and to new-born children; (xii.) theory and practice of vaccination; (xiii.) forensic medicine; (xiv.) hygiene; (xv.) mental disease, (d) The first of the four years must be passed at a school or schools of medicine recognized by any of the licensing bodies; provided that the first year may be passed at a university or teaching institution where the subjects of physics, chemistry and biology are taught; and that graduates in arts or science of any university recognized by the Council, who shall have spent a year in the study of these subjects, and have passed in them, shall be held to have completed the first of the five years of medical study, (e) The study of midwifery practice must consist of three months' attendance on the indoor practice of a lying-in hospital, or the student must have been present at not less than twenty labours, five of which shall have been conducted throughout under the direct supervision of a registered practitioner. The fifth year of study is intended to be devoted to clinical work and may be passed at any one or more public hospitals or dispen- saries, British or foreign, recognized by the licensing authorities; six months of this year may be passed as a pupil to a practitioner possessing such opportunities of imparting practical knowledge as shall be satisfactory to the medical authorities. This latter method is rarely employed. The " recommendations " of the Council contain suggestions which may or may not be acted on by the bodies. For the most part they are complied with in connexion with the system of practical and clinical teaching. The Council satisfies itself that its requirements are acted on, and that the examinations are " sufficient," by cycles of inspection about every five years. The examination of each licensing body is visited by an inspector, who forwards his report to the Council, which sends each report to the body for its information and remarks. As yet it has never been the duty of the Council to report to the Privy Council that any examination has not been found sufficient.-,.^ Most universities exact attendance at more classes than the colleges and halls; for instance, botany and natural history are taught to their students, who are also examined in them. But with these exceptions the system of professional education is fairly uniform. Since 1875 attendance on " practical " classes has been called for in all subjects. Under this system the larger classes in which the subjects are taught systematically are broken up, and the students are taught the use of apparatus and the employment of methods of investigation and observation. Tutorial instruction is super- imposed on teaching by lecture. Much the same plan is adopted in respect of clinical instruction : not only is the student taught at the bedside by the lecturer, but he receives, either from the house- ' surgeon or house-physician or from a specially appointed clinical 24 MEDICAL EDUCATION Germany. tutor, an insight into methods of examination of diseases, and learns practically the use of the stethoscope and other aids to diagnosis, and of surgical and obstetrical instruments. In fact, it may be sa|d that each subject of instruction is duplicated. If this is taken into account, it must be evident that the time of the student is fully occupied, and the belief is rapidly growing that five years is too short a period of study. As a matter of fact, the average time taken to obtain a British licence to practise is upwards of six years. The probability is that the solution of the difficulty will be found in the inclusion of such subjects as physics, biology and chemistry in a " preliminary scientific " examination, which may have to be under- taken before registration as a medical student, thus leaving the whole five years to be devoted to purely professional study. The German regulations in regard to professional study are few. They are those for the Staats Examen, for which the university degree is no longer necessary. The regu- lations for the admission of candidates to the Staats Examen are contained in the royal proclamations of the 22nd of June 1883. They comprise: (a) Certificate of a course of study at a classical gymnasium of the German Empire. In exceptional cases, the same from a classical gymnasium outside the German empire may be considered sufficient. (For details of the course of study and examinations, see Minutes of the General Medical Council, vol. xxvii. appendix 3.) (b) Certificate from a univer- sity, certifying a course of medical study of at least nine half- years at a university of the German empire, (c) Certificate that the candidate has passed, entirely at a German university, the medical Vorprufung, and thereafter has attended for at least four half-years the medical studies of a university, (d) The special testimony of the clinical directors bearing witness that the candidate has taken part as Praktikant (clerk or dresser) during two half-years at the medical, surgical, and gynaeco- logical clinics; has himself delivered two cases of labour in the presence of his teachers or assistant physicians ; and has attended for a half-year as Praktikant the clinic for diseases of the eye. The medical Vorprufung referred to is necessary alike for the Staats Examen and the degree of Doctor of Medicine. It takes place at the end of the second year (fourth semestre), and includes the subjects of experimental physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, anatomy and physiology. It is conducted by a board appointed yearly by the Minister of Education. No one can practise medicine in France who does not possess the diploma of Doctor of Medicine of a French university. The qualification of Officier de sante is no longer granted. Before he can inscribe as a student of medicine the applicant must have obtained the diplomas of Bachelier es lettres and Bachelier es sciences. Although the course of professional study may be completed in four years, a longer time is generally taken before the student proceeds to the final examination for the doctor's degree. Each year is divided into four trimestres; at each trimeslre the student must make a new inscription. The trimestres are (1) November and December, 56 days; (2) January, February, March, 86 days; (3) April, May, June, 86 days; (4) July, August, 56 days. Practically there are no regulations determining the division of the various subjects, or the number of lectures in each. course, or requiring the student to attend the courses. The medical faculty of each university puts, before the student a scheme recommending a certain order of studies (Division des etudes) for each of the four years of the medical course, and, as a matter of fact, this order of study is enforced by the system of intermediate examinations (Examens du fin d'annie). All the lecture courses are free, as also are the clinics and the hospital service, and there is no system of ascertaining the regularity of attendance at lectures, or of certificate of attend- ance. If, however, the student fails to pass the Examen du fin d'annie he is debarred from making the next trimestral inscrip- tion, and thus loses three months. The lectures are, however, closely attended. In contrast to the freedom in regard to atten- dance on systematic lectures, there are strict direction and control in regard to hospital attendance and practical courses. The student is required to sign a register ad hoc each time he goes in and out. From the beginning of the third year, e.g. from the ninth quarterly inscription, hospital attendance is enforced till the end of the fourth year. No one can renew his trimestral inscription without producing a schedule of his last trimestral Prance. stage, showing that during it he had not absented himself more than five times without explanation. Practical work is obliga- tory during each of the four years. Besides systematic courses of lectures, Conferences are held by the assistant-professors (agreges) in natural history, physiology, general pathology, internal pathology, external pathology. At the end of the first year the student is examined in osteology, myology and the elements of physiology ; at the end of the second year, in anatomy and physiology in all their branches; at the end of the third year, in medicine and surgery ; at the end of the fourth year, an examina- tion is held over the whole field of study. No one is allowed to enter on the study of medicine without passing the Artium examen of a secondary school. This is the equivalent of the German Abiturienten Examen of enm „^ a classical gymnasium. After study for two semestres an examination must be passed in psychology, logic and history. The special professional examinations consist of (1) preliminary scientific, in botany, zoology, physics, chemistry; (2) first special or professional, anatomy (orally and by dissections), physiology, and pharmacology; (3) second special or professional, written examinations in medicine, surgery, medical jurisprudence; practical and oral in operative surgery, in clinical medicine, and clinical surgery; and oral in pathological anatomy, medicine, surgery; and midwifery. The completion of the full medical course takes six years, of which the first two are devoted to the study of the natural sciences. Authorities. — The history of the development of medical educa- tion from the earliest times down to 1894 will be found treated of generally in Puschmann's Geschichte des medicinischen Unterrichts (Leipzig, 1889-1905) translated by E. H. Hare (London, 1891). Those desiring more special information on the subject in regard to the details of British institutions should consult the annals of the various universities and colleges of Great Britain and Ireland. The following works supply much interesting information regarding the gradual rise and development of teaching and examination: Annals of the Barber Surgeons, by Sydney Young (1890); History of the Royal College of Surgeons of Ireland, by Cameron (1886); Early Days of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, by Peel Ritchie (1899); Historical Sketch of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh, by Gairdner (i860) ; Memorials of the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow, by Duncan (1896); The Story of the Univer- sity of Edinburgh, by Sir A. Grant (1884); University of Glasgow, by Stewart (1891). (J. B. T.) As late as 1880 medical education in the United States was in a deplorable condition. In the early history of the country, before and shortly after the beginning of the 19th century, the few medical colleges had shown a dis- states. position to require a liberal education on the part of those who entered upon their courses, and some effort was made, through the agency of state boards, to control the licence to practise. But as the country increased in population and wealth preliminary requirements were practically abolished, the length of the courses given each year was shortened to four or five months or less, and in the second and final year there was simply a repe-r tition of the courses given during the first year. This is to be attributed mainly to the fact that there was no general national or state supervision of medical training. Medical colleges could obtain incorporation under state laws without difficulty, and brought considerable advantages in the way of prestige and increased practice to those concerned. That the existence of a college depended solely upon the fees of the students encouraged the tendency to make both entrance and graduation requirements as easy as possible, especially as there was no state supervision, and the mere possession of a diploma entitled the holder to practise. Fortunately, during this period the practical character of the clinical instruction given in the better colleges fitted tn"»- graduates in some measure for the actual necessities of practice, while the good traditions of medicine as a learned profession stimulated those who adopted it as a career, so that in the main "the body of practitioners deserved and held the confidence and respect of the community. From the middle of the 15th century there has been constant agitation on the part of the physicians themselves for an improvement in medical education. The first notable result was an increase in the time of instruction from two to three years (Chicago Medical College, 1859; Harvard Medical School, 187 1), the lengthening of each session to six MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE months or more, and the introduction of graded courses instead of a repetition of the same lectures every year. The improve- ment thus begun became marked during the decade 1 890-1 900, amounting almost to a revolution in the rapidity with which the course of instruction was amplified. Many factors co-oper- ated to produce this result: the general development of scientific instruction in the colleges and secondary schools, the influence of the large number of medical graduates who completed their training by study in European schools, the adoption by many states of stringent regulations regarding the licence to practise within their borders, the good examples set by many leading schools in voluntarily raising their requirements for entrance and graduation, and, perhaps above all in its general effect, the agitation continually maintained by several national or state associations which in a measure have exerted the general regulating control that in other countries has been enforced by national legislation. Among the most influential of these associations are the American Medical Association, the American Academy of Medicine, the Association of American Medical Colleges, the Illinois State Board of Health, and the University of the State of New York. The different states make their own general regulations as to the practice of medicine within their borders. Certain states recognize the medical diplomas granted by other states having equivalent standards of examination. Such certificates are generally required to be (a) of graduation from a " reputable medical school," (b) certificates of moral character, (c) the applicant must be at least twenty-one years of age. These enable the candidate to present himself before the state board for the state examination. In many states the applicant must satisfy the board not only as to his professional, but as to his general education. The standing of the various medical schools is usually left to the state boards, each one determining the matter for its own state, consequently a school may confer a degree recognized as reputable in several states but not in others. Only three or four states regulate the chartering of institutions. In other states any body of men may secure articles of incorporation of a college or school by paying the necessary state fee, without question as to the ability of the incorporator to furnish an education. So strong, however, has been the growth of American public opinion that a four^years' course of medical training has become the standard in medical schools, and in the majority this is in addition to one or two years' training in the natural sciences. There are some sixty- five state boards, and many have adopted strong medical practice acts. The standard of preliminary requirements for entrance to the medical schools is being gradually raised, and a large number of the states demand a certificate of a high school education, while the colleges comprising the Association of Medical Colleges, which numbers more than half the American medical schools, accept as an entrance standard a certificate of at least one year's study at a high school. In the report for 1908 of the United States bureau of education of 71 schools, which report the number of theif students having an arts degree, it is stated that a degree was held by only 15% of the candidates in medicine. These students were mostly distributed between the Johns Hopkins Medical School (which from the date of its foundation in 1893 has only admitted college gradu- ates, and has in addition stipulated that candidates shall have a knowledge of French and German and have already completed a year's training in the natural sciences), Harvard Medical School and Columbia University, and the medical departments of the universities of California, Michigan and Chicago (Rush Medical College) require on entrance the equivalent of a two-years' college course, which must include French and German, together with physics, chemistry and biology. This tendency is in accordance with the recommended standard of medical education suggested by the Council of Medical Education and adopted by the House of Delegates of the American Medical Association, of which the following is a summary : — 1. (a) The preliminary of a four-years' high school education or an examination such as would admit to a recognized university. (4) In addition a year of not less than nine months devoted to chemistry, physics and biology and one language (preferably French or German) to be taken at a college of the liberal arts. 2. Previous to entering a medical college every student should re- ceive from the state board a " medical student's entrance certificate " to be given on the production of credentials of training as above. 25 3. Four years of study in a medical college having a minimum of a 30-weeks' course each year, with not less than 30 hours' work per week. 4. Graduation from college to entitle a candidate to present himself for examination before a state board. 5. A satisfactory examination to be passed before the state board. Practically all medical schools admit women, but there are three separate schools of medicine for women: The Women's Medical College of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Women's Medical College, Baltimore, Maryland; New York Medical College and Hospital for Women — the last being one of the eighteen homoeopathic colleges of the United States. Authorities. — J. M. Tower, Contributions to the Annals of Medical Progress and Medical Education in the United States, before and during the War of Independence (Washington Government Printing Office, 1874) ; N. S. Davis, History of Medical Education and Institutions in the United States (Chicago, 1851); Contributions to the History of Medical Education and Medical Institutions in the United States (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1877); J. B. Beck, An Historical Sketch of the State of Medicine in the American Colonies (Albany, 1850); Bulletins of the American Academy of Medicine (The Chemical Publishing Company, Easton, Pa.); H. L. Taylor, " Professional Education in the United States," College Department, University of the State of New York, Bulletin 5, i8qq, and Bulletin 8, iqoo; " Courses of Study in Medical Schools," Report of the Com- missioners of Education (Washington, 1908) ; F. R. Packard, M.D., The History of Medicine in the United States (1901); Journal of American Medical Association (Aug. 14, 1909) ; A. Flexner, Medical Education in the U.S. and Canada (19 10). (W. H. H. ; H. L. H.) MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE, or Forensic Medicine, that branch of state medicine which treats of the application of medical knowledge to certain questions of civil and criminal law. The term " medical jurisprudence," though sanctioned by long usage, is not really appropriate, since the subject is strictly a branch of medicine rather than of jurisprudence; it does not properly include sanitation or hygiene, both this and medical jurisprudence proper being distinct branches of state medicine. The connexion between medicine and the law was perceived long before medical jurisprudence was recognized, or had obtained a distinct appellation. It first took its rise in Germany, and more tardily received recognition in Great Britain. Forensic medicine, or medical jurisprudence proper as distinguished from hygiene, embraces all questions which bring the medical man into contact with the law, and embraces (1) questions affecting the civil rights - Cosimo had a genuine taste for letters. He purchased j,any Greek and Latin manuscripts; he opened the first public library at St Mark's at his own expense, and founded another in the abbey of Fiesole. The Greek refugees from Constantinople found a constant welcome in his palace. During the Council of Florence (1430-1442), Gemistus Pletho spoke to him with enthusi- asm of the Platonic philosophy. Cosimo was so deeply attracted by the theme that he decided to have the young Marsilio Ficino trained in philosophy and Greek learning in order to make a Latin translation of the complete works of Plato. And thus t> MEDICI (FAMILY) 33 version was produced that is still considered one of the best extant, and that Platonic academy was founded which led to such important results in the history of Italian philosophy and letters. On the ist of August 1464 Cosimo breathed his last, at the age of seventy-five, while engaged in listening to one of Plato's dialogues. The concluding years of his life had been years of little happi- ness for Florence. Being old and infirm, he had left the govern- ment to the management of his friends, among whom Luca Pitti was one of the most powerful, and they had ruled with disorder, corruption and cruelty. The lordship of Florence accordingly did not pass without some difficulty and danger into the hands of Piero, surnamed the Gouty, Cosimo's only surviving Qoaty. * legitimate son. Afflicted by gout, and so terribly crippled that he was often only able to use his tongue, the new ruler soon discovered that a plot was on foot to overthrow his power. However, showing far more courage than he was supposed to possess, he had himself borne on a litter from his villa to Florence, defeated his enemies' designs, and firmly re-established his authority. But his success may be mainly attributed to the enormous prestige bequeathed by Cosimo to his posterity. Piero died at the end of five years' reign, on the 3rd of December 1469, leaving two sons, Lorenzo (1440-1492) and Giuliano (1453-1478). The younger, the gentler and less ambitious of the pair, was quickly removed from the world. Lorenzo, on the contrary, at once seized the reins of state with a firm grasp, and was, chronologically, the second of the great men bestowed upon Italy by the house of Medici. In literary talent he was immensely superior to Cosimo, but greatly his inferior in the conduct of the commercial affairs of the house. In politics he had nobler conceptions and higher ambitions, but he was more easily carried away by his passions, less prudent in his revenge, and more disposed to tyranny. He had studied letters from his earliest years under the guidance of Ficino and other leading litterati of the day. At the age of eighteen he visited the different courts of Italy. At his father's death he was only twenty-one years old, but instantly showed his determination to govern Florence with greater despotism than his father or grandfather. He speedily resorted to the system of the balie, and was very dexterous in causing the first to be chosen to suit his purpose. He then proceeded to humiliate the great families and exalt those of little account, and this was the policy he constantly pursued. His younger brother Giuliano, being of a mild and yielding disposition, had only a nominal share in the government. Lorenzo's policy, although prosecuted with less caution, was still the old astute and fortunate policy initiated by Cosimo. But the grandson bestowed no care upon his commercial interests, although squandering his fortune with far greater lavishness. Accordingly he was sometimes driven to help himself frpm the public purse without ever being able to assist it as Cosimo had done. All this excited blame and enmity against him, while his greed in the matter of the alum mines of Volterra, and the subsequent sack of that unhappy city, were crimes for which chere was no excuse. Among his worst enemies were the Pazzi, and, as they formed a very powerful clan, he sought their ruin by competing with them even in business transactions. They were on the point of inheriting the large property of Giovanni Borromeo when Lorenzo hurriedly caused a law to be passed that altered the right of succession. The hatred of the Pazzi was thereby exasperated to fury. And in addition to these things there ensued a desperate quarrel with Pope Sixtus IV., a man of very impetuous temper, who, on endeavouring to erect a state on the frontiers of the Florentine republic for the benefit of his nephews, found a determined and successful opponent in Lorenzo. Consequently the Pazzi and Archbishop Salviati, another enemy of Lorenzo, aided by the nephews of the pontiff, who was himself acquainted with the whole matter, determined to put an end to the family. On the 26th of April 1478, while Giuliano and Lorenzo were attending high mass in the cathedral of Florence, the former was mortally stabbed by conspirators, Lorenzo. but the latter was able to beat back his assailants and escape into the sacristy. His life preserved, and no longer having to share the government with a brother, Lorenzo profited by the opportunity to wreak cruel vengeance upon his foes. Several of the Pazzi and their followers were hanged from the palace windows; others were hacked to pieces, dragged through the streets, and cast into the Arno, while a great many more were condemned to death or sent into exile. Lorenzo seemed willing and able to become a tyrant. But he stopped short of this point. He knew the temper of the city, and had also to look to fresh dangers threatening him from without. The pope had excommunicated him, put Florence under an interdict, and, being seconded by the Neapolitan king, made furious war against the republic. The Florentines began to tire of submitting to so many hardships in order to support the yoke of a fellow- citizen. Lorenzo's hold over Florence seemed endangered. But he rose superior to the difficulties by which he was encom- passed. He boldly journeyed to Naples, to the court of King Ferdinand of Aragon, who was reputed to be as treacherous as he was cruel, and succeeded in obtaining from him an honourable peace, that soon led to a reconciliation with Sixtus. Thus at last Lorenzo found himself complete master of Florence. But, as the balie changed every five years, it was always requisite, in order to retain his supremacy, that he should be prepared to renew the usual manoeuvre at the close of that term and have another elected equally favourable to his aims. This was often a difficult achievement, and Lorenzo showed much dexterity in overcoming all obstacles. In 1480 he compassed the institution of a new council of seventy, which was practically a permanent balla with extended powers, inasmuch as it no* only elected the chief magistrates, but had also the administration of numer- ous state affairs. This permanent council of devoted adherents once formed, his security was firmly established. By this means, the chroniclers tell us, " liberty was buried," but the chief affairs of the state were always conducted by intelligent and experienced men, who promoted the public prosperity. Florence was still called a republic; the old institutions were still preserved, if only in name. Lorenzo was absolute lord of all, and virtually a tyrant. His immorality was scandalous; he kept an army of spies; he frequently meddled in the citizens' most private affairs, and exalted men of the lowest condition to important offices of the state. Yet, as Guicciardini remarks, " if Florence was to have a tyrant, she could never have found a better or more pleasant one," In fact all industry, commerce and public works made enormous progress. The civil equality of modern states, which was quite unknown to the middle ages, was more developed in Florence than in any other city of the world. Even the condition of the peasantry was far more prosperous than elsewhere. Lorenzo's authority was not confined to Tus- cany, but was also very great throughout the whole of Italy. He was on the friendliest terms with Pope Innocent VIII. , from whom he obtained the exaltation of his son Giovanni to the cardinalate at the age of fourteen. This boy-cardinal was after- wards Pope Leo X. From the moment of the decease of Sixtus IV., the union of Florence and Rome became the basis of Lorenzo's foreign policy. By its means he was able to prevent the hatreds and jealousies of the Sforzas of Milan and the Aragonese of Naples from bursting into the open conflict that long threatened, and after his death actually caused, the beginning of new and irreparable calamities. Hence Lorenzo was styled the needle of the Italian compass. - ; But the events we have narrated cannot suffice for trie full comprehension of this complex character, unless we add the record of his deeds as a patron of letters and his achievements as a writer. His palace was the school and resort of illustrious men. Within its walls were trained the two young Medici afterwards known to the world as Leo X. and Clement VII. Ficino, Poliziano, Pico della Mirandola and all members of the Platonic academy were its constant habitues. It was here that Puld gave readings of his Morgante, and Michelangelo essayed the first strokes of his chisel. Lorenzo's intellectual powers were of exceptional strength and versatility. He could speak with xvm. a 34 MEDICI (FAMILY) equal fluency on painting, sculpture, music, philosophy, and poetry. But his crowning superiority over every other Maecenas known to history lay in his active participation in the intellectual labours that he promoted.- Indeed at certain moments he was Lorenzo as positively the leading spirit among the litterati of his a Man of time. He was an elegant prose writer, and was Letters. likewise a poet of real originality. At that period Italians were forsaking erudition in order to forward the revival of the national literature by recurring to the primitive sources of the spoken tongue and popular verse. It is Lorenzo's lasting glory to have been the initiator of this movement. Without being — as some have maintained — a poet of genius, he was certainly a writer of much finish and eloquence, and one of the first to raise popular poetry to the dignity of art. In his Ambra, his Caccia del falcone and his Nencia da Barberino, he gives descriptions of nature and of the rural life that he loved, with the graphic power of an acute and tasteful observer, joined to an ease of style that occasionally sins by excess of homeliness. Both in his art and in his politics he leant upon the people. The more oppressive his government, the more did he seek in his verses to incite the public to festivities and lull it to slumber by sensual enjoyments. In his Ballate, or songs for dancing, and more especially in his carnival songs, a kind of verse invented by himself, Lorenzo displayed all the best qualities and worst defects of his muse. Marvellously and spontaneously elegant, very truthful and fresh in style, fertile in fancy and rich in colour, they are often of a most revolting indecency. And these compositions of one filling a princely station in the city were often sung by their author in the public streets, in the midst of the populace. Lorenzo left three sons — Pietro (1471-1503), Giovanni (1475-1521) and Giuliano (1479-1516). He was succeeded by Pietro, whose rule lasted but for two years. During this brief term he performed no good deeds, and only displayed inordinate vanity and frivolity. His conduct greatly helped to foment the hatred between Lodovico Sforza and Ferdinand of Naples, which hastened the coming of the French under Charles VIII., and the renewal of foreign invasions. No sooner did the. French approach the frontiers of Tuscany than Pietro, crazed with fear, _ fefa ^ hastened to meet them, and, basely yielding to every demand, accepted terms equally humiliating to him- self and the state. But, returning to Florence, he found that the enraged citizens had already decreed his deposition, in order to reconstitute the republic, and was therefore compelled to escape to Venice. His various plots to reinstate himself in Florence were all unsuccessful. At last he went to the south of Italy with the French, was drowned at the passage of the Garigliano in 1503, and was buried in the cloister of Monte Cassino. The ensuing period was adverse to the Medici, for a republican government was maintained in Florence from 1494 to 151 2, and the city remained faithful to its alliance with the French, who were all-powerful in Italy. Cardinal Giovanni, the head of the family, resided in Rome, playing the patron to a circle of litterati, artists and friends, seeking to increase his popularity, and calmly waiting for better days. The battle of Ravenna wrought the downfall of the fortunes of France in Italy, and led to the rise of those of Spain, whose troops entered Florence to destroy the republic and reinstate the Medici. Pietro had now been dead for some time, leaving a young son, Lorenzo (149 2-1 5 19), who was afterwards duke of Urbino. The following year (isr3) Cardinal Giovanni was elected pope, and assumed the name of Cardinal ^ jeo ^ - ^ e accor dingly removed to Rome, leaving Giovanni his brother Giuliano with his nephew Lorenzo in (LeoX.), Florence, and accompanied by his cousin Giulio, aiuiiano, wno was a natural son f the Giuliano murdered in the conspiracy of the Pazzi, and was soon destined to be a cardinal and ultimately a pope. Meanwhile his kinsmen in Florence continued to govern that city by means of a bolia. And thus, being masters of the whole of central Italy, the Medici enjoyed great authority throughout the country and their ambition plumed itself for still higher flights. This was the moment when Niccolo Machiavelli, in his treatise The Prince, counselled them to accomplish the unity of Italy by arming the whole nation, and expelling its foreign invaders. Leo X., who is only indirectly connected with the history of Florence, gave his name to the age in which he lived in conse- quence of his magnificent patronage of art and letters in Rome. But he was merely a clever amateur, and had not the literary gifts of his father Lorenzo. He surrounded himself with versi- fiers and inferior writers, who enlivened his board and accom- panied him wherever he went. He liked to lead a gay and untroubled life, was fond of theatrical performances, satires and other intellectual diversions. His patronage of the fine arts, his genuine affection for Raphael, and the numerous works he caused to be executed by him and other artists, have served to confer an exaggerated glory on his name. He had not the remotest idea of the grave importance of the Reformation, which indeed he unconsciously promoted by his reckless and shameless sale of indulgences. The whole policy of Pope Leo X. consisted in oscillating between France and Spain, in always playing fast and loose, and deceiving both powers in turn. Yet the evil results of this contemptible policy never seemed to disturb his mind. He finally joined the side of the emperor Charles V., and in 1521, at the time of the defeat of the French by the Spanish troops on the river Adda, he ceased to breathe at his favourite villa of Magliana. Giuliano dei Medici had died during Leo's reign, in I5r6, without having ever done anything worthy of record. He was the husband of Philiberta of Savoy, was duke of Nemours, and left a natural son, Ippolito dei Medici (1511-1535), who afterwards became a cardinal. Lorenzo, being of more ambitious temper, was by no means content to remain at the head of the Florence government hampered by many restrictions imposed by republi- can institutions, and subject to the incessant control of the pope. In his eagerness to aggrandize his kinsmen, the latter had further decided to give Lorenzo the duchy of Urbino, and formally invested him in its rights, after expelling on false pretences its legitimate lord, Francesco Maria della Rovere. This prince, however, soon returned to Urbino, where he was joyously welcomed by his subjects, and Lorenzo regained possession only by a war of several months, in which he was wounded. In 15 19 he also died, worn out by disease and excess. By his marriage with Madeleine de la Tour d'Auvergne, he had one daughter, Caterina dei Medici (1519-1589), married in 1533 to Henry, duke of Orleans, afterwards king of France. She played a long and sinister part in the history of that country. Lorenzo also left a natural son named Alessandro, inheriting the frizzled hair and projecting lips of the negro or mulatto slave who had given him birth. His miserable death will be presently related. Thus the only three surviving representatives of the chief branch of the Medici, Cardinal Giulio, Ippolito and Alessandro were all of illegitimate birth, and left no legitimate heirs. Cardinal Giulio, who had laboured successfully for the rein- statement of his family in Florence in 151 2, had been long attached to the person of Leo X. as his trusted factotum and com- panion. He had been generally regarded as the mentor of the pope, who had no liking for hard work. But in fact, his frivolity notwithstanding, Leo X. always followed his own inclinations. He had much aptitude for command, and pursued his shuffling policy without any mental anxiety. Giulio, on the contrary, shrank from all responsibility, muddled his brains in weighing the reasons for and against every possible decision, and was therefore a better tool of government in others' hands than he was fit to govern on his own account. When Giuliano a*rld Lorenzo died, the pope appointed the cardinal to the government of Florence. In that post, restricted within the limits imposed by republican institutions, and acting under the continual direction of Rome, he performed his duties fairly well. He caressed the citizens with hopes of extended liberties, cardinal which, although never destined to be fulfilled, long aiuilo served to keep men's minds in a pleasant flutter of (.Clement expectation; and when the more impatient spirits "'* attempted to raise a rebellion he speedily quenched it in blood. When, after the death of Leo X. and the very brief pontificate MEDICI (FAMILY) 35 of Adrian VI., he was elected pope (1523) under the name of Clement VII., he entrusted the government of Florence to Cardinal Silvio Passerini conjointly with Alessandro and Ippo- lito, who were still too young to do much on their own account. The pontificate of Leo X. had been a time of felicity to himself if of disaster to Italy and the Church. The reign of Clement, on the contrary, was fatal to himself as well. His policy, like that of Leo X., consisted in perpetual oscillation between France and Spain. By his endeavours to trick all the world, he fre- quently ended in being tricked himself. In 1525 he was the ally of the French, who then suffered a terrible defeat at Pavia, where their king Francis I. was taken prisoner. The armies of Charles V. triumphantly advanced, without Clement being able to oppose any effectual resistance. Both Rome and Florence were threatened with a fearful catastrophe. Thus far we have had no occasion to speak of the younger branch of the Medici, descended from Lorenzo, brother to Cosimo the elder. Always in obscurity, and hitherto held in check by the elder line, it first entered the arena of history when the other was on the point of extinction. In fact the most valiant captain of the papal forces was Giovanni dei Medici, afterwards known by the name of Giovanni delle Bande Nere. His father was Giovanni, son of Pier Francesco, who was the son of Lorenzo, the brother of Cosimo dei Medici. History has little to tell of the elder Giovanni; but his wife Caterina Sforza, of whom he was the third husband, was a woman of more than masculine vigour. Giovanni dei Medici married her in 1497, but died in 1498, leaving her with one son who was christened Lodovico, but after- wards took his father's name of Giovanni (1498- °^ v ""' 1526). Trained to arms from his earliest years, this Nere. youth inherited all the energy of his mother, whose Sforza blood seemed to infuse new life into the younger branch of the Medici. Notwithstanding his extreme youth, he had already achieved the title of the best captain in Italy. He had always fought with immense dash and daring, and was devotedly loved and obeyed by his soldiery. He was the only leader who opposed a determined resistance to the imperial forces. He was seriously wounded at Pavia when fighting on the French side. On his recovery he joined the army of the League, and was much enraged by finding that the duke of Urbino, commander of the Venetian and papal forces, would never decide on attacking. When the imperial troops were struggling through the marshes of Mantua, surrounded on every side, and without stores or ammunition, Giovanni could not resign himself to inactivity like his colleagues in command. He was ignorant that the imperialists had just received supplies and artillery from the duke of Ferrara, and therefore daringly attacked them with a small body of men without taking any, precautions for defence. One of the first shots fired by the enemy injured him so fatally that he died a few days after. He was married to Maria Salviati, by whom he had one son, Cosimo (1510-1574), who became the first grand duke of Tuscany, and indeed the founder of the grand duchy and the new dynasty. Meanwhile the imperial army pursued its march upon Rome, captured the Eternal City after a few hours' combat, and cruelly sacked it during many days (1527). Thanks to his perpetual shuffling and excessive avarice, the pope found himself utterly forsaken, and was obliged to seek refuge in the castle of St Angelo, whence he only effected his escape after some months. He then signed a treaty of alliance with the emperor (1529), who sent an army to besiege Florence and restore the Medici, whom the people had expelled in 1527 on the re-establishment of the republic. After an heroic defence, the city was forced to surrender (1530); and, although it was expressly stipulated that the ancient liberties of Florence should be respected, every one foresaw that the conditions would be violated. In fact, pope and emperor immediately began to dispute as to which should be the new lord of the city. Clement VII. had inherited the traditional family dislike for the younger branch of his kin, and so the choice lay between the two bastards Ippolito and Alessandro. The former being a cardinal, the latter was chosen. Alessandro, who already bore the title of duke of Citta di Penna, came to Florence in 1531, and by imperial patent was nominated head of the republic. According to the terms of this patent, the former liberty enjoyed under the Medicean . . . rule was to remain intact. But no previous ruler of the city had enjoyed hereditary power confirmed by imperial patent, and such power was incompatible with the existence of a republic. Moreover, Clement VII. showed dis- satisfaction with the uncertainty of the power conferred upon his kinsman, and finally succeeded in obtaining additional privileges. On the 4th of April 1532 a parliament was convoked for the last time in Florence, and, as usual, approved every measure proposed for acceptance. Accordingly a new council was formed of two hundred citizens elected for life, forty-eight of which number were to constitute a senate. Alessandro, as duke of the republic, filled the post of gonfalonier, and carried on the government with the assistance of three senators, changed every three months, who took the place of the suppressed signory. The duke's chief advisers, and the contrivers of all these arrangements were Baccio Valori, Francesco Vettori and above all Francesco Guicciardini — men, especially the latter two, of lofty political gifts and extensive influence. The mind and character of Duke Alessandro were as yet comparatively un- known. At first he seemed disposed to rule with justice and prudence. But encountering difficulties that he was unable to overcome, he began to neglect the business of the state, and acted as if the sole function of government consisted in lulling the people by festivities, and corrupting it by the dissolute life of which he set the example. The question of the moment was the transformation of the old republican regime into a princedom; as an unavoidable result of this change it followed that Florence was no longer to be the ruling city to whose inhabitants alone belonged the monopoly of political office. When the leading Florentine families realized not only that the republic was destroyed, but that they were reduced to equality with those whom they had hitherto regarded as their inferiors and subjects, their rage was indescribable, and hardly a day passed without the departure of influential citizens who were resolved to achieve the overthrow of their new ruler. They found a leader in Cardi- nal Ippolito dei Medici, who was then in Rome, embittered by the preference given to Alessandro, ippolito. and anxious to become his successor with the least possible delay. Under the pressure of terror the duke at once became a tyrant. He garrisoned the different cities, and began the erection in Florence of the Fortezza da Basso, built chiefly at the expense of Filippo Strozzi, who afterwards met his death within its walls. In 1534 Clement VII. died, and the election fell on Paul III., from whom Cardinal Ippolito hoped to obtain assistance. Accordingly the principal Florentine exiles were despatched to , Charles V. with complaints of Alessandro's tyranny and his shameless violation of the terms upon which the city had surren- dered. Cardinal Ippoloto also represented his own willingness to carry on the government of Florence in a more equitable manner, and promised the emperor a large sum of money. Reply being delayed by the emperor's absence, he became so impatient that he set out to meet Charles in Tunis, but on the 10th of August 1535 died suddenly at Itri, poisoned by order of Alessandro. Such at least was the general belief, and it was confirmed by the same fate befalling other enemies of the duke about the same time. On the emperor's return from Africa, the exiles presented themselves to him in Naples, and the vener- able patriot Jacopo Nardi pleaded their cause. Duke Alessan- dro, being cited to appear, came to Naples accompanied by Francesco Guicciardini, who by speaking in his defence rendered himself odious to all friends of liberty, and irretrievably tarnished his illustrious name. The cardinal being dead, it was hard to find a successor to Alessandro. On this account, and perhaps to some extent through the emperor's personal liking for the duke, the latter rose higher than before in the imperial favour, married Margaret of Austria, the natural daughter of Charles, 36 MEDICI (FAMILY) and returned to Florence with increased power. And now Alessandro indulged unchecked in the lowest excesses of tyranny, and although so recently a bridegroom gave way to increased libertinism. His whole time was passed in vicious haunts and in scandalous adventures. In order to conceal the obscurity of his birth, he left his mother to starve, and it was even asserted that he finally got rid of her by poison. His constant associate in this disgraceful routine was his distant kinsman Lorenzo, generally known as Lorenzino dei Medici. Of the younger branch of the Medici, the del Medld. latter was second cousin of the Cosimo already mentioned as the son of Giovanni delle Bande Nere. He had much culture and literary talent, but led an irregular life, sometimes acting like a madman and sometimes like a villain. He was a writer of considerable elegance, the author of several plays, one of which, the Aridosio, was held to be among the best of his age, and he was a worshipper^ antiquity. Not- withstanding these tastes, when in Rome he knocked off the heads of some of the finest statues of the age of Adrian, an act by which Clement VII. was so incensed that he threatened to have him hanged. Thereupon Lorenzino fled to Florence, where he became the friend of Duke Alessandro, and his partner in the most licentious excesses. They went together to houses of ill-fame, and violated private dwellings and convents. They often showed themselves in public mounted on the same horse. All Florence eyed them with disgust, but no one foresaw the tragedy that was soon to take place. On the evening of the 5th of January 1537, after a day passed in the usual excesses, Lorenzino led the duke to his own lodging, and left him there, promising shortly to return with « S fl*o/ i,a " tne ^k °^ L eonar do Ginori. Alessandro, worn out Alessandro. by the exertions of the day, fell asleep on the couch while awaiting Lorenzino's return. Before long the latter came accompanied by a desperado known as the Scoron- concolo, who aided him in falling on the sleeper. Roused by their first thrusts, the duke fought for his life, and was only despatched after a violent struggle. The murderers then lifted the body into a bed, hid it beneath the clothes, and, Lorenzino having attached a paper to it bearing the words vincit amor patriae, laudumque immensa cupido, they both fled to Venice. In that city Lorenzino was assassinated some ten years later, in 1548, at the age of thirty-two, by order of Alessandro's successor. He wrote an Apologia, in which he defended himself with great skill and eloquence, saying that he had been urged to the deed solely by love of liberty. For this reason alone he had followed the example of Brutus and played 'the part of friend and courtier. The tone of this Apologia is so straightforward, sometimes even so eloquent and lofty, that we should be tempted to give it credence were it possible to believe the assertions of one who not only by his crime but by the infamy of his previous and subse- quent career completely gave the lie to his vaunted nobility of purpose. By Alessandro's death the elder branch of the Medici became extinct, and thus the appearance of the younger line was heralded by a bloody crime. When the duke's absence from his own palace was discovered on the morning of the 6th of January he was at first supposed to _ have spent the night with one of his mistresses; but soon, some alarm being felt, search was made, and Cardinal Cybo was the first to discover the murder. Enjoining the strictest secrecy, he kept the corpse concealed for three days, and then had it interred in the sacristy of San Lorenzo. Mean- while he had hastily summoned Alessandro Vitelli and the other captains, so that, by the time Alessandro's death was made public, the city was already filled with troops. The cardinal then convoked the council of forty-eight to decide upon a suc- cessor. Alessandro's only issue was a natural son named Giulio, aged five. The cardinal favoured his election, in the hope of keeping the real sovereignty in his own hands. But he speedily saw the impossibility of carrying out a design that was ridiculed by all. Guicciardini, Vettori and others of the leading citizens favoured the choice of Cosimo, the son of Giovanni delle Bande Nere. He was already in Florence, was aged seventeen, was keen-witted and aspiring, strong and handsome in person, heir to the enormous wealth of the Medici, and, by the terms of the imperial patent, was Alessandro's lawful successor. Charles V. approved the nomination of Cosimo, who without delay seized the reins of government with a firm grasp. Like Alessandro, he was named head of the republic; and Guicciardini and others who had worked hardest in his cause hoped to direct him and keep him under their control. But Cosimo soon proved that, his youth notwithstanding, he was resolved to rule unshackled by republican forms and unhampered by advisers disposed to act as mentors. The Florentines had now an absolute prince who was likewise a statesman of eminent ability. On learning the death of Alessandro and the election of Cosimo, the exiles appreciated the necessity for prompt action, as delay would be fatal to the overthrow of the Medicean rule. They had received money and promises from France; they were strengthened by the adhesion, of Filippo Strozzi and Baccio Valori, who had both become hostile to the Medici through the infamous conduct and mad tyranny of Alessandro; and Strozzi brought them the help of his enormous fortune and the prowess of that very distinguished captain, his son Piero. The exiles assembled their forces at Mirandola. They had about foul thousand infantry and three hundred horse; among them were members of all the principal Florentine families; and their leaders were Bernardo Salviati and Piero Strozzi. They marched rapidly, and entered Tuscany towards the end of July 1537. Cosimo on this occasion displayed signal capacity and presence of mind. Informed of the exiles' movements by his spies, he no sooner learned their approach than he ordered Alessandro Vitelli to collect the best German, Spanish and Italian infantry at his disposal, and advance against the enejny without delay. On the evening of the 3 1st of July Vitelli marched towards Prato with seven hundred picked infantry and a band of one hundred horse, and on the way fell in with other Spanish foot soldiers who joined the expedition. At early dawn the following morning he made a sudden attack on the exiles' advanced guard close to Montemurlo, an old fortress converted into a villa be- longing to the Nerli. Having utterly routed them, he proceeded to storm Montemurlo, where Filippo Strozzi and a few of his young comrades had taken refuge. They made a desperate resistance for some hours, and then, overwhelmed by superior numbers, were obliged to yield themselves prisoners. The main body of the army was still at some distance, having been detained in the mountains by heavy rains and difficult passes, and, on learning the defeat at Montemurlo, its leade/ turned back by the way he haf 1 come. Alessandro Vitelli re-entered Florence with his victorious army and his fettered captives. Cosimo had achieved his first triumph. All the prisoners, who were members of great families, were brought before Cosimo, and were received by him with courteous coldness. Soon, however, a scaffold was erected in the Piazza, and on four mornings in succession four of the prisoners were beheaded. Then the duke saw fit to stay the executions. Baccio Valori, however, and his son and nephew were beheaded on the 20th of August in the courtyard of the Bargello. Filippo Strozzi still survived, confined in the Fortezza da Basso, that had been built at his expense.' His family was illustrious, he had numerous adherents, and he enjoyed the protection of the French king. Nevertheless Cosimo only awaited some plausible pretext to rid himself of this dreaded enemy. He brought him to trial and had him put to the question. But this cruelty ie.d to nothing, for Strozzi denied every accusation and bore the torture with much fortitude. On the 18th of December he was found dead in his prison, with a blood-stained sword by his side, and a slip of paper bearing these words: exoriare aliquis nostril, ex ossibus ultor. It was believed that, having renounced all hope of his life being spared, Strozzi had preferred suicide to death at the hands of the executioner. Some, however, thought that Cosimo had caused him to be murdered, and adopted this mode of concealing the crime. The young prince's cold-blooded massacre of his captives cast an enduring shadow upon his reign and dynasty. But it was henceforward plain to all that he was MEDICI (FAMILY) 37 a man of stern resolve, who went straight to his end without scruples or half-measures. Before long he was regarded by many as the incarnation of Machiavelli's Prince, " inasmuch as he joined daring to talent and prudence, was capable of great cruelty, and yet could practise mercy in due season." Guicciar- dini, who still pretended to act as mentor, and who on account of his many services had a certain influence over him, was obliged to withdraw from public life and busy himself with writing his History at his villa of Arcetri. He died in this retreat in 1540, and it was immediately rumoured that the duke had caused him to be poisoned. This shows the estimation in which Cosimo was now held. He punished with death all who dared to resist his will. By 1 540 sentence of death had been pronounced against four hundred and thirty contumacious fugitives, and during his reign one hundred and forty men and six women actually ascended the scaffold, without counting those who perished in foreign lands by the daggers of his assassins. He reduced the old republican institutions to empty forms, by making the magis- trates mere creatures of his will. He issued the sternest edicts against the rebels, particularly by the law known as the " Pol- verina," from the name of its proposer Jacopo Polverini. This law decreed not only the confiscation of the property of exiles, but likewise that of their heirs, even if personally acquired by the latter. Cosimo ruled like the independent sovereign of a great state, and always showed the capacity, firmness and courage demanded by that station. Only, his state being small and weak, he was forced to rely chiefly upon his personal talent and wealth. It was necessary for him to make heavy loans to the different European sovereigns, especially to Charles V., the most rapacious of them all, and to give enormous bribes to their ambassadors. Besides, he had to carry on wars for the exten- sion of his dominions; and neither his inherited wealth nor the large sums gained by confiscating the estates of rebellious subjects sufficed for all this outlay. He was accordingly com- pelled to burden the people with taxes, and thus begin at once to diminish its strength. Cosimo bore a special grudge against the neighbouring republics of Siena and Lucca. Although the latter was small and weak, and the former garrisoned by SJeaa seized. Spaniards, yet the spectacle of free institutions at the frontiers of his own state served as a continual incitement to subjects disaffected to the new r6gime. In fact Francesco Burlamacchi, a zealous Lucchese patriot, had con- ceived the design of re-establishing republican government in all the cities of Tuscany. Cosimo, with the emperor's help, succeeded in having him put to death. Lucca, however, was an insignificant state making no pretence of rivalry, whereas Siena was an old and formidable foe to Florence, and had always given protection to the Florentine exiles. It was now very reluctantly submitting to the presence of a Spanish garrison, and, being stimulated by promises of prompt and efficacious assistance from France, rose in rebellion and expelled the Span- iards in 1552. Cosimo instantly wrote to the emperor in terms that appealed to his pride, asked leave to attack Siena, and begged for troops to ensure the success of his enterprise. As no immediate answer arrived, he feigned to begin negotiations with Henry II. of France, and, by thus arousing the imperial jealousy, obtained a contingent of German and Spanish infantry. Siena was besieged for fifteen months, and its inhabitants, aided by the valour of Piero Strozzi, who fought under the French flag, made a most heroic resistance, even women and children helping on the walls. But fortune was against them. Piero Strozzi sus- tained several defeats, and finally the Sienese, having exhausted their ammunition and being decimated by famine and the sword, were obliged to capitulate on honourable terms that were shame- lessly violated. By the varied disasters of the siege and the number of fugitives the population was reduced from forty to eight thousand inhabitants. The republicans, still eager to resist, withdrew to Montalcino. Cosimo now ruled the city and territory of Siena in the name of Charles V., who always refused him its absolute possession. After the emperor's abditation, and the succession of Philip II. to the Spanish throne, Cosimo at last obtained Siena and Porto Ferraio by giving up his claim to a sum of 200,000 ducats that he was to have received from Charles V. In 1550 Cosimo also captured Montalcino, and thus formed the grand-duchy of Tuscany, but he continued to govern the new state — i.e. Siena and its territories — separately from the old. His rule was intelligent, skilful and des- Grand-Ducby potic; but his enormous expenses drove ham to raise formed. large sums of money by special contrivances unsuited to the country and the people. Hence, notwithstanding the genius of its founder, the grand-duchy held from the first the elements of its future decay. Cosimo preferred to confer office upon men of humble origin in order to have pliable tools, but he also liked to be surrounded by a courtier aristocracy on the Spanish and French pattern. As no Tuscan aristocracy any longer existed, he created new nobles, and tempted foreign ones to come by the concession of various feudal privileges; and, to turn this artificial aristocracy to some account, he founded the knightly order of St Stephen, charged with the defence of the coast against pirates, which in course of time won much honour by its prowess. He also established a small standing army for the protection of his frontiers; but he generally employed German and Spanish troops for his wars, and always had a foreign body- guard. At the commencement of his reign he opposed the popes in order to maintain the independence of his own state; but later, to obtain help, he truckled to them in many ways, even to the extent of giving up to the Inquisition his own confidant, Piero Carnesecchi, who, being accused of heresy, was beheaded and burnt in 1567. In reward for these acts of submission, the popes showed him friendship, and Pius V. granted him the title of grand-duke, conferring the patent and crown upon him in Rome, although the emperor had always withheld his consent. The measure most injurious to Tuscany was the fiscal system of taxes, of which the sole aim was to extort the greatest possible amount of money. The consequent damage to industry, com- merce and agriculture was immense, and, added to the devasta- tions caused by the Sienese War, led to their utter ruin. Other- wise Cosimo did not neglect useful measures for the interior prosperity of his state. He was no Maecenas; nevertheless he restored the Pisan university, enlarged that of Siena, had the public records classified, and also executed public works like the Santa Trinita. bridge. During the great inundations of 1557 he turned his whole energy to the relief of the sufferers. In 1539 he had espoused Eleonora of Toledo, daughter of the viceroy 01 Naples, by whom he had several children. Two died in 1562, and their mother soon followed them to the grive. It was said that one of these boys, Don Garcia, had murdered tht other, and then been, killed by the enraged father. Indeed, Cusimo was further accused of having put his own wife to death; but neither rumour had any foundation. He now showed sign? of illness and failure of strength. He was not old, but worn by the cares of state and self-indulgence. Accordingly in i 564 h« resigned the government to his eldest son, who was to act as his lieutenant, since he wished to have power to resume the sceptre on any emergency. In 1570, by the advice of Pope Pius V., he married Camilla Martelli, a young lady of whom he had been long enamoured. In 1574 he died, at the age of fifty-four years and ten months, after a reign of thirty-seven years, leaving three sons and one daughter besides natural children. These sons were Francesco, his successor, who was already at the head of the government, Cardinal Ferdinand, and Piersi, Francesco I., born in 1541, began to govern as his father's lieutenant in 1564, and was married in 1565 to the archduchess Giovanna of Austria. On beginning to reign on his p^n^sc, /. own account in 1574, he speedily manifested his real character. His training in the hands of a Spanish mother had made him suspicious, false and despotic. Holding every one aloof, he carried on the government with the assistance of a few devoted ministers. He compelled his step-mother to retire to a convent, and kept his brothers at a distance from Florence. He loved the privileges of power without its burdens. Cosimo had known how to maintain his independence, but Francesco cast 3« MEDICI (FAMILY) himself like a vassal at Austria's feet. He reaped his reward by- obtaining from Maximilian II. the title of grand-duke, for which Cosimo had never been able to win the imperial sanction, but he forfeited all independence. Towards Philip II. he showed even greater submissiveness, supplying him with large sums of money wrung from his overtaxed people. He held entirely aloof from France, in order not to awake the suspicions of his protectors. He traded on his own account, thus creating a monopoly that was ruinous to the country. He raised the tax upon corn to so high a rate that few continued to find any profit in growing it , and thus the Maremme, already partly devastated during the war with Siena, were converted into a desert. Even industry declined under this system of government; and, although Francesco founded porcelain manufactories and pietra dura works, they did not rise to any prosperity until after his death. His love of science and letters was the only Medicean virtue that he possessed. He had an absolute passion for chemistry, and passed much of his time in his laboratory. Some- times indeed he gave audience to his secretaries of state standing before a furnace, bellows in hand. He took some useful measures to promote the rise of a new city at Leghorn, which at that time had only a natural and ill-sheltered harbour. The improvement of Leghorn had been first projected by Cosimo I., and was carried on by all the succeeding Medici. Francesco was a slave to his passions, and was led by them to scandalous excesses and deeds of bloodshed. His example and neglect of the affairs of the state soon caused a vast increase of crime even among the people, and, during the first eighteen months of his reign, there occurred no fewer than one hundred and sixty-eight murders. In default of public events, the historians of this period enlarge upon private incidents, generally of a scandalous or sanguinary kind. In 1575 Orazio Pucci, wishing to avenge his father, whom Cosimo had hanged, determined to get up a conspiracy, but, soon recognizing how firmly the Medicean rule had taken root in the country, desisted from the attempt. But the grand-duke, on hearing of the already abandoned plot, immediately caused Pucci to be hanged from the same window of the Palazzo Vecchio, and even from the same iron stanchion, from which his father before him had hung. His companions, who had fled to France and England, were pursued and murdered by the ducal emissaries. Their possessions were confiscated, and the " Pol- verina " law applied, so that the conspirators' heirs were reduced to penury, and the grand-duke gained more than 300,000 ducats. Next year Isabella dei Medici, Francesco's sister, was strangled in her nuptial bed by her husband, Paolo Giordano Orsini, whom she had betrayed. Piero dei Medici, Francesco's brother, murdered his wife Eleonora of Toledo from the same motive. Still louder scandal was caused by the duke's own conduct. He was already a married man, when, passing one day through the Piazza of St Mark in Florence, he saw an exceedingly beautiful woman at the window of a mean dwelling, and at once conceived a passion for her. She was the famous Bianca Cappello, a Venetian of noble birth, who had eloped with a young Florentine named Pietro Buonaventuri, to whom she was married at the time that she attracted the duke's gaze. He made her acquaint- ance, and, in order to see her frequently, nominated her husband to a post at court. Upon this, Buonaventuri behaved with so much insolence, even to the nobility, that one evening he was found murdered in the street. Thus the grand-duke, who was thought to have sanctioned the crime, was able to indulge his passion unchecked. On the death of the grand-duchess in 1578 he was privately united to Bianca, and afterwards married her publicly. But she had no children, and this served to poison her happiness, since the next in succession was her bitter enemy, the cardinal Ferdinand. The latter came to Florence in 1587, and was ostentatiously welcomed by Bianca, who was most anxious to conciliate him. On the 18th of October of the same year the grand-duke died at his villa of Poggio a Caiano, of a fever caught on a shooting excursion in the Maremme, and the next day Bianca also expired, having ruined her health by drugs taken to cure her sterility. But rumour asserted that she had prepared a poisoned tart for the cardinal, and that, when he suspiciously insisted on the grand-duke tasting it first, Bianca desperately swallowed a slice and followed her husband to the tomb. Such was the life of Francesco dei Medici, and all that can be said in his praise is that he gave liberal encouragement to a few artists, including de Giovanni Bologna (q.v.). He was the founder of the Uffizi gallery, of the Medici theatre, and the villa of Pratolino; and during his reign the Delia Cruscan academy was instituted. Ferdinand I. was thirty-eight years of age when, in 1587, he succeeded his brother on the throne. A cardinal from the age of fourteen, he had never taken holy orders. He _ showed much tact and experience in the manage- ment of ecclesiastical affairs. He was the founder of the Villa Medici at Rome, and the purchaser of many priceless works of art, such as the Niobe group and many other statues afterwards transported by him to Florence. After his accession he retained the cardinal's purple until the time of his marriage. He was in all respects his brother's opposite. Affable in his manners and generous with his purse, he chose a crest typical of the proposed mildness of his rule — a swarm of bees with the motto Majeslate tantum. He instantly pardoned all who had opposed him, and left his kinsmen at liberty to choose their own place of residence. Occasionally, for political reasons, he committed acts unworthy of his character; but he re-established the adminis- tration of justice, and sedulously attended to the business of the state and the welfare of his subjects. Accordingly Tuscany revived under his rule and regained the independence and political dignity that his brother had sacrificed to love of ease and personal indulgence. He favoured commerce, and effectually ensured the prosperity of Leghorn, by an edict enjoining tolera- tion towards Jews and heretics, which led to the settlement of many foreigners in that city. He also improved the harbour and facilitated communication with Pisa by means of the Naviglio, a canal into which a portion of the water of the Arno was turned. He nevertheless retained the reprehensible custom of trading on his own account, keeping banks in many cities of Europe. He successfully accomplished the draining of the Val di Chiana, cultivated the plains of Pisa, Fucecchio and Val di Nievole, and executed other works of public utility at Siena and Pisa. But his best energies were devoted to the foreign policy by which he sought to emancipate himself from subjection to Spain. On the assassination (1589) of Henry III. of France Ferdinand supported the claims of the king of Navarre, undeterred by the opposition of Spain and the Catholic League, who were dismayed by the prospect of a Huguenot succeeding to the throne of France. He lent money to Henry IV., and strongly urged his conversion to Catholicism; he helped to persuade the pope to accept Henry's abjuration, and pursued this policy with marvellous persistence until his efforts were crowned with success. Henry IV. showed faint gratitude for the benefits conferred upon him, and paid no attention to the expostulations of the grand-duke, who then began to slacken his relations with France, and showed that he could guard his independence by other alliances. He gave liberal assistance to Philip III. for the campaign in Algiers, and to the emperor for the war with the Turks. Hence he was compelled to burden his subjects with enormous taxes, forgetting that while guaranteeing the inde- pendence of Tuscany by his loans to foreign powers he was increasingly sapping the strength of future generations.. He at last succeeded in obtaining the formal investiture of Sietta, which Spain had always considered a fief of her own. During this grand-duke's reign the Tuscan navy was notably increased, and did itself much honour on the Mediterranean. The war-galleys of the knights of St Stephen were despatched to the coast of Barbary to attack Bona, the headquarters of the corsairs, and they captured the town with much dash and bravery. In the following year (1608) the same galleys achieved their most brilliant victory in the archipelago over the stronger fleet of- the Turks, by taking nine of their vessels, seven hundred prisoners, and jewels of the value of 2,000,000 ducats. MEDICI (FAMILY) Ferdinand I. died in 1609, leaving four sons, of whom the eldest, Cosimo II., succeeded to the throne at the age of nineteen. Cosimo n. ^ e was at nrst assisted in the government by his mother and a council of regency. He had a good disposition, and the fortune to reign during a period when Europe was at peace and Tuscany blessed with abundant harvests. Of his rule there is little to relate. His chief care was given to the galleys of St Stephen, and he sent them to assist the Druses against the Porte, On one occasion he was involved in a quarrel with France. Concino Concini, the Marshal d'Ancre, being assassinated in 161 7, Louis XIII. claimed the right of transferring the property of the murdered man to De Luynes. Cosimo, refusing to recognize the confiscation decreed by the French tribunals, demanded that Concini's son should be allowed to inherit. Hence followed much ill-feeling and mutual reprisals between the two countries, finally brought to an end by the intervention of the duke of Lorraine. Like his predecessors, Cosimo II. studied to promote the prosperity of Leghorn, and he deserves honour for abandoning all commerce on his own account. But it was no praiseworthy act to pass a law depriving women of almost all rights of inheri- tance. By this means many daughters of the nobility were driven into convents against their will. He gave scanty atten- tion to the general affairs of the state. He was fond of luxury, spent freely on public festivities and detested trouble. Tuscany was apparently tranquil and prosperous; but the decay of which the seeds were sown under Cosimo I. and Ferdinand I. was rapidly spreading, and became before long patent to all and beyond all hope of remedy. The best deed done by Cosimo II. was the protection accorded by him to Galileo Galilei, who had removed to Padua, and there made some of his grandest discoveries. The grand duke recalled him to Florence in 1610, and nominated him court mathematician and philosopher. Cosimo died in February 1621. Feeling his end draw near, when he was only aged thirty and all his sons were still in their childhood, he hastened to arrange his family affairs. His mother, Cristina of Lorraine, and his wife, Maddalena of Austria, were nominated regents and guardians to his eldest son Ferdinand II., a boy of ten, and a council of four appointed, whose functions were regulated b/ law. After Cosimo's death, the young Ferdi- nand was sent to Rome and Vienna to complete his education, and the government of Tuscany remained in the hands of two jealous and quarrelsome women. Thus the administration of justice and finance speedily went to ruin. Out of sub- missiveness to the pope, the regents did not dare to maintain their legitimate right to inherit the duchy of Urbino. They conferred exaggerated privileges on the new Tuscan nobility, which became increasingly insolent and worthless. They resumed the practice of trading on their own account, and, without reaping much benefit thereby, did the utmost damage to private enterprise. In 1627 Ferdinand II., then aged seventeen, returned to Italy and assumed the reins of government; but, being of a very gentle Ferdinand 11. disposition, he decided on sharing his power with the regents and his brothers, and arranged matters in such wise that each was almost independent of the other. He gained the love of his subjects by his great goodness; and, when Florence and Tuscany were ravaged by the plague in 1630, he showed admirable courage and carried out many useful measures. But he was totally incapable of energy as a states- man. When the pope made bitter complaints because the board of health had dared to subject certain monks and priests to the necessary quarantine, the grand-duke insisted on his officers asking pardon on their knees for having done their duty. On the death in 1631 of the last duke of Urbino, the pope was allowed to seize the duchy without the slighest opposition on the part of Tuscany. As a natural consequence the pretensions of the Roman curia became increasingly exorbitant; ecclesiastics usurped the functions of the state; and the ancient laws of the republic, together with the regulations decreed by Cosimo I. as a check upon similar abuses, were allowed to become obsolete. On the extinction of the line of the Gonzagas at Mantua in 1627, 39 war broke out between France on the one side and Spain, Germany and Savoy on the other. The grand duke, uncertain of his policy, trimmed his sails according to events. Fortunately peace was re-established in 1631. Mantua and Monferrato fell to the duke of Nevers, as France had always desired. But Europe was again in arms for the Thirty Years' War, and Italy was not at peace. Urban VIII. wished to aggrandize his nephews, the Barberini, by wresting Castro and Ronciglione from Odoardo Farnese, duke of Parma and brother-in-law to Ferdinand. Farnese marched his army through Tuscany into the territories of the pope, who was greatly alarmed by the attack. The grand- duke was drawn into the war to defend his own state and his kinsman. His military operations, however, were of the feeblest and often the most laughable character. At last, by means of the French intervention, peace was made in 1644. But, although the pope was forced to yield, he resigned none of his ecclesiastical pretensions in Tuscany. It was during Ferdinand's reign that the septuagenarian Galileo was obliged to appear before the Inquisition in Rome, which treated him with infamous cruelty. On the death of this great and unfortunate man, the grand-duke wished to erect a monument to him, but was withheld by fear of the opposition of the clergy. The dynasty as well as the country now seemed on the brink of decay. Two of the grand- duke's brothers had already died childless, and Ippolito, the sole survivor, was a cardinal. The only remaining heir was his son Cosimo, born in 1642. Like nearly all his predecessors, Ferdinand II. gave liberal patronage to science and letters, greatly aided therein by his brother Leopold, who had been trained by Galileo Galilei, and who joined with men of learning in founding the celebrated academy Del Cimento, of which he was named president. This academy took for its motto the words Provando e riprovando, and followed the experimental method of Galileo. Formed in 1657, ^ was dissolved in 1667 in consequence of the jealousies and dissensions of its members, but during its brief existence won renown by the number and importance of its works. Cosimo III. succeeded his father in 1670. He was weak, vain, bigoted and hypocritical. In 1661 he had espoused Louise of Orleans, niece of Louis XIV., who, being enamoured Cat i mo ///. of duke Charles of Lorraine, was very reluctant to come to Italy, and speedily detested both her husband and his country, of which she refused to learn the language. She had two sons and one daughter, but after the birth of her third child, Giovan Gastone, her hatred for her husband increased almost to madness. She first withdrew to Poggio a Caiano, and then, being unable to get her marriage annulled, returned to France, where, although supposed to live in conventual seclusion, she passed the greater part of her time as a welcome visitor at court. Even her testamentary dispositions attested the violence of her dislike to her husband. Cosimo's hypocritical zeal for religion compelled his subjects to multiply services and processions that greatly infringed upon their working hours. He wasted enormous sums in pensioning converts — even those from other countries — and in giving rich endowments to sanctuaries. Meanwhile funds often failed for the payment of government clerks and soldiers. His court was composed of bigots and parasites; he ransacked the world for dainties for his table, adorned his palace with costly foreign hangings, had foreign servants, and filled his gardens with exotic plants. He purchased from the emperor the title of " Highness " in order to be the equal of the duke of Savoy. He remained neutral during the Franco-Spanish War, and submitted to every humilia- tion and requisition exacted by the emperor. He had vague notions of promoting agriculture, but accomplished no results. At one time he caused eight hundred families to be brought over from the Morea for the cultivation of the Maremme, where all of them died of fever. But when, after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, French Huguenots offered to apply their labour and capital to the same purpose, the grand duke's religious scruples refused them refuge. So ruin fell upon Tuscany. Crime and misery increased, and the poor, who only asked for work, were given alms and sent oftener to church. This period 4° MEDICI (FAMILY) witnessed the rise of many charitable institutions- of a religious character under the patronage of the grand-duke, as for instance the congregation of San Giovanni Battista. But these could not remedy the general decay. Cosimo's dominant anxiety regarded the succession to the throne. His eldest son Ferdinand died childless in 1713. The pleasure-loving Giovan Gastone was married to Anna Maria of Saxe-Lauenburg, widow of a German prince, a wealthy, coarse woman wholly immersed in domestic occupations. After living with her for some time in a Bohemian village, Giovan Gastone yielded to his dislike to his wife and her country, withdrew to France, and ruined his health by his excesses. After a brief return to Bohemia he finally separated from his wife, by whom he had no family. Thus the dynasty was doomed to extinction. thought on ascending it was to regain strength enough to pass the remainder of his days in enjoyment. He dismissed the spies, parasites and bigots that had formed his father's court, abolished the pensions given to converts, suppressed seve. al taxes, and pro- hibited the organized espionage established in the family circle. He wished to live and let live, and liked the people to be amused. Everything in fact bore a freer and gayer aspect under his reign, and the Tuscans seemed to feel renewed attachment for the dynasty as the moment of its extinction drew near. But the grand-duke was too feeble and incapable to accomplish any real improvement. Surrounded by gay and dissipated young men, he entrusted all the cares of government to a certain Giuliano Dami, who drove a profitable trade by the sale of offices and privileges. In this way all things were in the hands of corrupt GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE MEDICI Giovanni d'Averardo, known as Giovanni di Bicci, 1360-1429 = Piccarda Bueri. Cosimo the Elder, 1389-1464 ™=Contessina de' Bardi. Piero, 1416-1460 =Lucrezia Tornabuoni, t 1482 Giovanni, 1424-1463 = Ginevra degli Alessandri. Lorenzo il Magninco, 144.9-1492 =Clarice Orsini, ti488. I Giuliano, I453-J478. Giulio (Clement VII.), I478-I534. Bianca = Gugiielmo dei Pazzi. Nannina = Bernardo Rucellai. Maria (nat.) = Lionetto de' Rossi. Pietro, 1471-1503 -=Alfonsina Orsini, t 1520- I Giovanni (Leo X.), 1475-15". Lorenzo, duke of Urbino. 1492-1519 «= Madeleine de la Tour d'Auvergne t t T5I9- Clarice, I-T528 = Fihppo Strozzi. Giuliano, duke of Nemours, I479-I5 16 =»Philiberta of Savoy. Ippolito (nat.), cardinal, J5II-I535- Lucrezia = Giacpmo Salviati. Maddalena =Franceschetto Cybo. I I I Giovanni Maria Elena Salviati, =Giovanni = JacopoV. cardinal, delle Bande Appiani. Nere. 1 Alessandro (nat.), t I537- Caterina, 1519-1589 = Henry II., king of France Contessina = Piero Ridolfi. Niccolo Ridolfi, cardinal. Innocenzo Cybo, cardinal. Lorenzo Cybo Caterina Cybo, = Ricciarda d-tchess of Malaspina, Camerino. princess of Massa. Lorenzo, 1395-1440 — Ginevra Cavalcanti, Pier Francesco, 1 1467 = Laudomia Acciaiuoli. Giovanni, 1467-1498 = Caterina Sf orza Riario, t *5Q9- Giovanni delle Bande Nere, 1498-1526 =Maria Salviati, t 1543- I COSIMO I., I5I9-I574, = 1. Eieonora of Toledo, t 1502. 2. Camilla Martelli. Lorenzo, 1 1503 = Semiramide Appiani. Pier Francesco, 1 1525 = Maria Soderini. i r 1 1 Laudomia. Maddalena Giuliano £ t"* = Piero = Roberto bishop of Strozzi. Strozzi. Beziers. *t 2 111 ! Francesco, &OO Ferdinand L, i54i-i587 & = 1. Joanna- g £■ of Austria, tT 5 78; 2. Bianca Cappello, 1 1587- TE.-1. 1 549- 1609 = Cristina of Lorraine, 1 1637. Pietro, 1554-1604 — Eieonora of Toledo, t 1576. Isabella, i54*-i57vcriv, praeter naturam). Taking disease to be a deflexion from the line of health, the first requisite of medicine is an extensive and intimate acquaintance with the norm of the body. The structure and functions of the body form the subject of Anatomy (q.v.) and Physiology (q.v.). The medical art (ars medendi) divides itself into departments and subdepartments. The most fundamental division is into internal and external medicine, or into medicine proper and surgery (q.v.). The treatment of wounds, injuries and de- formities, with operative interference in general, is the special department of surgical practice (the corresponding parts of pathology, including inflammation, repair, and removable tumours, are sometimes grouped together as surgical pathology) ; and where the work of the profession is highly subdivided, surgery becomes the exclusive province of the surgeon, while internal medicine remains to the physician. A third great department of practice is formed by obstetric medicine or midwifery (see Obstetrics); and dentistry (q.v.), or dental surgery, is given up to a distinct branch of the profession. A state of war, actual or contingent, gives occasion to special developments of medical and surgical ■ practice (military hygiene and military surgery). Wounds caused by projectiles, sabres, &c, are the special subject of naval and military surgery; while under the head of military hygiene we may include the general subject of ambulances, the sanitary arrangements of camps, and the various forms of epidemic camp sickness. The administration of the civil and criminal law involves frequent relations with medicine, and the professional subjects most likely to arise in that connexion, together with a summary of causes cSlebres, are formed into the department of Medical Jurisprudence (q.v.). In preserving the public health, the medical profession is again brought into direct relation with the state, through the public medical officers. History of Medicine Medicine as Portrayed in the Homeric Poems. — In the state of society pictured by Homer it is clear that medicine has already had. a history. We find a distinct and organized profession; we find a system of treatment, especially in regard to injuries, which it must have been the work of long experience to frame; we meet with a nomenclature of parts of the body substantially the same (according to Daremberg) as that employed long afterwards in the writings of Hippocrates; in short, we find a science and an organization which, however imperfect as com- pared with those of later times, are yet very far from being in their beginning. The Homeric heroes themselves are repre- sented as having considerable skill in surgery, and as able to attend to ordinary wounds and injuries, but there is also a professional class, represented by Machaon and Podalirius, the two sons of Asclepius, who are treated with great respect. It Would appear, too, from the Aethiopis of Archinus (quoted by Welcker and Haser) that the duties of these two were not precisely the same. Machaon's task was more especially to heal injuries, while Podalirius had received from his father the gift of " recognizing what was not visible to the eye, and tending what could not be healed." In other words, a rough in-r dication is seen of the separation of medicine and surgery. Asclepius appears in Homer as a Thessalian king, not as a god, though in later times divine honours were paid to him. There is no sign in the Homeric poems of the subordination of medicine to religion which is seen in ancient Egypt and India, nor are priests charged, as they were in those countries, with medical functions — all circumstances which throw grave doubts on the commonly received opinion that medicine derived its origin in all countries from religious observances. Although the actual organization of medicine among the Homeric Greeks was thus quite distinct from religion, the worship of Asclepius (or Aesculapius) as the god of healing demands sortie notice. This cult spread very widely among the Greeks; it had great civil im- portance, and lasted even into Christian times; but there is no reason to attribute to it any special connexion with the development of the science or profession of medicine. Sick persons repaired, or Were conveyed, to the temples of Asclepius in order to be healed, just as in modern times relief is sought by a devotional pilgrimage or from the waters of some sacred spring, and then as now the healing influence was sometimes sought by deputy. The sick person, or his representative, after ablution, prayer and sacrifice, was rh^de to sleep on the hide of the sacrificed animal, or at the feet of the statue of the god, while sacred rites were performed. In his sleep (incubatio, ijKoljxiiais) the appropriate remedy was indicated by a dream. Moral or dietetic remedies were more often prescribed than drugs. The record of the cure was inscribed on the columns or walls of the temple; and it has been thought that in this way was introduced the custom of "recording cases," and that the physicians of the Hippocratic school thus learnt to accumulate clinical experience. But the priests of Asclepius were not physicians. Although the latter were often called Asclepiads, this was in the first place to indicate- their real or supposed descent from Asclepius, and in the second place' as a complimentary title. No medical writing of antiquity speaks of the worship of Asclepius in such a way 1 as to' 43 MEDICINE [HISTORY imply any connexion with the ordinary art of healing. The two systems appear to have existed side by side, but to have been distinct, and if they were ever united it must have been before the times of which we have any record. The theory of a development of Greek medicine from the rites of Asclepius, though defended by eminent names, must accordingly be rejected. Development of Medicine in Greece. — It is only from non- medical writers that anything is known of the development of medicine in Greece before the age of Hippocrates. The elaborate collections made by Daremberg of medical notices in the poets and historians illustrate the relations of the profession to society, but do little to prepare us for the Hippocratic period. Nor is much importance to be attached to the influence of the philo- sophical sects on medicine except as regards the school of Pythagoras. That philosopher and several of his successors were physicians, but we do not know in what relation they stood to later medical schools. We must therefore hasten onward to the age of Pericles, in which Hippocrates, already called " the Great," was in medicine as complete a representative of the highest efforts of the Greek intellect as were his contemporaries the great philosophers, orators and tragedians. The medical art as we now practise it, the character of the physician as we now understand it, both date for us from Hippocrates. The justification of this statement is found in the literary collection of writings known by his name. Of these certainly many are falsely ascribed to the historical Hippocrates of Cos; others are almost as certainly rightly so ascribed; others again are clearly works of his school, whether from his hand or not. But which are to be regarded as the " genuine works " is still uncertain, and authorities are conflicting. There are clearly two schools represented in the collection — -that of Cnidus in a small pro- portion, and that of Cos in far the larger number of the works. The latter was that to which Hippocrates belonged, and where he gave instruction; and accordingly it may be taken that works of this school, when not obviously of a different date, are Hippocratic in doctrine if not in actual authorship. Hippocratic Medicine. — The first grand characteristic of Hippo- cratic medicine is the high conception of the duties and status of the physician, shown in the celebrated " Oath of Hippocrates " and elsewhere — equally free from the mysticism of a priesthood and the vulgar pretensions of a mercenary craft. So matured a pro- fessional sentiment may perhaps have been more the growth of time and organization than the work of an individual genius, but certainly corresponds with the character universally attributed to Hippocrates himself. The second great quality is the singular artistic skill and balance with which the Hippocratic physician used such materials and tools as he possessed. Here we recognize the true Greek ooxfrpooiivT). But this artistic completeness was closely connected with the third cardinal virtue of Hippocratic medicine— the clear recognition of disease as being equally with life a process governed by what we should now call natural laws, which could be known by observation, and which indicated the spontaneous and normal direction of recovery, by following which alone could the physician succeed. In the fourth place, these views of the " natural history of disease " (in modern language) led to habits of minute observation and accu- rate interpretation of symptoms, in which the Hippocratic school was unrivalled in antiquity, and has been the model for all succeeding ages, so that even in these days, with our enormous advances in knowledge, the true method of clinical medicine may be said to be the method of Hippocrates. The actual science of the Hippocratic school was of course very limited. In anatomy and physiology little advance had been made, and so of pathology in the sense of an explanation of morbid processes or knowledge of diseased structures there could be very little. The most valuable intellectual possession was a large mass of recorded observations in individual cases and epidemics of disease. Whether these observations were systematic or individual, and how they were recorded, are points of which we are quite ignorant, as the theory that the votive tablets in the temples supplied such materials must be abandoned. Though the Hippocratic medicine was so largely founded on observation, it would be an error to suppose that dogma or theory had no place. The dominating theory of disease was the humoral, which has never since ceased to influence medical thought and practice. According to this celebrated theory, the body contains four humours— blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile, a right proportion and mixture of which constitute health; improper proportions or irregular distribution, disease. It is doubtful whether the treatise in which this theory is fully expounded (irtpl imot AjiBpiyxov) is as old as Hippocrates himself; but it was regarded as a Hippocratic doctrine, and, when taken up and expanded by Galen, its terms not only became the common property of the profession, but passed into general literature and common language. Another Hippocratic doctrine, the influence of which is not even yet exhausted, is that of the healing power of nature. Not that Hippocrates taught, as he was afterwards reproached with teaching, that nature is sufficient for the cure of diseases; for he held strongly the efficacy of art. But he recognized, at least in acute diseases, a natural process which the humours went through — being first of all crude, then passing through coction or digestion, and finally being expelled by resolution or crisis through one of the natural channels of the body. The duty of the physician was to foresee these changes, " to assist or not to hinder them," so that " the sick man might conquer the disease with the help of the physician." The times at which crises were to be expected were naturally looked for with anxiety; and it was a cardinal point in the Hippocratic system to foretell them with precision. Hippocrates, influenced as is thought by the Pythagorean doctrines of number, taught that they were to be expected en days fixed by certain numerical rules, in some cases on odd, in others on even numbers — the celebrated doctrine of " critical days." This false precision can have had no practical value, but may have enforced habits of minute observation. It follows from what has been said that prognosis, or the art of fore- telling the course and event of the disease, was a strong point with the Hippocratic physicians. In this they have perhaps never been excelled. Diagnosis, or recognition of the disease, must have been necessarily imperfect, when no scientific nosology or system of disease existed, and the knowledge of anatomy was quite in- adequate to allow of a precise determination of the seat of disease ; but symptoms were no doubt observed and interpreted skilfully. The pulse is not spoken of in any of the works now 1 attributed to Hippocrates himself, though it is mentioned in other works of the collection. In the treatment of disease, the Hippocratic school attached great importance to diet, the variations necessary in different diseases being minutely defined. Medicines were regarded as of secondary importance, but not neglected, two hundred and sixty-five drugs being mentioned at different places in the Hippocratic works. Blood-letting was known, but not greatly practised. The highest importance was attached to applying all remedies at the right moment, and the general principle enforced of making all influences — internal and external — co-operate for the relief of the patient. The principles of treatment just mentioned apply more especially to the cure of acute diseases ; but they are the most salient character- istics of the Hippocratic school. In chronic cases diet, exercise and natural methods were chiefly relied upon. The school of Cnidus, as distinguished from that of Cos, of which Hippocrates is the representative, appears to have differed in attach- ing more importance to the differences of special diseases, and to have made more use of drugs. A treatise on the diseases of women, contained in the Hippocratic collection, and of remarkable practical value, is attributed to this school. The above sketch of Hippocratic medicine will make it less necessary to dwell upon the details relating to subsequent medical schools or sects in ancient times. The general conception of the physician's aim and task remained the same, though, as knowledge increased, there was much divergence both in theory and practice — even opposing schools were found to be developing some part of the Hippocratic system. Direct opponents or repudiators of the autho- rity of Hippocrates were rare, all generally appealing to his authority. But, insensibly, the least valuable part of the Hippocratic work, the theory, was made permanent ; the most valuable, the practical, neglected. Post-Hippocratic Medicine. — After Hippocrates the progress of medicine in Greece does not call for any special remark in such a sketch as this, but mention must be made of one great name. Though none of Aristotle's writings are strictly medical, he has by his researches in anatomy and physiology contributed greatly to the progress of medicine. It should also be remembered that he was of an Asclepiad family, and received that partly medical education which was traditional in such families, and also himself is said to have practised medicine as an amateur. Moreover, his works on natural history doubtless furthered the progress among the Greeks of sciences tributary to medicine, though the only specimens of such works which have come down to us from the Peripatetic school are those of Theophrastus, who may be considered the founder of the scientific study of botany. Among his encyclopaedic writings were some on medical subjects, of which fragments only have been preserved. The Peripatetic school may have been mo**, favourable to the development of medicine, as of other departments of natural knowledge, than any other; but there is no evidence that any of the philosophical schools had important influence on the progress of medicine. The fruit of Aristotle's teaching and example was seen later on in the schools of Alexandria. The century after the death of Hippocrates is a time almost blank in medical annals. It is probable that the science, like others, shared in the general intellectual decline of Greece after the Mace- donian supremacy; but the works of physicians of the period are almost entirely lost, and were so even in the time of Galen. Galen classes them all as of the dogmatic school ; but, whatever may have been their characteristics, they are of no importance in the history of the science. HISTORY] MEDICINE 43 Alexandrian School of Medicine. — The dispersion of Greek science and intellectual activity through the world by the conquests of Alexander and his successors led to the formation of more than 'one learned centre, in which medicine among other sciences was represented. Pergamum was early distinguished for its medical school; but in this as in other respects its repu- tation was ultimately effaced by the more brilliant fame of Alexandria. It is here that the real continuation and develop- ment of Hippocratic medicine can be traced. In one department the Alexandrian school rapidly surpassed its Greek original — namely, in the study of anatomy. The dissection of the human body, of which some doubtful traces or hints only are found in Greek times, was assiduously carried out, being favoured or even suggested perhaps by the Egyptian custom of disembowelling and embalming the bodies of the dead. There is no doubt that the organs were also examined by opening the bodies of living persons — criminals condemned to death being given over to the anatomists for this purpose. Two eminent names stand in the first rank as leaders of the two earliest schools of medicine which arose in Alexandria, Herophilus and Erasistratus. Herophilus (335-280 B.C.) was a Greek of Chalcedon, a pupil of the schools both of Cos and of Cnidus. He was especially noted for his profound researches in anatomy (see i. 802), and in the know- ledge and practice of medicine he appears to have been equally renowned. He professed himself a close adherent of Hippocrates, and adopted his theory of the humours. He also made extensive use of drugs and of bleeding. The reputation of Herophilus is attested by the fact that four considerable physicians wrote works about him and his writings, and he is further spoken of with the highest respect by Galen and Celsus. By the general voice of the medical world of antiquity he was placed only second to Hippocrates. Erasistratus (d. 280 B.C.) was the contemporary and rival of Herophilus. Little is known of his life, except that he spent some time at the court of Seleucus Nicator at Antioch before coming to Alexandria, and that he cultivated anatomy late in life, after he had taken up his abode in the latter city. His numerous works are also almost entirely lost, fragments only being preserved by Galen and others. Erasistratus, instead of following Hippocrates as Herophilus did, depreciated him, and seems to have been rather aggressive and independent in his views. He appears to have leaned to mechanical explanations of the symptoms of disease, as was especially the case with inflammation, of which he gave the first rational, though necessarily inadequate, theory. The two schools composed of the followers of Herophilus and Erasistratus respectively long divided between them the medical world of Alexandria. The names of many prominent members of both sects have been preserved, but it would be useless to repeat them. The Herophilists still reverenced the memory of Hippocrates, and wrote numerous commentaries on his works. They produced many eminent anatomists, but in the end seem to have become lost in theoretical subtleties, and to have maintained too high a standard of literary cultivation. The school of Erasistratus was less distin- guished in anatomy than that of Herophilus, but paid more attention to the special symptoms of diseases, and employed a great variety of drugs. It was longer-lived than that of Herophilus, for it still numbered many adherents in the 2nd century after Christ, a century after the latter had become extinct. The Erasistrateans paved the way for what was in some respects the most important school which Alexandria produced, that known as the empiric, which, though it recognized no master by name, may be considered to have been founded by Phillnus of Cos (280 B.C.), a pupil of Herophilus; but Serapion, a great name in antiqwity, and Glaucias of Tarentum, who traced the empirical doctrine back to the writings of Hippocrates, are also named among its founders. The most striking peculiarity of the empirics was that they rejected anatomy, regarding it as useless to inquire into the causes of things, and thus, as they contended, being the more minute in their observa- tion of the actual phenomena of disease. They professed that their whole practice was based upon experience, to which word they gave a special meaning. Three sources, and three only, could experience draw from: observation, history (i.e. recorded observation), and judgment by analogy. These three bases of knowledge were known as the " tripod " of the empirics. It should not, however, be for- gotten that the empirics read and industriously commented on the works of Hippocrates. They were extremely successful in practical matters, especially in surgery and in the use of drugs, and a large part of the routine knowledge of diseases and remedies which became traditional in the times of the Roman empire is believed to have been derived from them. In the 2nd century the school became closely connected with the philosophical sect of the Sceptics, whose leader, Sextus (200 B.C.), was an empirical physician. It lived and flourished far beyond this time, when transplanted to Rome, not less than in its native Alexandria, and appears to be recognizable even up to the beginning of the middle ages. If we look at the work of the Alexandrian schools in medicine as a whole, we must admit that the progress made was great and permanent. The greatest service rendered to medicine was undoubtedly the systematic study of anatomy. It is clear that the knowledge of function (physiology) did not by any means keep pace with the knowledge of structure, and this was probably the reason why the important sect of the empirics were able entirely to dispense with anatomical knowledge. The doctrines of Hippocrates, though lightly thought of by the Erasistrateans, still were no doubt very widely accepted, but the practice of the Hippocratic school had been greatly improved in almost every department — surgery and obstetrics being probably those in which the Alexandrian practitioners could compare most favourably with those of modern times. We have now to trace the fortunes of this body of medical doctrine and practice when transplanted to Rome, and ultimately to the whole Roman world. Roman Medicine. — The Romans cannot be said to have at any time originated or possessed an independent school of medicine. They had from early times a very complicated system of superstitious medicine, or religion, related to disease and the cure of disease, borrowed, as is thought, from the Etruscans; and, though the saying of Pliny that the Roman people got on for six • hundred years without doctors was doubtless an exaggeration, and not, literally speaking, exact, it must be accepted for the broad truth which it contains. When a medical profession appears, it is, so far as we are able to trace it, as an importation from Greece. The first Greek physician whose name is preserved as having migrated to Rome was Archagathus, who came over from the Peloponnesus in 218 B.C.; but there were probably others before him. When Greece was made a Roman province, the number of such physicians who sought their fortunes in Rome must have been very large. The bitter words of M. Porcius Cato, who disliked them as he did other representatives of Greek culture, are evidence of this. The most eminent of these earlier Greek physicians at Rome was Asclepiades, the friend of Cicero (born 124 B.C. at Prusa in Bithynia). He came to Rome as a young man, and soon became distinguished both for his medical skill and his oratorical power. He introduced a system which, so far as we know, was his own, though founded upon the Epicurean philosophical creed; on the practical side it conformed pretty closely to the Stoic rule of life, thus adapting itself to the leanings of the better stamp of Romans in the later times of the republic. According to Asclepiades all diseases depended upon alterations in the size, number, arrangement or movement of the " atoms," of which, according to the doctrine of Epicurus, the body consisted. These atoms were united into passages (iropoi) through which the juices of the body were conveyed. This doctrine, of which the developments need not further be followed, was important chiefly in so far that it was perfectly distinct from, and opposed to, the humoral pathology of Hippocrates. In the treatment of disease Asclepiades attached most importance to diet, exercise, passive movements or frict : ons, and the external use of cold water — in short, to a modified athletic training. He rejected the vis medicatrix naturae, pointing out that nature in many cases not only did not help but marred the cure. His knowledge of disease and surgical skill were, as appears from the accounts given by Celsus and Caelius Aurelianus, very considerable. Asclepiades had many pupils who adhered more or less closely to his doctrines, but it was especially one of them, Themison, who gave permanence to the teachings of his master by framing out of them, with some modifications, a new system of medical doctrine, and, founding on this basis a school which lasted for some centuries in successful rivalry with the Hippocratic tradition, which, as we have seen, was up to that time the prevailing influence in medicine. This system was known as methodism, its adherents as the methodici or methodists. Its main principles were that-Tt was useless to consider "the causes of a disease, or even the organ affected by the disease, and that it was sufficient to know what was common to all diseases, viz. their common qualities (communitates, koiv6ti)tcs). Of these there were three possible forms — (1) relaxation, (2) con- traction of the minute passages or xopoi, and (3) a mixed state, partly lax, partly constricted. The signs of these morbid states were to be found in the general constitution of the body, especially ' in the excretions. Besides this it was important only to consider whether the disease was acute or chronic, whether it was increasing, declining or stationary. Treatment of disease was directed not to any special organ, nor to producing the crises and critical discharges of the Hippocratic school, but to correcting the morbid common condition or " community," relaxing the body if it was constricted, causing 44 MEDICINE [HISTORY contraction if it was too lax, and in the " mixed state " acting accord- ing to the predominant condition. This simple rule of treatment was the system or " method " from which the school took its name. The methodists agreed with the empirics in one point', in their contempt for anatomy; but, strictly speaking, they were dogmatists, though with a dogma different from that of the Hippocratic school. Besides Themison, its systematic founder, the school boasted many physicians eminent in their day, among whom Thessalus of Tralles, a half-educated and boastful pretender, was one of the most popular He reversed the Hippocratic maxim " art is long," promising his scholars to teach them the whole of medicine in six months, and had inscribed upon his tomb JarpociKijs, as being superior to all living and bygone physicians. In the 2nd century a much greater name appears among the methodists, that of Soranus of Ephesus, a physician mentioned with praise even by Tertullian and Augustine, who practised at Rome in the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian. Soranus is known by a work, still extant in the Greek original, on the diseases of women, and also by the Latin work of Caelius Aurelianus, three centuries later, on acute and chronic diseases, which is based upon, if not, as some think, an actual translation of, the chief work of Soranus, and which is the principal source of our knowledge of the methodic school. The work on diseases of women is the only Complete work on that subject which has come down to us from antiquity, and shows remarkable fullness of practical knowledge in relation to its subject. It is notable that an important instrument of research, the speculum, which has been reinvented in modern times, was used by Soranus; and specimens of still earlier date, showing great mechanical perfec- tion, have been found among the ruins of Pompeii. The work on acute and chronic diseases is also full of practical knowledge, but penetrated with the theories of the methodists. The methodic school lasted certainly for some centuries, and influenced the revival of medical science in the middle ages, though overshadowed by the greater reputation of Galen. It was the first definite product of Greek medicine on Roman soil, but was destined to be followed by others, which kept up" a more or less successful rivalry with it, and with the Hippocratic tradition. The so-called pneumatic school was founded by Athenaeus, in the 1st century after Christ. According to its doctrines the normal as well as diseased actions of the body were to be referred to the operation of the pneuma or universal soul. This doctrine, crudely transferred from philosophical speculation, was intended to reconcile the humoral (or Hippocratic) and solidist (or methodic) schools; but the methodists seem to have claimed Athenaeus as one of themselves. The conflicts of the opposing schools, and the obvious deficiencies of each, led many physicians to try and combine the valuable parts of each system, and to call themselves eclectics. Among these were found many of the most eminent physicians of Graeco- Roman times. It may be sufficient to name Rufus or Ephesus (2nd century A.D.), and Archigenes {fi. a.d. 90), who is mentioned by Juvenal. Although no system or important doctrine of medicine was originated by the Roman intellect, and though the practice of the profession was probably almost entirely in the hands of the Greeks, the most complete picture which we have of medical thought and activity in Roman times is due to a Latin pen, and to one who was, in all probability, not a physician. A. Cornelius Celsus, a Roman patrician, who lived probably in the 1st century, appears to have studied medicine as a branch of general knowledge. Whether he was a practising physician or not has been a matter of controversy. The conclusion supported by most evidence seems to be that he practised on his friends and dependants, but not as a remunerative profession. His well-known work, De medicina, was one of a series of treatises intended to embrace all knowledge proper for a man of the world. It was not meant for the physicians, and was certainly little read by them, as Celsus is quoted by no medical writer, and when referred to by Pliny, is spoken of as an author not a physician. There is no doubt that his work is chiefly a com- pilation; and Daremberg, with other scholars, has traced a large number of passages of the Latin text to the Greek originals from which they were translated. In the description of surgical operations the vagueness of the language seems sometimes to show that the author had not performed such himself; but in other parts, and especially in his historical introduction, he speaks with more confidence; and everywhere he compares and criticizes with learning and judgment. The whole body of medical literature belonging to the Hippocratic and Alexandrian times is ably summarized, and a knowledge of the state of medical science up to and during the times of the author is thus conveyed to us which can be obtained from no other source. The work of Celsus is thus for us only second in importance to the Hippocratic writings and the works of Galen; but it is valuable rather as a part of the history of medicine than as the subject of that history. It forms no link in the general chain of medical tradition, for the simple reason that the influence of Celsus (putting aside a few scanty allusions in medieval times) commenced in the 15th century, when his works were first discovered in manuscript or committed to the press. Since then, however, he has been almost up to our own times the most popular and widely read of all medical classics, partly for the qualities already indicated, partly because he was one of the few of those classics accessible to readers of Latin, and partly also because of the purity and classical perfection of his language. Of Pliny, another encyclopaedic writer, a few words must be said, though he was not a physician. In his Natural History we find as complete a summary of the popular medicine of his time as Celsus gives of the scientific medicine. Pliny disliked doctors, and lost no opportunity of depreciating regular medicine; nevertheless he has left many quotations from, and many details about, medical authors which are of the highest value. He is useful to us for what he wrote about the history of medicine, not for what he contributed. Like Celsus, he had little influence on succeeding medical literature or practice. We now come to the writer who, above all others, gathered up into himself the divergent and scattered threads of ancient medicine, and out of whom again the greater part of modern European medicine has flowed. Galen was a man furnished with all the anatomical, medical and philosophical knowledge of his time; he had studied all kinds of natural curiosities, and had stood in near relation to important political events; he possessed' enormous industry, great practical sagacity and unbounded literary fluency. He had, in fact, every quality necessary for an encyclopaedic writer, or even for a literary and professional autocrat. He found the medical profession of his time split up into a number of sects, medical science confounded under a multitude of dogmatic systems, the social status and moral integrity of physicians degraded. He appears to have made it his object to reform these evils, to reconcile scientific acquirements and practical skill, to bring back the unity of medicine as jt had been understood by Hippocrates, and at the same time to raise the dignity of medical practitioners. Galen was as devoted to anatomical and, so far as then understood, physiological research as to practical medicine. He worked enthusi- astically at dissection, though, the liberty of the Alexandrian schools no longer existing, he could dissect only animals, not the human body. In his anatomical studies Galen had a twofold object — a philosophical, to show the wisdom of the Creator in making every- thing fit to serve its purpose; and a practical, to aid the diagnosis, or recognition, of disease. The first led him into a teleological system so minute and. overstrained as to defeat its own end ; the second was successfully attained by giving greater precision and certainty to medical and surgical practice in difficult: cases. His general physiology was essentially founded upon the Hippocratic theory of the four elements, with which he combined the notion of spirit (pneuma) penetrating all parts, and mingled with the humours in different proportions. It was on this field that he most vehe- mently attacked the prevailing atomistic and materialistic views of the methodic school, and his conception of the pneuma became in some respects half metaphysical. His own researches in special branches of physiology were important, but do not strictly belong to our present subject. The application of physiology to the explanation of diseases, and thus to practice, was chiefly by the theory of the temperaments or mixtures which Galen founded upon the Hippocratic doctrine of humours, but developed with marvellous and fatal ingenuity. The normal condition or temperament of the body depended upon a proper mixture or proportion of the four elements — hot, cold, wej: and dry. From faulty proportions of the same arose the intemperies- (" distempers "), which, though not diseases, were the occasions of disease. Equal importance attached to faulty mixtures or dyscrasiae of the blood. By a combination of these morbid pre- dispositions with the action of deleterious influences from without all diseases were produced. Galen showed extreme ingenuity in explaining all symptoms and all diseases on his system. No pheno- menon was without a name, no problem without a solution. And, though it was precisely in his fine-spun subtlety that he departed furthest from scientific method and practical utility, it was this very quality which seems in the end to have secured his popularity and established his pre-eminence in the medical world. Galen's use of drugs was influenced largely by the same theories. In drugs were to be recognized the same elementary qualities — hot. HISTORY] MEDICINE 45 cold, moist, dry, &c. — as in the human body; and, on the principle of curing by contraries, the use of one or other was indicated. The writings of Galen contain less of simple objective observations than those of several other ancient physicians, all being swept into the current of dogmatic exposition. But there is enough to show the thoroughness and extent of his practical knowledge. Unfortunately it was neither this nor his zeal for research that chiefly won him followers, but the completeness of his theoretical explanations, which fell in with the mental habits of succeeding centuries, and were such as have flattered the intellectual indolence of all ages. But the reputation of Galen grew slowly; he does not appear to have enjoyed any pre-eminence over other physicians of his time, to most of whom he was strongly opposed in opinion. In the next generation he beganto be esteemed only as a philosopher; gradually his system was implicitly accepted, and it enjoyed a great though not exclusive predominance till the fall of Roman civilization. When the Arabs possessed themselves of the scattered remains of Greek culture, the works of Galen were more highly esteemed than any others except those of Aristotle. Through the Arabs the Galenical system found its way back again to western Europe. Even when Arabian medicine gave way before the direct teaching of the Greek authors rescued from neglect, the authority of Galen was increased instead of being diminished ; and he assumed a position of autocracy in medical science which was only slowly undermined by the growth of modern science in the 17th and 1 8th centuries. The history of medicine in Roman times is by no means the same thing as the history of the fate of the works of Galen. For some centuries the methodic school was popular at Rome, and produced one physician, Caelius Aurelianus, who must be pro- nounced, next to Celsus, the most considerable of the Latin medical writers. His date was in all probability the end of the 4th or the beginning of the 5th century. The works bearing his name are, as has been said, entirely based upon the Greek of Soranus, but are important both because their Greek originals are lost, and because they are evidence of the state of medical practice in his own time. The popularity of Caelius is evidenced by the fact that in the 6th century an abridgment of his larger work was recommended by Cassiodorus to the Benedictine monks for the study of medicine. Before quitting this period the name of Aretaeus of Cappadocia must be mentioned. So little is known about him that even his date cannot be fixed more closely than as being between the second half of the 1st century and the beginning of the 3rd. His works have been much admired for the purity of the Greek style, and his accurate descriptions of disease; but, as he quotes no medical author,. and is quoted by none before Alexander of Aphrodisias at the beginning of the 3rd century, it is clear that he belonged to no school and founded none, and thus his position in the chain of medical tradition is quite uncertain. Alexander of Aphrodisias, who lived and wrote at Athens in the time of Septimius Severus, is best known by his commentaries on Aristotle, but also wrote a treatise on fevers, still extant. Ancient Medicine after Galen. — The Byzantine school of medicine, which closely corresponds to the Byzantine literary and historical schools, followed closely in Galen's footsteps, and its writers were chiefly compilers and encyclopaedists. The earliest is Oribasius (326-403), whose date and position are fixed by his being the friend and court physician of Julian the Apostate. Be was a Greek of Pergamum, educated in Alexandria, and long resident in Byzantium. His great work 'Swayatyal lorputot, of which only about one-third has been preserved, was a medical encyclopaedia founded on extracts from Hippocrates, Galen, Dioscorides (fl. A.D. 50) and certain Greek writers who are otherwise very imperfectly known. The work is thus one of great historical value but of no originality. The next name which requires to be mentioned is that of Aetius (a.d. 550), a compiler who closely followed Oribasius, but with inferior powers, and whose work also has an historical but no original value. A higher rank among medical writers is assigned to Alexander of Tralles (525-605), whose doctrine was that of an eclectic. His practical and therapeutical rules are evidently the fruit of his own experience, though it would be difficult to attribute to him any decided advance in medical knowledge. But the most prominent figure in Byzantine medicine is that of Paul of Aegina (Paulus Aegineta), who lived probably in the early part of the 7th century. His skill, especially in surgery, must have been considerable, and his 'larpuca gives a very complete picture of the achievements of the Greeks in this department. Another work, on obstetrics, now lost, was equally famous, and procured for him, among the Arabs, the name of " the Obstetrician.'' His reputation lasted through the middle ages, and was not less in the Arabian schools than in the West. In this respect Paulus is a most important influence in the development of medicine. His great work on surgery was early translated into Arabic, and became the foundation of the surgery of Abulcasis, which in turn (to anticipate) was one of the chief sources of surgical knowledge to Europe in the middle ages. The succeeding period of Byzantine history was so little favourable to science that no name worthy of note occurs again (though many medical works of this period are still extant) till the 13th century, when we meet with a group of writers. Demetrius Pepagomenus, Nicolaus Myrepsus and Johannes, called Actuarius, who flourished under the protection of the Palaeologi. The work of the last has some independent merit ; but all are interesting as showing a fusion of Greek and Arabian medicine, the latter having begun to exercise even in the nth century a reflex influence on the schools of By- zantium. Something was borrowed even from the school of Salerno, and thus the close of Byzantine medicine is brought into connexion with the dawn of science in modern Europe. In the West the period after Galen affords little evidence of any- thing but a gradual though unvarying decline in Roman medicine. Caelius Aurelianus, already referred to as the follower of Soranus, must be mentioned as showing the persistence of the methodic school. An abridgment of one of his writings, with the title of Aurelius, became the most popular of all Latin medical works. As a writer he was worthy of a better period of medical literature. Little else was produced in these times but compilations, of the most meagre kind, chiefly of the nature of herbals, or domestic receipt- books; among the authors of which it may be sufficient to name Serenus Sammonicus (3rd century), Gargilius Martialis (3rd century) and Marcellus Empiricus (5th century). Certain compilations still extant bear the falsely-assumed names of eminent writers, such as Pliny and Hippocrates. A writer with the (perhaps assumed) name of Apuleius Platonicus produced a herbal which held its ground till the 15th century at least, and was in the 9th translated into Anglo-Saxon. These poor compilations, together with Latin translations of certain works of Galen and Hippocrates, formed 3 medical literature, meagre and unprogressive indeed, but of which a great part survived through the middle ages till the discovery of printing and revival of learning. It is important to remember that this obscure stream of tradition flowed on, only partially affected by the influx of Arabian, or even the early revival of purer classical learning. Arabian Medicine. — The rise of the Mahommedan Empire, which influenced Europe so deeply both politically and intel- lectually, made its mark also in the history of medicine. As in the parallel case of the Roman conquest of Greece, the superior culture of the conquered race asserted its supremacy over their Arab conquerors. After the Mahommedan conquests became consolidated, and learning began to flourish, schools of medicine, often connected with hospitals and schools of pharmacy, arose in all the chief seats of Moslem power. At Damascus Greek medicine was zealously cultivated with the aid of Jewish and Christian teachers. In Bagdad, under the rule of Harun el Rashid and his successors, a still more flourishing school arose, where numerous translations of Greek medical works were made. The names of Mesua, or Yahya ibn Masawaih (d. a.d. 857-858), celebrated for his knowledge of drugs, and Honein ibn Ishaq el 'Ibadi (d. 873) or Joannitius, the translator and commentator of Hippocrates and Galen, belong to this period. Certain writings of Joannitius, translated into Latin, were popular in the middle ages in Europe, and were printed in the 16th century. At the same time the Arabs became acquainted with Indian medicine, and Indian physicians lived at the court of Bagdad. The Islamite rulers in Spain were not long behind those of the East in encouraging learning and medical science, and developed culture to a still higher degree of perfection. In that country much was due to the Jews, who had already established schools in places which were afterwards the seats of Moslem dominion, From the 10th to the 13th century was the brilliant period of Arabian medicine in Spain. 1 The classical period of Arabian medicine begins with Rhazes^ (Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya el-Razi, a.d. 925-^26), a naftas of Rai in the province of Dailam (Persia), who practised with distinc- tion at Bagdad ; he followed the doctrines of Galen, but learnt much from Hippocrates. He was the first of the Arabs to treat medicine in a comprehensive and encyclopaedic manner, surpassing probably in voluminousness Galen himself, though but a small proportion of his works are extant. Rhazes is deservedly remembered as having first described small-pox and measles in an accurate manner. Hah, i.e. 'Ali ibn el-'Abbas, a Persian, wrote a medical textbook, known as the " Royal Book," which was the standard authority among the Arabs up to the time of Avicenna (a.d. 980-1037) and was more than once translated into Latin and printed. Other 1 See Dozy, Cat. Cod. Or. Lug. Bat. ii. 296. +6 MEDICINE [HISTORY writers of this century need not be mentioned here; but the next, the nth century, is given as the probable though uncertain date of a writer who had a great influence on European medicine, Mesua the younger of Damascus, whose personality is obscure, and of whose very existence some historians have doubted, thinking that the name was assumed by some medieval Latin writer. The work De isimplicibus, which bears his name, was for centuries a standard authority on what would now be called materia medica, was printed in twenty-six editions in the 15th century and later, and was used in the formation of the first London pharmacopoeia, issued by the College of Physicians in the reign of James I. Either to the 10th ^or the nth century must be referred the name of another Arabian 'physician who has also attained the position of a classic, Abu'l Qasim or Abulcasis, of El-Zahra, near Cordova, in Spain. His great work, Altasrif, a medical encyclopaedia, is chiefly valued for its surgical portion (already mentioned), which was translated into Latin in the 16th century, and was for some centuries a standard if not the standard authority on surgery in Europe. Among his own countrymen the fame and position of Abulcasis were soon eclipsed by the greater name of Avicenna. Avicenna has always been regarded as the chief representative of Arabian medicine. He wrote on philosophy also, and in both subjects acquired the highest reputation through the whole of eastern Islam. In Mahommedan Spain he was le^s regarded, but in Europe his works even eclipsed and superseded tnose of Hippo- crates and Galen. His style and expository power are highly praised, but the subject-matter shows little originality. The work by which he is chiefly known, the celebrated " canon," is an encyclopaedia of medical and surgical knowledge, founded upon Galen, Aristotle, the later Greek physicians, and the earlier Arabian writers, singularly complete and systematic, but is thought not to show the practical experience of its author. As in the case of Galen, the formal and encyclopaedic character of Avicenna's works was the chief cause of his popularity and ascendancy, though in modern times these very qualities in a scientific or medical writer would rather cause him to become more speedily antiquated. In the long list of Arabian medical writers none can here be mentioned except the great names of the Hispano-Moorish school, a school both philosophically and medically antagonistic to that of Avicenna. Of these the earliest is Avenzoar or Abumeron, that is, Abu Merwan 'Abd al-Malik Ibn Zuhr (beginning of 12th century), a member of a family which gave several distinguished members to the medical profession. His chief work, Al-Teystr (facilitatio), is thought to show more practical experience than the writings of Avicenna, and to be less based upon dialectical subtleties. It was translated into Latin, and more than once printed, as were some of his lesser works, which thus formed a part of the contribution made by the Arabians to European medicine. His friend and pupil Averroes of Cordova (q.v.), so well known for his philosophical writings, was also an author in medical subjects, and as such widely read in Latin. The famous Rabbi Maimonii>es (a.d. 1 135-1204) (q.v.) closes for us the roll of medical writers of the Arabian school. His works exist chiefly in the original Arabic or in Hebrew transla- tions; only some smaller treatises have been translated into Latin, so that no. definite opinion can be formed as to their medical value. But, so far as is known, the independent and rationalistic spirit which the two last-named writers showed in philosophy did not lead them to take any original point of view in medicine. The works of the Arabian medical writers who have now been mentioned form a very small fraction of the existing literature. Three hundred medical writers in Arabic are enumerated by Ferdi- nand Wiistenfeld (1808-1899), and other historians have enlarged the list (Haser), but only three have been printed in the original; a certain number more are known through old Latin translations, and the great majority still exist in manuscript. It is thus evident that the circumstance of having been translated (which may have been in some cases almost an accident) is what has chiefly determined the influence of particular writers on Western medicine. But it is improbable that further research will alter the general estimate of the value of Arabian medicine. There can be no doubt that it was in the main Greek medicine, modified to suit other climates, habits and national tastes, and with some important additions from Oriental sources. The greater part is taken from Hippocrates, Galen, Dioscorides and later Greek writers. The Latin medical writers were necessarily unknown to the Arabs; and this was partly the cause that even in Europe Galenic medicine assumed such a preponderance, the methodic school and Celsus being forgotten or neglected. In anatomy and physiology the Arabians distinctly went back; in surgery they showed no advance upon the Greeks; in practical medicine nothing new can be traced, except the descrip- tion of certain diseases (e.g. small-pox and measles) unknown or imperfectly known to the Greeks; the only real advance was in pharmacy and the therapeutical use of drugs. By their relations with the farther East, the Arabs became acquainted with valuable new remedies which have held their ground till modern times; and their skill in chemistry enabled them to prepare new chemical remedies, and form many combinations of those already in use. They produced the first pharmacopoeia, and established the first apothecaries' shops. Many of the names and many forms of medi- cines now used, and in fact the general outline of modern pharmacy, except so far as modified by modern chemistry, started with the Arabs. Thus does Arabian medicine appear as judged from a modern standpoint ; but to medieval Europe, when Tittle but a tradition remained of the great ancient schools, it was invested with a far higher degree of originality and importance. It is now necessary to consider what was the state of medicine in Europe after the fall of the Western Empire and before the influence of Arabian science and literature began to be felt. This we may call the pre-Arabian or Salernitan period. Medicine in the Early Middle Ages: School of Salerno. — In medical as in civil history there is no real break. A continuous thread of learning and practice must have connected the last period of Roman medicine already mentioned with the dawn of science in the middle ages. But the intellectual thread is naturally traced with greater difficulty than that which is the theme of civil history; and in periods such as that from the 5th to the 10th century in Europe it is almost lost. The chief homes of medical as of other learning in these disturbed times were the monasteries. Though the science was certainly not advanced by their labours, it was saved from total oblivion, and many ancient medical works were preserved either in Latin or vernacular versions. The Anglo-Saxon Leechdoms 1 of the nth century, published in the Rolls series of medieval chronicles and memorials, admirably illustrate the mixture of magic and superstition with the relics of ancient science which constituted monastic medicine. Similar works, in Latin or other languages, exist in manuscript in all the great European libraries. It was among the Benedictines that the monastic study of medicine first received a new direction, and aimed at a higher standard. The study of Hippocrates, Galen, and other classics was recommended by Cassiodorus (6th century), and in the original mother-abbey of Monte Cassino medicine was studied; but there was not there what could be called a medical school; nor had this foundation any connexion (as has been supposed) with the famous school of Salerno. The origin of this, the most important source of medical know- ledge in Europe in the early middle ages, is involved in obscurity. It is known that Salerno, a Roman colony, in a situation noted in ancient times for its salubrity, was in the 6th century at least the seat of a bishopric, and at the end of the 7th century of a Benedictine monastery, and that some of the prelates and higher clergy were distinguished for learning, and even for medical acquirements. But it has by recent researches been clearly established that the celebrated Schola salernilana was a purely secular institution. All that can with certainty be said is that a s«jool or collection of schools gradually grew up in which especially medicine, but also, in a subordinate degree, law and philosophy were taught. In the oth century Salernitan physicians werf already spoken of, and the city was known as Civitas hippocratica. A little later we find great and royal personages resorting to Salerno for the restoration of their health, among whom was William of Normandy, afterwards the Conqueror. The number of students of medicine must at one time have been considerable, and in a corresponding degree the number of teachers. Among the latter many were married, and their wives and daughters appear also in the lists of professors. The most noted female professor was the celebrated Trotula in the nth century. The Jewish element appears to have been important among the students, and possibly among the professors. The reputation of the school was great till the 12th or r3th century, when the introduction of the Arab medicine was gradually fatgl to it. The foundation of the university of Naples, and the rise of Montpellier, also contributed to its decline. The teachings of the Salernitan doctors are pretty well known through existing works, some of which have only recently been discovered and published. The best-known is the rhyming Latin poem on health by Joannes de Meditano, Regimen sanitatis Salerni, professedly written for the use of the " king of England," supposed to mean William the Conqueror; it had an immense reputation in the middle ages, and was afterwards many times printed, and translated into most European languages. This was a popular work intended for the laity; but there are others strictly professional. 1 Derived from the Anglo-Saxon laece, a physician, and dom, a law. HISTORY] MEDICINE 47 Among the writers it may be sufficient to mention here Gariopontus ; Copho, who wrote the Anatome porci, a well-known medieval book; Joannes Platearius, first of a family of physicians bearing the same name, whose Practica, or medical compendium, was afterwards several times printed; and Trotula, believed to be the wife of the last-named. All of these fall into the first period before the advent of Arabian medicine. In the transitional period, when the Arabian school began to influence European medicine, but before the Salerni- tans were superseded, comes Nicolaus Praepositus, who wrote the Antidotarium, a collection of formulae for compound medicines, which became the standard work on the subject, and the foundation of many later compilations. An equally popular writer was Gilles de Corbeil (Aegidius Corboliensis) , at one time a teacher at Salerno, afterwards court physician to Philip Augustus of France, who com- posed several poems in Latin hexameters on medical subjects. Two of them, on the urine and the pulse respectively, attained the position of medical classics. None of these Salernitan works rise much above the rank of compilations, being founded on Hippocrates, Galen and later Greek writers, with an unmistakable mixture of the doctrines of the methodists. But they often show much practical experience, and exhibit the naturalistic method of the Hippocratic school. The general plan of treatment is dietetic rather than pharmaceutical, though the art of preparing drugs had reached a high degree of complexity at Salerno. Anatomy was as little regarded as it was in the later ancient schools, the empiric and methodic, but demon- strations of the parts of the body were given' on swine. Although it cannot be said that the science of medicine was advanced at Salerno, still its decline was arrested at a time when every other branch of learning was rapidly falling into decay; and there can be no doubt that the observation of patients in hospitals, and probably clinical instruction, were made use of in learning and teaching. The school of Salerno thus forms a bridge between the ancient and the modern medicine, more direct though less conspicuous than that circuitous route, through Byzantium, Bagdad and Cordova, by which Hippocrates and Galen, in Arabian dress, again entered the European world. Though the glory of Salerno had departed, the school actually existed till it was finally dissolved by an edict of the emperor Napoleon I. in the year 1811. Introduction of Arabian Medicine: The Scholastic Period. — About the middle of the nth century the Arabian medical writers began to be known by Latin translations in the Western world. Constantinus Africanus, a monk, was the author of the earliest of such versions (a.d. 1050) ; his labours were directed chiefly to the less important and less bulky Arabian authors, of whom Haly was the most noted; the real classics were not introduced till later. For some time the Salernitan medicine held its ground, and it was not till the conquest of Toledo by Alphonso of Castile that any large number of Western scholars came in contact with the learning of the Spanish Moors, and systematic efforts were made to translate their philosophical and medical works. Jewish scholars, often under the patronage of Christian bishops, were especially active in the work. In Sicily also the Oriental tendencies of Frederick Barbarossa and Frederick II. worked in the same direction. Gerard of Cremona, a physician of Toledo (1114-1187), made translations, it is said by command of Barbarossa, from Avicenna and others. It is needless to point out the influence of the crusades in making Eastern ideas known in the Western world. The influence of Arabian medicine soon began to be felt even in the Hippocratic city of Salerno, and in the 13th century is said to have held an even balance with the older medicine. After this time the foreign influence predominated; and by the time that the Aristo- telian dialectic, in the introduction of which the Arabs had so large a share, prevailed in the schools of Europe, the Arabian version of Greek medicine reigned supreme in the medical world. That this movement coincided with the establishment of some of the older European universities is well known. The history of medicine in the period now opening is closely combined with the history of scholastic philosophy. Both were infected with the same dialectical subtlety, which was, from the nature of the subject, especially injurious to medicine. At the same time, through the rise of the universities, medical learning was much more widely diffused, and the first definite forward movement was seen in the school of Montpellier, where a medical faculty existed early in the 12th century, afterwards united with faculties of law and philosophy. The medical school owed its foundation largely to Jewish teachers, themselves educated in the Moorish schools of Spain, and imbued with the intellectual independence of the Averroists. Its rising prosperity coincided with the decline of the school of Salerno. Montpellier became distinguished for the practical and empirical spirit of its medicine, as contrasted with the dogmatic and scholastic teaching of Paris and other universities. In Italy, Bologna and Padua were earliest distinguished for medical studies — the former preserving more of the Galenical tradition, the latter being more progressive and Averroist. The northern univer- sities contributed little — the reputation even of Paris being of later growth. The supremacy of Arabian medicine lasted till the revival of learning, when the study of the medical classics in their original language worked another revolution. The medical writers of this period, who chiefly drew from Arabian sources, have been called Arabists (though it is difficult to give any clear meaning to this term), and were afterwards known as the neoterics. The medical literature of this period is extremely voluminous, but essentially second-hand, consisting mainly of commentaries on Hippocrates, Galen, Avicenna and others, or of compilations and compendia still less original than commentaries. Among these may be mentioned the Conciliator of Peter of Abano (1250-1315), the Aggregator of Jacob de Dondi (1298-1359), both of the school of Padua, and the Pandectae medicinae of the Salernitan Matthaeus Sylvaticus (d. 1342), a sort of medical glossary and dictionary. But for us the most interesting fact is the first appearance of Englishmen as authors of medical works having a European reputation, dis- tinguished, according to the testimony of Haser, by a practical tendency characteristic of the British race, and fostered in the school of Montpellier. The first of these works is the Compendium medicinae, also called Laurea or Rosa anglicana, of Gilbert (Gilbertus Anglicus, about 1 290) , said to contain good observations on leprosy. A more im- portant work, the Practica seu lilium medicinae, of Bernard Gordon, a Scottish professor at Montpellier (written in the year 1307), was more widely spread, being translated into French and Hebrew, and printed in several editions. Of these two physicians the first pro- bably, the latter certainly, was educated and practised abroad, but John Gaddesden (i28o?-i36i), the author of Rosa anglica seu practica medicinae (between 1305 and 1317), was a graduate in medicine of Merton College, Oxford, and court physician. His compendium is entirely wanting in originality, and perhaps unusually destitute of common sense, but it became so popular as to be re- printed up to the end of the 16th century. Works of this kind became still more abundant in the 14th and in the first half of the' 15th century, till the wider distribution of the medical classics in the original put them out of fashion. In surgery this period was far more productive than in medicine, especially in Italy and France, but the limits of our subject only permit us to.mention Gulielmus de Saliceto of Piacenza (about 1275), Lanfranchi of Milan (died about 1306), the French surgeon, Guy de Chauliac (about 1350) and the Englishman, John Ardern (about !35°)- in anatomy also the beginning of a new epoch was made by Mondino de Liucci or Mundinus (1275-1326), and his followers. The medical writings of Arnald de Villanova (c. 1235-1313) (if the Breviarium practicae be rightly ascribed to him) rise above the rank of compilations. Finally, in the 13th and especially the 14th century we find, under the name of consilia, the first medieval reports of medical cases which are preserved in such a form as to be intelligible. Collections of consilia were published, among others, by Gentilis Fulgineus before 1348, by Bartolomeo Montagnana (d. 1470), and by Baverius de Baveriis of Imola (about 1450). The last-named contains much that is interesting and readable. Period of the Revival of Learning. — The impulse which all departments of intellectual activity received from the revival of Greek literature in Europe was felt by medicine among the rest. .Not that the spirit of the science, or of its corresponding practice, was at once changed. The basis of medicine through the middle ages had been literary and dogmatic, and it was literary and dogmatic still; but the medical literature_ now brought to light — including as it did the more important w'&Tks of Hippocrates and Galen, many of them hitherto unknown, and in addition the fprgotten element of Latin medicine, especially the work of Celsus — was in .itself far superior to the second-hand compilations and incorrect versions which had formerly been accepted as standards. The classical works, though still regarded with unreasoning reverence, were found to have a germinative and vivifying power that carried the mind out of the region of dogma, and prepared the way for the scientific movement which has been growing in strength up to our own day. +8 MEDICINE {HISTORY Two of the most important results of the revival of learning were indeed such as are excluded from the scope of this brief sketch — namely, the reawakening -of anatomy, which to a large extent grew out of the study of the works of Galen, and the investigation of medicinal plants, to which a fresh impulse was given by the revival of Dioscorides (a.d. 50) and other ancient naturalists. The former brought with it necessarily a more accurate conception of physiology, and thus led up to the great discovery of Harvey, which was the turning- point in modern medicine. The latter gave rise, on the one hand, to the modern science of botany, on the other to a more rational knowledge of drugs and their uses. At the same time, the discovery of America, and increased intercourse with the East, by introducing a variety of new plants, greatly accelerated the progress both of botany and pharmacology. But it was not in these directions that improvement was first looked for. It was at first very naturally imagined that the simple revival of classical and especially of Greek literature would at once produce the same brilliant results in medicine as in literature and philosophy. The movement of reform started, of necessity, with scholars rather than practising physicians — more precisely with a group of learned men, whom we may be permitted, for the sake of a name, to call the medical humanists, equally enthusiastic in the cause of letters and of medicine. From both fields they hoped to expel the evils which were summed up in the word barbarism. Nearly all medieval medical literature was condemned under this name; and for it the humanists proposed to substitute the originals of Hippocrates and Galen, thus leading back medicine to its fountain-head. Since a knowledge of Greek was still confined to a small body of scholars, and a still smaller proportion of physicians, the first task was to translate the Greek classics into Latin. To this work several learned physicians, chiefly Italians, applied themselves with great ardour. Among the earliest were Nicolaus Leonicenus of Vicenza (1428-1524), Giovanni de Monte or Montanus (1498-1552), and many others in Italy. In northern Europe should be mentioned Gulielmus Copus (1471-1532) and Gtinther of Andernach (1487-1584), better known as Guinterius Andernacensis, both for a time professors at Paris; and, among the greatest, Thomas Linacre (about 1460-1524; see Linacre). A little later Janus Cornarius or Hagenbut (1500-1558) and Leonhard Fuchs (1501-1566) in Germany, and John Kaye of Caius (1510-1572) in England, carried on the work. Symphorien Champier (Champerius or Campegius) of Lyons (1472-1530)^ contemporary of Rabelais, and the patron of Servetus, wrote with fantastic enthusiasm on the superiority of the Greek to the Arabian physicians, and possibly did something to enlist in the same cause the two far greater men just mentioned. Rabelais not only lectured on Galen and Hippocrates, but edited some works of the latter; and Michael Servetus (1511-1553),^ a little tract Syruporum universa ratio, defended the practice of Galen as compared with that of the Arabians. The great Aldine Press made an important contribution to the work, by editiones principes of Hippocrates and Galen in the original. Thus was the campaign opened against the medieval and Arabian writers, till finally Greek medicine assumed a predominant position, and Galen took the place of Avicenna. The result was recorded in a formal manner by the Florentine Academy, sometime shortly before 1535: " Quae, excusso. Arabicae et barbarae servitutis medicae jugo, ex professo se Galenicam appellavit et profligato barbaro- rum exercitu unum totum et solum Galenum, ut optimum artis medicae authorem, in omnibus se sequuturam pollicita est." Janus Cornarius, from whom this is quoted, laments, however, that the Arabians still reigned in most of the schools of medicine, and that the Italian and French authors of works called Practice were still in high repute. The triumph of Galen- ism was therefore not complete by the middle of the 16th century. It was probably most so, and earliest, in the schools of Italy and in those of England, where the London College of Physicians might be regarded as an offshoot of the Italian schools. Paris was the stronghold of conservatism, and Germany was stirred by the teachings of one who must be considered apart from all schools — Paracelsus. The nature of the struggle between the rival systems may be well illustrated by a formidable contro- versy about the rules for bleeding in acute diseases. This operation, according to the Arabian practice, was always performed on a vein at a distance from the organ affected. The Hippocratic and also Galenic rule, to let blood from, or near to, the diseased organ, was revived by Pierre Brissot (1470-1522), a professor in the university of Paris. His attempt at reform, which was taken to be, as in effect it was, a revolt against the authority of the Arabian masters, led to his expulsion from Paris, and the formal prohibition by the parliament of his method. Upon this apparently trifling question arose a controversy which lasted many years, occupied several uni- versities, and led to the interposition of personages no less important than the pope and the emperor, but which is thought •to have largely contributed to the final downfall of the Arabian medicine. Paracelsus and Chemical Medicine. — Contemporary with the school of medical humanists, but little influenced by them, lived in Germany a man of strange genius, of whose character and importance the most opposite opinions have been expressed. The first noticeable quality in Paracelsus (c. 1490-1541) is his revolutionary independence of thought, which was supported by his immense personal arrogance. Himself well trained in the learning and medical science of the day, he, despised and trampled upon all traditional and authoritative teachings. He began his lectures at Basel by burning the books of Avicenna and others; he afterwards boasted of having read no books for ten years; he protested that his shoe-buckles were more learned than Galen and Avicenna. On the other hand, he spoke with respect of Hippocrates, and wrote a commentary on his Aphorisms. In this we see a spirit very different from the enthusiasm of the humanists for a purer and nobler philo- sophy than the scholastic and Arabian versions of Greek thought. There is no record of Paracelsus' knowledge- of Greek, and as, at least in his student days, the most important works of Greek medicine were very imperfectly known, it is probable he had little first hand acquaintance with Galen or Hippocrates, while his breach with the humanists is the more conspicuous from his lecturing and writing chiefly in his native German. Having thus made a clean sweep of nearly the whole of the dogmatic medicine, what did Paracelsus put in its place? Certainly not pure empiricism, or habits of objective observation. He had a dogma of his own — one founded, according to his German expositors, on the views of the Neoplatonists, of which a few disjointed specimens must here suffice. The human body was a " microcosm " which corresponded to the " macrocosm," arid contained in itself all parts of visible nature, — sun, moon, stars and the poles of heaven. To know the nature of man and how to deal with it, the physician should study, not anatomy ; which Paracelsus utterly rejected, but all parts of external nature. Life was a perpetual germinative process controlled by the indwelling spirit or Archeus; and diseases, according to the mystical conception of Paracelsus, were not natural but spiritual. Nature was sufficient for the cure of most diseases; art had only to interfere when the internal physician, the man himself, was tired or incapable. Then some remedy had to be introduced which should be antagonistic, not to the disease in a physical sense, but to the spiritual seed of the disease. These remedies were arcana — a word corresponding partly to what we now call specific" remedies, but implying a mysterious^ connexion between the remedy and the " essence " of the disease. Arcana were often shown to be such by their physical properties, not only by such as heat, cold, &c., but by fortuitous reseinblances to certain parts of the body; thus arose the famous doctrine Of " signatures," or signs indicating the virtues and uses of natural objects, which was afterwards developed into great complexity. Great importance was also attached to chemically prepared remedies as containing the essence or spiritual quality of the material from which they were derived. The actual therapeutical resources of Paracelsus included a HISTORY] MEDICINE 49 large number of metallic preparations, in the introduction of some of which he did good service, and, among vegetable preparations, the tincture of opium, still known by the name he gave it, laudanum. In this doubtless he derived much advantage from his knowledge of chemistry ^ though the science was as yet not disentangled from the secret traditions of alchemy, and was often mixed up with imposture. German historians of medicine attach great importance to the revolt of Paracelsus against the prevailing systems, and trace in his writings anticipations of many scientific truths of later times. That his personality was influential, and his intrepid originality of great value as an example in his own country, is undeniable. As a national reformer he has been not inaptly compared to Luther. But his importance in the universal history of medicine we cannot estimate so highly. The chief immediate result we can trace is the introduction of certain mineral remedies, especially antimony, the use of which became a kind of badge of the disciples of Paracelsus. The use of these remedies was not, however, necessarily connected with a belief in his system, which seems to have spread little beyond his own country. Of the followers of Paracelsus some became mere mystical quacks and impostors. Others, of more learning and better repute, were distinguished from the regular physicians chiefly by their use of chemical remedies. In France the introduction of antimony gave rise to a bitter controversy which lasted into the 17th century, and led to the expulsion of some men of mark from the Paris faculty. In England " chemical medicine " is first heard of in the reign of Elizabeth, and was in like manner contemned and assailed by the College of Physicians and the Society of Apothecaries. But it should be remembered that all the chemical physicians did not call Paracelsus master. The most notorious of that school in England, Francis Anthony (1550-1623), never quotes Paracelsus, but relies upon Arnald de Villanova and Raimon Lull. From this time, however, it is always possible to trace a school of chemical Eractitioners, who, though condemned by the orthodox Galenists, eld their ground, till in the 17th century a successor of Paracelsus arose in the celebrated J. B. Van Helmont. Consequences of the Revival of Ancient Medicine. — The revival of Galenic and Hippocratic medicine, though ultimately it conferred the greatest benefits on medical sciences, did not immediately produce any important or salutary reform in practical medicine. The standard of excellence in the ancient writers was indeed far above the level of the 16th century; but the fatal habit of taking at second hand what should have been acquired by direct observation retarded progress more than the possession of better models assisted it, so that the fundamental faults of medieval science remained uncorrected. Nevertheless some progress has to be recorded, even if net due directly to the study of ancient medicine. In the first place the 15th and 16th centuries were notable for the outbreak of certain epidemic diseases, which were unknown to the old physicians. Of these the chief was the " sweating sickness " or " English sweat," especially prevalent in, though not confined to, the country whence it is named. Among many descriptions of this disease, that by John Kaye or Caius, already referred to, was one of the best, and of great importance as "showing that the works of Galen did not comprise all that could be known in medicine. The spread of syphilis, a, disease equally unknown to the ancients, and the failure of Galen's remedies to cure it, had a similar effect. In another direction the foundations of modern medicine were being laid during the 16th century — namely, by the intro- duction of clinical instruction in hospitals. In this Italy, and especially the renowned school of Padua, took the first step, where Giovanni De Monte (Montanus), (1498-1552), already mentioned as a humanist, gave clinical lectures on the patients in the hospital of St Francis, which may still be read with interest. Pupils flocked to him from all European coun- tries; Germans are especially mentioned; a Polish student reported and published some of his lectures; and the English- man Kaye was a zealous disciple, who does not, however, seem to have done anything towards transplanting this method of instruction to his own country. Inspections of the dead, to ascertain the nature of the disease, were made, though not without difficulty, and thus the modern period of the science of morbid anatomy was ushered in. Medicine in the 17th Century. — The medicine of the early 17th century presents no features to distinguish it from that of the preceding century. The practice and theory of medicine were mainly founded upon Hippocrates and Galen, with ever- increasing additions from the chemical school. But the develop- ment of mathematical and physical science soon introduced a fundamental change in the habits of thought with respect to medical doctrine. These discoveries not only weakened or destroyed the respect for authority in matters of science, but brought about a marked tendency to mechanical explanations of life and disease. When William Harvey by his discovery of the circulation furnished an explanation of many vital processes which was reconcilable with the ordinary laws of mechanics, the efforts of medical theorists were naturally directed to bringing all the departments of medicine under similar laws. It is often assumed that the writings and influence of Bacon did much towards introducing a more scientific method into medicine and physiology. But, without discussing the general philosophical position or historical importance of Bacon, it may safely be said that his direct influence can be little traced in medical writings of the first half of the 17th century. Harvey, as is well known, spoke slightingly of the great chancellor, and it is not till the rapid development of physical science in England and Holland in the latter part of the century, that we find Baconian principles explicitly recognized. The dominant factors in the 17th-century medicine were the discovery of the circulation by William Harvey (published in 1628), the mechanical philosophy of Descartes and the contemporary progress of physics, the teaching of Van Helmont and the introduction of chemical explanations of morbid pro- cesses, and finally, combined of all these, and inspiring them, the rise of the spirit of inquiry and innovation, which may be called the scientific movement. Before speaking in detail of these, we may note that by other influences quite independent of theories, important additions were made to practical medicine. The method of clinical instruction in hospitals, commenced by the Italians, was introduced into Holland, where it was greatly developed, especially at Leiden, in the hands of Francis de la Boe, called Sylvius (1641-1672). It is noteworthy that concurrently with the rise of clinical study the works of Hippo- crates were more and more valued, while Galen began to sink into the background. At the same time the discovery of new diseases, unknown to the ancients, and the keener attention which the great epidemics of plague caused to be paid to those already known, led to more minute study of the natural history of disease. The most important disease hitherto undescribed was rickets, first made known by Arnold de Boot, a Frisian who practised in Ireland, in 1649, and afterwards more fully in the celebrated work of Francis Glisson (1597-1677) in 1651. The plague was carefully studied by Isbrand de Diemerbroek, in his De Peste (1646), and others. Nathaniel Hodges of London (1629- 1688) in 1665 seems to have been the first who had the ' courage to make a post mortem inspection of a plague patient. Chris- topher Bennet (1617-1655) wrote an important work on con- sumption in 1654. During the same period many new remedies were introduced, the most important being cinchona-bark, brought to Spain in the year 1640. The progress of pharmacy was shown by the publication of Dispensatories or Pharma- copoeiae — such as that of the Royal College of Physicians of London in 1618. This, like the earlier German works of the same kind (on which it was partly founded), contains both the traditional (Galenical) and the modern or chemical remedies. Van Helmont. — The medicine of the 17th century was especially distinguished by the rise of sytems ; and we must first speak of an eccentric genius who endeavoured to construct a system for himself, as original and opposed to tradition as that of Paracelsus. J. B. Van Helmont (1578-1644) was a man of noble family in Brussels, who, after mastering all other branches of learning as then under- stood, devoted himself with enthusiasm to medicine and chemistry. By education and position a little out of the regular lines of the profession, he took up in medicine an independent attitude. Well ac- quainted with the doctrines of Galen, he rejected them as thoroughly as Paracelsus did, and borrowed from the latter some definite ideas as well as his revolutionary spirit. The archeus of Paracelsus 50 MEDICINE [HISTORY appears again, but with still further complications — the whole body being controlled by the archeus influus, and the organ of the soul and its various parts by the archei insiti, which are subject to the central archeus. Many of the symptoms of diseases were caused by the passions and perturbations of the archeus, and medicines acted by modifying the ideas of the same archeus. These and other notions cannot be here stated at sufficient length to be intelligible. It is enough to say that on this fantastic basis Helmont constructed a medical system which had some practical merits, that his thera- peutical methods were mild and in many respects happy, and that he did service by applying newer chemical methods to the prepara- tion of drugs. He thus had some share, though a share not generally recognized, in the foundation of the iatro-chemical school, now to be spoken of. But his avowed followers formed a small and dis- credited sect, which, in England at least, can be clearly traced in the latter part of the century. Discovery of the Circulation of the Blood. — The influence of Harvey's discovery began to be felt before the middle of the century. Its merits were recognized by Descartes, among the first, nine years after its publication. For the history of the discovery, and its consequences in anatomy and physiology, we must refer to the article Harvey. In respect of practical medicine, much less effect was at first noticeable. But this example, combined with the Cartesian principles, set many active and ingenious spirits to work to recon- struct the whole of medicine on a physiological or even a mechanical basis — to endeavour to form what we should now call physiological or scientific medicine. The result of this was not to eliminate dogma from medicine, though it weakened the authority of the old dogma. The movement led rather to the formation of schools or systems of thought, which under various names lasted on into the 1 8th century, while the belief in the utility or necessity of schools and systems lasted much longer. The most important of these were the so-called iatro-physical or mechanical and the iatro-chemical schools. Iatro-Physical School. — The iatro-physical school of medicine grew out of physiological theories. Its founder is held to have been G. A. Borelli (1608-1679), whose treatise De motu animalium, published in 1680, is regarded as marking an epoch in physiology. The tendency of the school was to explain the actions and functions of the body on physical, and especially on mechanical, principles. The movements of bones and muscles were referred to the theory of levers; the process of digestion was regarded as essentially a process of trituration; nutrition and secretion were shown to be dependent upon the tension of the vessels, and so forth. The developments of this school belong rather to the, history of physiology, where they appear, seen in the light of modern science, as excellent though premature endeavours in a scientific direction. But the influence of these theories on practical medicine was not great. The more judicious of the mechanical or physical school refrained, as a judicious modern physiologist does, from too immediate an application of their principles to daily practice. Mechanical theories were introduced into pathology, in explanation of the processes of fever and the like, but had little or no influence on therapeutics. The most important men in this school after Borelli were Nicolaus Stensen (Steno), (1638-1686), Giorgio Baglivi (1669- 1707) and Lorenzo Bellini (1643-I704). An English physician, William Cole (1635-1716), is also usually ranked with them. One of the most elaborate developments of the system was that of Archibald Pitcairne (1652-1713), a Scottish physician who became professor at Leiden, to be spoken of hereafter. Iatro-Chemical School. — The so-called iatro-chemical school stood in a much closer relation to practical medicine than the iatro- physical. The principle which mainly distinguished it was not merely the use of chemical medicines in addition to the traditional, or, as they were called in distinction, " Galenical " remedies, but a theory of pathology or causation of disease entirely different from the prevailing " humoral " pathology. Its chief aim was to reconcile the new views in physiology and chemistry witjh practical medicine. In some theoretical views, and in the use of certain remedies, the school owed something to Van Helmont and Paracelsus, but took in the main an independent position. The founder of the iatro- chemical school was Sylvius (1614-1672), who belonged to a French family settled in Holland, and was for fourteen years professor of medicine at Leiden, where he attracted students from all quarters of Europe. He made a resolute attempt to reconstruct medicine on the two bases of the doctrine of the circulation of the blood and the new views of chemistry. Fermentation, which was supposed to take place in the stomach, played an important part in the vital processes. Chemical disturbances of these processes, called acridities, &c, were the cause of fevers and other diseases. Sometimes acid sometimes alkaline properties predominated in the juices and secretions of the body, and produced corresponding disturbances. In nervous diseases disturbances of the vital " spirits " were most important. Still in some parts of his system Sylvius shows an anxiety to base his pathology on anatomical changes. The remedies he employed were partly galenical, partly chemical. He was very moderate in the use of bleeding. The doctrines of Sylvius became widely spread in Holland and Germany; less so in France and Italy. In England they were not generally accepted till adopted with some modifications by Thomas Willis the great anatomist (1621-1675), who is the chief English representative of the chemical school. Willis was as thorough-going a chemist as Sylvius. He regarded all bodies, organic and inorganic, as composed of the three elements — spirit, sulphur and salt, the first being only found abundantly in animal bodies. The " intestine movement of particles " in every body, or fermentation, was the explanation of many of the processes of life and disease. The sen- sible properties and physical alterations of animal fluids and solids depended upon different proportions, movements and combinations of these particles. The elaborate work Pharmacentice rationalis (1674), based on these materials, had much influence in its time, though it was soon forgotten. But some parts of Willis's works, such as his descriptions of nervous diseases, and his account (the earliest) of diabetes, are classical contributions to scientific medicine. In the application of chemistry to the examination of secretions Willis made some important steps. The chemical school met with violent opposition, partly from the adherents of the ancient medicine, partly from the iatro-mechanical school. Towards the end of the 17th century appeared an English medical reformer who sided with none of these schools, but may be said in some respects to have surpassed and dispensed with them. Sydenham and Locke. — Thomas Sydenham (1624-1689) was educated at Oxford and at Montpellier. He was well acquainted with the works of the ancient physicians, and probably fairly so with chemistry. Of his knowledge of anatomy nothing definite can be said, as he seldom refers to it. His main avowed principle was to do without hypothesis, and study the actual diseases in an unbiassed manner. As his, model in medical methods, Sydenham repeatedly and pointedly refers to Hippocrates, and he has not unfairly been called the English Hippocrates. He resembled his Greek master in the high value he set on the study of the " natural history of disease "; in the importance he attached to " epidemic constitution "—that is, to the influence of weather and other natural causes in modifying disease; and further in his conception of the healing power of nature in disease, a doctrine which he even expanded beyond the teaching of Hippocrates. According to Syden- ham, a disease is nothing more than an effort of nature to restore the health of the patient by the elimination of the morbific matter. The extent to which his practice was influenced by this and other a priori conceptions prevents us from classing Sydenham as a pure empiric ; but he had the rare merit of never permitting himself to be enslaved even by his own theories. Still less was his mind warped by either of the two great systems, the classical and the chemical, which then divided the medical world. Sydenham's influence on European medicine was very great. His principles were welcomed as a return to nature by those who were weary of theoretical disputes. He introduced a milder and better way of treating fevers — especially small-pox, and gave strong support to the use of specific medicines — especially Peruvian bark. He was an advocate of bleeding, and often carried it to excess. Another important point in Sydenham's doctrine is his clear recognition of many diseases as being what would be now called specific, and not due merely to an alteration in the primary qualities or humours of the older schools. From this springs his high appreciation of specific medicines. One name should always be mentioned along with Sydenham — that of his friend John Locke. The great sensational philosopher was a thoroughly trained physician, and practised privately. He shared and defended many of Sydenham's principles, and in the few medical observations he has left shows himself to be even more thorough-going than the " English Hippocrates." It is deeply to be regretted in the interests of medicine that he did not write more. It is, however, reasonable to suppose that his commanding intellect often makes itself felt in the words of Sydenham. One sentence of Locke's, in a letter to William Molyneux, sums up the practical side of Sydenham's teaching : — , . " You cannot imagine how far a little observation carefully made by a man not tied up to the four humours [Galen], or sal, sulphur and mercury [Paracelsus], or to acid and alcali [Sylvius and Willis] which has of late prevailed, will carry a man in the curing of diseases though very stubborn and dangerous ; and that with very little and common things, and almost no medicine at all." We thus see that, while the great anatomists, physicists and chemists — men of the type of Willis, Borelli and Boyle — were laying foundations which were later on built up into the fabric of scientific meiicine, little good was done by the premature application of their half-understood principles to practice. The reform of practical icine was effected by men who aimed at, and partly succeeded Jejecting all hypothesis and returning to the unbiassed study of iral processes, as shown in health and disease, denham showed that these processes might be profitably studied and dealt with without explaining them; and, by turning men's minds away from explanations and fixing them on facts, he enriched medicine with a method more fruitful than any discoveries in detail. From this time forth the reign of canonical authority in medicine was at an end, though the dogmatic spirit long survived. The 18th Century. — The medicine of the 18th century is notable, like that of the latter part of the 17th, for the striving HISTORY] MEDICINE 51 after complete theoretical systems. The influence of the iatro-physical school was by no means exhausted; and in England, especially through the indirect influence of Sir Isaac Newton's (1642-1727) great astronomical generalizations, it took on a mathematical aspect, and is sometimes known as iatro-mathematical. This phase is most clearly developed in Archibald Pitcairne (1652-1713), who, though a determined opponent of metaphysical explanations, and of the chemical doctrines, gave to his own rude mechanical explanations of life and disease almost the dogmatic completeness of a theological system. His countryman and pupil, George Cheyne (167 1- I 743)> who lived some years at Bath, published a new theory of fevers on the mechanical system, which had a great reputation. Their English contemporaries and successors, John Freind, William Cole, and Richard Mead, leaned also to mechanical explanations, but with a distrust of systematic theoretical completeness, which was perhaps partly a national characteristic, partly the result of the teaching of Sydenham and Locke. Freind (1675-1728) in his Emmenologia gave a mechanical explanation of the phenomena of menstruation. He is also one of the most distinguished writers on the history of medicine. Cole (163 5-1 7 1 6) (see above) published mechanical hypotheses concerning the causation of fevers which closely agree with those of the Italian iatro-mechanical school. More distinguished in his own day than any of these was Mead (1673-1754), one of the most accomplished and socially successful physicians of modern times. Mead was the pupil of the equally popular and successful John Radcliffe (1650-1714), who had acquired from Sydenham a contempt for book-learning, and belonged to no school in medicine but the school of common sense. Rad- cliffe left, however, no work requiring mention in a history of medicine. Mead, a man of great learning and intellectual activity, was an ardent advocate of the mathematical doctrines. " It is very evident," he says, " that all other means of improving medicine have been found ineffectual, by the stand it was at for two thousand years, and that, since mathematicians have set themselves to the study of it, men already begin to talk so intelligibly and comprehensibly, even about abstruse matters, that it is to be hoped that mathematical learning will be the distinguishing mark of a physician and a quack." His Mechanical Account of Poisons, in the first edition (1702), gave an explanation of the effects of poisons, as acting only on the blood. Afterwards he modified his hypothesis, and referred the disturbances produced to the " nervous liquor," which he supposed to be a quantity of the " universal elastic matter " diffused through the universe, by which Newton explained the phenomena of light — i.e. what was afterwards called the luminiferous ether. Mead's treatise on The Power of the Sun and Moon over Human Bodies (1704), equally inspired by Newton's discoveries, was a premature attempt to assign the influence of atmospheric pressure and other cosmical causes in producing disease. His works contain, however, many original experiments, and excellent practical observations. James Keill (1673-1710) applied Newtonian and mechanical principles to the explanation of bodily functions with still greater accuracy and completeness; but his researches have more importance for physiology than for practical medicine. Boerhaave. — None of these men founded a school — a result due in part to their intellectual character, in part to the absence in England of medical schools equivalent in position and importance to the universities of the Continent. An important academical position was, on the other hand, one of the reasons why a physician not very different in his way of thinking from the English physicians of the age of Queen Anne was able to take a far more predominant position in the medical world. Hermann Boerhaave (1668-1738) was emphatically a great teacher. He was for many years professor of medicine at Leiden, where he lectured five hours a day, and excelled in influence and reputation not only his greatest fore- runners, Montanus of Padua and Sylvius of Leiden, but probably every subsequent teacher. The hospital of Leiden, though with only twelve beds available for teaching, became the centre of medical influence in Europe. Many of the leading English physicians of the 18th century studied there; Gerard Van Swieten (1700- 1772), a pupil of Boerhaave, transplanted the latter's method of teaching to Vienna, and founded the noted Vienna school of medicine. As the organizer, and almost the constructor, of the modern method of clinical instruction, the services of Boerhaave to the progress of medicine were immense, and can hardly be overrated. In his teach^ ing. as in his practice, he avowedly followed the method of Hippo- crates and Sydenham, both of whom he enthusiastically admired. In his medical doctrines he must be pronounced an eclectic, though taking his stand mainly on the iatro-mechanical school. The best- known parts of Boerhaave' s system are his doctrines of inflamma- tion, obstruction and " plethora. 'By the last named especially he was long remembered. His object was to make all the anatomical and physiological acquisitions of his age, even microscopical ana- tomy, which he diligently studied, available for use in the practice of medicine. He thus differed from Sydenham, who took almost as little account of modern science as of ancient dogma. Boerhaave may be in some respects compared to Galen, but again differed from him in that he always abstained from attempting to reduce his knowledge to a uniform and coherent system. Boerhaave attached great importance to the study of the medical classics, but rather treated, them historically than quoted them as canonical authorities. It almost follows from the nature of the case that the great task of Boerhaave's life, a synthesis of ancient and modern medicine, and the work in which this is chiefly contained, his celebrated Institutions, could not have any great permanent value. Nearly the same thing is true even of the Aphorisms, in which, following the example of Hippocrates, he endeavoured to sum up the results of his long experience. Hoffmann and Stahl. — We have now to speak of two writers in whom the systematic tendency of the 18th century showed itself most completely. Friedrich Hoffmann (1660-1742), like Boerhaave, owed his influence, and perhaps partly his intellectual characteristics, to his academical position. He was in 1693 appointed the first pro- fessor of medicine in the university of Halle, then just founded by the elector Frederick III. Here he became, as did his contemporary and rival Stahl, a popular and influential teacher, though their university had not the European importance of Leiden. Hoffmann's " system " was apparently intended to reconcile the opposing " spiritual " and " materialistic " views of nature, and is thought to have been much influenced by the philosophy of Leibnitz. His medical theories rest upon a complete theory of the universe. Life depended upon a universally diffused ether, which animals breathe in from the atmosphere, and which is contained in all parts of the body. It accumulates in the brain, and there generates the " nervous fluid " or pneuma — a theory closely resembling that of Mead on the " nervous liquor," unless indeed Mead borrowed it from Hoffmann. On this system are explained all the phenomena of life and disease. Health depends on the maintenance of a proper "tone" in the body — some diseases being produced by excess of tone, or " spasm "; others by " atony," or want of tone. But it is impossible here to follow its further developments. Independently of his system* which has long ceased to exert any influence, Hoffmann made some contributions to practical medicine; and his great knowledge of chemistry enabled him to investigate the subject of mineral waters. He was equally skilful in pharmacy, but lowered his position by the practice, which would be unpardonable in a modern physician, of trafficking in secret remedies. George Ernest Stahl (1660-1734) was for more than twenty years professor of medicine at Halle, and thus a colleague of Hoflv mann, whom he resembled in constructing a complete theoretical system, though their systems had little or nothing in common. Stahl's chief aim was to oppose materialism. For mechanical conceptions he substituted the theory ot " animism " — attributing to the soul the functions of ordinary animal life in man, while the life of other creatures was left to mechanical laws. The symptoms of disease were explained as efforts of the soul to rid itself from morbid influences, the soul acting reasonably with respect to the end of self-preservation. The anima thus corresponds partly to the " nature " of Sydenham, while in other respects it resembles the archeus of Van Helmont. Animism in its completeness met with little acceptance during the lifetime of its author, but influ- enced some of the iatro-physical school. Stahl, was the author of the theory of " phlogiston " in chemistry, which in its day had great importance. Haller and Morgagni. — From the subtleties of rival systems it is a satisfaction to turn to two movements in the medicine of the 18th century which, though they did not extinguish the spirit of system-making, opened up paths of investigation by which* the systems were ultimately superseded. These are physiology in the modern sense, as dating from Haller, and pathological anatomy, as dating from Morgagni. Albrecht von Haller (1708-1777) was a man of even more encyclo- paedic attainments than Boerhaave. He advanced chemistry, botany, anatomy, as well as physiology, and was incessantly occupied in endeavouring to apply his scientific studies to practical medicine, thus continuing the work of his great teacher Boerhaave. Besides all this he was probably more profoundly acquainted with the literature and bibliography of medicine than any one before or since. Haller occupied in the new university of Gottingen (founded 1737) a position corresponding to that of Boerhaave at Leiden, and in like manner influenced a very large circle of pupils* 52 MEDICINE [HISTORY The appreciation of his work in physiology belongs to the history of that science; we are only concerned here with its influence on medicine. Haller's definition of irritability as a property of muscular tissue, and its distinction from sensibility as a property of nerves, struck at the root of the prevailing hypothesis respecting animal activity. It was no longer necessary to suppose that a half- conscious " anima " was directing every movement. Moreover, Haller's views did not rest on a priori speculation, but on numerous experiments. He was among the first to investigate the action of medicines on healthy persons. Unfortunately the lesson which his contemporaries learnt was not the importance of experiment, but only the need of contriving other " systems " less open to objec- tion; and thus the influence of Haller led directly to the theoretical subtleties of William Cullen and John Brown, and only indirectly and later on to the general anatomy of M. F. X. Bichat. The great name of Haller does not therefore occupy a very prominent place in the history of practical medicine. The work of Giovanni Battista Morgagni (1682-1771) had and still preserves a permanent importance beyond that of all the contemporary theorists. In a series of letters, De sedibus et causis morborum per anatomen indagatis, published when he was in his eightieth year, he describes the appearances met with at the post mortem examination as well as the symptoms during life in a number of cases of various diseases. It was not the first work of the kind. The Swiss physician, Theophile Bonet (1620-1689) had published his Septdcretum in 1679; and observations of post mortem appearances had been made by Montanus, P. Tulp, Raymond Vieussens, A.M. Valsalva, G. M. Lancisi, Haller and others. But never before was so large a collection of cases brought together, described with such accuracy, or illustrated with equal anatomical and medical knowledge. Morgagni's work at once made an epoch in the science. Morbid anatomy now became a recognized branch of medical research, and the movement was started which has lasted till our own day. The contribution of Morgagni to medical science must be regarded as in some respects the counterpart of Sydenham's. The latter had, in neglecting anatomy, neglected the most solid basis for studying the natural history of disease; though perhaps it was less from choice than because his practice, as he was not attached to a hospital, gave him no opportunities. But it is on the combination of the two methods — that of Sydenham and of Morgagni — that modern medicine rests; and it is through these that it has been able to make steady progress in its own field, independently of the advance of physiology or other sciences. The method of Morgagni found many imitators, both in his own country and in others. In England the first important name in this field is at the same time that of the first writer of a systematic work in any language on morbid anatomy, Matthew Baillie (1761- 1823), a nephew of John and William Hunter, who published his treatise in 1795. Cullen and Brown. — It remains to speak of two systematic writers on medicine in the 18th century, whose jp-eat reputation prevents them from being passed over, though their real contribur tion to the progress of medicine was not great — Cullen and Brown. William Cullen (1 710-1790) was a most eminent and popular professor of medicine at Edinburgh. The same academical influ- ences as surrounded the Dutch and German founders of systems were doubtless partly concerned in leading him to form the plan of a comprehensive system of medicine. Cullen's system was jargely based on the new physiological doctrine of irritability, but is especially noticeable for the importance attached to nervous action. Thus even gout was regarded as a " neurosis." These pathological principles of Cullen are contained in his First Lines of the Practice of Physic, an extremely popular book, often reprinted and translated. More importance is to be attached to his Nosology or Classification of Diseases. The attempt to classify diseases on a natural-history plan was not new, having been commenced by Sauvages and others, and is perhaps not a task of the highest importance. Cullen drew out a classification of great and needless complexity, the chief part of which is now forgotten, but several of his main divisions are still preserved. It is difficult to form a clear estimate of the importance of the last systematizer of medicine — John Brown (1735-1788) — for, though in England he has been but little regarded, the wide though short- lived popularity of his system on the Continent shows that it must have contained some elements of brilliancy, if not originality. His theory of medicine professed to explain the processes of life and disease, and the methods of cure, upon one simple principle — that of the property of " excitability, in virtue of which the " exciting powers," defined as being (1) external forces and (2) the functions of the system itself, call forth the vital phenomena " sense, motion, mental function and passion." All exciting powers are stimulant, the apparent debilitating or sedative effect of some being due to a deficiency in the degree of stimulus; so that the final conclusion is that " the whole phenomena of life, health as well as disease, consist in stimulus and nothing else." Brown recognized some diseases as sthenic, others as asthenic, the latter requiring stimulating treatment, the former the reverse; but his practical conclusion was that 97% of all diseases required a " stimu- lating " treatment. In this he claimed to have made the most salutary reform because all " physicians from Hippocrates had treated diseases by depletion and debilitating measures with the object of curing by elimination. It would be unprofitable to attempt a complete analysis of the Brunonian system; and it is difficult now to understand why it attracted so much attention in its day. To us at the present time it seems merely a dialectical construction, having its beginning and end in definitions: the words power, stimulus, &c, being used in such a way as not to correspond to any precise physical conceptions, still less to definite material objects or forces. One recommendation of the system was that it favoured a milder system of treatment than was at that time in vogue; Brown may be said to have been the first advocate of the modern stimulant or feeding treatment of fevers. He advocated the use of " animal soups " or beef-tea. Further, he had the discernment to see that certain symptoms — such as convulsions and delirium, which were then commonly held always to indicate inflammation — were often really signs of weakness. The fortunes of Brown's system (called, from having been origin- ally, written in Latin, the Brunonian) form one of the strangest chapters in the history of medicine. In Scotland, Brown so far won the sympathy of the students that riotous conflicts took place between his partisans and opponents. In England his system took little root. In Italy, on the other hand, it received enthusiastic support, and, naturally, a corresponding degree of opposition. The most important adherent to Brown's system was J. Rasori ('763-1837), who taught it as professor at Pavia, but afterwards substituted his own system of contra-stimulus. The theoretical differences between tmsand the "stimulus" theory need not be expounded. The practical difference in the corresponding treat- ment was very gre^t, as Rasori advocated a copious use of bleeding and of depressing remedies, such as antimony. Joseph Frank (1774-1841), a German professor at Pavia, afterwards of Vienna, the author of an encyclopaedic work on medicine now forgotten, embraced the Brunonian system, though he afterwards introduced some modifications, and transplanted it to Vienna. Many names are quoted as partisans or opponents of the Brunonian system in Italy, but scarcely one of them has any other claim to be remem- bered. In Germany the new system called forth, a little later, no less enthusiasm and contrpversial heat. C. Girtanner (1760- 1800) first began to spread the new ideas (though giving them out as his own), but Weikard was the first avowed advocate of the system. RSschlaub (1768-1835) modified Brown's system into the theory of excitement {Erregungstheorie) , which for a time was extremely popular in Germany. The enthusiasm of the younger Brunonians in Germany was as great as in Edinburgh or in Italy, and led to serious riots in the university of Gottingen. In America the system was enthusiastically adopted by a noted physician, Benjamin Rush (1745-1813), of Philadelphia, who was followed by a considerable school. France was not more influenced by the new school than England. In both countries the tendency towards ppsitive science and progress by objective investigation was too marked for any theoretical system to have more than a passing influence. In France, however, the influence of Brown's theories is very clearly seen in the writings of Frangois J. V, Bfoussais, who, though not rightly classed with the system-makers, since his conclusions were partly based upon anatomical investigation, resembled them in his attempt to unite theory and practice in one comprehensive synthesis. The explanation of the meteoric splen- dour of the Brunonian system in other countries seems to be as follows. In Italy the period of intellectual decadence had set in, and no serious scientific ardour remained to withstand the novelties of abstract theory. In Germany the case was somewhat different. Intellectual activity was not wanting, but the great achievements of the 1 8th century in philosophy and the moral sciences had fostered a love of abstract speculation; and some sort of cosmical or general system was thought indispensable in every department of special science. Hence another generation had to pass away before Germany found herself on the level, in scientific investigation^ of France and England. Before the theoretic tendency of the 18th century was quite exhausted, it displayed itself in a system which, though in some respects isolated in the history of medicine, stands nearest to that of Brown— that, namely, of Hahnemann (see Homoeopathy). S. C. F. Hahnemann (1753-1844) was in conception as revolutionary a reformer of medicine as Paracelsus. He professed to base medicine ; entirely on a knowledge of symptoms, regarding all investigation of the causes of symptoms as useless. While thus rejecting all the lessons of morbid anatomy and pathology, he put forward views respecting the causes of disease which hardly bear to be seriously stated. All_ chronic maladies result either from three diseases — psora (the itch), syphilis or sycosis (a skin disease), or else are maladies produced by medicines. Seven-eighths of all chronic diseases are produced by itch driven inwards. 1 (It is fair to. say that these views were published in one of his later works.) In treatment of disease Hahnemann rejected entirely the notion of a vis medicatrix naturae, and was guided by his well-known principle 1 The itch {scabies) is really an affection produced by the presence in the skin of a species of. mite (Acarus scabiei), and when this is destroyed or removed the disease is at an end , HISTORY] MEDIdlNE 53 " similia similibus curantur," which he explained as depending on the law that in order to get rid of a disease some remedy must be given which should substitute for the disease an action dynamically similar, but weaker. The original malady being thus got rid of, the vital force would easily be able to cope with and extinguish the slighter disturbance Caused by the remedy. Something very similar was held by Brown, who taught that "indirect debility" was to be cured by a lesser degree of the same stimulus as had caused the original disturbance. Generally, however, Hahnemann's views contradict those of Brown, though moving somewhat in the same plane. In order to select remedies which should fulfil the indication of producing symptoms like those of the disease, Hahne- mann made many observations of the action of drugs on healthy persons. He did not originate this line of research, for it had been pursued, if not originated, by Haller, and cultivated systematically by Tommasini, an Italian " contra-stimulist " ; but he carried it out with much elaboration. His results, nevertheless, were vitiated by being obtained in the interest of a theory, and by singular want of discrimination. In his second period he developed the theory of " potentiality " or dynamization— namely, that medicines gained in strength by being diluted, if the dilution was accompanied by shaking or pounding, which was supposed to " potentialize " or increase the potency of the medicine. On this principle Hahnemann ordered his original tinctures to be reduced in strength to one- fiftieth ; these first dilutions again to one-fiftieth ; and so on, even till the thirtieth dilution, which he himself used by preference, and to which he ascribed the highest " potentiality.". From a theoretical point of view Hahnemann's is one of the abstract systems, pretend- ing to universality, which modern medicine neither accepts nor finds it worth while to controvert. In the treatment of disease his practical innovations came at a fortunate time, when the excesses of the depletory system had only partially been superseded by the equally injurious opposite extreme of Brown's stimulant treatment. Hahne-mann's use of mild and often quite inert remedies contrasted favourably with both of these. Further, he did good by insisting upon simplicity in prescribing, when it was the custom to give a number of drugs, often heterogeneous and inconsistent, in the same prescription- But these indirect benefits were quite independent of the truth or falsity of his theoretical system. Positive Progress in the 18th Century.— -In looking back on the repeated attempts in the 18th century to construct a uni- versal system of medicine, it is impossible not to regret the waste of brilliant gifts and profound acquirements which they involved. It was fortunate, however, that the accumulation of positive knowledge in medicine did not cease. While Germany and Scotland, as the chief homes of abstract speculation, gave birth to most of the theories, progress in objective science was most marked in other countries — in Italy first, and after- wards in England and France. We must retrace our steps a little to enumerate several distinguished names which, from the nature of the case, hardly admit of classification. In Italy the tradition of the great anatomists and physiolo- gists of the 17th century produced a series of accurate observers and practitioners. Among the first of these were Antonio Maria Valsalva (1666-1723), still better known as an anatomist; Giovanni Maria Lancisi (1654-1720), also an anatomist, the author of a classical work on the diseases of the heart and aneurisms; and Ippolito Francisco Albertini (1662-1738), whose researches on the same class of diseases were no less important. In France, Jean Baptiste Senac (1693-1770) wrote also an important work on the affections of the heart. Sauvages, otherwise F. B. de Lacroix (1706-1767), gave, under the title Nosologic methodica, a natural-history classification of diseases; Jean Astruc (1684-1766) contributed to the knowledge of general diseases. But the state of medicine in that country till the end of the 18th century was unsatisfactory as compared with some other parts of Europe. In England the brilliancy of the early part of the century in practical medicine was hardly maintained to the end, and presented, indeed, a certain contrast with the remarkable and unflagging progress of surgery in the same period. The roll of the College of Physicians does not furnish many distinguished names. Among these should be mentioned John Fothergill (1712-1780), who investigated the " putrid sore throat " now called diphtheria, and the form of neuralgia popularly known as tic douloureux. A physician of Plymouth, John Huyham (1694-1768), made researches on epidemic fevers, in the spirit of Sydenham and Hippocrates, which are of the highest importance. William Heberden (1710-1801), a London physician, called by' Samuel Johnson ultimus Romanorum, " the last of our learned physicians," left a rich legacy of practical observations in the Commentaries published after his death. More important in their results than any of these works were the discoveries of Edward Jenner (q.v.), respecting the preven- tion of small-pox by vaccination, in which he superseded the partially useful but dangerous practice of inoculation, which had been introduced into England in 1721. The history of this discovery need not be told here, but it may be pointed out that, apart from its practical importance, it has had great influence on the scientific study of infectious diseases. The name of John Pringle (1707-1782) should also be mentioned as one of the first to study epidemics of fevers occurring in prisons and camps. His work, entitled Observations on the Diseases of an Army, was translated into many European languages and became the standard authority on the subject. In Germany the only important school of practical medicine was that of Vienna, as revived by Gerard van Swieten (1700-1772), a pupil of Boerhaave, under the patronage of Maria Theresa. Van Swieten's commentaries on the aphorisms of Boerhaave are thought more valuable than the original text. Other eminent names of the same school are Anton de Haen (1704-1776), Anton Storck (1731-1803), Maximilian Stoll (1742-1788), and John Peter Frank (1745-1821), father of Joseph Frank, before mentioned as an adherent of the Brownian system, and like his son carried away for a time by the new doctrines. This, the old " Vienna School," was not distinguished for any notable discoveries, but for success in clinical teaching, and for its sound method of studying the actual facts of disease during life and after death, which largely contributed to the establish- ment of the " positive medicine " of the 19th century. One novelty, however, of the first importance is due to a Vienna physician of the period, Leopold Auenbrugger (1722- 1809), the inventor of the method of recognizing diseases of the chest by percussion. Auenbrugger's method was that of direct percussion with the tips of the fingers, not that which is now used, of mediate percussion with the intervention of a finger or plessimeter; but the results of his method were the same and its value nearly as great. Auenbrugger's great work, the Inventum novum, was published in 1761. The new practice was received at first with contempt and even ridicule, and afterwards by Stoll and Peter Frank with only grudging approval. It did not receive due recognition till 1808, when J. N. Corvisart translated the Inventum novum into French, and Auenbrugger's method rapidly attained a European repu- tation. Surpassed, but not eclipsed, by the still more important art of auscultation introduced by R. T. H. Laennec, it is hardly too much to say that this simple and purely mechanical invention has had more influence on the development of modern medicine than all the " systems " evolved by the most brilliant intellects of the 1 8th century. Rise of the Positive School in France. — The reform of medicine in France must be dated from the great intellectual awakening caused by the Revolution, but more definitely starts with the researches in anatomy and physiology of Marie Francois Xavier Bichat (1771-1802). The importance in science of Bichat's classical works, especially of the Anatomie ginerale, cannot be estimated here; we can only point out their value as supplying a new basis for pathology or the science of disease. Among the most -ardent of his followers was Francois Joseph Victor Broussais (1772-1838), whose theoretical views, partly founded on those of Brown and partly on the so-called vitalist school of Theophile Bordeu (1722-1776) and Paul Joseph Barthez (1 734-1806), differed from these essentially in being avowedly based on anatomical observations. 'Broussais's chief aim was to find an anatomical basis for all diseases, but he is especially known for his attempt to explain all fevers as a consequence Of irritation or inflammation of the intestinal canal (gastro- ent6rite). A number of other maladies, especially general diseases and those commonly regarded as nervous, were attri- buted to the same cause. It would be impossible now to trace 54 MEDICINE [HISTORY the steps which led to this wild and long since exploded theory. It led, among other consequences, to an enormous misuse of bleeding. Leeches were his favourite instruments, and so much so that he is said to have used 100,000 in his own hospital wards during one year. He was equalled if not surpassed in this excess by his follower Jean Bouiuaud (1796-1881), known for his important work on heart diseases. Broussais's system, to which he gave the name of " Medecine physiologique," did much indirect good, in fixing attention upon morbid changes in the organs, and thus led to the rise of the strongly opposed anatomical and pathological school of Corvisart, Laennec and Bayle. Jean Nicolas Corvisart (1755-1821) has already been mentioned' as the translator and introducer into France of Auenbrugger's work on percussion. He introduced some improvements in the method, but the only real advance was the introduction of mediate percus- sion by Pierre Adolphe Piorry (1794-1879) in 1828. The discovery had, however, yet to be completed by that of auscultation, or listening to sounds produced in the chest by breathing, the move- ments of the heart, &c. The combination of these methods con- stitutes what is now known as physical diagnosis. Ren6 Theophile Hyacinthe Laennec (1781-1826) was the inventor of this most important perhaps of all methods of medical research. Except for some trifling notices of sounds heard in certain diseases, this method was entirely new. It was definitely expounded in an almost complete form in his work De V auscultation mediate, published in 1819. Laennec attached undue importance to the use of the stethoscope, and laid too much weight on specific signs of specific diseases ; otherwise his method in its main features has remained unchanged. The result of his discovery was an entire revolution in the knowledge of diseases of the chest ; but it would be a mistake to forget that an essential factor in this revolution was the simul- taneous study of the condition of the diseased organs as seen after death. Without the latter, it is difficult to see how the information conveyed by sounds could ever have been verified. This increase of knowledge is therefore due, not to auscultation alone, but to auscultation combined with morbid anatomy. In the case of Laennec himself this qualification takes nothing from his fame, for he studied so minutely the relations of post-mortem appearances to symptoms during life that, had he not discovered auscultation, his researches in morbid anatomy would have made him famous. The pathologico-anatomical method was also followed with great zeal and success by Gaspard Laurent Bayle (1774-1816), whose researches on tubercle, and the changes of the lungs and other organs in consumption, are the foundation of most that has been done since his time. It was of course antecedent to the discovery of auscultation. Starting from these men arose a school of physicians who endeavoured to give to the study of symptoms the same pre- cision as belonged to anatomical observations, and by the combina- tion of both methods made a new era in clinical medicine. Among these were Auguste Francois Chomel (1788-1858), Pierre Charles Alexandre Louis (1787-1872), Jean Cruveilhier (1791-1874) and Gabriel Andral (1797-1876). Louis, by his researches on pulmo- nary consumption and typhoid fever, had the chief merit of refuting the doctrines of Broussais. In another respect also he aided in establishing an exact science of medicine by the introduction of the numerical or statistical method. By this method only can the fallacies which are attendant on drawing conclusions from isolated cases be avoided; and thus the chief objection which has been made to regarding medicine as an inductive science has been re- moved. Louis's method was improved and systematized by Louis Denis Jules Gavarret (1809-1890); and its utility is now universally recognized. During this brilliant period of French medicine the superiority of the school of Paris could hardly be contested. We can only mention the names of Pierre Bretonneau (1771-1862), Louis Leon Rostan (1790-1866), Jean Louis D'Alibert (1766-1837), Pierre Frangois Olive Rayer (1793-1867) and Armand Trousseau (1801-1866), the eloquent and popular teacher. English Medicine from 1800 to 1840. — The progress of medicine in England during this period displays the same characteristics as at other times, viz. a gradual and uninterrupted development, without startling changes such as are caused by the sudden rise or fall of a new school. Hardly any theoretical system is of English bkth; Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802), the grand- father of the great Charles Darwin, alone makes an exception. In his Zoonomia (1794) he expounded a theory of life and disease which had some resemblance to that of Brown, though arrived at (he says) by a different chain of reasoning. Darwin's work shows, however, the tendency to connect medicine with physical science, which was an immediate con- sequence of the scientific discoveries of the end of the 18th century, when Priestley and Cavendish in England exercised the same influence as Lavoisier in France. The English school of medicine was also profoundly stirred by the teachings of the two brothers William and John Hunter, especially the latter — who must therefore be briefly mentioned, though their own researches were chiefly concerned with subjects lying a little outside the limits of this sketch. William Hunter (1718-1783) was known in London as a brilliant teacher of anatomy and successful obstetric physician; his younger brother and pupil, John Hunter (1728-1793), was also a teacher of anatomy, and practised as a surgeon. His immense contribu- tions to anatomy and pathology cannot be estimated here, but his services in stimulating research and training investi- gators belong to the history of general medicine. They are sufficiently evidenced by the fact that Edward Jenner and Matthew Baillie were his pupils. The same scientific bent is seen in the greater attention paid to morbid anatomy (which dates from Baillie) and the more scientific method of studying diseases. An instance of the latter is the work of Robert Willan (1757-1812) on diseases of the skin — a department of medicine in which abstract and hypothetical views had been especially injurious. Willan, by following the natural-history method of Sydenham, at once put the study on a sound basis; and his work has been the starting-point of the most important modern researches. About the same time William Charles Wells (1757-1817), a scientific investigator of remarkable power, and the author of a celebrated essay on dew, published observations on altera- tions in the urine, which, though little noticed at the time, were of great value as assisting in the important discovery made some years afterwards by Richard Bright. These observers, and others who cannot be mentioned here, belong to the period when English medicine was still little influenced by the French school. Shortly after 181-5, however, when ,the continent of Europe was again open to English travel- lers, many English doctors studied in Paris, and the discoveries of their great French contemporaries began to be known. The method of auscultation was soon introduced into England by pupils of Laennec. John Forbes (1787-1861) in 1824, and William Stokes (1804-1878) of Dublin in 1825, published treatises on the use of the stethoscope. Forbes also translated the works of Laennec and Auenbrugger, and an entire revolution was soon effected in the knowledge of diseases of the chest. James Hope (1801-1841) and Peter Mere Latham (1780-1875) further developed this subject, and the former was also known for his researches in morbid anatomy. The combination of clinical and anatomical research led, as in the hands of the great French physicians, to important discoveries by English investigators. The discovery by Richard Bright (1789-1858) of the disease of the kidneys known by his name proved to be one of the most momentous of the century. It was published in Reports of Medical Cases 1827-1831. Thomas Addison (1793- 1860) takes, somewhat later, a scarcely inferior place. The remarkable physiological discoveries of Sir Charles Bell (1774- 1842) and Marshall Hall (1790-1857) for the first time rendered possible the discrimination of diseases of the spinal cord. Several of these physicians were also eminent for their clinical teaching — an art in which Englishmen had up till then been greatly deficient. Although many names of scarcely less note might be mentioned among the London physicians of the early part of the century, we must pass them over to consider the progress of medicine in Scotland and Ireland. In Edinburgh the admirable teaching of Cullen Ead raised the medical faculty to a height of prosperity of which his successor, James Gregory (1758-1821), was not unworthy. His nephew, William Pulteney Alison (1790-1859), was even more widely known. These great teachers maintained in the northern university a continuous tradition of successful teaching, which the difference in academical and other circumstances rendered hardly possible in London. Nor was the northern school wanting in special investigators, such as John Abercrombie (1 780-1 844), known for his work on diseases of the brain and spinal cord, published in 1828, and many others. Turning to Ireland, it should be said that the Dublin school in this period produced two physicians of the highest distinction. Robert James Graves (1 796-1 853) was a most eminent clinical teacher and observer, whose lectures are regarded as the MODERN PROGRESS] MEDICINE 55 model of clinical teaching, and indeed served as such to the most popular teacher of the Paris school in the middle of this century, Trousseau. William Stokes (1804-1878) was especially known for his works on diseases of the chest and of the heart, and for his clinical teaching. German Medicine from 1800 to 1840. — Of the other countries of Europe, it is now only necessary to mention Germany. Here the chief home of positive medicine was still for a long time Vienna, where the " new Vienna school " continued and sur- passed the glory of the old. Joseph Skoda (1805-1881) extended, and in some respects corrected, the art of auscultation as left by Laennec. Karl Rokitansky (1804-1878), by his colossal labours, placed the science of morbid anatomy on a permanent basis, and enriched it by numerous discoveries of detail. Most of the ardent cultivators of this science in Germany in the next generation were his pupils. In the other German schools, though some great names might be found, as Moritz Heinrich Romberg (1795-1873), the founder of the modern era in the study of nervous diseases, the general spirit was scholastic and the result barren till the teaching of one .man, whom the modern German physicians generally regard as the regenerator of scientific medicine in their country, made itself felt. Johann Lucas Schonlein (1703-1864) was first professor at Wurzburg, afterwards at Zurich, and for twenty years at Berlin (from 1839-1859). Schonlein's positive contributions to medical science were not large; but he made in 1839 one discovery, apparently small, but in reality most suggestive, namely, that the contagious disease of the head called favus is produced by the growth in the hair of a parasitic fungus. In this may be found the germ of the startling modern discoveries in parasitic diseases. His systematic doctrines founded the so-called " natural history school " ; but his real merit was that of the founder or introducer of a method. In the words of H. Haser: " Schonlein has the incontestable merit of having been the first to establish in Germany the exact method of the French and the English, and to impregnate this method with the vivifying spirit of German research." (J. F. P.) Modern Progress. — In recent times the positive bent of modern knowledge and methods in other spheres of science and thought, and especially in biology, has influenced medicine profoundly. Minuter accuracy of observation was inculcated by the labours and teaching of the great anatomists of the 17th century; and, for modern times, experimental physiology was instituted by Harvey, anatomy having done little to interpret life in its dynamic aspects. For medicine in England Harvey did what William Gilbert did for physics and Robert Boyle for chemistry: he insisted upon direct interrogation of natural processes, and thereby annihilated the ascendancy of mere authority, which, while nations were in the making, was an essential principle in the welding together of heterogeneous and turbulent peoples. The degradation of medicine between Galen and Harvey, if in part it consisted in the blind following of the authority of the former physician, was primarily due to other causes; and its new development was not due to the discovery of the experimental method alone: social and political causes also are concerned in the advance even of the exact sciences 1 . Among such contributory causes is the more familiar intercourse of settled nations which we enjoy in our own day; the ideas of one nation rapidly permeate neighbouring nations, and by the means of printed books penetrate into remoter provinces and into distant lands. Hence the description of the advance of medicine in western Europe and America may for the latest stage be taken as a whole, without that separate treatment, nation by nation, which in the history of earlier times was necessary. Italy lost the leading place she had taken in the new development of science. The several influences of modern Germany, France and America became of the first importance to English medicine; but these tides, instead of pursuing their courses as independent streams, have become confluent. The work of Theodor Schwann (1810-1882), Johannes Muller (1809- 1875), Rudolph Virchow and Karl Ludwig (1816-1895) in Germany, of R. T. H. Laennec and Claude Bernard in France, was accepted in England, as that of Matthew Baillie, Charles Bell, Bright, Graves and others of the British school, quickly made itself felt abroad. The character of modern medicine cannot be summed in a word, as, with more or less aptness, that of some previous periods may be. Modern medicine, like modern Expert- science, is as boldly speculative as it has been in mental any age, and yet it is as observant as in any natural- Method istic period; its success lies in the addition to these Teco ^ azea ' qualities of the method of verification; the fault of previous times being not the activity of the speculative faculty, without which no science can be fertile, but the lack of methodical reference of all and sundry propositions, and parts of proposi- tions, to the test of experiment. In no department is the experimental method more continually justified than in that of the natural history of disease, which at first sight would seem to have a certain independence of it and a somewhat exclu- sive value of its own. Hippocrates had no opportunity of verification by necropsy, and Sydenham ignored pathology; yet the clinical features of many but recently described diseases, such, for example, as that named after Graves, and myxoedema, both associated with perversions of the thyroid gland, lay as open to the eye of physicians in the past as to our own. Again, to the naturalist the symptoms of tabes dorsalis were distinctive enough, had he noted them. No aid to the trained eye was necessary for such observations, and for many other such; yet, if we take Sir Thomas Watson (1792-1882) as a modern Sydenham, we may find in his lectures no suspicion that there may be a palsy of muscular co-ordination apart from deprivation of strength. Indeed, it does not seem "to have occurred to any one to compare the muscular strength in the various kinds of paraplegia. Thus it was, partly because the habit of acceptance of authority, waning but far from extirpated, dictated to the clinical observer what he should see; partly because the eye of the clinical observer lacked that special training which the habit and influence of experimental verification alone can give, that physicians, even acute and practised physicians, failed to see many and many a sympto-' matic series which went through its evolutions conspicuously enough, and needed for its appreciation no unknown aids or methods of research, nor any further advances of patho- logy. We see now that the practice of the experimental method endows with a new vision both the experimenter himself and, through his influence, those who are associated with him in medical science, even if these be not themselves actually engaged in experiment; a new discipline is imposed upon old faculties, as is seen as well in other sciences as in those on which medicine more directly depends. And it is not only the perceptions of eye or ear which tell, but also the association of concepts behind these adits of the mind. It was the concepts derived from the experimental methods of Harvey, Lavoisier, Liebig, Claude Bernard, Helmholtz, Darwin, Pasteur, Lister and others which, directly or indirectly, trained the eyes of clinicians to observe more closely and accurately; and not of clinicians only, but also of pathologists, such as Matthew Baillie, Cruveilhier, Rokitansky, Bright, Virchow — to name but a few of those who, with (as must be admitted) new facilities for necropsies, began to pile upon us discoveries in morbid anatomy and histology. If at first in the 18th century, ■ and in the earlier 19th, the discoveries in this branch of medical knowledge had a certain isolation, due perhaps to the pre- possessions of the school of Sydenham, they soon became the property of the physician, and were brought into co-ordinatioiF with the clinical phenomena of disease. The great Morgagni, the founder of morbid anatomy, himself set the example of carrying on this study parallel with clinical observation; and always insisted that the clinical story of the case should be brought side by side with the revelations of the necropsy. In pathology, indeed, Virchbw's (1821-1902) influence in the transfiguration of this branch of science may almost be compared to that of Darwin and Pasteur in their respective domains. In the last quarter of the 19th century the conception grew clearer that morbid anatomy for the most part demonstrates 56 MEDICINE [MODERN PROGRESS disease in its static aspects only, and also for the most part in the particular aspect of final demolition; and it became manifest as pathology and clinical medicine became more and more thoroughly integrated, that the processes which initiate and are concerned in this dissolution were not revealed by the scalpel. Again, the physician as naturalist, though stimulated by the pathologist to delineate disease in its fuller manifestations, yet was hampered in a measure by the didactic method of constructing " types " which should command the attention of the disciple and rivet themselves on his memory; thus too often those incipient and transitory phases which initiate the paths of dissolution were missed. Not only so, but the physician, thus fascinated by " types," and impressed by the .silent monu- mentsof the pathological museum, was led to localize disease too much, to isolate the acts of nature, and to forget not only the continuity of the phases which lead up to the exemplary forms, or link them together, but to forget also that even between the types themselves relations of affinity must exist' — and these oftentimes none the less intimate for apparent diversities of form, for types of widely different form may be, and indeed often are, more closely allied than types which have more superficial resemblance — and to forget, moreover, how largely negative is the process of abstraction, by which types are imagined. Upon this too static a view, both of clinical type and of post-mortem-room pathology, came a despairing spirit, almost of fatalism, which in the contemplation of organic ruins lost the hope of cure of organic diseases. So prognosis became pessimistic, and the therapeutics of the abler men negative, until fresh hopes arose of stemming the tides of evil at their earliest flow. Such was medicine, statically ordered in pathology, statically ordered in its clinical concepts, when, on the 24th of November 1859, the Origin of Species was published. It is no Darwin?" exaggeration to say that this epoch-making work brought to birth a world of conceptions as new as the work of Copernicus. For the natural philosopher the whole point of view of things was changed; in biology not only had the anthropocentric point of view been banished, but the ancient concept of perpetual flux was brought home to ordinary men, and entered for good into the framework of thought. The study of comparative pathology, yet in an inchoate stage, and of embryology, illuminated and enlarged biological conceptions, both normal and abnormal; and the ens reale subsislens in cor pore disappeared for ever — at any rate from physiology and medicine. Before Darwin — if the name of Darwin may be used to signify the transformation of thought of which he was the chief artificer — natural objects were regarded, not in medicine and pathology only, as a set of hidebound events; and natural operations as moving in fixed grooves, after a fashion which it is now difficult for us to realize. With the melting of the ice the more daring spirits dashed into the new current with such ardour that for them all traditions, all institutions, were thrown into hotchpot; even elderly and sob^r physicians took enough of the infection to liberate their minds, and, in the field of the several diseases and in that of post-mortem pathology, the hollowness of classification by superficial resemblance, the transitoriness of forms, and the • flow of processes, broke upon the view. Thus it came about not only that classifications of disease based on superficial like- ness — such as jaundice, dropsy, inflammations-were broken up, and their parts redistributed, but also that even more set dis- eases began to lose their settlements, and were recognized as terms of series, as transitory or culminating phases of perturba- tions which might be traced to their origins, and in their earlier stages perhaps withstood. The doctrine of heredity in disease thus took a larger aspect; the view of morbid series was no longer bounded even by the life of the individual; and the propagation of taints, and of mor- bid varieties of man, from generation to generation proved to be no mere repetition of fixed features but, even more frequently, to be modes of development or of dissolution betraying them- selves often in widely dissimilar forms, in series often extending over many lives, the terms of which at first sight had seemed wholly disparate. Thus, for example, as generations succeed one another, nervous disorders appear in various guise; epilepsy, megrim, insanity, asthma, hysteria, neurasthenia, a. motley array at first sight, seemed to reveal themselves as terms of a morbid series; not only so, but certain disorders of other systems also might be members of the series, such as certain diseases of the skin, and even peculiar susceptibilities or immuni- ties in respect of infections from without. On the other hand, not a few disorders proved to be alien to classes to which nar- rower views of causation had referred them; of such are tabes dorsalis, neuritis, infantile palsy or tetanus, now removed from the category of primary nervous diseases and placed in one or other of the class of infections; or, conversely, certain forms of disease of the joints are now regarded with some certainty as members of more than one series of diseases chiefly manifest in the nervous system. In the effects of simpler poisons the recog- nition of unity in diversity, as in the affiliation of a peripheral neuritis to arsenic, illustrated more definitely this serial or etiological method of classifying diseases. On the other hand, inheritance was dismissed, or survived only as a "suscepti- bility," intr/e cases of tubercle, leprosy and some other maladies now recognized as infectious; while in others, as in syphilis, it was seen to consist in a translation of the infectious element from parent to offspring. These new conceptions of the multi- plicity in unity of disease, and of the fluidity and continuity of morbid processes, might have led to vagueness and over-boldness in speculation and reconstruction, had not the experimental method been a,t hand with clues and tests for the several series. Of this method the rise and wonderful extension of the science of bacteriology also furnished no inconsiderable part. In the disease of the scalp called favus, Schonlein had dis- covered a minute mycelial fungus; a remarkable discovery, for it was the first conspicuous step in the attribution of diseases to the action of minute parasites. Schon- Bacterlo- logy. lein thus did something to introduce new and positive conceptions and exacter methods into Germany; but unfortu- nately his own mind retained the abstract habit of his country, and his abilities were dissipated in the mere speculations of Schelling. Similarly Karl Hoffmann of Wiirzburg wasted his appreciations of the newer schools of developmental biology in fanciful notions of human diseases as reversions to normal stages of lower animals; scrofula being for him a reversion to the insect, rickets to the mollusc, epilepsy to. the oscillaria, and so forth. Even that distinguished physiologist Johannes Mtiller remained a staunch vitalist. Fortunately Germany, which^at. the begin- ning of the century was delivered over to Brownism and vitalism and was deaf to Bichat, was rescued from this sort of barrenness by the brilliant experimental work of Claude Bernard and Pas- teur in France—work which, as regards the attenuated virus, was a development of that of Edward Jenner, and indeed of Schwann, Robert Koch worthily following Pasteur with his work on the bacillus of anthrax and with his discovery of that of tuber- culosis; and by the cellular doctrine and abundant labours in pathology of Virchow. Ludwig Brieger then discovered the toxins of certain infections; and Emil A. von Behring completed the sphere of the new study by his discovery of the antitoxins of diphtheria and tetanus. In practical medicine the subsequent results of Behring and his followers have in diphtheria attained a signal therapeutical success. If the striking conceptions of Paul Ehrlich and Emil Fischer continue to prove as fertile in inspiring and directing research as at present they seem to ''Ens another wide sphere of conceptions will be opened out, not in bacteriology only, but also in biological ., chemistry and in molecular physics. Again, besides giving us the clue to the nature of many diseases and to the continuity of many morbid series, by bacteriology certain diseases, such as actinomycosis, have been recognized for the first time. As the prevalence of the conceptions signified and inspired by the word " phlogiston " kept alive ontological notions of disease, so the dissipation of vitalistic conceptions in the field of physics prepared men's minds in pathology for the new MODERN PROGRESS] MEDICINE 57 views opened by the discoveries of Pasteur on the side of pathogeny, and of J. F. Cohnheim (1839-1884) and of Iliya Metchnikoff on the dynamical side of his- f B « ersam * tology. Of the older ontological notions of disease tkms. the strongest were those of the essence of fever and of the essence of inflammation. Broussais had done much to destroy the notion of fever as an entity, but by extrava- gances in other directions he had discredited the value of his main propositions. Yet, although, as Andral and other French physicians proved, it was extravagant to say that all fevers take their origin from some local inflammation, it was true and most useful to insist, as Broussais vehemently insisted, that " fever " is no substance, but a generalization drawn from sym- ptoms common to many and various diseases springing from many various and often local causes; from causes agreeing perhaps only in the factor of elevation of the temperature of the body. To the establishment of this new conception the improvement and general use of the clinical thermometer gave invaluable ad- vantages. This instrument, now indispensable in our daily work at the bedside, had indeed long been known both to physiolo- gists (Haller) and to clinicians. In the 18th century A. de Haen, and, in the United Kingdom, George Cleghorn (1716-1789) of Dublin and James Currie (1756-1805), carried on the use of the thermometer in fevers; and on the continent of Europe in later years F. G. F. von Barensprung (1822-1865) and Ludwig Traube (1818-1876) did the same service; but it is to the work of Karl August Wunderlich (18 15-1877) that we owe the establishment of this means of precision as a method of regular observation both in pathology and in clinical medicine. By his almost exhaustive comparison of febrile movements as symptomatic processes Wunderlich dealt the last blow to the expiring doctrine of the "entity" of " fever "; while on the clinical side Breton- neau and Louis, in 1862-1872, by their careful clinical and patho- logical studies of forms of fever, relieved the new doctrine of the extravagances of Broussais, and prepared the way for the important distinction of enteric from typhus fever by A. P. Stewart (1813-1883), William Jenner, William Budd (1811-1880), Charles Murchison (1830-1879), J. H. F. Autenrieth (1772-1835), Heinrich Gustav Magnus (1802-1870), Huss and others. By the learned and accomplished Armand Trousseau British and German influences were carried into France. Meanwhile Cohnheim and Metchnikoff were engaged in destroying the ontological conception not of fever only, but also of inflammation, of which, as a local event, an ontological con- ception was no less strongly implanted. By his researches on the migration of the white corpuscles of the blood Cohnheim, on the bases laid by Virchow, brought the processes of inflam- mation within the scope of the normal, seeing in them but a modi- fication of normal processes under perturbations of relatively external incidence; even the formation of abscess was thus brought by him within the limits of perversion of processes not differing essentially from those of health; and " new formations," " plastic exudations," and other discontinuous origins of an " essential " pathology, fell into oblivion. And it is not alien from the present point of view to turn for a moment to the light thrown on the cardio-arterial pulse and the measurement of its motions by the more intimate researches into the phenomena of the circulation by many observers, among whom in the 19th century James Hope, E. J. Marey (1830-1904) and C. F. W. Ludwig will always take a leading place. By them the demon- stration of Harvey that the circulation of the blood is in large part a mechanical process, and nowhere independent of mechani- cal laws, was considerably enlarged and extended. In particular the fluctuations of the pulse in fevers and inflammations were better understood, and accurately registered; and we can scarcely realize now that before Harvey the time of the pulse seems not to have been counted by the watch. Discovery in these various directions then led physicians to regard fever and inflam- mation not as separable entities, but as fluctuating symptom- groups, due to swervings of function from the normal balance under contingent forces. As to such reforms in our cbnceptions of disease the advances of bacteriology profoundly contributed, so under the stress of consequent discoveries, almost prodigious in their extent and revolutionary effect, the conceptions of the N ^J%lf~ Q t etiology of disefse underwent no less a transforma- Etiology. tion than the conceptions of disease itself. It is proper- to point out here how intimately a pathology thus regenerated modified current conceptions of disease, in the linking of disease to oscillations of health, and the regarding many diseases as modifications of the normal set up by the impingement of external causes; not a few of which indeed may be generated within the body itself — " autogenetic poisoning." The appreciation of such modifications, and of the working of such causes, has been facilitated greatly by the light thrown upon normal processes by advances in physiology; so dependent is each branch of knowledge upon the advances of contiguous and incident studies. To biological chemistry we have been deeply indebted during the latter half of the 19th century. In 1872, Hoppe-Seyler (1825-1895) gave a new beginning to our know- ledge of the chemistry of secretion and of excretion; and later students have increased the range of physiological and patho- logical chemistry by investigations not only into the several stages of albuminoid material and the transitions which all food- stuffs undergo in digestion, but even into the structure of proto- plasm itself. Digestion, regarded not long ago as little more than a trituration and " coction " of ingesta to fit them for absorption and transfer them to the tissues, now appears as an elaboration of peptones and kindred intermediate products which, so far from being always bland, and mere bricks and mortar for repair or fuel for combustion, pass through phases of change during which they become so unfit for assimilation as to be positively poisonous. The formation of prussic acid at a certain period of the vital processes of certain plants may be given as an example of such phases; and poisons akin to muscarin seem to arise frequently in development or regression, both in animals and plants. Thus the digestive function, in its largest sense, is now seen to consist, not only in preparation and supply, but in no small measure also of protective and antidotal conver- sions of the matters submitted to it; coincidently with agents of digestion proper are found in the circuit of normal digestion " anti-substances " which neutralize or convert peptones in their poisonous phases; an autochthonous ferment, such as rennet for instance, calling forth an anti-rennet, and so on. Now as our own bodies thus manipulate substances poisonous and antidotal, if in every hour of health we are averting self- intoxication, so likewise are we concerned with the various intruding organisms, whose processes of digestion are as danger- ous as our own; if these destructive agents, which no doubt are incessantly gaining admission to our bodies, do not meet within us each its appropriate compensatory defensive agent, dissolution will begin. Thus, much of infection and immunity are proving to be but special cases of digestion, and teleological conceptions of protective processes are modified. Under the name of chemotaxis (W. Pfeffer) are designated certain of the regulative adaptations by which such ends are attained. By chemical warnings the defensive processes seem to be awakened, or summoned; and jjegfe^nee, when we think of the infinite variety of such possible phases, and of the multitude of corresponding defensive agents, we may form some dim notion of the complexity of the animal blood and tissues, and within them of the organic molecules. Even in normal circumstances their play and counterfllay, attractive and repellent, must be manifold almost beyond con- ception; for the body may be regarded as a collective organiza- tion consisting of a huge colony of micro-organisms become capable of a common life by common and mutual arrangement and differentiation of function, and by toleration and utilization of each other's peculiar products; some organs, such as the Kver, for example, being credited with a special power of neutralizing poisons, whether generated under normal conditions or under abnormal, which gain entrance from the intestinal tract. As a part of these discoveries has arisen another but kindred doctrine 58 MEDICINE {MODERN PROGRESS that of hormones (Starling), juices prepared, not for excretion, not even for partial excretion, but for the fulfilment of physiological equilibrium. Thus the reciprocity of the various organs, main- tained throughout the divisions of physiological labour, is not merely a mechanical stability; it is also a mutUE§ equilibration in functions incessantly at work on chemical levels, and on those levels of still higher complexity which seem to rise as far beyond chemistry as chemistry beyond physics. Not only are the secreted juices of specialized cells thus set one against another in the body, whereby the various organs of the body maintain a mutual play, but the blood itself also in its cellular and fluid parts contains elements potent in the destruction of bacteria and of their secretions. Thus endowed, the blood, unless over- whelmed by extraordinary invasions, does not fail in stability and self-purification. So various are the conditions of self- regulation in various animals, both in respect of their peculiar and several modes of assimilating different foods, and of protect- ing themselves against particular dangers from without, that, as we might have expected, the bloods taken from different species, or even perhaps from different individuals, are found to be so divergent that the healthy serum of one species may be, and often is, poisonous to another; not so much in respect of adventitious substances, as because the phases of physiological change in different species do not harmonize; each by its peculiar needs has been modified until, in their several conditions of life, they vary so much about the mean as to have become almost if not quite alien one to another. In the preservation of immunity then, in its various degrees and kinds, not only is the chemistry of the blood to be studied, but also its histology. By his eminent labours in cellular pathology, Virchow, and Metchnikoff later, gave the last blow to the mere humoral pathology which, after an almost unchal- lenged prevalence for some two thousand years, now finds a resting-place only in our nurseries. Now the cellular pathology of the blood, investigated by the aid of modern staining methods, is as important as that of the solid organs; no clinical investigator — indeed, apart from research, no practitioner at this day — can dispense with examination of the blood for purposes of diagnosis; its coagulability and the kinds and the variations of the cells it contains being evidence of many definitely morbid states of the body. Again, not only in certain diseases may strange cells be found in the blood (e.g. in myelogenic leucaemia), but parasites also, both in man, as those of malaria, of sleeping sickness, of kala-azar, and in animals, as redwater, yellow fever, n'gana have been discovered, to the great advantage of preventive medicine. For some of these, as redwater (pyrosoma), antidotes are already found; for others, as for yellow fever — of which the parasite is unknown, but the mode of its transmission, by the mosquito, discovered (Finlay-Reed) — preventive measures are reducing the prevalence. It is obvious that the results of such advances prescribe for the clinical physician methods which cannot be pursued without ««-w expert assistance; a physician engaged in busy prac- peaa sm. ^ ce cannc (_ himself undertake even the verifications required in the conduct of individual cases. Skill in modern laboratory work is as far out of the reach of the untaught as performance on a musical instrument. In spite, therefore, of the encyclopaedic tradition which has persisted from Aristotle through the Arab and medieval schools down to Herbert Spencer, it is forced upon us in our own day that in a pursuit so many- sided as medicine, whether in its scientific or in its practical aspect, we have to submit more and more to that division of labour which has been a condition of advance in all other walks qf life. It is now fully recognized that diseases of infants and children, of the insane, of the generative organs of women, of the larynx, of the eye, have been brought successively into the light of modern knowledge by " specialists," and by them dis- tributed to the profession; and that in no other way could this end have been attained. That the division of labour, which may seem to disintegrate the calling of the physician, really unites it, is well seen in the clinical laboratories which were initiated in the later 19th century, and which are destined to a great future. By the approach of skilled pathologists to the clinical wards, a link is forged between practitioners and the men of science who pursue pathology disinterestedly. The first clinical laboratory seems to have been that of Von Ziemssen (1829-1902) at Munich, founded in 1885; and, although his example has not yet been followed as it ought to have been, enough has been done in this way, at Johns Hopkins University and elsewhere, to prove the vital importance of the system to the progress of modern medicine. At the same time provision must be made for the integration of knowledge as well as for the winning of it by several adits. A conspicuous example of the incalculable evil wrought by lack of integration is well seen in the radical divorce of surgery from medicine, which is one of the most mischievous legacies of the middle ages — one whose mischief is scarcely yet fully recognized, and yet which is so deeply rooted in our institutions, in the United Kingdom at any rate, as to be hard to obliterate. That the methods and the subject-matter of surgery and of medicine are substantially the same, and that the advance of one is the advance of the other, the division being purely artificial and founded merely on accidents of personal bent and skill, must be insisted upon at this time of our history. The distinction was never a scientific one, even in the sense in which the word science can be used of the middle ages; it origi- nated in social conceits and in the contempt for mechanical arts which came of the cultivation of " ideas " as opposed to converse with " matter," and which, in the dawn of modern methods, led to the derision of Boyle by Oxford humanists as one given up to " base and mechanical pursuits." Had physicians been brought into contact with facts as hard as those faced by the surgeons of the 1 6th century (cf. Ambrose Pare), their art would not have lain so long in degradation. It is under this closer occupation with mechanical conditions that surgery to-day is said — not without excuse, but with no more than superficial truth — to have made more progress than medicine. Medicine and surgery are but two aspects of one art; Pasteur shed light on both surgery and medicine, and when Lister, his disciple, penetrated into the secrets of wound fevers and septicaemia, he illuminated surgery and medicine alike, and, in the one sphere as in the other, co-operated in the destruction of the idea of " essential fevers " and of inflammation as an "entity." Together, then, with the necessary multiplication of specialism, one of the chief lessons of the latter moiety of the 19th century was the unity of medicine in all its branches — a unity strengthened rather than weakened by special researches, such as those into " medical " and " sur- gical " pathology, which are daily making more manifest the absurdity of the distinction. Surgeons, physicians, oculists, laryngologists, gynaecologists, neurologists and the rest, all are working in allotments of the same field, and combining to a common harvest. While pathology then, which is especially the " science of medicine," was winning territory on one side from physiology, of which in a sense it is but an aspect, and on another by making ground of its own in the post mortem room Training. and museum of morbid anatomy, and was fusing these gains in the laboratory so as to claim for itself, as a special branch of science by virtue of peculiar concepts, its due place and provision — provision in the establishment of chairs and of special laboratories for its chemical and biological subdivisions — clinical medicine, by the formal provision of disciplinary classes, was illustrating the truth of the experience that teaching and research must go hand-in-hand, the one reinforcing the other: that no teacher can be efficient unless he be engaged in research^ also; nay, that for the most part even the investigator needs the encouragement of disciples. Yet it was scarcely until the last quarter of the 19th century that the apprenticeship system, which was a mere initiation into the art and mystery of a craft, was recognized as antiquated and, in its virtual exclusion of academic study, even mischievous. In place of it, systematic clinical classes have become part of the scheme of every efficient school of medicine. A condition of this reform was the need of a preliminary training of the mind of the pupil in pure science, even in physics and chemistry; that is to say, before introduction MODERN PROGRESS] MEDICINE 5'9 into his professional studies. The founding of new teaching universities, in which England, and even France, had been at some disadvantage as compared with Scotland and Germany, strengthened the movement in favour of enlarging and liberal- izing technical training, and of anticipating technical instruction by some broader scientific discipline; though, as in all times of transition, something was lost temporarily by a departure from the old discipline of the. grammar school before a new scheme of training the mind in scientific habits and conceptions was estab- lished or fully apprehended. Yet on the whole, even from the beginning, the revolt was useful in that it shook the position of the " learned physician," who took a literary, fastidious and meditative rather than an experimental interest in his profession, and, as in great part a descendant of the humanists, was never in full sympathy with experimental science. At the risk no doubt of some defects of culture, the newer education cleared the way for a more positive temper, awoke a new sense of accuracy and of verification, and created a sceptical attitude towards all conventions, whether of argument or of practice. Among the drawbacks of this temper, which on the whole made for progress, was the rise of a school of excessive scepticism, which, forgetting the value of the accumulated stores of empiricism, despised those degrees of moral certainty that, in so complex a study and so tentative a practice as medicine, must be our portion for the present, and even for a long future, however great the triumphs of medicine may become. This scepticism took form in the school, most active between i860 and 1880, known as the school of " Expectant Medicine." These teachers, genuinely touched with a sense of the scantiness of our knowledge, of our confidence in abstract terms, of the insecurity of our alleged " facts," case-histories and observations, alienated from tradi- tional dogmatisms and disgusted by meddlesome polypharmacy — enlightened, moreover, by the issue of cases treated by means such as the homoeopathic, which were practically " expectant " — urged that the only course open to the physician, duly conscious of his own ignorance and of the mystery of nature, is to put his patient under diet and nursing, and, relying on the tendency of all equilibriums to recover themselves under perturbation, to await events (Vis medicatrix naturae). Those physicians who had occupied themselves in the study of the exacter sciences, or more closely or more exclusively of the wreckage of the post mortem room, were the strongest men of this school, whether in England or abroad. But to sit down helpless before human suffering is an un- endurable attitude. Moreover, the insight into origins, into initial morbid processes revealed by the pathologists, peutic's. awoke more and more the hope of dealing with the elements of disease, with its first beginnings; and in the field of therapeutics, chemical and biological experiment, as in the case of digitalis, mercury and the iodides, was rapidly sim- plifying remedies and defining their virtues, so that these agents could be used at the bedside with more precision. Furthermore, the aversion from drugging had the advantage of directing men's minds to remedies taken from the region of the physical forces, of electricity (G. B. Duchenne, 1806-1875), of gymnastics (Ling, 1776-1839), of hydropathy (V. Priessnitz), of massage (Weir Mitchell), of climate (James Clarke), of diet (R. B. Todd, King Chambers, &c), and even of hypnotism (James Braid 1795?- 1860), while with the improvement of the means of locomotion came the renewal of the old faith and the establishment of new methods in the use of mineral springs. These and such means, often in combination, took much of the place formerly given to the use of drugs. Again, a like spirit dictated the use of the physical or " natu- ral " methods on a larger scale in the field of prevention. From the new regard given by physiologists and pathologists to the study of origins, and in the new hopes of thus dealing with disease at its springs, not in indivi- duals only but in cities and nations, issued the great school of Preventive Medicine, initiated in England — E. A. Parkes (1819-1876), J. Simon, Sir B. W. Richardson (1828-1896), Sir H. W. Acland (1815-1900), Sir G. Buchanan (1831-1895), and Hygkae, forwarded in Germany by Max von Pettenkofer (1818-1901). Hygiene became for pathology what " milieu " is for physiology. By the modification of physical conditions on a national scale a prodigious advance was made in the art of preventing disease. The ghastly roll of infantile mortality was quickly purged of its darkest features (Ballard and others); aided by bacteriology, sanitary measures attained some considerable degree of exact- ness; public medicine gained such an ascendancy that special training and diplomas were offered at universities; and in 1875 a consolidated act was passed for the United Kingdom establish- ing medical officers of health, and responsible lay sanitary authorities, with no inconsiderable powers of enforcing the means of public health in rural, urban, port and other jurisdic- tions, with summary methods of procedure. A department of public health was formed within the precincts of the Local Gpvernment Board; government laboratories were established, and machinery was devised for the notification of infectious diseases. The enormous growth of towns during the second half of the 19th century was thus attended with comparative safety to these great aggregates of mankind; and the death-rates, so far from being increased, relatively decreased in substantial proportions. In 1878 an act was passed giving like powers in the case of the infectious diseases of animals. The establishment in England of the Register of qualified practitioners and of the General Medical Council (in 1858) did something, however imperfectly, to give unity to the profession, unhappily bisected by " the two colleges"; and did much to organize, to strengthen and to purify medical education and qualification. In 1876 women were admitted to the Register kept by the Council. In 1871 the Anatomical Act of 1832 was amended; and in 1876 the Vivisection Act was passed, a measure which investigators engaged in the medical sciences of physiology and pathology resented as likely to prevent in England the advance of know- ledge of living function, both in its normal balance and in its aberrancies, and. moreover to slacken that habit of incessant reference of propositions to verification which is as necessary to the clinical observer as to the experimentalist. However the opinion of later generations may stand in respect of the Vivisec- tion Act. it will surely appear to them that the other acts, largely based upon the results of experimental methods, strengthening and consolidating the medical profession, and fortifying the advance of medical education, led directly to a fundamental change in the circumstances of the people in respect of health. The intelligent classes have become far better educated in the laws of health, and less disposed to quackery; the less intelligent are better cared for and protected by municipal and central authority. Thus the housing of the poor has been improved, though this difficult problem is yet far from solution; not the large towns only, but the larger villages also, are cleansed and drained; food has been submitted to inspection by skilled officers; water supplies have been undertaken on a vast scale; personal cleanliness has been encouraged, and with wonderful success efforts have been made to bring civilized Europe back from the effects of a long wave of Oriental asceticism, which in its neglect and contempt of the body led men to regard filth even as a virtue, to its pristine cleanliness under the Greeks and Romans. During the latter half of the 19th century the death-rate of many towns was reduced by something like 50%. Some plagues, such as typhus fever, have been dispelled; others, such as enteric fever, have been almost banished from large areas; and there is much reason to hope that cholera and plague, if introduced, could not get a footing in western Europe, or in any case coulcl be combated on scientific principles, and greatly reduced. Tem- perance in the use of alcohol has followed the demonstration not only of its unimportance as a food or tonic, but also of its harm- fulness, save in very small quantities. In the earlier part of the 19th century, and in remoter districts even in its later years, the use of alcohol was regarded not as a mere indulgence, but as essential to health; the example of teetotallers, as, seen in private life and in the returns of the insurance offices, has undermined this prepossession. From the time of Plato medicine has been accused of ministering to the survival of unfit persons, and to 6o MEDICINE ^6Di*tM%©GRBSS their propagation of children. But bodily defect is largely a result of evil circumstances, in the prevention of which the physician is not unsuccessfully engaged, and the growth of sympathy means a stronger cement of the social structure. At any rate the mean standard of health will be raised, perhaps enormously. In the tropics, as well as in Europe, such methods and Such researches threw new light upon the causes and paths of the terrible infections of these climates. In 1880, two years before Koch discovered the bacillus of tubercle, C. L. A. Laveran (b. 1845) discovered the parasite of malaria, and truly conceived its relations to the disease; thus within two years were made two discoveries either of which was sufficient to make the honour of a century. Before the end of the 19th century this discovery of the blood parasite of malaria was crowned by the hypothesis of Patrick Manson, proved by Ronald Ross, that malaria is propa- gated by a certain genus of gnat, which acts as an intermediate host of the parasite. Cholera (Haffkine) and yellow fever are yielding up their secrets, and falling under some control. The 20th century, by means of this illumination of one of the darkest regions of disease, may diminish human suffering enor- mously, and may make habitable rich and beautiful regions of the earth's surface now, so far as man's work is concerned, con- demned to sterility. Moreover, freedom of trade and of travel has been promoted by a reform of the antiquated, cumbrous, and too often futile methods of quarantine — a reform as yet very far from complete, but founded upon a better understanding of the nature and propagation of disease. Special Departments. — Hitherto we have presented a survey of the progress of the science and practice of medicine on general , -,, lines; it remains to give some indication of the Infections, .' .. .. . . , ,.. advance of these subjects of study and practice in particular departments. As regards infections, it is not to be supposed that our knowledge of these maladies has been ad- vanced by pathology and bacteriology only. In the clinical field also it has received a great enlargement. Diphtheria, long no doubt a plague among mankind, was not carefully described until by Pierre Bretonneau in 1826; and since his time our con- ception of this disease has been extended by the study of later, secondary and incidental phases of it, such as neuritis, which had always formed part of the diphtheritic series, though the con- nexion had not been detected. Influenza, again, was well known to us in 1836-1840, yet clinical observers had not traced out those sequels which, in the form of neuritis and mental disorder, have impressed upon our minds the persistent virulence of this infec- tion, and the manifold forms of its activity. By the discovery of the bacillus of tubercle, the physician has been enabled to piece together a long and varied list of maladies under several names, such as scrofula and lupus, many of them long suspected to be tuberculous, but now known to belong to the series. It is on clinical grounds that beriberi, scarlet fever, measles, &c, are recognized as belonging to the same class, and evolving in phases which differ not in intimate nature but in the more superficial and inessential characters of time, rate and polymorphism; and the impression is gaining strength that acute rheumatism belongs to the group of the infections, certain sore throats, chorea and other apparently distinct maladies being terms of this series. Thus the field of disease arising not from essential defect in the body, but from external contingencies, is vastly enlarging; while on the other hand the great variability of individuals in susceptibility explains the very variable results of such extrinsic causes. Coincidently therewith, the hope of neutralizing infec- tions by fortifying individual immunity has grown brighter, for it appears that immunity is not a very radical character, but one which, as in the case of vaccination, admits of modifica- tion and accurate adjustment in the individual, in no long time and by no very tedious methods. Evidence is accumulating which may end in the explanation and perhaps in the prevention of the direst of human woes — cancer itself, though at present inquiry is being directed rather to intrinsic than to extrinsic causes. When, leaving the infections, we look for evidence of progress in our knowledge of more or less local diseases, we may begin with the nervous system. It is in this department, from its abstruse- ness and complexity, that we should expect the Neurolo -y advance of anatomy and physiology — normal and morbid — to be most delayed. If we consult the medical works even of the middle of the 19th century we shall find that, in the light of the present time, accurate knowledge in this sphere, whether clinical, pathological or therapeutical, could scarcely be said to exist. Even in the hands of J. A. Lockhart Clarke (181 7-1880), one of the earliest investigators of nervous pathology, the improvement of the compound microscope had not attained the achromatism, the penetration and the magnifi- cation which have since enabled J. L. C. Schroeder-van der Kolk (1797-1862), Albert von Kolliker, Santiago Ramon y Cajal, C. Golgi (b. 1844) and others to reveal the minute anatomy of the nervous centres; while the discrimination of tissues and mor- bid products by stains, as in the silver and osmic acid methods, and in those known by the names of Carl Weigert or Marchi, had scarcely begun. In England the Hospital for the Paralysed and Epileptic was founded in 1859, where Charles E. Brown- Sequard (1817-1894), J. Hughlings-Jackson, Thomas Buzzard, Henry C. Bastian (b. 1837), Sir W. R. Gowers and David Ferrier (b. 1843) found an adequate field for the clinical and patho- logical parts of their work. In France, in the wards of the Hdtel Dieu, Guillaume Benjamin Duchenne (1806-1875), in association with Trousseau and in his private clinic, pursued his memorable clinical and therapeutical researches into the diseases of the nervous system; and Jean M. Charcot (1825-1893) in that great asylum for the wreckage of humanity — the Salpetriere-^-dis- covered an unworked mine of chronic nervous disease. M. H. Romberg (1795-1873) and Theodor Meynert (1833-1892) also were pioneers in the study of nervous diseases, but it was not till later in the century that Germany took a high place in this department of medicine. The discoveries of the separate paths of sensory and motor impulses in the spinal cord, and conse- quently of the laws of reflex action, by Charles Bell and Marshall Hall respectively, in their illumination of the phenomena of nervous function, may be compared with the discovery in the region of the vascular system of the circulation of the blood; for therein a key to large classes of normal and aberrant functions and a fertile principle of interpretation were obtained. Nor was the theory of reflex action confined to the more " mechan- ical " functions. By G. H. Lewes and others the doctrine of " cerebral reflex " was suggested, whereby actions, at first achieved only by incessant attention, became organized as conscious or subconscious habits; as for instance in the playing on musical or other instruments, when acts even of a very elaborate kind may directly follow the impulses of sensations, conscious adaptation and the deliberate choice of means being thus economized. This law has important ethical and political bearings; but in the province of disease this advance of what may be compared to. the interlocking of points and signals has had wide influence not only in altering our conceptions of disease, but also in enlarging our views of all perturbations of function. The grouping of reflex " units," and the paths wherein impulses travel and become associated, have been made out by the physio- logist (Sherrington and others) working on the healthy animal, as well as by the record of disease; and not of spontaneous disease alone, for the artificial institution of morbid processes in animals has led to many of these discoveries, as in the method of A. V. Waller (1816-1870), who tracked the line of nervous strands by experimental sections, and showed that when particular strands* are cut off from their nutritive centres the consequent degenera- tion follows the line of the separated strands. By similar methods nature, unassisted, betrays herself but too often; in many instances — probably originating primarily in the nervous tissues themselves — the course of disease is observed to follow certain paths with remarkable consistency, as for instance in diseases of particular tracts of the spinal cord. In such cases the paths of degeneration are so neatly defined that, when the tissues are prepared after death by modern methods, they are plainly to be seen running along certain columns, the subdivisions MODERN PROGRESS] MEDICINE 6.1 of which in the normal state may hardly be distinguishable one from another: some run in strips along the periphery of the spinal cord, at its anterior, middle or posterior segments, as the case may be; in other cases such strips occur within its substance, whether along columns of cells or of white matter. It is needless to point out how such paths of disease, in their association with characteristic symptoms, have illuminated the clinical features of disease as well as the processes of normal function. Not, however, all diseases of the nervous system conduct them- selves on these definite paths, for some of them pay no attention to the geography of structure, but, as one may say, blunder indiscriminately among the several parts; others, again, pick out particular parts definitely enough, but not parts immediately continuous, or even contiguous. Diseases of the latter kind are especially interesting, as in them we see that parts of the nervous structure, separated in space, may nevertheless be asso- ciated in function; for instance, wasting of a group of muscles associated in function may depend on a set of central degenera- tions concurring in parts whose connexion, in spite of dissociation in space, we thus perceive. The undiscriminating diseases, on the other hand, we suspect not to be primarily of nervous origin, but to depend rather on the agency of other constituent tissues of this system, as of the blood-vessels or the connective elements. Thus, arguing inversely, we may learn something of the respective natures of these influences and of the way in which the nervous system is affected secondarily. Yet even the distribution of toxic matters by the blood is not necessarily followed by general and indiscriminate injury to the nervous elements. In infantile palsy, for example, Anchorage an( j j n ^ a jj es dorsalis, there is good reason to believe Molecules, that, definitely as the traces of the disease are found in certain physiologically distinct nervous elements, they are due nevertheless to toxic agents arriving by way of the blood. Here we enter upon one of the most interesting chapters of disorders and modes of disorder of this and of other systems. It has come out more and more clearly of late years that poisons do not betray even an approximately indifferent affinity for all tissues, which indeed a little reflection would tell us to be a priori improbable, but that each tends to fix itself to this cell group or to that, picking out parts for which they severally have affinities. Chemical, physio- logical and pathological research is exploring the secret of these more refined kinds of " anchorage " of molecules. In 1868 Drs A. Crum Brown and T. R. Fraser proved that by substitution of molecules in certain compounds a stimu- lant could be converted into a sedative action; thus by the addition of the methyl group CH2 to the molecule of strychnine, thebaine or brucine, the tetanizing action of these drugs is converted into a paralysing action. The number of these instances, and the variety of them, are now known to be very large; and it is supposed that what is true of these simpler agents is true also of far more elaborate phases of vital metabolism. Now, what is remarkable in these and many other reactions is not only that effects apparently very opposite may result from minute differences of molecular con- struction, but also that, whatever the construction, agents, not wholly indifferent to the body or part, tend to anchor themselves to organic molecules in some way akin to them. Highly com- plex as are all animal tissues, or nearly all, yet in this category of high complexity are degrees higher and higher again of which we can form little conception, so elaborate they are, so peculiar in their respective properties, and probably so fugitive. It is this wide range of dynamic peculiarities above the common range of known physical and chemical molecules which excites our wonder; and a reflection of these peculiar properties is seen in their affinities for this or that toxic or constructive agent, whereby the peculiarity, for example, of a particular kind of nerve cell may be altered, antagonized, reinforced or converted. On the other hand, the reagents by which such modifications are apt to be produced are not necessarily simple; many of them likewise are known to be of very high degrees of complexity, approaching perhaps in complexity the molecules to which they are akin. Of such probably are the toxins and antitoxins of certain infections, which, anchoring themselves not by any means indiscriminately, but to particular and concerted molecules, by such anchorage antagonize them or turn them to favourable or unfavourable issues. Toxins may thus become so closely keyed into their corresponding atom groups, as for instance in tetanus, that they are no longer free to combine with the anti- toxin; or, again, an antitoxin injected before a toxin may antici- pate it and, preventing its mischievous adhesion, dismiss it for excretion. In the mutual behaviour of such cells, toxins, and antitoxins, and again of microbes themselves, we may demon- strate even on the field of the microscope some of the modes of such actions, which seem to partake in great measure at any rate of a chemical quality (agglutinins, coagulins, chemotaxis). It is convenient here to add that such reactions and modifica- tions, if more conspicuous in the nervous system, are of course not confined to it, but are concerned in their degree in all the processes of metabolism, being most readily traced by us in the blood. Many other diseases formerly regarded as primarily diseases of the nervous system are not such; but, by means of agents either introduced into the body or modified there, establish themselves after the affinities of these in contiguous associated parts of the structure, as in vascular, membranous or connective elements, or again in distant and peripheral parts; the perturba- tions of nervous function being secondary and consequential. Of such are tetanus and diphtheria, now known to be due to the establishment from without of a local- microbic infection, from which focus a toxin is diffused to the nervous matter. The terrible nervous sequels of some forms of inflammation of the membranes of the brain, again, are due primarily to microbic invasion rather of the membranes than of their nervous contents; and many other diseases may be added to this list. The grave palsies in such diseases as influenza, diphtheria, beriberi, or ensuing on the absorption of lead, are in the main not central, but due to a symmetrical peripheral neuritis. Among diseases not primarily nervous, but exhibited in certain phenomena of nervous disorder, are diseases of the blood-vessels. Much light has been thrown upon the variations of arterial and venous blood pressures by Karl Ludwig Jf«" vM »« (1816-1895) and his many followers: by them not Disease. only the diseases of the circulatory system itself are elucidated, but also those of other systems — the nervous, for instance — which depend intimately on the mechanical integrity of the circulation of the blood as well as on the chemical integrity of the blood itself. With changes of the pressures of the blood in arteries, veins or capillaries, and in the heart itself and its respective chambers, static changes are apt to follow in these parts; such as degeneration of the coats of the arteries, due either to the silent tooth of time, to persistent high blood pres- sures, or to the action of poisons such as lead or syphilis. Syphi- litic lesion of the arteries, and likewise of other fibrous tissues, often involves grave consequential damage to nervous structures fed or supported by such parts. Some of the most successful of the advances of medicine as a healing art have followed the detection of syphilitic disease of the vessels, or of the supporting tissues of nervous centres and of the peripheral nerves; so thaf> by specific medication, the treatment of paralytic, convulsive, and other terrible manifestations of nervous disease thus second' arily induced is now undertaken in early stages with definite prospect of cure. Not of less importance in this respect, and in other disorders many of them of grave incidence, is the knowledge of the pheno- mena of embolism and of thrombosis, also gained during the latter half of the 19th century — W. S. Kirkes (1823-1864), R. Virchow. By embolism is meant the more or less sudden stoppage of a vessel by a plug of solid matter carried thither by the current of the blood; be it a little clot from the heart or, what is far more pernicious, an infective fragment from some focus of infection in the body, by which messengers new foci of infection may be scattered about the body. Thrombosis is an accident 62 MEDICINE [MODERN PROGRESS of not dissimilar character, whereby a vessel is blocked not by a travelling particle, but by a clotting of the blood in situ, probably on the occasion of some harm to the epithelial lining of the vessel. Such injuries are apt to occur in syphilitic endarteritis, or senile arterial decay, whereby an artery may be blocked permanently, as if with an embolus, and the area supplied by it, in so far as it was dependent upon this vessel, deprived of nutrition. These events, although far more mischievous in the brain, the functions of which are far-reaching, and the collateral circulation of which is ill-provided, are seen very commonly in other parts. It is in the structure of the brain itself that modern research has attained the most remarkable success. In 1861 an alleged " centre " of speech was detected, by a combination of clinical and pathological researches, by Paul Broca (1824-1880). By these means also, in the hands of Hughlings- Jackson, and more conclusively by experimental research initiated by G. T. Fritsch (b. 1838) and T. E. Hitzig (b. 1838), but pursued inde- pendently and far more systematically and thoroughly by David Ferrier (b. 1843) and his disciples, it was proved that the cerebrum is occupied by many such centres or exchanges, which preside over the formulation of sensations into purposive groups of motions — kinaesthesis of H. Charlton Bastian (b. 1837). The results of these experimental researches by many inquirers into the constitution of the brain have transformed our conceptions of cerebral physiology, and thrown a flood of light on the diseases of the brain. Not only so, but this mapping of the brain in areas of function now often enables the clinical physician to determine the position of disease; in a certain few cases of tumour or abscess, so precisely that he may be enabled to open the skull above the part affected and to extirpate it — opera- tions which are surely a triumph of science and technical skill (Lister, W. MacEwen, V. Horsley). The remarkable discovery of the dual nature of the nervous system, of its duplex development as a lower and upper system of " neurons," has shed much light upon the problems of practical medicine, but this construction is described under Brain; Neuropathology; Muscle and Nerve, &c. In mental diseases little of first-rate importance has been done. The chief work has been the detection of chronic changes in the cortex of the brain, by staining and other histological methods, in degenerative affections of this organ — Theodor Meynert (1833-1892), W. Griesinger (1817-1868), Bevan Lewis — and in the separation from insanity due to primary disease or defect of nerve elements of such diseases as general paralysis of the insane, which probably arise, as we have said, by the action of poisons on contiguous structures — such as blood-vessels and connective elements — and invade the nervous matter second- arily. Some infections, however, seem to attack the mental fabric directly; intrinsic toxic processes which may be suspected on the detection of neurin and cholin in the fluids of the brain (F. W. Mott). Truer conceptions of normal psychology have transformed for us those of the morbid — P. Pinel (1 745-1826), Griesinger, Henry Maudsley (b. 1835), Mercier, Krapelin, Rivers — and indicated more truly the relations of sanity to insanity. In the treatment of insanity little has been done but to com- plete the non-restraint system which in principle belongs to the earlier part of the 19th century (Pinel, Tuke, R. G. Hill, J. Conolly). An enormous accumulation of lunatics of all sorts and degrees seems to have paralysed public authorities, who, at vast expense in buildings, mass them more or less indis- criminately in barracks, and expect that their sundry and difficult disorders can be properly studied and treated by a medical superintendent charged with the whole domestic establishment, with a few young assistants under him. The life of these insane patients is as bright, and the treatment as humane, as a barrack life can be; but of science, whether in pathology or medicine, there can be little. A considerable step in advance is the estab- lishment by the London County Council of a central laboratory for its asylums, with an eminent pathologist at its head: from this laboratory valuable reports are in course of issue. Provision for the reception and treatment of insanity in its earliest and more curable stages can scarcely be said to exist. Sufferers from mental disease are still regarded too much as troublesome persons to be hidden away in humane keeping, rather than as cases of manifold and obscure disease, to be studied and treated by the undivided attention of physicians of the highest skill. The care and education of idiots, initiated by Guggenbuhl and others, is making way in England, and if as yet insufficient, is good of its kind. By the genius of Rene Theophile Laennec (1781-1826), diseases of the lungs and heart were laid on a foundation so broad that his successors have been occupied in detail and refinement rather than in reconstruction. In heart disease the chief work of the latter half of the 19th century was, in the first quarter, such clinical work as that of William Stokes and Peter Mere Latham (1789-1875); and in the second quarter the fuller com- prehension of the vascular system, central and peripheral, with its cycles and variations of blood pressure, venous and arterial. Moreover, the intricacies of structure and function within the heart itself have been more fully discriminated (W. H. Gaskell, Aschoff, A. Keith, Wenkebach, J. Mackenzie). By the greater thorough- ness of our knowledge of the physics of the circulation — Etienne Marey (b. 1830), Karl Ludwig (1816-1895), Leonard Hill — we have attained to a better conception of such events as arterial disease, apoplexy, " shock," and so forth; and pharmacologists have defined more precisely the virtues of curative drugs. To the discovery of the parts played in disease by thrombosis and embolism we have referred above. With this broader and more accurate knowledge of the conditions of the health of the circulation a corresponding efficiency has been gained in the manipulation of certain remedies and new methods of treatment, of heart diseases, especially by baths and exercises. As regards pulmonary disease, pneumonia has passed more and more definitely into the category of the infections: the modes of invasion of the lungs and pleura by tuberculosis has been more and more accurately followed; and the treatment of these diseases, in the spheres both of prevention and of cure, has under- gone a radical change. Instead of the close protection from the outer air, the respirators, and the fancy diets of our fathers, the modern poitrinaire camps out in the open air in all weathers, is fed with solid food, and in his exercise and otherwise is ruled with minute particularity according to the indications of the clinical thermometer and other symptoms. The almost reckless reliance on climate, which, at Davos for instance, marked the transition from the older to the modern methods, has of late been sobered, and supplemented by more systematic attention to all that con- cerns the mode of life of the invalid. The result is that, both in physicians and in the public, a more hopeful attitude in respect of the cure of phthisis has led to a more earnest grappling with the infection in its earliest stages and in every phase, with a cor- respondingly large improvement in prevention and treatment. Indeed, in such early stages, and in patients who are enabled to command the means of an expensive method of cure, phthisis is no longer regarded as desperate; while steps are being taken to provide for those who of their own means are unable to obtain these advantages, by the erection of special sanatoriums on a more or less charitable basis. Perhaps no advance in medicine has done so much as the study of tuberculosis to educate the public in the methods and value of research in medical subjects, for the results, and even the methods, of such labours have been brought home not only to patients and their friends, but also to the farmer, the dairyman, the butcher, the public carrier, and, indeed, to every home in the land. It was in the management of pleurisies that the aid of surgical means first became eminent in inward disease. In the treatment of effusions into the pleura and, though with less advantage, of pericardial effusions, direct mechanical interference was practised by one physician and another, till these means of attaining rapid and complete cure took their places as indispensable, and were extended from thoracic diseases to those of the abdominal and other inner parts formerly beyond the reach of direct therapeutics. Lord Lister's discoveries brought these new methods to bear with a certainty and a celerity previously undreamed of; and many visceral maladies, such as visceral ulcers, disease of the pancreas, MODERN PROGRESS] MEDICINE 63 stone of the kidney or gall-bladder, perityphlitis, ovarian dropsy, which in the earlier part of the 19th century were either fatal or crippling, are now taken promptly and safely in hand, and dealt with successfully. Even for internal cancer cure or substantial relief is not infrequently obtained. We have said that this advance is often quoted, not very wisely, to signify that in modern progress " medicine " has fallen behind surgery — as if the art of the physician were not one and indivisible. That certain Fellows of the College of Physicians (especially in gynae- cology) have personally taken operative procedures in hand is some good omen that in time the unreal and mischievous schism between medicine and surgery may be bridged over. In the department of abdominal disease progress has been made, not only in this enormous extension of means of cure by operative methods, but also in the verification of diagnosis. The first recognition of a disease may be at a necropsy, but then usually by irresponsible pathologists; it is another matter when the physician himself comes under rebuke for failing to seize a way to cure, while the chance remained to him, by section of the abdomen during life. The abdomen is still " full of surprises "; and he who has most experience of this deceptive region will have least confidence in expressing positive opinions in particular cases of disease without operative investigation. Besides the attainments mentioned above, in respect of operative progress, many important revisions of older rule-of-thumb knowledge have come about, and not a few other substantial discoveries. Among the revisions may be adduced some addition to our knowledge of dyspepsia, attained by analytic investigations into the contents of the stomach at various stages of digestion, and by examining the passage of opaque substances through the primae viae by the Rontgen rays. Thus the defects, whether of this secretion or of that, and again of motor activity, the state of the valvular junctions, the volume of the cavities, and their position in the abdomen, may be ascertained, and dealt with as far as may be; so that, although the fluctuations of chemical digestion are still very obscure, the application of remedies after a mere tradi- tional routine is no longer excusable. In our conceptions of the later stages of assimilation and of excretion, with the generation of poisons (auto-intoxication) in the intestinal tract, there is still much obscurity and much guess-work; yet in some directions positive knowledge has been gained, partly by the physiologist, partly by the physician himself. Of such are the better under- standing of the functions of the liver in normal catabolism, in the neutralization of poisons absorbed from the intestines or else- where, in the causation of jaundice, and in diabetes [Bernhardt Naunyn (b. 1839) and F. W. Pavy]. Nor must we forget the unfolding of a new chapter of disease, in the nosology of the pancreas. In diabetes this organ seems to play a part which is not yet precisely determined; and one fell disease at least has been traced to a violent access of inflammation of this organ, caused perhaps by entry of foreign matters into its duct. The part of the pancreas in digestion also is better understood. The part of the spleen in the motley group of dyspepsias and anaemias, conspicuous as it often is, still remains very enigmatic. The peritoneum is no longer regarded with awe as inviolable; by modern methods, if not as manageable as other lymphatic sacs, it is at any rate accessible enough without considerable risk to life. Not only in its bacteriological relations are the conditions of peritonitis recognized in its various kinds, but also the state known as " shock " turns out to be quasi-mechanical, and avoidable by measures belonging in considerable part to this category. Thus, by the avoidance both of toxaemia and of shock, peritonitis and other dangers of the abdomen, such as strangu- lations or intussusceptions of the bowels, formerly desperate, can in many cases be dealt with safely and effectively. Our knowledge of diseases of the kidneys has made no great advance since the time of Richard Bright. In the sphere of physiology and in the interpretation of associated arterial diseases much obscurity still remains; as, for instance, concerning the nature of the toxic substances which produce those bilateral changes in the kidneys which we' call Bright's disease, and bring about the " uraemia " which-is characteristic of it. Lardaceous disease, however, here and in other regions, now appears to be due to the specific toxins of pyogenetic micro-organisms. In stone of the kidney a great advance has been made in treatment by operative means, and the formation of these stones seems to recent observers to depend less upon constitutional bent (gout) than upon unhealthy local conditions of the passages, which in their turn again may be due to the action of micro- organisms. To Thomas Addison's descriptions of certain anaemias, and of the disease of the suprarenal capsules which bears his name, something has been added; and W. Hunter's researches on the severer anaemias are doing much to elucidate these subtle maladies. And on the influence of these inconspicuous bodies and of the pituitary body in sustaining arterial blood pressures physiologists have thrown some important light. The secret of the terrible puerperal septicaemia was read by J. P. Semmelweiss (g.v.), wherein he proved himself to be the greatest of Lister's forerunners (see Lister). The diseases peculiar to -women (see Gynaecology) have received attention from early times, but little progress had been made in their interpretation till the 19th century. In the middle part of the century, by a natural exaggeration of the importance of newly-discovered local changes in the pelvic organs, much harm was done to women by too narrow an atten- tion to the site, characters and treatment of these; the meddle- someness of the physician becoming in the temperament of woman a morbid obsession. To James Matthews Duncan (1826-1890) we chiefly owe a saner and broader comprehension of the relative importance of the local and the general conditions which enter into the causation of uterine and ovarian disorders. In operations for diseases of the pelvis, ovarian dropsy, cancer of the uterus, and other grave diseases of the region, success has been stupendous. In the subject of diseases of the skin much has been done, in the minuter observation of their forms, in the description of forms previously unrecognized, and in respect of bacterial and other causation and of treatment. The comparison of observa- tions in various climates and peoples has had some weight; while in the better knowledge of their causes their treatment has found permanent advantage. Not only is the influence of bacteria in the causation of many of them newly revealed, but it is now recognized also that, even in skin diseases not initiated by micro- bic action, microbes play a considerable and often a determining part in their perpetuation; and that the rules of modern aseptic surgery are applicable with no little success to skin therapeutics. We have learned that " constitutional " causes play a smaller part in them than was supposed, that a large number of diseases of the skin, even if initiated by general disorder, are or soon become local diseases, being, if not initiated by local infection yet perpetuated thereby, so that, generally speaking, they are to be cured by local means. The diseases of children have not lacked the renewed attention, the successful investigation, and the valuable new lights which have been given to other departments of medicine. That infan- tile paralysis is an infection, and that its unhappy sequels are now treated with more hope of restoration, has been indicated already. Infantile diarrhoea has also been recognized as a common infection (Ballard), and the means of its avoidance and cure ascertained. The conditions of diet and digestion in children are now far better understood, and many of their maladies, formerly regarded as organic or incomprehensible, are cured^or prevented by dietetic rules. Rickets, scurvy and " marasmus '' may be instanced as diet diseases in children. Acute inflamma- tion of the ear, with its alarming extensions to the cerebral cavity, is now dealt with successfully by surgical means, and infected sinuses or even encephalic abscesses are reached and cleansed. The origins, kinds and processes of meningitis are more clearly distinguished, and referred each to its proper cause — for the most part bacterial. As by the discovery of stethoscopy by Laennec a new field of medical science and art was opened up, so, more recently, inventions of other new methods of investigation in medicine 6 4 MEDINA, j. T.— MEDINA have opened to us other fields of little less interest and im- portance. Of such is the ophthalmoscope, invented by H. von Helmholtz in 1851. By the revelations of this agnos s. j nstrument not on jy have the diseases of the eye been illuminated, but much light has been thrown also upon the part of the eye in more general maladies; as, for instance, in syphilis, in diabetes, in kidney diseases, and in diseases of the brain— F. C. Donders (1818-1889), Alfred von Grafe (1830-1899) and others. A remarkable help to the cure of headaches and wider nervous disorders has come out of the better appreciation and correction of errors of refraction in the eye. Radiography has done great things for surgery; for medicine its services are already appreciable, and may prove more and more valuable hereafter. In 1879 the use of the spectroscope in medicine was pointed out by Dr Charles A. MacMunn (b. 1852). By E. du Bois-Reymond, Robert Remak (181 5-1865), Carlo Matteucci (1811-1868), Guillaume Duchenne (1806-1875), the value of electricity in medicine, greater in diagnosis perhaps' than in therapeutics, was demonstrated. By the sphygmograph (E. J. Marey, 1863) attention was drawn to the physical features of the circulation, to the signs of degeneration of the arterial tree, and less definitely to the fluctuations of blood pressure; but as we have said under the consideration of diseases of the heart, the kymographs of Ludwig and his pupils brought out these fluctuations far more accurately and completely. By these, and other instruments of precision, such as the thermometer, of which we have already spoken, the eminently scientific discipline of the measurement of functional movements, so difficult in the complex science of biology, has been cultivated. By the laryngoscope, invented about 1850 by Manuel Garcia the celebrated singing- master, and perfected by Johann Czermak (1828-1873) and others, the diseases of the larynx also have been brought into the general light which has been shed on all fields of disease; and many of them, previously known more or less empirically, submitted to precise definition and cure. Of such we may cite tuberculosis of the larynx, formerly as incurable as distressing; and " adenoids " — a disease revealed by intrascopic methods — which used grievously to thwart and stifle the growth both of mind and body in children, are now promptly removed, to the infinite advantage of the rising generation. To the value of stains in clinical diagnosis, especially in investigation of perver- sions of the blood in many maladies, we have already made some reference. The discovery of the Rontgen rays has also extended the physician's power of vision, as in cases of aortic aneurysm, and other thoracic diseases. By photography and diagrammatic records the clinical work of hospital wards has been brought into some better definition, and teaching made more accurate and more impressive. The separation of the alkaloids belongs rather to the earlier part of the 10th century, but the administration of these more accurate medications by means of hypodermic injection (see Thera- peutics) belongs to the latter. The ancient practice of trans- fusion has been placed on a more intelligible footing, and by the method of saline injections made more manageable as a means of relief or even of cure. Finally, calculation by statistics (William Farr, Karl Pearson, and others) has been brought into line with other scientific methods: the method is a difficult one, and one full of pitfalls for the unwary, yet when by co-operation of physician and mathematician its applications have been perfected its services will appear more and more indispensable. Among the achievements of the medicine of the 19th century the growth of the medical press must not be forgotten. In England, by the boldness of the Lancet (founded in 1823), the tyranny of prescription, inveterate custom, and privilege abused was defied and broken down; freedom of learning was regained, and promotion thrown open to the competent, independently of family, gild and professional status. For the record and diffusion of rapidly growing knowledge, learned societies, univer- sities and laboratories, greatly increased in number and activity, issue their transactions in various fields; and by means of year- books and central news-sheets the accumulation of knowledge is organized and made accessible. It is interesting to find that, with all this activity in the present reformed methods of research and verification are not confined to. the work of the passing day; in the brilliant achievements of modern research and reconstruction the maxim that " Truth is the daughter of Time " has not been forgotten. In the field of the History of Medicine the work of scholars such as Francis Adams of Banchory (1796-1861), William A. Greenhill (1814- 1894) and C. Creighton in England, Maximilien P. Littr6 (1801- 1881) and Charles V. Daremberg (1817-1872) in France, and Heinrich Haser (1811-1888) and August Hirsch, Diels, Welt- mann and Julius Pagel in Germany, will prove to our children that tradition was as safe in our hands as progress itself. (T. C. A.) Bibliography.— Osier and McCrae, Modem Medicine; F. T Roberts, The Practice of Medicine (1909); Hermann Nothnagel, Internationale Beitrdge zur inneren Medicin (1902); Ed. Brovardel, Traiti de midecine (1895-1902); T. D. Savill, Clinical Medicine (19O9); W. Osier, The Principles and Practice of Medicine (1909); Allbutt and Rolleston, A System of Medicine (1906-1910) ; Sir Patrick Manson, Tropical Medicine (1907) ; Frederick Taylor, A Manual of the Practice of Medicine (1908). MEDINA, JOSE TORIBIO (1852- ), Chilean bibliographer, was born at Santiago, and was educated for the bar. His first publication, when a very young man, was a metrical translation of Longfellow's Evangeline. When twenty-two he was appointed secretary to the legation at Lima. After his return he published a history of Chilean literature (1878), and a work upon the aboriginal tribes (1884). In this latter year he was appointed secretary of legation in Spain, and availed himself of the oppoiT tunity of examining the treasures of the old Spanish libraries. These researches, repeated on subsequent visits to Spain, and also to France and England, enriched him with a mass of historical and bibliographical material. Among his publications may be mentioned the Biblioteca hispano-americana, a catalogue of all books and pamphlets relating to Spanish America printed in Spain; the Biblioteca hispano-chilena, a similar work, com- menced in 1897; the standard and magnificent history of printing in the La Plata countries (1892); comprehensive works on the Inquisition in Chile, Peru and the Philippines; and the standard treatise on South American medals (1899). In addition, Sefior Medina produced the fullest bibliographies yet attainable of books printed at Lima, Mexico and Manila, and a number of memoirs and other minor writings. No other man had rendered anything like the same amount of service to the literary history and bibliography of the Spanish colonies. MEDINA, or rather Al-Medina (the city), or Medinat Rasul Allah (the city of the apostle of God), a town of the Hejaz in Arabia, about 820 m. by rail S.S.E. of Damascus, in 25 N., 40 E., 1 the refuge of Mahomet on his emigration from Mecca, and a renowned place of Moslem pilgrimage, consecrated by the possession of his tomb. The name Medina goes back to the Koran (sur. xxxiii. 60) ; the old name was Yathrib, the Lathrippa of Ptolemy and lathrippa of Stephanus Byzantius. Medina stands in a basin at the northern extremity of an elevated plain, on the western skirt of the mountain range which divides the Red Sea coast-lands from the central plateau of Arabia. At an hour's distance to the north it is dominated by Mount Ohod, an outlying spur of the great mountains, the scene of the well-known battle (see Mahomet), and the site of the tomb and mosque of the Prophet's uncle Hamza. To the east the plain is bounded by a long line of hills eight or ten hours distant, over which the Nejd road runs. A number of torrent courses (of which Wadi Kanat to the north, at the foot of Mount Ohod, and W. Akik, some miles to the south, are the most important) descend from the mountains, and converge in the neighbourhood of the town to unite farther west at a place called Zaghaba, whence they descend to the sea through the " mountains of the Tehama " — the rough country between Medina and its 1 This is a very rough estimate. The road from Yambu on the Red Sea, which runs somewhat north of east, is by Burton's estimate 132 m. From Medina to Mecca by the inland or high road he makes 248 m. The usual road near the coast by Rabigh and Khulesa and thence to W. Fatima cannot be very different in length. Caravans traverse it in about ten or eleven days. MEDINA 65 port of Yambu — under the name of W. Idam. Southwards from Medina the plain extends unbroken, but with a slight rise, as far as the eye can reach. The convergence of torrent-courses in the neighbourhood of Medina makes this one of the best- watered spots in northern Arabia. The city lies close to one of the great volcanic centres of the peninsula, which was in violent eruption as late as a.d. 1266, when the lava stream approached within an hour's distance of the walls, and dammed up W. Kanat. The result of this and older prehistoric eruptions has been to confine the underground water, so important in Arabian tillage, which can be reached at any pojnt of the oasis by sinking deep wells. Many of the wells are brackish, and the natural fertility of the volcanic soil is in many places impaired by the salt with which it is impregnated; but the date-palm grows well every- where, and the groves, interspersed with gardens and cornfields, which surround the city on all sides except the west, have been famous from the time of the Prophet. Thus situated, Medina was originally a city of agriculturists, not like Mecca a city of merchants; nor, apart from the indispensable trade in provisions, has it ever acquired commercial importance like that which Mecca owes to the pilgrimage. 1 Landowners and cultivators are still a chief element in the population of the city and suburbs. The latter, who are called Nakhawila, and more or less openly profess the Shi'aopinions, marry only among themselves. The townsmen proper, on the other hand, are a very motley race. 2 New settlers remain behind with each pilgrimage; attracted by the many offices of profit connected with the mosque, the stipends paid by the sultan to every inhabitant, and the gains to be derived by pilgrim-cicerones (Muzawwirs) or by those who make it a business to say prayers at the Prophet's mosque for persons who send a fee from a distance, as well as the alms which the citizens are accustomed to collect when they go abroad, especially in Turkey. The population of the city and suburbs may be from 16,000 to 20,000. The city proper is surrounded by a solid stone wall, 3 with towers and four massive gateways of good architecture, forming an irregular oval running to a kind of angle at the north-west, where stands the castle, held by a Turkish garrison. The houses are good stone buildings similar in style to those of Mecca; the streets are narrow but clean, and in part paved. 4 There is a copious supply of water conducted from a tepid source (ez- Zarka) at the village of Kuba, 2 m. south, and distributed in under- ground cisterns in each quarter. 5 The glory of Medina, and the only important building, is the mosque of the Prophet, in the eastern part of the city, a spacious enclosed court between 400 and 500 ft. in length from north to south, and two-thirds as much in breadth. The minarets and the lofty dome above the sacred graves are imposing features; but the circuit is hemmed in by houses or narrow lanes, and is not remarkable except for the principal gate (Bab al-Salam) at the southern end of the west front, facing the sacred graves, which is richly inlaid with marbles and fine tiles, and adorned with golden inscriptions. This gate leads into a deep portico, with ten rows of pillars, running along the southern wall. Near the farther end of the portico, but not 1 The pilgrimage to Medina, though highly meritorious, is not obligatory, and it is not tied to a single season: so that there is no general concourse at one time, and no fair like that of Mecca. 2 A small number of families in Medina still claim to represent the ancient Ansar, the "defenders" of Mahomet; there are also some Siddiqiyah, claiming descent from Abu Bekr. But in fact the old population emigrated en masse after the sack of Medina by Moslim in 683, and passed into Spain in the armies of Musa. In the 13th century one old man of the Khazraj and one old woman of the Aus tribe were all that remained of the old stock in Medina (Maqqari, i. 187; Dozy, Mus. d'Espagne, i. in). The aristocratic family of the Beni Hosain, who claim descent from the martyr of Kerbela, and so from the Prophet, have apparently a better estab- lished pedigree. * According to Ibn Khallikan (Slane's trans, iii. 927) the walls are of the 12th century, the work of Jamal ud-DIn al-Ispahani. 4 TheBalat or great paved street of Medina, a very unusual feature in an Eastern town, dates from the 1st century of Islam. (See Wiistenfeld's abstract of Samhudi, p. 115.) ' Kuba is famous as the place where the Prophet lived before he entered Medina, and the site of the first mosque in which he prayed. It lies amidst orchards in the richest part of the oasis. xvm. 3 adjoining the walls, is a sort of doorless house or chamber hung with rich curtains, which is supposed to contain the graves of Mahomet, Abu Bekr and Omar. To the north of this is a smaller chamber of the same kind, draped in black, which is said to represent the tomb of Fatima. Both are enclosed with an iron railing, so closely interwoven with brass wire- work that a glimpse of the so-called tombs can only be got through certain apertures, where intercessory prayer is addressed to the prophet, and pious salutations are paid to the other saints. 6 The portico in front of the railing is not ineffective, at least by nightlight. It is paved with marble, and in the eastern part with mosaic, laid with rich carpets; the southern wall is clothed with marble pierced with windows of good stained glass, and the great railing has a striking aspect; but an air of tawdriness is imparted by the vulgar painting of the columns, especially in the space between the tomb and the pulpit, which has received, in accordance with a tradition of the Prophet, the name of the Garden (rauda), and is decorated with barbaric attempts to carry out this idea in colour. 7 The throng of visitors passing along the south wall from the Bab al-Salam to salute the tombs is separated from the Garden by an iron railing. The other three sides of the interior court have porticoes of less depth and mean aspect, with three or four rows of pillars. Within the court are the well of the # Prophet, and some palm-trees said to have been planted by Fatima; this " grove " is separated from the rest of the court by a wooden partition. The original mosque was a low building of brick, roofed with palm-branches, and much smaller than the present structure. The wooden pulpit from which Mahomet preached appears to have stood on the same place with the present pulpit in the middle of the south portico. The dwelling of the Prophet and the huts of his women adjoined the mosque. Mahomet died in the hut of Ayesha and was buried where he, died; Abu Bekr and Omar were afterwards buried beside him. In A.D. 711 the mosque, which had previously been enlarged by Omar and Othman, was entirely reconstructed on a grander scale and in. Byzantine style by Greek and Coptic artificers at the command of the caliph Walid and under the direction of Omar Ibn Abd-al-Aziz. The enlarged plan included the huts above named, which were pulled down. Thus the place of the Prophet's burial was brought within the mosque; but the recorded discontent of the city at this step shows that the feeling which regards the tomb as the great glory of the mosque, and the pilgrimage to it as the most meri- torious that can be undertaken except that to Mecca, was still quite unknown. It is not even certain what was done at this time to mark off the graves. Ibn 'Abd Rabbih, in the beginning of the 10th century Clfcd, Cairo ed., iii. 366), describes the enclosure as a hexagonal wall, rising within three cubits of the ceiling of the portico, clothed in marble for more than a man's height, and above that height daubed with the unguent called khaluk. This may be supplemented from Istakhri, who calls it a lofty house without a door. That there are no gravestones or visible tombs within is certain from what is recorded of occasions when the place was opened up for repairs. Ibn Jubair (p. 193 seq.) and Samhudi speak of a small casket adorned with silver, fixed in the eastern wall, which was supposed to be opposite the head of the Prophet, while a silver nail . in the south wall indicated the point to which the corpse faced, and from which the salutation of worshippers was to be addressed (Burton misquotes). The European fable (mentioned and refuted, e.g. in Histoire des Arabes par l'abb6 de Marigny, t. i. p. 46, Paris,_i75o) of the coffin suspended by magnets is totally unknown to Moslem tradition. The smaller chamber of Fatima is comparatively modern. In the time of Ibn Jubair and of Ibn Batuta (unless 6 The space between the railing and the tomb is seldom entered except by the servants of the mosque. It contains the treasures of the mosque in jewels and plate, which were once very consider- able, but have been repeatedly plundered, last of all by the Wahhabls in the beginning of the 19th, century. 7 The word rauda also means a mausoleum, and is applied by Ibn Jubair to the tomb itself. Thus the tradition that the space between the pulpit and the tomb was called by the Prophet one of I the gardens of Paradise probably arose from a mistake. II 66 MEDINA— MEDINA SIDONIA, DUKE OF the latter, as is so often the case, is merely copying his prede- cessor) there was only a small marble trough north of the rauda (or grave) which " is said to be the house of Fatima or her grave, but God only knows." It is more probable that Fatima was buried in the Baki, where her tomb was also shown in the 1 2th century (Ibn Jubair, pp. 198 seq.). The mosque was again extended by the caliph Mahdi (a.d. 781) and was burned down in 1256. Of its appearance before the fire we have two authentic accounts by Ibn 'Abd Rabbih early in the 10th century, and by Ibn Jubair, who visited it in 1184. The old mosque had a much finer and more regular appearance than the present one; the interior walls were richly adorned with marble and mosaic arabesques of trees and the like, and the outer walls with stone marquetry; the pillars of the south portico (seventeen in each row) were in white plaster with gilt capitals, the other pillars were of marble. Ibn 'Abd Rabbih speaks of eighteen gates, of which in Ibn Jubair's time, as at present, all but four were walled up. There were then three minarets. After the fire which took place just at the time of the fall of the caliphate, the mosque long lay in a miserable condition. Its repair was chiefly due to the Egyptian sultans, especially to JCait Bey, whose restoration after a second fire in 1481 amounted almost to a complete reconstruction. Of the old building nothing seems to have remained but some of the columns and part of the walls. The minarets have also been rebuilt and two new ones added. The great dome above the tomb, the railing round it, and the pulpit, all date from K&it Bey's restoration. The suburbs, which occupy as much space as the city proper, and are partly walled in, lie south-west of the town, from which they are separated by an open space, the halting-place pi cara- vans. Through the suburbs runs the watercourse called Wadi Buthan, a tributary of W. Kanat, which the Yanbu' road crosses by a stone bridge. The suburbs are the quarter of the peasants. Thirty or forty families with their cattle occupy a single court- yard (hosh), and form a kind of community often at feud with its neighbours. The several clans of Medina must have lived in much the same way at the time of the Prophet. The famous cemetery called Baki" el-Gharkad, the resting-place of a multi- tude of the " companions " of the Prophet, lies immediately to the west of the city. It once contained many monuments, the chief of which are described by Ibn Jubair. Burckhardt in 1815 found it a mere waste, but some of the mosques have since been rebuilt. History.— The story of the Amalekites in Yathrib and of their conquest by the Hebrews in the time of Moses is purely fabulous (see Noldeke, Uber die Atnalekiler, 1864, p. 36). The oasis, when it first comes into the light of history, was held by Jews, among whom emigrants from Yemen afterwards settled. From the time of the emigration of Mahomet (a.d. 622) till the Omayyads removed the seat of empire from Medina to Damascus, the town springs into historic prominence as the capital of the new power that so rapidly changed the fate of the East. Its fall was not less rapid and complete, and since the battle of Harra and the sack of the city in 683 it has never regained political importance (see Caliphate, B. §§ 1, 2, &c). Mahomet invested the country round Medina with an inviolable character like that of the Haram round Mecca; but this provision has never been observed with strictness. After the fall of the caliphs, who maintained a governor in Medina, the native amirs enjoyed a fluctuating measure of independence, interrupted by the aggressions of the sherlfs of Mecca, or controlled by an intermittent Egyptian protectorate. The Turks after the conquest of Egypt held Medina for a time with a firmer hand; but their rule grew weak, and was almost nominal long before the Wahhabis took the city in 1804. A Turko-Egyptian force retook it in 181 2, and the Turks now maintain a pasha with a military establishment, while the cadi and chief agha of the mosque (a eunuch) are sent from Constantinople. In late years the influence of the Turkish government has been much strengthened, an important factor in its consideration being the construction of the railway from Syria to the Hejaz. Railway communication between Damascus and Medina was effected in 1908. Authorities. — Medina has been described from personal observa- tion by Burckhardt, who visited it in 1815, and Burton, who made the pilgrimage in 1853. Sadlier on his journey from Katif to Yambu (1819) was not allowed to enter the holy city. Burckhardt was prevented by ill-health from examining the city and country with his usual thoroughness. Little is added to our information by the report of 'Abd el-Razzaq, who performed the pilgrimage in 1 878, on a medical commission from the English government. The chief Arabic authority besides Ibn 'Abd Rabbih and Ibn Jubair is Samhudi, of whose history Wustenfeld published an abstract in the Gottingen Abhandlungen, vol. ix. (1861). It goes down to the end of the 15th century. The topography of the country about Medina is interesting both historically and geographically; Bakrl, Yaqut and other Arabic geographers, supply much material on this topic. Some good information concerning Medina is contained in the 2nd volume of Doughty's Travels in Arabia Deserta. (W. R. S.) MEDINA, a village of Orleans county, in north-west New York, U.S.A., about 40 m. N.E. of Buffalo, and on Oak Orchard Creek. Pop. (1900), 4716, (857 foreign-born); (1905, state census), 5114; (1910) 5683. It is served by the New York Central & Hudson River railroad, by the Buffalo, Lockport & Rochester (inter- urban) railway, and by the Erie Canal. On Oak Orchard Creek and near the city are electric power plants, at the Medina Falls and at a large storage dam (60 ft. high ) for water power, built in 1902. In the neighbourhood are extensive apple, peach and pear orchards; and vegetables, especially beans, are grown. There are valuable quarries of Medina sandstone, a good building-, paving- and flag-stone, varying in colour from light grey to brownish red, readily shaped and split, and less likely than limestone to crack or than granite to wear slippery; it was first found at Medina in 1837. There was a saw-mill on the creek near here in 1805, but the place was little settled before 1824, and its growth was due to the Erie Canal. It was incor- porated in 1832. MEDINA SIDONIA, DON ALONSO PEREZ DE GUZMAN EL BUENO, 7TH Duke of (1550-1615), the commander-in-chief of the Spanish Armada, was born on the 10th of September 1550. He was the son of Don Juan Claros de Guzman, eldest son of the 6th duke, and of his wife Dona Leonor Manrique de Zuniga y Sotomayor. His father died in 1555, and Don Alonso became duke, and master of one of the greatest fortunes in Europe, on the death of his grandfather in 1539. The family of Guzman was originally lords of Abiados, on the southern slope of the Picos de Europa in the hill country of Leon. The name is believed to be a contraction or corruption of Gundamaris, i.e. son of Gundamar. An early family tradition represents them as having come from Britain, and they may have descended from one of the Scandinavian invaders who attacked the north coast of Spain in the 10th century. It is in the 10th century that they first appear, and they grew great by the reconquest of the country from the Mahommedans. The branch to which the dukes of Medina Sidonia belonged was founded by Alonso Perez de Guzman (1256-1309), surnamed El Bueno, the good, in the sense of good at need, or stout-hearted. In 1296 he defended the town of Tarifa on behalf of Sancho IV., and when the be- siegers threatened to murder one of his sons whom they held as a prisoner if he did not surrender, he allowed the boy to be killed. He was rewarded by great grants of crown land. The duchy of Medina Sidonia, the oldest in Spain, was conferred by John II. in 1445 oh one of his descendants, Juan Alonzo de Guzman, count Of Niebla. The addition " El Bueno " to the family name of Guzman was used by several of the house, which included many statesmen, generals and colonial viceroys. 1 The 7_th duke was betrothed in 1565 to Ana de Silva y Mendoza, who waS then four years of age, the daughter of the prince of Eboli. In 1572 when the duchess was a little more than ten years of age, the pope granted a dispensation for the consummation of the marriage. The scandal of the time, for which there appears to be no foundation, accused Philip II. of a love intrigue with the princess of Eboli. The unvarying and unmerited favour he showed the duke has been accounted for on the ground that he 1 The titles and grandeeship passed, in accordance with Castilian law, by marriage of a daughter and heiress in 1777, to the marquess of Villafranca, and have since remained in that house. MEDINA SIDONIA— MEDITERRANEAN SEA 67 took a paterual interest in the duchess. Don Alonso, though he bore the name of El Bueno, was a man of mean spirit. He made no serious effort to save his mother-in-law from the persecution she suffered at the hands of Philip II. His correspondence is full of whining complaints of poverty, and appeals to the king for pecuniary favours. In 1581 he was created a knight of the Golden Fleece, and was named captain-general of Lombardy. By pressing supplications to the king he got himself exempted on the ground of poverty and poor health. Yet when the marquess of Santa Cruz (q.v.) died, on the 9th of February 1588, Philip insisted on appointing him to the command of the Armada. He was chosen even before Santa Cruz was actually dead, and was forced to go in spite of his piteous declarations that he had neither experience nor capacity, and was always sick at sea. His conduct of the Armada justified his plea. He was even accused of showing want of personal courage, and was completely broken by the sufferings of the campaign, which turned his hair grey. The duke retained his posts of " admiral of the ocean " and captain-general of Andalusia in spite of the contempt openly expressed for him by the whole nation. When an English and Dutch armament assailed Cadiz in 1596 his sloth and timidity were largely responsible for the loss of the place. He was held up to ridicule by Cervantes in a sonnet. Yet the royal favour continued unabated even under the successor of Philip II. In 1606 the obstinacy and folly of the duke caused the loss of a squadron which was destroyed near Gibraltar by the Dutch. He died in 161 5. See Cesario Duro, La Armada invincible (Madrid, 1884), which gives numerous references to authorities. MEDINA SIDONIA, or Medinasidonia, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Cadiz, 21 m. by road E.S.E. of Cadiz. Pop. (1900), 11,040. Medina Sidonia is built on an isolated hill surrounded by a cultivated plain. It contains a fine Gothic church, several convents, and the ancestral palace of the dukes of Medina Sidonia. It has a small agricultural trade, chiefly in wheat, olives and oats. Medina Sidonia has been identified by some with the Asido of Pliny, but this is uncertain. Under the Visigoths the place was erected into a bishopric (Assidonia), and attained some importance; in the beginning of the 8th century it was taken by Tariq. In the time of Idrisi (12th century) the province of Shaduna or Shidona included, among other towns, Seville and Carmona; later Arab geographers place Shadtina in the province of Seville. MEDIOLANUM, or Mediolanium (mod. Milan, q.v.), an ancient city of Italy, and the most important in Gallia Transpadana. Livy attributes its foundation to the Galli Insubres under Bellovesus after their defeat of the Etruscans, in the time of the older Tarquin. According to other authorities, the Etruscan city of Melpum which preceded it was destroyed in 396 B.C. Objects of the Bronze age have been found outside the city on the south. The name itself is Celtic. The Romans defeated the Insubres in 225-222 B.C., and stormed Mediolanum itself in the latter year. Its inhabitants rebelled some twenty years later in the Hannibalic War, but were defeated and finally reduced to obedience in 196 B.C. They probably acquired Latin rights in 89, and full civic rights in 49 B.C., as did those of the other towns of Gallia Transpadana. It appears later on (but not before the 2nd century a.d.) to have become a colony. It acquired a certain amount of literary eminence, for we hear of youths going from Comum to Mediolanum to study. In Strabo's time it was on an equality with Verona, but smaller than Patavium, but in the later times of the empire its importance increased. At the end of the 3rd century it became the seat of the governor of Aemilia and Liguria (which then included Gallia Transpadana also, thus consisting of the 9th and nth regions of Augustus), and at the end of the 4th, of the governor of Liguria only, Aemilia having one of its own thenceforth. From Diocletian's time onwards the praefectus praetorio and the imperial vicar of Italy also had their seat here: and it became one of the principal mints of the empire. The emperors of the West resided at Mediolanum during the 4th century, until Honorius preferred Ravenna, and in 402 transferred his court there. Its importance, described in the poems of Ausonius, is demonstrated by its many inscriptions, and the interest and variety of their contents, In these the rarity of the mention of its chief magistrates is surprising: and it is not impossible that owing to its very impor-. tance the right of appointing them had been taken from it (as Mommsen thinks). The case of Ravenna is not dissimilar. The inscriptions indicate a strong Celtic character in the popular tion. Procopius speaks of it as the first city of the West, after Rome, and says that when it was captured by the Goths in 539, 300,000 of the inhabitants were killed. It was an important centre of traffic, from which roads radiated in several directions — as railways do to-day — to Comum, to the foot of the Lacus Verbanus (Lago Maggiore) , to Novaria and Vercellae, to Ticinum, to Laus Pompeia and thence to Placeritia and Cremona, and to Bergomum. None of these roads had an individual name, so far as we know. To its secular power corresponds the indepen- dent position which its Church took in the time of St Ambrose (q.v.), bishop of Milan in 374-397, who founded the church which bears his name, and here baptized St Augustine in A.D. 387, and whose rite is still in use throughout the diocese. Theo- dosius indeed did penance here at Ambrose's bidding for his slaughter of the people of Thessalonica. After his death the period of invasions begins; and Milan felt the power of the Huns under Attila (452), of the Heruli under Odoacer (476) and of the .Goths under Theodoric (493). When Belisarius was sent by Justinian to recover Italy, Datius, the archbishop of Milan, joined him, and the Goths were expelled from the city. But Uraia, nephew of Vitigis the Gothic king, subsequently assaulted and retook the town, after a brave resistance. Uraia destroyed the whole of Milan in 539; and hence it is that this city, once so important a centre of Roman civilization, possesses so few remains of antiquity. Narses, in his campaigns against the Goths, had invited the Lombards to his aid. They came in a body under Alboin, their king, in 568, and were soon masters of north Italy. They entered Milan in the next year, but Pavia became the Lombard capital. Of Roman remains little is to be seen above ground, but a portico of sixteen Corinthian columns near S. Lorenzo, which may belong to the baths of Hercules, mentioned by Ausonius, or to the palace of Maximian. Close to the Torre del Carrobio remains of an ancient bridge and (possibly) of the walls of Maximian were found: and many remains of ancient buildings, including a theatre, have been dis- covered below ground-level. The objects found are preserved in the archaeological museum in the Castello Sforzesco. (See Milan.) See Th. Mommsen in Corp. inscript. Latin. (Berlin, 1883), v. 617 sqq. (with full bibliography) ; Notizie degli Scavi, passim. (T.As.) MEDITERRANEAN SEA. The Mediterranean is all that remains of a great ocean which at an early geological epoch, before the formation of the Atlantic, encircled half the globe along a line of latitude. This ocean, already diminished in area, retreated after Oligocene times from the Iranian plateau, Turkestan, Asia Minor and the region of the north-west Alps. Next the plains of eastern Europe were lost, then the Aralo- Caspian region, southern Russia and finally the valley of the Danube. The " Mediterranean region," as a geographical unit, includes all this area; the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmora are within its submerged portion, and the climate of the, whole is controlled by the oceanic influences of the Mediterranean Sea. Professor Suess, to whom the above description is due, finds that the Mediterranean forms no exception to the rule in affording no evidence of elevation or depression within historic times; but it is noteworthy that its present basin is remarkable in Europe for its volcanic and seismic activity. Submarine earthquakes are in some parts sufficiently frequent and violent as seriously to interfere with the working of telegraph cables. Suess divides the Mediterranean basin into four physical regions, which afford probably the best means of description : (1) The western Mediterranean, from Gibraltar to Malta and Sicily, 68 MEDITERRANEAN SEA enclosed by the Apennines, the mountains of northern Africa, and of southern and south-eastern Spain (Cordillere bitique). (2) The Adriatic, occupying the space between the Apennines and the Dinaric group (Suess compares the Adriatic to the valley of the Brahmaputra). (3) A part surrounded by the fragments of the Dinaro-Taurus arch, especially by Crete and Cyprus. This includes the Aegean and the Black Sea, and its margin skirts the south coast of Asia Minor. These three parts belong strictly to Eurasia. (4) Part of the coastal region of Indo- Africa, terraced downwards in successive horizontal planes from the Shot, reaching the sea in the Little Syrte, and con- tinuing to the southern depressions of Syria. Malta and Gozo are the only islands of the Mediterranean which can be associated with this section, and, per contra, the mountain chain of north-west Africa belongs to Eurasia. Murray (1888) estimates the total area of the Mediterranean at 813,000 sq. m. Karstens (1894) breaks it up into parts as follows: — Western Mediterranean . . 841,593 sq. km. Sicilian-Ionian basin . . . 767,658 „ Greece and Levant basin . . 769,652 „ Adriatic Sea .... 130,656 „ Total 2,509.559 A more recent calculation by Krummel gives the total area as 2,967,570 sq. km. or 1,145,830 sq. m. (See Ocean.) Murray estimates the total surface of the Mediterranean drainage area, with which must be included the Black Sea, at 2,934,500 sq. m., of which 1,420,800 are Eurasian and 1,513,800 are African. The principal rivers entering the Mediterranean directly are the Nile from Africa, and the Po, Rhone and Ebro from Europe. The physical divisions of the Mediterranean given above hold gOod in describing the form of the sea-bed. The western Mediterranean is cut off by a bank crossing the narrow strait between Sicily and Cape Bon, usually known as the Adventure Bank, on which the depth is nowhere 200 fathoms. The mean depth of the western basin is estimated at 881 fathoms, and the deepest sounding recorded is 2040 fathoms. In the eastern Mediterranean the mean depth is nearly the same as in the western basin. The Sicilian-Ionian basin has a mean depth of 885 fathoms, and the Levant basin, 793 fathoms. Deep water is found close up to the coast of Sicily, Greece, Crete and the edge of the African plateau. The steepest slope observed occurs off the island of Sapienza, near Navarino, where 1720 fathoms has been obtained only 10 miles from land. In 1897 the ship " Washington " obtained depths of 2220 fathoms in the middle of the eastern Mediterranean; and the Austrian expeditions in the " Pola " discovered in the " Pola Deep " (35 44' N., 21 45' E.), south-west of Cape Matapan, a maximum depth of 2046 fathoms. Between these two deep areas a ridge runs in a north-westerly direction 550 fathoms from the surface — possibly a projection from the African plateau. Another bank 1100 fathoms from the surface runs south from the east end of Crete, separating the Pola Deep from the depths of the Levant basin, in which a depth of i960 fathoms was recorded near Makri on the coast of Asia Minor. The later expedition of the " Pola " discovered the " Rhodes Deep " (36 5' N., 28 36' E.), with a maximum depth of 2 no fathoms: this deep is closed to the south-east by a ridge running south-east, over which the depth is 1050 fathoms. Off the coast of Syria the " Pola " obtained four soundings of more than 1 100 fathoms, and between Cyprus and the coast of Asia Minor only two over 550 fathoms. Murray gives the following figures for the areas and volumes of the Mediterranean at different depths: — Depth. Area. Volume. Fathoms. Sq. Miles. Cub. Miles. o- 100 . . 201,300 80,950 100- 500 . . 251,650 220,850 500-1000 . 81,300 189,200 1000-2000 . . 263,250 217,050 Over 2000 . . 15.500 1,750 which gives a mean depth over all of 768 fathoms. The following table is due to Karstens :- — Western Mediterranean Sicilian- Ionian basin Levant Adriatic Sea . Volume. Mean Depth Cub. Km. Fathoms. 1.356,512 881 1,242,549 885 1,116,599 793 31,844 133 813,000 709,800 Krummel gives the total volume of the basin as 4,249,020 cubic kilometres or 1,019,400 cubic statute miles, and the mean depth as 782 fathoms. (See Ocean.) Meteorology. — As already stated, the " Mediterranean region " forms a distinct climatic unit, chiefly due to the form and position of the Mediterranean Sea. The prevailing winds in this region, which the sea traverses longitudinally, are westerly, but the sea itself causes the formation of bands of low barometric pressure during the winter season, within which cyclonic disturbances frequently develop, while in summer the region comes under the influence of the polar margin of the tropical high pressure belt. Hence the Mediterranean region is characteristically one of winter rains, the distinctive feature becoming less sharply defined from south to north, and the amount of total annual fall increasing in the same direction. The climate becomes more continental in type from west to east, but there are great local irregularities — the ele- vated plateaus of Algeria and Spain cause a rise of pressure in winter and delay the rainy seasons: the rains set in earlier in the west than in the east, and the total fall is greater. Temperature varies greatly, the annual mean varying from 56° F. to 77 F. In the west the Atlantic influence limits the mean annual range to about io" — 12 F., but in the east this increases to 36 and even 40 . Autumn is warmer than spring, especially in the coastal regions, and this is exaggerated in the eastern region by local land winds, which replace the cool sea-breezes of summer: overcoats are ordi- narily worn in Spain and Italy till July, and are then put aside till October. Local winds form an important feature in nearly all the coast climates of the Mediterranean, especially in winter, where they are primarily caused by the rapid change of temperature from the sea to the snow-clad hinterlands. Cold dry winds, often of great violence, occur in the Rhone valley (the Mistral), in Istria, and Dalmatia (the Bora), and in the western Caucasus. In summer a north-west "trade" wind, the Maestro, occurs in the Adriatic. The Sirocco is a cyclonic wind characteristic of the winter rainy season; in the Adriatic it is usually accompanied by cloud and moisture, often by rain. In Sicily and southern Italy the Sirocco occurs at all seasons; it is a dry, dusty wind from south-east or south-west. The dust is chiefly of local origin, but partly comes from the Sahara. Similar winds are met with in Spain (the Leveche), but they reach their greatest development in the Simooms of Algeria and Syria, and the Khamsin of Egypt. Temperature. — The mean surface temperature of the waters of the Mediterranean falls from south-east, where it is over 70° F., to north-west, the average at the coast of the Gulf of Lyons being. 60°. The isothermal of 65 ° runs from Gibraltar to the north of Sardinia, and thence by the Strait of Messina to the Gulf of Corinth. A similar distribution is found 100 fathoms from the surface, tempera- ture falling from 60° in the Levant to 55" east of Gibraltar. At 200 fathoms temperature falls in the same way from 58° to 55 , but below 250 fathoms temperatures are practically uniform to the bottom, 55-5° in the western basin and 56-5° in the eastern. The bottom temperature observed in the Pola Deep was 56-3°. Salinity. — In the extreme west the salinity of the surface water is about 36-3 per mille, and it increases eastwards to 37-6 east of Sardinia and 39-0 and upwards in the Levant. Observations of salinity in the depths of the western Mediterranean are very deficient, but the average is probably between 38-0 and 38-5. In the eastern basin the " Pola " expedition observed salinities of 38-7 to 39-0 to the east of a line joining Cape Matapan with Alexandria, and 38-2 to 38-7 to the west of it. The salter waters apparently tend to make their way westwards close to the African coast, and at the bottom the highest salinities have been observed south of Crete. Evnitzki states that the saltest water of the whole basin occurs in the Aegean Sea. Circulation. — There is little definite circulation of water withj{i the Mediterranean itself. In the straits joining it with the Atlantic- and the Black Sea the fresher surface waters of these seas flow inwards to assist in making good the loss by evaporation at the surface of the Mediterranean, and in both cases dense water makes its way outwards along the bottom of the channels, the outflowing currents being less in volume and delivery than the inflowing. Elsewhere local surface currents are developed, either drifts due to the direct action of the winds, or streams produced by wind action heaping water up against the land ; but these nowhere rise to the dignitv of a distinct current system, although they are often sufficient to obliterate the feeble tidal action characteristic of the Mediterranean. Dr Natterer, the chemist of the " Pola " expeditions, has expressed the opinion that the poverty of the pelagic fauna is solely due to the want of circulation in the depths. MEDIUM— MEDLAR 6 9 Deposits. — A great part of the bottom of the Mediterranean is covered with blue muds, frequently with a yellow upper layer containing a considerable proportion of carbonate of lime, chiefly shells of pelagic Foraminifera. In many parts, particularly in the eastern basin, a calcareous or siliceous crust, from half an inch to three inches in thickness, is met with; and Natterer suggested that the formation of this crust may be due to the production of carbonate of ammonium where deposits containing organic matter are undergoing oxidation, and the consequent precipitation of carbonate of lime and other substances from the waters nearer the surface. This view, however, has not met with general acceptance. , (H. N. D.) MEDIUM, primarily a person through whom, as an inter- mediate, communication is deemed to be carried on between living men and spirits of the departed, according to the spiritistic hypothesis; such a person is better termed sensitive or auto- matist. The phenomena of mediumship fall into two classes, (i) " physical phenomena " (q.v.) and (2) trance and automatic phenomena (fitterances, script, &c); both these may be mani- fested by the same person, as in the case of D. D. Home and Stainton Moses, but are often independent. I. No sufficient mass of observations is to hand to enable us to distinguish between the results of trickery or hallucination on the one hand, and genuine supernormal phenomena on the other; but the evidence for raps and lights is good; competent observers have witnessed supposed materializations and there is respectable evidence for movements of objects. Mediumship in the modern sense of the term may be said to have originated with the Rochester rappings of 1848 (see Spiritualism); but similar phenomena had been reported by such authors as Apollonius of Tyana; they figure frequently in the lives of the saints; and the magician in the lower stages of culture is in many respects a counterpart of the white medium. Among physical mediums who have attained celebrity may be mentioned D. D. Home (q.v.), Stainton Moses and Eusapia Palladino; the last has admittedly been fraudulent at times, but no deceit was ever proved of Home; Stainton Moses sat in a private circle and no suspicion of his good faith was ever aroused. W. Stainton Moses (1839-1892) was a man of university educa- tion, a clergyman and a schoolmaster. In 1872 he became interested in spiritualism and soon began to manifest medium- istic phenomena,which continued for some ten years. These included, besides trance communications, raps, telekinesis, levitation, production of lights, perfumes and musical sounds, apports and materialized hands. But the conditions under which the experiments were tried were not sufficiently rigid to exclude the possibility of normal causes being at work; for no amount of evidence that the normal life is marked by no lapse from rectitude affords a presumption that uprightness will characterize states of secondary personality. Eusapia Palladino has been observed by Sir O. Lodge, Pro- fessor Richet, F. W. H. Myers, and other eminent investigators; the first named reported that none of the phenomena in his presence went beyond what could be accomplished in a normal manner by a free and uncontrolled person; but he was convinced that movements were produced without apparent contact. Among other phenomena asserted to characterize the medium- ship of Eusapia are the production of temporary prolongations from the medium's body; these have been seen in a good light by competent witnesses. It was shown in some sittings held at Cambridge in 1895 that Eusapia produced phenomena by fraudulent means: but though the evidence of this is conclusive it has not been shown that her mediumship is entirely fraudulent. Automatic records of seances can alone solve the problems raised by physical mediumship. It has been shown in the Davey- Hodgson experiments that continuous observation, even for a short period, is impossible, and that in the process of recording the observations many omissions and errors are inevitable. Even were it otherwise, no care could provide against the possibility of hallucination. II. The genuineness of trance mediumship can no longer be called in question. The problem for solution is the source of the information. The best observed case is that of Mrs Piper of Boston; at the outset of her career, in 1884, she did not differ from the ordinary American trance medium. In 1885 the attention of Professor William James of Harvard was attracted to her; and for twenty years she remained under the supervision of the Society for Psychical Research. During that period three phases may be distinguished: (1) 1884-189^ trance utterances of a " control " calling himself Dr Phinuit, a French physician, of whose existence in the body no trace can be found; (2) 1892-1896, automatic writing by a " control " known as " George Pelham," the pseudonym of a young Ameripan author; (3) 1896 onwards, supervision by " controls " purporting to be identical with those associated with Stainton Moses. There is no evidence for regarding Mrs Piper as anything but absolutely honest. Much of the Piper material remains unpublished, partly on account of its intimate character. Many of those to whom the communications were made have been convinced that the " controls " are none other than discarnate spirits. Probably no absolute proof of identity can be given, though the reading of sealed letters would come near it; these have been left by more than one prominent psychical researcher, but so far the " controls " who claim to be the writers of them have failed to give their contents, even approximately. Professor Flournoy has investigated a medium of very differ- ent type, known as Helene Smith; against her good faith nothing can be urged, but her phenomena — trance utterance and glosso- lalia — have undoubtedly been produced by her own mind. These represent her to be the reincarnation of a Hindu princess, and of Marie Antoinette among others, but no evidence of identity has been produced. The most striking phenomenon of her trance was the so-called Martian language, eventually shown by analysis to be a derivative of French, comparable to the languages invented by children in the nursery, but more elaborate. Authorities.— F. W. H. Myers, Human Personality; F. Podmore, Modern Spiritualism; the Proceedings and Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, passim; for a convenient survey of the Piper case, see F. Sage, Madame Piper; J. Maxwell, Les Phi- nomenes psychiques (1903 ; Eng. trans. 1905) ; Th. Flournoy, Des Indes it la planete Mars. For fraudulent methods, see Confessions of a Medium (London, 1882) ; Truesdell, Bottom Facts of Spiritualism, and works cited by Myers, II., 502-503. (N. W. T.) MEDJIDIE, or Mejidie, the name of a military and knightly order of the Turkish Empire, and also of a silver Turkish coin, worth twenty piastres. The coin was first struck in 1844, and the order was instituted in 1852 by the sultan Abd-ul-Mejid, whose name was therefore given to them. (See Knighthood and Chivalry: § Orders of Knighthood.) MEDLAR, Mespilus germanica, a tree of the tribe Pomeae of the order Rosaceae, closely allied to the genus Pyrus, in which it is sometimes included; it is a native of European woods, &c, from Holland southwards, and of western Asia. It occurs in hedges, &c, in middle and south England, as a small, much- branched, deciduous, spinous tree, but is not indigenous. The medlar was well known to the ancients. Pickering (Chron. Hist. PI. p. 201) identifies it with a tree mentioned in a Siao-ya ode {She-King, ii. 1, 2), 827 B.C. It is the juecrjriXrj of Theophrastus and Mespilus of Pliny. The Latin mespilus or mespilum became in Old French mesle or medle, " the fruit," meslier, medlier, " the tree." The modern French nefie is from a corruption nespilum of the Latin. The German Mispel preserves the original more closely. The well-known fruit is globular, but depressed above, with leafy persistent sepals, and contains stones of a hemispherical shape. It is not fit to eat until it begins to decay and becomes- " bletted," when it has an agreeable acid and somewhat astrin- gent flavour. Several varieties are known in cultivation. The large Dutch medlar, which is very widely cultivated, has a naturally crooked growth; the large, much-flattened fruit is inferior in quality to the Nottingham, which is a tree of upright habit with fruits of about 1 in. diameter, superior to any other variety. There is also a stoneless variety with still smaller fruits, but the quality is not so good. The medlar is propagated by budding or grafting upon the white-thorn, which is most suitable if the soil is dry and sandy, or on the quince if the soil is moist; the pear stock also succeeds 70 MEDOC— MEDUSA well on ordinary soils. It produces the best fruit in rich, loamy, somewhat moist ground. The tree may be grown as a standard, and chiefly requires pruning to prevent the branches from rub- bing each other. The fruit should be gathered in November, on a dry day, and laid out upon shelves. It becomes " bletted " and fit for use in two or three weeks. The Japanese medlar is Eriobotrya japonica (see Loquat), a genus of the same tribe of Rosaceae. MEDOC, a district in France adjoining the left bank of the Gironde from Blanquefort (N. of Bordeaux) to the mouth of the Gironde. Its length is about 50 m., its breadth averages between 6 and 7 m. It is formed by a number of low hills, which separate the Landes from the Gironde, and is traversed Only by small streams; the Gironde itself is muddy, and often enveloped in fog, and the region as a whole is far from picturesque. Large areas of its soil are occupied by vineyards, the products of which form the finest growths of Bordeaux. (See Wine.) MEDUSA, the name given by zoologists to the familiar marine animals known popularly as jelly-fishes; or, t^ be more accurate, to those jelly-fishes 1 in which the form of tje body resembles that of an umbrella, bell or parachute. The name medusa is suggested by the tentacles, usually long and often numerous, implanted on the edge of the umbrella and bear the stinging organs of which sea-bathers are often disagreeably aware. The tentacles serve for the capture of prey and are very contractile, being often protruded to a great length or, on the other hand, retracted and forming corkscrew-like curls. Hence the animals have suggested to vivid imaginations the head of the fabled Gorgon or Medusa with her chevelure of writhing snakes. The medusa occurs as one type of individual in the class Hydrozoa (q.v.), the other type being the polyp (q.v.). In a typical medusa we can distinguish the following parts. The umbrella-like body bears a circle of tentacles at the edge, whereby the body can be divided into a convex exumbrella or exumbral surface and a concave subumbrella or subumbral surface. The vast majority of jelly-fish float in the sea, with the exumbrella upwards, the subumbrella downwards. A few species, however, attach themselves temporarily or permanently to some firm object by the exumbral surface of the body, and then the sub- umbral surface is directed upwards. From the centre of the subumbral surface hangs down the manubrium, like the handle of an umbrella or the clapper of a bell, bearing the mouth at its extremity. In addition to the tentacles, the margin of the umbrella bears sense-organs, which may be of several kinds and may attain a high degree of complexity. Medusae capture their prey, consisting of small organisms of various kinds, especially Crustacea, by means of the tentacles which hang out like fishing-lines in all directions. When the prey comes into contact with the tentacles it is paralysed, and at the same time held firmly, by the barbed threads shot out from the stinging organs or nematocysts. Then by contraction of the tentacles the prey is drawn into the mouth. Medusae thus form an important constituent of the plankton or floating fauna of the ocean, and compete with fish and other animals for the food-supply furnished by minuter forms of life. A medusa has a layer of muscles, more or less strongly developed, running in a circular direction on the surface of the subumbrella, the contractions of which are antagonized by the elasticity of the gelatinous substance of the body. By the con- traction of the subumbral circular muscles the concavity of the subumbrella is increased, and as water is thereby forced out'of the subumbral cavity the animal is jerked upwards. In this way jelly-fish progress feebly by the pumping movements of the umbrella. Besides the circular subumbral muscles, there may be others running in a radial direction, chiefly developed as the longitudinal retractor muscles of the manubrium. In some cases the circular subumbral muscles form a rim known as the velum (v., see fig. 1), projecting into the subumbral cavity just within the ring of marginal tentacles. The two principal 1 The gooseberry-like or band-shaped jelly-fishes belong to the class Ctenophora (q.v.). divisions of the medusae are characterized by the presence 01 absence of a velum. Correlated with the well-developed muscular system and sense-organs of the medusa, we find also a distinct nervous system, either, when there is no velum, in the form of concentra- tions of nervous matter in the vicinity of each sense-organ, or, when a velum is present, as two continuous rings running round the margin of the umbrella, one external to the velum (exumbral nerve-ring, n.r 1 , see fig. 1), the other internal to it (subumbral nerve-ring, n.r 2 .). The exumbral nerve-ring is the larger and supplies the tentacles; the subumbral ring supplies the velum. Every possible variety of body-form compatible with the fore- going description may be exhibited by different species of medusae. The body may show modifications of form which can be compared to a shallow saucer, a cup, a bell or a thimble. The marginal tentacles may be very numerous or may be few in number or even absent altogether; and they may be simple filaments, or branched in a complicated manner. The manubrium maytlfce excessively long or very short, and in rare cases absent, the mouth then being flush with the subumbral surface. The mouth may be circular or four-cornered, and in the latter case the manubrium at the angles of the mouth may become drawn out into four lappets, the oral arms, each with a groove on its inner side continuous with the corner Fig. 1. Diagram of the structure of a medusa ; the ectoderm is left clear, the endoderm is dotted, the .mesogloea is shaded black; a-b, principal axis (see Hydrozoa) ; to the left of this line the section is supposed to pass through an inter-radius (I.R.); to the right through a radius (R). The exumbral surface is uppermost, the subumbral surface, with the manubrium and mouth, is facing downwards. St. Stomach. r.c. Radial canal. c.c. Circular or ring-canal. e.l. Endoderm-lamella. v. Velum. G. Gonads. n.r. 1 Exumbral (so-called upper) nerve-ring. n.r? Subumbral (so-called lower) nerve-ring. (For other figures of medusae see Hydrozoa.) of the mouth. The oral arms are the starting-point of a further series of variations; they may be simple flaps, crinkled and folded in various ways, or they may be subdivided, and then the branches may simulate tentacles in appearance. In the genus Rhizostoma, common on the British coasts and conspicuous on account of its large size, the oral arms, originally distinct and four in number, undergo concrescence, so that the entrance to the mouth is reduced to numerous fine pores and canals. 2 Like the external structure, the internal anatomy of the medusa shows a complete radial symmetry, and is simple in plan but often complicated in detail (see fig. i). As in all Hydrozoa (q.v.) the body wall is composed of two cell-layers, the ectoderm and endoderm. between which is a structureless gelatinous secreted layer, the mesogloea. As the name jelly-fish implies, the mesogloea is greatly developed and abundant in quantity. It may be traversed by processes of the cells of the ectoderm and endoderm, or it may contain cells which have migrated into it from these two layers. The ectoderm covers the whole external surface of the animal, while the endoderm lines the coelenteron or gastrovascular space; the two layers meet each other, and become continuous, at the edge of the mouth. The mouth leads at once into the true digestive cavity, divisible into an oesophageal region in the manubrium and a more dilated cavity, the stomach (st.), occupying the centre of the umbrella. From the stomach, canals arise termed the radial canals (r.c.) ; typically four in number, they run in a radial direction to the edge 2 For other variations of the medusa, often of importance for systematic classification, see Hydromedusae and Scyphomedusae. MEDWAY— MEEK 7i of the umbrella. There the radial canals are joined by a ring- canal {c.c.) which runs round the margin of the umbrella. From the ring-canal are given off tentacle-canals which run down the axis of each tentacle; in many cases, however, the cavity of the tentacle is obliterated and instead of a canal the tentacle contains a solid core of endoderm. Oesophagus, stomach, radial canals, ring-canal and tentacle-canals, constitute together the gastro- vascular system and are lined throughout by endoderm, which forms also a flat sheet of cells connecting the radial canals and ring canal together like a web ; this is the so-called endoderm-lamella (e.l.), a most important 'feature of medusan morphology, the nature of which will be apparent when the development is described. As a general rule the mouth is the only aperture of the gastrovascular system; in a few cases, however, excretory pores are found on the nng-canal, but there is never any anal opening. The sense-organs of medusae are of two classes: (i) pigment spots, sensitive to light, termed ocelli, which may become elaborated into eye-like structures with lens, retina and vitreous body; (2) organs of the sense of balance or orientation, commonly termed otocysts or statocysts. The sense-organs are always situated at the margin of the unbrella and may be distinguished from the morpho- logical point of view into two categories, according as they are, or are not, derived from. modifications of tentacles; in the former case they are termed ientaculocysts. (For fuller information upon the sense-organs see Hydromedusae.) Medusae are nearly always of separate sexes, and instances of hermaphroditism are rare. The gonads or generative organs may be produced either in the ectoderm or the endoderm. When the gonads are endodermal, they are formed on the floor of the stomach ; when ectodermal (G, see fig. i), they are formed on the subumbral surface, either on the manubrium or under the stomach or under the radial canals, or in more than one of these regions. Medusae often have the power of budding, and the buds are formed either on the manubrium, or at the margin of the umbrella, or on an out- growth or " stolon " produced from the exumbral surface. The internal anatomy of the medusa is as variable as its external features. The mouth may lead directly into the stomach, without any oesophagus. The stomach may be situated in the disk, or may be drawn out into the base of the manubrium, so that the disk is occupied only by the radial canals. On the other hand the stomach may have lobes extending to the ring-canal, so that radial canals may be very short or absent. The radial canals may be four, rarely six, or a multiple of these numbers, and may be very numerous. They may be simple or branched. (For other ana- tomical variations see Hydromedusae and Scyphomedusae.) In development the medusa can be derived easily by a process of differential growth, combined with concrescence of cell-layers, from the actinula-larva. (For figures see Hydrozoa.) The actinula is polyp-like, with a sack-like or rounded body; a crown of tentacles surrounds a wide peristome, in the centre of which is the mouth, usually raised on a conical process termed the hypostome. To produce a medusa the actinula grows greatly along a plane at right angles to the vertical axis of the body, whereby the aboral surface of the actinula becomes the exumbrella, and the peristome becomes the subumbrella. The crown of tentacles thus comes to form a fringe to the margin of the body, and the hypostome becomes the manubrium. As a result of this change of form the gastric cavity or coelenteron becomes of compressed lenticular form, and the endoderm lining it can be distinguished as an upper or exumbral layer and a lower or subumbral layer. The next event is a great growth in thickness of the gelatinous mesogloea, especially on the exumbral side; as a result the flattened coelenteron is still further compressed so that in certain spots its cavity is obliterated, and its exumbral and subumbral layers of endoderm come into contact and undergo concrescence. As a rule four such areas of concrescence or cathammaia (E. Haeckel) are formed. The cathammal areas may remain very small, mere wedge-shaped partitions dividing up the coelenteron into a four-lobed stomach, the lobes of which communicate at the periphery of the body by a spacious ring-canal. More usually each cathamma is a wide triangular area, reducing the peripheral portion of the coelenteron to the four narrow radial canals and the ring-canal above described. The two apposed layers of endoderm in the cathammal area undergo complete fusion to form a single layer of epithelium, the endoderm-lamella of the adult medusa. Medusae, when they reproduce themselves by budding, always produce medusae, but when they reproduce by the sexual method the embryos produced from the egg' grow into medusae in some cases, in other cases into polyps which bud medusae in their turn. In this way complicated cycles of alternating generations arise, which are described fully in Hydromedusae and Scyphomedusae. Medusae are exclusively aquatic animals and for the most part marine, but at least two fresh-water species are known. 1 Limno- codium sowerbyi was first discovered swimming in the tank in which the water-lily, Victoria regia, is cultivated in Kew Gardens, and 1 C. L. Boulenger (Proc. Zool. Soc. of London, 1907, p. 516) recorded the discovery of a third species by himself and W. A. Cunnington, in the brackish water of lake Birket el Kerun in the Egyptian Fayum. has since been found sporadically in a similar situation in other botanical gardens, its most recent appearance being at Lille. These jelly-fishes are probably budded from a minute polyp-stock introduced with the roots of the lily. Another fresh-water form is Limnocnida tanganyicae, discovered first in lake Tanganyika, and now known to occur also in the Victoria Nyanza and in the Niger. A medusa with a remarkable habit of life is Mnestra parasites, which is parasitic on the pelagic mollusc Phyllirrhoe, attaching itself to the host by its subumbral surface ; its tentacles, no longer required for obtaining food, have become rudimentary. A parasitic mode of life is also seen in medusae of the genus Cunina during the larval condition, but the habit is abandoned, in this case, when the medusae become adult. For figures of medusae see (1) E. Haeckel, " Das System der Medusen," Denkschriften med-natwiss. Ges. Jena (1879, 2 vols.); (2) Id., " Deep-Sea Medusae," Challenger Reports, Zoology, IV. pt. ii. (1882); (3) 0. Maas, " Die craspedoten Medusen," Ergebn. Plankton-Expedition, II. (1893); (4) id., "Die Medusen," Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, XXIII. (1897); (§) G. J. Allman, "A Monograph of the Gymnoblastic or Tubulanan Hydroids," Ray. Soc. (1871-1872). (E. A. M.) MEDWAY, a river in the south-east of England. It rises in the Forest Ridges, S.W. of East Grinstead in Sussex, and, increased by many feeders from these picturesque hills, has an easterly course to the county boundary, which it forms, turning northward for a short distance. Entering Kent near Ashurst, its course becomes north-easterly, and this direction is generally maintained to the mouth. The river passes Tonbridge, receiving the Eden from the west, and later the Teise and Beult from the south and east, all these streams watering the rich Weald (q.v.) to the south of the North Downs. These hilts are breached by the Medway in a beautiful valley, in which lies Maidstone, generally much narrower than the upper valley. The charac- teristic structure of this part of the valley is considered under the heading Downs. Below Maidstone the valley forms a perfect basin, the hills descending upon it closely above Rochester. Below this city the river enters a broad, winding estuary, passing Chatham, and at Sheerness joining that of the Thames, so that the Medway may be considered a tributary, and its drainage area of 680 sq. m. reckoned as part of that of the greater river. The length of the Medway is about 60 m., excluding its many lesser windings. The estuary is navigable for sea-going vessels drawing 24 ft. up to Rochester Bridge. A considerable traffic is carried on by small vessels up to Maidstone, and by barges up to Tonbridge, the total length of the navigation being 43 m. The marshy lowlands along the course of the river have yielded exten- sive remains of Roman pottery, a plain ware of dark slate-colour. MEEANEE, or Miani, a village in Sind, India, on the Indus 6 m. N. of Hyderabad. Pop. (1901), 962. It is famous as the scene of the battle in which Sir Charles Napier, with only 2800 men, broke the power of the mirs of Sind on the 17th of February 1843. The result of this victory was the conquest and annexation of Sind. MEEK, FIELDING BRADFORD (1817-1876), American geologist and palaeontologist, the son of a lawyer, was born at Madison, Indiana, on the 10th of December 181 7. In early life he was in business as a merchant, but his leisure hours were devoted to collecting fossils and studying the rocks of the neigh- bourhood of Madison. Being unsuccessful in business he turned his whole attention to science, and in 1848 he gained employ- ment on the U.S. Geological Survey in Iowa, and subsequently in Wisconsin and Minnesota. In 1852 he became assistant to Pro- fessor James Hall at Albany, and worked at palaeontology with him until 1858. Meanwhile in 1853 he accompanied Dr F. V. Hayden in an exploration of the " Bad Lands " of Dakota>^.nd brought back valuable collections of fossils. In 1858 he went to Washington, where he devoted his time to the palaeontological work of the United States geological and geographical surveys, his work bearing " the stamp of the most faithful and con- scientious research," and raising him to the highest rank asa palaeontologist. Besides many separate contributions to science, he prepared with W. M. Gabb (1839-1878), two volumes on the palaeontology of California (1864-1869); and also a Report on the Invertebrate Cretaceous and Tertiary Fossils of the U ; pper Missouri Country (1876). He died at Washington, on the 22nd of December 1876. 72 MEER— MEERSCHAUM MSER, JAN VAN DER (1632-1675), more often called Vermeer of Delft — not to be confounded with the elder (1628- 1691) or younger (1656-1705) Van der Meer of Haarlem, or with Van der Meer of Utrecht — is one of the excellent Dutch painters about whom the Dutch biographers give usr little information. 1 Van der Meer, or Vermeer, was born in Delft, and was a pupil of Carel Fabritius, whose junior he was by only eight years. The works by Fabritius are few, but his contemporaries speak of him as a man of remarkable power, and the paintings now ascertained to be from his hand, and formerly ascribed to Rem- brandt, prove him to have been deeply imbued with the spirit and manner of that master. Whether Van der Meer had ever any closer relation to Rembrandt than through companionship with Fabritius remains uncertain. In 1653 he married Catherine Bolenes, and in the same year he entered the gild of St Luke of Delft, becoming one of the heads of the gild in 1662 and again in 1670. He died at Delft in 1675, leaving a widow and eight children. His circumstances cannot have been flourishing, for at his death he left twenty-six pictures undisposed of, and his widow had to apply to the court of insolvency to be placed under a curator, who was Leeuwenhoek, the naturalist. For more than two centuries Van der Meer was almost com- pletely forgotten, and his pictures were sold under the names and forged signatures of the more popular De Hooch, Metsu, Ter Borch, and even of Rembrandt. The attention of the art- world was first recalled to this most original painter by Thore, an exiled Frenchman, who described his then known works in Musies de la Hollande (i8s8-r86o), published under the assumed name of W. Burger. The result of his researches, continued in his Galerie Suermondt and Galerie d'Arenberg, was afterwards given by him in a charming, though incomplete, monograph {Gazette des beaux-arts, 1866, pp. 297, 458, 542). The task was prosecuted with success by Havard (Les Artistes hollandais), and by Obreen (Nederlandsche Kunstgeschiedenis, Dl. iv.), and we are now in a position to refer to Van der Meer's works. His pictures are rarely dated, but one of the most important, in the Dresden Gallery, bears the date 1656, and thus gives us a key to his styles. With the exception of the " Christ with Martha and Mary " in the Coats collection at Glasgow, it is perhaps the only one, hitherto recognized, that has figures of life size, though his authorship is claimed for several others. The Dresden picture of a " Woman and Soldier," with other two figures, is painted with remarkable power and boldness, with great command over the resources of colour, and with wonderful expression of life. For strength and colour it more than holds its own beside the neighbouring Rembrandts. To this early period of his career belong, from internal evidence, the "Reading Girl " of the same gallery, the luminous and masterly " View of Delft " in the museum of the Hague, the " Milk- Woman " and the small street view, both identified with the Six collection at Amsterdam, the former now in the Rijksmuseum; the magnifi- cent "The Letter" also at Amsterdam, "Diana and the Nymphs" (formerly ascribed to Vermeer of Utrecht) at the Hague Gallery, and others. In all these we find the same brilliant style and vigorous work, a solid impasto, and a crisp, sparkling touch. His first manner seems to have been influenced by the pleiad of painters circling round Rembrandt, a school which lost favour in Holland in the last quarter of the century. During the final ten or twelve years of his life Van der Meer adopted a second manner. We now find his painting smooth and thin, and his colours paler and softer. Instead of masculine vigour we have refined delicacy and subtlety, but in both styles beauty of tone and perfect harmony are conspicuous. Through all his work 1 This undeserved neglect seems to have fallen on him at an early period, for Houbraken (Groote Schouburgh, 1718), writing little more than forty years after his death, does not even mention him. The only definite information we have from a contemporary is given by Bleyswijck (Beschrijving der Stad Delft, 1687), who tells us that he was born in 1632, and that he worked with Carel Fabritius, an able disciple of Rembrandt, who lost his life by an explosion of a powder magazine in Delft in 1654. I* ' s to tn e patient researches of W. Burger (Th. Thor6), Havard, Obreen, Soutendam, and others, that we owe our knowledge of the main facts of his life, discovered in the archives of his native town. may be traced his love of lemon-yellow and of blue of all shades. Of his second style typical examples are to be seen in " The Coquette" of the Brunswick Gallery, in the "Woman Reading" in the Van der Hoop collection now at the Rijksmuseum at Amsterdam, in the "Lady at a Casement " belonging to Lord Powerscourt (exhibited at the Royal Academy, 1878) and in the " Music Master and Pupil " belonging to the King (exhibited at the Royal Academy, 1876). Van der Meer's authentic pictures in public and private collections amount to about thirty. There is but one in the Louvre, the "Lace Maker"; Dresden has the two afore- mentioned, while Berlin has three, all acquired in the Suermondt collection, and the Czernin Gallery of Vienna is fortunate in possessing a fine picture, believed to represent the artist in his studio. In the Arenberg Gallery at Brussels there is a remark- able head of a girl, half the size of life, which seems to be inter- mediate between his two styles. Several of his paintings are in private foreign collections. In all his work there is a singular completeness and charm. His tone is usually silvery with pearly shadows, and the lighting of his interiors is equal and natural. In all cases his figures seem to move in light and air, and in this respect he resembles greatly his fellow-worker De Hooch. It is curious to read that, at one of the auctions in Amsterdam about the middle of the 18th century, a De Hooch is praised as being " nearly equal to the famous Van der Meer of Delft." See also Havard, Van der Meer (Paris, 1888) ; Vanzype, Vermeer de Delft (Brussels, 1908), and Hofstede de Groot, Jan Vermeer von Delft (Leipzig, 1909). MEERAKE, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, 9 m. N. of Zwickau and 37 S. of Leipzig by rail. Pop. (1905), 26,005. Itcon- tains a fine medieval church (Evangelical) . It is one of the most important industrial centres of Germany for the manufacture of woollen and mixed cloths, and in these products has a large export trade, especially to America and the Far East. There are also extensive dyeworks, tanneries and machine factories. See Leopold, Chronik und Beschreibung der Fabrik- und HanieU sladt Meerane (1863). MEERSCHAUM, a German word designating a soft white mineral sometimes found floating on the Black Sea, and rathel suggestive of sea-foam (Meerschaum), whence also the French name for the same substance, ecume de mer. It was termed by E. F. Glocker sepiolite, in allusion to its remote resemblance; to the " bone "« of the sepia or cuttle-fish. Meerschaum is opaque mineral of white, grey or cream colour, breakup with a conchoidal or fine earthy fracture, and occasionally though rarely, fibrous in texture. It can be readily scratched with the nail, its hardness being about 2. The specific gravity varies from 0-988 to r-279, but the porosity of the mineral ma)r lead to error. Meerschaum is a hydrous magnesium silicate, with the formula H 4 Mg 2 Si30io, or Mg 2 Si 3 08-2H20. Most of the meerschaum of commerce is obtained from Asia Minor, chiefly from the plain of Eski-Shehr, on the Haidar Pasha-Angora railway, where it occurs in irregular nodular masses, in alluvial deposits, which are extensively worked for its extraction. It is said that in this district there are 4000 shafts leading to horizontal galleries for extraction of the meerschaum. The principal workings are at Sepetdji-Odjaghi and Kemikdji-Odjaghi, about 20 m. S.E. of Eski-Shehr. The mineral is associated with magnesite (magnesium carbonate), the primitive source of both minerals being a serpentine. When first extracted the meerschaum is soft, but it hardens on exposure to solar heat or when dried in a warm room. Meerschaum is found also, though less abundantly, in Greece, as at Thebes, and in the islands of Euboea and Samos; it occurs also in serpentine at Hrubschitz near Kromau in Moravia. It is found to a limited extent at certain localities in France and Spain, and is known in Morocco. In the United States it occurs in serpentine in Pennsylvania (as at Nottingham, Chester county) and in South Carolina and Utah. Meerschaum has occasionally been used as a substitute for soap and fuller's earth, and it is said also as a building material; but its chief use is for tobacco-pipes and cigar-holders. The MEERUT— MEETING 73 natural nodules are first scraped to remove the red earthy matrix, then dried, again scraped and polished with wax. The rudely shaped masses thus prepared are sent from the East to Vienna and other manufacturing centres, where they are turned and carved, smoothed with glass-paper and Dutch rushes, heated in wax or stearine, and finally polished with bone-ash, &c. Imitations are made in plaster of Paris and other preparations. The soft, white, earthy mineral from Langbanshyttan, in Vermland, Sweden, known as aphrodite {a (1855-1863) ; Athenaeus (1858-1867). See monographs by F. Ranke (1871), H. Sauppe (1872), and E. Forstemann in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, XXI. (1885) ; also Sandys, Hist. Class. Schol. (1908), iii. 117. HEININGEN, a town of Germany, capital of the duchy of Saxe-Meiningen, romantically situated in forests on the right bank of the Werra, 40 m. S. of Eisenach by rail. Pop. (1905), 15,989. It consists of an old town and several handsome suburbs, but much of the former has been rebuilt since a fire in 1874. The chief building is the Elisabethenburg, or the old ducal palace, containing several collections; it was built mainly about 1680, although part of it is much older. Other buildings are the Henneberger Haus with a collection of antiqui- ties, and the town church, with twin towers, built by the emperor Henry II. in the nth century. The theatre enjoyed for many years (1875-1890) a European reputation for its actors and scenic effects. The English garden, a beautiful public park, contains the ducal mortuary chapel and several monuments, including busts of Brahms and Jean Paul Richter. Meiningen, which was subject to the bishops of Wiirzburg ( 1 000-1542), came into the possession of the duke of Saxony in 1583, having in the meantime belonged to the counts of Henneberg. At the partition of 1660 it fell to the share of Saxe-Altenburg, and in 1680 became the capital of Saxe- Meiningen. See E. Dobner, Bausteine zu einer Geschichte der Sladt Meiningen (Meiningen, 1902). MElR, Jewish rabbi of the 2nd century, was born in Asia Minor and according to legend was a descendant of the family of Nero. He was the most notable of the disciples of Aqiba {q.ii.), and after the Hadrianic repressions of a.d. 135 was instrumental in refounding the Palestinian schools at Usha. Among his teachers was also Elisha ben Abuya (q.v.), and. Mei'r continued his devotion to Elisha after the latter's apostasy. He is said to" have visited Rome to rescue his wife's sister. His wife, Beruriah, is often cited in the Talmud as an exemplar of generosity and faith. She was a daughter of the martyr Hananiah ben Teradion. On one occasion Meir, who had been frequently troubled by his ungodly neighbours, uttered a prayer for their extinction. " Nay," said Beruriah, " it is written (Ps. civ. 35) let sins be blotted out, not sinners "; whereupon Mei'r prayed for the evildoers' conversion. But she is best known for her conduct at the sudden death of her two sons. It was the Sabbath, and Meir returned home towards sunset. He repeatedly asked for the children, and Beruriah, after parrying his question, said: " Some time ago a precious thing was left with me on trust, and now the owner demands its return. Must I give it back ? " " How can you question it?" rejoined her husband. Beruriah then led him to the bed whereon were stretched the bodies of the children. Mei'r burst into tears. But the wife explained that this was the treasure of which she had spoken, adding the text from Job: " The Lord gave and the Lord hath taken away; blessed be the name of the Lord." Meir himself was the author of many famous sayings: " Look not to the flask, but to its contents. Many a new vessel contains old wine, but there are old casks which do not contain even new wine." " Condole not with a mourner while his dead is laid out before him." " Man cometh into the world with closed hands as though claiming the ownership of all things; but he departeth hence with hands open and limp, as if to show that he taketh naught with him." " What God does is well done." " The tree itself supplies the handle of the axe which cuts it down." His wisdom was proverbial, and to him was in particular assigned an intimate acquaintance with fables, and he is reported to have known 300 Fox-Fables. " With the death of Rabbi Meir," says the Mishnah (Sota ix. 15), " Fabulists ceased to be." Meir's wide sympathies were shown in his inclusion of all mankind in the hopes of salvation (Sifra to Leviticus xviii. 5). He was certainly on friendly terms with heathen scholars. Meir contributed largely to the material from which finally emerged the Mishnah. His dialectic skill was excessive, and it was said jestingly of him that he could give 150 reasons to prove a thing clean, and as many more to prove it unclean. His balanced judgment fitted him to carry on Aqiba's work, sifting and arranging the oral traditions, and thus preparing the ground for the Mishnaic Code. Meir left Palestine some time before his death, owing to disagreements between him and the Patriarch. He died in Asia Minor, but his love for the Holy Land remained dominant to the last. " Bury me," he said, " by the shore, so that the sea which washes the land of my fathers may touch also my bones." The tomb shown as that of Meir at Tiberias is inauthentic. -■■■- See Bacher, Agada der Tannaiten, vol. n. ch. i. ; Graetz, History of the Jews (Eng. trans.), vol. n. ch. xvi.; Jewish Encyclopedia (whence some of the above cited sayings are quoted), viii. 4.32-435. On Meir's place in the history of the fable, see J. Jacobs, The Fables of Aesop, i. in, &c. (see Index s.v.). (I. A.)"\ MEIR OF ROTHENBURG (c. 1215-1293), German rabbi and poet, was born in Worms c. 121 5. He played a great part in organizing the Jewish communal life of the middle ages. In 1286 for some unknown reason he was thrown into prison in Alsace, where he remained until his death in 1293. His friends offered to find a ransom, but he declined the suggestion, fearing that the precedent would lead to extortion in other cases. He wrote glosses to the Talmud (tosaphot) and many Responsa of the utmost value for historical research. Through his disciples Asher ben Yehiel and Mordecai ben Hillel, Meir exercised much 8 4 MEIRINGEN— MEISSEN influence on subsequent developments of Judaism. He was also a liturgical poet of considerable merit. One of his finest elegies is translated into English in Nina Davis's Songs of Exile. See L. Ginzberg, Jewish Encyclopedia, viii. 437-440. (I. A.) MEIRINGEN, the principal village on the Hasle (or the upper Aar) valley in the Swiss canton of Bern. It is built at a height of 1969 ft. on the right bank of the Aar and on the level floor of the valley, but is much exposed to the south wind (or Fokn), and has several times been in great part destroyed by fire (1632, 1879 and 1891). It has 3077 inhabitants, all German-speaking and Protestants. The parish church is ancient, and above it are the ruins of the medieval castle of Resti. Meiringen is frequented by travellers in summer, as it is the meeting-point of many routes: from Interlaken by the lake of Brienz and Brienz, from Lucerne by the Briinig railway (28 m.), from Engelberg by the Joch Pass (7267 ft.), from the upper Valais by the Grimsel Pass (7100 ft.), and from Grindelwald by the Great Scheidegg Pass (6434 ft.). Many waterfalls descend the hill-sides, the best known being the Reichenbach and the Alpbach, while the great gorge pierced by the Aar through the limestone barrier of the Kirchet is remarkable. The village and valley belonged of old to the emperor, who in 1234 gave the advowson to the Knights of St Lazarus, by whom it was sold in 1272 to the Austin Canons of Interlaken, on the sup- pression of whom in 1528 it passed to the state. In 1310 the emperor mortgaged the valley to the lords of Weissenburg, who sold it in 1334 to the town of Bern. (W. A. B. C.) MEISSEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on both banks of the Elbe, 15 m. N.W. from Dresden, on' the railway to Leipzig via Dobeln. Pop. (1905), 32,336. The old town lies on the left bank of the river, between the streams Meisse and Triebisch, and its irregular hilly site and numerous fine old buildings make it picturesque. Most of its streets are narrow and uneven. The cathedral, one of the finest early Gothic buildings in Germany, stands on the Schlossberg, 160 ft. above the town. It is said to have been founded by the emperor Otto the Great, but the present building was .begun in the 13th century and was completed about 1450. Here are tombs of several rulers and princes of Saxony, including those of Albert and Ernest, the founders of the two existing branches of the Saxon house. The cathedral also contains works by Peter Vischer and Lucas Cranach and several other interesting monu- ments. A restoration, including the rebuilding of the two towers, was carried out in 1903-1908. Adjoining the cathedral is the castle, dating from 1471-1483, but restored and named the Albrechtsburg about 1676. Another restoration was undertaken after i860, when a series of historical frescoes was painted upon its walls. A stone building of the 13th century connects the Schlossberg with the Afraberg, which owes its name to the old convent of St Afra. The convent was suppressed by Duke Maurice in 1543, and was by him converted into a school (the Fursten Schule), one of the most renowned classical schools in Germany, which counts Lessing and Gellert among its former pupils. Other public buildings of interest are the town-hall, built in 1479 and restored in 1875;- the fine town church, called the Frauenkirche or Marienkirche; the Nikolaikirche and the Afrakirche. The Franciscan church is now used as a museum of objects connected with the history of Meissen. Since 17 10 Meissen has been the seat of the manufacture of Dresden china. Till i860 the royal porcelain factory was in the Albrechtsburg, but in that year it was transferred to a large new building in the Triebischtal, near the town. Meissen also contains iron foundries, factories for making earthenware stoves and pottery* sugar refineries, breweries and tanneries. A considerable trade is carried on in the wine produced in the surrounding vineyards, and other industries are spinning and weaving. Meissen was founded about 920 by Henry the Fowler (see Meissen, Margraviate). From 968 to 1581 Meissen was the seat of a line of bishops, who ranked as princes of the empire. During the 15th century the town suffered greatly from the Hussites, and it was captured by the imperial troops during the war of the league of Schmalkalden, and again in the Thirty Years' Waf. In 1637 it suffered much from the Swedes, and in 1745 it fell into the hands of the Prussians. The bridge over the Elbe was destroyed by the French in 1813, and again by the Saxons in June 1866 in order to impede the march of the Prussians on Dresden. Colin on the right bank of the Elbe was incorporated with Meissen in 190 1. See Reinhard, Die Stadt Meissen, ihre Merkwurdigkeiten (Meissen, 1829); Loose, Alt-Meissen in Bildern (Meissen, 1889); Jaschke, Meissen und seine Kirchen (Leipzig, 1902) ; and Gersdorf, Urkunden- buch der Stadt Meissen (Leipzig, 1873). MEISSEN, a German margraviate now merged in the kingdom of Saxony. The mark of Meissen was originally a district centring round the castle of Meissen or Misnia on the Middle Elbe, which was built about 920 by the German king Henry I., the Fowler, as a defence against the Slavs. After the deatt of Gero, margrave of the Saxon east mark, in 965, his territory was divided into five marks, one of which was called Meissen. In 985 the emperor Otto III. bestowed the office of margrave upon Ekkard I., margrave of Merseburg, and the district com- prising the marks of Meissen, Merseburg and Zeitz was generally known as the mark of Meissen. In 1002 Ekkard was succeeded by his brother Gunzelin, and then by his sons Hermann I. and Ekkard II. Under these margraves the area of the mark was further increased, but when Ekkard II. died in 1046 it was divided, and Meissen proper was given successively to William and Otto, counts of Weimar, and Egbert II., count of Brunswick. Egbert was a rival of the emperor Henry IV. and died under the imperial ban in 1089, when Meissen was bestowed upon H enr y I-, count of Wettin, whose mother was a sister of the margrave Ekkard II. Henry, who already ruled lower Lusatia and the new and smaller Saxon east mark, was succeeded in 1103 by his cousin Thimo, and in 1104 by his son Henry II., whose claim on the mark was contested by Thimo's son Conrad. When Henry died without issue in 11 23 Meissen was given by the emperor Henry V. to Hermann II., count of Wintzenburg; but, renewing his claim, Conrad won the support of Lothair, duke of Saxony, afterwards the emperor Lothair II., and obtained possession in 1130. Conrad, called the Great, extended the boundaries of Meissen before abdicating in 1156 in favour of his son Otto, known as the Rich. Otto appointed his younger son Dietrich as his successor and was attacked and taken prisoner by his elder son Albert ; but, after obtaining his release by order of the emperor Frederick I., he had only just renewed the war when he died in n 90. During his reign silver mines were opened in the Harz Mountains, towns were founded, roads were made, and the general condition of the country was improved. Otto was succeeded by his son Albert, called the Proud, who was engaged in warfare with his brother Dietrich until his death in 1195. As Albert left no children, Meissen was seized by the emperor Henry VI. as a vacant fief of the empire; but Dietrich, called the Oppressed, secured the mark after Henry's death in 1197. Dietrich married Jutta, daughter of Hermann I., landgrave of Thuringiaj and was succeeded in 1221 by his infant son Henry, surnamed the Illustrious; who on arriving at maturity obtained as reward for supporting the emperor Frederick II. against the pope a promise to succeed his uncle, Henry Raspe IV., as land- grave of Thuringia. In 1243 Henry's son Albert was betrothed to Margaret, daughter of Frederick II.; and Pleissnerland, a district west of Meissen, was added to his possessions. Having, gained Thuringia and the Saxon palatinate on his uncle's death in 1247, he granted sections of his lands to his three sons in 1265, but retained Meissen. A series of family feuds followed His second son Dietrich died in 1285, and on Henry's own death in 1288 Meissen was divided between his two remaining sons, Albert (called the Degenerate) and Frederick, and his grandson Frederick Tutta, the son of Dietrich. Albert was engaged in struggles with his three sons, who took him prisoner in 1288; but he was released the following year by order of the German king Rudolph I. About this time he sold his portion of Meissen to his nephew Frederick Tutta, who held the title MEISSONIER, J. L. E. »5 of margrave and ruled the greater part of the mark until his death in 1291. Albert's two remaining sons, Frederick and Dietrich or Diezmann, then claimed Meissen; but it was seized by King Adolph of Nassau as a vacant fief of the empire, and was for some time retained by him and his successor King Albert I. In the course of constant efforts to secure the mark the brothers Frederick and Dietrich defeated the troops of King Albert at Lucka in May 1307 and secured partial possession of their lands. In this year Dietrich died and Frederick became reconciled with his father, who, after renouncing his claim on Meissen for a yearly payment, died in 1314. Having obtained possession of the greater part of the mark, Frederick was invested with it by the German king Henry VII. in 13 10. During these years the part of Meissen around Dresden had been in the possession of Frederick, youngest son of the margrave Henry the Illustrious, and when he died in 13 16 it came 3; scholiast on Theocritus iii. 43; Ovid, Metam. xv. 325; C. Eckermann, Melampus und sein Geschlecht (1840). Melampus is also the name of the author of a short extant treatise of little value on Divination by means of Palpitation (HaX/uSr) and Birthmarks CEXatuv). It probably dates from the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus (3rd cent. B.C.). Edition by J. G. Franz in Scriptores physiognomiae veteres (1780). MELANCHLAENI (from Gr. /^\as, and xXafra, "Black- cloaks"), an ancient tribe to the north of Scythia, probably about the modem Ryazan and Tambov (Herodotus iv. 106). They have been identified with the Finnish tribes Merja (now extinct) and Cheremis, now driven north-east on to the middle Volga, These, till recently, wore black. There has been confusion between this tribe and another of the same name mentioned by Pliny (N. H. vi. 15), and Ptolemy in the Caucasus. (E. H. M.) MELANCHOLY (Gr. fiekayxoXia, from /teXas, black, and x°M, bile), originally a condition of the mind or body due to a supposed excess of black bile, also this black bile itself, one of the chief " humours " of the body, which were, according to medieval physiology, blood, phlegm, choler and melancholy (see Humour) ; now a vague term for desponding grief. From the 17th century the name was used of the mental disease now known as " melancholia " (see Insanity), but without any reference to the supposed cause of it. MELANCHTHON, PHILIPP (1497-1550), German theologian and reformer, was born at Bretten in Baden on the 16th of February 1497. His father, George Schwartzerd, was an armourer under the Palatinate princes. His mother, Barbara Reuter, a niece of Johann Reuchlin, was shrewd, thrifty and affectionate. 1 Her father, Johann Reuter, long burgomaster of Bretten, supervised the education of Philipp, who was taught first by Johannes Hungarus and then by Georg Simler at the academy of Pfortzheim. Reuchlin took an interest in him, and, following a contemporary custom, named him Melanchthon (the Greek form of Schwartzerd, black earth). In October 1509 he went to Heidelberg, where he took the B.A. degree, afterwards proceeding M.A. at Tubingen. The only other academic distinction he accepted was the B.D. of Wittenberg (1519). He would never consent to become a "doctor," be- cause he thought the title carried with it responsibilities to which he felt himself unequal. At Tubingen he lived as student and teacher for six years, until on Reuchlin's advice, the elector of Saxony called him to Wittenberg as professor of Greek in 1518. 1 Her character is evidenced by the familiar proverb — Wer mehr will verzehren Denn sein Pflug kann erehren, Der muss zuletzt verderben Und vielleicht am Galgen sterben — of which Melanchthon said to his students " Didici hoc a mea matre, vos etiam observate." (For Melanchthon's Latin version of the saying see Corpus reformatorum, x. 469.) This appointment marked an epoch in German university education; Wittenberg became the school of the nation; the scholastic methods of instruction were set aside, and in a Dis- course on Reforming the Studies of Youth Melanchthon gave proof, not only that he had caught the Renaissance spirit, but that he was fitted to become one of its foremost leaders. He began to lecture on Homer and the Epistle to Titus, and in con- nexion with the former he announced that, like Solomon, he sought Tyrian brass and gems for the adornment of God's Temple. Luther received a fresh impulse towards the study of Greek, and his translation of the Scriptures, begun as early as 1517, now made rapid progress, Melanchthon helping to collate the Greek versions and revising Luther's translation. Melanchthon felt the spell of Luther's personality and spiritual depth, and seems to have been prepared on his first arrival at Wittenberg to accept the new theology, which as yet existed mainly in sub- jective form in the person of Luther. To reduce it to an objective system, to exhibit it dialectkally, the calmer mind of Melanchthon was requisite. Melanchthon was first drawn into the arena of the Reforma- tion controversy through the Leipzig Disputation (June 27-July 8, 1519), at which he was present. He had been reproved by Johann Eck for giving aid to Carlstadt (" Tace tu, Philippe, ac tua studia cura nee me perturba"), and he was shortly after- wards himself attacked by the great papal champion. Melanch- thon replied in a brief and moderately worded treatise, setting forth Luther's first principle of the supreme authority of Scrip- ture in opposition to the patristic writings on which Eck relied. His marriage in 1520 to Catharine Krapp of Wittenberg gave a domestic centre to the Reformation. In 1521, during Luther's confinement in the Wartburg, Melanchthon was leader of the Reformation cause at the university. He defended the action of Carlstadt, when he dispensed the Eucharist in an '■ evangelical fashion." 2 With the arrival of the Anabaptist enthusiasts of Zwickau, he had a more difficult task, and appears to have been irresolute; Their attacks on infant baptism seemed to him not altogether irrational, and in regard to their claim to personal inspiration he said " Luther alone can decide; on the one hand let us beware of quenching the Spirit of God, and on the other of being led astray by the spirit of Satan." In the same year, 1521, he published his Loci communes rerum theologicarum, the first systematized presentation of the reformed theology. From 1522 to 1524 he was busy with the translation of the Bible and in publishing commentaries. In 1524 he went for reasons of health into southern Germany and was urged by the papal legate Campegio to renounce the new doctrines. He refused, and maintained his refusal by publishing his Summa doctrinae Lutheri. After the first Diet of Spires (1526), where a precarious peace was patched up for the reformed faith, Melanchthon was deputed as one of twenty-eight commissioners to visit the reformed states and regulate the constitution of churches, he having just published a famous treatise called the Libellus visitalorius, a directory for the use of the commissioners. At the Marburg con- ference (1529) between the German and Swiss reformers, Luther was pitted against Oecolampadius and Melanchthon against Zwingli in the discussion regarding the real presence in the sacra- ment. How far the normally conciliatory spirit of Melanchthon was here biased by Luther's intolerance is evident from the exaggerated accounts of the conference written by the former to the elector of Saxony. He was at this time even more embit- tered than Luther against the Zwinglians. At the Diet of Augs- burg (1530) Melanchthon was the leading representative of the reformation, and it was he who prepared for that diet the seven- teen articles of the Evangelical faith, which are known as the "Augsburg Confession." He held conferences with Roman divines appointed to adjust differences, and afterwards wrote an Apology for the Augsburg Confession. After the 1 Augsburg 2 He read the usual service, but omitted everything that taught a propitiatory sacrifice; he did not elevate the Host, and he gave both the bread and the cup into the hands of every communicant. MELANESIA 89 conference further attempts were made to settle the Reformation controversy by a compromise, and Melanchthon, from his concili- atory spirit and facility of access, appeared to the defenders of the old faith the fittest of the reformers to deal with. His historical instinct led him ever to revert to the original unity of the church, and to regard subsequent errors as excrescences rather than proofs of an essentially anti-Christian system. He was weary of the rabies theoldgorum, and dreamed that the evan- gelical leaven, if tolerated, would purify the church's life and doctrine. In 1537, when the Protestant divines signed the Lutheran Articles of Schmalkalden, Melanchthon appended to his signature the reservation that he would admit of a pope provided he allowed the gospel and did not claim to rule by divine right. The year after Luther's death, when the battle of Miihlberg (1547) had given a seemingly crushing blow to the Protestant cause, an attempt was made to weld together the evangelical and the papal doctrines, which resulted in the compilation by Pflug, Sidonius and Agricola of the Augsburg " Interim." This was proposed to the two parties in Germany as a provisional ground of agreement till the decision of the Council of Trent. Melanchthon, on being referred to, declared that, though the Interim was inadmissible, yet so far as matters of indifference (adiaphora) were concerned it might be received. Hence arose that " adiaphoristic " controversy in connexion with which he has been misrepresented as holding among matters of indifference such cardinal doctrines as justification by faith, the number of the sacraments, as well as the dominion of the pope, feast-days, and so on. The fact is that Melanchthon sought, not to minimize differences, but to veil them under an intentional obscurity of expression. Thus he allowed the necessity of good works to salvation, but not in the old sense; proposed to allow. the seven sacraments, but only as rites which had no inherent efficacy to salvation, and so on. He afterwards retracted his compliance with the adiaphora, and never really swerved from the views set forth in the Loci communes; but he regarded the surrender of more perfect for less perfect forms of truth or of expression as a painful sacrifice rendered to the weakness of erring brethren. Luther, though he had probably uttered in private certain expressions of dissatisfaction with Melanchthon, maintained unbroken friendship with him; but after Luther's death certain smaller men formed a party emphasizing the extremest points of his doctrine. 1 Hence the later years of Melanchthon were occupied with controversies within the Evangelical church, and fruitless conferences with his Romanist adversaries. He died in his sixty-third year, on the 19th of April 1560, and his body was laid beside that of Martin Luther in the Schlosskirche at Wittenberg. His ready pen, clear thought and elegant style, made him the scribe of the Reformation, most public documents on that side being drawn up by him. He never attained entire independence of Luther, though he gradually modified some of his positions from those of the pure Lutherism with which he set out. His development is chiefly noteworthy in regard to these two leading points — the relation of the evangelium or doctrine of free grace (1) to free will and moral ability, and (2) to the law and poenitentia or the good works connected with repentance. At first Luther's cardinal doctrine of grace appeared to Melanchthon inconsistent with any view of free will; and, following Luther, he renounced Aristotle and philosophy in general, since " philosophers attribute everything to human power, while the sacred writings represent all moral power as lost by the fall." In the first edition of the Loci (1521) he tfeld, to the length of fatalism, the Augustinian doctrine of irresistible grace, working according to God's immutable decrees, and denied freedom of will in matters civil and religious alike. In the Augsburg Confession (1530), which was largely due to him, freedom is claimed for the will in non-religious matters, and in the Loci of 1533 he calls the denial of freedom Stoicism, and holds that in justification there is a certain causality, though not worthiness, in the recipient, subordinate to the Divine causality. In 1535, combating Laurentius Valla, he did not deny the spiritual incapacity of the will per se, but held that this is strengthened by the word of God, to which it can cleave. The will co-operates witn the word and the Holy Spirit. Finally, in 154.3, he says that the ca use of the difference of final destiny among men lies in the 1 It must be admitted, however, that Matthias Flacius saved the Reformation. different .method of treating grace which is pdssible to believers as to others. Man may pray for help and reject grace. This he calls free will, as the power of laying hold of grace. Melanchthon's doctrine of the three concurrent causes in conversion, viz. the Holy Spirit, the word, and the human will, suggested the semi- Pelagian position called Synergism, which was held by some of his immediate followers. . In regard to the relation of grace to repentance and good works, Luther was disposed to make faith itself the principle of sanctifi- cation. Melanchthon, however, for whom ethics possessed a special interest, laid more stress on the law. He began to do this in 1527 in the Libettus visitatorius, which urges pastors to instruct their people' in the necessity of repentance, and to bring the threatenings of the law to bear upon men in order to faith. This brought down upon him the opposition of the Antinomian Johannes Agricola. In the Loci of 1535 Melanchthon sought to put the fact of the co-existence of justification and good works in the believer on a secure basis by declaring the latter necessary to eternal life, though the believer's destiny thereto is already fully guaranteed in his justification. In the Loci of 1543 he did not retain the doctrine of the necessity of good works in order to salvation, and to this he added, in the Leipzig Interim, " that this in no way countenances the error that eternal life is merited by the worthiness of our own works." Melanchthon was led to lay more and more stress upon the law and moral ideas; but the basis of the relation of faith and good works was never clearly brought out by him, and he at length fell back on his original position, that we have justification and inheritance of bliss in and by Christ alone, and that good works are necessary by reason of immutable Divine command.- Bibliography. — The principal works of Melanchthon, with the bulk of his correspondence, are contained in the Corpus reforma- torum (vols, i.-xxviii. ; Halle, 1834-1850), edited by Bretschneider and Bindseil, to which must be added Bindseif's Supplementa (Halle, 1874). Melanchthon's earliest and best biographer was his friend Joachim Camerarius (1566), a new annotated edition of which is much needed. The best modern life is that by Georg Ellinger (Berlin, 1902) ; next is that of Karl Schmidt (Elberfeld, 1 861). The celebration in 1897 of the 400th anniversary of Melanch- thon's birth produced many short biographies and Festreden, among them works by J. W. Richard (New York and London, 1898); George Wilson (London, 1897) ; Karl Sell (Halle, 1897) ; Ferdinand Cohrs (Halle, 1897); Beyschlag and Harnack (1897). Richard Rothe's Festrede (i860) also is good. The most learned of modern Melanchthon scholars was probably Karl Hartfelder, who wrote Philipp Melanchthon als Praeceptor Germaniae (Berlin, 1899); Melanchthoniana paedagogica (Leipzig, 1892), giving in the first named two full bibliographies, one of all works written on Melanch- thon, the other of all works written by him (in chronological order). Hartfelder believed that a good deal of unpublished material is still left in German and foreign libraries. Thus three long unknown letters are published in the Quellen und Forschungen of the Konigl. Preuss. Inst. Hist, at Rome, vol. ii. Two are to the Cardinal of Augsburg and one to Lazarus von Schwendi. Melanchthon was on his way to the Council of Trent as delegate of the elector of Saxony and the cardinal had offered to meet him at Dillingeri. He writes " ingeminating peace," deploring that the council was not a national synod, which would have been a better means of arriving at the truth. MELANESIA, one of the three great divisions of the oceanic islands in the central and western Pacific. It embraces the Bismarck Archipelago, N.E. of New Guinea, the Louisiade, Solomon, Santa Cruz, New Hebrides and Loyalty islands, New Caledonia, Fiji and intervening small groups. The name (Gr. jueXas, black, and vrjaos, island) is derived from the black colour of the prevailing native race, the Papuan and its allied tribes. Many of these differ widely from the parent race, but all the Melanesian peoples have certain common characteristics which distinguish them sharply from the inhabitants of Poly* nesia and Micronesia. Their civilization is lower. The Melan- esians are mostly " negroid," nearly black, with crisp, curly hair elaborately dressed; their women hold a much lower position than among the Polynesians; their institutions, social, political and religious, are simpler, their manners ruder; they have few or, no traditions; cannibalism, in different degrees, is almost universal; but their artistic skill and taste, as with some of the lower African negroes, are remarkable, and they are amenable to discipline and fair treatment. Their languages, which exhibit considerable difference among themselves, have features which mark them off clearly from the Polynesian, notwithstanding certain, fundamental relations with the latter. See R. H. Codrington, The Melanesian Languages (Oxford, 1885) and The Melanesians (Oxford, 1891); the articles Papuans and Pacific Ocean ; also those on the several island-groups, &c. 9° MELANTHIUS— MELBOURNE MELANTHIUS, a "noted Greek painter of the 4th century B.C. He belonged to the school of Sicyon, which was noted for fine drawing. HELBA [Nellie Porter Armstrong] (1859- ), British operatic soprano, ne'e Nellie Porter Mitchell, was born at Burnley, near Melbourne, Australia, her father being a contractor, of Scottish blood. She sang at a local concert when six years old, and was given a good musical education. In 1882 she married Captain Charles Armstrong, and in 1886 went to study singing in Paris under the famous teacher, Madame Mathilde Marchesi, whose daughter, Madame Blanche Marchesi, also a famous singer, was associated with her. In 1887 she made her d6but in opera at Brussels, taking the stage-name of Madame Melba from her connexion with Melbourne. In the next year she sang the part of Lucia, which remained one of her famous roles, at Covent Garden, London; and, though critics complained of her cold- ness as an actress, her liquid voice and brilliant execution hence- forth made her famous as the greatest successor to Patti, in pure vocalization, on the operatic stage. She maintained this position for over twenty years, her triumphs being celebrated in every country. See the " authorized " biography by Agnes G. Murphy (1909). MELBOURNE, WILLIAM LAMB, 2nd Viscount (1779-1848), English statesman, second son of the 1st Viscount Melbourne, by his marriage with the daughter of Sir Ralph Milbanke, bart., was born on the 15th of March 1779. His father, Peniston Lamb (1748-1829), was the son of Sir Matthew Lamb, bart. (d. 1768), who made a large fortune out of the law, and married Miss Coke of Melbourne Hall; in 1770 he was made baron and in 1781 Viscount Melbourne in the Irish peerage, and in 1815 was created an English peer. After completing his course at Trinity College, Cambridge, William Lamb studied law at the university of Glasgow, and was called to the bar in 1804. In 1805 he married Lady Caroline Ponsonby (1785-1828), daughter of the 3rd earl of Bessborough. She was, however, separated from him in 1825. Lady Caroline Lamb acquired some fame as a novelist by her romance of Glenarvon, which was published anonymously in 1816 and was afterwards (1865) re-issued under the title of The Fatal Passion. On entering parliament in 1806 the Hon. William Lamb (as Lord Melbourne then was) joined the opposi- tion under Fox, of whom he was an ardent admirer; but his Liberal tendencies were never decided, and he not infrequently supported Lord Liverpool during that statesman's long tenure of office. During the short ministry of Canning in 1827 he was chief secretary for Ireland, but he afterwards for a time adhered to the small remnant of the party who supported the duke of Wellington. The influence of Melbourne as a politician dates from his succeeding to the peerage in 1829. Disagreeing with the duke of Wellington on the question of parliamentary reform, he entered the ministry of Grey, as home secretary in 1830. For the duties of this office at such a critical time he was deficient in insight and energy, but his political success was independent of his official capacity; and when the ministry of Grey was wrecked on the Irish question in July 1834 Melbourne was chosen to succeed him as prime minister. In November follow- ing he had to give place to a Conservative ministry under Peel; but he resumed office in April 1835, and remained prime minister till 1841. He died at Melbourne House, Derbyshire, on the 24th of November 1848. Lord Melbourne was without the qualification of attention to details, and he never displayed those brilliant talents which often form a substitute for more solid acquirements. Though he possessed a fine and flexible voice, his manner as a speaker was ineffective, and his speeches were generally ill-arranged and destitute of oratorical point. His political advancement was due to his personal popularity. He had a thorough knowledge of the private and indirect motives which influence politicians, and his genial attractive manner, easy temper and vivacious, if occasionally coarse, wit helped to confer on him a social distinc- tion which led many to take for granted his eminence as a statesman. His favourite dictum in politics was, "Why not leave it alone?" His relations with women gave opportunity for criticism though not open scandal; but the action brought against him in 1836 by Mr George Chappie Norton in regard to the famous Mrs Caroline Norton (q.v.) was deservedly unsuccess- ful. The most notable and estimable feature of his political conduct was his relation to Queen Victoria (q.v.), whom he initi- ated into the duties of sovereign with the most delicate tact and the most paternal and conscientious care. Melbourne was succeeded as 3rd viscount by his brother, Frederick James Lamb (1782-1853), who was British ambas- sador to Vienna from 1831 to 1841. On the 3rd viscount's dea'th the titles became extinct, but the estates passed to his sister Emily Mary (1787-1869), the wife of Lord Palmerston. See W. McC. Torrens, Memoirs of Lord Melbourne (1878); Lloyd Sanders, Lord Melbourne's Papers (1889); A. Hayward's essay (from the Quarterly Review, 1878) in " Eminent Statesmen " (1880). MELBOURNE, the capital of Victoria, and the most populous city in Australia. It is situated on Hobson's Bay, a northern bend of the great harbour of Port Phillip, in Bourke county, about 500 m. S.W. of Sydney. The suburbs extend along the shores of the bay for more than 10 m., but the part distinct- ively known as the " city " occupies a site about 3 m. inland on the north bank of the Yarra river. The appearance of Melbourne from the sea is by no means picturesque. The busy shipping suburbs of Port Melbourne and Williamstown occupy the flat alluvial land at the mouth of the Yarra. But the city itself has a different aspect; its situation is relieved by numerous gentle hills, which show up its fine public buildings to great advantage; its main streets are wide and well kept, and it has an air of prosperity, activity and comfort. The part especially known as the " city " occupies two hills, and along the valley between them runs the thoroughfare of Elizabeth Street. Parallel to this is Swanston Street, and at right angles to these, parallel to the river, are Bourke Street, Collins Street sad Flinders Street — the first being the busiest in Melbourne, the second the most fashionable with the best shops, and the third, which faces the river, given up to the maritime trade. These streets are an eighth of a mile apart, and between each is a narrower street bearing the name of the wider, with the prefix " Little." The original plan seems to have been to construct these narrow streets to give access to the great business houses which, it was foreseen, would be built on the frontage of the main streets. This plan, however, miscarried, for space grew so valuable that large warehouses and business establishments have been erected in these lanes. Little Flinders Street, in which the great importers' warehouses are mainly situated, is locally known as " the Lane." In the centre of the city some oi the office buildings are ten, twelve or even fourteen storeys high. The main streets are 99 ft. wide, and the lanes somewhat less than half that width. Round the city lies a circle of popu- lous suburbs — to the north-east Fitzroy (pop. 31,687) and Collingwood (32,749), to the east Richmond (37,824), to the south-east Prahran (40,441), to the south South Melbourne (40,619), to the south-west Port Melbourne (12,176), and to the north-west North Melbourne (18,120). All these suburbs he within 3 m. of the general post office in Elizabeth Street; but outside them and within the 5 m. radius is another circle — tc the east Kew (9469) and Hawthorne (21,430), to the south-east St Kilda (20,542) and Brighton (10,047), to the south-west Williamstown (14,052) and Footscray (i8,3i8),*to the north-west Essenden (17,426), and Flemington and Kensington (10,94$), and to the north Brunswick (24,141). Numerous small suburbs fill the space between the two circles, the chief being Northcote, Preston', Camberwell, Toorak, Caulfield, Elsternwick and Coburg. Some of these suburbs are independent cities, others separate municipalities. In spite of the value of land, Melbourne is not a crowded city. The Parliament House, standing on the crown of the eastern hill, is a massive square brick building with a pillared freestone facade approached by a broad flight of steps. The interior is lavishly decorated and contains, besides the legislative chambers, a magnificent library of over 52,000 volumes. At the top of BRAY BRQ@ MELBOURNE and Environs. Natural Scale. 1*70.000 English Miles ? % % % ; Reference. L Parliament House* 10. Victoria Markets X Treasury Buildings 11. Princess Theatre 3. Law Courts 12. Theatre Royal 4. Hint 13. St. Patrick's Cathedral 5. Town Hall It. Independent Congl. Ch S. General Post Office 15. Scots Church 7. Custom House IS. Anglican Cathedral S. fret />i/»/ic Library 17. Melbourne Hospital and Art Gallery IS. >»//r«-> Hospital •. Trades Hall 19. Homoeopathic Hospital MELBOURNE 91 Collins Street a building in brown freestone is occupied by the Treasury, behind which and fronting the Treasury Park another palatial building houses the government offices. A little further on is St Patrick's Roman Catholic cathedral, the seat of the archbishop of Melbourne, a building of somewhat sombre blue- stone. Two striking churches face each other in Collins Street, the Scots church, a Gothic edifice with a lofty spire, and the Independent church, a fine Saracenic building with a massive campanile. The seat of the Anglican bishop, St Paul's cathe- dral, has an elegant exterior and a wealth of elaborate workman- ship within, but stands low and is obscured by surrounding warehouses. On the western hill are the law courts, a fine block of buildings in classic style surmounted by a central dome. In Swanston Street there is a large building where under one roof are found the public library of over 100,000 volumes, the museum of sculpture, the art gallery, and the museums of ethnology and technology. In connexion with the art gallery there is a travel- ling scholarship for art students, endowed by the state. The Exhibition Buildings are situated on a hill in Carlton Gardens; they consist of a large cruciform hall surmounted by a dome and flanked by two annexes. Here on the 9th of May 1901 the first federal parliament of the Australian commonwealth was opened by King George V. (as duke of Cornwall and York). The Trades Hall at Carlton is the meeting-place of the trades-union societies of Victoria, and is the focus of much political influence. The Melbourne town hall contains a central chamber capable of accommodating 3000 people. The suburban cities and towns have each a town hall. The residence of the governor of the colony is in South Melbourne, and is surrounded by an extensive domain. The university is a picturesque mass of buildings in large grounds about a mile from the heart of the city. It com- prises the university buildings proper, the medical school, the natural history museum, the Wilson Hall, a magnificent building in the Perpendicular style, and the three affiliated colleges, Trinity College (Anglican), Ormond College (Presbyterian) and Queen's College ( Wesleyan) . The university, established in 1 8 5 5 , is undenominational, and grants degrees in the faculties of arts, law, medicine, science, civil engineering and music; instruction in theology is left to the affiliated colleges. Melbourne has numer- ous state schools, and ample provision is made for secondary education by the various denominations and by private enter- prise. Of theatres, the Princess and the Theatre Royal are the most important. Other public buildings include the mint, the observatory, the Victoria markets, the Melbourne hospital, the general post office, the homoeopathic hospital, the custom house and the Alfred hospital. Many of the commercial buildings are of architectural merit, notably the banks, of which the bank of Australasia, a massive edifice of the Doric order, and the Gothic Australian bank are the finest examples. The public gardens and parks of Melbourne are extensive. Within the city proper the Fitzroy Gardens are a network of avenues bordered with oak, elm and plane, with a " fern- tree gully " in the centre; they are ornamented with casts of famous statues, and ponds, fountains and classic temples. The Treasury, Flagstaff and Carlton Gardens are of the same class. Around the city lie five great parks — Royal Park, in which are excellent zoological gardens; Yarra Park, which contains the leading cricket grounds; the Botanical Gardens, sloping down to the banks of the river; Albert Park, in which is situated a lake much used for boating; and Studley Park on the Yarra river, a favourite resort which has been left in a natural state. Besides these parks, each suburb has its public gardens, and at Fleming- ton there is a fine race-course, on which the Melbourne cup races are run every November, an event which brings in a large influx of visitors from all parts of Australia. Melbourne has a complete tramway system; all the chief suburbs are connected with the city by cable trams. The tramways are controlled by a trust, representing twelve of the metropolitan municipalities. The chief monuments and statues of the city are the statue of Queen Victoria in the vestibule of the Houses of Parliament, and a colossal group commemorating the explorers Robert O'Hara Bourke (b. 1820) and William John Wills (b. 1834), who died of starvation in 1861 on an expedition for the crossing of Australia from south to north. There are also the statue to Sir Redmond Barry, first chancellor of the university, outside the public library, the Gordon statue in Spring Street, a replica of that in Trafalgar Square, London, and a statue of Daniel O'Connell, outside St Patrick's cathedral. Port Melbourne, originally called Sandridge, is about 2^ m. distant from the city, with which it is connected by rail and tramway. It has two large piers, alongside of which vessels of almost any tonnage can lie. One of these piers is served by the railway, and here most of the great liners are berthed. Vessels drawing 22 ft. of water can ascend the river Yarra to the heart of the city. There are 2 m. of wharves along each bank of the river, with two large dry-docks and ship-repairing yards and foundries. Below Queen's Bridge is an expansion of the river known as the Pool, in which the largest ships using the river can turn with ease. Leading from a point opposite the docks is the Coode canal, by means of which the journey from the city to the mouth of the river is shortened by over a mile. As a port Melbourne takes the first place in Australia as regards tonnage. It is also a great manufacturing centre, and both city and suburbs have their distinctive industries. The chief are tanning, fellmongery, wool-washing, bacon-curing, flour milling, brewing, iron-founding, brick-making, soap-boiling, the manufacture of pottery, candles, cheese, cigars, snuff, jams, biscuits, jewelry, furniture, boots, clothing and leather and woollen goods. The climate of Melbourne is exceptionally fine; occasionally hot winds blow from the north for two or three days at a time, but the proportion of days when the sky is clear and the air dry and mild is large. Snow is unknown, and the average annual rainfall is 25-58 in. The mean annual temperature is 57-3° F., corresponding to that of Washington in the United States, and to Lisbon and Messina in Europe. . The city is supplied with water from the Yan Yean works, an artificial lake at the foot of the Plenty Range, nearly 19 m. distant. The little settlement of the year 1835, out of which Melbourne grew, at first bore the native name of Dootigala, but it was presently renamed after Viscount Melbourne, premier of Great Britain at the time of its foundation. In June 1836 it consisted of only thirteen buildings, eight of which were turf huts. For two years after that date a constant stream of squatters with their sheep flowed in from around Sydney and Tasmania to settle in the Port Phillip district, and by 1841 the population of the town had grown to 11,000. The discovery of gold at Ballarat in 1851 brought another influx of population to the district, and the town grew from 30,000 to 100,000 in the course of two or three years. In 1842 Melbourne was incorporated and first sent members to the New South Wales parliament. A strong popular agitation caused the Port Phillip district to be separated from New South Wales in 1851, and a new colony was formed with the name of Victoria, Melbourne becoming its capital. In 1901 Melbourne became the temporary capital of the Australian commonwealth pending the selection of the permanent capital in New South Wales. The population of the city proper in 1901 was 68,374, and that of " greater Melbourne " was 496,079. MELBOURNE, a market town in the southern parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, 8 m. S.S.E. of Derby, on the Midland railway. Pop. (1901), 3580. It lies in an undulating district on a small southern tributary of the Trent, from which it is about 2 m. distant. The church of St Michael is a fine example of Norman work, with certain late details, having clerestoried nave, chancel and aisles, with central and two western towers. Melbourne Hall, a building of the time of William III., surrounded by formal Dutch gardens, stands in a domain owned at an early date by the bishops of Carlisle, whose tithe barn remains near the church. They obtained the manor in 1133. In 1311 Robert de Holland fortified a mansion here, and in 1327 this castle belonged to Henry, earl of Lancaster; but it was dismantled in 1460, and little more than the site is now traceable. The title of Viscount Melbourne was taken from this town. There are manufactures of silk, and boots and shoes. 9 2 MELCHERS— MELEAGER MELCHERS, (JULIUS) GARI (i860- ), American artist, was born at Detroit, Michigan, on the nth of August i860. The son of a sculptor, at seventeen he was sent to Diisseldorf to study art under von Gebhardt, and after three years went to Paris, where he worked at the Acad6mie Jiilien and the Ecole des Beaux Arts. Attracted by the pictorial side of Holland, he settled at Egmond. His first important Dutch picture, " The Sermon," brought him honourable mention at the Paris Salon of 1886. He became a member of the National Academy of Design, New York; the Royal Academy of Berlin; Societe Nationale des Beaux Arts, Paris; International Society of Painters, Sculptors and Engravers, London, and the Secession Society, Munich; and, besides receiving a number of medals, his decorations include the Legion of Honour, France; the order of the Red Eagle, Germany; and knight of the Order of St Michael, Bavaria. Besides portraits, his chief works are: " The Supper at Emmaus," in the Krupp collection at Essen; " The Family," National Gallery, Berlin; " Mother and Child," Luxembourg; and the decoration, at the Congressional Library, Washington, " Peace and War." MELCHIADES, or Miltiades (other forms of the name being Meltiades, Melciades, Milciades and Miltides), pope from the 2nd of July 310, to the nth January 314. He appears to have been an African by birth, but of his personal history nothing is known. The toleration edicts of Galerius and of Constantine and Licinius were published during his pontificate, which was also marked by the holding of the Lateran synod in Rome (313) at which Caecilianus, bishop of Carthage, was acquitted of the charges brought against him and Donatus condemned. Melchiades was preceded and followed by Eusebius and Silvester I. respectively. MELCHITES (lit. Royalists, from Syriac melcha, a king), the name given in the 5th century to those Christians who adhered to the creed supported by the authority of the Byzantine emperor. The Melchites therefore are those who accept the decrees of Ephesus and Chalcedon as distinguished from the Nestorians and Jacobite Church (qq.v.). They follow the Orthodox Eastern liturgy, ceremonial and calendar, but acknow- ledge the papal and doctrinal authority of Rome. They number about 80,000, are found in Syria, Palestine and Egypt, and are under the immediate rule of the patriarch of Damascus and twelve bishops. MELCHIZEDEK (Heb. for "king of righteousness"; or, since Sedek is probably the name of a god, " Sedek is my king"), 1 king of Salem and priest of " supreme El " (El x elyon), in the Bible. He brought forth bread and wine to Abraham on his return from the expedition against Chedorlaomer, and blessed him in the name of the supreme God, possessor (or maker) of heaven and earth; and Abraham gave him tithes of all his booty (Gen. xiv. 18-20). Biblical tradition tells us nothing more about Melchizedek (cf. Heb. vii. 3); but the majestic figure of the king-priest, prior to the priesthood of the law, to whom even the father of all Israel paid tithes (cf. Jacob at Bethel, Gen. xxviii. 22), suggested a figurative or typical application, first in Psalm ex. to the vicegerent of Yahweh, seated on the throne of Zion, the king of Israel who is also priest after the order of Melchizedek, and then, after the Gospel had ensured the Messianic interpretation of the Psalm (Matt. xxii. 42 seq.), to the kingly priesthood of Jesus, as that idea is worked out at length in the Epistle to the Hebrews. The theological interest which attaches to the idea of the pre- Aaronic king-priest in these typical applications is practically independent of the historical questions suggested by the narrative of Gen. xiv. The episode of Melchizedek, though connected with the main narrative by the epithets given to Yahweh in Gen. xiv. 22, breaks the natural connexion of verses 17 and 21, and may perhaps have come originally from a separate source. As the narrative now stands Salem must be sought in the vicinity of " the kingls dale," which from 2 Sam. xviii. 18, probably, but not necessarily, lay near Jerusalem. That Salem is Jerusalem, as in Psalm lxxvi. 2, 1 It is to be noted also that the name is of the same form as Adoni-zedek, king of Jerusalem (Josh. x. 1), and that the un- Hebraic Araunah of 2 Sam. xxiv. 16 is probably a corruption of the similar compound Adonijah (so Cheyne, Ency. Bib. col. 290). is the ancient and common view; but even in the 15th century B.C. Jerusalem was known as Uru-salim. Jerome and others have identified Salim with one or other of the various places which bear that name, e.g. the XaXeln of John iii. 23, 8 m. south of Beth- shean. In a genuine record of extreme antiquity the union of king and priest in one person, the worship of El as the supreme deity by a Canaanite, 2 and the widespread practice of the consecra- tion of a tithe of booty can present no difficulty ; but, if the historical character of the narrative is denied, the date of the conception must be placed as late as the rise of the temporal authority of the high priests after the exile. So far no evidence has been found in the cuneiform inscriptions or elsewhere in support either of the genuineness of the episode in its present form, or of the antiquity which is attributed to it (see further, J. Skinner, Genesis, pp. 269 sqq.). An ancient legend identifies Melchizedek with Shem (Palestinian Targum, Jerome on Isa. xli., Ephraem Syrus in loco). See further the literature on Gen. xiv., and the articles Abraham, Genesis. (W. R. S. ; S. A. C.) MELCOMBE, GEORGE BUBB DODDINGTON, Baron (1601- 1762), English politician. His father's name was Bubb, but the son took the name of Doddington on inheriting a large property by the death of an uncle of that name (1720). He was educated at Oxford. In 171 5 he was returned to parliament as member for Winchelsea, and was sent as envoy extraordinary to Spain. He carried on a scandalous traffic in the five or six parliamentary votes which he controlled, his tergiversation and venality furnishing food for the political satirists and caricaturists of the day. His most estimable political action was his defence of Admiral Byng in the House of Commons (1757). From 1722 to 1754 he sat in parliament for Bridge- water; from 1724 to 1740 was a lord of the treasury; and, in 1744, became treasurer of the navy under Henry Pelham, and, again in 1755, under Newcastle and Fox. In April 176 1 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Melcombe of Melcombe Regis in' Dorsetshire. He died at La Trappe, his Hammersmith house, on the 28th of July 1762. His wife, acknowledged only after the death of another lady to whom he had given a bond that he would marry no one else, died without issue. He was a wit and a friend of wits, a good scholar, and something of a Maecenas; Thomson's " Summer " was dedicated to him, Fielding addressed to him an epistle and Edward Young a satire. He was a leading spirit of the " Hell-fire " Club, whose members, called " Fran- ciscans," from their founder Sir Francis Dashwood (d. 1781), held their revels in the ruined Cistercian abbey of Medmenham, Bucks. His diary, published in 1784, reveals him in. his character of place-hunter and throws a curious light on the political methods of the time. MELEAGER (Gk. Mekkaypos), in Greek legend, the son of Oeneus, king of Calydon, and Althaea. His father having neglected to sacrifice to Artemis, she sent a wild boar to ravage the land, which was eventually slain by Meleager. A war broke out between the Calydonians and Curetes (led by Althaea's brothers) about the disposal of the head and skin, which Meleager awarded as a prize to Atalanta, who had inflicted the first wound; the brothers of Althaea lay in wait for Atalanta and robbed her of the spoils, but were slain by Meleager. When Althaea heard this, she cursed Meleager, who withdrew, and refused to fight until the Curetes were on the point of capturing the city of Calydon. Then, yielding to his wife's entreaties, he sallied forth and defeated the enemy, but was never seen again, having been carried off by the Erinyes, who had heard his mother's curse (or he was slain by Apollo in battle). According to a later tradition, not known to Homer, the Moerae appeared to Althaea when Meleager was seven days old, and announced"*- that the child would only live as long as the log blazing on the hearth remained unconsumed. Althaea thereupon seized the log, extinguished the flames, and hid it in a box. But, after her brothers' death, she relighted the log, and let it burn away until Meleager died. 3 Then, horrified at what she had done, she hanged herself, or died of grief. The sisters of Meleager were 2 The god 'TSXiovv was also Phoenician ; see Driver, Genesis, p. 165; Lagrange, Religions Simitiques, Index, s.v. 3 On the torch as representing the light of life, see E. Kuhnert in Rheinisches Museum, xlix., 1894, and J. Grimm, Teutonic Mytho- logy (Eng. trans, by J. Stallybrass, 1880), ii. 853. MELEDAI-MELETIUS OB ANTIOCH 93 changed by Artemis out of compassion into guinea fowls and removed to the island of Leros, where they mourned part of the year for their brother. The life and adventures of Meleager were a favourite subject in ancient literature and art. Meleager is represented as a tall, vigorous youth with curly haif , holding a javelin or a boar's head, and accompanied by a dog. See R. Kekul6, De fabula meleagrea dissertatio (1861) ; Surber, Die Meleagersage (Zurich, 1880); articles on "Meleager" and " Meleagrides " in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie; L. Preller, Griechische Mylhologie; Apollodorus i. 8; Homer, Iliad, ix. 527; Diod. Sic. iv. 34; Dio Chrysostom, Or. 67; Hyginus, Fab. 171; Ovid, Metam. viii. 260-545. In the article Greek Art (fig. 41) the hunting of the Calydonian boar is represented on a fragment of a frieze from a heroum, HELEDA (Serbo-Croatian, Mljet; Lat. Melita), the most southerly and easterly of the larger Adriatic islands of the Austrian province of Dalmatia. Pop. (1900), 1617; Meleda lies south of the Sabioncello promontory, from which it is divided by the Meleda Channel. Its length is 23 m.; its average breadth 2 m. It is of volcanic origin, with numerous chasms and gorges, of which the longest, the Babinopolje, connects the north and south of the island. Port Palazzo, the principal harbour, on the north, is a port of call for tourist steamers. Meleda has been regarded as the Melita on which St Paul was shipwrecked, this view being first expounded, in the 10th century, by Con- stantine Porphyrogenitus. As at Malta, a " St Paul's Bay " is still shown. MELEGNANO (formerly Marignano), a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Milan, n m. S.E. of that city by the railway to Piacenza, 289 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 6782. There are remains of a castle of the Visconti. Its military importance is due to its position at the crossing of, the river Lambro. It was a stronghold of Milan in her great struggle against Lodi, and is famous for the victory of Francis 1. of France over the Swiss in 1515, known as the battle of Marignan, and for the action between the French and Austrians in 1859. MELENDEZ VALDES, JUAN (1754-1817), Spanish poet, was born at Ribera del Fresno, Badajoz, on the nth of March 1754. Destined by his parents for the priesthood, he graduated in law at Salamanca, where he became indoctrinated with the ideas of the French philosophical school. In 1780 with Batilo, a pastoral in the manner of Garcilaso de la Vega, he won a prize offered by the Spanish academy, next year he was intro- duced to Jovellanos, through whose influence he was appointed to a professorship at Salamanca in 1783. The pastoral scenes in Las Bodas de Camacho (1784) do not compensate for its undramatic nature, but it gained a prize from the municipality of Madrid. A volume of verses, lyrical and pastoral, published in 1785, caused Melendez Valdes to be hailed as the first Spanish poet of his time. This success induced him to resign his chair at Salamanca, and try his fortune in politics. Once more the friendship of Jovellanos obtained for him in 1789 a judgeship at Saragossa, whence he was transferred two years later to a post in the chancery court at Valladolid. In 1797 he dedicated to Godoy an enlarged edition of his poems, the new matter consisting principally of unsuccessful imitations of Milton and Thomson; but the poet was rewarded by promotion to a high post in the treasury at Madrid. On the fall of Jovellanos in 1798 Melendez Valdes was dismissed and exiled from the capital; he returned in 1808 and accepted office under Joseph Bonaparte. He had previously denounced the French usurper in his verses. He now outraged the feelings of his countrymen by the grossest flattery of his foreign master, and in 1813 he fled to Alais. Four years later he died in poverty at Montpellier. His remains were removed to Spain in 1900. In natural talent and in acquired accomplishment Melendez Valdes was not surpassed by any contemporary Spaniard; he failed from want of character, and his profound insincerity affects his poems. Yet he has fine moments in various veins, and his imitation of Jean Second's Basia is notable. MELETIUS OF ANTIOCH (d. 381), Catholic bishop and saint, was born at Melitene in Lesser Armenia of wealthy and noble parents. He first appears (c. 357) a? a supporter of Acacius, bishop ttf Caesarea, the leader of that party in the episcopate which supported the Homoean formula by which the emperor Constantius sought to effect a compromise between the Homoe- usians and the Homousians. Meletius thus makes his debut as an ecclesiastic of the court party, and as such became bishop of Sebaste in succession to Eustathius, deposed as an Homousian heretic by the synod of Melitene. The appointment was resented by the Hombeusian clergy, and Meletius retired to Berpea- According to Socrates he attended the synod of Seleucia in the autumn of 359, and then subscribed the Acacian formula. Early in 360 he became bishop of Antioch, in succession to Eudoxius, who had been raised to the see of Constantinople. Early in the following year he was in exile. According to an old tradition, supported by evidence drawn from Epiphanius and Chrysostom, this was due to a sermon preached before the emperor Constantius, in which he revealed Homousian views. This explanation, however, is rejected by Loofs; the sermon contains nothing inconsistent with the Acacian position favoured by the court party; on the other hand, there is evidence of conflicts with the clergy, quite apart from any questions of orthodoxy, which may have led to the bishop's deposition. The successor of Meletius was Euzoeus, who had fallen with Arius under the ban of Athanasius; and Loofs explains the subita fidei mutafio which St Jerome (ann. Abr. 2376) ascribes to Meletius to the dogmatic opposition of the deposed bishop to his successor. In Antioch itself Meletius continued to have adherents, who held separate services in the " Apostolic " church in the old town. The Meletian schism was complicated, moreover, by the presence in the city of another anti-Arian sect, stricter adherents of the Homousian formula, maintaining the tradition of the deposed bishop Eustathius and governed at this time by the presbyter Paulinus. The synod of Alexandria sent deputies to attempt an arrangement between the two anti-Arian Churches; but before they arrived Paulinus had been consecrated bishop by Lucifer of Calaris, and when Meletius — free to return in consequence of the emperor Julian's contemp- tuous policy — reached the city, he found himself one of three rival bishops. Meletius was now between two stools. The orthodox Nicene party, notably Athanasius himself, held communion with Paulinus only; twice, in 365 and 371 or 372, Meletius was exiled by decree of the Arian emperor Valens. A further complication was added when, in 375, Vitalius, one of Meletius's presbyters, was consecrated bishop by the heretical bishop Apollinaris of Laodicea. Meanwhile, under the influence of his situation, Meletius had been more and more approximating to the views of the newer school of Nicene orthodoxy. Basil of Caesarea, throwing over the cause of Eustathius, championed that of Meletius who, when after the death of Valens he returned in triumph to Antioch, was hailed as the leader of Eastern orthodoxy. As such he presided, in October 379, over the great synod of Antioch, in which the dogmatic agreement of East and West was estab- lished; it was he who helped Gregory of Nazianzus to the see of Constantinople and consecrated him ; it was he who presided over the second oecumenical council at Constantinople in 381. He died soon after the opening of the council, and the emperor Theodosius, who had received him with especial distinction, caused his body to be carried to Antioch and buried with the honours of a saint. The Meletian schism, however, did not end with his death. In spite of the advice of Gregory of Nazianzus . and of the Western Church, the recognition of Paulirius's sole episcopate was refused, Flavian being consecrated as Meletius's successor. The Eustathians, on the other hand, elected Evagrius as bishop onPaulinus's death, and it was not till 415 that Flavian succeeded in re-uniting them to the Church. Meletius was a holy man, whose ascetic life was all the more remarkable in view of his great private wealth. He was also a man of learning and culture, and widely esteemed for his honourable, kindly and straightforward character. He is venerated as a saint and confessor in both the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Eastern Churches. 94 MELETIUS OF LYCOPOLIS— MELINGUE See the article G. F. Loofs in Herzog-Hauck, RealencyUopddie (ed. 1897, Leipzig), xii. 552, and authorities there cited. MELETIUS OF LYCOPOLIS (4th century), founder of the sect known after him as the " Meletians," or as the " Church of the Martyrs," in the district of Thebes in Egypt. With Peter, archbishop of Alexandria, he was thrown into prison during the persecution under Diocletian. His importance is due to his refusal to receive, at least until the persecution had ceased, those Christians who during the persecutions had renounced their faith, and then repented. This refusal led to a breach with Peter, and other Egyptian bishops who were willing to grant absolution to those who were willing to do penance for their infidelity. Meletius, after regaining his freedom, held his ground and drew around him many supporters, extending his influence even so far away as Palestine. He ordained 29 bishops and encroached upon Peter's jurisdiction. The Council of Nicaea in 325 upheld the bishops, but Meletius was allowed to remain bishop of Lycopolis though with merely nominal authority. His death followed soon after. His followers, however, took part with the Arians in the controversy with Athanasius and existed as a separate sect till the 5th century. See Achelis in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk. xii. (1903) 558, with the authorities there quoted, and works on Church History. HELFI, a city and episcopal see of Basilicata, Italy, in the province of Potenza, 30 m. by rail N. of the town of that name. Melfi is picturesquely situated on the lower slopes of Monte Vulture, 1591 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 14,547. The castle was originally erected by Robert Guiscard, but as it now stands it is mainly the work of the Doria family, who have possessed it since the time of Charles V. ; and the noble cathedral which was founded in 11 53 by Robert's son and successor, Roger, has had a modern restoration (though it retains its campaniles) in consequence of the earthquake of 1851, when the town was ruined, over one thousand of the inhabitants perishing. It is the centre of an agricultural district which produces oil and wine. In the town hall is a fine Roman sarcophagus found 6 m. W. of Venosa. Melfi does not seem to occupy an ancient site, and its origin is uncertain. By the Normans it was made the capital of Apulia in 1041, and fortified. The council held by Nicholas I. in 1059, that of Urban II. in 1089, the rebellion against Roger in 1133 and the subsequent punishment, the plunder of the town by Barbarossa in 1 167, the attack by Richard, count of Acerra in 11 90, and the parliament of 1223, in which Frederick II. established the constitu- tion of the kingdom of Naples, form the principal points of interest in the annals of Melfi. In 1348 Joanna I. of Naples bestowed the city on Niccolo Acciajuoli; but it was shortly afterwards captured, after a six months' siege, by the king of Hungary, who transferred it to Conrad the Wolf. In 1392 Goffredo Marzano was made count of Melfi; but Joanna II. granted the lordship to the Caracciolo family, and they retained it for one hundred and seven years till the time ot Charles V. An obstinate resistance was offered by the city to Lautrec de Foix in 1528; and his entrance within its walls was followed by the massacre, it is said, of 18,000 of its citizens. See G. de Lorenzo, Venosa e la regione del Vulture (Bergamo, 1906). MELICERTES, in Greek legend, the son of the Boeotian prince Athamas and Ino, daughter of Cadmus. Ino, pursued by her husband, who had been driven mad by Hera because Ino had brought up the infant Dionysus, threw herself and Melicertes into the sea from a high rock between Megara and Corinth. Both were changed into marine deities — Ino as Leucothea, Melicertes as Palaemon. The body of the latter was carried by a dolphin to the Isthmus of Corinth and deposited under a pine tree. Here it was found by his uncle Sisyphus, who had it removed to Corinth, and by command of the Nereids instituted the Isthmian games and sacrifices in his honour. There seems little doubt that the cult of Melicertes was of foreign, probably Phoenician, origin, and introduced by Phoenician navigators on the coasts and islands of the Aegean and Mediterranean. He is a native of Boeotia, where Phoenician influences were strong; at Tenedos he was propitiated by the sacrifice of children, which seems to point to his identity with Melkart. The premature death of the child in the Greek form of the legend is probably an allusion to this. The Romans identified Palaemon with Portunus (the harbour god). No satisfactory origin of the name Palaemon has been given. It has been suggested that it means the " wrestler " or straggler " (iraKalw) and is an epithet of Heracles, who is often identified with Melkart, but there does not appear to be any traditional connexion between Heracles and Palaemon. Meli- certes being Phoenician, Palaemon also has been explained as the " burning lord " (Baal-haman), but there seems little in common between a god of the sea and a god of fire. See Apollodorus iii. 4, 3; Ovid, Metam. iv. 416-542, Fasti, vi. 485 ; Hyginus, Fab. 2 ; Pausanias i. 44, ii. 1 ; Philostratus, Icones, ii. 16; articles by Toutain in Daremberg and Saglio's Diction- naire des antiquitis and by Stoll in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologies L. Preller, Griechische Mythologie; R. Brown, Semitic Influence in ■ Hellenic Mythology (1898). MELILLA, a Spanish fortified station and penal settlement on the north coast of Morocco, south of Cape Tres Forcas and 135 m. E.S.E. of Ceuta. Pop. about 9000. The town is built on a huge rock connected with the mainland by a rocky isthmus. There is a harbour, only accessible to small vessels; the roadstead outside is safe and has deep water a mile to the east of the fortress. From the landing-place, where a mole is cut out of the rock, there is a steep ascent to the upper town, charac- teristically Spanish in appearance. The town is walled, and the isthmus protected by a chain of small forts. A Moorish custom-house is placed on the Spanish border beyond the fort of Santa Isabel, and is the only authorized centre of trade on the Riff coast between Tetuan and the Algerian frontier. It thus forms the entrepot for the commerce of the Riff district and its hinterland. Goat skins, eggs and beeswax are the principal exports, cotton goods, tea, sugar and candles being the chief imports. For the period 1 900-1 905 the annual value of the trade was about £200,000. Melilla, the first place captured by Spain on the African mainland, was seized from the Moors in 1490. The Spaniards have had much trouble with the neighbouring tribes — turbulent Riffians, hardly subject to the sultan of Morocco. The limits of the Spanish territory round the fortress were fixed by treaties with Morocco in 1859, i860, 1861 and 1894. In 1893 the Riffians besieged Melilla and 25,000 men had to be despatched against them. In 1908 two companies, under the protection of El Roghi, a chieftain then ruling the Riff region, started mining lead and iron some 15 m. from Melilla and a railway to the mines was begun. In October of that year the Riffians revolted from the Roghi and raided the mines, which remained closed until June 1909. On the 9th of July the workmen were again attacked and several of them killed. Severe fighting between the Spaniards and the tribesmen followed. The Riffians having submitted, the Spaniards, in 1 910, restarted the mines and undertook harbour works at Mar Chica. See Budgett Meakin, The Land of the Moors (London, 1901), ch. xix., and the authorities there cited; P. Barre, "Melilla et les presides espagnols," Rev. franQaise (1908). MllLINE, FELIX JULES (1838- ), French statesman, was born at Remiremont on the 20th of May 1838. Having adopted the law as his profession, he was chosen a deputy in 1872, and in 1879 he was for a short time under-secretary to the minister of the interior. In 1880 he came to the front as the leading spokesman of the party which favoured the protection of French industries, and he had a considerable share in fashioning the protectionist legislation of the years 1890-1902. From 1883 to 1885 Meline was minister for agriculture, and in 1888-1889 he was president of the Chamber of Deputies. In 1896 he became premier (president du conseil) and minister for agriculture, offices which he vacated in 1898. At one time he editecfta Republique franqaise, and after his retirement from public life he wrote Le Retour A la terre et la surproduction industrielle, tout enfaveur de V agriculture (1905). MELINGUE, ETIENNE MARIN (1808-1875), French actor and sculptor, was born in Caen, the son of a volunteer of 1792. He early went to Paris and obtained work as a sculptor on the church of the Madeleine, but his passion for the stage soon led him to join a strolling company of comedians. Finally chance gave him an opportunity to show his talents, and at the Porte Saint Martin he became the popular interpreter of romantic MELIORISM— MELLITIC ACID 95 drama of the Alexandre Dumas type. One of his greatest successes was as Benvenuto Cellini, in which he displayed his ability both as an actor and as a sculptor, really modelling before the eyes of the- audience a statue of Hebe. He sent a number of statuettes to the various exhibitions, notably one of Gilbert Louis Duprez as William Tell. Melingue's wife, Theodorine Thiesset (1813-1886), was the actress selected by Victor Hugo to create the part of Guanhumara in Burgraves at the Comedie Francaise, where she remained ten years. See Dumas, Une Vie d'artisle (1854). MELIORISM (Lat. tnelior, better), in philosophy, a term given to that view of the world which believes that at present the sum of good exceeds the sum of evil and that, in the future, good will continually gain upon evil. The term is said to have been invented by George Eliot to express a theory mediating between optimism and pessimism. The pragmatic movement in philo- sophy which puts stress upon the duty and value of effort is naturally favourable to the melioristic view: the best things that have been said recently in favour of it are found in books such as William James's Pragmatism. MELISSUS OF SAMOS, Greek philosopher of the Eleatic School (q.v.), was born probably not later than 470 B.C. Accord- ing to Diogenes Laertius, ix. 24, he was not only a thinker, but also a political leader in his native town, and was in command of the fleet which defeated the Athenians in 442. The same authority says he was a pupil of Parmenides and of Heraclitus, but the statement is improbable, owing to discrepancy in dates. His works, fragments of which are preserved by Simplicius and attested by the evidence of Aristotle, are devoted to the defence of Parmenides' doctrine. They were written in Ionic and consist of long series of argument. Being, he says, is eternal. It cannot have had a beginning because it cannot have begun from not-being (cf. ex nihilo nihil), nor from being (efoj yap av ovrw kcu ov yevoiro). It cannot suffer destruction; it is impossible for being to become not being, and if it became another being, there would be no destruction. According to Simplicius (Physica, f. 22b), he differed here from Parmenides in distinguishing being and absolute being (to cbrAws kbv). He goes on to show that eternal being must also be unlimited in magnitude, and, therefore, one and unchangeable. Any change whether from internal or external source, he says, is unthinkable; the One is unvarying in quantity and in kind. There can be no division inside this unity, for any such division implies space or void; but void is nothing, and, therefore, is not. It follows further that being is incorporeal, inasmuch as all body has size and parts. The fundamental difficulty underlying this logic is the paradox more clearly expressed by Zeho and to a large extent represented in almost all modern discussion, namely that the evidence of the senses contradicts the intellect. Abstract argument has shown that change in the unity is impossible; yet the senses tell us that hot becomes cold, hard becomes soft, the living dies, and so on. From a comparison of Melissus with Zeno of Elea, it appears that the spirit of dialectic was already tentatively at work, though it was not conscious of its own power. Neither Melissus nor Zeno seems to have observed that the application of these destructive methods struck at the root not only of multiplicity but also of the One whose existence they maintained. The weapons which they forged in the interests of Parmenides were to be used with equal effect against them- selves. See Ritter and Preller, §§ 159-166; Brandis, Commentationum eleaticarum, pt. I, p. 185; Mullach, Arisiotelis de Melisso, Xenophane, Gorgia ; Pabst, De Melissi samii fragments (Bonn, 1889), and histories of philosophy. MELITO, bishop of Sardis, a Christian writer of the 2nd century, mentioned by Eusebius {Hist. Eccl. iv. 21) along with Hegesippus, Dionysius of Corinth, Apollinaris of Hierapolis, Irenaeus, and others, his contemporaries, as a champion of orthodoxy and upholder of apostolic tradition. Of his personal history nothing is known, and of his numerous works (which are enumerated — with quotations — by Eusebius) only a few fragments are extant. They included an Apologia addressed to Antoninus some time between a.d. 169 and i8o> two books relating to the paschal controversy, and a work entitled 'EkXoyai (selections from the Old Testament), which contained the first Christian list of " the books of the Old Covenant." It excludes Esther, Nehemiah and the Apocrypha. The fragments have been edited with valuable notes by Routh (Reliquiae sacrae, vol. i., 1814). These are sufficient to show that Melito was an important figure in Asia Minor and took much part in the paschal, Marcionite and Montanist controversies. It seems more than doubtful whether the Apologia of Melito " the Philosopher," discovered in a Syriac translation by Henry Tattam (1789-1868), and subsequently edited by W. Cureton and by Pitra-Renan, ought to be attributed to this writer and not to another of the same name. The KXeis (clavis), edited by Pitra- Renan, is a much later Latin collection of mystical explanations of Scripture. See A. Harnack, Texte und Untersuchungen,'i. 240-278 (Leipzig, 1882); Erwin Preuschen, s.v. "Melito" in Herzog-Hauck, Real- encyklopadie, xii., 1903, giving full list of works and bibliography. MELKSHAM, a market town in the Westbury parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 934 m. W. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 2450. It lies in a valley sheltered by steep chalk hills on the east, its old-fashioned stone houses lining a single broad street, which crosses the Upper Avon by a bridge of four arches. The church preserves some remnants of Norman work and a Perpendicular south chapel of rare beauty. Melksham possesses cloth-mills where coco-nut fibre and hair cloth are woven, flour-mills and dye-works. On the discovery of a saline spring in 1816, baths and a pump-room were opened, but although two other springs were found later, the attempt to create a fashionable health resort failed. The surrounding deer-forest was often visited by Edward I. Lacock Abbey, 3 m. distant, was founded in 1232 for Austin canonesses, and dissolved in 1539. Portions of the monastic buildings remain as picturesque fragments in and near the modern mansion called Lacock Abbey. MELLE, a town of western France, capital of an arrondisse- ment in the department of Deux-Sevres, on the left bank of the Beronne, 21 m. E.S.E. of Niort by rail. Pop. (1906), 2231. Melle has two churches in the Romanesque style of Poitou, St Pierre and St Hilaire, the latter ornamented with sculptured arcading. The hospital has a richly carved doorway of the 17th century. The church of St Savinien (nth century) serves as a prison. The town has trade in farm-produce, mules and other live stock; distilling is carried on. Melle (Metallum) derives its name from the lead mine worked here during the Roman occupation and in the early middle ages. At the latter period it had a mint. In later times it was a possession of the counts of Maine. MELLITIC ACID (benzene hexacarboxylic acid), C 6 (COOH) 6 , was first discovered in 1799 by M. H. Klaproth in the mineral honeystone, which is the aluminium salt of the acid. The acid may be prepared by warming honeystone with ammonium carbonate, boiling off the excess of the ammonium salt and adding ammonia to the solution. The precipitated alumina is filtered off, the filtrate evaporated and the ammonium salt of the acid purified by recrystallization. The ammonium salt is then converted into the lead salt by precipitation with lead acetate and the lead salt decomposed by sulphuretted hydrogen. The acid may also be prepared by the oxidation of pure carbon, or of hexamethyl benzene, in the cold, by alkaline potassium permanganate (F. Schulze, Ber., 1871, 4, p. 802; C. Friedel and J. M. Crafts, Ann. Mm. phys., 1884 [6], 1, p. 470). It crystallizes in fine silky needles and is soluble in water and alcohol. It is a very stable compound, chlorine, concentrated nitric acid and hydriodic acid having nO action upon it. It is decomposed, on dry distillation, into carbon dioxide and pyromellitic acid, CioH 6 8 ; when distilled with lime it gives carbon dioxide and benzene. Long digestion of the acid with excess of phosphorus pentachloride results in the formation of the acid chloride, C6(COCl)e, which crystallizes in needles, melting at 190° C. By heating the ammonium salt of the acid to 150-160 C. as long as ammonia is evolved, a mixture of paramide (mellimide), C«( qq > NH J 3 , and ammonium euchroate is obtained. The mixture may be separated by dissolving out the ammonium euchroate with water. Paramide is a white amorphous powder, insoluble in water and alcohol. 9 6 MELLTTUS— MELODY MELLITUS (d. 624), bishop of London and archbishop of Canterbury, was sent to England by Pope Gregory the Great in 601. He was consecrated by St Augustine before 604, and a church was built for him in London by Aethelberht, king of Kent ; this church was dedicated to St Paul, and Mellitus became first bishop of London. About ten years later the East Saxons reverted to heathenism and the bishop was driven from his see. He took refuge in Kent and then in Gaul, but soon returned to England, and in 619 became archbishop of Canterbury in succession to Laurentius. He died on the 24th of April 624. MELLONI, MACEDONIO (1798-1854), Italian physicist, was born at Parma on the nth of April 1798. From 1824 to 1831 he was professor at Parma, but in the latter year he was compelled to escape to France, having taken part in the revolution. In 1839 he went to Naples and was soon appointed director of the Vesuvius observatory, a post which he held until 1848. Melloni received the Rumford medal of the Royal Society in 1834. In 1835 he was elected correspondent of the Paris Academy, and in 1839 a .foreign member of the Royal Society. He died at Portici near Naples of cholera on the nth of August 1854. Melloni's reputation as a physicist rests especially on his dis- coveries in radiant heat, made with the aid of the thermo- multiplier or combination of thermopile and galvanometer, which, soon after the discovery of thermoelectricity by T. J. Seebeck, was employed by him jointly with L. Nobili in 1831. His experiments were especially concerned with the power of transmitting dark heat possessed by various substances and with the changes produced in the heat rays by passage through different materials. Substances which were comparatively transparent to heat he designated by the adjective " diather- mane," the property being " diathermaneite," while for the heat- tint or heat-coloration produced by passage through different materials he coined the word " diathermansie." In English, however, the terms were not well understood, and " diather- mancy," was generally used as the equivalent of " diatherma- neite." In consequence Melloni about 1841 began to use " diathermique " in place of " diathermane," " diathermasie " in place of "diathermaneite," and " thermocrose " for " diather- mansie." His most important book, La thermocrose ou la coloration calorifique (vol. i., Naples, 1850), was unfinished at bis death. He studied the reflection and polarization of radiant heat, the magnetism of rocks, electrostatic induction, daguer- rotypy, &c. MELODRAMA (a coined word from Gr. /ieXos, music, and 8pS.ua, action), the name of several species of dramatic com- position. As the word implies, " melodrama " is properly a dramatic mixture of music and action, and was first applied to a form of dramatic musical composition in which music accompanied the spoken words and the action, but in which there was no singing. The first example of such a work has generally been taken to be the Pygmalion of J. J. Rousseau, produced in 1775. This is the source of romantic dramas depending on sensational incident with exaggerated appeals to conventional sentiment rather than on play of character, and in which dramatis personae follow conventional types— the villain, the hero wrongfully charged with crime, the persecuted heroine, the adventuress, &c. At first the music was of some importance, forming practically a running accompaniment suitable to the situations — but this has gradually disappeared, and, if it remains, is used mainly to emphasize particularly strong situations, or to bring on or off the stage the various principal characters. Such plays first became' popular in France at the beginning of the 19th century. One of the most prolific writers of melodramas at that period was R. C. G. de Pixericouit ( 1 773-1844). The titles of some of his plays give a sufficient indication of their character; e.g. Victor, ou V enfant de la foret (1797); Carlina, ou V enfant du mystere (1801); Le Monastere abandonni, ou la maltdiction paternelle (1816). Another form of melodrama came from the same source, but developed on lines which laid more emphasis on the music, and is of some importance in the history of opera. Probably the first of this type is to be found in Georg Benda's Ariadne auf Naxos (15*74). The most familiar of such melodramas is Gay's Beggar's Opera. In these the dialogue is entirely spoken. In true opera the spoken dialogue was replaced by recitative. It may be noticed that the speaking of some parts of the dialogue is not sufficient to class an opera as a " melodrama " in this sense, as is proved by the spoken grave-digging scene, accompanied ' by music, in Fidelio, and the incantation scene in Der FreischUtz. To this' the English term "declamation" is usually applied; the Germans use Melodram. But see Opera. MELODY (Gr. jte\co5ia, a choral song, from n&x>s, tune, and ($17, song). In musical philosophy and history the word "melody "-must be used in a very abstract sense, as that aspect of music which is concerned only with the pitch of successive notes. Thus a " melodic scale " is a scale of a kind of music that is not based on an harmonic system; and thus we call ancient Greek music "melodic." The popular conception : of melody is that of " air " or " tune," and this is so far from being a primitive conception that there are few instances of such melody in recorded music before the 17th century; and even folk- songs, unless they are of recent origin, deviate markedly from the criteria of tunefulness. The modern conception of melody is based on the interaction of every musical category. For us a melody is the surface of a series of harmonies!, and an unac- companied melody so far implies harmony that if it so behaves that simple harmonies expressing clear key-relationships would be difficult to find for it, we feel it to be strange and vague, Again, we do not feel music as melodious unless its rhythm is symmetrical; and this, taken together with the harmonic rationality of modern melody, brings about an equally intimate connexion between melody on a large scale and form on a small scale.. In the article on Sonata Forms it is shown that there are gradations between the form of some kinds of single melody like " Barbara Allen " (see Ex. 1) and the larger dance forms of the suite, and then, again, gradations between these and the true sonata forms with their immense range of expression and development. Lastly, the element that appears at first sight most strictly melodic, namely, the rise and fall of the pitch, is intimately connected by origin with the nature of the human voice, and in later forms is enlarged fully as much by the char- acteristics of instruments as by parallel developments in rhythm, harmony and form. Thus modern melody is the musical surface of rhythm, harmony, form and instrumentation; and, if we take Wagnerian Leitmotif into account, we may as well add drama to the list. In short, melody is the surface of music. We may here define a few technicalities which may be said to come more definitely under the head of melody than any ,other; but see also Harmony and Rhythm. 1. A theme is a melody, not necessarily or even usually complete, except when designed for a set of variations {q.v.), but of sufficient independent coherence to be, so to speak, an intelligible musical sentence. Thus a fugue-subject is a theme, and the first and second subjects in sonata form are more or less complex groups of themes. 2. A figure is the smallest fragment of a theme that can be recognized when transformed or detached from its surroundings. The grouping of figures into new melodies is the: most obvious resource of " development " or " working-out " in the sonata-forms (see Ex. 2-7), besides being the main resource by which fugues are carried on at those moments in which the subjects and couhter- subjeets are not present as wholes, In 16th-century polyphony melody consists mainly of figures thus broken off from a canto fermo (see Contrapuntal Forms). 3. Polyphony is simultaneous multiple melody. In 16th-century music and in fugue-writing every part is as melodious as eVftry other. The popular cry for melody as an antidote to polyphony is thus really a curious perversion of the complaint that one may have too much of a good thing. Several well-known classical melodies are polyphonically composite, being formed by an inner melody appearing as it were through transparent places In the outer melody, which it thus completes. This is especially common in music for the pianoforte, where the tone of long notes rapidly fades; and the works of Chopin are full of examples. In Bach a works for keyed instruments figures frequently have a double mean- ing on this principle, as, for instance, in the peculiar kind of counter-; subject in the 15th fugue of the 2nd book of the Wohltemperirtlst Klavier. A good familiar example of a simple melody which, as written by the composer, would need two voices to sing it, is that MELODY 97 which begins the second subject of Beethoven's Waldstein Sonata (Op. 53, first movement* bars 35-42, where at the third bar of the melody a lower voice enters and finishes the phrase). 4 (a) Conjunct movement is the movement of melody along adjacent degrees of the scale. A large proportion of Beethoven's melodies are conjunct (see Ex. 2, fig. B). 4 (6) Disjunct movement, the opposite of conjunct, tends, though by no means always, to produce arpeggio types of melody, i.e. melodies which move up and down the notes of a chord. Certain types of such ntelody are highly characteristic of Brahms; arid Wagner, whose melodies are almost always of instrumental origin, is generally disjunct in diatonic melody and conjunct in chromatic (Ex. 2, fig. C, is a disjunct figure not forming an arpeggio). For various other melodic devices, such as inversion, augmenta- tion and diminution, see Contrapuntal Forms. We subjoin some musical illustrations showing the treatment of figures in melody as a means of symmetry (Ex. 1), and "develop- ment ( Ex. 2-7), and (Ex. 8-13) some modern melodic transforma- tions, differing from earlier methods in being immediate instead of gradual. (D. F. T.) Ex. 1. "Barbara Allen" (showing the germ of binary form in the balance between A 1 on the dominant and A 8 on the tonic). A 1 A» ES m =te£ ^ m — »- H"=? ess E^3 I * * - 4 Ex.2. Mainthemeof the first movement of Beethoven's Trio in Bb, Op. 97. -*-• — 3^ 1 — — V- I _B2 I I C *=£= m £ $=&££££ -=£ n - $ ^_ , , B 1 i_^!_i 1 ct ' 1 Ex. 3. Figure A of above developed in a new polyphonic 4-bar phrase. Ex. 4. Further sequential developments of A. '■ .. £=-!— P-F ===== ======t==¥^== W §£ rtWf^=^ &c. ,___^=r j- ^ I =3tt= $$? -- "*" Ex. 5. Development of C with B. ncir fr^ , ^ f"J~p* ^Tfr H- S jnzz. s f J-^& Tf S I » * V c :k>p: C 1 C a ir Ex. 6. Further development of B by diminution, in combination with the trills derived from C C* <*r tr m B diminished. Ex. 7. Further development of B by diminution and contrary motion (inversion). •*SPf B invert ed. Ex. 9. A and B 2 diminished. _&o. £* g& ^iil^^lfe &fe* rr Ex. 8. Brahms, Quintet, Op. 34. PE£ 3= §b^^SPlP^i '^f s Ex - Ia ^-fU^^ ^^ w Ex. 11. rfee Rheindaughter's Toy. Wagner, Das Rheingold. 4= Hil^pi^^^ Ex. 12. The Nibelung's Talisman. Z5 — ^ *" 6 3 iS-s- g^E^ 7£ J Ex. 13^ Walhalla. w* p$f Nf^ffffi OTTTT 4 9 8 MELON— MELORIA Transverse section of the fruit of the melon (Cucumis meld) , showing the placentas (pi) , with the seeds attached to them. The three carpels forming the pepo are separated by partitions (cl). From the centre, processes (s) go to circumference(Z), ending in curved placentaries bearing the ovules. MELON (Late Lat. melo, shortened form of Gr. firjkvireiruv, a kind of gourd; nffhov, apple, and ;reirtoi>, ripe), Cucumis melo, a polymorphic species of the order Cucurbitaceae, including numerous varieties. 1 The melon is an annual trailing herb with palmately-lobed leaves, and bears tendrils by means of which it "is readily trained over trellises, &c. It is monoecious, rt having male and female flowers on the same plant; the flowers have deeply five-lobed campanu- ^late corollas and three stamens. Naudin observed that in some varieties (e.g. of Cantaloups) fertile stamens sometimes occur in the female flowers. It is a native of south Asia " from the foot of the Himalayas to Cape Comorin," 2 where it grows spon- taneously, but is cultivated in the temperate and warm regions of the whole world. It is vari- able both in diversity of foliage and habit, but much more so in the fruit, which in some varieties is no larger than an olive, while in others it rivals the gourd (Cucurbita maxima). The fruit is globular, ovoid, spindle-shaped, or serpent-like, netted or smooth-skinned, ribbed or furrowed, variously coloured externally, with white, green, or orange flesh when ripe, scented or scentless, sweet or insipid, bitter or even nauseous, &c. . Like the gourd, the melon undergoes strange meta- morphoses by crossing its varieties, though the latter preserve, their characters when alone. The offspring of all crossings are fertile. As remarkable cases of sudden changes produced by artificially crossing races, M. Naudin records that in 1859 the offspring of the wild melons m. sauvage de I'Inde (C. melo agrestis) and m. s. d'Afrique, le petit m. de Figari bore different fruits from their parents, the former being ten to twelve times their size, ovoid, white-skinned, more or less scented, and with reddish flesh ; though another individual bore fruits no larger than a nut. The offspring of m. de Figari after being crossed bore fruits of the serpent-melon. On the other hand, the serpent-melon was made to bear ovoid and reticulated fruit. Naudin thinks it is probable that the culture of the melon in Asia is as ancient as that of all other alimentary vegetables. The Egyptians grew it, or at least inferior races of melon, which were either indigenous or introduced from Asia. The Romans and doubtless the Greeks were familiar with it, though some forms may have been described as cucumbers. Columella seems to refer to the serpent-melon in the phrase ut coluber . . . ventre cubat flexo. Pliny describes them as pepones (xix. 23 to xx. 6) and Columella as melones (xi. 2, 53). The melon began to be extensively cultivated in France in 1629, according to Olivier de Serres. Gerard (Herball, 772) figured and described in 1597 several kinds of melons or pompions, but he has included gourds under the same name. The origin of some of the chief modern races, such as " Canta- loups," " Dudaim," and probably the netted sorts, is due to Persia and the neighbouring Caucasian regions. The first of these was brought to Rome from Armenia in the 1 6th century, and supplies the chief sorts grown for the French markets; but many others are doubtless artificial productions of west Europe. The water-melon (Citrullus vulgaris) is a member of a different genus of the same order. It has been cultivated for its cool refreshing fruit since the earliest times in Egypt and the Orient, and was known before the Christian era in southern Europe and Asia. The melon requires artificial heat to grow it to perfection, the 1 For a full account of the species of Cucumis and of the varieties of melon by Charles Naudin, see Annates des sciences naturelles, ter 4, vol. xi. p. 34 (1859). 1 Naudin, loc. cit. pp. 39, 76. rock and cantaloup varieties succeeding with a bottom heat of 70 and an atmospheric temperature of 75 °, rising with sun heat to 80°, and the Persian varieties requiring a bottom heat of 75°, gradually increasing to 8o°, and an atmospheric temperature ranging from 75° to 8o° when the fruit is swelling, as much sun heat as the plants can bear being allowed at all times. The melon grows best in rich turfy loam, somewhat heavy, with which a little well-rotted dung, especially that of pigeons or fowls, should be used, in the proportion of one-fifth mixed in the compost of loam. Melons are grown on hotbeds of fermenting manure, when the soil should be about a foot in thickness, or in pits heated either by hot water or fermenting matter, or in houses heated by hot wafer, in which case the soil bed should be 15 or 18 in. thick. The fer- menting materials should be well prepared, and, since the heat has to be kept up by linings, it is a good plan to introduce one or two layers of faggots in building up the bed. A mixture of dung and leaves gives a more subdued but more durable heat. For all ordinary purposes February is early enough for sowing the first crop, as well-flavoured fruits can scarcely be looked for before May. The seeds may be sown singly in 3-in. pots in a mixture of leaf-mould with a little loam, the pots being plunged in a bottom heat of 75 to 80°, and as near the glass as possible, in order that the young plants may not be drawn up. The hill or ridge of soil should be about a foot in thickness, the rest of the surface being afterwards made up nearly to the same level. If the fruiting-bed is not ready when the roots have nearly filled the pots, they must be shifted into 4-inch pots, for they must not get starved or pot -bound. Two or three plants are usually planted in a mound or ridge of soil placed in the centre of each light, and the rest of the surface is covered over to a similar depth as soon as the roots have made their way through the mound. The melon being one of those plants which produce distinct male and female flowers, it is necessary to its fertility that both should be produced, and that the pollen of the male flower should, either naturally by insect agency, or artificially by the cultivator's manipulation, be conveyed to the stigma of the female flower; this setting of the fruit is often done by stripping a male flower of its corolla, and inverting it in the centre of the fruit-bearing flower. After the fruit has set and has grown to the size of an egg, it should be preserved from contact with the soil by placing it on a piece of tile or slate; or if grown on a trellis by a little swinging wooden shelf, just large enough to hold it. In either case the material used should be tilted a little to one side, so as to permit water to drain away. Before the process of ripening commences, the roots should have a sufficient supply of moisture, so that none may be required from that time until the fruit is cut. When the melon is grown in a house there should be a good depth of drainage over the tank or other source of bottom heat, and on this should be placed turfs, grass side downwards, below the soil, which should not be less than 15 and need not be more than 18 in. in thickness. The compost should be made moderately firm, and only half the bed should be made up at first, the rest being added as the roots require it. The melon may also be grown in large pots, supplied with artificial manure or manure water. The stems may be trained up the trellis in the usual way, or the rafters of a pine stove may be utilized for the purpose. If the trellis is constructed in panels about the width of the lights, it can be taken down and conveniently stowed away when not in use. The presence of too much moisture either in the atmosphere or in the soil is apt to cause the plants to damp off at the neck, but the evil may be checked by applying a little fresh-slaked lime round the stem of the plant. ' Melons are liable to the attack of red spider, which are best removed by syringing with rain-water, and prevented by keeping a fairly humid atmosphere; green or black fly should also be watched for and removed by fumigation with tobacco smoke or by " vaporizing." The varieties of melon are continually receiving additions, and as newer varieties spring into favour, so the older ones drop out of cultivation. A great deal depends on getting the varieties true to name, as they are very liable to get cross-fertilized by insect agency. Some of the best at present are : Scarlet-fleshed. — Blenheim Orange, Frogmore Orange, Invincible, Sutton's Scarlet, and Triumph. White-fleshed. — Golden Orange, Hero of Lockinge, Longleat Perfection, Royal Favourite. Green-fleshed. — British Queen, Epicure, Exquisite, MonaTrch, Ringleader. The market-gardeners round Paris and other parts of France chiefly cultivate varieties of Cantaloup melon known as the Prescott hatif a chassis and Prescott fond blanc — both excellent in flavour. The plants are grown in frames on hotbeds, and only one large fruit is allowed to mature on each plant. If secured early in the season : — say in June — from 25 to 35 francs can be obtained for each fruit in the Paris markets; later fruits, however, drop down to 2 francs each, or even less when there is a glut (see J. Weathers, French Market-Gardening). MELORIA, a rocky islet, surrounded by a shoal, almost opposite Leghorn. It was the scene of two naval battles of the MELOS— MELOZZO DA FORLI 99 middle ages. The first, on the 3rd of May 1241, was fought between the fleet of the emperor Frederick II. Hohenstaufen, surnamed Stupor Mundi, in alliance with Pisa, against a Genoese squadron bringing a number of English, French and Spanish prelates to attend the council summoned to meet at the Lateran by Gregory IX. Three Genoese galleys were sunk and twenty- two taken. Several of the prelates perished, and many were carried prisoners to the camp of the emperor. The second, fought on Sunday the 6th of August 1 284, was of higher historical importance. It was a typical medieval sea-fight, and accom- plished the ruin of Pisa as a naval power. The long rivalry of that city and of Genoa had broken out for the last time in 1282, the immediate cause being the incompatible claims of the two cities to sovereignty over the islands of Sardinia and Corsica. The earlier conflicts of the war in 1282, 1283 and the spring of 1284, had been unfavourable to Pisa. Though the city was united with the Catalans and with Venice in hostility to Genoa, and though it had chosen a Venetian, Alberto Morosini, as its Podesta, it received no help from either. The Genoese, who had the larger and more efficient fleet, sent their whole power against their enemy. When the Genoese appeared off Meloria the Pisans were lying in the river Arno at the mouth of which lay Porto Pisano the port of the city. The Pisan fleet represented the whole power of the city, and carried members of every family of mark and most of the great officers of state. The Genoese, desiring to draw their enemy out to battle, and to make the action decisive, arranged their fleet in two lines abreast. The first was composed according to Agostino Giustiniani of fifty- eight galleys, and eight panfili, a class of light galleys of eastern origin named after the province of Pamphylia. Uberto Doria, the Genoese admiral, was stationed in the centre and in advance of his line. To the right were the galleys of the Spinola family, and of four of the eight " companies " into which Genoa was divided — Castello, Piazzalunga, Macagnana and Son Lorenzo. To the left were the galleys of the Dorias, and of the other four companies, Porta, Soziglia, Porta Nuova and II Borgo. The second line of twenty galleys, under the command of Benedetto Giacaria (or Zaccharie), was placed so far behind the first that the Pisans could not see whether it was made up of war-vessels or of small craft meant to act as tenders to the others. Yet it was near enough to strike in and decide the battle when the action had begun. The Pisans, commanded by the Podesta Morosini and his lieutenants Ugolino della Gherardescha and Andreotto Saraceno, came out in a single body. It is said that while the archbishop was blessing the fleet the silver cross of his archi- episcopal staff fell off, but that the omen was disregarded by the irreverence of the Pisans, who declared that if they had the wind they could do without divine help. They advanced in line abreast to meet the first line of the Genoese, fighting according to the medieval custom to ram and, board. The victory was decided for Genoa by the squadron of Giacaria which fell on the flank of the Pisans. Their fleet was nearly annihilated, the Podesta was taken, and Ugolino fled with a few vessels. As Pisa was also attacked by Florence and Lucca it could never recover the disaster. Two years later Genoa took Porto Pisano, and filled up the harbour. The count Ugolino was afterwards starved to death with several of his sons and grandsons in the manner made familiar by the 3 2nd canto of Dante's Inferno. See Annali della republica di Genova, by Agostino Giustiniani (ed. Canepa, Genoa, 1854). (D. H.) HELOS (mod. Milo), an island of the Aegean Sea (Cyclades group), at the S.W. corner of the archipelago, 75 m. due E. from the coast of Laconia. From E. to W. it measures about 14 m., from N. to S. 8 m., and its area is estimated at 52 Sq. m. The greater portion is rugged and hilly, culminating in Mount Elias in the west (2538 ft.). Like the rest of the cluster, the island is of volcanic origin, with tuff, trachyte and obsidian among its ordinary rocks. The natural harbour, which, with a depth diminishing from 70 to 30 fathoms, strikes in from the north- west so as to cut the island into two fairly equal portions, with an isthmus not more than ij m. broad, is the hollow of the prin- cipal crater. In one of the caves on the south coast the heat is still great, and on the eastern shore of the harbour there are hot sulphurous springs. Sulphur is found in abundance on the top of Mount Kalamo and elsewhere. In ancient times the alum of Melos was reckoned next to that of Egypt (Pliny xxxv. 15 [52]), and millstones, salt (from a marsh at the east end of the harbour), and gypsum are still exported. The Melian earth (717 M^Xtas) was employed as a pigment by ancient artists. Orange, olive, cypress and arbutus trees grow throughout the island, which, however, is too dry to have any profusion of vegetation. The vinej the cotton plant and barley are the main objects of culti- vation. Pop. (1907), 4864 (commune), 12,774 (province). The harbour town is Adamanta; from this there is an ascent to the plateau above the harbour, on which are situated Plaka, the chief town, and Kastro, rising on a hill above it, and other villages. The ancient town of Melos was nearer to the entrance of the harbour than Adamanta, and occupied the slope between the village of Trypete and the landing-place at Klima. Here is a theatre of Roman date and some remains of town walls and othei buildings, one with a fine mosaic excavated by the British school at Athens in 1896. Numerous fine works of art have been found on this site, notably the Aphrodite of Melos in the Louvre, the Asclepius in the British Museum, and the Poseidon and an archaic Apollo in Athens. The position of Melos, between Greece and Crete, arid its possession of obsidian, made it an important centre of early Aegean civilization. At this time the chief settlement was at the place now called Phylakopi, on the north-east coast. Here the excavations of the British school cleared many houses, including a palace of " Mycenaean" type; there is also a town wall. Part of the site has been washed away by the sea. The antiquities found were of three main periods, all preceding the Mycenean age of Greece. Much pottery was found, including examples of a peculiar style, with decorative designs, mostly floral, and also considerable deposits of obsidian. There are some traditions of a Phoenician occupa- tion of Melos. In historical times the island was occupied by Dorians from Laconia. In the 6th century it again produced a remarkable series of vases, of large size, with mythological subjects and orientalizing ornamentation (see Greek Art, fig. 9), and also a series of terra-cotta reliefs. Though Melos inhabitants sent a contingent to the Greek fleet at Salamis, it held aloof from the Attic league, and sought to remain neutral during the Peloponnesian War. But in 416 B.C. the Athenians, having attacked the island and compelled the Melians to surrender, slew all the men capable of bearing arms, made slaves of the women and children, and introduced 500 Athenian colonists. Lysander restored the island to its Dorian possessors, but it never recovered its former prosperity. There were many Jewish settlers in Melos in the beginning of the Christian era, and Christianity was early introduced. During the " Frankish " period the island formed part of the duchy of Naxos, except for the few years (1341-1383) when it was a separate lordship under Marco Sanudo and his daughter. Antimelos or Antimilo, 55 m. north-west of Milo, is an un- inhabited mass of trachyte, often called Eremomilo or Desert Melos. Kimolos, or Ar gentler a, less than 1 m. to the north-east, was famous in antiquity for its figs and fuller's earth (KijucoXia 717), and contained a considerable city, the remains of which cover the cliff of St Andrews. Polinos, Polybos or Polivo (anc. Polyaegos) lies rather more than a mile south-east of Kimolos. It was the subject of dispute between the Melians and Kimolians. It has long been almost uninhabited. See Leycester, " The Volcanic Group of Milo, Anti-Milo, &c," in Jour. Roy. Geog. Soc. (1852) ; Tournefort, Voyage; Leake, Northern Greece, iii. ; Prokesch von Osten, Denkwiirdigkeiten, &c. ; Bursian, Geog. von Griechenland, ii. ; Journ. Hell. Stud, xvi., xvii., xviii.; Excavations at Phylakopi; Inscr. graec. xii. iii. 197 sqq. ; on coins found in 1909, see Jameson in Rev. Num. 1909; 188 sqq. (E. Gr.) MELOZZO DA FORLi (c. 1438-1494), Italian painter, the first who practised foreshortening with much success, was born at Forli about 1438; he came, it is supposed, of a wealthy family named Ambrosi. In all probability, Melozzo studied pointing under Piero de' Franceschi, of Borgo St Sepolcro; he seems also to have been well acquainted with Giovanni Santi, the father of IOO MEiaDSSE Raphael. It has been said that he became a journeyman and colour-grinder to some of the best masters, in order to prosecute his studies; this lacks confirmation. Only three works are extant which can safely be assigned to Melozzo: those in the Louvre, the National Gallery, London, and the Barberini Palace, Rome, are disputable, (i) He painted in 1472 the vault of the chief chapel in the church of the Apostoli in Rome, his subject being the " Ascension of Christ "; the figure of Christ is so boldly and effectively foreshortened that it seems to " burst through the vaulting " ; this fresco was taken down in 1 7 n, and the figure of Christ is now in the Quirinal Palace, not worthy of special admiration save in its perspective quality; while some of the other portions, almost Raphaelesque in merit, are in the sacristy of St Peter's. (2) Between 1475 and 1480 he executed a fresco, now transferred to canvas, and placed in the Vatican picture- gallery, representing the appointment of Platina by Pope Sixtus IV. as librarian of the restored Vatican library. (3) In the Collegio at Forli is a fresco by Melozzo, termed the " Pestapepe," or Pepper-grinder, originally painted as a grocer's sign; it is an energetic specimen of rather coarse realism, now much damaged. Melozzo also painted the cupola of the Capuchin church at Forli, destroyed in 1651; and it has been said that he executed at Urbino some of the portraits of great men (Plato, Dante, Sixtus IV., &c.) which are now divided between the Barberini Palace and the Campana collection in Paris; this, however, is doubtful, and it is even questionable whether Melozzo was ever at Urbino. In Rome he was one of the original members of the academy of St Luke, founded by Sixtus IV. He returned to Forli, probably towards 1480, and died in November 1494. He contributed sensibly to the progress of pictorial art; and, without being re- markable as a colourist, gave weH graded lights, with general care and finish, and fine dignified figures. His works bear a certain resemblance to those of his contemporary Mantegna. Marco Palmezzano was his pupil; and the signature " Marcus de Melotius " on some of Palmezzano's works, along with' the general affinity of style, has led to their being ascribed to Melozzo, who has hence been incorrectly called " Marco Melozzo." MELROSE, a city of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., about 7 m. N. of Boston. Pop. (1800), 8519; (1900), 12,962, of whom 2924 were foreign-born and 130 were negroes; (1916 cen- sus) 15,715. It is served by the Boston &; Maine railroad, and by inter-urban electric railways. The city covers 4-8 sq. m. of broken, hilly country, in which is a part of the state park of Middlesex Fells; it includes the villages of Melrose, Melrose High- lands, Wyoming and Fells. In 1905 the total factory product was valued at $9,450,929 (an increase of 176-6% over the value of the factory product in 1900). The principal products are rubber shoes (at the village of Fells), skirts (at the village of Wyoming), and leather and silverware (at Melrose Highlands). The water supply of Melrose, like that of Stoneham and of Med- ford, is derived from the metropolitan reservoir called Spot Pond in Stoneham, immediately, west of Melrose. The city was the home of Samuel Adams Drake (1833-1905), American historian, whose History of Middlesex County (Boston, 1880; vol. 2, "Mel- rose," by E. H. Goss) should be consulted; and of William Frederick Poole (1821-1894), the librarian and the originator of indexes of periodical literature. Melrose was settled about 1633, and was a part of Charlestown until 1649, and of Maiden until 1850. The eastern part of Stoneham was annexed to it in 1853. In 1899 it was chartered as a city; the charter came into effect in 1 900. The name is said to be due to a resemblance of the scenery to that of Melrose, Scotland. MELROSE, a police burgh of Roxburghshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 2195. It lies on the right bank of the Tweed, 375 m: S-E. of Edinburgh, and 19 m. N.W. of Jedburgh, via St Boswells and Roxburgh, by the North British railway. The name — which Bede (730) wrote Mailros and Simeon of Durham (1130) Melros — is derived from the Celtic maol ros, " bare moor," and the town figures in Sir Waltei Scott's Abbot and Monastery as " Kennaquhair." In consequence of the beauty of its situa- tion between the Eildons and the Tweed, the literary and historical associations ot the district, and the famous ruin of Melrose Abbey, the town has become residential and a holiday resort. , There is a hydropathic establishment on Skirmish Hill, the name commemorating the faction fight pn the 25th of July 1526, in which the Scotts defeated, the Douglases and Kers. Trade is almost wholly agricultural. The main streets run from the angles of the triangular market-place, in which stands the market , cross, dated 1642, but probably much older. Across the river are Gattonside, with numerous orchards, and Allerly, the home of Sir David Brewster from 1827 till his death in 1868. The original Columban monastery was founded in the 7th century at Old Melrose, about 2§ m. to the east, inthe loop of a great bend of. the Tweed. It was colonized from Lindisfarne, Eata, a disciple of Aidan, being the first abbot (651), and Boisil and Cuthbert being priors here. It. was burned by Kenneth Macalpine in 839 during the wars between Scot and Saxon, and, though rebuilt, was deserted in the middle pf the nth century. The chapel, dedicated to St Cuthbert, continued for a period to attract many pilgrims, but this usage gradually declined and the building was finally destroyed by English invaders. Meanwhile in 1 136 David I. and founded an abbey dedicated to the Virgin, a little higher up the Tweed, the first Cistercian settlement in Scotland, with monks from Rievaulx in Yorkshire. Lying in the direct road from England, the abbey was frequently assaulted and in 1322 was destroyed by Edward II. Rebuilt, largely by means of a gift of. Robert Bruce, it was nearly burned-down in 1385 by Richard II. Erected once more, it was reduced to; ruin by the earl of Hertford (afterwards the Protector Somerset) in 1545. Later the Reformers dismantled much of what was left. The adaptation of part of the nave to the purposes of a parish church and the use of the building as a quarry did further damage. The ruins, however, now the property of the duke of Buccleuch, are carefully preserved. Of the conventual buildings apart from the church nothing has survived but a fragment of the cloister with a richly-carved round-headed doorway and some fine arcading. The abbey, cruciform, is in the Decorated and Per-r pendicular styles, with pronounced French influence, due probably to the master mason John Morow, or Morreau, ; who, according to an inscription on the south transept wall, was born in Paris, The south front is still beautiful. The west front and a large portion of the north half of the nave and aisle have perished, but the remains include the rest of the nave, the two transepts, the chancel and choir, the two western piers of the tower and the sculptured roof of the east end. From east to west it measured 258 ft., the nave is 69 ft. wide and the width of the transepts from north to south is n 55 ft. The nave had an aisle on each side, the north noticeably the narrower, the south furnished with eight chapels, one in each bay. Both transepts contained an eastern aisle, and the chancel a square chapel at its west end 09 each side. Over the south transept aisle, which was the chapel of St Bridget, is tfie clerestory passage, which ran all round the church. The choir extended westwards for three bays beyond the tower and terminated in a stone rood-screen. Sir Walter Scott has immortalized the east window, in The Lay of : the Last Minstrel, but the south window with .its flowing tracery is even finer. In the carving of windows, aisles, cloister, capitals, bosses and doorheads no design is repeated. The heart of Robert Bruce was buried at the high altar,- and in the chancel are the tombs of Sir William Douglas, the Knight of Liddesdale (1300- I 353) ! James 2nd earl of Douglas (1358-1388), the victor of Otterburn; Alexander II.; and Michael Scot "the Wl^d " (1175-1234) — though some authorities say that this is the tomb of Sir Brian Layton, who.fell in the battle of Ancrum Moor (1544)1 At the door leading from the north transept to the sacristy is the grave of Joanna (d. 1 238), queen of Alexander II. The muniments of the abbacy, preserved in the archives of the earl of Morton, were edited by Cosmo Innes for the Bannatyne Club and published in 1837 under the title of Liber saticte Marie de Melros. Among the documents is one of, the earliest specimens of the Scots dialect. The Chronica de Mailros, preserved among the Cotton MSS., was printed at Oxford in 1684 by Williain Futnjan and by the Bannatyne Club In 1835 under the editorship of John Stevenson. MELTON MOWBRAY— MELVILLE, ANDREW IOI MELTON MOWBRAY, a market town in the Melton parlia- mentary division of Leicestershire, England, pleasantly situated in a fertile vale, at the confluence of the Wreake and the Eye. Pop. of urban district (1901), 7454. It is 105 m. N.N.W. from London by the Midland railway, and is served by a joint branch of the London & North Western and Great Northern railways. The church of St Mary, a fine cruciform structure, Early English and later, with a lofty and richly ornamented central tower, was enlarged in the reign of Elizabeth. Melton is the centre of a celebrated hunting district, in connexion with which there are large stables in the town. It is known for its pork pies, and has a trade in Stilton cheese. There are breweries and tanneries and an important cattle market. There are blast furnaces in the neighbouring parish of Asfordby for the smelting of the abun- dant supply of iron ore in the district. During the Civil War Melton was in February 1644 the scene of a defeat of the parlia- mentary forces by the royalists. It is the birthplace of John Henley the orator (1692-1759). MELUN, a town of northern France, capital of the department of Seine-et-Marne, situated north of the forest of Fontainebleau, 28 m. S.S.E. of Paris by rail. Pop. (1906), 11,219. The town is divided into three parts by the Seine. The principal portion lies on the slope of a hill on the right bank; on the left bank is the most modern quarter, while the old Roman town occupies an island in the river. On the island stands the Romanesque church of Notre-Dame (nth and 12th centuries), formerly part of a nunnery, the site of which is occupied by a prison. The other public buildings are on the right bank of the river. Of these, the most striking is the church of St Aspais, an irregularly shaped structure of the 15th and 16th centuries, on the apse of which may be seen a modern medallion in bronze, the work of the sculptor H. Chapu, representing Joan of Arc as the liberator of Melun. The h6tel-de-ville (1847) — in the construction of which an old mansion and turret have been utilized — and the tower of St Bartholomew of the 16th and 18th centuries are also of interest. In the courtyard of the former there is a monument to Jacques Amyot, the translator of Plutarch, who was born at Melun in 1513. Among the rich estates in the neighbourhood the most remarkable is the magnificent chateau of Vaux-le- Vicomte, which belonged to Nicholas Fouquet, intendant of finances under Louis XIV. Melun is a market for grain and farm produce, and its industries include brewing, tanning, distilling, sawing and the manufacture of agricultural implements, clogs, fur garments, lime, cement and plaster. In Caesar's Gallic wars Melun (Melodunum) was taken by his lieutenant Labienus, in order to facilitate the attack of Lutetia by the right bank of the Seine. It was pillaged by the Normans, and afterwards became the favourite residence of the first kings of the race of Capet; Robert and Philip I. both died here. In 1359 Melun was given up by Jeanne of Navarre to her brother, Charles the Bad, but was retaken by the dauphin Charles and Bertrand Duguesclin. In 1420 it made an heroic defence against Henry V. of England and his ally the duke of Burgundy. Ten yeajs later the people of Melun, with the help of Joan of Arc, drove out the English. It was occupied by the League in 1589, and retaken by Henry IV. in the following year. MELUSINE, the tutelary fairy of the house of Lusignan, was the eldest daughter of the fairy Pressine, to avenge whose wrongs she shut up her father in a mountain in Northumberland. For this she was condemned to be metamorphosed every Saturday into a woman-serpent— that is, to be a serpent from the hips downwards. She might, however, be eventually saved from this punishment if she could find a husband who would never see her on a Saturday. Such a husband was found in Raymond, nephew of the count of Poitiers, who became rich and powerful through the machinations of his wife. She built the castle of Lusignan and many other of the family fortresses. When at length her husband gave way to his curiosity, and saw her taking the bath of purification on a Saturday she flew from the castle in the form of a serpent. Thenceforward the death of a member of the house of Lusignan was heralded by the cries of the fairy serpent. " Pousser des cris de Melusine " is still a popular saying. This history is related at length, with the adventures of Melusine's numerous progeny, by Jean d' Arras, in his Chroniqut de la princesse, written in 1387 at the desire of John, duke of Berry, for the amusement of the duke and of his sister Marie of France, duchess of Bar. It is one of the most charming of the old prose romances in manner and style, and is natural in spite of the free use of the marvellous. An attempt has been made by Jules Baudot in Les Princesses Yolande et les dues de Bar\ Paris, 1900) to make it a roman a cli and to identify the personages. Melusine, Mellusine or Merlusine is, however, simply the spirit of the fountain of Lusignan, and the local Poitevin myth is attached to the origin of the noble house. The etymology of the word ha? been variously and fancifully given. Some writers have supposed Merlusine to be a corruption of mere Lucine {mater Lucina), the deity invoked in child-birth. She has been identified with Melisende, widow of a king of Jerusalem, and with Mervant, wife of Geoffroi de Lusignan. The MSlusine of Jean d'Arras was printed by Adam Steinschaber at Geneva in 1478, and was reprinted many times in the 15th and 16th centuries. It has been translated into Spanish, English, German and Flemish. Modern editions are by J. C. Brunet (Paris, 1854), and by E. Lecesne for the Academy of Arras (Arras, 1888). The English translation was edited from a unique MS. in the British Museum by A. K. Donald for the E.E.T.S. (1895). The tale was versified in the 14th century by a poet called Couldrette, whose poem was published in 1854 by Francisque Michel. See further J. C. Dunlop, Hist, of Fiction, ii. 491-493 (new ed., 1888); S. Baring-Gould, Curious Myths of the Middle Ages, pp. 470 seq. (new ed., 1881) ; and J. C. Brunet, Manuel du libraire (vol. iii., 1862, s.v. Jean d'Arras). MELVILLE, ANDREW (1545-1622), Scottish scholar, theo- logian and religious reformer, was the youngest son of Richard Melville (brother to Melville of Dysart), proprietor of Baldovy near Montrose, at which place Andrew was born on the 1st of August 1545. His father fell at the battle of Pinkie (1547), fighting in the van of the Scottish army, and, his wife having died soon after, the orphan was cared for by his eldest brother Richard (1522-157 5). At an early age Melville began to show a taste for learning, and his brother did everything in his power to give him the best education. The rudiments of Latin he obtained at the grammar school of Montrose, after leaving which he learned Greek for two years under Pierre de Marsilliers, a Frenchman whom John Erskine of Dun had induced to settle at Montrose; and such was Melville's proficiency that on going to the university of St Andrews he excited the astonishment of the professors by using the Greek text of Aristotle, which no one else there understood. On completing his course, Melville left St Andrews with the reputation of " the best poet, philosopher, and Grecian of any young master in the land." He then, in 1564, being nineteen years of age, set out for France to perfect his education at the university of Paris. He there applied himself to Oriental languages, but also attended the last course of lectures delivered by Turnebus in the Greek chair, as well as those of Peter Ramus, whose philosophical method and plan of teaching he afterwards introduced into the universities of Scot' land. From Paris he proceeded to Poitiers (1566) to study civil law, and though only twenty-one he was apparently at once made a regent in the college of St Marceon. After a residence of three years, however, political troubles compelled him to leave France, and he went to Geneva, where he was welcomed by Theodore Beza, at whose instigation he was appointed to the chair of humanity in the academy of Geneva. In addition to his teaching, however, he also applied himself to studies in Oriental literature, and in particular acquired from Cornelius Bertram, one of Jjis brother professors, a knowledge of Syriac. While he resided at? Geneva the massacre of St Bartholomew in .1572 drove an immense number of Protestant refugees to that city, including several of the most distinguished French men of letters of the time. Among these were several men learned in civil law. and political science, and their society increased Melville's knowledge of the world and enlarged his ideas of civil and ecclesiastical liberty. In 1574 Melville returned to Scotland, and almost immediately received the appointment of principal of Glasgow University, which had fallen into an almost ruinous state, the college having been shut and the students dispersed. Melville, 102 MELVILLE, ARTHUR—MELVILLE, H. however, set himself to establish a good educational system. He enlarged the curriculum at the college, and established chairs in languages, science, philosophy and divinity, which were confirmed by charter in 1577. His fame spread through the kingdom, and students flocked from all parts of Scotland and even beyond, till the class-rooms could not contain those who came for admission. He assisted in the reconstruction of Aberdeen University in 1575, and in order that he might do for St Andrews what he had done for Glasgow, he was appointed principal of St Mary's College, St Andrews, in 1580. His duties there comprehended the teaching, not only of theology, but of the Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac and Rabbinical languages. The ability of his lectures was universally acknowledged, and he created a taste for the study of Greek literature. The reforms, however, which his new modes of teaching involved, and even some of his new doctrines, such as the non-infallibility of Aristotle, brought him into collision with other teachers in the university. He was moderator of the General Assembly in 1582, and took part in the organization of the Church and the Presbyterian method. Troubles arose from the attempts of the court to force a system of Episcopacy upon the Church of Scotland (see Scot- land, Church of), and Melville prosecuted one of the " tulchan " bishops (Robert Montgomery, d. 1609). In consequence of this he was summoned before the Privy Council in February 1584, and had to flee into England in order to escape an absurd charge of treason which threatened imprisonment and not improbably his life. After an absence of twenty months he returned to Scotland in November 1585, and in March 1586 resumed his lectures in St Andrews, where he continued for twenty years; he became rector of the university in 1590. During the whole time he protected the liberties of the Scottish Church against all encroachments of the government. That in the main he and his coadjutors were fighting for the constitutionally guaranteed rights of the Church is admitted by all candid inquirers (see in particular The History of England from 1603 to 1616, by S. R. Gardiner, vol. i. chap. ix.). The chief charge against Melville is that his fervour often led him to forget the reverence due to an " anointed monarch." Of this, however, it is not easy to judge. Manners at that time were rougher than at present. When the king acted in an arbitrary and illegal manner he needed the reminder that though he was king over men he was only " God's silly vassal." Melville's rudeness (if it is to be called so) was the outburst of just indignation from a man zealous for the purity of religion and regardless of consequences to himself. In 1599 he was deprived of the rectorship, but was made dean of the faculty of theology. The close of Melville's career in Scotland was at length brought about by James in characteristic fashion. In 1606 Melville and seven other clergymen of the Church of Scotland were summoned to London in order " that his majesty might treat with them of such things as would tend to settle the peace of the Church." The contention of the whole of these faithful men was that the only way to accomplish that purpose was a free Assembly. Melville delivered his opinion to that effect in two long speeches with his accustomed freedom, and, having shortly afterwards written a sarcastic Latin epigram on some of the ritual practised in the chapel of Hampton Court, and some eavesdropper having conveyed the lines to the king, he was committed to the tower, and detained there for four years. On regaining his liberty, and being refused permission to return to his own country, he was invited to fill a professor's chair in the university of Sedan, and there he spent the last eleven years of his life. He died at Sedan in 1622, at the age of seventy-seven. See McCries, Andrew Melville (ed. 1819); Andrew Lang, History of Scotland (1902). (D. Mn.) MELVILLE, ARTHUR (1858-1904), British painter, was born in Scotland, in a village of Haddingtonshire. He took up paint- ing at an early age, and though he attended a night-school and studied afterwards in Paris and Grez, he learnt more from practice and personal observation than from school training. The remarkable colour-sense which is so notable a feature of his work, whether in oils or in water-colour, came to him during his travels in Persia, Egypt and India. Melville, though compara- tively little known during his lifetime, was one of the most powerful influences in contemporary art, especially in his broad decorative treatment with water-colour. • Though his vivid impressions of colour and movement are apparently recorded with feverish haste, they are the result of careful deliberation and selection. He was at his best in his water-colours of Eastern life and colour and his Venetian scenes, but he also painted several Striking portraits in oils and a powerful colossal composition of " The Return from the Crucifixion " which remained unfinished at his death in 1904. At the Victoria and Albert Museum is one of his water-colours, " The Little Bull-Fight- — Bravo, Toro! " and another, " An Oriental Goatherd," is in the Weimar Museum. But the majority of his pictures have been absorbed by private collectors. A comprehensive memorial exhibition of Melville's works was held at the Royal Institute Galleries in London in 1906. MELVILLE, HENRY DUNDAS, ist Viscount (1742-1811), British statesman, fourth son of Robert Dundas (1685-1753), lord president of the Scottish court of session, was born at Edinburgh in 1742, and was educated at the high schooland university there. Becoming a member of the faculty of advo- cates in 1763, he soon acquired a leading position at the bar; and he had the advantage of the success of his half-brother Robert (17 13-1787), who had become lord president of the court of session in 1760. He became solicitor-general to Scotland in 1766; but after his appointment as lord-advocate in 1775, he gradually relinquished his legal practice to devote his attention more exclusively to public business. In 1774 he was returned to parliament for Midlothian, and joined the party of Lord North; and notwithstanding his provincial dialect and ungraceful manner, he soon distinguished himself by his clear and argumentative speeches. After holding subordinate offices under the marquess of Lansdowne and Pitt, he entered the cabinet in 1791 as home secretary. From 1794 to 1801 he was secretary at war under Pitt, who conceived for him a special friendship. In 1802 he was elevated to the peerage as Viscount Melville and Baron Dunira. Under Pitt in 1804 he again entered office as first lord of the admiralty, when he introduced numerous improvements in the details of the department. Suspicion had arisen, however, as to the financial management of the admiralty, of which Dundas had been treasurer between 1782 and 1800; in 1802 a commission of inquiry was appointed, which reported in 1805. The result was the impeachment of Lord Melville in 1806, on the initiative of Samuel Whitbread, for the misappropriation of public money; and though it ended in an acquittal, and nothing more than formal negligence lay against him, he never again held office. An earldom was offered in 1809 but declined; and he died on the 28th of May 1811. His son Robert, 2nd Viscount Melville (1771-1851),. filled various political offices and was first lord of the admiralty from 1812 to 1827 and from 1828 to 1830; his name is perpetuated by that of Melville Sound, because of his interest in Arctic exploration. His eldest son, Henry Dundas, 3rd Viscount (1801-1876), a general in the army, played a distinguished part in the second Sikh War. See Hon. J. W. Fortescue, History of the British Army, vol. iv. (1907). MELVILLE, HERMAN (1819-1891), American author, was born in New York City on the ist of August 1819. He shipped as a cabin-boy at the age of eighteen, thus being enabled to .make his first visit to England, and at twenty-two sailed for a long whaling cruise in the Pacific. After a year and a half he deserted his ship at the Marquesas Islands, on account of the cruelty of the captain; was captured by cannibals on the island of Nukahiva, and detained, without hardship, four months; was rescued by the crew of an Australian vessel, which he joined, and two years later reached New York. Thereafter, with the exception of a passenger voyage around the world in i860, Melville remained in the United States, devoting himself to literature — though for a considerable period (1866-1885) he held a post in the New York custom-house — and being perhaps Hawthorne's most intimate MELVILLE, JAMES— MEMBRANELLE 103 friend among the literary men of America. His writings are numerous, and of varying merit; his verse, patriotic and other, is forgotten; and his works of fiction and of travel are of irregular execution. Nevertheless, few authors have been enabled so freely to introduce romantic personal experiences into their books: in his first work, Typee: A Peep at Polynesian Life, or Four Months' Residence in a Valley of the Marquesas (1846), he described his escape from the cannibals; while in Omoo, a Narra- tive of Adventures in the South Seas (1847), White Jacket, or The World in a Man-of-War (1850), and especially Moby Dick, or The Whale (1851), he portrayed seafaring life and character with vigour and originality, and from a personal knowledge equal to that of Cooper, Marryat or Clark Russell. But these records of adventure were followed by other tales so turgid, eccentric, , opinionative, and loosely written as to seem the work of another author. Melville was the product of a period in American literature when the fiction written by writers below Irving, Poe and Hawthorne was measured by humble artistic standards. He died in New York on the 28th of September 1801. MELVILLE, JAMES (1556-1614), Scottish reformer, nephew of Andrew Melville (q.v.), was born on the 26th of July 1556. He was educated at Montrose and St Leonard's College, St Andrews. In 1574 he proceeded to the university of Glasgow, of which his uncle was principal, and within a year became one of the regents. When his uncle was appointed, in 1580, principal of the New (later, St Mary's) College, St Andrews, he was transferred to the chair of Oriental languages there. For three and a half years he lectured in the university, chiefly on Hebrew, but he had to flee to Berwick in May 1584 (a few months after his uncle's exile) to escape the attacks of his ecclesiastical enemy, Bishop Adam- son. After a short stay there and at Newcastle-on-Tyne, and again at Berwick, he proceeded to London, where he joined some of the leaders of the Scottish Presbyterian party. The taking of Stirling Castle in 1585 having changed the political and ecclesiastical positions in the north, he returned to Scotland in November of that year, and was restored to his office at St Andrews. From 1586 to his death he took an active part in Church controversy. In 1589 he was moderator of the General Assembly and on several occasions represented his party in conferences with the court. Despite his antagonism to James's episcopal schemes, he appears to have won the king's respect. He answered, with his uncle, a royal summons to London in 1606 for the discussion of Church policy. The uncompromising attitude of the kinsmen, though it was made the excuse for send- ing the elder to the Tower, brought no further punishment to James than easy detention within ten miles of Newcastle-on- Tyne. During his residence there it was made clear to him by the king's agents that he would receive high reward if he sup- ported the royal plans. In 1613 negotiations were begun for his return to Scotland, but his health was broken, and he died at Berwick in January 1614. Melville has left ample materials for the history of his time from the Presbyterian standpoint, in (a) correspondence with his uncle Andrew Melville (MS. in the library of the university of Edinburgh), and (b) a diary (MS. in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh). The latter is written in a vigorous, fresh style, and is especially direct in its descriptions of contemporaries. His sketch of John Knox at St Andrews is one of his best passages. As a writer of verse he compares unfavourably with his uncle. All his pieces, with the exception of a " libellus supplex " to King James, are written in Scots. He translated a portion of the Zodiacus vitae of Palingenius, and adapted some passages from Scaliger under the title of Description of the Spainyarts naturall. His Spiritual Propine of a Pastour to his People (1598), The Black Bastill, a lamentation for the kirk (161 1), Thrie may keip Counsell, give Twa be away, The Beliefe of the Singing Soul, David's Tragique Fall, and a number of Sonnets show no originality and indifferent technical ability. The Diary was printed by the Bannatyne Club in 1829, and by the Wodrow Society in 1842. Large portions of it are incorpor- ated in David Calderwood's (1575-1650) History of the Kirk of Scotland (first printed in 1678). For the life and times, see Thomas M'Crie's Life of Andrew Melville. MELVILLE, SIR JAMES (1535-1617), Scottish diplomatist and memoir writer, was the third son of Sir John Melville, laird of Raith in the county of Fife, who was executed for treason in 1548. One of his brothers was Robert, 1st Baron Melville of Monimail (1527-1621). James Melville in 1549 went to France to become page to Mary Queen of Scots. Serving on the French side at the battle of St Quentin in 1557 Melville was wounded and taken prisoner. He subsequently carried out a number of diplomatic missions for Henry II. of France. On Mary's return to Scotland in 1561 she gave Melville a pension and an appointment in her household, and she employed him as special emissary to reconcile Queen Elizabeth to her marriage with Damley. After the murder of Darnley in February 1567, Melville joined Lord Hemes in boldly warning Mary of the danger and disgrace of her projected marriage with Bothwell, and was only saved from the latter's vengeance in consequence by the courageous resolution of the queen. During the troubled times following Mary's imprisonment and abdication Melville con- ducted several diplomatic missions of importance, and won the confidence of James VI. when the king took the government into his own hands. Having been adopted as his heir by the reformer Henry Balnaves, he inherited from him, at his death in 1579, the estate of Halhill in Fife; and he retired thither in 1603, refusing the request of James to accompany him to London on his acces- sion to the English throne. At Halhill Melville wrote the Memoirs of my own Life, a valuable authority for the history of the period, first published by his grandson, George Scott, in 1683. Sir James Melville died at Halhill on the 13th of November 161 7. By his wife, Christina Bpswell, he had one son and two daughters; the elder of these, Elizabeth, who married John Colville, de jure 3rd Baron Colville of Culross, has been identified with the authoress of a poem published in 1603, entitled Ane Godlie Dreame. See the Memoirs mentioned above, of which the most modern edition is that prepared by T. Thompson for the Bannatyne Club (Edinburgh, 1827). MELVILL VAN CARNBEE, PIETER, Baron (1816-1856), Dutch geographer, was born at the Hague on the 20th of May 181 6. He traced his descent from an old Scottish family, originally, it is said, of Hungarian extraction. Destined for the navy, in which his grandfather Pieter Melvill van Carnbee (1743-1810) had been admiral, he imbibed a taste for hydro- graphy and cartography as a student in the college of Medemblik, and he showed his capacity as a surveyor on his first voyage to the Dutch Indies (1835). I n *839 he was again in the East, and was attached to the hydrographical bureau at Batavia. With the assistance of documents collected by the old East India Company, he completed a map of Java in five sheets, accompanied by sailing directions (Amsterdam, 1842). He remained in the East till 1845 collecting materials for a chart of the waters between Sumatra and Borneo (two sheets, 1845 and 1846). On his return to Holland he was attached to the naval department with the charge of studying the history of the hydrography of the Dutch East Indies. He also undertook, in connexion with P. F. von Siebold, the publication of the Moniteur des Indes, a valuable series of scientific papers, mainly from his own pen, on the foreign possessions of Holland, which was continued for three years. In 1850 Melvill returned to India as lieutenant of the first class and adjutant to Vice- Admiral van den Bosch; and after the premature death of this commander he was again appointed keeper of the charts at Batavia. In 1853 he obtained exemption from active naval service that he might devote himself to a general atlas of the Dutch Indies. But in 1856 he fell a victim to climate, dying at Batavia on the 24!]*^ of October. In spite of delays in engraving, twenty-five sheets of the atlas were already finished, but it was not till 1862 that the whole plan, embracing sixty sheets, was completed by Lieut.-Colonel W. F. Versteeg. In 1843 Melvill received the decoration of the Netherlands Lion, in 1849 that of the Legion of Honour. MEMBRANELLE, an organ in Ciliate Infusoria (q.v.), a flat- tened assemblage of adherent cilia, like the plates of Ctenophora (q.v.) : such are arranged in a series in the adoral wreath of the Heterothrichaceae Oligotrichaceae and Hypotriehaceae and constitute the posterior girdle of Peritricha. 104 MEMEL— MEMLINC MEMEL, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, the most northerly town of the German empire, 91 m, by rail N.E. of Konigsberg, at the mouth of the Dange, and on the bank of a sound, called the Memeler Tief, which connects the Kurische Haff with the Baltic. Pop. (1905), 20,687. On the side next the sea the town is defended by a citadel and other fortifications, and the entrance to the harbour is protected by a lighthouse. Memel has been largely rebuilt since a destructive fire in 1854. It possesses iron-foundries, shipbuilding yards, breweries, distilleries, and manufactories of chemicals, soap and amber wares. By far the most important interest of the town, however, is its transit trade in timber and the grain and other agri- cultural products of Lithuania, and also herrings and other kinds of fish. The timber is brought by river from the forests of Russia, and is prepared for export in numerous saw-mills. The annual value of timber exported is above £1,000,000. A Prussian national memorial was unveiled here in the presence of the emperor William II. in September 1907. Memel was founded in 1252 by Poppo von Osterna, grand master of the Teutonic order, and was at first called New Dortmund and afterwards Memelburg. It soon acquired a considerable trade, and joined the Hanseatic League. During the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries it was repeatedly burned by its hostile neighbours, the Lithuanians and Poles, and in the 17th century it remained for some time in the possession of Sweden. In 1757, and again in 1813, it was occupied by Russian troops. After the battle of Jena, King Frederick William III. retired to Memel; and here, in 1807, a treaty was concluded between England and Prussia. The poet Simon Dach was a native of Memel. See J. Sembritzki, Gesckichte der kdniglich preussischen See- und Handelsstadt Memel (Memel, 1900); and Memel in 19 Jahrhundert (Memel, 1902). HEMEL, or Niemen, a river of Russia and Prussia, rising in the middle of the Russian government of Minsk at an altitude of 580 ft. and flowing generally west as far as Grodno. Thence it runs north to Kovno, separating Poland from Russia, and at Kovno it turns west again, still dividing Poland from Russia, until it enters the Prussian province of East Prussia, through which it flows west and north-west past Tilsit for a distance of 70 m. and finally enters the Kurisches Haff by several arms. Of these, those principally used for navigation are the Russ, and its chief branch the Atmat. The Russ is connected with the outlet of the Kurisches Haff at Memel by a canal, while another canal links the Gilge arm southward with the Pregel. Consider- able quantities of timber are floated down the Memel, and large amounts of corn shipped down it and its navigable tributary the Viliya. The lowlands of Tilsit are protected against inun- dation by dikes. Total length of the river, 490 m. ; area of its basin, 34,950 sq. m. It is navigable for large vessels as far as Grodno. ( See H. Keller, Memel, Pregel und Weichselstrom (2 vols., Berlin, 1900); and Schickert, Wasserwege und Deichwesen in der Memel- niederung (Konigsberg, 1901). MEMLINC, HANS (c. 1430-1494), Flemish painter, whose art gave lustre to Bruges in the period of its political and commercial decline. Though much has been written respecting the rise and fall of the school which made this city famous, it remains a moot question whether that school ever truly existed. Like Rome or Naples, Bruges absorbed the talents which were formed and developed in humbler centres. Jan Van Eyck first gained repute at Ghent and the Hague before he acquired a domicile elsewhere, and Memlinc, we have reason to think, was a skilled artist before he settled at Bruges. The annals of the city are silent as to the birth and education of a painter whose name was in- accurately spelt by different authors, and whose identity was lost under the various appellations of Hans and Hausse, or Hemling, Memling, and Memlinc. But W. H. J. Weale mentions a con- temporary document discovered in 1889, according to which Memlinc " drew his origin from the ecclesiastical principality of Mayence," and died at Bruges on the nth of August 1494. He probably served his apprenticeship at Mayence or Cologne, and later worked under Rogier van der Weyden. He did not come to Bruges until about 1467, and certainly not as a wounded fugitive from the field of Nancy, The story is fiction, as is also the report that he was sheltered and cured by the Hospitallers at Bruges, and, to show his gratitude, refused payment for a picture he had painted. Memlinc did indeed paint for the Hospitallers, but he painted not one but many pictures, and he did so in 1479 and 1480, being probably known to his patrons of St John by many masterpieces even before the battle of Nancy. Memlinc is only connected with military operations in a mediate and distant sense. His name appears on a' list of sub- scribers to the loan which was raised by Maximilian of Austria to push hostilities against France in the year 1480. In 1477, when he is falsely said to have fallen, and when Charles the Bold was killed, he was under contract to furnish an altarpiece for the gild- chapel of the booksellers of Bruges; and this altarpiece, now preserved, under the name of the " Seven Griefs of Mary," in the gallery of Turin, is one of the fine creations of his riper age, and not inferior in any way to those of 1479 m the hospital of St John, which for their part are hardly less interesting as illustrative of the master's power than.the " Last Judgment " in the cathedral of Danzig. Critical opinion has been unanimous in assigning the altarpiece of Danzig to Memlinc; and by this it affirms that Memlinc was a resident and a skilled artist at Bruges in 1473 ; for there is no doubt that the " Last Judgment. " was painted and sold to a merchant at Bruges, who shipped it there on board of a vessel bound to the Mediterranean, which was captured by a Danzig privateer in that very year. But, in order that Memlinc's repute should be so fair as to make his pictures purchasable, as this had been, by an agent of the Medici at Bruges, it is incum- bent on us to acknowledge that he had furnished sufficient proofs before that time of the skill which excited the wonder of such highly cultivated patrons. It is characteristic that the oldest allusions to pictures con- nected with Memlinc's name are those which point to relations with the Burgundian court. The inventories of Margaret of Austria, drawn up in 1524, allude to a triptych of the "God of Pity " by Rogier van der Weyden, of which the wings containing angels were by " Master Hans." But this entry is less impor- tant as affording testimony in favour of the preservation of Memlinc's work than as showing his connexion with an older Flemish craftsman. For ages Rogier van der Weyden was ac- knowledged as an artist of the school of Bruges, until records of undisputed authenticity demonstrated that he was bred at Tour- nai and settled at Brussels. Nothing seems more natural than the conjunction of his name with that of Memlinc as the author of an altarpiece, since, though Memlinc's youth remains obscure, it is clear from the style of his manhood that he was taught in the painting-room of Van der Weyden. Nor is it beyond the limits of probability that it was Van der Weyden who received com*- missions at a distance from Brussels, and first took his pupil to Bruges, where he afterwards dwelt. The clearest evidence of the Connexion of the two masters is that afforded by pictures, particularly an altarpiece, which has alternately been assigned to each of them, and which may possibly be due to their joint labours. In this altarpiece, which is a triptych ordered for a patron of the house of Sforza, we find the style of Van der Weyden in the central panel of the Crucifixion, and that of Memlinc in the episodes on the wings. Yet the whole piece was assigned to the former in the Zambeccari collection at Bologna, whilst it was attributed to the latter at the Middleton sale in London in 1872. At first, we may think, a closer re- semblance might be traced between the two artists than that disclosed in later works of Memlinc, but the delicate organization of the younger painter, perhaps also a milder appreciation" of the duties of a Christian artist, may have led Memlinc to realise a sweet and perfect ideal, without losing, on that account, the feeling of his master. He certainly exchanged the asceticism of Van der Weyden for a sentiment of less energetic con r centration. He softened his teacher's asperities and bitter hardness of expression. In the oldest form in which Memlinc's style is displayed, or rather in that example which represents the Baptist in the gallery of Munich, we are supposed to contemplate an effort of the year I4_70. The finish of this piece is scarcely surpassed, though the subject 'is more important, by that of the "Last Judgment" of Danzig MEMMINGEN— MEMNON 105 But the latter is more interesting than the former, because it tells how Memlinc, long after Rogier's death and his own settlement at Bruges, preserved the traditions of sacred art which had been applied in the first part of the century by Rogier van der Weyden to the " Last Judgment " of Beaune. All that Memlinc did was to purge his master's manner of excessive stringency, and add to his other qualities a velvet softness of pigment, a delicate transparence of colours, and yielding grace of slender forms. That such a beautiful work as the " Last Judgment " of Danzig should have been bought for the Italian market is not surprising when we recollect that picture-fanciers in that country were familiar with the beauties of Memlinc's compositions, as shown in the preference given to them by such purchasers as Cardinal Grimari and Cardinal Bembo at Venice, and the heads of the house of Medici at Florence. But Memlinc's reputation was not confined to Italy or Flanders. . The " Madonna and Saints " which passed out of the Duchatel collection into the gallery of the Louvre, the " Virgin and Child " painted for Sir John Donne and now at Chatsworth, and other noble speci- mens in English and Continental private houses, show that his work was as widely known and appreciated as it could be in the state of civilization of the 16th century. It was perhaps not their sole attraction that they gave the most tender and delicate possible impersonations of the " Mother of Christ " that could suit the taste of that age in any European country. But the portraits of the donors, with which they were mostly combined, were more charac- teristic, and probably more remarkable as likenesses, than any that Memlinc s contemporaries could produce. Nor is it unreason- able to think that his success as a portrait painter, which is manifested in isolated busts as well as in altarpieces, was of a kind to react with effect on the Venetian school, which undoubtedly was affected by the partiality of Antonello da Messina for trans- Alpine types studied in Flanders in Memlinc's time. The portraits of Sir John Donne and his wife and children in the Chatsworth altarpiece are not less remarkable as models of drawing and finish than as refined pre- sentations of persons of distinction; nor is any difference in this respect to be found in the splendid groups of father, mother, and children which fill the noble altarpiece of the Louvre. As single portraits, the busts of Burgomaster Moreel and his wife in the museum of Brussels, and their daughter the " Sibyl Zambetha " (according to the added description) in the hospital at Bruges, are the finest and most interesting of specimens. The " Seven Griefs of Mary " in the gallery of Turin, to which we may add the " Seven Joys of Mary " in the Pinakothek of Munich, are illustrations of the habit which clung to the art of Flanders of representing a cycle of subjects on the different planes of a single picture, where a wide expanse of ground is "covered with incidents from the Passion in the form common to the action of sacred plays. The masterpiece of Memlinc's later years, a shrine containing relics of St Ursula in the museum of the hospital of Bruges, is fairly supposed to have been ordered and finished in 1480. The delicacy of finish in its miniature figures, the variety of its landscapes and costume, the marvellous patience with which its details are given, are all matters of enjoyment to the spectator. There is later work of the master in the " St Christopher and Saints " of 14.84 in the academy, or the Newenhoven " Madonna " in the hospital of Bruges, or a large " Crucifixion," with scenes from the Passion, of 1491 in the cathedral of Liibeck. But as we near the close of Memlinc's career we observe that his practice has become larger than he can compass alone; and, as usual in such cases, the labour of disciples is substituted for his own. The registers of the painters' corporation at Bruges give the names of two apprentices who served their time with Memlinc and paid dues on admission to the gild in 1480 and i486. These subordinates remained obscure. The trustees of his will appeared before the court of wards at Bruges on the 10th of December 1495, and we gather from records of that date and place that Memlinc left behind several children and a considerable property. Authorities. — A. Michiels, Memlinc: sa vie el ses ouvrages (Ver- viers, 1881) ; T. Gaedertz, Hans Memling und dessen Altarschrein im Dont zu Liibeck (Leipzig, 1883); Jules du Jardin, L'£cole de Bruges. Hans Memling, son temps, sa vie et son wuvre (Antwerp, 1897) ; Ludwig Kammerer, Memling (Leipzig, 1899) ; W. H. J. Weale, Hans Memlinc (London, 1901), Hans Memlinc: Biography (Bruges, 1901). (J. A. C.;P. G. K.) MEMMINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the Ach, a tributary of the Iller, 35 m. S.W. of Augsburg on the railway to Ulm. Pop. (1905), 11,618. . It is partly surrounded with walls, and has some interesting old gates and houses. It contains the fine Gothic church of St Martin, which contains 67 beautifully carved choir-stalls, and a town hall dating from about 1580. Its industrial products are yarn, calico, woollen goods, thread. A considerable trade is carried on in hops, which are extensively cultivated in the neighbourhood, and in cattle, wool, leather and grain. Memmingen, first mentioned in a document of 1010, belonged originally to the Guelf family, and later to the Hohenstaufens. In 1286 it became a free city of the empire, a position which it main- tained down to 1802, when it was allotted to Bavaria. In 1331 it was a member of the league of Swabian towns; in 1530 it was one of the four towns which presented the Confessio Tetrapolitana to the emperor Ferdinand I. ; and a few years later it joined the league of Schmalkalden. During the Thirty Years' War it was alternately occupied by the Swedes and the Imperialists. In May 1800 the French gained a victory over the Austrians near Memmingen. See Dobel, Memmingen im Reformationszeitalter (Augsburg, 1877-1878), and Clauss, Memmingen Chronik, 1826-1892 (Memmin- gen, 1894). MEMMIUS, GAIUS (incorrectly called Gemellus, " The Twin "), Roman orator and poet, tribune of the people (66 B.C.), friend of Lucretius and Catullus. At first a strong supporter of Pompey, he quarrelled with him, and went over to Caesar, wliom he had previously attacked. In 54, as candidate for the consulship, he lost Caesar's support by revealing a scandalous transaction in which he and his fellow candidate had been implicated (Cic. Ad Alt. iv. 15-18). Being subsequently condemned for illegal practices at the election, he withdrew to Athens, and afterwards to Mytilene. He died about the year 49. He is remembered chiefly because it was to him that Lucretius addressed the De rerun, natura, perhaps with the idea of making him a convert to- the doctrines of Epicurus. It appears from Cicero (Ad Fam. xiii. 1) that he possessed an estate on which' were the ruins of Epicurus' house, and that he had determined to build on the site a house for himself. According to Ovid (Trist. ii. 433) he was the author of erotic poems. He possessed considerable oratorical abilities, but his contempt for Latin letters and preference for Greek models impaired his efficiency as an advocate (Cic. Brut. 70). Another Gaius Memmius, tribune in m B.C., attacked the. aristocrats on a charge of corrupt relations with Jugurtha. Memmius. subsequently stood for the consulship in 99, but was slain in a riot . stirred up by his rival the praetor Glaucia. Sallust describes him as an orator, but Cicero {De oratore, ii. 59, 70) had a poor opinion of him. MEMNON, in Greek mythology, son of Tithonus and Eos (Dawn), king of the Aethiopians. Although mentioned in Hesiod and the Odyssey, he is rather a post-Homeric hero. After the death of Hector he went to assist his uncle Priam against the Greeks. He performed prodigies of valour, but was slain by Achilles, after he had himself killed Antilochus, the son of Nestor and the friend of Achilles. His mother, Eos, removed ' his body from the field of battle, and it was said that Zeus, moved by her tears, bestowed immortality upon him. Accord- ing to another account, Memnon was engaged in single combat with Ajax Telamonius, when Achilles slew him before his warriors had time to come to his aid (Dictys Cretensis iv. 6; Quintus Smyrnaeus ii.; Pindar, Pythia, vi. 31). His mother wept for him every morning, and the early dew-drops were said to be her tears. His companions were changed into birds, called Memnonides, which came every year to fight and lament over his grave, which was variously located (Ovid, Metam. xiii. 576-622; Pausanias x. 31). The story of Memnon was the subject of the lost Aethiopis of Arctinus of Miletus; the chief source from which our knowledge of him is derived is the second book of the Posthomerica of Quintus Smyrnaeus (itself probably an adaptation of the works of Arctinus and Lesches), where his exploits and death are described at length. As an Aethiopian, Memnon was described as black, but was noted for his beauty. The fight between Achilles and Memnon was often represented by Greek artists, as on the chest of Cypselus, and more than one Greek play was written bearing his name as a title. In later^, times the tendency was to regard Memnon as a real historical figure. He was said to have built the royal citadel of Susa, called after him the Memnonion, and to have been sent by Teutamus, king of Assyria, to the assistance of his vassal Priam (Diod. Sic. ii. 22). In Egypt, the name of Memnon was con- nected with the colossal statues of Amenophis (Amenhotep) III. near Thebes, two of which still remain. The more northerly of these was partly destroyed by an earthquake (27 B.C.) and the upper part thrown down. A curious phenomenon then occurred. Every morning, when the rays of the rising sun touched the statue, it gave forth musical sounds, like the t io6 MEMNON OF RHODES— MEMPHIS moaning noise or the sharp twang of a harp-string. This was supposed to be the voice of Memnon responding to the greeting of his mother Eos. After the restoration of the statue by Sep- timius Severus (a.d. 170) the sounds ceased. The sound, which has been heard by modern travellers, is generally attributed to the passage of the air through the pores of the stone, chiefly due to the change of temperature at sunrise. Others have held that it was a device of the priests. Strabo (xvii. 816), the first to mention the sound, declares that he himself heard it, and Pau- sanias (i. 42, 3) says " one would compare the sound most nearly to the broken chord of a harp or a lute " (Juvenal xv. 5, with Mayor's note; Tacitus, Annals, ii. 61). The supporters of the solar theory look upon Memnon as the son of the dawn, who, though he might vanish from sight for a time, could not be destroyed; hence the immortality bestowed upon him by Zeus. He comes from the east, that is, the land of the rising sun. On early Greek vases he is represented as borne through the air; this is the sun making his way to his place of departure in the west. Both Susa and Egyptian Thebes, where there was a Memnonion or temple in honour of the hero, were centres of sun-worship. " Eos, the mother of Memnon, is so transparently the morning, that her child must rise again as surely as the sun reappears to run his daily course across the heavens ' (G. W. Cox, Mythology and Folklore, p. 267). See J. A. Letronne, La Statue vocale de Memnon (1833); C. R. Lepsius, Briefe aus Agypten (1852); "The Voice of Memnon" in Edinburgh Review (July 1886); article by R. Holland in Roscher's Lexikon der mythologie. MEMNON OF RHODES, brother of Mentor (q.v.), with whom he entered the services of the rebellious satrap Artabazus of Phrygia, who married his sister. Mentor after the conquest of Egypt rose high in the favour of the king, and Memnon, who had taken refuge with Artabazus at the Macedonian court, became a zealous adherent of the Persian king; he assisted Mentor in subduing the rebellious satraps and dynasts in Asia Minor, and succeeded him as general of the Persian troops. In the pseudo-Aristotelian Oeconomica, ii. 28, stories are told of his methods of obtaining money and evading his obligations; thus he extorted a large sum of money from the conquered inhabitants of Lampsacus and cheated his soldiers out of a part of their pay. He owned a large territory in eastern Troas (Arrian i. 17, 8; Strabo xiii. 587). He gained some successes against Philip II. of Macedon in 336 (Diod. xvii. 6; Polyaen. v. 44, 4, 5) and commanded the Persian army against Alexander's invasion. Convinced that it was impossible to meet Alexander in a pitched battle, his plan was to lay waste the country and retire into the interior, meanwhile organizing resistance on sea (where the Persians were far superior to the Macedonians) and carrying the war into Greece. But his advice was overridden by the Persian satraps, who forced him to fight at the Granicus. After his defeat he tried to organize the maritime war and occupied the Greek islands, but in the beginning of 333 he fell ill and died (Arrian ii. 1, 1). ' (Ed. M.) MEMORANDUM OF ASSOCIATION, in English company law, a document subscribed to by seven or more persons associated for any lawful purpose, by subscribing to which, and otherwise complying with the, requisitions of the Companies Acts in respect of registration, they may form themselves into an incorporated company, with or without limited liability (see Company). MEMORIAL DAY (or Decoration Day), a holiday observed in the northern states of the United States on the 30th of May, in honour of soldiers killed in the American Civil War, and espe- cially for the decoration of their graves with flags and flowers. Before the close of the Civil War the 30th of May was thus celebrated in several of the southern states; in the North there was no fixed day commonly celebrated until 1868, when (on the 5th of May) Commander-in-Chief John A. Logan, of the Grand Army of the Republic, issued a general order designating the 30th of May 1868 " for the purpose of strewing with flowers or otherwise decorating the gravef of comrades who died in defense of their country during the late rebellion"; Logan did this " with the hope that it will be kept up from year to year." In 1882 the Grand Army urged that the " proper designation of May 30 is Memorial Day " — not Decoration Day. Rhode Island made it a legal holiday in 1874, Vermont in 1876, and New Hamp- shire in 1877; and by 1910 it was a legal holiday in all the states and territories save Alabama, Alaska, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina and Texas. In Virginia the 30th of May is observed as a Confederate Memorial Day. The 3rd of June (the biithday of Jefferson Davis) is observed as Confederate Memorial Day in Louisiana and Tennessee; the 26th of April in Alabama, Florida, Georgia and Mississippi; and the 10th of May in North Carolina and South Carolina. MEMPHIS, the capital of Egypt through most of its early history, now represented by the rubbish mounds at Bedreshen on the W. bank of the Nile 14 m. S. of Cairo. As the chief seat of the worship of Ptah, the artisan god (Hephaestus), Memphis must have existed from a very remote time. But its greatness probably began with Menes (q.v.), who united the kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt, and is said to have secured the site for his capital near the border of the two lands by diverting the course of the river eastward. Memphis was the chief city of the 1st nome of Lower Egypt; in its early days it was known as " the white walls " or the " white wall," a name which clung to its citadel down to Herodotus's day. The. residence here of Pepi I. of the Vlth Dynasty, as well as his pyramid in the necropolis, was named Mn-nfr, and this gradually became the usual designation of the whole city, becoming Menfi, Membi in late Egyptian, i.e. Memphis. It was also called Hakeptah, " Residence of the ka of Ptah," and this name furnishes a possible origin for that of Egypt (AlyvTrros). Various dynasties had their ancestral seats elsewhere and individual kings built their palaces and pyramids at some distance up or down the valley, but Mem- phis must have been generally the centre of the government and the largest city in Egypt until the New Empire (Dyns. XVIII.-XX.), when Thebes took the lead. In the succeeding period it regained its ancient position. The government of the Persian satrap was seated in Memphis. After the conquest of Alexander the city quickly lost its supremacy to his new founda- tion, and although it remained the greatest native centre, its population was less than that of Alexandria. In the time of Strabo (xvii. 807) it was the second city of Egypt, inferior only to Alexandria, and with a mixed population like the latter. Memphis was still important though declining at the time of the Moslem conquest. Its final fall was due to the rise of the Arabic city of Fostat on the right bank of the Nile almost oppo- site the northern end of the old capital; and its ruins, so far as they still lay above ground, gradually disappeared, being used as a quarry for the new city, and afterwards for Cairo. The remains of " Menf " were still imposing late in the 12th century, when they were described by "Abdallatif. Now the ruins of the city, the great temple of Ptah, the dwelling of Apis, and the palaces of the kings, are traceable only by a few stones among the palm trees and fields and heaps of rubbish. But the necro- polis has been to a great extent protected by the accumulations of blown sand. Pyramids of the Old and Middle kingdoms form a chain 20 m. long upon the edge of the valley from Giza to Dahshur. At Saqqara, opposite Memphis itself, the step- pyramid of Zoser of the IHrd Dynasty, several pyramids of the Vth and Vlth Dynasties, and innumerable mastaba-tombs of the Old Kingdom, are crowded together in the cemetery. Later tombs are piled upon and cut through the old ones. One of the chief monuments is the Serapeum or sepulchre of the Apis bulls, discovered by Mariette in 1851. From 1905 J. E. Quibell was charged by the Service des Antiquites solely with the* excavations in this vast necropolis. His principal discovery has been the extensive remains of the Coptic monastery of St Jeremias, with remarkable sculptures and frescoes. Flinders Petrie began the systematic exploration of the ruins of Bed- reshen, and in three seasons cleared up much of the topography of the ancient city, identifying the mound of the citadel and palace, a foreign quarter, &c. Among his finds not the least interesting is a large series of terra-cotta heads representing the characteristic features of the foreigners who thronged the bazaars of Memphis. They date from the Persian rule down to MEMPHIS— MENA, JUAN DE 107 the Ptolemaic period and are evidently modelled by Greek workmen. In the Old Testament Memphis is mentioned under the names of Moph (Hos. ix. 6) and Noph (Isa. xix. 13; Jer. ii. 16; Ezek. xxx. 13, 16). See J. de Morgan, Carte de la nicropole memphite (Cairo, 1897); Baedeker's Egypt; J. E. Quibell, Excavations at Saqqara (2 vols., Cairo, 1908-1909) ; W. M. Flinders Petrie, Memphis I. and The Palace of A pries {Memphis II.) (London, 1909). (F. Ll. G.) MEMPHIS, a port of entry and the largest city of Tennessee, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Shelby county, on the Mississippi river, in the S.W. corner of the state. Pop. (i860), 22,623; (1870), 40,226; (1880), 33.592; (1890), 64,49s; (1900), 102,320, of whom 5110 were foreign-born and 49,910 were negroes; (1910 census) 131,105. It is served by the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the St Louis & San Francisco, the Illinois Central, the Southern, the Louisville & Nashville, the Nashville, Chattanooga & St Louis, the St Louis South- Western, the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern and the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley railways, and by steamboats on the Mississippi. The river is spanned here by a cantilever railway bridge 1895 ft. long, completed in 1892. The city is finely situated on the fourth Chickasaw Bluffs, more than 40 ft. above high water; the streets are broad, well paved and pleasantly shaded; and a broad levee overlooks the river. In Court Square, in the heart of the city, are many fine old trees and a bust of President Andrew Jackson. In 1909 the city had about 1000 acres of parks and 115 m. of parkways, besides two race-courses. Overton Park has beautiful playgrounds and a good zoological collection. Five miles from Memphis is a National Cemetery. Among the prominent build- ings are the United States Government building, the county Court house, Cotton Exchange, Business Men's Club, Goodwyn Institute, containing an auditorium and the public library, the Cossett Free Library, Grand Opera House, Lyceum Theatre, Auditorium, Gayoso Hotel, Memphis Evening Scimitar building, the Union and Planters' Bank and Trust Company building, Equitable building, Memphis Trust building, Tennessee Trust building, the Bank of Commerce, Woman's building (containing offices for business women), Masonic Temple, Odd Fellows' building and the Commercial Appeal building. Among educa- tional institutions are the College of Christian Brothers (Roman Catholic, opened in 1871), Memphis Hospital Medical College, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Hannibal Medical College for negroes and Le Moyne Normal Institute, also for negroes. Memphis is the see of a Protestant Episcopal bishopric. The city is supplied with water from more than eighty artesian wells, having an average depth of about 400 ft. Owing to its situation at the head of deep water navigation on the Mississippi, Memphis has become a leading commercial city of the southern states; its trade in cotton, lumber, groceries, mules and horses is especially large. The city also manufactures large quantities of cotton-seed oil and cake, lumber, flour and grist-mill products, foundry and machine-shop products, confec- tionery, carriages and wagons, paints, furniture, bricks, cigars, &c. The Illinois Central and the St Louis & San Francisco railways have workshops here. The total value of the city's manufactures increased from $13,244,538 in 1890 to $17,923,059 ($14,233,483 being factory product) in 1900, and to $21,346,817 (factory product) in 1905, an increase of 50% over the value of the factory product in 1900. Chickasaw Bluffs were named from the Chickasaw Indians, who were in possession when white men first came to the vicinity. Late in the 17th century the French built a fort on the site of Memphis, and during most of the 18th Century this site was held either by the French or the Spanish. In 1797 it passed into the possession of the United States. By a treaty of the 19th of October 1818, negotiated by General Andrew Jackson and General Isaac Shelby, the Chickasaws ceded all their claims east of the Mississippi, and early in 1819 Memphis was laid out in accordance with an agreement entered into by John Overton (1766-1833), Andrew Jackson and James Winchester (1752- 1826), the proprietors of the land. Its name was suggested from the similarity of its situation on the Mississippi to that of the Egyptian city on the Nile. Memphis was incorporated as a town in 1827, and in 1849 was chartered as a city. Near Memphis, on the 6th of June 1862, a Union fleet of 9 vessels and 68 guns, under Commander Charles Henry Davis (1807-77), defeated a Confederate fleet of 8 vessels and 28 guns under Commander J. E. Montgomery after a contest of little more than one hour, three of the Confederate vessels being destroyed and four of them captured, and from this victory until the close of the war the city was in possession of the Union forces. In August 1864, however, a Confederate force under General N. B. Forrest raided it and captured several hundred prisoners. The decrease of population between 1870 and 1880 was due to the ravages of yellow feverin 1873, 1878 and 1879. The epidemic of 1873 resulted in over two thousand deaths, and that of 1878 in a total of 5150, of whom 4250 were whites and 900 negroes. At the return of the fever in 1879 better care and strict quaran- tine arrangements prevailed, but there were 497 deaths. During the epidemics of 1878 and 1879 fully two-thirds of the popula- tion fled from the city, many of whom died of the fever at other places, and a still larger number did not return. For three months during each year business was suspended, and all ingress or egress except for the most necessary purposes was forbidden. The city was left almost bankrupt, and as a means of relief the legislature of the state in January 1879 repealed the city's charter, and, assuming exclusive control of its taxation and finances, con- stituted it simply a " taxing district," placing its government in the hands of a " legislative council." This anomalous proceeding was declared constitutional by the supreme court of Tennessee. Subsequently the streets were cleansed and repaved, an improved sewer system was put in operation, and the water supply was obtained from artesian wells. In 1891 a new city charter was obtained, and in 1907 the " Houston plan " (see Houston, Texas) was adopted for Memphis by the state legislature. The act, however, was declared unconstitutional by the state supreme court, on the ground that it would force elected officers out of office before the expiration of their constitutional terms; and in 1909 a new charter on the Houston plan was adopted by the legislature, to become effective on the 1st of January 1910, providing for a government by five commissioners, each having charge of a separate department. See J. M. Keating, History of the City of Memphis and Shelby County, Tennessee (Syracuse, 1888) ; James Phelan, History of Tennessee (Boston, 1889). MENA, JUAN DE (1411-1456), Spanish poet, was born at Cordova in 141 1. In his twenty-fourth year he matriculated at the university of Salamanca, and studied later at Rome. His scholarship obtained for him the post of Latin secretary at the court of Castille; subsequently he became historiographer to John II. and magistrate at Cordova. According to the Epicedio of Valerio Francisco Romero, Mena died from natural causes in 1456; popular tradition, however, ascribes his death to a fall from his mule. Though nominally the king's chronicler, Mena had no share in the Crdnica de Don Juan II. ; the statement that he wrote the first act of the Celestina (q.v.) is rejected; but three authentic specimens of his cumbrous prose exist in the com- mentary to his dull poem entitled La Coronacion or Calamacileos, in the Iliada en romance (an abridged version of Homer), and in the unpublished Memorias de algunos linajes antiguas i nobles de Castilla. He is conjectured to be the author of the satirical Coplas de la panadera; but, apart from the fact that these verses are ascribed by Argote de Molina to Inigo Ortiz de Zuniga, they are instinct with a tart humour of which Mena was destitute. His principal work is his allegorical poem, El Laberinto de Fortuna, dedicated to John II.; in the oldest manuscripts it consists of 297 stanzas, but three more stanzas were added to it later, and hence the alternative, popular title of Las Trezientas. The Laberinto is modelled on Dante, and further contains remin- iscences of the Roman de la rose, as well as episodes borrowed from Virgil and Lucan. It is marred by excessive emphasis and pedantic diction, and the arte mayor measure in which it is written is monotonous; but many octaves are of such excellence that the arte mayor metre continued in fashion for nearly a io8 MENA, P^DRO DE— MENAHEM century. The poem, as a whole, is tedious; yet its dignified expression of patriotic spirit has won the admiration of Spaniards from Cervantes' time to our own. A critical edition of the Laberinto has been issued by R. Foulch£- Delbosc (Macon, 1904). MENA, PEDRO DE (d. 1693), Spanish sculptor, was born in Adra. He was a pupil of his father as well as of Alonzo Cano. His first conspicuous success was achieved in work for the con- vent El Angel at Granada, including figures of St Joseph, St Antony of Padua, St Diego, St Pedro Meantara, St Franciscus and Santa Clara. In 1658 he signed a contract for sculptural work on the choir stalls of the cathedral at Malaga — this work extending over four years. Other works are, statues of the Madonna and child and of St Joseph in Madrid, the polychro- matic figures in the church of St Isodoro, the Magdalena and the Gertrudis in the church of St Martin (Madrid), the crucifixion in the Nuestra Senora de Gracia (Madrid), the statuette of St Francis of Assisi in Toledo, and of St Joseph in the St Nicholas church in Murcia. Between 1673 and 1679 Mena worked at Cordova. About 1680 he was in Granada, where he executed a half-length Madonna and child (seated) for St Dominicos. Mena died in Malaga in 1693. He and Mora (g.v.) may be regarded as artistic descendants of Montafies and Alonzo Cano, but in tech- nical skill and the expression of religious motive his statues are unsurpassed in the sculpture of Spain. His feeling for the nude was remarkable. Like his immediate predecessors he excelled in the portrayal of contemplative figures and scenes; Mena's drawing of Santiago leaping upon his charger is good, and the carving admirable, but the necessary movement for so spirited an action is lacking. See B. Haendcke, Studien zur Geschichte der spanischen- Plastik (Strassburg, 1900). MENABREA, LUIGI FEDERICO, Marquis of Valdora (1809- 1896), Italian general and statesman, was born at Chambery on the 4th of September 1809. He was educated at the university of Turin, where he qualified as an engineer and became a doctor of mathematics. As an officer of engineers he replaced Cavour in 1 83 1 at the fortress of Bardo. He then became professor of mechanics and construction at the military academy and at the university of Turin. King Charles Albert sent him in 1848 on diplomatic missions to secure the adhesion of Modena and Parma to Sardinia. He entered the Piedmontese parliament, and was attached successively to the Ministries of War and Foreign Affairs. He belonged to the right centre, and until the events of 1859 he believed in the possibility of a compromise between the Vatican and the state. He was major-general and commander- in-chief of the engineers in the Lombard campaign of 1859. He superintended the siege works against Peschiera, was present at Palestro and Solferino, and repaired the fortifications of some of the northern fortresses. In i860 he became lieutenant- general and conducted the siege of Gaeta. He was appointed senator and received the title of count. Entering the Ricasoli cabinet of 1861 as minister of marine, he held the portfolio of public works until 1864 in the succeeding Farini and Minghetti cabinets. After the war of 1866 he was chosen as Italian plenipotentiary for the negotiation of the treaty of Prague and for the transfer of Venetia to Italy. In October 1867 he suc- ceeded Rattazzi in the premiership, and was called upon to deal with the difficult situation created by Garibaldi's invasion of the Papal States and by the catastrophe of Mentana. Menabrea disavowed Garibaldi and instituted judicial proceedings against him; but in negotiations with the French government he pro- tested against the retention of the temporal power by the pope and insisted on the Italian right of interference in Rome. He was in the secret of the direct negotiations between Victor Emanuel and Napoleon III. in June 1869, and refused to enter- tain the idea of a French alliance unless Italy were allowed to occupy the Papal States, and, on occasion, Rome itself. On the eve of the assembly of the Oecumenical Council at Rome Mena- brea reserved to the Italian government its right in respect of any measures directed against Italian institutions. He with- drew from seminary students in 1869 the exemption from mili- tary service which they had hitherto enjoyed. Throughout his term of office he was supported by the finance minister Count Cambray Digny, who forced through parliament the grist tax proposed by Quintino Sella, though in an altered form from the earlier proposal. After a series of changes in the cabinet, and many crises, Menabrea resigned in December 1869 on the election of a new chamber in which he did not command a majority. He was made marquis of Valdora in 1875. His successor in the premiership, Giovanni Lanza, in order to remove him from his influential position as aide-de-camp to the king, sent him to London as ambassador, where he remained until in 1882 he replaced General Cialdini at the Paris Embassy. Ten years later he withdrew from public life, and died at Saint Capin on the 24th of May 1896. MENAGE, GILLES (1613-1692), French scholar, son of Guillaume Menage, king's advocate at Angers, was born in that city on the 15th of August 1613. A tenacious memory and an early enthusiasm for learning carried him speedily through his literary and professional studies, and he practised at the bar at Angers as early as 1632. In the same year he pleaded several causes before the parlement of Paris, but illness induced him to abandon the legal profession for the church.. He became prior of Montdidier without taking holy orders, and lived for some years in the household of Cardinal de Retz (then coadjutor to the archbishop of Paris), where he had leisure for literary pur- suits. Some time after 1648 he quarrelled with his patron and withdrew to a house in the cloister of Notre-Dame, where he gathered round him on Wednesday evenings those literary assemblies which he called " Mercuriales." Chapelain, Pellisson, Conrart, Sarrazin and Du Bos were among the habitues. He was admitted to the Delia Cruscan Academy of Florence, but his caustic sarcasm led to his exclusion from the French Academy. M6nage made many enemies and suffered under the satire of Boileau and of Moliere. Moliere immortalized him as the pedant Vadius in Les Femmes savanles, a portrait Menage pretended to ignore. He died in Paris on the 23rd of July 1692. Of his works the following may be mentioned: Poemata latina, gallica, graeca, et italica (1656); Origini della lingua italiana (1669); Dictionnaire etyntologique (1650 and 1670); Observations sur la langue franQaise (1672-1676), and Anti-Baillet (1690). MENAGERIE, a collection of wild animals kept for show or exhibition. The word is particularly applied to travelling exhibitions of wild animals, attached to a circus or other show, " zoological gardens "(q.v.) being the term generally applied to large stationary and permanent exhibitions, arranged on a scientific system. The French minagerie (from menage, O. Fr. mesnage, Lat. mansionaticum, mansio, house, cf. " manage ") originally meant the administration of a household or farm, with special reference to the live stock. MENAHEM (Hebrew for " consoler "), a king of Israel. He was the son of Gadi {i.e. perhaps, a man of Gad), and during the disturbances at the death of Jeroboam II. seized the throne and reigned ten years (2 Kings xv. 14-18). The scene of his revolt was Tirzah, the old seat of the kings of Israel between Jeroboam I. and Omri (which period the present closely resembles), and it was only after perpetrating nameless cruelties at Tappuah 1 on the border of Ephraim and Mannasseh that the counter revolt of Shallum, son of Jabesh (perhaps a Gileadite), was suppressed. Towards the end of his reign Tiglath- Pileser IV. marched against north Syria, and among his tributaries mentions Menahem 2 together with ReZia of Damascus, and kings of Tyre, Gebal, &c. (c. 738 B.C.). According to the Old Testament account the Assyrian king even advanced against Israel, and only withdrew in con- sideration of a tribute amounting to about £400,000. A thousand talents (i.e. about 3,000,000 shekels) was raised by assessing every wealthy person at 50 shekels. The act was hardly popular, and the internal troubles which he had quelled 1 Scarcely Tiphsah (2 Kings xv. 16) on the Euphrates. s The identification of the Israelite king with Me-ni-hi-(im)-mi of Sa-me-ri-na-ai on the Ass. inscription has been unnecessarily doubted. MENAI STRAITS— MENANDER iog broke out again at or shortly after his death. The Gileadites again conspired, and having slain his son Pekahiah set up Pekah the son of Remaliah in his place. 1 This meant a return to an anti- Assyrian policy. (See Ahaz.) > (S. A. C.) MENAI STRAITS, a channel of the Irish Sea, separating Anglesea from Carnarvonshire, N. Wales, extending 14 m. from Beaumaris to Abermenai, and varying in breadth from 200 yds. to 2 m. It is famous for the suspension and tubular bridges which cross it. The suspension bridge carries the Holyhead road from Bangor. Designs were prepared by T. Telford. It was begun in 1819; the first chain carried over in April 1825; the last in July of the same year, and the bridge opened to the public the 30th of January 1826. The cost was £120,000. The length of the chains (from rock-fastenings) is 1715 ft., and be- tween the piers 590 ft.; the length of the roadway between the piers is 550 ft. and the total roadway length 1000 ft.; the height of the roadway from the spring tide high- water level is 100 ft.; the breadth of the roadway including two carriage-ways and a footpath is 30 ft. The sixteen suspending chains are carried 60 ft. through rock. Their sustaining power has been calculated at 2016 tons, while the whole weight of the suspended part of the bridge is only 489 tons. During a gale a slight oscillation is noticeable on the bridge itself and from the shore. The tubular bridge carries the London & North Western railway. Here the channel is about 1100 ft. wide, and divided in the middle by the Britannia Rock, bare at low water. The tide generally rises 20 ft., with great velocity. The principal measure- ments are: each abutment 176ft.; from abutment to side tower, 230 ft.; from side tower to central tower, 460 ft.; breadth of each side tower at road-level, 32 ft.; breadth of centre tower, 45 ft. s in. The total length of the roadway is 1841 ft. 5 in. The Britannia tower measures at its base 62 by 525 ft.; with a total height of 230 ft. There are 101 ft. between the sea at high tide and the bridge roadway bottom. The limestone used is from Penmon, 4 m. from Beaumaris. Four stone lions couchant guard the approaches to the bridge. The first tube of the tubular bridge was deposited in its place on the 9th of November 1849, the last on the 13th of September 1850. The total cost was £621,865. The engineer of the tubular bridge was Robert Stephenson, who was assisted by Sir William Fairbairn and Eaton Hodgkinson. MKNAM, or Me Nam (literally the " mother water " or " main river "), a river of Siam, the chief highway of the interior, on whose yearly rise and fall depends the rice crop of Lower Siam. Rising in the Lao or Siamese Shan state of Nan, at a height of 1400 ft. upon the shoulders of the mountain mass of Doi Luang, it is first known as the Nam Ngob, after a village of that name. As the Nam Nan, still a mountain stream, it flows southward through the state so named between high forested ranges, and, notwithstanding the frequent rapids along its course, the natives use it in dug-outs for the transport of hill produce. From Utaradit, where it leaves the hills of the Lao country, it flows southward through the plain of Lower Siam, and is navi- gable for flat-bottomed native craft of considerable capacity. It is here known as the Nam, or Menam Pichai. Below Pichai the river flows through forest and swamp, the latter providing vast overflow basins for the yearly floods. Thousands of tons of fish are caught and cured here during the fall of the river after the rains. Below Pitsunalok the waters of the Menam Yom, the historic river of Siam, upon which two of its ancient capitals, Sawankalok and Sukotai, were situated, meander by more than one tortuous clayey channel to the main river, and combine to form the Nam Po. At Paknam Po the main western tributary comes in, the shallow Me Ping, the river of Raheng and Chieng Mai, bringing with it the waters of the Me Wang. As the chief duty-station for teak, which is floated in large quantities down all the upper branches of the river and as a place of transshipment for boats, Paknam Po is 1 an important and growing town. From this point southwards the river winds by many channels 1 The chronology in xv. 2, 23, 32, appears to confuse Pekah and Pekahiah, and the view has been held that they were originally one and the same; cf. Cheyne, Ency. Bib., col. 3643. through the richest and most densely populated portion of Siam. About Chainat the Tachin branches off, forming the main western branch of the Menam, and falling into the gulf at a point about 24 m. west of the bar of the main or Bangkok river. At Ayuthia, another of the ancient capitals of Siam, the Nam Sak flows in from the north-east, an important stream affording communication with the rich tobacco district of Pecha- bun, and draining the western slopes of the Korat escarpment. MENANDER (342-291 B.C.), Greek dramatist, the chief repre- sentative of the New comedy, was born at Athens. He was the son of well-to-do parents; his father Diopeithes is identified by some with the Athenian general and governor of the Thracian Chersonese known from the speech of Demosthenes De Cher- soneso. He doubtless derived his taste for the comic drama from his uncle Alexis (q.v.). He was the friend and associate, if not the pupil, of Theophrastus, and was on intimate terms with Demetrius of Phalerum. He also enjoyed the patronage of Ptolemy Soter, the son of Lagus, who invited him to his court. But Menander, preferring independence and the com- pany of his mistress Glycera in his villa in the Peiraeus, refused. According to the note of a scholiast on the Ibis of Ovid, he was ' drowned while bathing; his countrymen built him a tomb on the road leading to Athens, where it was seen by Pausanias. A well-known statue in the Vatican, formerly thought to represent Marius, is now generally supposed to be Menander (although some distinguished archaeologists dispute this), and has been identified with his statue in the theatre at Athens, also mentioned by Pausanias. Menander was the author of more than a hundred comedies, but only gained the prize eight times. His rival in dramatic art and also in the affections of Glycera was Philemon (q.v.), who appears to have been more popular. Menander, however, believed himself to be the better dramatist, and, according to Aulus Gellius, used to ask Philemon: " Don't you feel ashamed whenever you gain a victory over me? " According to Caecilius of Calacte (Porphyry in Eusebius, Praep. evan. x. 3, 13) he was guilty of plagiarism, his Aeicndalnuv being taken bodily from the Owovtor^s of Antiphanes. But, although he attained only moderate success during his lifetime, he subsequently became the favourite writer of antiquity. Copies of his plays were known to Suidas and Eustathius (10th and nth centuries), and twenty-three of them, with commentary by Psellus, were said to have been in existence at Constantinople in the 16th century. He is praised by Plutarch (Comparison of Menander and Aristophanes) and Quintilian (Instit. x. 1. 69), who accepted the tradition that he was the author of the speeches published under the name of the Attic orator Charisius. A great admirer and imitator of Euripides, he resembles him in his keen observa- tion of practical life, his analysis of the emotions, and his fondness for moral maxims, many of which have become proverbial: " The property of friends is common," " Whom the gods love die young," " Evil communications corrupt good manners " (from the Thais, quoted in 1 Cor. xv. 33). These maxims (chiefly monostichs) were afterwards collected, and, with addi- tions from other sources, were edited as M.evhvb'pov yva>ncu Itovdcmxoi; a kind of moral textbook for the use of schools. Menander found many Roman imitators. The Eunuchus, Andria, Heautonlimorumenos and Adelphi of Terence (called by Caesar " dimidiatus Menander ") were avowedly taken from Menander, but some of them appear to be adaptations and combi- nations of more than one play; thus, in the Andria were combined Menander's 'AvSpla and Uepivdiia, in the Eunuchus the Eiivovxo? and K6\af, while the Adelphi was compiled partly from Menan- der and partly from Diphilus. The original of Terence's Hecyra (as of the Phormio) is generally supposed to be, not Menander, but Apollodorus of Carystus. The Bacchides and Stichus of Plautus were probably based upon Menander's Aw 'E^a-jtarcav and 3>i\a8eKi, but the Poenulus, does not seem to be from the KapxrjSovios, nor the Mostellaria from the <£>&07xa, in spite of the similarity of titles. Caecilius Statius, Luscius Lavinius, Tur- pilius and Atilius also imitated Menander. He was further credited with the authorship of some epigrams of doubtful no MENANDER authenticity; the letters addressed to Ptolemy Soter and the discourses in prose on various subjects mentioned by Su'idas are probably spurious. Till the end of the 19th century, all that was known of Menander were the fragments collected by A. Meineke (1855) and T. Kock, Comicorum atticorum fragmenta, iii. (1888). They consist of some 1650 verses or parts of verses, in addition to a considerable number of words quoted expressly as from Menander by the old lexico- graphers. From 1897 to 1907 papyri were discovered in different parts of Egypt, containing fragments of considerable length, amounting to some 1400 lines. In 1897, about eighty lines of the Ttupy6s; in 1899, fifty lines of the IUpiiceipojxf vtj ; in 1903, one hundred lines (half in a very mutilated condition) from the K6Xa£; in 1906, two hundred lines from the middle of the II«puc«poM«»''), the part previously discovered containing the denouement; five hundred lines from the 'EwiTpkirovrts, generally well preserved; sixty-three lines (the prologue, list of characters, and the first scene), from the "Hpus; three hundred and forty lines from the Xa/tLa (the identification of the two last plays is not considered absolutely certain) ; and twenty lines from an unknown comedy. Subsequently, part of a third copy of the HepiKapoiiivr) was found in Egypt, some one hundred and forty lines, half of which were already known, while the remainder were new (Abhandlungen der kbnigl.-sdchsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Leipzig), 1908. It is doubtful whether these fragments, which are of sufficient length to afford a, basis for the consideration of the merits of Menander as a writer of comedies, justify the great reputation enjoyed by him in ancient times. With the exception of a scene in the 'ExiTpeiroeres, which would appeal to the litigious Athenians, they contain little that is witty or humorous; there is little variety in the characters, the situations are conventional, and the plots, not of a highly edifying character, are lacking in originality. Menander's chief excellences seem to be facility of language, accurate portrayal of manners, and naturalness of the sentiments which he puts into the mouth of his dramatis personae. It is remarkable that the maxims, which form the chief part of the earlier collections of fragments, are few in the later. On Menander generally see monographs by C. Benolt (1854) and G. Guizot (1855) ; J. Geffcken, Studia zu Menander (1898) ; H. Lubke, Menander und seine Kunst (1892); J. Denis, La Comidie grecque' (1886), vol. ii. ; H. Weil, £tudes sur I'antiquM grecque (1900). Editions of the fragments: Ttwpybt, by J. Nicole, with translation and notes . (1898) and by B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt, with revised text and translation (1898); the "Upon, 'EiriTp€7rovTcs, nepuceipo/iepq, 2aju£a, by G. Lefebvre and M. Croiset, with introduction, notes and translation (Cairo, 1907); J. van Leeuwen, with Latin notes (2nd ed., 1908); L. Bodin and P. Mazon, Extraits de Menandre (Samia and Epitrepontes, 1908); E. Croiset, L' Arbitrage, critical ed. and translation (1908) ; C. Robert, Der neue Menander (text reconstructed, 1908) ; Wilamowitz-Mollendorff, " Der Menander von Kairo " in Neue Jahrbucher fur das klassische AUertum (1908), pp. 34-62; German trans, by C. Robert, Szenen aus Menander (1908); English by Unus Multorum (1909). See also Wilamowitz- Mollendorff, " Der Landmann des Menandros " in Neue Jahrbucher (1899), p. 513; C. Dziatzko, "Der Inhalt des Georgos von Menander," in Rhein. Mus. liv. 497, lv. 104; F. Leo, " Der Neue Menander" in Hermes, xliii. 120; E. Capps, " The Flot of Menander's Epitre- pontes " in Amer. Journ. of Philology (1908), p. 410; A. Kretschmar, De Menandri reliquiis nuper repertis (1906) ; F. G. Kenyon in Quarterly Review (April, 1908) ; The Times Literary Supplement (Sept. 20, 1907); Athenaeum (Oct. 23, 1897; Aug. I, 1908; Oct. 24, 1908) ; and list of articles in periodicals in Van Leeuwen's edition. (J. H. F.) MENANDER (Milinda), a Graeco-Indian dynast. When the Graeco-Indian king Demetrius had been beaten by Eucratides of Bactria, about 160 B.C., and the kingdom of Eucratides (q.v.) dissolved after his assassination (c. 150 B.C.), a Greek dynasty maintained itself in the Kabul Valley and the Punjab. The only two kings of this dynasty mentioned by classical authors are Apollodotus and Menander, who conquered a great part of India. Trogus Pompeius described in his forty-first book (see the prologue) " the Indian history of these kings, Apollodotus and Menander," and Strabo, xi. 316, mentions from Apollodotus of Artemita, the historian of the Parthians, that Menander " conquered more tribes than Alexander, as he crossed the Hypanis to the east and advanced to the Isamus; he and other kings (especially Demetrius) occupied also Patalene (the district of Patala near Hyderabad on the head of the delta of the Indus) and the coast which is called the district of Saraostes (i.e. Syrastene, in mod. Gujarat, Brahman Saurashtra) and the kingdom of Sigerdis (not otherwise known); and they extended their dominion to the Seres (i.e. the Chinese) and Phryni (?)." The last statement is an exaggeration, probably based upon the fact that from the mouth of the Indus trade went as far as China. That the old coins of Apollodotus and Menander, with Greek legends, were still in currency in Barygaza (mod. Broach), the great port of Gujarat, about a.d. 70 we are told by the Periplus maris Erythraei, 48. We possess many of these coins, which follow the Indian standard and are artistically degenerate as compared with the earlier Graeco-Bactrian and Graeco-Indian coins, with bilingual legends (Greek and Kharoshti, see Bactria). Apollodotus, who must have been the earlier of the two kings, bears the titles Soter, Philopator, and " Great King "; Menander, who must have reigned a long time, as his portrait is young on some coins and old on others, calls himself Soter and " Just " (Sikcuos). Their reigns may be placed about 140-80 B.C. Menander appears in Indian traditions as Milinda; he is praised by the Buddhists, whose religion he is said to have adopted, and who in the Milindapanha or Milinda Panho (see below), " the questions of Milinda " (Rhys Davids, Sacred Books of the East, xxxv., xxx vi.) relate his discourses with the wise Nagasena. According to the Indians, the Greeks conquered Ayodhya and Pataliputra (Palimbothra, mod. Patna); so the conjecture of Cunningham that the river Isamus of Strabo is the Son, the great southern tributary of the Ganges (near Patna), may be true. The Buddhists praise the power and military force, the energy and wisdom of " Milinda "; and a Greek tradition preserved by Plutarch (Praec. reip. ger. 28, 6) relates that " when Menander, one of the Bactrian kings, died on a campaign after a mild rule, all the subject towns disputed about the honour of his burial, till at last his ashes were divided between them in equal parts." (The Buddhist tradition relates a similar story of the relics of Buddha.) Besides Apollodotus and Menander, we know from the coins a great many other Greek kings of western India, among whom two with the name of Straton are most con- spicuous. The last of them, with degenerate coins, seems to have been Hermaeus Soter. These Greek dynasts may have maintained themselves in some part of India till about 40 B.C. But at this time the west, Kabul and the Punjab were already in the hands of a barbarous dynasty, most of whom have Iranian (Parthian) names, and who seem therefore to have been of Arsacid origin (cf. Vincent A. Smith, " The Indo-Parthian Dynasties from about 120 B.C. to a.d. 100," in Zeilschrift der deutschen morgenldndischen Gesellschaft, 1906, lx. 69 sqq.). Among them Manes, two kings named Azes, Vonones and espe- cially Gondophares or Hyndophares are the most conspicuous. The latter, whose date is fixed by an inscription from the Kabul Valley dated from the year 103 of the Samvat era ( = a.d. 46), is famous by the legend of St Thomas, where he occurs as king of India under the name of Gundaphar. Soon afterwards the Mongolian Scyths (called Saka by the Indians), who had con- quered Bactria in 139 B.C., invaded India and founded the great Indo-Scythian kingdom of the Kushan dynasty. (See Bactria; and Persia: Ancient History.) (Ed. M.) The Milinda Panho is preserved in Pali, in Ceylon, Burma and Siam, but was probably composed originally in the extreme north- west of India, and in a dialect spoken in that region. Neither date nor author is known; but the approximate date must have been about the 2nd century of our era. The work is entitled Milinda Panho — that is, The Questions of King Milinda. In it the king is represented as propounding to a Buddhist Bhikshu named Nagasena a number of problems, puzzles or questions in religion and philosophy ; and as receiving, in - ach case, a convincing reply. It is a matter of very little importance whether a tradition of some such conversations having really taken place had survived to the time when the author wrote his book. In any case he composed both problems and answers; and his work is an historical romance, written to discuss certain points in the faith, and to invest Wie discussion with the interest arising from the story in which it is set. This plan is carried out with great skill. An introduction, giving the past and present lives of Milinda and Nagasena, is admir- ably adapted to fill the reader with the idea of the great ability and distinction of the two disputants. The questions chosen are just those which would appeal most strongly to the intellectual taste of the India of that age. And the style of the book is very attractive. Each particular point is 1 kept within easy limits of space, and is treated in a popular way. But the earnestness of the author is not concealed ; and he occasionally rises into a very real eloquence. The work is several times quoted as authority by Buddhaghosa, who wrote about A.D. 450, and it is the only work, not in the canon, which receives this honour. MENANDER— MENASHA in The Milinda has been edited in Pali by V. Trenckner, and trans- lated into English by the present writer, with introductions in which the historical and critical points made in this article are discussed in detail. There is space here to mention only one further fact. M. Sylvain LeVy, working in collaboration with M. Specht, has shown that there are two, if not three, Chinese works, written between the 5th and 7th centuries, on the Questions of Milinda. They purport to be translations of Indian works. They are not, however, translations of the Pali text. They give, with alterations and additions, the substance of the earlier part of the Pali work; and are probably derived from a recension that may be older than the Pali. Authorities. — V. Trenckner, Milinda-panho (London, 1880); Rhys Davids, Questions of King Milinda (2 vols., Oxford, 1890- 1894); R. Garbe, Beitrdge zur indischen Kulturgeschichte (Berlin, 1903, ch. 3, Der Milinda-pahha) ; Milinda Prashnaya, in Sinhalese, (Colombo, 1877); R. Morns, in the Academy (Jan. 11, 1881); Sylvain L6vy, Proceedings of the Qth International Congress of Orientalists (London, 1892), i. 518-529, and Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1891), p. 476. (T. W. R. D.) MENANDER, of Laodicea on the Lycus, Greek rhetorician and commentator. Two incomplete treatises on epideictic (or show) speeches have been preserved under his name, but it is generally considered that they cannot be by the same author. Bursian attributes the first to Menander, whom he placed in the 4th century, and the second to an anonymous rhetorician of Alexandria Troas, who possibly lived in the time of Diocletian. Others, from the superscription of the Paris MS., assign the first to Genethlius of Petrae in Palestine. In view of the general tradition of antiquity, that both treatises were the work of Menander, it is possible that the author of the second was not identical with the Menander mentioned by Suidas; since the name is of frequent occurrence in later Greek literature. The first treatise, entitled Aiaiptais tSjv eiri&uKTiKuv , discusses the different kinds of epideictic speeches; the second, TLepl 'eiri&UKTiK&v, has special titles for each chapter. Text in L. Speneel's Rhetores graeci, iii. 329-446, and in C. Bursian's " Der Rhetor Menandros und seine Schriften " in Abhandl. der bayer. Akad. der Wissenschaften, xvi. (1882); see also W. Nitsche, Der Rhetor M. und die Scholien zu Demosthenes; J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Classical Scholarship (1906), i. 338; W. Christ, Gesch. der griechischen Litteratur (1898), § 550. MENANDER PROTECTOR (UporiKTup, i.e. one of the imperial bodyguards), Byzantine historian, was born in Constantinople in the middle of the 6th century a.d. The little that is known of his life is contained in the account of himself quoted by Suidas. He at first took up the study of law, but abandoned it for a life of pleasure. - When his fortunes were low, the patronage accorded to literature by the emperor Maurice (582) encouraged him to try writing history. He took as his model Agathias (?.».), who like him had been a jurist, and his history begins at the point where Agathias leaves off. It embraces the period from the arrival of the Cotriguri Hunni in Thrace during the reign of Justinian in 538 down to the death of the emperor Tiberius in 582. Considerable fragments of the work .are preserved in the excerpts of Constantine Porphyrogenitus and in Suidas. Although the style is sometimes bombastic, he is considered trustworthy and is one of the most valuable authorities for the history of the 6th century, especially on geographical and ethnographical matters. He was an eye-witness of some of the events he describes. Like Agathias, he wrote epigrams, one of which, on a Persian magus, who became a convert to Christianity and died the death of a martyr, is preserved in the Greek anthology {Anth. Pal. i. 101). The fragments will be found in C. W. Muller, Frag. hist, graec. iv. 200; J. P. Migne, Patrologia graeca, cxiii., and L. Dindorf, Historici graeci minores, ii. ; see also C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzan- tinischen Litteratur (1897). MENANGKABOS, the most civilized of all the true Malays of Sumatra, inhabiting the mountains above Padang. Their district is regarded as the cradle of the Malay race, and thence began, about 1160, those migrations which ended in the true Malays becoming the dominant race throughout the peninsula and the Malay Archipelago. The Menangkabos are said to be the original conquerors of the island, and the real form of the word is Menang-Karbau (" victory of the buffalo "), in reference to a local legend of a fight between a Sumatran and Javanese buffalo, ending in victory for the former. Though converts to Islam, the ancient confederate village communes and the matri- archal system still exist. The people are divided into clans, the chiefs together forming the district council. Early in the 19th century a religious sect Was founded among the Manang- kabos, known as " Padris " from its zealous proselytism, or Orang puti (white men) from the converts being dressed in white. The tendency was towards asceticism, the chief tenet being the prohibition of opium, the use of which was made a capital offence. The sect brought a large portion of the interior of Sumatra under its rule, but the neighbouring tribes asked the Dutch to protect them, and this led to the Netherlands government acquiring the Menangkabo territory. MENANT, JOACHIM (1820-1899), French magistrate and orientalist, was born at Cherbourg on the 16th of April 1820. He was educated for the law, and became vice-president of the civil tribunal of Rouen in 1878, and a member of the cour d'appel three years later. But he became best known by his studies on the cuneiform inscriptions. Among his works on the subject of Assyriology are: Recueil a" alphabets des Scritures cuniiformes (i860); Expose des iliments de la grammaire assyrienne (1868); Le Syllabaire assyrien (2 vols., 1869-1873); Les Langues perdues de la Perse el de I'Assyrie (2 vols., 1 885-1886); Les Pierres gravies de la Haute- Asie (2 vols., 1883-1886). He also collaborated with Julius Oppert. He was admitted to the Academy of Inscrip- tions in 1887, and died in Paris on the 30th of August 1899. His daughter Delphine (b. 1850) received a prize from the Academy for her Les Parsis, histoire des communautis zoro- astriennes de I'Inde (1898), and was sent in 1900-1901 to British India on a scientific mission, of which she published a report in 1903. MENARD, LOUIS NICOLAS (1822-1901), French man of letters, was born in Paris on the 19th of October 1822. His versatile genius occupied itself in turn with chemistry, poetry, painting and history. In 1843 he published, under the pseudo- nym of L. de Senneville, a translation of Promithie delivri. Turning to chemistry, he discovered collodion in 1846, but its value was not recognized at the time; and its application later to surgery and photography brought him no advantage. Louis Menard was a socialist, always in advance of the reform move- ments of his time. After 1848 he was condemned to imprison- ment for his Prologue d'une revolution. He escaped to London, returning to Paris only in 1852. Until i860 he occupied himself with classical studies, the fruits of which are to be seen in his Poemes (1855), Polythtisme helUnique (1863), and two academic theses, De sacra poesi graecorum and La Morale avant les philo- sophes (i860). The next ten years Menard spent chiefly among the Barbizon artists, and he exhibited several pictures. He was in London at the time of the Commune, and defended it with his pen. In 1887 he became professor at the Ecole des Arts decoratifs, and in 1895 professor of universal history at the H6tel de Ville in Paris. His Rfoeries d'un paten mystique (1876), which contained sonnets, philosophical dialogues and some stories, was followed in 1896 by Poemes et reveries d'un paten mystique. Menard died in Paris on the 12th of February 1901. His works include: Histoire des anciens peuples de V Orient (1882); Histoire des Israelites d'apres I'exSgbse biblique (1883), and Histoire des Grecs (1884-1886). There is an appreciation of Menard in the opening chapter of Maurice BarreVs Voyage de Sparte. MENASHA (an Indian word meaning " thorn " or " island "), a city of Winnebago county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., 88 m. N. 6I» Milwaukee, and 14 m. N. of Oshkosh, attractively situated at the N. extremity of Lake Winnebago at its outlet into the Fox river. Pop. (1890), 4581; (1900), 5589 (1535 foreign-born); (1905, state census), 5960; (1910), 6081. Menasha is served by the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, and the Chicago & North-Western railways, and by an inter-urban electric railway system. Several bridges across the Fox River connect Menasha with Neenah, with which it really forms one community industrially. Doty Island, at the mouth of the river and divided about equally between the cities, is a picturesque and popular summer resort. 112 MENASSEH BEN ISRAEL— MENCIUS Menasha had good water power and among its . manufactures are paper and sulphite pulp, lumber, wood en- ware and cooperage products, woollen and knit goods, leather, boats and bricks. The first white man to visit the site of Menasha was probably Jean Nicolet, who seems to have come in the winter of 1634-1635 and to have found here villages of Fox and Winnebago Indians. Subsequently there were French and English trading posts here. The city was settled permanently in 1848, and was chartered in 1874. MENASSEH BEN ISRAEL (c. 1604-1657), Jewish leader, was born in Lisbon about 1604, and was brought up in Amsterdam. His family had suffered under the Inquisition, but found an asylum first in La Rochelle and later in Holland. Here Menasseh rose to eminence riot only as a rabbi and an author, but also as a printer. He established the first Hebrew press in Holland. One of his earliest works El Conciliador won immediate reputa^ tion. It was an attempt at reconciliation between apparent discrepancies in various parts of the Old Testament. Among his correspondents were Vossius, Grotius and Huet. In 1638 he decided to settle in Brazil, as he still found it difficult to pro- vide in Amsterdam for his wife and family, but this step was rendered unnecessary by his appointment to direct a college founded by the Pereiras. In 1644 Menasseh met Antonio de Montesinos, who persuaded him that the North-American Indians were the descendants of the lost ten tribes of Israel. This supposed discovery gave a new impulse to Menasseh's Messianic hopes. But he was con- vinced that the Messianic age needed as its certain precursor the settlement of Jews in all parts of the known world. Filled with this idea, he turned his attention to England, whence the Jews had been expelled since 1290. He found much Christian support in England. During the Commonwealth the question of the readmission of the Jews was often mooted under the growing desire for religious liberty. Besides this, Messianic and other mystic hopes were current in England. In 1650 appeared an English version of the Hope of Israel, a tract which deeply impressed public opinion. Cromwell had been moved to sympathy with the Jewish cause partly by his tolerant leanings, but chiefly because he foresaw the importance for English com- merce of the presence of the Jewish merchant princes, some of whom had already found their way to London. At this juncture Jews received full rights in the colony of Surinam, which had been English since 1650. In 1655 Menasseh arrived in London. It was during his absence that the Amsterdam Rabbis excom~ municated Spinoza, a catastrophe which would probably have been avoided had Menasseh — Spinoza's teacher — been on the spot. One of his first acts on reaching London was the issue of his Humble Addresses to the Lord Protector, but its effect was weakened by the issue of Prynne's able but unfair Short Demurrer. Cromwell summoned the Whitehall Conference in December of the same year. To this conference were summoned some of the most notable statesmen, lawyers and theologians of the day. The chief practical result was the declaration of Judges Glynne and Steele that " there was no law which forbade the Jews' return to England." Though, therefore, nothing was done to regularize the position of the Jews, the door was opened to their gradual return. Hence John Evelyn was able to enter in his Diary under the date Dec- 14, 1655, "Now were the Jews admitted." But the attack on the Jews by Prynne and others could not go unanswered. Menasseh replied in the finest of his works, Vindiciae judaeorum (1656). " The best tribute to its value is afforded by the fact that it has since been frequently reprinted in all parts of Europe when the calumnies it denounced have been revived " (L. Wolf). Among those who used in this way Menasseh's Vindiciae was Moses Mendelssohn (q.v.). Soon after Menasseh left London Cromwell granted him a pension, but he died before he could enjoy it. Death overtook him at Middleburg, as he was conveying the body of his son Samuel home for burial, Menasseh ben Israel was the author of many works, but his English tracts remain the only ones of importance. His De termino vitae was translated into English by Pococke, and his Conciliator by G. H. Lindo. Among his other works were a ritual compendium Tesoro dos dinim, and a treatise in Hebrew on immortality (Nishmaih hayim). He was a friend of Rem- brandt, who painted his portrait and engraved four etchings to illustrate his Piedra gloriosa. These are preserved in the British Museum. See Graetz, History of the Jews, vol. v. ch. ii. ; Lucien Wolf, Menasseh ben Israel's Mission to Oliver Cromwell, with a reprint of the English pamphlets (London, 1901) ; H. Adler, " A Homage to Menasseh ben Israel," in Transactions of the Jewish Historical Society of England, i. 25-54. (L A.) MENCIUS, the latinized form of Mang-tsze, " Mr Mang," or " Mang the philosopher," a Chinese moral teacher whose name stands second only to that of Confucius. His statue or spirit- tablet (as the case may be) has occupied, in the temples of the sage, since our nth century, a place among " the four assessors," and since a.d. 1530 his title has been " the philosopher Mang, sage of the second degree." The Mangs or Mang-suns had been in the time of Confucius one of the three great clans of Lu (all descended from the marquis Hwan, 711-694 B.C.), which he had endeavoured to curb. Their power had subsequently been broken, and the branch to which Mencius belonged had settled in Tsau, a small adjacent principality, the name of which remains in Tsau hsien, a district of Yenchau Shan-tung. A magnificent temple to Mencius is the chief attraction of the district city. The large marble statue of Mencius in the courtyard shows much artistic skill, and gives the impression of a man strong in body and mind, thoughtful and fearless. His lineal representative lives in the city, and thousands of Mings are to be found in the neigh- bourhood. Mencius, who died in the year 289 B.C., had lived to a great age — some say to his eighty-fourth year, placing his birth in 372 B.C., and others to his ninety-seventh, placing it in 385. All that we are told of his father is that he died in the third year of the child, who was thus left to the care of his mother. Her virtues and dealings with her son were celebrated by a great writer in the 1st century before our era, and for two thousand years she has been the model mother of China. Mencius is more than forty years old when he comes before us as a public character. He must have spent much time in study, investigating questions as to the fundamental principles of morals and society, and brooding over the condition of the country. The history, the poetry, the institutions and the great men of the past had received his attention. He intimates that he had been in communication with men who had been disciples of Confucius. That sage had become to him the chief of mortal men, the object of his untiring admiration; and in the doctrines which he had taught Mencius recognized the truth for want of an appreciation of which the bonds of order all round him were being relaxed; and the kingdom hastening to anarchy. When he first comes forth from Tsau, he is accompanied by several eminent disciples. He had probably imitated Confucius in becoming the master of a school, and encouraging the reso.t to it of inquiring minds that he might resolve their doubts and unfold to them the right methods of government. One of his sayings is that it would.be a greater delight to the superior man to get the youth of brightest promise around him and to teach and train them than to enjoy the revenues of the kingdom. His intercourse' with his followers was not sb intimate as that of Confucius had been with the members of his selected circle; and, while he maintained his dignity among them, he was not aide to secure from them the same homage and reverent admiration. More than a century had elapsed since the death of Confucius, and during that period the feudal kingdom of Chau had been showing more and more of the signs of dissolution, and porten-, tous errors that threatened to upset all social order were widely disseminated. The sentiment of loyalty to the dynasty had disappeared. Several of the marquesses and other feudal princes of earlier times had usurped the title of king. The smaller fiefs had been absorbed by the larger ones, or reduced to helpless dependence on them. Tsin, after greatly extending its territory, MENCIUS 113 had broken up into three powerful kingdoms, each about as large as England. Mencius found the nation nominally one, and with the traditions of two thousand years affirming its essential unity, but actually divided into seven monarchies, each seeking to subdue the others under itself. The consequences were constant warfare and chronic misery. In Conf ucius's time we meet with recluses who had withdrawn in disgust from the world and its turmoil; but these had now given place to a class of men who came forth from their retire- ments provided with arts of war or schemes of policy which they recommended to the contending chiefs, ever ready to change their allegiance as they were moved by whim or interest. Mencius was once asked about two of them, "Are they not really great men? Let them be angry, and all the princes are afraid. Let them live quietly, and the flames of trouble are everywhere extinguished." He looked on them as little men, and delighted to proclaim his idea of the great man in such language as the following: — " To dwell in love, the wide house of the world, to stand in propriety, the correct seat of the world, and to walk in righteous- ness, the great path of the world; when he obtains his desire for office, to practise his principles for the good of the people, and when that desire is disappointed, to practise them alone; to be above the power of riches and honours to make dissipated, of poverty and mean condition to make swerve from the right, and of power and force to make bend — these characteristics constitute the great man." Most vivid are the pictures which Mencius gives of the con- dition of the people in consequence of the wars of the states. " The royal ordinances were violated; the multitudes were oppressed; the supplies of food and drink flowed away like water." It is not wonderful that, when the foundations of government were thus overthrown, speculations should have arisen that threatened to overthrow what he considered to be the foundations of truth and all social order. " A shrill-tongued barbarian from the south," as Mencius called him, proclaimed the dissolution of ranks, and advocated a return to primitive simplicity. He and his followers maintained that learning was quackery, and statesmanship craft and oppression, that prince and peasant should be on the same level, and every man do everything for himself. Another, called Yang-chd, denied the difference between virtue and vice, glory and shame. It was the same with all at death. The conclusion there- fore was: " Let us eat and drink; let us gratify the ears and eyes, get servants and maidens, , beauty, music, wine; when the day is insufficient, carry it on through the night. Each one for himself." Against a third heresiarch, of a very different stamp, Mencius felt no less indignation. This was Mo Ti, who found the source of all the evils of the time and Of all time in the want of mutual love. He taught, therefore, that men should love others as themselves; princes, the states of other princes as much as their own; children, the parents of others as much as their own. Mo, in his gropings, had got hold of a noble principle, but he did not apprehend it distinctly nor set it forth with discrimination. To our philosopher the doctrine appeared contrary to the Confucian orthodoxy about the five relations of society; and he attacked it without mercy and with an equal confusion of thought. " Yang's principle," he said, " is 'each one for himself,' which does not acknowledge theclaims of the sovereign. Mo's is ' to love all equally,' which does not acknowledge the peculiar affection due to a father. But to acknowledge neither king nor father is to be in the state of a beast. Theway of benevolence and righteousness is stopped up," On this ocean of lawlessness, wickedness, heresies and misery Mencius looked out from the quiet of his school, and his spirit was stirred to attempt the rescue of the people from misrule and error. "If Heaven," he said, "wishes that the kingdom should enjoy tranquillity and good order, who is there besides me to bring it about? " He formed his plan, and proceeded to put it in execution. He would go about among the different kings till he should find one among them who would follow his counsels and commit to him the entire administration of his government. That obtained, he did not doubt that in a few years there would be a kingdom so strong and so good that all rulers would acknowledge its superiority, and the people hasten from all quarters to crown its sovereign as monarch of the whole of China. This plan was much the same as that of Confucius had been; but, with the bolder character that belonged to him, Mencius took in one respect a position from which "the master" would have shrunk. The former was always loyal to Chau, and thought he could save the country by a reformation; the latter saw the day of Chau was past, and the time was come for a revolution. Mencius's view was the more correct, but he was not wiser than the sage in fore- casting for the future. They could think only of a reformed dynasty or of a changed dynasty, ruling according to the model principles of a feudal constitution, which they described in glowing language. They desired a repetition of the golden age in the remote past; but soon after Mencius disappeared from the stage of life there came the sovereign of Ch'in, and solved the question with fire and sword, introducing the despotic empire which has since prevailed. The question may be asked, " How, in the execution of his plan, was Mencius, a scholar, without wealth or station, to find admission to the courts of lawless, and unprincipled kings, and acquire the influence over them which he expected? " The answer can only be found by bearing in mind the position accorded from the earliest times in China to men of virtue and ability. The same written character denotes both scholars and officers. They are at the top of the social scale — the first of the four classes into which the population has always been divided. This appreciation of learning or culture has exercised a powerful influence over the government under both conditions of its existence; and out of it grew the system of making literary merit the passport to official employment. The ancient doctrine was that the scholar's privilege was from Heaven as much as the sovereign's right; the modern system is a device of the despotic rule to put itself in Heaven's place, and have the making of the scholar in its own hands. The feeling and conviction out of which the system grew prevailed in the time of- Mencius. The dynasties that had successively ruled over the kingdom had owed their establishment not more to the military genius of their founders than to the Wisdom and organizing ability of the learned men, the statesmen, who were their bosom friends and trusted counsellors. Why should not he become to one of the princes of his day what 1 Yin had been to Tharig, and Thai-kung Wang to King W&n, and the duke of Chau to Wu and Ch'ang? But, though Mencius might be the equal of any of those worthies, he knew of no prince like Thang and the others, of noble aim and soul, who would adopt his lessons. In his eagerness he overlooked this condition of success for his enterprise. He might meet with such a ruler as he looked for, or he might reform a bad one, and make him the coadjutor that he required. On the strength of these peradventures, and attended by several of his disciples, Mencius went for more than twenty years from one court to another, always baffled, and always ready to try again. He was received with great respect by kings and princes. He Would not 1 enter into the service of any of them, but he occasionally accepted honorary offices of distinction; and he did not scruple to receive large gifts which enabled him to live and move about as a man of wealth. In delivering his message he was as fearless and outspoken as John Knox. He lectured great men, and ridiculed them. He unfolded the ways of the old sage kings, and pointed out the path to universal sway; but it was all in vain. He* could not stir any one to honourable action. He confronted heresy with strong arguments and exposed it with withering sarcasm; but he could work no deliverance in the earth. The last court at which we find him was that of Lft, probably in 3 10 B.C. The marquis of that state had given office to Yo-changj one of Mencius's disciples, and he hoped that this might be the means of a favourable hearing for himself. So it had' nearly happened. On the suggestion of Yo-chang the marquis had ordered his carriage to be yoked, and was about to step into it 1 and proceed to bring Mencius to his palace, when an unworthy ii 4 MENCIUS favourite stepped in and diverted him from his purpose. The disciple told his master what had occurred, reproaching the favourite for his ill-timed intervention; Mencius, however, said to him," A man's advancement or the arresting of it may seem to be effected by others, but is really beyond their power. My not finding in the marquis of Lu a ruler who would confide in me and put my lessons in practice is from Heaven." Mencius accepted this incident as a final intimation to him of the will of Heaven. He had striven long against adverse circumstances, but now he bowed in submission. He withdrew from courts and the public arena. According to tradition he passed the last twenty years of his life in the society of his disciples, discoursing to them, and giving the finishing touches to the record of his conversations and opinions, which were afterwards edited by them, and constitute his works. Mencius was not so oracular, nor so self-contained, as Confucius; but his teachings have a vivacity and sparkle all their own. Mencius held with Confucius — and it was a doctrine which had descended to them both from the remotest antiquity — that royal government is an institution of God. An ancient sovereign had said that " Heaven, having produced the people, appointed for them rulers, and appointed for them teachers, who should be assist- ing to God." Our philosopher, adopting this doctrine, was led by the manifest incompetency Qf all the rulers of his time to ask how it could be known on what individual the appointment of Heaven had fallen or ought to fall, and he concluded that this could be ascertained only from his personal character and hit conduct of affairs. The people must find out the will of Heaven as to who should be their ruler for themselves. There was another old saying which delighted Mencius — " Heaven sees as the people see; Heaven hears as the people hear." He taught accordingly that, while government is from God, the governors are from the people; — vox populi vox Dei. No claim then of a " divine right ' should be allowed to a sovereign if he were not exercising a rule for the good of the people. " The people are the most important element in a nation ; the altars to the spirits of the land and grain are the second ; the sovereign is the lightest." Mencius was not afraid to follow this utterance to its consequences. The monarch whose rule is injurious to the people, and who is deaf to remonstrance and counsel, should be dethroned. In such a case " killing is no murder." But who is to remove the sovereign that thus ought to be removed ? Mencius had three answers to this difficult question. First, he would have the members of the royal house perform the task. Let them disown their unworthy head, and appoint some better individual of their number in his room. If they could not or would not do this, he thought, secondly, that any high minister, though not allied to the royal house, might take summary measures with the sovereign, assuming that he acted purely with a view to the public weal. His third and grand device was what he called " the minister of Heaven." When the sovereign had become a pest instead of a blessing, he believed that' Heaven would raise up some one for the help of the people, some one who should so conduct himself in his original subordinate position as to draw all eyes and hearts to himself. Let him then raise the standard not of rebellion but of righteousness, and he could not help attaining to the highest dignity. Mencius hoped to find one among the rulers of his day who might be made into such a minister, and he counselled one and another to adopt measures with that object. It was in fact counselling rebellion, but he held that the house of Chau had forfeited its title to the throne. A good government according to his ideal must be animated by a spirit of benevolence, and ever pursue a policy of righteousness. Its aims must be, first, to make the people well off, and next, to educate them. No one was fit to occupy the throne who could be happy while any of the people were miserable, who delighted in war, who could indulge in palaces and parks which the poorest did not in a measure share with him. Game laws received his emphatic condemnation. Taxes should be light, and all the regula- tions for agriculture and, commerce of a character to promote and encourage them. The rules which he suggested to secure those objects had reference to the existing condition of his country, but they are susceptible of wide application. They cafry in them schemes of drainage and irrigation for. land, and of free trade for commerce. But it must be, he contended, that a sufficient and certain livelihood be secured for all the people. Without this their minds would be unsettled, and they would proceed to every form of wild licence. They would break the laws, and the ruler would punish them — punish those whom his neglect of his own duties had plunged into poverty, of which crime was the consequence. He would be, not their ruler, but their " trapper." Supposing the people to be made well off, Mencius taught that education should be provided for them all. He gave the marquis of Thang a programme of four kinds of educational institutions, which he wished him to establish in his state — in the villages and the towns, for the poor as well as the rich, so that none might be ignorant of his duties in the various relations of society. But after all, unless the people could get food and clothing by their labour, he had not much faith in the power of education to make them virtuous. Give him, however, a government fulfilling the conditions that he laid down, and he was confident there would soon be a people, all contented, all virtuous. And he saw nothing to prevent the realization of such a government. Any ruler might become, if he would, " the minister of Heaven," who was his ideal, and the influence of his example and administration would be all- powerful. The people would flock to him as their parent, and help him to do justice on the foes of truth and happiness. Pulse and grain would be abundant as water and fire, and the multitudes, well clothed, and well principled, would sit under the shade of their mulberry trees, and hail the ruler " king by the grace of Heaven." Opinions were much divided among his contemporaries on the subject of human nature. Some held that the nature of man is neither good nor bad ; he may be made to do good and also to do evil. Others held that the nature of some men is good, and that of others bad ; thus it is that the best of men sometimes have bad sons, and the worst of men good sons. It was also maintained that the nature of man is evil, and whatever good appears in it is the result of cultivation. In opposition to all these views Mencius contended that the nature of man is good. " Water," he said, " will flow indifferently to the east or west; but will it flow indifferently up or down ? The tendency of man's nature to goodness is like the tendency of water to flow downwards. By striking water you may make it leap over your forehead; and by damming and leading it you may make it go up a hill. But such movements are not according to the nature of water; it is the force applied which causes them. When men do what is not good, their nature has been dealt with in this way." With various, but equally felicitous, illustration he replied to his different oppo- nents. Sometimes he may seem to express himself too strongly, but an attentive study of his writings shows that he is speaking of our nature in its ideal, and not as it actually is— as we may ascertain, by an analysis of it, that it was intended to be, and not as it has been made to become. Mencius insists on the constituents of human nature, dwelling especially on the principles of benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom or knowledge, the last including the judgment of conscience. " These," said he, " are not infused into us from without. Men have these four principles just as they have their four limbs." But man has also instincts and appetites which seek their own gratification without reference to righteousness or any other control. He met this difficulty by contending that human nature is a constitution, in which the higher principles are designed to rule the lower. " Some constituents of it are noble and some ignoble, some great and some small. The great must not be injured for the small, nor the noble for the ignoble." One of his most vigorous vindications of his doctrine is the following: " For the mouth to desire flavours, the eye colours, the ear sounds, and the four limbs ease and rest belong to man's nature. An individual's lot may restrict him from the gratification of them; and in such a case the superior man will not say, ' My nature demands that pleasure, and I will get it.' On the other hand, there are love between father and son, righteousness between ruler and minister, the rules of ceremony between host and guest, and knowledge seen in recognizing the able and virtuous, and in the sage's fulfilling the heavenly course; — these are appointed (by Heaven). But they also belong to our nature, and the superior man will not say, ' The circumstances of my lot relieve me from them.' " When he proceeded from his ideal of human nature to account for the actual phenomena of conduct, he was necessarily less success- ful. "There is nothing good," he said, "that a man cannot do; he only does not do it." But why does he not do it ? Against the stubborn fact Mencius beats his wings and shatters his weapons — all in vain. He mentions a few ancient worthies who, he con- ceived, had always been, or who had become, perfectly virtuous. Above them all he extols Confucius, taking no notice of that sage's confession that he had not attained to conformity to his own rule of doing to others as he would have them do to him. No such acknowledgment about himself ever came from Mencius. Therein he was inferior to his predecessor: he had a subtler faculty of thought, and. a much more vivid imagination ; but he did not know himself nor his special subject of human nature so well. A few passages illustrative of his style and general teachings will complete all that can be said of him here. His thoughts, indeed, were seldom condensed like those of " the master " into aphorisms, and should be read in their connexion; but we have from him many words of wisdom that have been as goads to millions for more than two thousand years. For instance : — " Though a man may be wicked, yet, if he adjust his thoughts, fast, and bathe, he may sacrifice to God." " When Heaven is about to confer a great office on any man, it first exercises his mind with suffering, and his sinews and bones with toil. It exposes his body to hunger, subjects him to extreme poverty, and confounds his undertakings. In all these ways it stimulates his mind, strengthens his nature, and supplies his incompetencies." " The great man is he who does not lose his child-heart." MENDE— MENDELISM ii5 " The sense of shame is to a man of great importance. When one is ashamed of having been without shame, he will afterwards not have occasion for shame." " To nourish the heart there is nothing better than to keep the desires few. Here is a man whose desires are few; in some things he may not be able to keep his heart, but they will be few. Here is a man whose desires are many; in some things he may be able to keep his heart, but they will be few." " Benevolence is the distinguishing characteristic of man. As embodied in his conduct, it may be called the path of duty." " There is an ordination for everything; and a man should receive submissively what may be correctly ascribed thereto. He who has the correct idea of what Heaven's ordination is will not stand beneath a tottering wall. Death sustained in the discharge of one's duties may be correctly ascribed to Heaven. Death under handcuffs and fetters cannot be correctly so ascribed." " When one by force subdues men, they do not submit to him in heart. When he subdues them by virtue, in their hearts' core they are pleased, and sincerely submit." Two translations of the works of Mencius are within the reach of European readers: that by Stanislaus Julien, in Latin (Paris, 1824-1829); and that forming the second volume of Legge's Chinese Classics (Hong-Kong, 1862). The latter has been published at London (1875) without the Chinese text. See also E. Faber, The Mind of Mencius, or Political Economy founded on Moral Philo- sophy, translated from the German by A. B. Hutchinson (London, 1882). (J. Le.) MENDE, a town of south-eastern France, capital of the department of Lozere, 59 m. N.N.E. of Millau by rail. Pop. (1906), town 5246; commune 7007. Mende is picturesquely situated on the left bank of the Let, and at the foot of the Mimat cliff, which rises 1000 ft. above the town, and terminates the Causse de Mende. The town is the seat of a bishopric. Its cathedral of St Peter was founded in the 14th century by Pope Urban V., a native of the district, but the two towers, respectively 280 and 210 ft. high, were added by Bishop Francois de la Rovere in the early part of the 16th century. Partly destroyed during the devastation of the town by the Protestants in 1579 and 1580, it was rebuilt in the 17th century, and in 1874 a statue of Urban V. was erected in front of it. A Renais- sance tower of the ancient citadel now serves as the belfry of the church of the Penitents, and a 14th-century bridge crosses the Lot. The town is a convenient centre for visitors to the gorges of the Tarn. It is the seat of a prefect and a court of assizes, and has a tribunal of first instance and a chamber of commerce. The chief industry is the manufacture of serges and shalloons, known as Mende stuffs, exported to Spain, Italy and Germany. Mende (Mimate) grew up around the hermitage, partly excavated in the side of the Mimat cliff, to which St Privat, bishop of Javols, retreated after the destruction of that town, and where he was subsequently slain by the Vandals, who had pursued him thither, about 408. In the 14th century the new town became the civil, as it had previously been the ecclesiastical, capital of the Gevaudan district. MENDELEEFF, DMITRI IVANOVICH (1834-1907), Russian chemist, the youngest of a family of seventeen, was born at Tobolsk, Siberia, on the 7th of February (n.s.) 1834. After attending the gymnasium of his native place, he went to study natural science at St Petersburg, where he graduated in chemistry in 1856, subsequently becoming privatdozent. In i860 he went to Heidelberg, where he started a laboratory of his own, but returning to St Petersburg in 1861, he became professor of chemistry in the technological institute therein 1863, and three years later succeeded to the same chair in the university. In 1890 he resigned the professorship, and in 1893 he was appointed director of the Bureau of Weights and Measures, a post which he occupied till his death. Mendeleeff 's original work covered a wide range, from questions in applied chemistry to the most general problems of chemical and physical theory. His name is best known for his work on the Periodic Law. Various chemists had traced numerical sequences among the atomic weights of some of the elements and noted connexions between them and the properties of the different substances; but it was left to him to give a full expression to the generalization, and to treat it not merely as a system of classify- ing the elements according to certan observed facts, but as a " law of nature" which could be relied upon to predict new -facts and to, disclose errors in what were supposed to be old facts. Thus in 1871 he was led by certain gaps in his tables to assert the existence of three new elements so far unknown to the chemist, and to assign them definite properties These three he called ekaboron, ekaaluminium, and ekasilicon; and his prophecy was completely vindicated within fifteen years by the discovery of gallium in 1871, scandium in 1879, and germanium in 1886. Again, in several cases he ventured to question the correctness of the " accepted atomic weights," on the ground that they did not correspond with the Periodic Law, and here also he was justified by subsequent investigation. In 1902, in an " attempt at a chemical conception of the ether," he put forward the hypothesis that there are in existence two elements of smaller atomic weight than hydrogen, and that the lighter of these is a chemically inert, exceedingly mobile, all-pene- trating and all-pervading gas, which constitutes the aether. Mendeleeff also devoted much study to the nature of such " indefinite " compounds as solutions, which he looked upon as homogeneous liquid systems of unstable dissociating com- pounds of the solvent with the substance dissolved, holding the opinion that they are merely an instance of ordinary definite or atomic compounds, subject to Dalton's laws. In another department of physical chemistry he investigated the expansion of liquids with heat, and devised a formula for its expression similar to Gay-Lussac's law of the uniformity of the expansion of gases, while sc^far back as 1861 he anticipated T. Andrews's conception of the critical temperature of gases by defining the absolute boiling-point of a substance as the temperature at which cohesion and heat of vaporization become equal to zero and the liquid changes to vapour, irrespective of the pressure and volume. Mendeleeff wrote largely on chemical topics, his most widely known book probably being The Principles of Chemistry, which was written in 1868-1870, and has gone through many subsequent editions in various languages. For his work on the Periodic Law he was awarded in 1882, at the same time as L. Meyer, the Davy medal of the Royal Society, and in 1905 he received its Copley medal. He died at St Petersburg on the 2nd of February 1907. See W. A. Tilden, " Mendeleeff Memorial Lecture," Jour. Chem. Soc, 95, p. 2077. MENDELISM. To define what some biologists call Men- delism briefly is not possible. Within recent years there has come to biologists a new idea of the nature of living things, a new conception of their potentialities and of their limitations; and for this we are primarily indebted to the work of Gregor Mendel. Peasant boy, monk, and abbot of Brunn, this remark- able man at one time interested himself in the workings of heredity, and the experiments devised by him and carried out in his cloister garden are to-day the foundation of that exact knowledge of the physiological process of heredity which bio- logists are rapidly extending in various directions. This extension Mendel never saw. Born in 1822 he published the account of his experiments in 1865, but it was not until 1900, eighteen years after his death, that biologists came to appreciate what he had accomplished. That year marked the simultaneous rediscovery of his work by three distinguished botanists: Hugo de Vries, C. Correns and E. Tschermak. Thenceforward Mendel's ideas have steadily gained ground, and, as the already strong body of evidence in their favour grows, they must come to exert upon biological conceptions an influence not less than those associated with the name of Darwin. Dominant and Recessive. — Mendel chose the common pea (Pisum sativum) as a subject for experiment, and investigated the effects of crossing different varieties. In his method he differed from previous investigators in concentrating his atten- tion on the mode of inheritance of a single pair of alternative characters at a time. Thus on crossing a tall with a dwarf and paying attention to this pair of characters alone, he found that the hybrids (or Fi generation) were all tall and that no intermediates appeared. Accordingly he termed the tall character dominant and the dwarf character recessive. On allowing these hybrids to fertilize themselves in the ordinary n6 MENDEUSM way he obtained a further generation which on the average was composed of three tails to one dwarf. Subsequent experi- ment showed that the Tx D- P dwarfs always bred true, as did also one out of pi.-, p every three tails; the two • ' remaining tails behaved ~m — i — [T] T I •fFflmr) Fig. i. as the original hybrids in ..- p s giving three tails to one dwarf. Having regard to _p the characters, tallness 3 and dwarf ness, three and only three kinds of peas exist, viz. dwarfs which breed true, tails which give a fixed proportion of tails between these three forms may the subjoined scheme, in which Parents breed true, and tails which and dwarfs. The relation be briefly summarized in pure tall and dwarf are represented by T and D respectively, while [T] denotes the tails which do not breed true. Experi- ments were also made with several other pairs of characters, and the same mode of inheritance was shown to hold good throughout. Unit-Characters. — As Mendel clearly perceived, these definite results lead inevitably to a precise conception of the consti- tution of the reproductive cells, or gametes; and to appreciate fully the change wrought in our point of view necessitates a brief digression into the essential features of the reproductive process. A sexual process (see Sex) is almost universal among animals and plants, and consists essentially of the union of two gametes, of which one is produced by either parent. Every gamete contains small definite bodies known as chromosomes, and the number of these is, with few known exceptions, con- stant for the gametes of a given species. On the fusion of two gametes the resulting cell or zygote has therefore a double structure, for it contains an equal number of chromosomes brought in by the paternal and by the maternal gamete — in the case of a plant by the pollen grain as well as by the ovule. By a process of re- peated division the zygote gives rise to a plant (or an animal) whose cells appar- ently retain the double structure throughout. Cer- tain of the cells of such a zygote become the germ cells and are set apart, as it were, for the formation of gametes. Histology has shown that when this occurs -the cells lose the double structure which they had hitherto possessed, and that as the result of a process known as the reduction division gametes are formed in which the number of chromosomes is one half of that which characterizes the cells of the zygote. It is generally acknowledged that the chromosomes play an important part in the hereditary process, and it is possible that the divisions which they undergo in gametogenesis are connected with the observed inheritance of characters. We shall refer later to the few observations which seem to connect the two sets of phenomena. Our conception of what occurs when a cross is made between two individuals may be illustrated by the diagram which forms fig. 2. Zygotes are here represented by squares and gametes by circles. The dominant and recessive characters are indicated Parental /£2\ GameteaV^; by small plain and black rectangles. Each zygote must con- tain two and each gamete but one of these unit-characters. Zygotes such as the original parents which breed true to a given character are said to be homozygous for that character, and from their nature such homozygotes must produce identical gametes. Consequently when a cross is made only one kind of zygote can be formed, viz. that containing both the dominant and recessive unit-characters. When the germ-cells of such a heterozygote split to form gametes, these, as indicated in fig. 2, will be of two sorts containing the dominant and re- cessive characters respectively, and will be produced in equal numbers. If we are dealing with a hermaphrodite plant such as the pea the ovules will consist of one half bearing only the dominant character and one half bearing only the recessive character; and this will be true also of the pollen grains. Consequently each dominant ovule has an equal chance of being fertilized by a dominant or by a recessive pollen grain, and the dominant ovules must therefore give rise to equal numbers of dominant homozygous and of heterozygous plants. Similarly the recessive ovules must give rise to equal numbers of recessive homozygotes and of heterozygotes. Hence of the total offspring of such a plant one quarter will be pure dominants, one quarter recessives, and one half heterozygotes as indicated in fig.'- 2.' Where one character is completely dominant over the other, heterozygotes will be indistinguish- able in appearance from the homozygous dominant, and the F2 generation will be composed of three plants of the domi- nant form to each recessive. These are the proportions actually found by Mendel in the pea and by many other more recent observers in a number of plants and animals. The experi- mental facts are in accordance with the conception of unit- characters and their transmission from zygote to gamete in the way outlined above; and the numerical results of breeding experiments are to be regarded as proving that in the forma- tion of gametes from the heterozygote the unit-characters are treated as unblending entities separating cleanly, or segregating, from one another. From this it follows that any gamete can carry but one of a pair of unit-characters and must therefore be pure for that character. The principle of the segregation of characters in gametogenesis with its natural corollary, the purity of the gametes, is the essential part of Mendel's discoveries. The quite distinct phenomenon of dominance observed by him in Pisum occurs in many other cases, but, as will appear below, is by no means universal. Illustrations. — Mendelian inheritance in its simplest form, i.e. for a single pair of characters, has already been shown to occur in many species of animals and plants, and for many very diverse characters. In some cases complete dominance of one of the pair of unit-characters occurs; in others the form of heterozygote is more or less intermediate. Fresh cases are continually being recorded and the following short list can but serve to give some idea of the variety of characters in which Mendelian inheritance has been demonstrated. A. Dominance nearly or quite complete. (The dominant character is given first). Tall and dwarf habit (pea, sweet pea). Round seed and wrinkled seed (pea). Long pollen and round pollen (sweet pea). Starch and sugar endosperm (maize). Hoariness and absence of hairs (stocks, Lychnis). Beardless and bearded condition (wheat). Prickliness and smoothness of fruits {Datura). Palm and fern leaf (Primula). Purple and red flowers (sweet pea, stocks, &c). Fertility and sterility of anthers (sweet pea). Susceptibility and immunity to rust (wheat). Rose comb and single comb (fowls). Black and white plumage (Rosecomb bantams). Grey and black coat colour (rabbits, mice). Bay and chestnut coat colour (horses). Pigmentation and albinism (rabbits, rats, mice). Polled and horned condition (cattle). Short and long " Angora " coat (rabbits). Normal and waltzing habit (mice). Deformed hand with but two phalanges in digits and normal hand (man). Nt MENDELISM 117 B. Absence of dominance, the heterozygote being more or less intermediate in form. Black and white splashed plumage (Andalusian fowls). Lax and dense ears (wheat). Six rowed and two rowed ears (barley). Dominance. — The meaning of this phenomenon is at present obscure, and we can make no suggestion as to why it should be complete in one case, partial in another, and entirely absent in a third. When found it is as a rule definite and orderly, but there are cases known where irregularity exists. The extra toe characteristic of certain breeds of fowls, such as Dork- ings, behaves generally as a dominant character, but in certain cases it has been ascertained that a. fowl without an extra toe may yet carry the extra toe character. It is possible that in some cases dominance may be conditioned by the presence of other features, and certain crosses in sheep lend colour to the supposition that sex may be such a feature. A cross between the polled Suffolk and the horned Dorset breeds results in horned rams and polled ewes only, though in the F 2 generation both sexes appear with and without horns. At present the simplest hypothesis which fits the facts is that horns are domi- nant in the male and recessive in the female. It is important not to confuse cases of apparent reversal of 'dominance such as the above with cases in which a given visible character may be the result of two entirely different causes. One white hen may give only colour chicks by a coloured cock, whilst the same cock with another white hen, indistinguishable in appear- ance from the former, will give only white chickens containing a few dark ticks. There is here no reversal of dominance, but, as has been abundantly proved by experiment, there are two entirely distinct classes of white fowls, of which one is dominant and the other recessive to colour. The Presence and Absence Hypothesis. — Whether the pheno- menon of dominance occur or not, the unit-characters exist in pairs, of which the members are seemingly interchangeable. In virtue of this behaviour the unit-characters forming such a pair have been termed allelomorphic to one another, and the question arises as to what is the nature of the relation between two allelomorphs. The fact that such cases of heredity as have been fully worked out can all be formulated in terms of allelomorphic pairs is suggestive, and has led to what may be called the " presence and absence " hypothesis. An allelo- morphic pair represents the only two possible states of any given unit-character in its relation to the gamete, viz. its pre- sence or its absence. When the unit-character is present the quality for which it stands is manifested in the zygote: when it is absent some other quality previously concealed is able to appear. When the unit-character for yellowness is present in a pea the seeds are yellow, when it is absent the seeds are green. The green character is underlying in all yellow seeds, but can only appear in the absence of the unit-character for yellowness, and greenness is allelomorphic to yellowness because it is the expression of absence of yellowness. Dihybridism. — The instances hitherto considered are all simple cases in which the individuals crossed differ only in one pair of unit-characters. Mendel himself worked out cases in which the parents differed in more than one allelomorphic pair, and he pointed out that the principles involved were capable of indefinite extension. The inheritance of the various allelomorphic pairs is to be regarded as entirely independent. For example, when two individuals A A and aa are crossed the composition of the F 2 generation must be A A + 2Aa-\-aa. If we suppose that the two parents differ also in the allelo- morphic pair B-b, the composition of the F 2 generation for this pair will be BB + 2Bb + bb. Hence of the zygotes which are homozygous for A A one quarter will carry also BB, one quarter bb, and one half Bb. And similarly for the zygotes which carry A a or aa. The various combinations possible together with the relative frequencies of their occurrence may be gathered from fig. 3. Of the 16 zygotes there are: — 9 containing A and B 3 containing B but not A 3 „ A but not B 1 „ neither A nor B In a case of dihybridism the Fi zygote must be heterozygous for AA BB AA Bb Aa BB AA. Bb AA KB AA bb Aa bB Aa bb BB aA Bb aa BB aa Bb aA bB aA bb aa. bB aa bb Fig. 3. the two allelomorphic pairs, i.e. must be of the constitution Aa Bb. It is obvious that such a result may be produced in two ways, either by the union of two gametes, Ab and aB, or of two gametes AB and ab. In the former case each parent must be homozygous for one dominant and one recessive character; in the latter case one parent must be homo- zygous for both the dominant and the other for both recessive characters. The results of a cross involving, dihybridism may be complicated in several ways by the reaction upon one another of the unit-characters belonging to the separate allelomorphic pairs, and it will be convenient to consider the various possibilities apart. 1. The simplest case is that in which the two allelomorphic pairs affect entirely distinct characters. In the pea tallness is dominant to dwarfness and yellow seeds are dominant to green. When a yellow tall is crossed with A green dwarf the Fi generation consists entirely of tall yellows. Precisely the same result is obtained by crossing a tall green with a dwarf yellow. In either case all the four characters involved are visible in one or other of the parents. Of every 16 plants produced by the tall yellow Fi, 9 are tall yellows, 3 are tall greens, 3 are dwarf yellows, and 1 is a dwarf green. If we denote the tall and dwarf characters by A and a, and the yellow WALNUT fig. 4. (SINGLE The four types of comb referred to in the text are shown here. All the drawings were made from male birds. . In the hens the combs are smaller. All four types of comb are liable to a certain amount of minor variation, and the walnut especially so. The presence of minute bristles on its posterior portion, however, serves at once to distinguish it from any other comb. - and green seed characters by B and b respectively, then the constitution of the F 2 generation can be readily gathered from fig- 3- 2. When the two allelomorphic pairs affect the same structure we may get the phenomenon of novelties appearing in Fi and F 2 . Certain breeds of fowls have a " rose " and others a " pea *' comb (fig. 4). On crossing the two a " walnut " comb results, and the offspring of such walnuts bred together consist of 9 walnuts, 3 roses, 3 peas, and 1 single comb in every 16 birds. This case may be brought into line with the scheme in fig. 3 if we consider the allelomorphic pairs concerned to n8 MENDELISM be rose (.4) and absence of rose (a), and pea (B) and absence of pea (6). The zygotic constitution of a rose is therefore A Abb, and of a pea aaBB. A zygote containing both rose and pea is a walnut: a zygote containing neither rose nor pea is a single. The peculiar feature of such a case lies in the fact that absence of rose and absence of pea are the same thing, i.e. single; and this is doubtless owing to the fact that the characters rose and pea both affect the same structure, the comb. 3. Cases exist in which the characters due to one allelo- morphic pair can only become manifest in the presence of a particular member of the other pair. If in fig. 3 the characters due to B-b can only manifest themselves in the presence of A, it is obvious that this can happen in twelve cases out of sixteen, but not in the remaining four, which are homozygous for aa. An example of this is to be found in the inheritance of coat colour in rabbits, rats and mice where the allelomorphic pairs concerned are wild grey colour (B) dominant to black (b) and pigmentation (A) dominant to albinism (a). Certain albinos (aaBB) crossed with blacks (A Abb) give only greys (AaBb), and when these are bred together they give 9 greys, 3 blacks and 4 albinos. Of the 4 albinos 3 carry the grey character and 1 does not, but in the absence of the pigmenta- tion factor (A) this is not visible. The ratio 9:3:4 must be regarded as a 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 ratio, in which the last two terms are visibly indistinguishable owing to the impossibility of telling by the eye whether an albino carries the character for grey or not. 4. The appearance of a zygotic character may depend upon the coexistence in the zygote of two unit-characters belonging to different allelomorphic pairs. If in the scheme shown in fig. 3 the manifestation of a given character depends upon the simultaneous presence of A and B, it is obvious that 9 of the 16 zygotes will present this character, whilst the remaining 7 will be without it. This is shown graphically in fig. 5, where the 9 squares have been shaded and the 7 left plain. The sweet pea offers an example of this phenom- enon. White sweet peas breed true to whiteness, but when certain strains of whites are crossed the offspring are all coloured.. In the next genera- tion (F 2 ) these Ft plants give rise to 9 coloured and 7 whites in every 16 plants. Colour here is a compound character whose manifestation depends upon the co-existence of two factors in the zygote, and each of the original parents was homozy- gous for one of the two factors necessary to the production of colour. The ratio 9 : 7 is in reality a 9:3:3:1 ratio in which, owing to special conditions,- the zygotes represented by the last three terms are indistinguishable from one another by the eye. The phenomena of dihybridism, as illustrated by the four examples given above, have been worked out in many other cases for plants and animals. Emphasis must be laid upon the fact that, although the unit-characters belonging to two pairs may react upon one another in the zygote and affect its character, their inheritance is yet entirely independent. Neither grey nor black can appear in the rabbit unless the pigmentation factor is also present; nevertheless, gametic segregation of this pair of characters takes place in the normal way among albino rabbits, though its effects are never visible until a suitable cross is made. In cases of trihybridism the Mendelian ratio for the forms' appearing in F2 is 27 : 9 :.g : 9: 3 : 3 : 3 : 1, i.e. 27 showing dominance of three characters, three groups of 9 each showing dominance of two characters, three groups of 3 each showing dominance of one character, and a single individual out of 64 which is homozygous for all three recessive characters. It is obvious that the system can be indefinitely extended to embrace any number of allelomorphic pairs. Reversion. — Facts such as those just dealt with in connexion with certain cases of dihybridism throw an entirely new light upon the phenomenon known as reversion on crossing. This is now seen to consist in the meeting of factors which had in some way or other become separated in phylogeny. The albino rabbit when crossed with the black " reverts " to the wild grey colour, because each parent supplies one of the two factors upon which the manifestation of the wild colour depends. So also the wild purple sweet pea may come as a reversion on crossing two whites. In such cases the reversion appears in the Fx generation, because the two factors upon which it depends are the dominants of their respective allelomorphic pairs. Where the reversion depends upon the simultaneous absence of two characters it cannot appear until the F2 genera- tion. When fowls with rose and pea combs are crossed the reversionary single comb characteristic of the wild Gallus bankiva first appears in the F 2 generation. Gametic Coupling. — In certain cases the distribution of char- acters in heredity is complicated by the fact that particular unit-characters tend to become associated or coupled together during gametogenesis. In no case have we yet a complete explanation of th'e phenomenon, but in view of the important Fig. 5. Fig. 6. bearing which these facts must eventually have on our ideas of the gametogenic process an illustration may be given. The case in which two white sweet peas gave a coloured on crossing has already been described, and it was seen that the production of colour was dependent upon the meeting of two factors, of which one was brought in by each parent. If the allelomorphic pairs be denoted by C-c and R-r, then the zygotic constitution of the two parents must have been CCrr and ccRR respectively. The Fi plant may be either purple or red, two characters which form an allelomorphic pair in which the former is dominant, and which may be denoted by the letters B-b. If B is brought in by one parent only the Fi plant will be heterozygous for all three allelomorphic pairs, and therefore of the constitution CcRr Bb. In the F 2 generation the ratio of coloured to white must be 9 : 7, and of purple to red 3:1; and experiment has shown that this generation is composed on the average of 27 purples, 9 reds and 28 whites out of every 64 plants. The exact composition of such a family may be gathered from the accompanying table (fig. 6). So far the case is perfectly smooth, and it is only on the introduction of another character that the phenomenon of partial coupling is witnessed. Two kinds of pollen grain occur in the sweet pea. In some plants they are oblong in shape, whilst in others they are round, the latter condition being recessive to the former. If the original white parents were homozygous for long and round respectively the Fi purple must be heterozygous, and in the F2 generation, as experiment has shown, the ratio of longs to rounds for the whole family is 3 : 1. But among the purples there are about twelve longs to each round, the excess of longs here being balanced by the reds, where the proportion MENDELISM 119 is 1 long to about 3-5 rounds. There is partial coupling of long pollen with the purple colour and a complementary coupling of the red colour with round pollen. This result would be brought about if it were supposed that seven out of every eight purple gametes produced by the Fi plant carried the long pollen character, and that seven out of every eight red gametes carried the round pollen character. The facts observed fit in with the supposition that the gametes are pro- duced in series of sixteen, but how such result could be brought about is a question which for the present must remain open. Spurious Allelomorphism. — Instances of association between characters are known in which the connection is between the dominant member of one pair and the recessive of another. In many sweet peas the standard folds over towards the wings, and the flower is said to be hooded. This " hooding " behaves as a recessive towards the erect standard. Red sap colour is also recessive to purple. In families where purples and reds as well as erect and hooded standards occur it has been found, as might be expected, that erect standards are to hooded ones, and that purples are to reds as 3:1. Were the case one of simple dihybridism the F 2 generation should be composed of 9 erect purples, 3 hooded purples, 3 erect reds and 1 hooded red in every 16. Actually it is composed of 8 erect purples, 4 hooded purples and 4 erect reds. The hood will not associate with the red, but occurs only on the purples. Cases like this are best interpreted on the assumption that during gametogenesis there is some form of repulsion between the members of the different pairs — in the present instance between the factor for purple and that for the erect standard — so that all the gametes which contain the purple factor are free from the factor for the erect standard. To the process involved in this assumption the term spurious allelomorphism has been applied. Sex. — On the existing evidence it is probable that the in- heritance of sex runs upon the same determinate lines as that of other characters. Indeed, there occurs in the sweet pea what may be regarded as an instance of sex inheritance of the simplest kind. Most sweet peas are hermaphrodite, but some are found in which the anthers are sterile and the plants function only as females. This latter condition is recessive to the hermaphrodite one and segregates from it in the ordinary way. Most cases of sex inheritance, however, are complicated, and it is further possible that the phenomena may be of a different order in plants and animals. Instructive in this connexion are certain cases in which one of the characters of an allelomorphic pair may be coupled with a particular sex. The pale lacticolor variety of the currant moth {Abraxas grossulariata) is recessive to, the normal form, and in families produced by heterozygous parents one quarter of the offspring are of the variety. Though the sexes occur in approximately equal numbers, all the lacticolor ill such families are females; and the association of sex with a character exhibiting normal segregation is strongly suggestive of a similar process obtaining for sex also. ' Castle has worked out similar cases in other Lepidoptera and has put forward an hypothesis of sex in- heritance on the basis of the Mendelian segregation of sex determinants. An ovum or spermatozoon can carry either the male or the female character, but it is essential to Castle's hypothesis that a male spermatozoon should fertilize only a female ovum and vice versa, and consequently on his view all zygotes are heterozygous in respect of sex. Whether any such gametic selection as that postulated by Castle occurs here or elsewhere must for the present remain unanswered. Little evidence exists for it at present, but the possibility of its occurrence should not be ignored. More recently evidence has been brought forward by Bateson and others (3) which supports the view that the inheritance of sex is on Mendelian lines. The analysis of cases where there is a closer association between a Mendelian character and a particular sex has 'suggested that femaleness is here dominant to maleness, and that the latter sex is homozygous while the former is heterozygous. Chromosomes and Unit-Characters. — Breeding experiments have established the conception of definite unit-characters existing in the cells of an organism: in the cell histology has demonstrated the existence of small definite bodies — the chromosomes. During gametogenesis there takes place what many histologists regard as a differentiating division of the chromosomes: at the same period occurs the segregation of the unit-characters. Is there a relation between the postulated unit-character and the visible chromosome, and if so what is this relation? The researches of E. B. Wilson and others have shown that in certain Hemiptera the character of sex is definitely associated with a particular chromosome. The males of Pro- tenor possess thirteen chromosomes, and the qualitative division on gametogenesis results in the production of equal numbers of spermatozoa having six and seven chromosomes. The somatic number of chromosomes in the female is fourteen, and consequently all the mature ova have seven chromosomes. When a spermatozoon with seven chromosomes meets an ovum the resulting zygote has fourteen chromosomes and is a female; when a spermatozoon with six chromosomes meets an ovum the resulting zygote has thirteen chromosomes and is a male. In no other instance has any such definite relation been established, and in many cases at any' rate it is certain that it could not be a simple one. The gametic number of chromosomes in wheat is eight, whereas the work of R. H. Biffen and others has shown that the number of unit-characters in this species is considerably greater. If therefore there exists a definite relation between the two it must be supposed that a chromosome can carry more than a single unit-character. It is not impossible that future work on gametic coupling may throw light upon the matter. Heredity and Variation. — It has long been realized that the problems of heredity and variation are closely interwoven, and that whatever throws light upon the one may be expected to illuminate the other. Recent as has been the rise of the study of genetics, it has, nevertheless, profoundly influenced our views as to the nature of these phenomena. Heredity we now perceive to be a method of analysis, and the facts of heredity constitute a series of reactions which enable us to argue towards the constitution of living matter. And essential to any method of analysis is the recognition of the individuality of the individual. Constitutional differences of a radical nature may be concealed beneath apparent identity of external form. Purple sweet peas from the same pod, indistinguishable in appearance and of identical ancestry, may yet be funda- mentally different in their constitution. From one may come purples, reds and whites, from another only purples and reds, from another purples and whites alone, whilst a fourth will breed true to purple. Any method of investigation which fails to take account of the radical differences in constitution which may underlie external similarity must necessarily be doomed to failure. Conversely, we realize to-day that indivi- duals identical in constitution may yet have an entirely different ancestral history. From the cross between two fowls with rose and pea combs, each of irreproachable pedigree for genera- tions, come single combs in the second generation, and these singles are precisely similar in their behaviour to singles bred from strains of unblemished ancestry. In the ancestry of the one is to be found no single over a long series of years, in the ancestry of the other nothing but singles occurred. The creature • of given constitution may often be built up in many ways, but once formed it will behave like others of the same constitu« tion. The one sure test of the constitution of a living thing lies in the nature of the gametes which it carries, and it is the analysis of these gametes which forms the province of heredity. The clear cut and definite mode of transmission of characters first revealed by Mendel leads inevitably to the conception of a definite and clear-cut basis for those characters. Upon this structural basis, the unit-character, are grounded certain of the phenomena now termed variation. Varieties exist as such in virtue of differing in one or more unit-characters from I20 MENDELSSOHN what is conventionally termed the type; and since these unit- characters must from their behaviour in transmission be regarded as discontinuous in their nature, it follows that the variation must be discontinuous also. A present tendency of thought is to regard the discontinuous variation or mutation as the material upon which natural selection works, and to consider that the process of evolution takes place by definite steps. Darwin's opposition to this view rested partly upon the idea that the discontinuous variation or sport would, from the rarity of its occurrence, be unable to maintain itself against the swamping effects of intercrossing with the normal form. Mendel's work has shown that this objection is not valid, and the precision of the mode of inheritance of the discontinuous variation leads us to inquire if the small or fluctuating variation can be shown to have an equally definite physiological basis before it is admitted to play any part in the production of species. Until this has been shown it is possible to consider the discontinuous variation as the unit in all evolutionary change, and to regard the fluctuating variation as the unin- herited effect of environmental accident. The Human Aspect. — In conclusion we may briefly allude to certain practical aspects of Mendel's discovery. Increased knowledge of heredity means increased power of control over the living thing, and as we come to understand more and more the architecture of the plant or animal we realize what can and what cannot be done towards modification or improvement. The experiments of Biff en on the cereals have demonstrated what .may be done with our present knowledge in establishing new, stable and more profitable varieties of wheat and barley, and it is impossible to doubt that as this knowledge becomes more widely disseminated it will lead to considerable improve- ments in the methods of breeding animals and plants. It is not, however, in the economic field, important as this may be, that Mendel's discovery is likely to have most meaning for us: rather it is in the new light in which man will come to view himself and his fellow creatures. To-day we are almost entirely ignorant of the unit-characters that go to make the difference between one man and another. A few diseases, such as alcaptonuria and congenital cataract, a digital mal- formation, and probably eye colour, are as yet the only cases in which inheritance has been shown to run upon Mendelian lines. The complexity of the subject must render investigation at once difficult and slow; but the little that we know to-day offers the hope of a great extension in our knowledge at no very distant time. If this hope is borne out, if it is shown that the qualities of man, his body and his intellect, his im- munities and his diseases, even his very virtues and vices, are dependent upon the ascertainable presence or absence of definite unit-characters whose mode of transmission follows fixed laws, and if also man decides that his life shall be ordered in the light of this knowledge, it is obvious that the social system will have to undergo considerable changes. Bibliography. — In the following short list are given the titles of papers dealing with experiments directly referred to in this article. References to most of the literature will be found in (n), and a complete list to the date of publication in (3). (1) W. Bateson, Mendel's Principles of Heredity (Cambridge, 1902), contains translation of Mendel's paper. (2) W. Bateson, An Address on Mendelian Heredity and its Application to Man, " Brain," pt. cxiv. (1906). (3) W. Bateson, Mendel's Principles of Heredity (1909). (4) R. H. Biffen, " Mendel's Laws of In- heritance and Wheat Breedings," Journ. Agr. Soc, vol. i. (1905) (5) W. E. Castle, " The Heredity of Sex," Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. (Harvard, 1903). (6) L. Cu6not, " L'HeV&iite' de la pigmentation che^ les souris," Arch. Zool. Exp. (1903-1904). (7) H. de Vries, Die Mutationstheorie (Leipzig, 1901-1903). (8) L. Doncaster and G. H. Raynor, " Breeding Experiments with Lepidoptera," Proc. Zool. Soc. (London, 1906). (9) C. C. Hurst, " Experimental Studies on Heredity in Rabbits," Journ. Linn. Soc. (1905). (10) G. J. Mendel, Versuche uber Pflanzen-Hybriden, Verh. nalur. f. ver. in Briinn, Bd. IV. (1865). (11) Reports to the Evolution Committee of the Royal Society, vols, i.-iii. (London, 1902-1906, experiments by W. Bateson, E. R. Saunders, R. C. Punnett, C. C. Hurst and others). (12) E. B. Wilson, " Studies in Chromosomes," vols, i.-iii. Journ. Exp. Zool. (1905-1906). (13) T. B. Wood, " Note on the Inheri- tance of Horns and Face Colour in Sheep," Journ. Agr. Soc. vol. i. (loot). (R. C. P.) MENDELSSOHN, MOSES (1720-1786), Jewish philosopher, was born in Dessau in 1729. His father's name was Mendel, and he was later on surnamed Mendelssohn ( = son of Mendel). He was the foremost Jewish figure of the 18th century, and to him is attributable the renaissance of the House of Israel. With this third Moses (the other two being the Biblical lawgiver and Moses Maimonides) a new era opens in the history of the Jewish people. Mendel Dessau was a poor scribe — a writer of scrolls — and his son Moses in his boyhood developed curvature of the spine. His early education was cared for by his father and by the local rabbi, David Frankel. The latter, besides teaching him the Bible and Talmud, introduced to him the philosophy of Maimonides (q.v.). Frankel received a call to Berlin in 1743. Not many months later a weakly lad knocked at one of the gates of Berlin. He was admitted after an alterca- tion, and found a warm welcome at the hands of his former teacher. His life at this period was a struggle against crushing poverty, but his scholarly ambition was never relaxed. A refugee Pole, Zamosz, taught him mathematics, and a young Jewish physician was his tutor in Latin. He was, however, mainly self-taught. " He learned to spell and to philosophize at the same time " (Graetz). With his scanty earnings he bought a Latin copy of Locke's Essay concerning the Human Understanding, and mastered it with the aid of a Latin dictionary. He then made the acquaintance of Aaron Solomon Gumperz, who taught him the elements of French and English. In 1750 he was appointed by a wealthy silk-merchant, Isaac Bernhard, as teacher to his children. Mendelssohn soon won the confidence of Bernhard, who made the young student successively his book-keeper and his partner. Gumperz or Hess rendered a conspicuous service to Mendels- sohn and to the cause of enlightenment in 1754 by introducing him to Lessing. Just as the latter afterwards makes Nathan the Wise and Saladin meet over the chess-board, so did Lessing and Mendelssohn actually come together as lovers of the game. The Berlin of the day — the day of Frederick the Great — was in a moral and intellectual ferment. Lessing was the great liberator of the German mind. He had already begun his work of toleration, for he had recently produced a drama {Die Juden, 1749), the motive of which was to prove that a Jew can be possessed of nobility of character. This notion was being generally ridiculed as untrue, when Lessing found in Mendels- sohn the realization of his dream. Within a few months of the same age, the two became brothers in intellectual and artistic cameraderie. Mendelssohn owed his first introduction to the public to Lessing's admiration. The former had written in lucid German an attack on the national neglect of native philosophers (principally Leibnitz.), and lent the manuscript to Lessing. Without consulting the author, Lessing published anonymously Mendelssohn's Philosophical Conversations (Philo- sophische Gesprache) in 1755. In the same year there appeared in Danzig an anonymous satire, Pope a Metaphysician (Pope ein Metaphysiker) , the authorship of which soon transpired. It was the joint work of Lessing and Mendelssohn. From this time Mendelssohn's career was one of ever-increasing brilliance. He became (1756-1759) the leading spirit of Nicolai's important literary undertakings, the Bibliothek and the Literalur- briefe, and ran some risk (which Frederick's good nature obviated) by somewhat freely criticizing the poems of the king of Prussia. In 1762 he married. His wife was Fromet Gugenheim, who survived him by twenty-six years. In the. year following his marriage Mendelssohn won the prize offered by the Berlin Academy for an essay on the application of mathe- matical proofs to metaphysics, although among the competitors were Abbt and Kant. In October 1763 the king granted Mendelssohn the privilege of Protected Jew (Schutz-Jude) — which assured his right to undisturbed residence in Berlin. As a result of his correspondence with Abbt, Mendelssohn resolved to write on the Immortality of the Soul. Materialistic views were at the time rampant and fashionable, and faith in immortality was at a low ebb. At this favourable juncture appeared the PhOdon (1767). Modelled on Plato's dialogue MENDELSSOHN-BARTHOLDY 121 of the same" name, Mendelssohn's work possessed some of the charm of its Greek exemplar. What most impressed the German world was its beauty and lucidity of style — features to which Mendelssohn still owes his popularity as a writer. The Phadon was an immediate success, and besides being often reprinted in German was speedily translated into nearly all the European languages, including English. The author was hailed as the " German Plato," or the " German Socrates "; royal and other aristocratic friends showered attentions on him, and it is no exaggeration to assert with Kayserling that " no stranger who came to Berlin failed to pay his personal respects to the German Socrates." So far, Mendelssohn had devoted his talents to philosophy and criticism; now, however, an incident turned the current, of his life in the direction of the cause of Judaism. Lavater was one of the most ardent admirers of Mendelssohn. He described him as " a companionable, brilliant soul, with piercing eyes, the body of an Aesop — a man of keen insight, exquisite taste and wide erudition . . . frank and open-hearted." Lavater was fired with the ambition to convert his friend to Christianity. In the preface to a German translation of Bonnet's essay on Christian Evidences, Lavater publicly challenged Mendelssohn to refute Bonnet or if he could not then to " do what wisdom, the love of truth and honesty must bid him, what a Socrates would have done if he had read the book and found it unanswer- able." This appeal produced a painful impression. Bonnet resented Lavater's action, but Mendelssohn was bound to reply, though opposed to religious controversy. As he put it: " Suppose there were living among my contemporaries a Confucius or a Solon, I could, according to the principles of my faith, love and admire the great man without fall- ing into the ridiculous idea that I must convert a Solon or a Confucius." Here we see the germs of Mendelssohn's Pragmatism, to use the now current term. He shared this with Lessing; in this case, at all events, it is probable that the latter was indebted to Mendelssohn. But before discussing this matter, we must follow out the consequences of Lavater's intrusion into Mendels- sohn's affairs. The latter resolved to devote the rest of his life to the emancipation of the Jews. Among them secular studies had been neglected, and Mendelssohn saw that he could best remedy the defect by attacking it on the religious side. A great chapter in the history of culture is filled by the influence of translations of the Bible. Mendelssohn added a new section to this chapter by his German translation of the Pentateuch and other parts of the Bible. This work (1783) constituted Mendelssohn the Luther of the German Jews. From it, the Jews learned the German language; from it they imbibed culture; with it there was born a new desire for German nationality; as a result of its popularity was inaugurated a new system of Jewish education. Some of the conservatives among the Jews opposed these innovations, but the current of progress was too strong for them. Mendelssohn was the first great champion of Jewish emancipation in the 18th century. He it was who induced C. W. Dohm to publish in 1781 his epoch-making work, On the Civil Amelioration of the Condition of the Jews, a memorial which played a great part in the triumph of tolerance. Mendelssohn himself published a German translation of the Vindiciae judaeorwn by Menasseh ben Israel. The excitement caused by these proceedings led Mendelssohn to publish his most important contribution to the problems connected with the position of Judaism in relation to the general life. This work was the Jerusalem (1783; Eng. trans. 1838 and 1852). It is a forcible plea for freedom of conscience. Kant described it as " an irrefutable book." Its basic idea is that the state had no right to interfere with the religion of its citizens. As Kant put it, this was " the proclamation of a great reform, which, however, will be slow in manifestation and in progress, and which will affect not only your people but others as well." Mendelssohn asserted the pragmatic principle of the possible plurality of truths: that just as various nations need different constitutions — to one a monarchy, to another a republic, may be the most congenial to the national genius — so individuals may need different religions. The test of religion is its effect on conduct. This is the moral of Lessing's Nathan the Wise, the hero of which is undoubtedly Mendelssohn. The parable of the three rings is the epitome of the pragmatic position. One direct result of this pragmatism was unexpected. Having been taught that there is no absolutely true religion, Mendelssohn's own descendants — a brilliant circle, of which the musician Felix was the most noted — left the Synagogue for the Church. But despite this, Mendelssohn's theory was found to be a strengthening bond in Judaism. For he maintained that Judaism was less a " divine need, than a revealed life." In the first part of the 19th century, the criticism of Jewish dogmas and traditions was associated with a firm adhesion to the older Jewish mode of living. Reason was applied to beliefs, the historic consciousness to life. Modern reform in Judaism is parting to some extent from this conception, but it still holds good even among the liberals. Of Mendelssohn's remaining years it must suffice to say that he progressed in fame numbering among his friends more and more of the greatest men of the age. His Morgenstunden appeared in 1785, and he died as the result of a cold contracted while carrying to his publishers in 1786 the manuscript of a vindication of his friend Lessing, who had predeceased him by five years. Mendelssohn had six children. His sons were: Joseph (founder of the Mendelssohn banking house, and a friend and benefactor of Alexander Humboldt), whose son Alexander (d. 1871) was the last Jewish descendant of the philosopher; Abraham (who married Leah Bartholdy and was the father of Fanny Hensel and J. L. Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy) ; and Nathan (a mechan- ical engineer of considerable repute). His daughters were Dorothea, Recha and Henriette, all brilliantly gifted women. Bibliography. — An edition of Mendelssohn's works was published in 1843-1845, with a biography by his son Joseph; another edition of his Schnften zur Philosophic Aesthetik und Apologetik, appeared (ed. Brasch) in 2 vols, in 1880. For Mendelssohn's biography the chief sources are Graetz, History of the Jews, vol. v., and Kayser- ling's M. Mendelssohn's Leben und Wirken (1887). Much interesting material on the Mendelssohn family is given in Hensel's Die> Familie Mendelssohn (translated into English, 1881). Much general comment on Moses Mendelssohn appeared in the press of the world on occasion of the centenary of the birth of the composer Mendels- sohn in 1909. (I. A.) MENDELSSOHN-BARTHOLDY, JAKOB LUDWIG FELIX (1800-1847), German composer, grandson of Moses Mendelssohn (q.v.), was born in Hamburg on the 3rd of February 1809. In consequence of the troubles caused by the French occupation of Hamburg, Abraham Mendelssohn, his father, migrated in 181 1 to Berlin, where his grandmother Fromet, then in the twenty-fifth year of her widowhood, received the whole family into her house, No. 7 Neue Promenade. Here Felix and his sister Fanny received their first instruction in music from their mother, under whose care they progressed so rapidly that their exceptional talent soon became apparent. Their next teacher was Madame Bigot, who, during the temporary residence of the family in Paris in 181 6, gave them valuable instruction. On their return to Berlin they took lessons in thoroughbass and composition from Zelter, in pianoforte-playing from Ludwig Berger, and in violin-playing from Henning — the care of their general education being entrusted to the father of the novelist Paul Heyse. Felix first played in public on the 24th of October 1818, taking the pianoforte part in a trio by Woelfl. On the nth" of April 1 81 9 he entered the Berlin Singakademie as an alto, and in the following year began to compose with extraordinary rapidity. His earliest dated work is a cantata, In rUhrend feierlichen Tbnen, completed on the 13th of January 1820. During that year alone he produced nearly sixty movements, including songs, pianoforte sonatas, a trio for pianoforte, violin and violoncello, a sonata for violin and pianoforte, pieces for the organ, and even a little dramatic piece in three scenes. In 1821 he wrote five symphonies for stringed instru- ments, each in three movements; motets for four voices, an 122 MENDELSSOHN-BARTHOLDY opera, in one act, called Soldatenliebschajt; another, called Die beiden Piidagogen; part of a third, called Die wandernden Comodi- anten; and an immense quantity of other music of different kinds, all showing the precocity of his genius. The original autograph copies of these early productions are preserved in the Berlin Library, where they form part of a collection which fills forty-four large volumes, all written with infinite neatness, and for the most part carefully dated — a sufficient proof that the methodical habits which distinguished his later life were formed in early childhood. In 1 82 1 Mendelssohn paid his first visit to Goethe, with whom he spent sixteen days at Weimar, in company with Zelter. From this year also dates his first acquaintance with Weber, who was then in Berlin superintending the production of Der Freischiitz; and from the summer of 1822 his introduction, at Cassel, to another of the greatest of his contemporaries, Ludwig Spohr. During this year his pen was even more prolific, producing, among other works, an opera, in three acts, entitled Die beiden Nejjen, oder der Onkel aus Boston, and a pianoforte concerto, which he played in public at a concert given by Frau Anna Milder. It had long been a custom with the Mendelssohn family to give musical performances on alternate Sunday mornings in their dining-room, with a small orchestra, which Felix always conducted, even when he was not tall enough to be seen without standing upon a stool. For each of these occasions he produced some new work — playing the pianoforte pieces himself, or entrusting them to Fanny, while his sister Rebecka sang, and his brother Paul played the violoncello. In this way Die beiden Neffen was first privately performed, on-the fifteenth anniversary of his birthday, the 3rd of February 1824. Between the 3rd and the 31st of March in this year he composed his fine sym- phony in C minor, now known as Op. 10, and soon afterwards the quartet in B minor, Op. 3, and the (posthumous) pianoforte sestet, Op. no. In this year also began his lifelong friendship with Moscheles, who, when asked to receive him as a pupil, said, "If he wishes to take a hint from me, as to anything new to him, he can easily do so; but he stands in no need of lessons." In 1825 Abraham Mendelssohn took Felix to Paris, where among other musicians then resident in the French capital he met the two most popular dramatic composers of the age, Rossini and Meyerbeer, and lived on terms of intimacy with Hummel, Kalkbrenner, Rode, Baillot, Herz, and many other artists of European celebrity. On this occasion also he made his first acquaintance with Cherubini, who, though he rarely praised any one, expressed a high opinion of his talent, and recommended him to write a Kyrie, for five voices, with full orchestral accompaniments, which he himself described as " exceeding in thickness " anything he had attempted. From letters written at this period we learn that Felix's estimate of the French school of music was far from flattering; but he formed some friendships in Paris, which were renewed on later occasions. He returned to Berlin with his father in May 1825, taking leave of his Parisian friends on the 19th of the month, and interrupting his journey at Weimar for the purpose of paying a second visit to Goethe, to whom he dedicated his quartet in B minor. On reaching home he must have worked with greater zeal than ever; for on the 10th of August in this same year he completed an opera, in two acts, called Die Hochzeit des Camacho, a work of considerable importance. No ordinary boy could have escaped uninjured from the snares attendant upon, such a life as that which Mendelssohn now lived. Notwithstanding his overwhelming passion for music, his general education had been so well cared for that he was able to hold his own, in the society of his seniors, with the grace of an accomplished man of the world. He was already recognized as a leading spirit by the artists with whom he asso- ciated, and these artists were men of acknowledged talent and position. The temptations to egoism by which he was surrounded would have rendered most clever students intoler- able. But the natural amiability of his disposition, and the healthy influence of his happy home-life, counteracted aH tendencies towards self-assertion. Soon after his return from Paris, Abraham Mendelssohn removed from his mother's residence to No. 3 Leipziger Strasse, a roomy, old-fashioned house, containing an excellent music- room, and in the grounds adjoining a " Gartenhaus " capable of accommodating several hundred persons at the Sunday performances. 1 In the autumn of the following year this " garden-house " witnessed a memorable private performance of the work by means of which the greatness of Mendelssohn's genius was first revealed to the outer world — the overture to Shakespeare's Midsummer Night's Dream. The finished score of this famous composition is dated " Berlin, August 6, 1826 " — its author was only seventeen and a half years old. Yet in no later work does he exhibit more originality of thought, more freshness of conception, or more perfect mastery over the details of technical construction, than in this delightful inspiration. The overture was first publicly performed at Stettin, in February 1827, under the direction of the young composer, who was at once accepted as the leader of a new and highly characteristic manifestation of the spirit of progress. Henceforth we must speak of him, not as a student, but as a mature and experienced artist. Meanwhile Camacho' s Wedding had been submitted to Spontini, with a view to its production at the opera. The libretto, founded upon an episode in the history of Don Quixote, was written by Klingemann, and Mendelssohn threw himself into the spirit of the romance with a keen perception of its peculiar humour. The work was put into rehearsal soon after the com- poser's return from Stettin, produced on the 29th of April 1827, and received with great apparent enthusiasm; but a cabal was formed against it, and it never reached a second performance. The critics abused it mercilessly; yet it exhibits merits of a very high order. The solemn passage for the trom- bones, which heralds the first appearance of the knight of La Mancha, is conceived in a spirit of reverent appreciation of the idea of Cervantes, which would have done honour to a composer of lifelong experience. Mendelssohn was annoyed at this injustice, and some time elapsed before his mind recovered its usual bright tone; but he continued to work diligently. Among other serious undertakings, he formed a choir for the study of the choral works of Sebastian Bach, then unknown to the public; and, in spite of Zelter's opposition, he succeeded, in 1829, in inducing the Berlin Singakademie to give a public performance of the Passion according to St Matthew, under his direction, with a chorus of between three and four hundred voices. The scheme succeeded beyond his warmest hopes, and proved the means of restoring to the world great compositions which had never been heard since the death of Bach. But the obstructive party were offended; and at this period Mendelssohn was far from popular among the musicians of Berlin. In April 1829 Mendelssohn paid his first visit to London. His reception was enthusiastic. He made his first appearance before an English audience at one of the Philharmonic Society's concerts — then held in the Argyll Rooms — on the 25th of May, conducting his symphony in C minor from the pianoforte, to which he was led by John Cramer. On the 30th he played Weber's Concertstiick, from memory, a proceeding at that time extremely unusual. At a concert given by Drouet, on the 24th of June, he played Beethoven's pianoforte concerto in E flat, which had never before been heard in the country;*- and the overture to A Midsummer Night's Dream was also, for the first time, presented to a London audience. On returning home from the concert, Attwood, then organist of St Paul's Cathedral, left the score of the overture in a hackney coach, whereupon Mendelssohn wrote out another, from memory, without an error. At another concert he played, with Moscheles, his still unpublished concerto in E, for two pianofortes and 1 After Mendelssohn's death this house was sold to the Prussian government; and the " Herrenhaus " now stands on the site of the garden-house. MENDELSSOHN-BARTHOLDY 123 orchestra. After the close of the London season he started with Klingemann on a tour through Scotland, where he was inspired with the first idea of his overture to The Isles of Fingal, returning to Berlin at the end of November. Except for an accident to his knee, which lamed him for some time, his visit was highly successful and laid the foundation of many friendships and prosperous negotiations. The visit to England formed the first division of a great scheme of travel which his father wished him to extend to all the most important art centres in Europe. After refusing the offer of a professorship at Berlin, he started again, in May 1830, for Italy, pausing on his way at Weimar, where he spent a fortnight with Goethe, and reaching Rome, after many pleasant interruptions, on the 1st of November. No excitement prevented him from devoting a certain time every day to composition; but he lost no opportunity of studying either the countless treasures which form the chief glory of the great city or the manners and customs of modern Romans. He attended, with insatiable curiosity, the services in the Sistine Chapel; and his keen power of observation enabled him to throw much interesting light upon them. His letters on this subject, however, lose much of their value through his incapacity to comprehend the close relation existing between the music of Palestrina and his contemporaries and the ritual of the Roman Church. His Lutheran education kept him in ignorance even of the first principles of ordinary chanting; and it is amusing to find him describing as enormities peculiar to the papal choir customs familiar to every village singer in England, and as closely connected with the structure of the " Anglican chant " as with that of " Gregorian music." Still, though he could not agree in all points with Baini, the greatest ecclesiastical musician then living, he shared his admiration for the Improperia, the Miserere, and the cantus planus of the Lamentationes and the Exullet, the musical beauty of which he could understand, apart from their ritual significance. In passing through Munich on his return in October 1831 he composed and played his pianoforte concerto in G minor, and accepted a commission (never fulfilled) to compose an opera for the Munich theatre. Pausing for a time at Stuttgart, Frankfort and Dusseldorf he arrived in Paris in December, and passed four pleasant months in the renewal of acquaintances formed in 1825, and in close intercourse with Liszt and Chopin. On the 19th of February 1832 the overture to A Midsummer Night's Dream was played at the conservatoire, and many of his other compositions were brought before the public; but he did not escape disappointments with regard to some of them, especially the Reformation symphony, and the visit was brought to a premature close in March by an attack of cholera, from which, however, he rapidly recovered. On the 23rd of April 1832 he was again in London, where he twice played his G minor concerto at the Philharmonic concerts, gave a performance on the organ at St Paul's, and published his first book of Lieder ohne Worte. He returned to Berlin in July, and during the winter he gave public perform- ances of his Reformation symphony, his concerto in G minor, and his Walpurgisnacht. In the following spring he paid a third visit to London for the purpose of conducting his Italian symphony, which was played for the first time, by the Phil- harmonic Society, on the 13th of May 1833. On the 26th of the same month he conducted the performances at the Lower Rhine festival at Dusseldorf with such brilliant effect that he was at once offered, and accepted, the appointment of general- music-director to the town, an office which included the manage- ment of the music in the principal churches, at the theatre, and at the rooms of two musical associations. Before entering upon his new duties, Mendelssohn paid a fourth visit to London, with his father, returning to Dusseldorf on the 27th of September 1833. His influence produced an excellent effect upon the church music and in the concert-room ; but his relations with the management of the theatre were not altogether pleasant; and it was probably this circumstance which first led him to forsake the cultivation of the opera for that of sacred music. At Dusseldorf he first designed his famous oratorio St Paul, in response to an application from the Cacilien-Verein at Frankfort, composed his overture to Die schbne Melusine, and planned some other works of impor- tance. He liked his appointment, and would probably have retained it much longer had he not been invited to undertake the permanent direction of the Gewandhaus concerts at Leipzig, and thus raised to the highest position attainable in the German musical world. To this new sphere of labour he removed in August 1835, opening the first concert at the Gewandhaus, on the 4th of October, with his overture Die Meeresstille, a work possessing great attractions, though by no means on a level with the Midsummer Night's Dream, The Isles of Fingal, or Melusine. Mendelssohn's reception in Leipzig was most enthusiastic; and under their new director the Gewandhaus concerts prospered exceedingly. Meanwhile- St Paul steadily progressed, and was first produced, with triumphant success, at the Lower Rhine festival at DUsseldorf, on the 22nd of May 1836. On the 3rd of October it was first sung in English, at Liverpool, under the direction of Sir George Smart; and on the 16th of March 1837 Mendelssohn again directed it at Leipzig. The next great event in Mendelssohn's life was his happy marriage, on the 28th of March 1837, to Cecile Charlotte Sophie Jeanrenaud. The honeymoon was scarcely over before he was again summoned to England to conduct St Paul, at the Birming- ham festival, on the 20th of September. During this visit he played on the organ at St Paul's and at Christ Church, Newgate Street, with an effect which exercised a lasting influ- ence upon English organists. It was here also that he first contemplated the production of his second oratorio, Elijah. Passing over the composition of the Lobgesang in 1840, a sixth visit to England in the same year, and his inauguration of a scheme for the erection of a monument to Sebastian Bach, we find Mendelssohn in 1841 recalled to Berlin by the king of Prussia, with the title of Kapellmeister. Though his appoint- ment resulted in the production of Antigone, Oedipus Coloneus, Athalie, the incidental music to the Midsummer Night's Dream, and other great works, it proved an endless source of vexation, and certainly helped to shorten the composer's life. In 1842 he came to England for the seventh time, accompanied by his wife, conducted his Scotch symphony at the Philharmonic, again played the organ at St Peter's, Cornhill, and Christ Church, Newgate Street, and was received with honour by the queen and the prince consort. He did not, however, permit his new engagements to interfere with the direction of the Gewandhaus concerts; and in 1843 he founded in Leipzig the great conservatoire which soon became the best musical college in Europe, opening it on the 3rd of April in the buildings of the Gewandhaus. In 1844 he conducted six of the Phil- harmonic concerts in London, producing his new Midsummer Night's Dream music, and playing Beethoven's pianoforte concerto in G with extraordinary effect. He returned to his duties at Berlin in September, but succeeded in persuading the king to free him from his most. onerous engagements. After a brief residence in Franfort, Mendelssohn returned to Leipzig in September 1845, resuming his old duties at the Gewandhaus, and teaching regularly in the conservatoire. Here he remained, with little interruption, during the winter — introducing his friend Jenny Lind, then at the height of her popularity, to the critical frequenters of the Gewandhaus, and steadily working at Elijah, the first performance of wKwh he conducted at the Birmingham festival, on the 2 6th of August 1846. The reception of this great work was enthusiastic. Unhappily, the excitement attendant upon its production, added to the irritating effect of the worries at Berlin, made a serious inroad upon the composer's health. On his return to Leipzig he worked on as usual, but it was clear that his health was seriously impaired. In 1847 he visited England for the tenth and last time, to conduct four performances of Elijah at Exeter Hall, on the 16th, 23rd, 28th and 30th of April, one at Manchester on the 20th, and one at Birmingham on the 27th. 124 MENDES But the exertion was beyond his strength. He witnessed Jenny Lind's first appearance at Her Majesty's Theatre, on the 4th of May, and left England on the oth, little anticipating the trial that awaited him in the tidings of the sudden death of his sister Fanny, which reached him only a few days after his arrival in Frankfort. The loss of his mother in 1842 had shaken him much, but the suddenness with which this last intelligence was communicated broke him down. He fell to the ground insensible, and never fully recovered. In June he was so far himself again that he was able to travel, with his family, by short stages, to Interlaken, where he stayed for some time, illustrating the journey by a series of water-colour drawings, but making no attempt at composition for many weeks. He returned to Leipzig in September, bringing with him fragments of Christus, Loreley, and some other unfinished works, taking no part in the concerts, and living in privacy. On the oth of October he called on Madame Frege, and asked her to sing his latest set of songs. She left the room for lights, and on her return found him in violent pain and almost insen- sible. He lingered for four weeks, and on the 4th of November he passed away, in the presence of his wife, his brother, and his three friends, Moscheles, Schleinitz, and Ferdinand David. A cross marks the site of his grave, in the Alte Dreifaltigkeits Kirchhof , at Berlin. Mendelssohn's title to a place among the great composers of the century is incontestable. His style, though differing little in technical arrangement from that of his classical pre- decessors, is characterized by a vein of melody peculiarly his own, and easily distinguishable by those who have studied his works, not only from the genuine effusions of contemporary writers, but from the most successful of the servile imitations with which, even during his lifetime, the music-shops were deluged. In less judicious hands the rigid symmetry of his phrasing might, perhaps, have palled upon the ear; but under his skilful management it serves only to impart an additional charm to thoughts which derive their chief beauty from the evident spontaneity of their conception. In this, as in all other matters of a purely technical character, he regarded the accepted laws of art as the medium by which he might most certainly attain the ends dictated by the inspiration of his genius. Though caring nothing for rules, except as means for producing a good effect, he scarcely ever violated them, and was never weary of impressing their value upon the minds of his pupils. His method of counterpoint was modelled in close accordance with that practised by Sebastian Bach. This he used in combination with an elastic development of the sonata-form, similar to that engrafted by Beethoven upon the lines laid down by Haydn. The principles involved in this arrangement were strictly conservative; yet they enabled him, at the very outset of his career, to invent a new style no less original than that of Schubert or Weber, and -no less remarkable as the embodiment of canons already consecrated by classical authority than as a special manifestation of individual genius. It is thus that Mendelssohn stands before us as at the same time a champion of conservatism and an apostle of progress; and it is chiefly by virtue of these two apparently incongruous though really compatible phases of his artistic character that his influence and example availed, for so many years, to hold in check the violence of reactionary opinion which injudicious partisanship afterwards fanned into revolutionary fury. Concerning Mendelssohn's private character there have never been two opinions. As a man of the world he was more than ordinarily accomplished — brilliant in conversation, and in his lighter moments overflowing with sparkling humour and ready pleasantry, loyal and unselfish in the more serious business of life, and never weary of working for the general good. As a friend he was unvaryingly kind, sympathetic and true. His earnestness as a Christian needs no stronger testimony than that afforded by his own delineation of the character of St Paul; but it is not too much to say that his heart and life were pure as those of a little child. (W. S. R.) This article has the unique value of being the record of an eminent musical scholar who was an actual pupil of Mendelssohn. No change of reputation can alter the value of such a record of a man whom even his contemporaries knew to be greater than his works. Mendelssohn's aristocratic horror of self-advertisement unfitted him for triumph in a period of revolution; he died, most inopportunely, when his own powers, like Handel's at the same age, were being wasted on pseudo-classical forms; the new art was not yet ripe ; and in the early Wagner-Liszt reign of terror his was the first reputation to be assassinated. That of the too modest and gentle " Romantic " pioneer Schumann soon followed; but, as being more difficult to explain away, and more embarrassing to irreverence and conceit, it remains a subject of controversy. Meanwhile Mendelssohn's reputation, except as the composer of a few inexplicably beautiful and original orchestral pieces, has vanished and been replaced by a pure fiction known as the " Mendelssohn tradition " of orchestral conducting. This fiction is traceable to some characteristic remarks made by Wagner on his experiences of English orchestral playing, remarks which, though not very good-natured, do not bear the full construction popularly imputed to them. If Beethoven had come and conducted in England, Mendelssohn's expostulations with careless players would have been met by references to the " Beet- hoven tradition " ; and, if Wagner had shared Mendelssohn's reluctance to putting on record remarks likely to wound individual, professional and national sensibilities, it might not have been im- possible that reproaches against slipshod and mechanical playing might nowadays be met by references to the " Wagner tradition, ' for Wagner also found himself compelled to concentrate his care on the main items in the overloaded English orchestral programmes, to the detriment of the rest. Mendelssohn's influence on the early career of Joachim is, next to his work in the rediscovery of Bach, his greatest bequest to later musical history. Those many profound and sincere admirers to Joachim to whom the name of Mendelssohn calls up only the Widow in Elijah and the weaker Songs without Words, may find the idea strange; but there is no doubt that Joachim regarded the continuation of a true Mendelssohn tradition as identical with his own efforts to " uphold the dignity of art." (D. F. T.) MENDES, CATULLE (1 841-1909), French poet and man of letters, of Jewish extraction, was born at Bordeaux on the 22nd of May 1 84 1. He early established himself in Paris, attaining speedy notoriety by the publication in the Revue fanlaisiste (1861) of his " Roman d'une nuit," for which he was condemned to a month's imprisonment and a fine of 500 francs. He was allied with the Parnassians from the beginning of the movement, and displayed extraordinary metrical skill in his first volume of poems, Philomila (1863). In later volumes — Poesies, /** sirie (1876), which includes much of his earlier verse, " Soirs moroses," Conies ipiqUes, Philomela, &c; Poesies (7 vols., 1885), a new edition largely augmented; Les Poesies de Catulle Mendbs (3 vols., 1892); La Grive des vignes (1895), &c. — his critics have noted that the elegant verse is distinguished rather by dexterous imitation of different writers than by any marked originality. The versatility and fecundity of Mendes's talent is shown in a series of his critical and dramatic writings, and of novels and short stories, in the latter of which he continues the French tradition of the licentious conte. For the theatre he wrote: La Part du roi (1872), a one-act verse comedy; Les Freres d'armes (1873), drama; Justice (1877), in three acts, characterized by a hostile critic as a hymn in praise of suicide; the libretto of a light opera, Le Capitaine Fracasse (1878), founded on Theo- phile Gautier's novel; La Femmede Tabarin (1887) ; MH&e (1898), in three acts and in verse; La Reine Fiammette (1898), a conte dramatique in six acts and in verse, the scene of which is laid in the Italy of the Renaissance; Le Fils de I'etoile (1904), the hero of which is Bar-Cochebas,' the Syrian pseudo-Messiah, for the music of C. Erlanger; Scarron (1905); Ariane (1906), for the music of Massenet; and Glatigny (1906). His critical work includes: Richard Wagner (1886); L 'Art au theatre (3 vols.'';* 1896-1900), a series of dramatic criticisms reprinted from newspapers; and a report addressed to the minister of public instruction and of the fine arts on Le Mouvement poetique franiais de 1867 a iqoo (newed., 1903), which includes a biblio- graphical and critical dictionary of the French poets of the 19th century. Perhaps the most famous of his novels are: Le Roi vierge (1880) in which he introduces Louis II. of Bavaria and Richard Wagner; La Maison de la vielle (1894), and Gog (1897). He married in 1866 Mile Judith Gautier, younger daughter of the poet, from whom he was subsequently separated. MENDICANCY— MENDIP HILLS 125 On the 9th of February 1909, early in the morning, his dead body was discovered in the railway tunnel of Saint Germain. He had left Paris by the midnight train on the 7th, and it is supposed that, thinking he had arrived at the station, he had opened the door of his compartment while still in the tunnel. MENDICANCY (from Lat. mendicus, in a condition of beggary, a word of unknown origin) , a state or condition of being a beggar, the practice of obtaining a livelihood by asking alms. The word " mendicant," also found in the French form " mendiant," appears to have come into use through the begging friars. MENDICANT MOVEMENT AND ORDERS. The facts con- cerning the rise of the Orders of Mendicant Friars are related in the articles on the several orders (Franciscans, Dominicans, Carmelites, Augustinian Hermits), and in that on Monasti- cism (§ n), where the difference between friars and monks is explained. The purpose of this article is to characterize the movement as a whole, and to indicate the circumstances that produced it. The most striking phenomenon in connexion with the beginnings of the mendicant orders is the rapidity with which the movement spread. Within a generation of the death of the two great founders, Dominic (1221) and Francis (1226), their institutes had spread all over Europe and into Asia, and their friars could be numbered by tens of thousands. In all the great cities of Western Europe friaries were established, and in the universities theological chairs were held by Dominicans and Franciscans. And when at the middle of the century the other great mendicant orders of Carmelites and Austin Friars, and also Servites (q.v.) arose their propagation showed that the possibilities of the mendicant movement had not been exhausted by the Dominicans and Franciscans. Lesser mendicant orders sprang up in all directions — Gasquet mentions half a dozen such that found their way into England (English Monastic Life, p. 241) — in such numbers that the Council .of Lyons in 1274 found it necessary to suppress all except the orders already named. Moreover, besides the various orders of friars, there were the lay Tertiaries that arose and spread far and wide in connexion with the Franciscans and other mendicants, and the similar institute of the Humiliati (see Tertiaries). These facts clearly show that the Mendicant Movement re- sponded to widely spread and deeply felt needs of the time. These needs found expression not only in the Mendicant orders within the Church, but also in a number of more or less heretical and revolutionary religious sects. There was this in common among the Cathari, Waldenses, Albigenses and other heretical bodies that overran so many parts of Western Europe in the second half of the 12th century and the beginning of the 13th, that they all inveighed against the wealth of the clergy, and preached the practice of austere poverty and a return to the simple life of Christ and the Apostles. Thus the sectaries no less than the Mendicant orders bear witness to the existence of spiritual needs in Western Christendom, which the Mendicant orders went a long way towards satisfying. Probably the most crying need was that of priests to minister to the great city populations, at that time growing up with such rapidity, especially in Italy. During the 10th, nth and 12th centuries the Church had been organized on the lines of the prevailing feudal system — the bishops and abbots were feudal barons, and the effects of the system were felt throughout the ranks of the lower clergy. The social fabric was built up not on the towns, but on the great landlords; and when the centre of gravity began to move, first of all in Italy, to the towns, and crowded populations began to be massed together in them, the parochial systems broke down under the weight of the new conditions, and the people were in a state of spiritual and moral no less than physical destitution. So, when the friars came and established themselves in the poorest localities of the towns, and brought religion to the destitute and the outcasts of society, assimilat- ing themselves to the conditions of life of those among whom they worked, they supplied a need with which the parochial clergy were unable to cope. The friars responded not only to the new needs of the age, but to its new ideas — religious, intellectual, social, artistic. It was a period of religious revival, and of reaction against abuses that followed in the wake of the feudal system; and this religious movement was informed by a new mysticism— a mysticism that fixed its attention mainly on the humanity of Christ and found its practical expression in the imitation of His life. A new intellectual wave was breaking over Western Europe, symbolized by the university and the scholastic movements; and a new spirit of democratic freedom was making itself felt in the growing commercial towns of Italy and Germany. There is no need to labour the point that the Mendicants responded to all these needs and interpreted them within the pale of Catholic Christianity, for the fact lies upon the surface of history. But a few words are necessary on the central idea from which the Mendicants received their name — the idea of poverty. This was St Francis's root idea, and there is no doubt — though it has been disputed — that it was borrowed from him by St Dominic and the other Mendicant founders. St Francis did not intend that begging and alms should be the normal means of sustenance for his friars; on the contrary, he intended them to live by the work of their hands, and only to have recourse to begging when they could not earn their livelihood by work. But as the friars soon came nearly all to be priests devoted to spiritual ministrations, and the communities grew larger, it became increasingly difficult for them to support themselves by personal work; and so the begging came to play a greater r61e than had been contemplated by St Francis. But his idea certainly was that his friars should not only practise the utmost personal poverty and simplicity in their life, but that they should have the minimum of possessions — no lands, no funded property, no fixed sources of income. The maintaining of this ideal has proved unworkable in practice. In the Dominican Order and the others that started as mendicant it has been mitigated or even abrogated. Among the Franciscans them- selves it has been the occasion of endless strife, and has been kept alive only by dint of successive reforms and fresh starts, each successful for a time, but doomed always, sooner or later, to yield to the inexorable logic of facts. The Capuchins (q.v.) have made the most permanently successful effort to maintain St Francis's ideal; but even among them mitigations have had to be admitted. In spite, however, of all mitigations the Franciscans have nearly always presented to the world an object lesson in evangelical poverty by the poorness and simplicity of their lives and surroundings. On the subject-matter of this article the best thing in English is the Introductory Essay by the Capuchin Fr. Cuthbert on " The Spirit and Genius of the Franciscan Friars," in The Friars and how (key came to England (1903) ; see also the earlier chapters of Emil Gebhard's Italie mystique (1899). (E. C. B:) MENDIP HILLS, a range in the north of Somersetshire, England. Using the name in its widest application, the eastern boundary of the range may be taken to be formed, by the upper valleys of the rivers Frome and Brue, and the depres- sion between them. The range extends from these north- westward with a major axis of about 23 m., while the outliers of Wavering Down and Bleadon Hill continue it towards the shore of the Bristol Channel. The range is generally about 6 m. in width, and its total area about 130 sq. m. Its south- western face descends to the low " moors " or marshes drained by the Axe and other streams, the small towns of Axbridge, Cheddar and Wells lying at the foot of the hills. Towards the north-east its limits are less clearly defined, for high ground, intersected by narrow vales, extends as far as the valley of the "* Avon. A depression, followed by the road between Radstock and Wells, strikes across the range about its centre; the principal elevations lie west of this, and to the area thus defined the name of the Mendips is sometimes restricted. The summit of the hills is a gently swelling plateau, which reaches its extreme height in the north — 1068 ft. The Mendips consist principally of Carboniferous Limestone. Fine cliffs and scars occur on the flanks of the plateau, as in the gorge of Cheddar, and there is a wonderful series of caverns, the result of water action. The surface of the plateau is often broken by deep holes 126 MENDOZA, A. H. DE— MENDOZA, P. G. DE (" swallets ") into which streams flow. Some of the caves, such as those at Cheddar, are easy of access, and attract many visitors owing to the beauty of the stalactitic formations; others, of greater extent and grandeur, have only been explored, or partly explored, with great difficulty. Some caves have yielded large quantities of animal remains (hyaenas, bears and others) together with traces of prehistoric human occupation. Among such Wookey Hole, where the river Axe issues from the foot of a cliff, may be mentioned. Lead was worked among the Mendips at a very early period. Some of the Roman workings, especially in the neighbourhood of Charterhouse-on- Mendip, have yielded pigs of lead inscribed with the names of emperors of the ist and 2nd centuries A.D., together with an abundance of smaller objects. See E. Baker and H. Balch, The Netherworld of Mendip (Clifton, 1907). MENDOZA, ANTONIO HURTADO DE (iS93?-i6 4 4), Spanish dramatist, was born about the end of the 16th century in the province of Asturias, became page to the count de Saldana (son of the duke de Lerma), and was recognized as a rising poet by Cervantes in the Viaje del Parnaso (1614). He rose rapidly into favour under Philip IV., who appointed him private secretary, commissioned from him comedias palaciegas for the royal theatre at Aranjuez, and in 1623 conferred on him the orders of Santiago and Calatrava. Most of his contemporaries and rivals paid court to " el discreto de palacio," and Mendoza seems to have lived on the friendliest terms with all his brother- dramatists except Ruiz de Alarcon. He is said to have been involved in the fall of Olivares, and died unexpectedly at Saragossa on the 19th of September 1644. Only one of his plays, Querer por s6lo querer, was published with his consent; it is included in a volume (1623) containing his semi-official account of the performances at Aranjuez in 1622. The best edition of Mendoza's plays and verses bears the title of Obras liricas y cdmicas, divinas y humanas (1728). Much of his work does not rise above the level of graceful and accomplished verse; but that he had higher qualities is shown by El Marido hace mujer, a brilliant comedy of manners, which forms the chief source of Moliere's £cole des maris. The Fiesta que se hizo en Aranjuez and Querer por solo querer were translated into English by Sir Richard Fanshawe, afterwards ambassador at Madrid, in a posthumous volume published in 1671. MENDOZA, DIEGO HURTADO DE (1503-1575), Spanish novelist, poet, diplomatist and historian, a younger son of the count of Tendillas, governor of Granada, was born in that city in 1503. The celebrated marquis of Santillana was his great-grandfather. On leaving the university of Salamanca, Mendoza abandoned his intention of taking orders, served under Charles V. in Italy, and attended lectures at the uni- versities of Bologna, Padua and Rome. In 1537 he was sent to England to arrange a marriage between Henry VIII. and the duchess of Milan, as well as a marriage between Prince Louis of Portugal and Mary Tudor. Despite the failure of his mission, he preserved the confidence of the emperor, and in 1539 was appointed ambassador at Venice; there he patronized the Aldi, procured copies of the Greek manuscripts belonging to Cardinal Bessarion, and acquired other rare codices from the monastery of Mount Athos. The first edition of Josephus was printed (1544) from the texts in Mendoza's collection. He acted for some time as military governor of Siena, represented Spain diplomatically at the council of Trent, and in 1547 was nominated special plenipotentiary at Rome, where he remained till 1554. He was never a favourite with Philip II., and a quarrel with a courtier resulted in his banishment from court (June 1568). The remaining years of his life, which were spent at Granada, he devoted to the study of Arabic, to poetry, and to his history of the Moorish insurrection of 1568-1570. He died in 1575. His Guerra de Granada was published at Lisbon by Luis Tribaldos de Toledo in 1627; the delay was doubtless due to Mendoza's severe criticism of contemporaries who survived him. In some passages the author deliberately imitates Sallust and Tacitus; his style is, on the whole, vivid and trenchant, his information is exact, and in critical insight he is not inferior to Mariana. The attribution to Mendoza of Lazarillo de Tormes is rejected by all competent scholars, but that he excelled in picaresque malice is proved by his indecorous verses written in the old Castilian metres and in the more elaborate measures imported from Italy. Mendoza is believed to be the author of the letters to Feliciano de Silva and to Captain Salazar, published by Antonio Paz y Melia in Sales Espanolas (Madrid, 1900). See A. Senan y Alonso, D. Diego Hurtado de Mendoza, apuntes biogrdfico-crUicos (Granada, 1886) ; Calendar of Letters and Paper's foreign and domestic, Henry VIII., vols. xii. and xiii. ; C. Graux, Essai sur Vorigine du fonds grec de VEsctirial (Paris, 1880); R. Foulch^-Delbosc, " Etude sur la Guerra de Granada " in the Revue hispanique (Paris, 1894), vol. i. MENDOZA, PEDRO GONZALEZ DE (1428-1495), Spanish cardinal and statesman, was the fourth son of Inigo Lopez de Mendoza, marquess of Santillana, and duke of Infantado. He was born at Guadalajara in New Castile, the chief lordship of his family, on the 3rd of May 1428. The house of Mendoza claimed to descend from the lords of Llodio in Alava, and to have been settled in Old Castile, in the nth century. One chief of the house had been greatly distinguished at the battle of the Navas de Tolosa in 1212. Another had been Admiral of Castile in the reign of Alphonso the Wise. Peter the Cruel had endowed them with the lordships of Hita and Buitrago. The greatness of the Mendozas was completed by Pedro Gonzalez, who sacri- ficed his life to save King John I. at the battle of Aljubarrota in 1385. The cardinal's father, the marquis of Santillana — to use the title he bore for the greater part of his life — was a poet, and was conspicuous during the troubled reign of John II. Loyalty to the Crown was the traditional and prevailing policy of the family. Pedro Gonzalez, the future cardinal, was sent into the Church mainly because he was a younger son and that he might be handsomely provided for. He had no vocation, and was an example of the worldly, political and martial prelates of the 15th century. In 1452 at the age of twenty- four, he was chosen by the king John II. to be bishop of Cala- horra, but did not receive the pope's bull till 1454. As bishop of Calahorra he was also senor, or civil and military ruler, of the town and its dependent district. In his secular capacity he led the levies of Calahorra in the civil wars of the reign of Henry IV. He fought for the king at the second battle of Olmedo on the 20th of August 1467, and was wounded in the arm. During these years he became attached to Dona Mencia de Lemus, a Portuguese lady-in-waiting of the queen. She bore him two sons, Rodrigo, who was once selected to be the husband of Lucrezia Borgia, and Diego, who was the grandfather of the princess of Eboli of the reign of Philip II (see Perez, Antonio.) By another lady of a Valladolid family he had a third son who afterwards emigrated to France. In 1468 he became bishop of Siguenza. In 1473 he was created cardinal, was promoted to the archbishopric of Seville and named chancellor of Castile. During the last years of the reign of King Henry IV. he was the partisan of the Princess Isabella, afterwards queen. He fought for her at the battle of Toro on the ist of March 1476; had a prominent part in placing her on the throne; and served her indefatigably in her efforts to suppress the disorderly nobles of Castile. In 1482 he became archbishop of Toledo. During the conquest of Granada he contributed largely to the maintenance of the army. On the 2nd of January 1492 he occupied the town in the name of the Catholic sovereigns. Though his life was worldly, and though he was more soldier and statesman than priest, the " Great Cardinal," as he was" commonly called, did not neglect his duty as a bishop. He used his influence with the queen and also at Rome to arrange a settlement of the disputes between the Spanish sovereigns and the papacy. Though he maintained a splendid household as archbishop of Toledo, and provided handsomely for his children, he devoted part of his revenue to charity, and with part he endowed the college of Santa Cruz at Valladolid. His health broke down at the close of 1493. Queen Isabella visited and nursed him on his deathbed. It is said that he recommended her to choose as his successor the Franciscan Jimenez de Cisneros, MENDOZA— MENEDEMUS 127 a man who had no likeness to himself save in political faculty and devotion to the authority of the Crown. He died at Guadalajara on the nth of January 1495. The life of the cardinal, by Salazar de Mendoza, Cronica del gran cardinal Don Pedro Gonzalez de Mendoza (Toledo, 1625), is discursive and garrulous but valuable. See also Prescott, History of Ferdinand and Isabella. MENDOZA,- a province of western Argentina, bounded N. by San Juan, E. by San Luis and the territory of La Pampa, S. by the territories of La Pampa and Neuquen, and W. by the republic of Chile. Area, 56,502 sq. m.; pop. (1895), 116,136; (1904, estimate), 159,780. The Andes form the western boun- dary, and a considerable part of the territory is covered by the great Cordillera, its foothills and flanking ranges. The eastern part is an arid, sandy, level plain, with extensive saline basins, having no vegetation other than coarse grasses and thickets of low, spiny mimosas and " chanar " (Gourliaea decorticans). The fertile, populated districts of the province border on the Cordillera, particularly in the north where numerous streams from the snow-clad summits supply water for irrigation. The secondary ranges in this part of Mendoza are the Sierra de los Paramillos, which encloses the Uspallata Valley, and the Sierra del Tunuyan, which encloses a number of populous valleys drained by the Tunuyan river and its tributaries. One of the largest of these is the Yuco Valley. Farther south the country becomes more arid and sparsely populated, and unsub- dued tribes of Indians for a long time prevented its exploration. In this region the Sierra de Payen and Sierra del Nevado (otherwise known as the Sierra Quero Matro Pellon) extend in a north-easterly direction. With the exception of the Rio Grande in the south-west part of the province, which forms the principal source of the Colorado, all the rivers of the province flow easterly and southerly into the great saline depression of western Argentina, which includes a great part of Mendoza, San Luis and La Pampa. The Andean streams rise in the higher snow-clad elevations, but their waters become impregnated with saline matter soon after reaching the plain, and are even- tually lost in the saline marshes and lagoons of southern Mendoza and La Pampa. These Andean rivers are the Mendoza, Tunuyan, Diamante and Atuel, with their numerous tributaries, all of which discharge into the sluggish river which flows from the Huanacache lagoons, on the San Juan frontier, southward to the marshes and lagoons of La Pampa. The upper part of this brackish, swampy stream is called the Desaguadero, and the lower the Salado. It forms the eastern boundary line of the province down to the 36th parallel. With the exception of the elevated districts of the Andes, the climate of Mendoza is hot and dry. On the plains the rainfall is insignificant, but on the slopes of the Cordillera rains are frequent and winter cold is severe. Agriculture is the principal occupation where irrigation can be used, the province having a high reputation for its raisins and wines. Alfalfa is an important product, being grown for fattening the cattle driven through the province to the Chilean markets. The mineral resources of the province are said to be good, but receive little attention. Petroleum is found in the vicinity of San Rafael, on the Diamante river, and it is claimed that coal exists in the same region. Although Mendoza was settled by Spanish colonists from Chile as far back as 1559, its development has been hindered by its isolated position. This isolation was broken in 1884 by the completion of the Argentine Great Western railway to the provincial capital. Since then a railway has been built northward to San Juan, and another line was in 1908 under construction through the Andes to connect with the Chilean railway system. In addition to Mendoza, the capital of the province, the principal towns (hardly more than villages) are Guaymallen, Maipu, San Martin, Lujan and San Rafael. The provinces of Mendoza, San Juan and San Luis, which were settled from Chile and were for a long time governed from Santiago, were at first called the province of Cuyo, and are still spoken of as the " Cuyo provinces." MENDOZA, a city of Argentina, capital of Mendoza province, 632 m. by rail W.N.W. of Buenos Aires. Pop. (1904, estimate), 32,000. It stands on a plain near the foot of a secondary Andean range called the Sierra de los Paramillos, at an elevation of 2320 ft. The surrounding district is arid, but has been irrigated and is covered with gardens, orchards and cultivated fields. The city is about 15 m. N. of the Mendoza, or Lujan river, whose waters are utilized for irrigation and for the requirements of the city by means of a channel which leaves the main river a little above the town of Lujan and runs to the Tulumaya river and the lagoons of Huanacache. This channel is called El Zanj6n, and is believed to have been opened by Guaymallen, the chief of the Guarpes who inhabited this district at the time of the Spanish conquest, but it is more probably natural. The city is laid out in a regular manner with broad well-paved streets and numerous public squares. The Zanjon and another stream called the Guaymallen traverse the city, and the principal streets have water flowing through them and are shaded by poplars. Because of earthquake risks, the public buildings are neither costly nor imposing. The private residences are commonly of one storey, built with wooden frames filled in with adobes. The climate is hot, dry and enervating, not- withstanding the elevation and the proximity of the Andes. The surrounding districts produce fruit, vegetables, alfalfa and cereals. The vineyard industry -is prominent, and raisins and wine are exported. The position on the main route across the Andes into Chile, by way of the Uspallata or Cumbre pass (highest point 12,870 ft.), has given the city commercial im- portance. It has railway connexion with the principal cities of the republic, including the ports of Rosario, Buenos Aires and Bahia Blanca, and also with the capital of San Juan. Mendoza was founded by Captain Pedro del Castillo, who had been sent from Santiago across the Andes in 1559 by Garcia Hurtado de Mendoza, the governor of Chile, to conquer and annex the territory extending N.E. to Tucuman. The city was named after Mendoza. It was made the capital of the province of Cuyo, and belonged to Chile down to 1776, when the province was transferred to the newly created viceroyalty of La Plata. It was the headquarters of General San Martin while he was organizing an army for the liberation of Chile, and greatly assisted him with men and money. Under re- publican administration Mendoza suffered much from revolu- tions. Moreover, on the 20th of March 1861, the city was destroyed by an earthquake and a fire which followed. Not a building was left standing, and the loss of life was estimated at 10,000 to 12,000. The French geologist Bravard, who had predicted the catastrophe, was one of its victims. The poplars in the streets, together with some species of fruit-trees, were first planted in Mendoza by a Spaniard, Juan Cobos, in 1809, who thus became one of its greatest benefactors. MENEDEMUS, Greek philosopher, and founder of the Eretrian school of thought, was born at Eretria about 350 and died between 278 and 275 b.c. Though of noble birth, he worked as builder and tentmaker until he was sent with a military expe- dition to Megara, where, according to Diogenes Laertius, he heard Plato and resolved to devote himself to philosophy. It is more likely that he heard one of Plato's followers, inasmuch as Plato died when he was only four years old, if the above dates are correct. At Megara he formed a life-long friendship with Asclepiades, with whom he toiled in the night that he might study philosophy by day. He was subsequently a pupil first of Stilpo and then of Phaedo of Elis, whose school he transferred to Eretria, by which name it was afterwards known. -Jn addition to his philosophical work, he took a leading part in the political affairs of his city from the time of the Diadochi until his death, and obtained a remission of the tribute to Demetrius. His friendship with Antigonus Gonatas seems to have roused suspicion as to his loyalty, and he sought safety first in the temple of Amphiaraus at Oropus, and later with Antigonus, at whose court he is said to have died of grief. Other accounts say that he starved himself to death on failing to induce Antigonus to free his native city. His philosophical views are known only in part. Athenaeus quotes Epicrates as stating that he was a Platonist, but other accounts credit 128 MENELAUS— -MENES him with haying preferred Stilpo to Plato. Diogenes Lagrtius (ii. 134 and 135) says that he declined to identify the Good with the Useful, and that he denied the value of the negative proposition on the ground that affirmation- alone can express truth. He probably meant to imply that qualities have no existence apart from the subject to which they belong. In ethics we learn from Plutarch {De virt. mor. 2) and from Cicero {Acad. ii. 42) that, he regarded Virtue as one* by whatever name it be called, and maintained that it is intellectual. Cicero's evidence is the less valuable in that he always assumed that Menedemus was a follower of the Megarians. Diogenes says that he left no writings, and the Eretrian school disappeared after a short and unobtrusive existence. Beside the ancient sources quoted above, see H. Mallett, Histoire de I'ecole de Megare et des holes d'Elis et d'Eretrie (1845). Also the articles Mega man School; Phaedo; Stilpo. MENELAUS, in Greek legend, son of Atreus (or Pleisthenes); king of Sparta, brother of Agamemnon and husband of Helen. He was one of the Greeks who entered Troy concealed in the wooden horse (Virgil, Aeneid, ii. 264) and recovered his wife at the sack of the city. On the voyage homewards his fleet was scattered off Cape Malea by a storm, which drove him to Egypt. After eight years' wandering in the east, he landed on the island of Pharos, where Proteus revealed to him the means of appeasing the gods and securing his return. He reached Sparta on the day on which Orestes was holding the funeral feast over Aegisthus and Clytaemnestra. After a long and happy life in Lacedaemon, Menelaus, as the son-in-law of Zeus, did not die but was translated to Elysium (Homer, Odyssey, iii. iv.). His grave and that of Helen were shown at Therapnae, where he was worshipped as a god (Pausanias iii. 10, 9). He was represented in works of art as carrying off the body of the dead Patroclus or lifting up his hand to slay Helen. MENELEK II. (Sahala Mariem), emperor of Abyssinia, officially negus negusti (king of kings) of Ethiopia (1844- )> son of Haeli Melicoth, king of Shoa, was born in 1844, and claimed to be a direct descendant of Solomon by the queen of Sheba. On the death of his father in 1855 he was kept a prisoner at Gondar by Kassai, the governor, who had seized the throne under the title of Theodore III. But having succeeded in effecting his escape he was acknowledged king of Shoa, and at once attacked the usurper. These campaigns were unsuccessful, and he turned his arms to the west, east and south, and annexed much territory to his kingdom, still, however, maintaining his divine right to the crown of Ethiopia. After the death of Theodore in 1888 he continued to struggle against his successor, the emperor Johannes (better known to Europeans- as King John of Abyssinia). Being again unsuccessful, he resolved to await a more propitious occasion; so, acknowledging the supre- macy of Johannes, in 1886 he married his daughter Zeodita (b. 1876) to the emperor's son, the Kas Area; he was thereupon declared heir to the empire, and on his side acknowledged the Ras Area as his successor. Ras Area died in May 1888, and the emperor Johannes was killed in a war against the dervishes at the battle of Gallabat (Matemma) on the 10th of March 1889. The succession now lay between the late emperor's natural son, the Ras Mangasha, and Menelek, but the latter was elected by a large majority on the 4th of November, and consecrated shortly afterwards. Menelek had married in 1883 Taitu (b. 1854) a princess of Tigre, a lady who had been married four times previously and who exercised considerable influence. Menelek's clemency to Mangasha, whom he compelled to submit and then made viceroy of Tigre, was ill repaid by a long series of revolts. In 1889, at the time when he was claiming the throne against Mangasha, Menelek signed at Uccialli a treaty with Italy acknowledging Italian claims to the Asmara district. Finding, however, that according to the Italian view of one of its articles the treaty placed his empire under Italian domination, Menelek denounced it; and after defeating the Italians at Amba-Alagi, he compelled them to capitulate at Adowa in February 1896, and a treaty was signed recognizing the absolute independence of Abyssinia. His French sympathies were shown in a reported official offer of treasure towards payment of the indemnity at the close of the Franco-Prussian War, and in February 1897 he concluded a commercial treaty with France on very favourable terms. He also gave assistance to French officers who sought to reach the upper Nile from Abyssinia, there to join forces with the Marchand Mission; and Abyssinian armies were sent Nilewards. A British mission under Sir Rennell Rodd in May 1897, however, was cordially received, and Menelek agreed to a settlement of the Somali boundaries, to keep open to British commerce the caravan route between Zaila and Harrar, and ta prevent the transit of munitions of war to the Mahdists, whom he proclaimed enemies of Abyssinia. In the following year the, Sudan was reconquered by an Anglo-Egyptian army and there- after cordial relations between Menelek and the British author- ities were established. In 1889 and subsequent years, Menelek sent forces to co-operate with the British troops engaged against the Somali mullah, Mahommed Abdullah. Menelek had in 1898 crushed a rebellion by Ras Mangasha (who died in 1906) and he directed his efforts henceforth to the consolidation of his authority, and in a certain degree, to the opening up of his country to western civilization. He had granted in 1894 a concession for the building of a railway to his capital from the . French port of Jibuti, but, alarmed by a claim made by France in 1902 to the control of the line in Abyssinian territory, he stopped for four years the extension of the railway beyond Dire Dawa. When in 1906 France, Great Britain and Italy came to an agreement on the subject, Menelek officially reiterated his full sovereign rights over the whole of his empire. In May 1909 the emperor's grandson Lij Yasu, or Jeassu, then a lad of thirteen, was married to Romanie (b. 1902), granddaughter of the negus Johannes. Two days later Yasu was publicly pro- claimed at Adis Ababa as Menelek's successor. At that time the emperor was seriously ill and as his ill-health continued, a council of regency — from which the emperor was excluded — was formed in March 1910. (See also Abyssinia.) MENENDEZ Y PELAYO, MARCELINO (1856- ), Spanish scholar and critic, was born at Santander on the 3rd of November 1856. In 1871-1872 he studied under Milay Fontanals at the university of Barcelona, whence he proceeded to the central university of Madrid. His academic successes had never been surpassed; a special law was passed by the Cortes' to enable him to become a professor at the age of twenty-two, and three years later he was elected a member of the Spanish Academy. But before this date (1882) he was well known throughout Spain. His first volume, Estudios crtticos sobre escritores montaHeses (1876), had attracted little notice, and his scholarly Horatio en Espafia (1877) appealed only to students. He became famous through his Ciencia espaiiola (1878), a collection of polemical essays defending the national tradition against the attacks of political and religious reformers. The unbending orthodoxy of this work is, if possible, still more pronounced in the Historia de los heterodoxos espafioles (1 880-1 886), and the writer was hailed as the champion of the ultramontane party. His lectures (1881) on Calder6n established his reputation as a literary critic; and his work as an historian of Spanish literature was continued in his Historia de las ideas estiticas en Espafia (1881-1891), his edition (1890-1903) of Lope de Vega, his Antologla de poetas llricos castellanos (1890-1906), and his Origenes de la novela (1905). MENENIUS LANATUS, AGRIPPA, Roman patrician and statesman, consul 503 B.C. On the occasion of the first secession- of the people to the Sacred Mount, Agrippa, who was known to be a man of moderate views, was one of the commissioners empowered by the senate to treat with the seceders. On this occasion he recited the well-known fable of the belly and the members. Livy ii. 16, 32, 33; Dion. Halic. v. 44-47; vi. 49-88, 96; Val. Max. iv. 4, 2. MENES. the. name of the founder of the 1st Dynasty of historical kings of Egypt. He appears at the head of the lists not only in Herodotus and Manetho, but also in the native Turin Papyrus of Kings and the lists of Abydos, while the Est MENGS^MENIN 129 of Sakkara begins with the sixth king of the 1st Dynasty, a fact which may throw some doubt on the supposed foundation of Memphis by Menes. Until recently he was looked upon as semi-mythical, but the discovery of the tombs of many kings of the 1st Dynasty including probably that of Menes himself, as well as an abundance of remains of still earlier ages in Egypt has given him a personality. He was probably ruler of Upper Egypt and conquered the separate kingdom of Lower Egypt. See Egypt ; K. Sethe, " Menes und die Grundung von Memphis," in his Untersuchungen zur Geschichle und Alterthumskunde Aegyptens, iii. 121. (F. Ll. G.) MENGS, ANTONY RAPHAEL (1728-1779), German painter, was born in 1728 at Aussig in Bohemia, but his father, Ismael Mengs, a Danish painter, established himself finally at Dresden, whence in 1741 he took his son to Rome. The appointment of Mengs in 1749 as first painter to the elector of Saxony did not prevent his spending much time in Rome, where he had married in 1748, and abjured the Protestant faith, and where he became in 1754 director of the Vatican school of painting, nor did this hinder him on two occasions from obeying the call of Charles III. of Spain to Madrid. There Mengs produced some of his best work, and specially the ceiling of the banqueting-hall, the subject of which was the Triumph of Trajan and the Temple of Glory. After the completion of this work in 1777, Mengs returned to Rome, and there he died, two years later, in poor circumstances, leaving twenty children, seven of whom were pensioned by the king of Spain. Besides numerous paintings in the Madrid gallery, the Ascension at Dresden, Perseus and Andromeda at St Petersburg, and the ceiling of the Villa Albani must be mentioned among his chief works. In England, the duke of Northumberland possesses a Holy Family, and the colleges of All Souls and Magdalen, at Oxford, have altar-pieces by his hand. In his writings, in Spanish, Italian and German, Mengs has put forth his eclectic theory of art, which treats of perfection as attainable by a well-schemed combination of diverse excellences — Greek design, with the expression of Raphael, the chiaroscuro of Correggio, and the colour of Titian. His intimacy with Winckelmann — who constantly wrote at his dictation — has enhanced his historical importance, for he formed no scholars, and the critic must now concur in Goethe's judgment of Mengs in Winckelmann und sein Jahrhundert; he must deplore that so much learning should have been allied to a total want of initiative and poverty of invention, and embodied with a strained and artificial mannerism. See Opere di Antonio Raffaello Mengs (Parma, 1780) ; Mengs Werke, iibersetzt v. G. F. Prange (1786); Zeilschrift fiir bildende Kunst (1880); Bianconi, Elogio storico di Mengs (Milan, 1780); Woermann, Ismael und Raphael Mengs (Leipzig, 1893). MENGTSZE, a city in the S.E. of the province of Yunnan, China. Pop. about 12,000. It was selected by the French convention of 1886 as the seat of the overland trade between Tongking and Yunnan, and opened two years later. It is beautifully situated in the centre of a valley basin on a plateau 3500 ft. above sea-level. The country round is fertile and well cultivated, aifd the place must have been one of considerable wealth before the T'aip'ing rebellion, as the ruins of many fine temples attest. A considerable overland trade has sprung up since the opening of Mengtsze. Of the import trade Hong-Kong supplied 86%, and of the export trade 70%, Cochin-China, Tongking and Annam claiming the remainder. Tin (68 %) and opium (27-8%) are the principal exports, and textiles (71%), mostly cottons, and tobacco (4%) are the chief imports. On the Tongking side this trade follows the Red River route as far as Manhao, which is distant from Mengtsze about 40 m., though the navigation of the river is difficult. From Manhao the transit is by coolies or pack animals. Concessions have been obtained by the French government to build a line of railway from the Tongking frontier at the town of Laokay via Mengtsze to Yunnan-fu. The climate is equable and healthy. MENHADEN, economically one of the most important fishes of the United States, known by a great number of local nafties, " menhaden " and " mossbunker " being those most generally iviu. 5 in use. The Indians and white settlers used it as a manure, and the name is Narragansett for " fertilizer." Its scientific name is Clupea (or Alosa) menhaden and Brevoorlia lyrannus. It is allied to the European species of shad and pilchard, and, like the latter, approaches the coast in immense shoals, which are found throughout the year in some part of the littoral waters between Maine and Florida, the northern shoals retiring into deeper water or to more southern latitudes with the approach of cold weather. The average size of the menhaden is about 12 in. It is too bony and oily for a table-fish, but is used as bait for cod and mackerel. A large fleet is engaged in the fishery; and a great number of factories extract the oil for tanning and currying, and for adulterating other more expensive oils, and manufacture the refuse into a valuable guano. MENIAL, that which belongs to household or domestic ser- vice, hence, particularly, a domestic servant. The idea of such service being derogatory has made the term one of contempt. The word is derived from an obsolete meinie or meyney, the company of household servants or retainers; a Scottish form is menzie. The origin is to be found in the O.Fr. mesnie, popular Lat. mansionata, from mansio, mansion, from which comes Fr. maison, house. MENIER, EMILE JUSTIN (1826-1881), French manufacturer and politician, was born at Paris in 1826. In 1853, on the death of his father, Antoirie Brutus Menier, he became proprietor of a large drug factory, founded in 18 15 by the latter at Saint Denis, Paris, and in 1825 at Noisiel-sur-Marne. Antoine Brutus Menier had also manufactured chocolate in a small way, but Emile Justin from the first devoted himself specially to chocolate. He purchased cocoa-growing estates in Nicaragua and beet-fields in France, erected a sUgar-mill, and equipped himself in other ways for the production of chocolate on a large scale. In 1864 he sold his interest in the drug-manufacturing business, and thenceforth confined himself to chocolate, building up an immense trade. Menier was a keen politician, and from 1876 till his death had a seat in the French Chamber, his general views being strongly Republican, while he consistently opposed protection. He was the author of several works on fiscal and economic questions, notably L'Impdt sur le capital (1872), La RSforme fiscale (1872), £conomie rurale (1875), L'Avenir Sconomique (1875-1878), Atlas de la production de la richesse (1878). He died at Noisiel-sur-Marne in 1881, his sons succeeding to the business. MENIERE'S DISEASE, a form of auditory vertigo, first described by a French physician, Emile Antoine Meniere, in 1 86 1. It usually attacks persons of middle age whose hearing has been previously normal. A. Politzer gives the following as the principal causes: intense heat and exposure to the sun, rheumatism, influenza, venereal diseases, anaemia and leukaemia. The disease presents itself in various forms, but the most usual is the apoplectoform, due to haemorrhage into the laby- rinth, followed by more or less complete deafness in either or both ears. The attack usually sets in with dizziness, noises in the ears, nausea, vomiting and staggering gait, and the patient may suddently fall down with loss of consciousness. The seizures are usually paroxysmal, occurring at irregular intervals of days or weeks. Between the attacks the equilibrium may be disturbed, there being marked nystagmus and unsteadi- ness of gait. The attacks of vertigo tend to become less frequent and may entirely pass away, but the deafness may remain permanent. The treatment is directed towards relieving the- troublesome head symptoms by the application of cold com- presses. The drug that has proved most serviceable in dimin- ishing the dizziness is potassium iodide, administered daily for at least a month. Politzer considers that the attacks may be averted by producing rarefaction of the air in the external meatus of the ear by means of a specially devised aspirating tube. MENIN (Flemish Meenen), a town of Belgium in the province of West Flanders situated on the Lys 7 m. S. of Courtrai. Pop. (1004), 19,377. It manufactures linen and flannel, and in the neighbourhood are extensive tobacco plantations. It was first 130 MENINGITIS fortified in 1578, and in 1685 Vauban made it one of the strongest places on the French frontier, but the fortifications were razed in 1748 by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. MENINGITIS (from Gr. nrjvtyt;, a membrane), a term in medicine applied to inflammation affecting the membranes of the brain (cerebral meningitis) or spinal cord (spinal meningitis) or both. Tubercular cerebral meningitis (or Acute Hydrocephalus) is a disease due to inflammation of the meninges of the brain produced by the presence of a tubercle bacillus. This disease is most common in children under ten years of age, but may affect adults. The tubercular constitution is an important factor in this malady. In numerous cases it is manifestly connected with bad hygienic conditions, with insufficient or improper feeding, or with over exercise of the mental powers, all of which will doubtless more readily exert their influence where an inherited liability exists, and the same may be said regarding its occasional occurrence as one of the after consequences of certain of the diseases of childhood, especially measles and whooping-cough. There are certain typical features characterizing the disease in each of its stages. The premonitory symptoms are mostly such as relate to the general nutrition. A falling off in flesh and failure of strength are often observed for a considerable time before the characteristic phenomena of the disease appear. The patient, if a child, becomes listless and easily fatigued, loses appetite, and is restless at night. There is headache after exertion, and the child becomes unusually irritable. These symptoms may persist during many weeks; but on the other hand such premonitory indications may be entirely wanting, and the disease be developed to all appearance suddenly. The onset is in most instances marked by the occurrence of vomit- ing, often severe, but sometimes only slight, and there is in general obstinate constipation. In not a few cases the first symptoms are convulsions, which, however, may in this early stage subside, and remain absent, or reappear at a later period. Headache is one of the most constant of the earlier symptoms, and is generally intense and accompanied with sharper paroxysms, which cause the patient to scream, with a peculiar and characteristic cry. There is great intolerance of light and sound, and general nervous sensitiveness. Fever is present to a greater or less extent, the temperature ranging from loo to 103 F. ; yet the pulse is not quickened in proportion, being on the contrary rather slow, but exhibiting a tendency to irregularity, and liable to become rapid on slight exertion. The breathing, too, is somewhat irregular. Symptoms of this character, constituting the stage of excitement, continue for a period varying from one to two weeks, when they are succeeded by the stage of depression. There is now a marked change in the symptoms, which is apt to lead to the belief that a favourable turn has taken place. The patient becomes quieter and inclines to sleep, but it will be found on careful watching that this quietness is but a condition of apathy or partial stupor into which the child has sunk. The vomiting has ceased, and there is less fever; the pulse is slower, and shows a still greater tendency to irregularity than before, while the breathing is of markedly unequal character, being rapid and shallow at one time, and long drawn out and sinking away at another. There is manifestly little suffering, although the peculiar cry may still be uttered, and the patient lies prostrate, occasionally rolling the head uneasily upon the pillow, or picking at the bedclothes or at his face with his fingers. He does not ask for food, but readily swallows what is offered. The countenance is pale, but is apt to flush up suddenly for a time. The eyes present important alterations, the pupils being dilated or unequal, and scarcely responding to light. There may be double vision, or partial or complete blindness. Squinting is common in this stage, and there may also be drooping of an eyelid, due to paralysis of the part, and one or more limbs may be likewise paralysed. To this succeeds the third or final stage, in which certain of the former symptoms recur, while others become intensified. There is generally a return of the fever, the temperature rising sometimes very high. The pulse becomes feeble, rapid, and exceedingly irre- gular, as is also the case with the breathing. Coma is profound, but yet the patient may still be got to swallow nourishment, though not so readily as before. Convulsions are apt to occur, while para- lysis, more or less extensive, affects portions of the body or groups of muscles. The pupils are now widely dilated, and there is gener- ally complete blindness and often deafness. In this condition the patient's strength undergoes rapid decline, and the body becomes markedly emaciated. Death takes place either suddenly in a fit, or more gradually from exhaustion. Shortly before death it is not uncommon for the patient, who, it may be for many days previously, lay in a state of profound stupor, to awake up, ask for food, and talk to those around. The duration of a case varies somewhat, ' but in general death takes place within three weeks from the onset of the symptoms. The disease may be said to be almost invariably fatal, yet cases presenting all the principal symptoms occasionally recover. Much may be done in the way of prevention of this disease, and, in its earlier stages, even in the way of cure. It is most im- portant in families where the history indicates a tuberculous or scrofulous tendency, and particularly where acute hydrocephalus has already occurred, that every effort should be used to fortify the system and avoid the causes already alluded to as favouring the development of the disease during that period in which children are liable to suffer from it. With this view wholesome food, warm clothing, cleanliness, regularity,, and the avoidance of over-exertion, physical and mental, are of the utmost consequence. Timely use of remedies may mitigate and even occasionally remove the symptoms when they arise. The maintenance of the patient's strength by light nourishment and the use of sedatives to compose the nervous system are the measures most likely to be attended with success. Bromide, combined with iodide of potassium, is the medicinal agent of most value for this purpose. Should convulsions occur, they are best treated by chloral or chloroform. In what is known as suppurative, or simple acute meningitis (non-tubercular), the disease arises from various causes, and the symptoms are similar to those described above. In posterior-basic meningitis, inflammation of the membranes investing the posterior basic spinal cord, the chief symptoms are fever, with severe pain in the back or loins shooting down- wards into the limbs (which are the seat of frequent painful involuntary startings), accompanied with a feeling of tightness round the body. The local symptoms bear reference to the portion of the cord the membranes of which are involved. Thus when the inflamma- tion is located in the cervical portion the muscles of the arms and chest are spasmodically contracted, and there may be difficulty of swallowing or breathing, or embarrassed heart's action, while when the disease is seated in the lower portion, the lower limbs and the bladder and rectum are the parts affected in this way. At first there is excited sensibility (hyperaesthesia) in the parts of the surface of the body in relation with the portion of cord affected. As the disease advances these symptoms give place to those of partial loss of power in the affected muscles, and also partial anaes- thesia. These various phenomena may entirely pass away, and the patient after some weeks or months recover; or, on the other hand, they may increase, and end in permanent paralysis. Some observers regard these forms as sporadic cases of cerebro- spinal fever; and Still, William Hunter and George Nuttall have isolated an organism similar to the diplococcus intracellularis, while Henry Koplik in New York found cases of typical posterior- basic meningitis due to the diplococcus intracellularis. The treatment is directed to allaying the pain and inflammatory action by opiates. Ergot is recommended by many physicians. The patient should have perfect rest in the recumbent, or better still in the prone, position. Cold applications to the spine may be of use, while attention to the functions of the bladder and bowels, and to the condition of the skin with the view of preventing bed- sores, is all-important. Cerebrospinal fever or epidemic cerebrospinal meningitis, popularly called " spotted fever," is an infectious disease occur- ring sporadically or in epidemics, and due to the diplococcus intracellularis discovered by Weichselbaum in 1887. This disease was not recognized until the 19th century. It was first described at Geneva in 1805 and small outbreaks followed in Paris (1814), Metz and Genoa (1815), and Westphalia (1822), but in the United States there was a widespread epidemic, including New England and spreading as far as Kentucky and Ohio. Fresh outbreaks in Europe took place between 1837 and 1850. In 1837 it prevailed in the south of France chiefly amongst troops in garrison, and fresh outbreaks continued throughout France in 1846 with epidemics in Algiers, Italy and Sicily. In Great Britain it first showed itself in the Irish workhouses in 1846, where it was known as " the black death " or " malignahf- purpuric fever." After 1866 except for sporadic cases it dis- appeared from Great Britain, but small outbreaks took place in 1885 to 1900 in Dublin. In 1905 there was an extensive epidemic in New York, followed by an outbreak in Scotland in 1906, and in Scotland and Ireland in 1907-1908. The registrar- general's returns for 1907 give 1018 deaths in Scotland due to the disease, of which 711 were at Glasgow and 148 at Edinburgh. In the same year Belfast was visited by a severe epidemic, 495 deaths out of the total death-rate of 631 taking place in that district. MENIPPUS— MENIUS 131 The mode of infection is obscure, but the organism is thought to gain access to the circulation through the mucous membrane of the nose and conjunctiva, as the organism has been isolated from the mucous membrane of the nose, not only of those suffering from the disease but from healthy persons who have been in contact with cases. Cerebro-spinal fever has an undoubted tendency to follow bad sanitary conditions and to prevail in damp, sunless houses. It is a disease of temperate climates, and the outbreaks usually take place in the spring of the year. The victims are mostly children and young adults, and Koplik states that few recoveries take place in children under two years of age. The onset of symptoms is sudden, as contrasted with tubercular meningitis, in which the onset is gradual. The attack comes on sharply with intense headache, rigors and vomiting. The pain soon localizes itself in the back of the neck and occiput, and may thence radiate down the spine, limbs and abdomen. The pain is soon followed by a characteristic symptom, namely retraction of the head. The head is drawn back and rigidly fixed, the spine arched and the limbs drawn up, and muscular spasms may take place. There is general hyperaesthaesia, the slightest contact producing pain. More or less fever is present, but the temperature is not characteristic. The headache continues with great severity and restlessness and delirium supervene, or there may be long periods when the patient is comatose. Twitching of the limbs and general convulsions may occur and facial paralysis is frequent. Paralysis of the ocular nerves causing squint, dilatations and con- tractions of the pupil are common as in other varieties of meningitis. Some of the most striking symptoms are the rashes. These usually occur about the fourth day of illness and vary widely in character, resembling erythema, urticaria, rose spots, or purpuric spots. The rashes have usually no relation to the gravity of the disease, but severe cutaneous haemorrhages usually indicate a severe form of illness. Should the patient survive the first shock of the attack serious complications may arise; the eyes may be attacked by severe conjunctivitis, iritis or keratitis or inflammation of the deeper parts may take place leading to detachment of the retina. More frequent even is disease of the auditory apparatus, and purulent otitis media or disease of the labyrinth may lead to permanent deafness. Serous effusion may take place into joints which are painful, red and swollen as in acute rheumatism. Certain forms of the disease are rapidly fatal, these are known as the fulminant type, and death may take place within 12 to 24 hours of the onset. Death usually occurs between the fifth and the eighth day, but many cases drag on for weeks with rapid and pro- gressive emaciation, and recovery is slow. The mortality has varied in different epidemics. Hirsch's tables of forty-one epidemics give a mortality of from 25 to 75%, and Koplik rates it at 48 to 90%. During 1907, 623 cases of cerebro-spinal fever were notified in Belfast, and the deaths numbered 495. During that year the disease was made notifiable in 48 Irish urban and 55 rural districts. The mortality in Dublin was 75 %. Osier states that in children under one year (in New York) the mortality reached 87-6%. The changes found after death from cerebro-spinal fever are an acute inflammation of the pia-arachnoid membrane both of the brain and spinal cord, with effusion of serum or pus into the ven- tricular and subarachnoid spaces. With such rapidity may the effusion become purulent that it has been found purulent in a case where death took place within five hours from the apparent onset. The operation of lumbar puncture (or puncture of the spinal canal between the lumbar vertebrae) has enabled the physician to make an accurate diagnosis by bacteriological examination of the contents of the spinal fluid. Lumbar puncture_ too has been found to be of eminent service in many cases, the withdrawal of from 30 to 50 cc. of the spinal fluid serving to relieve pressure and at least temporarily ameliorate the symptoms. Up to a few years ago it may be said that there was no effective treatment for cerebro-spinal fever but that of endeavouring to alleviate pain by the administration of opium, but with the recent introduction of serum therapy the future is full of hope. In the epidemic in New York (1905) the serum of Flexner and Jobling was used, and the most striking results were seen in young patients, the death-rate where the serum was used sinking to 46-3% as against 90% without. Like other serum treatments, to get the best results the serum must be administered early in the disease. Of 221 patients injected during the first week of illness the mortality was only 18%, while of 107 others injected after the first week of the disease the mortality was double that amount. When given subcutaneously, as in diphtheria, the serum has little or no effect, and to obtain good results it must be injected directly into the spinal canal after the removal of a certain amount of the spinal fluid. The injections are then continued daily as required according to the severity of the case. Dr Robb of Belfast reports that during the epidemic there, of 275 cases treated by ordinary means, the death-rate was 72-3%, but in 90 cases treated with injec- tions of Flexner and Jobling's serum the death-rate was only 30%. Dr Ivy McKenzie and Dr W. B. Martin of Glasgow have published a series of cases treated with the highly immune serum of patients who have recovered from the disease with encouraging results. MENIPPUS, of Gadara in Coele-Syria, Greek cynic and satirist, lived during the 3rd century B.C. According to Diogenes Laertius (vi. 8) he was originally a slave, amassed a fortune as a money-lender, lost it, and committed suicide through grief. His works (written in a mixture of prose and verse) are all lost. He discussed serious subjects in a spirit of raillery, and especially delighted in attacking the Epicureans and Stoics. His writings exercised considerable influence upon later literature. One of the dialogues attributed to Lucian, his avowed imitator, who frequently mentions him, is called Menippus. But this dialogue is regarded with suspicion, and since the sub-title (" The Oracle of the Dead ") resembles that of a work ascribed to Menippus by Diogenes Laertius, it has been suggested that it is really the work of Menippus himself, or at any rate imitated from his Nexuia by the author, whether Lucian or another. It is well known that the Menippean satires of M. Terentius Varro, the fragments of which give an idea of this kind of composition, were called after Menippus of Gadara (see Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Literature, § 165, 3). Bibliography. — F. Ley, De vita scriptisque Menippi cynici (Cologne, 1843); R. Helm, Lucian und Menipp (1906); C. Wachs- muth, Sillographorum graecorum reliquiae (1885), with an account of Menippus and similar writers. Menippus found an imitator in later times in Justus Lipsius, author of a Satyra menippaea (1637) in which he ridiculed certain literary men of his age, especially the poet laureate; and in the authors of the famous Satyre Menippie (1593 ; latest editions by C. Marcilly, Paris, 1882 ; J. Frank, Oppeln, 1884), written against the Holy League during the reign of Henri IV. MENIUS, JUSTUS (1499-1558), Lutheran theologian, whose name is Latinized from Jost or Just (i.e. Jodocus) Menig, was born at Fulda, of poor but respectable parents, on the 13th of December 1499. Entering the university of Erfurt in 1514, he took the bachelor's degree in 1515, the master's in 1516. At this time, in association with the keen humanists Conrad Mutian, Crotus Rubeanus and Eoban Hess, he was of sceptical tendency; moving to Wittenberg in 1519, he became evangelical under the teaching of Melanchthon and the preaching of Luther. After travel in Italy (1521-1522) he was appointed (1523) town's preacher at Wittenberg, but was soon transferred to the charge of Muhlberg, under Erfurt. Here he published his commentary on Acts (1524) and married. He resigned his charge (1525) and opened a school at Erfurt, but the town council insisted on his resuming his ministry, appointing him preacher in St Thomas', Erfurt. He worked in conjunction with Luther's friend, John Lange, and was opposed by the Franciscans under Conrad Kling. Hence he left for Gotha (1528), resumed teaching, and enjoyed the friendship of Friedrich Myconius. Duke John of Saxony had placed him on the commission for church visitation in Thuringia, and in 1529 appointed him pastor and superin- tendent at Eisenach, where for eighteen years he administered church affairs with tact, and fostered the spread of education. In 1529 he brought out his Oeconomia Christiana (a treatise in German, on the right ordering of a Christian household) with a dedication to the duchess Sybil of Saxony and a preface by Luther. His tractate, written in concert with Myconius, con- troverting Der Wiedertaufer Lehre und Geheimniss (1530) was also prefaced by Luther. The reversion to the Roman com- munion of his old friend Crotus led to his mordant Responsio amid (1532, anon.) to the Apologia (1531) of Crotus. He took his part in the theological disputations of the time, at Marburg (1529), the Concordia at Wittenberg (1536), the Convention at Schmalkalden (1537), the discussions at Hagenau and Worrrts (1540). His tractate (1542) against the permission of bigamy in"*' the case of Philip of Hesse was not allowed to be printed (the manuscript is in the Heidelberg university library). In 1542 he removed to Muhlhausen, being appointed by Duke Henry of Saxony for the ordering of the church there. On the death of Myconius (1546) he was entrusted with the oversight of Gotha, in addition to that of Eisenach; to Gotha he returned in 1547. The remainder of his life was not happy. He was against the Leipzig Interim (1548) with its compromise on some Catholic usages, and was involved in controversies and quarrels; with Georgius Merula, against whom he maintained the need of exorcism in 132 MENKEN-^-MENNO ; SIMONS baptism; with Osiander's adherents in the matter of justification; with his colleague, Nicholas von Amsdorf, to whom he had resigned the Eisenach superintendency; with Flacius Illyricus, and others. He lost favour with Duke John Frederic of Saxony, fell into bad health, was deposed (1555) from his offices, and was disappointed in his hopes of being reinstated, after the colloquy at Eisenach (1556). He died at Leipzig on the nth of August 1558. He was twice married, and had several sons, of whom Eusebius held a chair of philosophy at Wittenberg, and married Melanchthon's grand-daughter, Anna Sabinus. Schmidt gives a full bibliography of the numerous writings of Menius, who translated several of Luther's biblical commentaries into German. His Oeconomia was reprinted in 1855. See G. L. Schmidt, Justus Menius, der Reformator Thuringens (1867) ; Wagenmann, in Allgemeine deutsche Biog.(l88$) ; G. Kawerau, in Hauck's Realencyklopddie (1903). (A. Go.*) MENKEN, ADAH ISAACS (183 5-1 868), American actress, was born in New Orleans, the daughter of a Spanish Jew, her name being Dolores Adios Fuertes. Left in poverty at the age of thirteen, she made her first appearance as a dancer in her native city. She had a great success there and in other southern cities, including Havana, and she afterwards aspired to act in serious parts. In 1856 she married John Isaacs Menken, translated Adios to Adah, and thus took the name she there- after bore through various matrimonial ventures. In 1864 she appeared at Astley's in London as Mazeppa, a performance of an athletic dramatic type suited to her fine physique. In England and France she became intimate with many literary men — Swinburne, Charles Reade, Dickens (to whom she dedicated in 1868 a volume of verse, Infelicia), Gautier and Dumas the elder. Paris saw her for a hundred nights in Les Pirates de la Savane, and she also played in Vienna and again in London. She died in Paris on the 10th of August 1868. HENNONITES, a body of religionists who take their name from Menno Simons (see below), the most valued exponent of their principles. They maintain a form of Christianity which, discarding the sacerdotal idea, owns no authority outside the Bible and the enlightened conscience, limits baptism to the believer, and lays stress on those precepts which -vindicate the sanctity of human life and of a man's word. The place of origin of the views afterwards called Mennonite (see Baptists)' was Zurich, where in 1523 a small community left the state church and (from Jan. 18, 1525) adopted the tenet of believers' baptism. Unlike other Reformers, they denied at once the Christian character of the existing church and of the civil authority, though, in common with the first Christians, it was their duty to obey all lawful requirements of an alien power. By Protestants as much as by Catholics this position was not unnaturally regarded as subversive of the established founda- tions of society. Hence the bitter persecutions which, when the safety of toleration was not imagined, made martyrs of these humble folk, who simply wished to cultivate the religious life apart from the world. There was something in this ideal which answered to that medieval conception of separation from the world which had leavened all middle-class society in Europe; and the revolt from Rome had prepared many minds to accept the further idea of separation from the church, for the pursuit of holiness in a society pledged to primitive discipline. Hence the new teaching and praxis spread rapidly from Switzer- land to Germany, Holland and France. While the horrors of the Miinster fanaticism, which culminated in 1534, made Ana*- baptism a byword, and increased the severity of a persecution directed against all Baptists indiscriminately, the reaction against the fatal errors of the Miinster experiment increased also the adherents of communities which discarded the swOrd; thus Menno was brought into their ranks. Each community was independent, united with others only by the bond of love. There was no hierarchy (as with the Familists), but " exhorterS " chosen by the members, among them " elders " for administering baptism and the Lord's Supper; an arrangement so readily renewed that the sure way of putting down such a body was the execution of all its constituents, often by drowning, an appropriate end, according to Zwingli's quip. The remnant of the Swiss Mennonites (not tolerated till 1710) broke in 1620 into two parties, the Uplanders (or Amish, from their leader Jacob Amen) holding against the Lowlanders that excommunication of husband or wife dissolved marriage, and that razors and buttons were unlawful. In Holland the Mennonites have always been numerous. An offshoot from them at Rhijnsburg in 1619, founded by the four brothers, farmers, Van der Kodde, and named Collegianten from their meetings, termed collegia (thus, as not churches, escaping the penal laws), has been compared to the Plymouth Brethren, but differed in so far as they required no conformity of religious opinion, and recognized no office of teacher. With them, as Martineau notes, Spinoza had " an intense fellow-feeling." Later, the exiled Socinians from Poland (1660) were' in many cases received into membership. There had previously been overtures, more than once, for union with Mennonites on the part of Polish Socinians, who agreed with them in the rejection of oaths, the refusal to take human life, the consequent abstinence from military service and magisterial office, and in the* Biblical basis of doctrine; differences of doc- trinal interpretation precluded any fusion. In Holland the Mennonites were exempted from military service in 1575, from oath-taking in 1585, from public office in 1617. In Zeeland exemption from military service and oaths was granted in 1577; afterwards, as in Friesland, a heavy poll tax was the price of exemption from military service; but since 1795 they have enjoyed a legal exemption from oath-taking. In France the Mennonites of the Vosges were exempted from military service in 1793, an exemption confirmed by Napoleon, who employed them in hospital service on his campaigns. That he did not exempt the Dutch Mennonites is due to the fact that " they had ceased to present a united front of resistance to military claims " (Martineau) ; in fact they sent a large band of volunteers to Waterloo (Barclay). While in Germany the Mennonites exist in considerable numbers, more important are the German Mennonite colonies in southern Russia, brought there in 1786 by Catherine II., and freed, by the grant of complete religious liberty, from the hardships imposed by Prussian military law. These colonies have sent many emigrants to America, where their oldest community was settled (1683) at Germantown, Pennsylvania. Their settlement in. Canada dates from 1786. Among the American Mennonites there are three sections, and a progressive party, known as New School Mennonites. S. Cramer gives (1903) the following statistics: in all, some 250,000 members, of whom over 80,000 are in the United States, 70,000 in Russia, 60,000 in Holland, 20,000 in Canada, 18,000 in Germany, 1500 in Switzerland, 800 in France, and the same number in Poland and Galicia. (A. Go.*) MENNO SIMONS (1492-1559), religious leader, was born in 1492 at Witmarsum in Friesland. Of his parentage (apart from his patronymic) and education nothing is known. He was not a man of learning, nor had he many books; for his knowledge of early Christian writers he was partly indebted to the Chronica or compilations of Sebastian Franck. At the age of twenty-four he entered the priesthood, becoming one of two curates under the incumbent of Pingjum, a village near his birthplace. He accused himself, with the other clergy, of lax and self-indulgent living. Doubts about transubstantiation made him uneasy; some of Luther's tracts fell in his way, and he was comforted by Luther's dictum that salvation does nat^ depend on human dogmata. Hence he began to study the New Testament. The question as to the right age for baptism came up; he found this an open matter in the early church. Then the execution, in March 1531, at Leeuwarden, of the tailor Sicke Freerks, who had been rebaptized in the previous December at Emden, introduced further questions. Menno was not satisfied with the inconsistent answers which he got from Luther, Bucer and Bullinger; he resolved to rely on Scripture alone, and from this time describes his preaching as evangelical, not sacramental. In 1532 he exchanged his curacy for a living at Witmarsum, in response to a popular call. Anabaptism of the Miinster type MENOMINEE— MENSHIKOV 133 repelled him. His first tractate (1535, first printed 1627) is directed against the " horrible and gross blasphemy of John of Leiden " — though the genuineness of this tract has been doubted. A brother of Menno joined the insurgent followers of John Matthyszoon, and was killed at Bolsward (April 1535). Blaming the leaders by whom these poor people had been misled, Menno blamed himself for not having shown them a straight course. Accordingly on the 12th of January 1536, he left the Roman communion. There were now among the so-called Anabaptists four parties, the favourers of the Minister faction, the Baten- burgers, extremists, the Melchiorites and the Obbenites. For a time Menno remained aloof from both Melchior Hofman and Obbe Philipsz. Before the year was out, yielding to the prayer of six or eight persons who had freed themselves from the Minister spell, he agreed to become their minister, and was set apart (January 1537) to the eldership at Groningen, with im- position of hands by Obbe Philipsz, who is regarded as the actual founder of the Mennonite body. In fact, Obbe left the body and is stigmatized as its Demas. Menno repudiated the forma- tion of a sect; those who had experienced the " new birth " were to him the true Christian church, which was limited by no decree of reprobation. His Christology was in the main orthodox, though he rejected terms (such as Trinity) which he could not find in Scripture, and held a Valentinian doctrine of the celestial origin of the flesh of Christ. His church discipline was drawn from the Swiss Baptists. Silent prayer was a feature of the worship; sermons were without texts. Neither baptism (by pouring on the head) nor the Lord's Supper (with the accompaniment of feet- washing) conferred grace; the-J were divine ordinances which reflected the believer's toward state. Marriage with outsiders was prohibited; women had no part in church government. Oaths and the taking ri Me were absolutely forbidden; hence the magistracy and thn army were for the Mennonite unlawful callings; but magistrates were to be obeyed in all things not prohibited by Scripture. The subsequent career of Menno was that of an active missioner; his changes of place, often compulsory, are difficult to trace. He was apparently much in East Friesland till 1541; in North Holland, with Amsterdam as centre, from 1541 to 1543; again till 1 545 in East Friesland (where he held a disputation at Emden with John a. Lasco in January 1544); till 1547 in South Holland; next, about Liibeck; at Wismar in'1553-1554 (he held two disputations with Martin Micronius at Norden in February 1554); lastly at Wustenfelde, a village near Oldesloo, between Hamburg and Liibeck, where he died on the 13th of January 1559. He had married one Gertrude at Groningen, and left a daughter, by whom the dates of his birth and death were communicated to P. J. Twisch, for his Chronyk (r6ro). Menno's writings in Plattdeutsch, printed at various places, are numerous, with much sameness, and what an unfriendly critic would call wool-gathering ; through them shines a character attrac- tive by the sincerity of its simple and warm spirituality, the secret of Menno's influence. The collection of his Opera Omnia Theologica (Amsterdam, 1681), folio, in a Dutch version, comprises twenty-three tractates, with reference to nine unprinted. His main principles will be found in his Dot Fundament des Christelycken Leers (1539, 8vo). A selection (Gedenkblatter) from his writings, in a German version, in honour of the (supposed) tercentennial of his death was edited by J. Mannhardt (Danzig, 1861) with an appendix from the writings of Dirk Philipsz (1504-1570), brother of Obbe, and Menno's henchman. His writings are published in English at Elkhart, Indiana. Since the publication of the Leven (1837) by A. M. Cramer, light has been thrown on the period by the researches of de Hoop Scheffer; see Van der Aa, Biographisch woordenboek der Nederlanden (1869); R. Barclay, Inner Life of Religious Societies of the Commonwealth (1876) for a good account of Mennonite anticipations of Quaker views and practices; F. C. Fleischer, Menno Simons, eene Levensschets (1892); V. M. Reimann, Mennonis Simonis qualisfueritvita (1894); S. Cramer, in Hauck's Realencyklopddie (1903) ; a separate article in the same, Mennoniten, by S. Cramer, gives a survey of the origin and ramifications of the movement in Europe and America. (A. Go. *) MENOMINEE, a city and the county-seat of Menominee county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Green Bay, at the mouth of the Menominee river, opposite Marinette, Wisconsin, at the southern extremity of the upper peninsula. Pop. (1890), 10,630; (1900), 12,818, of whom 4186 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 10,507. It is served by the Chicago & North-Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the Wisconsin & Michigan, and the Ann Arbor railways, and is connected by five bridges with Marinette, Wisconsin. Menominee has several parks, and harbour and dock facilities for the heaviest lake vessels. It is one of the largest lumber centres in the United States; it has excellent water power, and there are manufactures of wire, steel, electrical appli- ances, mill and mining machinery, shoes, beet sugar and paper. The use of beet-pulp instead of Indian corn ensilage for dairy cows has promoted the dairying industry in the city. A trading post was established here in 1799, but settlement was not begun until 1833. Menominee became the county-seat in 1874, was chartered as a city in 1883, and in 1891 and in 1901 it was re-chartered; in 1903 an amendment to the charter created a municipal court. The city is named after the Menominee Indians, 1 an Algonquian tribe formerly ranging over a consider- able territory in Wisconsin and Michigan, who seem to have been first visited by whites in 1634, when Nicolet found them at the mouth of the Menominee river, and now number about 1600, most of them being under the Green Bay' school superintendency, Wisconsin. The name is the Chippewa word for wild rice, which formed part of the food of the tribe. MENOMONIE, a city and the county-seat of Dunn county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., about 64 m. E. of St Paul, Minnesota, on the Red Cedar river. Pop. (1890), 5491; (1900), 5655, of whom 1772 were foreign-born; (1905)* 5473; (1910), 5036. It is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul, and the Chicago, St Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha railways. The city is widely known for its institutions, for the most part founded or supported by James Huff Stout (1848-1910), a prominent local lumberman. Among them are the Mabel Tainter Memorial Library, the Dunn County School of Agriculture, the Dunn County Normal Training . School, the Stout Institute for the training of teachers of domestic science &c, institutions in which public school children receive physical training. The city has grain elevators, and manufac- tures of bricks and tiles, foundry and machine shop products, carriages and wagons and flour. Menomonie is an important market for dairy products and livestock. Menomonie was settled about 1846 and was chartered as a city in 1882. The first free travelling library in the state was established here in 1 896 by James Huff Stout. MENSA and MAREA, semi-nomad pastoral tribes of Africans occupying part of the Abyssinian highlands included in the Italian colony of Eritrea, and the adjacent coast plains of the Red Sea. They have for neighbours the Habab and Beni- Amer tribes, as well as Abyssinians. The Marea are found chiefly in the valley of the Khor Anseba, the Mensa dwelling farther north. These tribes claim Arajp origin, tracing their descent from an uncle of the Prophet. Under Abyssinian rule they were Christians, but became Mahommedans in the 19th century. They speak a dialect of Tigrin (Abyssinian). On the death of a Marea the head of every dependent tigre or slave family must give his heirs a cow. The tribes avenge an illegiti- mate birth by putting parents and child to death. MENSHIKOV, ALEXANDER DANILOVICH, Prince (1663?- 1729), Russian statesman, was born not earlier than 1660 nor later than 1663. It is disputed whether his father was an ostler or a bargee. At the age of twenty he was gaining his livelihood in the streets of Moscow as a vendor of meat-pies. His hand- some looks and smart sallies attracted the attention of Francois Lefort, Peter's first favourite, who took him into his service and finally transferred him to the tsar. On the death of Lefort*. in 1699, Menshikov succeeded him as prime favourite. Ignorant, brutal, grasping and corrupt as he was, he deserved the confid- ence of his master. He could drill a regiment, build a frigate, administer a province, and decapitate a rebel with equal facility. During the tsar's first foreign tour, Menshikov worked by his side in the dockyard? of Amsterdam, and acquired a thorough knowledge of colloquial Dutch and German. He took an active 1 See W. L. Hoffman in the Fourteenth Report (Washington, 1896) of the Bureau of American Ethnology and A. E. Jenks in the Nine- teenth Report ( 1 900) . 134 MENSHIKOV— MENSURATION part in the Azov campaigns (1695-96), and superseded Ogilvie as commander-in-chief during the retreat before Charles XII. in 1708, subsequently participating in the battle of Holowczyn, the reduction of Mazepa, and the crowning victory of Poltava (June 26, 1709), where he won his marshal's baton. From 1709 to 1 7 14 he served during the Courland, Holstein and Pomeranian campaigns, but then, as governor-general of Ingria, with almost unlimited powers, was entrusted with a leading part in the civil administration. Menshikov understood perfectly the principles on which Peter's reforms were conducted, and was the right hand of the tsar in all his gigantic undertakings. But he abused his omnipotent position, and his depredations fre- quently brought him to the verge of ruin. Every time the tsar returned to Russia he received fresh accusations of peculation against " his Serene Highness." Peter's first serious outburst of indignation (March 1711) was due to the prince's looting in Poland. On his return to Russia in 171 2, Peter discovered that Menshikov had winked at wholesale corruptions in his own governor-generalship. Peter warned him " for the last time " to change his ways. Yet, in 1713, he was implicated in the famous Solov'ey process, in the course of which it was demon- strated that he had defrauded the government of 100,000 roubles. 1 He only owed his life on this occasion to a sudden illness. On his recovery Peter's fondness for his friend overcame his sense of justice. In the last year of Peter's reign fresh frauds and defal- cations of Menshikov came to light, and he was obliged to appeal for protection to the empress Catherine. It was chiefly through the efforts of Menshikov and his colleague Tolstoi that, on the death of Peter, in 1725, Catherine was raised to the throne. Menshikov was committed to the Petrine system, and he recog- nized that, if that system were to continue, Catherine was, at that particular time, the only possible candidate. Her name was a watchword for the progressive faction. The placing of her on the throne meant a final victory over ancient prejudices, a vindication of the new ideas of progress. During her short reign (February 172 5 — May 1727), Menshikov was practically absolute. On the whole he ruled well, his difficult position serving as some restraint upon his natural inclinations. He contrived to prolong his power after Catherine's death by means of a forged will and a coup d'etat. While his colleague Tolstoi would have raised Elizabeth Petrovna to the throne, Menshikov set up the youthful Peter II., son of the tsarevich Alexius, with himself as dictator during the prince's minority. He now aimed at establishing himself definitely by marrying his daughter Mary to Peter II. But the old nobility, represented by the Dolgorukis and the Golitsuins, united to overthrow him, and he was deprived of all his dignities and offices and expelled from the capital (Sept. 9, 1727). Subsequently he was deprived of his enormous wealth, and he and his whole family were banished to Berezov in Siberia, where he died on the 12th of November 1729. See G. V. Esipov, Biography of A. D- Menshikov (Rus.) (St. Petersburg, 1875); N. I. Kostomarov, The History of Russia in the biographies of her great Men (Rus.), vol. ii. (St Petersburg, 1888, fife.) ; R. Nisbet Bain, The First Romanovs (London, 1905); ibid. The Pupils of Peter the Great, ch. 2-4 (Westminster, 1897). (R. N. B.) MENSHIKOV, ALEXANDER SERGEIEVICH, Prince (1787- 1869), great-grandson of the preceding, was born on the nth of September 1787, and entered the Russian service as attache to the embassy at Vienna. He accompanied the emperor Alexander throughout his campaigns against Napoleon, and retired from army service in 1823. He then devoted himself 1 The Solov'evs were three brothers ostensibly employed by the Russian government to ship corn from Russia and sell it at Amster- dam. As a matter of fact they were at the head of a combination for selling Menshikov's corn in preference to the corn of the Russian government and the bulk of the proceeds went into Menshikov's pockets. From 1709 to 171 1 they had exported almost as much of Menshikov's corn as of that of the government, though the export of any corn from Russia, except in account of the Treasury, was a capital offence. The affair dragged on from 1713 to 1716, when the examination of the Solov'evs' books, and the subsequent applica- tion of torture, revealed the fact that the Solov'evs had systema- tically robbed the Treasury of 675,000 roubles (1 rouble then = 5s.) and had accumulated a fortune of half a million. For full details see Nisbet Bain, The first Romanovs, pp. 327-329. to naval matters, became an admiral in 1834, and put the Russian navy, which had fallen into decay during the reign of Alexander, on an efficient footing. At the time of the dispute as to the Holy Places he was sent on a special mission to Constantinople, and when the Crimean war broke out he was appointed com- mander-in-chief by land and sea. He commanded the Russian army at the Alma and in the field operations round Sevastopol. In March 1855 he was recalled, ostensibly and perhaps really, on account of failing health. He died on the 2nd of May 1869 at St Petersburg. MENSURATION (Lat. mensura, a measure), the science of measurement ; or, in a more • limited sense, the science of numerical representation of geometrical magnitudes. 1. Scope of the Subject. — Even in the second sense, the term is a very wide one, since it comprises the measurement of angles (plane and solid), lengths, areas and volumes. The measure- ment of angles belongs to trigonometry, and it is convenient to regard the measurement of the lengths of straight lines (i.e. of distances between points) as belonging to geometry or trigo- nometry; while the measurement of curved lengths, except in certain special cases, involves the use of the integral calculus. The term " mensuration " is therefore ordinarily restricted to the measurement of areas and volumes, and of certain simple curved lengths, such as the circumference of a circle. 2. This restriction is to a certain extent arbitrary. The statement that, if the adjacent sides of a rectangle are repre- sented numerically by 3 and 4, the diagonal is represented by 5. is as much a matter of mensuration as the statement that the area is represented by 12. The restriction is really determined by a difference in the methods of measurement. The distance between two points can, at any rate in theory, be measured directly, by successive applications of the unit of measurement. But an area or a volume cannot generally be measured by successive applications of the unit of area or volume; inter- mediate processes are necessary the result of which is expressed by a formula. The chief exception is in the use of liquid measure; this is of importance from the educational point of view (§ 12). 3. The measurement is numerical, i.e. it is representation in terms of a unit. The process of determining the area or volume of a given figure therefore involves two separate processes; viz. the direct measurement of certain magnitudes (usually lengths) in terms of a unit, and the application of a formula for determin- ing the area or volume from these data. Mensuration is not concerned with the first of these two processes, which forms part of the art of measurement, but only with the second. It might, therefore, be described as that branch of mathematics which deals with formulae for calculating the numerical measurements of curved lengths, areas and volumes, in terms of numerical data which determine these measurements. 4. It is also convenient to regard as coming under mensuration the consideration of certain derived magnitudes, such as the moment of a plane figure with regard to a straight line in its plane, the calculation of which involves formulae which are closely related to formulae for determining areas and volumes. 5. On the other hand, the scope of the subject, as described in ,§ 3, is limited by the nature of the methods employed to obtain formtdae which can be applied to actual cases. Up to a certain point, formulae of practical importance can be obtained by the use of elementary arithmetical or geometrical methods. Beyond this point, analytical methods must be adopted, and the student passes to trigonometry and the infinitesimal calculus. These investigations lead, in turn, to further formulae, which, though^- not obtainable by elementary methods, are nevertheless simple in themselves and of practical utility. If these are included in the description " mensuration," the subject thus consists of two heterogeneous portions — elementary mensuration, comprising methods and results, and advanced mensuration, comprising certain results intended for practical application. 6. Mensuration, then, is mainly concerned with quadrature- formulae and cubature-formulae, and, to a not very clearly de- fined extent, with the methods of obtaining such formulae; a quadrature-formula being a formula for calculating the numerical MENSURATION 135 representation of an area, and a cubature-formula being a formula for calculating the numerical representation of a volume, in terms, in each case, of the numerical repre- sentations of particular data which determine the area or the volume. 7. This use of formulae for dealing with numbers, which express magnitudes in terms of units, constitutes the broad difference between mensuration and ordinary geometry, which knows nothing of units. Mensuration involves the use of geometrical theorems, but it is not concerned with problems of geometrical construction. The area of a rectangle, for instance, is found by calculation from the lengths of the sides, not by construction of a square of equal area. On the other hand, it is worth noticing that the words " quadrature " and " cubature " are originally due to geometrical rather than numerical con- siderations; the former implying the construction of a square whose area shall be equal to that of a given surface, and the latter the construction of a cube whose volume shall be equal to that of a given solid. 8. There are two main groups of subjects in which practical needs have tended to develop a separate science of mensuration. The first group comprises such subjects as land-surveying; here the measurements in the elementary stages take place in a plane, and the consideration of volumes necessarily constitutes a later stage ; and the figures to be measured are mostly not movable, so that triangulation plays an important part. The second group comprises the mechanic arts, in which the bodies to be measured are solid bodies which can be handled; in these cases plane figures appear mainly as sections of a solid. In develop- ing a system of mensuration-formulae the importance of this latter group of cases must not be overlooked. A third group, of increasing importance, comprises cases in which curves or surfaces arise out of the application of graphic methods in engineering, physics and statistics. The general formulae applicable to these cases are largely approximative. 9. Relation to other Subjects.— As a result of the importance both of the formulae obtained by elementary methods and of those which have involved the previous use of analysis, there is a tendency to dissociate the former, like the latter, from the methods by which they have been obtained, and to regard mensuration as consisting of those mathematical formulae which are concerned with the measurement of geometrical magnitudes (including lengths), or, in a slightly wider sense, as being the art of applying these formulae to specific cases. Such a body of formulae cannot, of course, be regarded as constituting a science; it has no power of development from within, and can only grow by accretion. It may be of extreme importance for practical purposes; but its educational value, if it is studied apart from the methods by which the formulae are obtained, is slight. Vitality can only be retained by close, association with more abstract branches of mathematics. 10. On the other hand, mensuration, in its practical aspect, is of importance for giving reality to the formulae themselves and to the principles on which they are based. This applies not only to the geometrical principles but also to the arithmetical prin- ciples, and it is therefore of importance, in the earlier stages, to keep geometry, mensuration and arithmetic in close association with one another; mensuration forming, in fact, the link between arithmetic and geometry. 11. It is in reference to the measurement of areas and volumes that it is of special importance to illustrate geometrical truths by means of concrete cases. That the area of a parallelogram is equal to the area of a rectangle on the same base and between the same parallels, or that the volume of a cone is one-third that of a cylinder on the same base and of the same height, may be established by a proof which is admitted to be rigorous, or be accepted in good faith without proof, and yet fail to be a matter of conviction, even though there may be a clear conception of the relative lengths of the diagonal and the side of a square or of the relative contents of two vessels of different shapes. The failure seems (§ 2) to be due to difficulty in realizing the numerical expression of an area or a solid in terms of a specified unit, while the same difficulty does not arise in the case of linear measure or liquid measure, where the number of units can be ascertained by direct counting. The difficulty is perhaps less for volumes than for areas, on account of the close relationship between solid and fluid measure. 12. The main object to be aimed at, therefore, in the study of elementary mensuration, is that the student should realize the possibility of the numerical expression of areas and volumes. The following are some important points. (i) The double aspect of an area should be borne in mind ; i.e. area should be treated not only as length multiplied by length, but also as volume divided by thickness. There are, indeed, certain advan- tages in preferring the latter to the former, and in proceeding from volumes to areas rather than from areas to- volumes. While, for instance, it may be difficult to realize the equality of area of two plots of ground of different shapes, it may be easy to realize the equality of the amounts of a given material that would be required to cover them to a particular depth. This method is unconsciously adopted by the teacher who illustrates the equality of area of two geometrical figures by cutting them out of cardboard of uniform thickness and weighing them. (ii) The very earliest stages of mensuration should be directly associated with simple arithmetical processes. (iii) Association of solid measure with liquid measure, presenting numerical measurement in a different aspect, should be retained by testing volumes as found from linear dimensions with the volumes of the same bodies as found by the use of measures of capacity. Here, as usual, the British systems of measures produce a difficulty which would not arise under the metric system. (iv) Solids of the same substance should be compared by measur- ing and also by weighing; the comparison being then extended to areas of uniform thickness (see (i) above). (v) The idea of an average may be introduced at an early stage, methods of calculating an average being left to a later stage. 13. Classification. — The methods of mensuration fall for the most part under one or other of three main heads, viz. arith- metical mensuration, geometrical mensuration, and analytical mensuration. 14. The most elementary stage is arithmetical mensuration, which comprises the measurement of the areas of rectangles and parallelepipeds. This may be introduced very early; square tablets being used for the mensuration of areas, and cubical blocks for the mensuration of volumes. The measure of the area of a rectangle is thus presented as the product of the measures of the sides, and arithmetic and mensuration are developed con- currently. The commutative law for multiplication is directly illustrated; and subdivisions or groupings of the units lead to such formulae as (a + a) (6 + /3) = a& + a/? + ab+afi. Associ- ation with other branches of science is maintained by such methods as those mentioned in § 12. The use of the square bricks familiarizes the scholar with the ideas of parallel lines, of equality of lengths, and of right angles. The conception of the right angle is strengthened, by contrast, by the use of bricks in the form of a rhombus. 15. The next stage is geometrical mensuration, where geo- metrical methods are applied to determine the areas of plane rectilinear figures and the volumes of solids with plane faces. The ordinary process involves three separate steps. The first step is the establishment of the exact equality of congruence of two geometrical figures. In the case of plane figures, the congruence is tested by an imaginary superposition of one figure on the other; but this may more simply be regarded as the super- position, on either figure, of the image of the other figure on a contiguous plane. In the case of solid figures a more difficult geometrical abstraction is involved. The second step is thecon- version of one figure into another by a process of dissection, followed by rearrangement of parts; the figure as rearranged being one whose area or volume can be calculated by methods already established. This is the process adopted, for instance, for comparison of the area of a parallelogram with that of a rectangle on the same base and of the same height. The third step is the arithmetical calculation of the area or volume of the rearranged figure. These last two steps may introduce magnitudes which have to be subtracted, and which therefore have to be treated as negative quantities in the arithmetical calculation. , 136 MENSURATION The difficulties to which reference has been made in § 11 are largely due to the abstract nature of the process involved in the second of the above steps. The difficulty should, wherever possible, be removed by making the process of dissection and rearrangement complete. This is not always done. To say, for instance, that the area of a right-angled triangle is half the area of the rectangle contained by the two sides, is not to say what the area is, but what it is the half of. The proper statement is that, if a and b are the sides, the area is equal to the area of a rectangle whose sides are a and %b; this being, in fact, a particular case of the proposition that the area of a trapezium is equal to the area of a rectangle whose sides are its breadth and the arithmetic mean of the lengths of the two parallel sides. This mode of statement helps to establish the idea of an average. The deduction of the formula lab, where a and b are numbers, should be regarded as a later step. Elementary trigonometrical formulae, not involving the conception of an angle as generated by rotation, belong to this stage; the additional geometrical idea involved being that of the proportionality of the sides of similar triangles. 16. The third stage is analytical mensuration, the essential feature of which is that account is taken of the manner in which a figure is generated. To prevent discontinuity of results at this stage, recapitulation from an analytical point of view is desirable. The rectangle, for instance, has so far been regarded as a plane figure bounded by one pair of parallel straight lines and another pair at right angles to them, so that the conception of " rectan- gularity " has had reference to boundary rather than to content; analytically, the rectangle must be regarded as the figure generated by an ordinate of constant length moving parallel to itself with one extremity on a straight line perpen- dicular to it. This is the simplest case of generation of a plane figure by a moving ordinate; the corresponding figure for generation by rotation of a radius vector is a circle. To regard a figure as being generated in a particular way is essentially the same as to regard it as being made up of a number of successive elements, so that the analytical treatment involves the ideas and the methods of the infinitesimal calculus. It is not, however, necessary that the notation of the calculus should be employed throughout. A plane figure bounded by a continuous curve, or a solid figure bounded by a continuous surface, may generally be most con- veniently regarded as generated by a straight line, or a plane area, moving in a fixed direction at right angles to itself, and changing as it moves. This involves the use of Cartesian co-ordinates, and leads to important general formulae, such as Simpson's formula. The treatment of an angle as geneiated by rotation, the investigation of the relations between trigonometrical ratios and circular measure, the application of interpolation to trigono- metrical tables, and the general use of graphical methods to represent continuous variation, all imply an analytical onlook, and must therefore be deferred to this stage. 17. There are certain special cases where the treatment is really analytical, but where, on account of the simplicity or importance of the figures involved, the analysis does not take a prominent part. (i) The circle, and the solid figures allied to it, are of special importance. The ordinary definition of a circle is equivalent to definition as the figure generated by the rotation of a radius of constant length in a plane, and is thus essentially analytical. The ideas of the centre and of the constancy of the radius do not, however, enter into the elementary conception of the circle as a round figure. This elementary conception is of the figure as already existing, rather than of its method of description; the test of circularity being the possibility of rotation within a surrounding figure so as to keep the two boundaries always completely in contact. In the same way, the elementary conception of the sphere involves the idea of sphericity, which would be tested in a similar way, and is in fact , so tested, at an early stage by tactual perception, and at a more advanced stage by mechanical methods; the next step being the circularity of the central section, as roughly tested (where the sphere is small) by visual perception, i.e. in effect, by the circularity of the cross-section of a circumscribing cylinder; and the ideas of the centre and of non-central sections follow later. It seems to follow that the consideration of the area of a circle shoujd precede the consideration of its perimeter, and that the consideration of the volume of a sphere should precede the consider- ation of its surface-area. The proof that the area of a circle is pro- portional to the square of its diameter would therefore precede the proof that the perimeter is proportional to the diameter ; the former property is the easier to grasp, since the conception of the length of a curved line as the limit of the sum of a number of straight lengths presents special difficulties. The ratio |jt would thus first appear as the ratio of the average breadth of a circle to the greatest breadth; the interpretation of w as the ratio of the circumference to the diameter being a secondary one. This order follows, in fact, the historical order of development of the subject. (ii) Developable surfaces, such as the cylinder and the cone, form a special class, so far as the calculation of their area is concerned. The process of unrolling is analytical, but the unrolled area can be measured by methods not applicable to other surfaces. (iii) Solids of revolution also form a special class, which can be conveniently treated by the two theorems of Pappus (§ 33). 18. The above classification relates to methods. The classifi- cation of results, i.e. of formulae, will depend on the purpose for which the collection of formulae is required, and may involve the grouping of results obtained by very different methods. A collection of formulae relating to the circle, for instance, would comprise not only geometrical and trigonometrical formulae, but also approximate formulae, such as Huygens's rule (§ 91), which are the result of advanced analysis. The present article is not intended to give either a complete course of study or a complete collection of formulae, and there- fore such only of the ordinary formulae are given as are required for illustrating certain general principles. For fuller discussion reference should be made to Geometry and Trigonometry, as well as to the articles dealing with particular figures, such as Triangle, Circle, &c. 19. The most important formulae are those which correspond ,to the use of rectangular Cartesian co-ordinates. This implies the treatment of a plane or solid figure as being wholly comprised between two parallel lines or planes, regarded by convention as being vertical; the figure being generated by an ordinate or section moving at right angles to itself through a distance which is called the breadth of the figure. The length or area obtained by dividing the area or the volume of the figure by its breadth is the mean ordinate (mean height) or mean section (mean sectional area) of the figure. Quadrature-formulae or cubature-formulae may sometimes be conveniently replaced by formulae giving the mean ordinate or mean section. In the early stages it is best to use both methods, so as to develop the idea of an average (§ 12). In the present article the formulae for area or volume will be used throughout. 20. Approximation. — The numerical result obtained by apply- ing a formula to particular data will generally not be exact. There are two kinds of causes producing want of exactness. (i) The formula itself may not be numerically exact. This may happen in either of two ways. (a) The formula may involve numbers or ratios which cannot be expressed exactly in the ordinary notation. This is the case, for instance, with formulae which involve v or trigonometrical ratios. This inexactness may, however, be ignored, since the numbers or ratios in question can generally be obtained to a greater degree of accuracy than the other numbers involved in the calculation (see (ii) (b) below). (b) The formula may only be approximative. The length of the arc of a circle, for instance, is known if the length of the chord and its distance from the middle point of the arc are known; but it may be more convenient in such a case to use a formula such as Huygens's rule than to obtain a more accurate result by means of trigono- metrical tables. (ii) The data may be such that an exact result is impossible. (a) The nature of the bounding curve or surface may not be exactly known, so that certain assumptions have to be made, a formula being then used which is adapted to these assumptions. The application of Simpson's rule, for instance, to a plane figure implies certain assumptions as to the nature of the bounding curve. Such a formula is approximative, in that it is known that the result of its application will only be approximately correct ; it differs from an approximative formula of the kind mentioned in (i) (6) above, in that it is adopted of necessity, not by choice. (b) It must, however, be remembered that in all practical applica- tions of formulae the data have first to be ascertained by direct or indirect measurement; and this measurement involves a certain I margin of error. MENSURATION r -37 The two sources of error mentioned under (a) and (6) above are closely related. Suppose, for instance, that we require the area of a circular grass-plot of measured diameter. As a matter of fact, no grass-piot is truly circular; and it might be found that if the breadth in various directions were measured more accurately the want of circularity would reveal itself. Thus the inaccuracy in taking the measured diameter as the datum is practically of the same order as the inaccuracy in taking the grass-plot to be circular. (iii) In dealing with cases where actual measurements are involved, the error (i) due to inaccuracy of the formula will often be negligible in comparison with the error (ii) due to inaccuracy of the data. For this reason, formulae which will only give approximate results are usually classed together as rules, whether the inaccuracy lies (as in the case of Huygens's rule) in the formula itself, or (as in the case of Simpson's rule) in its application to the data. 21. It is necessary, in applying formulae to specific cases, not only, on the one hand, to remember that the measurements are only approximate, but also, on the other hand, to give to any ratio such as ir a value which is at least more accurate than the measurements. Suppose, for instance, that in the example given in § 20 the diameter as measured is 15 ft. 3 in. If we take tt = 3 • 14 and find the area to be 26288-865 sq. in. = 182 sq. ft. 80-865 S Q- in., we make two separate mistakes. The main mistake is in giving the result as true to a small fraction of a square inch; but, if this degree of accuracy had been possible, it would have been wrong to give w a value which is in error by more than 1 in 2000. Calculations involving feet and inches are sometimes performed by means of duodecimal arithmetic; i.e., in effect, the tables of square measure and of cubic measure are amplified by the insertion of intermediate units. For square measure — 12 square inches = 1 superficial prime, 12 superficial primes = 1 square foot; while for cubic measure — 12 cubic inches = 1 solid second, 12 solid seconds = 1 solid prime, 12 solid primes = 1 cubic foot. When an area has been calculated in terms of square feet, primes and square inches, the primes and square inches have to be reduced to square inches; and similarly with the calculation of volumes. The value of *• for duodecimal arithmetic is 3 + 1/12+8/12 2 -)- 4/i2 3 +8/i2 4 + . . . ; so that, marking off duodecimal fractions by commas, the area in the above case is J of 3, I, 8, 4, 8X15, 3X15, 3 sq. ft. = 182, 7, 10 sq. ft. = 182 sq. ft. 94 sq. in. (or 182J sq. ft. approximately). MENSURATION OF SPECIFIC FIGURES (GEOMETRICAL) 22. Areas of Plane Rectilinear Figures. — The following are ex- pressions for the areas of some simple figures; the expressions in (i) and (ii) are obtained arithmetically, while those in (iii)-(v) involve dissection and rearrangement. (i) Square: side a. Area = a 2 . (ii) Rectangle : sides a and b. Area =0 b. (iii) Right-angled triangle: sides a and b, enclosing the right angle. Area. = $ab. (iv) Parallelogram: two opposite sides a and a, distance between them h. Area = ha. (v) Triangle: one side a, distant h from the opposite angle. Area = \ha. If the data for any of these figures are other than those given above, trigonometrical ratios will usually be involved. If, for instance, the data for the triangle are sides a and 6, enclosing an angle C, the area is \ab sin C. 23. The figures considered in § 22 are particular cases of the trapezium, which is a quadrilateral with two parallel sides. If these sides are a and b, at distance h from one another, the area is h.%(a+ b). In the case of the triangle, for instance, b is zero, so that the area is JAa. The trapezium is also sometimes called a " trapezoid," but it will be convenient to reserve this term for a different figure (§ 24). The most important form of trapezium is that in which one of the two remaining sides of the figure is at right angles to the two parallel sides. The trapezium is then a right trapezium; the two parallel sides are called the sides, the side at right angles to them the base, and the fourth side the top. By producing the two parallel sides of any trapezium (e.g. a para- lellogram), and drawing a line at right angles to them, outside the figure, we see that it may be treated as the difference of two right trapezia. It is, however, more simple to convert it into a single right trapezium. Let CABD (fig. 1) 1 be a trapezium, the sides CA and DB being parallel. Draw any straight line at right angles to CA and DB (produced if necessary), meeting them in M and N. Along CA and DB, on the same side of MN, take MA' = CA, NB' = DB; and join A'B'. Then MA'B'N is a right trapezium, whose area is equal to that of CABD; and it is related to the latter in such a way that, if any two lines parallel to AC and BD meet AB, CD, MN, A'B', in E^ J^ P, E', and F, H, Q, F', respectively, ?»' may be called the equivalent right trapezium. In the case of a parallelogram, the equivalent right trapezium is a rectangle; in the case of a triangle, it is a right-angled triangle. 24. If we take a series of right trapezia, such that one side (§ 23) of the first is equal to one side of the second, the other side of the second is equal to one side of the third, and so on, and place them with their bases in a straight line and their equal sides adjoining each other, we get a figure such as MABCDEFS (fig. 2), which has two parallel sides MA and SF, a base MS at right angles to these, and the remainder of its boundary from A to F recti- linear, no part of the figure being outside the space between MA (produced) and SF (produced). A figure of this kind will be called a trapezoid. (i) If from the other angular points B, C, D, E, perpendiculars BN, CP, DQ, ER, are drawn to the base MS (fig. 2), the area is MN.|(MA + NB) + NP.i(NB + PC)+. . . . + RS.f(RE+SF) = i(MN. MA + MP. NB + NQ. PC+ . . . . + RS . SF). The lines MA, NB, PC, ... . are called the ordinates of the points A, B,C, .... from the base MS, and the portions MN, NP, PQ, .... of the base are the projections of the sides AB, BC, CD, .... on the base. (ii) A special case is that in which A coincides with M, and F with S. The figure then stands on a base MS, the remainder of its boundary being a broken line from M to S. The formula then becomes area = |(MP.NB+NQ . PC+ . - . +QS . RE), i.e. the area is half the sum of the products obtained by. multiplying each ordinate by the distance between the two adjacent ordinates. It would be possible to regard this form of the figure as the general one; the figure considered in (i) would then represent the special case in which the two end-pieces of the broken line are at right angles to the base. (iii) Another special case is that in which the distances MN, NP, PQ, . . . RS are all equal. If this distance is h, then area=A(iMA+NB+PC-f-. . . + JSF). 25. To find the area of any rectilinear figure, various methods are available. (i) The figure may be divided into triangles. The quadrilateral, for instance, consists of two triangles, and its area is the product of half the length of one diagonal by the sum of the perpendiculars drawn to this diagonal from the other two angular points. For figures of more than four sides this method is not usually convenient, except for such special cases as that of a regular polygon, which can be divided into triangles by radii drawn from its centre. (ii) Suppose that two angular points, A and E, are joined (fig. 3) so as to form a diagonal AE, and that the whole cf the figure lies between lines through A and E at right angles to AE. Then the figure is (usually) the sum of two trapezoids on base AE, and its area can be calculated as in § 24. If BN, CP, Fig. 3. DQ, .... FS, GT are the perpen- diculars to AE from the angular points, the ordinates NB, PC, .... are called the offsets from the diagonal to the angular points. The area of the polygon in fig. 3 is given by the expression i(AP . NB+NQ . PC+PE . QD+ET . SF+SA . TG). It should be noticed (a) that AP , NQ SA are taken in tnte* cyclical order of the points ABC . . . GA, and (6) that in fig. 3, if AN and NB are regarded as positive, then SF, TG, ET and SA are negative, but the products ET . SF and SA . TG are positive. Negative products will arise if in moving from A to E along the perimeter of either side of the figure the projection of the moving point does not always move in the direction AE. (iii) Take any straight line intersecting or not intersecting the figure, and draw perpendiculars Aa, Bb, Cc, V>d, . . . Ff, Gg to this line. Then, with proper attention to signs, area = K2& • aA+ac'. bB+bd . cC-f. ..+/<*. gG). (iv) The figure may be replaced by an equivalent trapezoid, on the system explained in § 23. Take any base X'X, and draw lines at right angles to this base through all the angular points of the figure. :8 MENSURATION Volume = height X J . area Let the lines through B, G, C, D and F (fig. 4) cut the boundary of the figure again in B', G', C, D' and F , and meet the base X'X in K, L, M, N and P; the points A and E being at the extremities of the figure, and the lines through them meeting the base in a and e. Then, if we take ordinates Kb, Lg, Me, Ni, P/, equal to B'B, GG', C'C, D'D, FF', the figure abgcdfe will be the equivalent trapezoid, and any ordinate drawn from the base to the top of this trapezoid will be _ equal to the portion of this *' IG - 4- ordinate (produced) which falls within the original figure. 26. Volumes of Solids with Plane Faces— The following are ex- pressions for the volumes of some simple solid figures, (i) Cube: side a. Volume = a 3 . (ii) Rectangular parallelepiped : sides a, 6, c. Volume = abc. (iii) Right prism. Volume = length of edge X area of end. (iv) Oblique prism. Volume = height X area of end = length of edge X area of cross-section; the " height " being the perpendicular distance between the two ends. The parallelepiped is a particular case, (v) Pyramid with rectilinear base, of base. The tetrahedron is a particular case. (vi) Wedge: parallel edges a, b, c; area of cross-section S. Volume = i(a+b+c)S. This formula holds for the general case in which the base is a trapezium; the wedge being thus formed by cutting a triangular prism by any two planes. (vii) Frustum of pyramid with rectilinear base: height h; areas of ends (i.e. base and top) A and B. Volume = fc. KA + VAB+B). 27. The figures considered in § 26 are particular cases of the pristnoid (or prismatoid), which may be defined as a solid figure with two parallel plane rectilinear ends, each of the other (i.e. the lateral) faces being a triangle with an angular point in one end of the figure and its opposite side in the other. Two adjoining faces in the same plane may together make a trapezium. More briefly, the figure may be defined as a polyhedron with two parallel faces containing all the vertices. If R and S are the ends of a prismoid, A and B their areas, h the Cerpendicular distance between them, and C the area of a section y a plane parallel to R and S and midway between them, the volume of the prismoid is ifc(A+4C+B). This is known as the prismoidal formula. The formula is a deduction from a general formula, considered later (§ 58), and may be verified in various ways. The most instructive is to regard the prismoid as built up (by addition or subtraction) of simpler figures, which are particular cases of it. (i) Let R and S be the vertex and the base of a pyramid. Then A = O, C = iB, and volume = \hB = JA(A + 4C + B). The tetrahedron is a particular case. (ii) Let R be one edge of a wedge with parallel ends, and S the face containing the other two edges. Then A = 0, C = §B, and volume = JAB = I/HA+4C+B). (iii) Let R and S be two opposite edges of a tetrahedron. Then che tetrahedron may be regarded as the difference of a wedge with parallel ends, one of the edges being "R, and a pyramid whose base is a parallelogram, one side of the parallelogram being S (see fig. 9, § 58). Hence, by (i) and (ii), the formula holds for this figure. (iv) For the prismoid in general let ABCD ... be one end, and abed . . . the other. Take any point P in the latter, and form triangles by joining P to each of the sides AB, BC, . . . ab, be, . . . of the ends, and also to each of the edges. Then the prismoid is divided into a pyramid with vertex P and base ABCD . . ., and a series of tetrahedra, such as PABa or PAo&. By (i) and (iii), the formula holds for each of these figures; and therefore it holds for the prismoid as a whole. Another method of verifying the formula is to take a point Q in the mid-section, and divide up the prismoid into two pyramids with vertex Q and bases ABCD . . . and abed . . . respectively, and a series of tetra- hedra having Q as one vertex. 28. The Circle and Allied Figures. — The mensuration of the circle is founded on the property that the areas of different circles are , proportional to the squares on their diameters. Denoting the constant ratio by iir, the area of a circle is ira 2 , where a is the radius, and ^=^-14159 approximately. The expression 2ra for the length of the circumference can be deduced by consider- ing the limit of the area cut off from a circle of radius a by a concentric circle of radius — 0, when a becomes indefinitely small; this is an elementary case of differentiation. The lengths of arcs of the same circle being proportional to the angles subtended by them at the centre, we get the idea of circulai measure. Let O be the common centre of two circles, of radii a and b, and let radii enclosing an angle (circular measure) cut their circum- ferences in A, B and C, D respectively (fig. 5). Then the area of ABDC is ib*0-ia?0 = (b-a)-i(b+a)6. If we bisect AB and CD in P and Q respectively, and describe the arc PQ of a circle with centre O, the length of this arc is h(b+a)B; and 6-a=AB. Hence area ABDC=ABX arc PQ. The figure ABDC is a sector of an annulus, which is the portion of a circle left after cutting out a concentric circle. 29. By considering the circle as the limit of a polygon, it follows that the formulae (iii) and (v) of § 26 hold for a right circular cylinder and a right circular cone ; i.e. volume of right circular cylinder = length X area of base; volume of right circular cone = height X 5 area of base. These formulae also hold for any right cylinder and any cone. 30. The curved surfaces of the cylinder and of the cone are developable surfaces; i.e. they can be unrolled on a plane. The curved surface of any right cylinder (whether circular or not) be- comes a rectangle, and therefore its area = length .X perimeter of base. The curved surface of a right circular cone becomes a sector of a circle, and its area = J-slant height X perimeter of base. 31. If a is the radius of a sphere, then (i) volume ol sphere = \ira z ; (ii) surface of sphere = 4«j 2 = curved surface of circum- scribing cylinder. The first of these is a particular case of the prismoidal formula (§ 58). To obtain (i) and (ii) together, we show that the volume of a sphere is proportional to the volume of the cube whose edge is the diameter; denoting the constant ratio by fX, the volume of the sphere is Xa 3 , and thence, by taking two concentric spheres (cf. § 28), the area of the surface is 3Xa 2 . This surface may be split up into elements, each of which is equal to a corresponding element of the curved surface of the circumscribing cylinder, so that 3Xa 2 = curved surface of cylinder = 20. 27ra = 47ra 2 . Hence X = |7r. The total surface of the cylinder is 4xa 2 +7ra 2 +7rff 2 = 6xd 2 , and its volume is 2a. 5ra 2 =2ira 3 . Hence volume of sphere = surface These latter formulae are due to Archimedes. 32. Moments and Centroids. — For every material body there is a point, fixed with regard to the body, such that the moment of the body with regard to any plane is the same as if the whole mass were collected at that point; the moment being the sum of the products of each element of mass of the body by its distance from the plane. This point is the centroid of the body. The ideas of moment and of centroid are extended to geometrical figures, whether solid, superficial or linear. The moment of a figure with regard to a plane is found by dividing the figure into elements of volume, area or length, multiplying each element by its distance from the plane, and adding the products. In the case of a plane area or a plane continuous line the moment with regard to a straight line in the plane is the same as the moment with regard to a per- pendicular plane through this line; i.e. it is the sum of the products of each element of area or length by its distance from the straight line. The centroid of a figure is a point fixed with regard to the figure, and such that its moment with regard to any plane (or, in the case of a plane area or line, with regard to any line in the plane) is the same as if the whole volume, area or length were concen- trated at this point. The centroid is sometimes called the centre of volume, centre of area, or centre of arc. The proof of the existence of the centroid of a figure is the same as the proof of the existence of the centre of gravity of a body. (See Mechanics.) The moment as described above is sometimes called the first moment. The second moment, third moment, ... of a plane or solid figure are found in the same way by multiplying each element by the square, cube, ... of its distance from the line or plane with regard to which the moments are being taken. If we divide the first, second, third, . . . moments by the total volume, area or length of the figure, we get the mean distance, mean square of distance, mean cube of distance. ... of the figure from the line or plane. The mean distance of a plane figure from a line in its plane, or of any figure from a plane, is therefore the same as the' distance of the centroid of the figure from the line or plane. We sometimes require the moments with regard to a line or plane through the centroid. If No is the area of a plane figure, and Ni, N 2 , . . . are its moments with regard to a line in its plane, the moments Mi, M 2 , . . . with regard to a parallel line through the centroid are given by Mi = N> — zNo = o, Mi = Nj - 2*Ni + ^No = N s - * 2 N , of sphere = § volume of circumscribing cylinder; of sphere = f surface of circumscribing cylinder. M, = N, - gxN g _i.+ g(g 2! 'W ,-, (-)<*N„; . +(-)«- 1 2 »«->Ni + MENSURATION *39 where * = the distance between the two lines = Ni/No. These formulae also hold for converting moments of a solid figure with regard to a plane into moments with regard to a parallel plane through the centroid ; x being the distance between the two planes. A line through the centroid of a plane figure (drawn in the plane of the figure) is a central line, and a plane through the centroid of a solid figure is a central plane, of the figure. The centroid of a rectangle is its centre, i.e. the point of intersec- tion of its diagonals. The first moment of a plane figure with regard to a line in its plane may be regarded as obtained by dividing the area into elementary strips by a series of parallel lines indefinitely close together, and concentrating the area of each strip at its centre. Similarly the first moment of a solid figure may be regarded as obtained by dividing the figure into elementary prisms by two sets of parallel planes, and concentrating the volume of each prism at its centre. This also holds for higher moments, provided that the edges of the elementary strips or prisms are parallel to the line or plane with regard to which the moments are taken. 33. Solids and Surfaces of Revolution. — The solid or surface generated by the revolution of a plane closed figure or a plane continuous line about a straight line in its plane, not intersecting it, is a solid of revolution or surface of revolution, the straight line being its axis. The revolution need not be complete, but may be through any angle. The section of a solid of revolution by a plane at right angles to the axis is an annulus or a sector of an annulus (fig. 5), or is composed of two or more such figures. If the solid is divided into elements by a series of such planes, and if k is the distance between two con- secutive planes making sections such as ABDC in fig. 5, the volume of the element between these planes, when h is very small, is approxi- mately iXAB X arc PQ = h. AB.OP.0. The corresponding element of the revolving figure is approximately a rectangle of area A.AB, and OP is the distance of the middle point of either side of the rectangle from the axis. Hence the total volume of the solid is M.0, where M is the sum of the quantities Zt.AB.OP, i.e. is the moment of the figure with regard to the axis. The volume is there- fore equal to S.y.S, where S is the area of the revolving figure, and y is the distance of its centroid from the axis. Similarly a surface of revolution can be divided by planes at right angles to the axis into elements, each of -which is approximately a section of the surface of a right circular cone. By unrolling each such element (§ 30) into a sector of a circular annulus, it will be found that the total area of the surface is M'.0 = L.z.0, where M' is the moment of the original curve with regard to the axis, L is the total length of the original curve, and z is the distance of the centroid of the curve from the axis. These two theorems may be stated as follows : — (i) If any plane figure revolves about an external axis in its plane, the volume of the solid generated by the revolution is equal to the product of the area of the figure and the distance travelled by the centroid of the figure. (ii) If any line in a plane revolves about an external axis in the plane, the area of the curved surface generated by the revolution is equal to the product of the length of the line and the distance travelled by the centroid of the line. These theorems were discovered by Pappus of Alexandria (c. a.d. 300), and were made generally known by Guldinus (c. a.d. 1640). They are sometimes known as Guldinus 's Theorems, but are more properly described as the Theorems of Pappus. The theorems are of use, not only for finding the volumes or areas of solids or surfaces of revolution, but also, conversely, for finding centroids or centres of gravity. They may be applied, for instance, to finding the centroid of a semicircle or of the arc of a semicircle. 34. Segment of Parabola. — The parabola affords a simple example of the use of infinitesimals. Let AB (fig. 6) be any arc of a parabola; and suppose we require the area of the figure bounded by this arc and the chord AB. Draw the tangents at A and B, L meeting at T; draw TV parallel to the axis of the parabola, meeting the arc in C and the chord in V; and M draw the tangent at C, meeting AT and BT in a and 6. Then (see Parabola) TC = CV, AV=VB, and K ab is parallel to AB, so that aC = Cb. Hence area of triangle ACB = twice area of triangle aTb. Repeating the process with the arcs AC and CB, and continuing the repetition indefi- nitely, we divide up the required area and the remainder of the triangle ATB into corresponding elements, each element of the former being double the corresponding elements of the latter. Hence the required area is double the area of the remainder of the triangle, and therefore it is two-thirds of the area of the triangle. The line TCV is parallel to the axis of the parabola. If we draw a line at right angles to TCV, meeting TCV produced in M and parallels through A and B in K and L, the area of the triangle ATB is JKL.TV = KL.CV; and therefore the area of the figure bounded by AK, BL, KL and the arc AB, is KL . i(AK+BL) +|KL (CM -*(AK+BL)1 ,=JKL(AK+4CM+BL). l' By *.-/\ M , lc V T' V Fig. area ABCD=- Fig. 7. Similarly, for a corresponding figure K'L'BA outside the parabola, the area is JK'L'(K'A+ 4 M'C+L'B). 35. The Ellipse and the Ellipsoid. — For elementary mensuration the ellipse is to be regarded as obtained by projection of the circle, and the ellipsoid by projection of the sphere. Hence the area of an ellipse whose axes are 2a and ib is nab ; and the volume of an ellipsoid whose axes are 2a, 26 and 2c is &irabc. The area of a strip of an ellipse between two lines parallel to an axis, or the volume of the portion (frustum) of an ellipsoid between two planes parallel to a principal section, may be found in the same way. 36. Examples of Applications. — The formulae of § 24 for the area of a trapezoid are of special importance in land-surveying. The measurements of a polygonal field or other area are usually taken as in § 25 (ii) ; a diagonal AE is taken as the base-line, and for the points B, C, D, . . . there are entered the distances AN, AP, AQ, . . . along the base-line, and the lengths and directions of the offsets NB, PC, QD, . . . The area is then given by the formula of § 25 (ii). 37. The mensuration of earthwork involves consideration of quadrilaterals whose dimensions are given by special data, and of prismoids whose sections are such quadrilaterals. In the ordinary case three of the four lateral surfaces of the prismoid are at right angles to the two ends. In special cases two of these three lateral surfaces are equally inclined to the third. (i) In fig. 7 let base BC = 2a, and let h be the distance, measured at right angles to BC, from the middle point of BC to AD. Also, let angle ABC=jr-0, angle BCD=7r-<£, angle between BC and AD = ^. Then (as the difference of two triangles) (h cot ^+a)' _ (h cot lfr-a) 2 2(C0t ^ — COt <(>) 2(C0t ^+COt 6)' (ii) If 4> =6, this becomes area " tan^-tan 2 ^ + a tan B ^ ~ ° 2 tan 9- (iii) If ^ = 0, so that AD is parallel to BC, it becomes area = 2ah +i (cot 8 + cot )h 2 . (iv) To find the volume of a prismoidal cutting with vertical ends, and with sides equally inclined to the vertical, so that =8, let the values of h, $ for the two ends be hi, fa, and hz, fa, and write m = cot C fa~ cot 8 ( a + h cot 6) ' w <= cot T + 'cot 9 < a + hl cot •>• cot fa , , . . .. cot fa , , 1 ^ „\ W2 = cot fa- cot 8 (° + hi cot e) ' "*= cot fa + cot 8 < a + fe cot *>• Then volume of prismoid = length Xj(»ziMi -f-j» 2 W2 + himinz + W2W1) —3a 2 } tan B. MENSURATION OF GRAPHS 38. (A) Preliminary. — In § 23 the area of a right trapezium has been expressed in terms of the base and the two sides; and in § 34 the area of a somewhat similar figure, the top having been replaced by an arc of a parabola, has been expressed in terms of its base and of three lengths which may be regarded as the sides of two separate figures of which it is composed. We have now to consider the extension of formulae of this kind to other figures, and their application to the calculation of moments and volumes. 39. The plane figures with which we are concerned come mainly under the description of graphs of continuous variation. Let E and F be two magnitudes so related that whenever F has any value (within certain limits) E has a definite corresponding value. Let u and x be the numerical expressions of the magnitudes of E and F. On any line OX take a length ON equal to xG, and from N draw NP at right angles to OX and equal to wH; G and H being convenient units of length. Then we may, ignoring the units_G and H, speak of ON and NP as being equal to x and u respec* tiyely. Let KA and LB be the positions of NP corresponding to the extreme values of x. Then the different positions of NP will (if x may have any value from OK to OL) trace out a figure on base KL, and extending from KA to LB; this is called the graph of E in respect of F. The term is also sometimes applied to the line AB along which the point P moves as N moves from K to L. To illustrate the importance of the mensuration of graphs, suppose that we require the average value of w with regard to x. It may be shown that this is the same thing as the mean distance 140 MENSURATION of elements of the graph from an axis through O at right angles to OX. Its calculation therefore involves the calculation of the area and the first moment of the graph. 40. The processes which have to be performed in the mensuration of figures of this kind are in effect processes of integration ; the dis- tinction between mensuration and integration lies in the different natures of the data. If, for instance, the graph were a trapezium, the calculation of the area would be equivalent to finding the integral, from x = a to x = b, of an expression of the form px-\-q. This would involve p and q; but, for our purposes, the data are the sides pa+q and pb-\-q and the base b— a, and the expression of the integral in terms of these data would require certain eliminations. The province of mensuration is to express the final result of such an elimination in terms of the data, without the necessity of going through the intermediate processes. 41. Trapezettes and Briquettes. — A figure of the kind described in § 39 is called a trapezette. A trapezette may therefore be defined as a plane figure bounded by two straight lines, abase at right angles to them, and a top which may be of any shape but is such that every ordinate from the base cuts it in one point and one point only; or, alternatively, it may be defined as the figure generated by an ordinate which moves in a plane so that its foot is always on a straight base to which the ordinate is at right angles, the length of the ordinate varying in any manner as it moves. The distance between the two straight sides, i.e. between the initial and the final position of the ordinate, is the breadth of the trapezette. Any line drawn from the base, at right angles to it, and terminated by the top of the trapezette, is an ordinate of the figure. The trapezium is a particular case. Either or both of the bounding ordinates may be zero; the top, in that case, meets the base at that extremity. Any plane figure might be converted into an equivalent trapezette by an extension of the method of § 25 (iv). 42. The corresponding solid figure, in its most general form, is such as would be constructed to represent the relation of a magnitude E to two magnitudes F and G of which it is a function; it would stand on a plane base, and be comprised within a cylindrical boundary whose cross-section might be of any shape. We are not concerned with figures of this general kind, but only with cases in which the base is a rectangle. The figure is such as would be produced by removing a piece of a rectangular prism, and is called a briquette. A briquette may therefore be defined as a solid figure bounded by a pair of parallel planes, another pair of parallel planes at right angles to these, a base at right angles to these four planes (and therefore rectangular), and a top which is a surface of any form, but such that every ordinate from the base cuts it in one point and one point only. It may be regarded as generated either by a trapezette moving in a direction at right angles to itself and changing its top but keeping its breadth unaltered, or by an ordinate moving so that its foot has every possible position within a rectangular base. 43. Notation and Definitions. — The ordinate of the trapezette will be denoted by u, and the abscissa of this ordinate, i.e. the distance of its foot from a certain fixed point or origin O on the base (or the base produced), will be denoted by x, so that u is some function of x. The sides of the trapezette are the " bounding ordinates"; their abscissae being Xo and xo+H, where H is the breadth of the trapezette. The " mid-ordinate " is the ordinate from the middle point of the base, i.e. the ordinate whose abscissa is tfo+jH. The " mean ordinate " or average ordinate is an ordinate of length / such that HI is equal to the area of the trapezette. It therefore appears as a calculated length rather than as a definite line in the figure ; except that, if there is only one ordinate of this length, a line drawn through its extremity is so placed that the area of the trape- zette lying above it is equal to a corresponding area below it and outside the trapezette. Formulae giving the area of a trapezette should in general also be expressed so as to state the value of the mean ordinate (§§ 12 (v), 15, 19). The " median ordinate " is the ordinate which divides the area of the trapezette into two equal portions. It arises mainly in statistics, when the ordinate of the trapezette represents the relative frequency of occurrence of the magnitude represented by the abscissa x; the magnitude of the abscissa corresponding to the median ordinate is then the " median value of x." The " central ordinate " is the ordinate through the centroid of the trapezette (§ 32). The distance of this ordinate from the axis of u (i.e. from a line drawn through O parallel to the ordinates) is equal to the mean distance (§ 32) of the trapezette from this axis; moments with regard to the central ordinate-are therefore sometimes described in statistics as " moments about the mean." The data of a trapezette are usually its breadth and either the bounding ordinates or the mid-ordinates of a series of minor trape- zettes or strips into which it is divided by ordinates at equal distances. If there are m of these strips, and if the breadth of each is h, so that H=mh, it is convenient to write x in the form xo+8h, and to denote it by x#, the corresponding value of u being u e . The data are then either the bounding ordinates Wo,_ #1, . . . «m-i, u m of the strips, or their mid-ordinates u\, u\, . . . u m l\. 44. In the case of the briquette the position of the foot of the ordinate u is expressed by co-ordinates x, y, referred to a pair of axes parallel to a pair of sides of the base of the briquette. If the lengths of these sides are H and K, the coordinates of the angles of the base — i.e. the co-ordinates of the edges of the briquette — are (xo, y a ), (*o+H, ye), (x , yo+K), and (*o+H, yo+K). The briquette may usually be regarded as divided into a series of minor briquettes by two sets of parallel planes, the planes of each set being at successively equal distances. If the planes of one set divide it into m slabs of thickness h, and those of the other into n slabs of thickness k, so that H = mh, K = nk, then the values of x and of y for any ordinate may be denoted by xo+Bh and yo+k, and the length of the ordinate by ug, $. The data are usually the breadths H and K and either (i) the edges of the minor briquettes, viz. «o,o, Uo,u ■ ■ ■ «i,o, «i,i, ... or (ii) the mid-ordinates of one set of parallel faces, viz. «o,j, wos, . . . «i,j, ... or wj,o, Ms.o, . . . «j,i, . . ., or (iii) the " mid-ordinates " «i,}, «j,f, . . . Mg,j, ... of the minor briquettes, i.e. the ordinates from the centres of their bases. A plane parallel to either pair of sides of the briquette is a " principal plane." The ordinate through the centroid of the figure is the " central ordinate." 45. In some cases the data for a trapezette or a briquette are not only certain ordinates within or on the boundary of the figure, but also others forming the continuation of the series outside the figure. For a trapezette, for instance, they may be . . . «_ 2 , m_i, « , «i . . . Um, « m+ i Wm+j . . ., where u$ denotes the same function of x==Xo+6h, whether 8h lies between the limits o and H or not. These cases are important as enabling simpler fbrmulae, involving central differences, to be used (§ 76). 46. The area of the trapezette, measured from the lower bounding ordinate up to the ordinate corresponding to any value of x, is some function of x. In the notation of the integral calculus, this area is equal to I * udx; but the notation is inconvenient, since it implies a division into infinitesimal elements, which is not essential to the idea of an area. It is therefore better to use some independent notation, such as A, . u. It will be found convenient to denote 4>(b)—(x) is any function of *, by \ + «i) or hu\. 51. The next case is that in which « is a quadratic function of x, i.e. is of the form px 2 + qx + r. The top is then a parabola whose axis is at right angles to the base; and the area can therefore (§ 34) be expressed in terms of the two bounding ordinates and the mid- ordinate. If we take these to be «o and «2, and «i, so that m = 2, we have area = |H(«o + 4«i + «j) = \h(uo + 4«i + «>)• This is Simpson's formula. If instead of uo, «i, and Ui, we have four ordinates uo, Mi, «2, and us, so that m = 3, it can be shown that area = %h(uo -f 3«i + 3«2 + ««)• This is Simpson's second formula. It may be deduced from the formula given above. Denoting the areas of the three strips by A, B, and C, and introducing the middle ordinate u\, we can express A -f- B; B + C; A + B +C; and B in terms of uo, «i, Ui; Ui, u%, Ms ; ut, ui, u 3 ; and «i, u\, u% respectively. Thus we get two expressions for A + B + C, from which we can eliminate u%. A trapezette of this kind will be called a parabolic trapezette. 52. Simpson's two formulae also apply if u is of the form px z + qx 2 + rx + s. Generally, if the area of a trapezette for which u is an algebraical function of x of degree ?.n is given correctly by an expres- sion which is a linear function of values of « representing ordinates placed symmetrically about the mid-ordinate of the trapezette (with or without this mid-ordinate), the same expression will give the area of a trapezette for which u is an algebraical function of x of degree 2n -f- 1. This will be seen by taking the mid-ordinate as the ordinate for which x = o, and noticing that the odd powers of x introduce positive and negative terms which balance one another when the whole area is taken into account. 53. When u is of degree 4 or 5 in x, we require at least five ordinates. If m = 4, and the data are «o, Ui, %, u 3 , ui, we have area = f S k(7Uo + 32M1 + i2w 2 + 32W3 + 7«<)- For functions of higher degrees in x the formulae become more complicated. 54. The general method of constructing formulae of this kind involves the use of the integral calculus and of the calculus of finite differences. The breadth of the trapezette being mh, it may be shown that its area is mH \ U W +h, mVW "^ + ^ mihiU "~ + I 1920 322560 W ' 92897280 m ° h * u Z + where u, m , u, m , «,„, . . . denote, the values for x = x\ m of the successive differential coefficients of w with regard to x ; the series continuing until the differential coefficients vanish. There are two classes of cases, according as m is even or odd; it will be con- venient to consider them first for those cases in which the data are the bounding ordinates of the strips. (i) If m is even, u\ m will be oneof the given ordinates, and we can express h 2 u, m , h*u*? m , ... in terms of u\ m and its even central differences (see Differences, Calculus of). Writing m = 2p, and grouping the coefficients of the successive differences, we shall find 3P l ~ 5^ area = 2ph ■b 2 Up+tz-S'Up 360 ■S 4 u p + 15120 "^ y If u is of degree 2/ or 2/ + 1 in x, we require to go up to & 2, u p , so that m must be not less than 2/. Simpson's (first) formula, for instance, holds for / = I, and is obtained by taking p = I and ignoring differences after b 2 u p . (ii) If m is odd, the given ordinates are «o, . . . u\m-\, «jm+J, . . . Um. We then have area = mh J nu$ m + Vhere uu\„, iii 2 u\n ^5*«jm + 3W« - 5 ow 2 + 135 , 24 --*"• ' 5760^ MS " lm 3 w° - i 47 ot< + 1813M' - 4725 ^3. 1 ]• 967680 denote i («!».-} + wj» + i). K« 2 MJ™-S + Fig. 8. & 2 u\ m +i), . . . 'Simpson's second formula is obtained by taking m = 3 and ignoring differences after n& 2 ui m . 55. The general formulae of § 54 (p being replaced in (i) by \m) may in the same way be applied to obtain formulae giving the area of the trapezette in terms of the mid-ordinates of the strips, the series being taken up to & ! u\ m or iiZ 2t u\ m at least, where u is of degree 2/ or 2/+1 in x. Thus we find from (i) that Simpson's second formula, for the case where the top is a parabola (with axis, as before, at right angles to the base) and there are three strips of breadth h, may be replaced by area = f A(3«j + 2w ? + 3«s). This might have been deduced directly from Simpson's first formula, by a series of eliminations. 56. Hence, for the case of a parabola, we can express the area in terms of the bounding ordinates of two strips, but, if we use mid-ordinates, we require three strips; so that, in each case, three ordinates are required. The question then arises whether, by removing the limitation as to the position of the ordinates, we can reduce their number. Suppose that in fig. 6 (§ 34) we draw ordinates QD midway between KA and MC, and RE midway between MC and LB, meeting the top in D and E (fig. 8), and join DE, meeting KA, LB, and MC in H, J, and W. Then it may be shown that DE is parallel to AB, and that the area of the figure between chord DE and arc DE is half the sum of the areas DHA and EJB. Hence the area of the right tra- pezium KHJL is greater than the area of the trapezette KACBL. If we were to take QD and RE closer to MC, the former area would be still greater. If, on the other hand, we were to take them very close to KA and LB respectively, the area of the trapezette would be the greater. There is therefore Some intermediate position such that the two areas are equal ; i.e. such that the area of the trapezette is represented by KL . £(QD + RE). To find this position, let us "write QM = MR = B . KM. Then WC=9». VC, VW = (1 - S 2 ) VC; curved area ACB = f of parallelogram AFGB = f KL . VC ; parallelogram AHJB = KL . VW = (1 - P) KL . VC. Hence the areas of the trapezette and of the trapezium will be equal 1 -e» = f,0 = 1/V3. This value of is the same for all parabolas which pass through D and E and have their axes at right angles to KL. It follows that, by taking two ordinates in a certain position with regard to the bounding ordinates, the area of any parabolic trapezette whose top passes through their extremities can be expressed in terms of these ordinates and of the breadth of the trapezette. The same formula will also hold (§ 52) for any cubic trapezette through the points. 57. This is a particular case of a general theorem, due to Gauss, that, if u is an algebraical function of x of degree 2p or 2p-\- 1, the area can be expressed in terms of p + 1 ordinates taken in suitable positions. 58. The Prismoidal Formula. — It follows from §§ 48 and 51 that, if V is a solid figure extending from a plane K to a parallel plane L, and if the area of every cross-section parallel to these planes is a quadratic function of the distance of the section from a fixed plane parallel to them, Simpson's formula may be applied to find the volume of the solid. If the areas of the two ends in the planes K and L are So and S2, and the area of the mid-section (i.e. the section by a plane parallel to these planes and midway between them) is Si, the volume is |H(So + 4S1 + S 2 _), where H is the total breadth. This formula applies to such figures as the cone, the sphere, the ellipsoid and the prismoid. In the case of the sphere, for instance, whose radius is R, the area of the section at distance x from the centre is ir(R 2 -# 2 ), which is a quadratic function of x\ the values of So- Si, and S2 are respectively o, irR 2 , and o, and the volume is therefore J . 2R . 4xR 2 = JxR 3 . To show that the area of a cross-section of a prismoid is of the form ax 2 + bx + c, where x is the distance of the section from one end, we may proceed as in § 27. In the case of a pyramid, of height h, the area of the section by a plane parallel to the base and at distance x from the vertex is clearly x 2 /h 2 X area of base. In the case of a wedge with parallel ends the ratio x 2 jh 2 is re- placed by x/h. For a tetrahedron, two of whose opposite edges are AB and CD, we require the area A B /&\***» P / '• sx **•. / \V -I / * \ / / .'"*" \ / y c! D Fig. 9. of the section by a plane parfi-llel to AB and CD. Let the distance between the parallel planes through AB and CD be h, and let a plane at distance x from the plane through AB cut the edges AC, 142 MENSURATION BC, BD, AD, in P, Q, R, S (fig. 9). Then the section of the pyramid by this plane is the parallelogram PQRS. By drawing Ac and Ad parallel to BC and BD, so as to meet the plane through CD in c and d, and producing QP and RS to meet Ac and Ad in q and r, we see that the area of PQRS is (x/h—x'/h^X area of cCDd; this also is a quadratic function of x. The proposition can then be established for a prismoid generally by the method of § 27 (iv). The formula is known as the prismoidal formula. 59. Moments. — Since all points on any ordinate are at an equal distance from the axis of u, it is easily shown that the first moment (with regard to this axis) of a trapezette whose ordinate is u is equal to the area of a trapezette whose ordinate is xu ; and this area can be found by the methods of the preceding sections in cases where u is an algebraical function of x. The formulae can then be applied to finding the moments of certain volumes. In the case of the parabolic trapezette, for instance, xu is of degree 3 in x, and therefore the first moment is lh{x Uo+4XiUi+X2Ui). in the case, therefore, of any solid whose cross-section at distance x from one end is a quadratic function of x, the position of the cross- section through the centroid is to be found by determining the position of the centre of gravity of particles of masses proportional to So, S2, and 4S1, placed at the extremities and the middle of a line drawn from one end of the solid to the other. The centroid of a hemisphere of radius R, for instance, is the same as the centroid of particles of masses o, 7rR 2 , and 4 . JttR 2 , placed at the extremities and the middle of its axis; i.e. the centroid is at distance |R from the plane face. 60. The method can be extended to finding the second, third, . . . moments of a trapezette with regard to the axis of u. If u is an algebraical function of x of degree not exceeding p, and if the area of a trapezette, for which the ordinate v is of degree not exceeding p+q. may be expressed by a formula Xoflo+yifi-f . . . +^"m, the qth moment of the trapezette is Xo3Co'«o+^i^i'Mi+ . • • +X m #m'"m, and the mean value of xfl is (Xo*o«tto + Xl*l*«l +....+ X m * m «M m )/(X tto + X1M1+ . . . + \mU m ). The calculation of this last expression is simplified by noticing that we are only concerned with the mutual ratios of Xo, Xi, . . . and of «o, tti, . . , not with their actual values. 61. Cubature of a Briquette. — To extend these methods to a bri- Suette, where the ordinate u is an algebraical function of x and y, le axes of x and of y being parallel to the sides of the base, we consider that the area of a section at distance x from the plane x = o is expressed in terms of the ordinates in" which it intersects the series of planes, parallel to y = o, through the given ordinates of the briquette (§ 44) ; and that the area of the section is then represented by the ordinate of a trapezette. This ordinate will be an algebraical function of x, and we can again apply a suitable formula. Suppose, for instance, that u is of degree not exceeding 3 in x, and of degree not exceeding 3 in y, i.e. that it contains terms in x 3 y 3 , x 3 y 2 , x 2 y 3 , &c. ; and suppose that the edges parallel to which x and y are measured are of lengths 2h and 3k, the briquette being divided into six elements by the plane x = x +h and the planes y=yn-\-k, y — yo-\-2k, and that the 12 ordinates forming the edges of these six elements are given. The areas of the sides for which x = Xo and x=*xo+2h, and of the section by the plane x — xo-\-h, may be found by Simpson's second formula; call these A and A 2 , and Ai. The area of the section by a plane at distance x from the edge x = x denotes the ordinate for which x = xo+8k, y = yo+4>k. The result is the same as if we multiplied %k(v + Wi+SVi + Vi) by \h{u<, + 4M1 +ut), and then replaced Wo, 1W1, . . . by uo,o, Mo,i . . . The multiplication is shown in the adjoining diagram; the factors J and | are kept outside, so that the sum Mo,o+3«o,i+ . . . +4«i,o+. ... . can be calculated before it is multiplied by J* .p. 62. The above is a particular case of a general principle that the obtaining of an expression such as Ihitto+^Ui+Ui) or f£(»o-f3t)i-|- 31/2+1)3) is an operation performed on « or z>o, and that this operation is the sum of a number of operations such as that which obtains \hu,i or %kv . The volume of the briquette for which u is a function of x and y is found by the operation of double integration, consisting of two successive operations, one being with regard to x, and the other with regard to y; and these operations may (in the cases with which we are concerned) be performed in either order. Starting from any ordinate w«,. This is called the trapezoidal or chordal area, and will be denoted by Ci. If the data are «j, ttj, . . . M m _j, we can form a series of trapezia by drawing the tangents at the extremities of these ordinates; the sum of the areas of these trapezia will be A(«j+«j+. . . -t-i^.j). This is called the tangential area, and will be denoted by Ti. The MENSURATION H3 tangential area may be expressed in terms of chordal areas. If we write Cj for the chordal area obtained by taking ordinates at intervals \h, then Ti=2Cj-Ci. If the trapezette, as seen from above, is everywhere convex or everywhere concave, the true area lies between Ci and Ti. 68. Other Rules for Trapezettes. — The extension of this method consists in dividing the trapezette into minor trapezettes, each consisting of two or more strips, and replacing each of these minor trapezettes by a new figure, whose ordinate » is an algebraical function of x; this function being chosen so that the new figure shall coincide with the original figure so far as the given ordinates are concerned. This means that, if the minor trapezette consists of k strips, v will be of degree k or k — I in x, according as the data are the bounding ordinates or the mid-ordinates. If A denotes the true area of the original trapezette, and B the aggregate area of the substituted figures, we have A=2=B, where =2= denotes approximate equality. The value of B is found by the methods of §§ 49-55. The following are some examples. (i) Suppose that the bounding ordinates are given, and that m is a multiple of 2. Then we can take the strips in pairs, and treat each pair as a parabolic trapezette. Applying Simpson's formula to each of these, we have A =3= \h{uo 4. 4% + «j) -f \h{ui + 4M3 + Ui) + . . . =3= \Kua + 4Ml + 2% + 4M3 + 2M 4 + . . . + 2« m _ 2 + 4« m -l + «m). This is Simpson's rule. (ii) Similarly, if m is a multiple of 3, the repeated application of Simpson's second formula gives Simpson's second rule A =a §/j(mo + 3Ml + 3% + 2tt 3 + 3«4 + . . . + 3"m_4 + 2M m _ 3 + 3"m-2 + 3«m-l + U m ). (iii) If mid-ordinates are given, and m is a multiple of 3, the repeated application of the formula of § 55 will give A =0= p(3«j + 2M ? + 3M| + 3 « 5 + . . . + 2 « m _ | + 31^). 69. The formulae become complicated when the number of strips in each of the minor trapezettes is large. The method is then modified by replacing B by an expression which gives the areas of the sub- stituted figures approximately. This introduces a further inaccuracy ; but this latter may be negligible in comparison with the main in- accuracies already involved (cf. § 20 (iii)). Suppose, for instance, that m = 6, and that we consider the trapezette as a whole; the data being the bounding ordinates. Since there are seven of these, v will be of degree 6 in x; and we shall have (§ 54 (i)) B =6fc(!/ 3 + l&h), + U&*v 3 + fji&ov,) =6fe(«3+t« 2 M3+H« 4 «3+»V!r8 8 «3). If we replace sVjS'mj in this expression by ffis&ut, the method of § 68 gives A — M («o + 5«i + «2 + 6« 3 + u* + 5«6 + «0 ; the expression on the right-hand side being an approximate expres- sion for B, and differing from it only by j1 ? H8 6 m 3 . This is Weddle's rule. If m is a multiple of 6, we can obtain an expression for A by applying the rule to each group of six strips. 70. Some of the formulae obtained by the above methods can be expressed more simply in terms of chordal or tangential areas taken in various ways. Consider, for example, Simpson's rule (§68 (i)). The expression for A can be written in the form IKitto + «1+ «2 + «3 + . . . + «m_2+ ttm-1 + 5«m) -P(|«0+ lh + «4 + . . . + Um-2 + iUm). Now, if p is any factor of m, there is a series of equidistant ordinates Uo, u p , u %p , ... w m _ p , 14; and the chordal area as determined by these ordinates is M(i«0 + U p + Ulp + . . . . + U m - P + Jttm). which may be denoted by C„. With this notation, the area as given by Simpson's rule may be written in the form tCi — id or Ci + J(Ci — Cj). The following are some examples of formulae of this kind, in terms of chordal areas. (i) m a multiple of 2 (Simpson's rule). A^j^d-C^C, + KC1-CO. (ii) m a multiple of 3 (Simpson's second rule). A =0= K9C1 - C) =2= C, + i(d - C,). (iii) m a multiple of 4. A =0= MHCi - 2od+d) =2= Ci-HCd - C.) - MCi - d). (iv) m a multiple of 6 (Weddle's rule, or its repeated application). A=S=A(i5Ci-6C,-|-C,)=Q=d +KCi - d) -A(d - d). (v) m a multiple of 12. A =2= 3 l t (56Ci - 28C, + 8d - d) =ac,+i(C, - d) - l(C - CO + A(C, - CO. There are similar formulae in terms of the tangential areas Ti, T 2 , T,. Thus (iii) of § 68 may be written A =0= K9T1 - T 3 ). 71. The general method of constructing the formulae of § 70 for chordal areas is that, if p, q, r, . . . are k of the factors (including 1) of m, we take A^Pd+Qd+RC,. + . . ., where P, Q, R, . . . satisfy the k equations P + Q + R + ... Pp 2 + Q PpUc-2 _|_ Q g 2*-2 + Rr 2*-2 + . . . =0. The last k — 1 of these equations give i/P : i/Q : i/R : . . . = p*(p - f){p* - r *) . . . _ -tftf-fM-r*) ... : r\r* - p*)(r* - 2 2 ) ...:.. . Combining this with the first equation, we obtain the values of P, Q, R, • • • The same method applies for tangential areas, by taking A =2= PT P + QT g + RT r + • . . provided that p, q, r, . . . are odd numbers. 72. The justification of the above methods lies in certain properties of the series of successive differences of u. The fundamental assumption is that each group of strips of the trapezette may be replaced by a figure for which differences of u, above those of a certain order, vanish (§ 54). The legitimacy of this assumption, and of the further assumption which enables the area of the new figure to be expressed by an approximate formula instead of by an exact formula, must be verified in every case by reference to the actual differences. 73. Correction by means of Extreme Ordinates. — The preceding methods, though apparently simple, are open tq various objections in practice, such as the following: (i) The assignment of different coefficients of different ordinates, and even the selection of ordinates for the purpose of finding d, C 8 , &c. (§ 70), is troublesome, (ii) This assignment of different coefficients means that different weights are given to different ordinates; and the relative weights may not agree with the relative accuracies of measurement, (iii) Different formulae have to be adopted for different values of m ; the method is therefore unsuitable for the construction of a table giving successive values of the area up to successive ordinates. (iv) In order to find what formula may be applied, it is necessary to take the successive differences of u; and it is then just as easy, in most cases, to use a formula which directly involves these differences and therefore shows the degree of accuracy of the approximation. The alternative method, therefore, consists in taking a simple- formula, such as the trapezoidal rule, and correcting it to suit the mutual relations of the differences. 74. To illustrate the method, suppose that we use the chordal area Ci, and that the trapezette is in fact parabolic. The difference between Ci and the true area is made up of a series of areas bounded by chords and arcs; this difference becoming less as we subdivide the figure into a greater number of strips. The fact that Ci does not give the true area is due to the fact that in passing from one extremity of the top of any strip to the other extremity -the tangent to the trapezette changes its direction. We have therefore in the first place to see whether the difference can be expressed in terms of the directions of the tangents. Let KABL (fig. 10) be one of the strips, of breadth h. Draw the tangents at A and B, meeting at T; and through T draw a line parallel to KA and LB, meeting the arc AB in C and the chord AB in V. Draw AD and BE perpendicular to this line, and DF and TG perpendicular to LB. _ Then AD=EB=P, and the triangles K AVD and BVE are equal. The area of the trapezette is less (in fig. 10) than the area of the trapezium KABL by two-thirds of the area of the triangle ATB (§34). This latter area is ABTE - AATD = ABTG-AATD = |fe 2 tan GTB - Jft* tan DAT. Hence, if the angle which the tangent at the extremity of the ordinate u e makes with the axis of * is denoted by \j/ 9 , we have area from «o to «i = |fe(«o + «i) — iV& 2 (tan \pi — tan ifo), «i to U2 = %h(ui + ui) — i> 2 *(tan ^ 2 - tan ^1), ttm-i to u m = |fe(«m_i + u m ) — iV/j 2 (tan i/, m — tan ^m_i) ; and thence, by summation, A = Ci — T yt 2 (tan^ m — tan 1^0). This, in the notation of §§ 46 and 54, may be written A=ci+[-^v]*:* r . Since h = H/m, the inaccuracy in taking Ci as the area varies as 1/m 2 . It might be shown in the same way that A = T!+^ 2 (tan * B - tan *„) = T, + [&*'«']* = ;£•. 75. The above formulae apply only to a parabolic trapezette Their generalization is given by the Euler-Maclaurin formula i+4 MENSURATION Xo ' A= /*r udx = Ci + [ ~ A * v + rivw - ™hi*M + Tnrhira A 8 «™ - • • ■ ] * Z % and an analogous formula (which may be obtained by substituting \h and C, for h and Ci in the above and then expressing Ti as 2C 4 -d) J A -jlydx = Ti + [a*V - iAu* V'+Trfi TO A 6 «" - To apply these, the differential coefficients have to be expressed in terms of differences. 76 If we know not only the ordinates «o, «i, or «., «j, but also a sufficient number of the ordinates obtained by continuing the series outside the trapezette, at both extremities, we can use central-difference formulae, which are by far the most convenient. The formulae of § 75 give A -C.+A [- A**»+tWi n»'«-iitt,|rf , «+,AWbii«'ii-. .. ] *"£\ 77. If we do not know values of « outside the figure, we must use advancing or receding differences. The formulae usually employed are A = C 1 +A|^AMo-AA !i Wo+^,A 3 «(,- 1 | Tr A%o+ • • • +^A'u m -AA' 2 « m +^jA' 3 « m - T |T [ A'«M ra + . . . J , A = Ti+A J - ^Amj + j"jA*«} - W&A'mj + jVftA^} - . . . -^iA'm ot _J+ AA' s «^j - ,%4"(M + ^^A' 4 « m -l - ... \ , . have the usual meaning (Amo = «i— mo, A 2 mo = and A', A' 2 , . . . denote differences read back- A'ttm=«m_i— Um, A' 2 « m = «m- 2 — 2Mm_i + Mm, . . . where A, A 2 , . . A«i — Ako ), wards, so that The calculation of the expressions in brackets may be simplified by taking the pairs in terms from the outside; i.e. by finding the successive differences of Ho + «m, #1 + «m-i, . . ., or of Mj + Km-$, Mj+K«-}, ... An alternative method, which is in some ways preferable, is to complete the table of differences by repeating the differences of the highest order that will be taken into account (see Interpolation), and then to use central-difference formulae. 78. In order to find the corrections in respect of the terms shown in square brackets in the formulae of § 75, certain ordinates other than these used for Ci or Ti are sometimes found specially. Par- mentier's rule, for instance, assumes that in addition to **ji **j . . . » "m-n we know «o and «„; and u i — «o and « m — «m-j are taken -1' These methods are to be equal to $hu't> and \hu' m respectively, not tc be recommended except in special cases. 79. By replacing h in § 75 by 2A, 3A, . . . and eliminating A 2 u', h*u'", . . . , we obtain exact formulae corresponding to the ap- proximate formulae of § 70. The following are the results (for the formulae involving chordal areas), given in terms of differential coefficients and of central differences. They are not so convenient as the formulae of § 76, but they serve to indicate the degree of accuracy of the approximate formulae. The expressions in square brackets are in each case to be taken as relating to the extreme values x = xo and x = x m , as in §§ 75 and 76. (i) A = H4C.-C 2 )-H-T^AV''-K^A°»v_ Tliire ; l SuvH+ . . . ] = K4Ci--C,)+ ; 2 =a P2 — ,^a 2 po 1>3=2:P3 — kh 2 pi mJlPi — iWpz+sfohipo !> 6 =&p 6 -P 2 P3+i 7 3A 4 Pl where po (or m>) is the total area A3 + Aj + . . . + Am-} ; the general expression being *' p 1 ■ ""-P"- Xl 2 ! (£- 2 ) ! fe2p? - 2 +Xi i!(i-i)! *Vj-4- .... where Ni=A> *2=dhr> x 3=xirk. ^4 = 8*^0-. ^sWirV. ... The establishment of these formulae involves the use of the integral calculus. The position of the central ordinate is given by x — vi/pv, and therefore is given approximately by x—pi/po. To find the moments with regard to the central ordinate, we must use this approximate value, and transform by means of the formulae given in § 32. This can be done either before cr after the above corrections are made. If the transformation is made first, and if the resulting raw moments with regard to the (approximate) central ordinate are o, ?r 2 , ir a , . . . , the true moments m, /»2, M3> • ■ • with regard to the central ordinate are given by ui = o p,4=2=JT4 — Wn+iitsWpo 83. These results may be extended to the calculation of an expres- sion of the form ( ' m u{x)dx, where 4>(x) is a definite function of *, J Xq and the conditions with regard to u are the same as in § 82. (i) If (x) is an explicit function of x, we have Jx where J^W*(*)&fc^K*i)+Ai*(*j)+ ■ • • + Am-j^^m-j), *(*)==*(*) -|jAV(*) +%h V"(*)- the coefficients Xi, X 2 , having the values given in § 82. (ii) If {x) is not given explicitly, but is tabulated for the values . . Xi, X3, . . . of x, the formula of (i) applies, provided we take *(*)=(! -AS 2 + ? | T 8*- r £nr««+ • • •)*(*)• The formulae can be adapted to the case in which (x) is tabulated for x = xo, xi, . . . -,^ 84. In cases other than those described in § 82, the pth moment with regard to the axis of u is given by Vp^xPrnA-pSp-.!, where A is the total area of the original trapezette, and Sj^i is the area of a trapezette whose ordinates at successive distances h, beginning and ending with the bounding ordinates, are o, *i*->Ai, x^-HAi+M), ■ ■ ■ x p m t{(Ai+ Aj+ • • • + Am_f), x'-iA. The value of Sp_i has to be found by a quadrature-formula. The generalized formula is ff£u4>(x)dx = A(x m ) - T, MENSURATION 145 where T is the area of a trapezette whose ordinates at successive distances h are o, Ai' (*i), (Aj+Ajto'fo). • . • (A5+A3+ . . . + A„_3)'(xm); the accents denoting the first differential coefficient. 85. Volume and Moments of a Briquette. — The application of the methods of §§ 75-79 to calculation of the volume of a briquette leads to complicated formulae. If the conditions are such that the methods of § 61 cannot be used, „«r are undesirable as giving too much weight to particular ordinates, it is best to proceed in the manner indicated at the end of § 48 ; i.e. to find the areas of one set of parallel sections, and treat these as the ordinates of a trapezette whose area will be the volume of the briquette. 86. The formulae of § 82 can be extended to the case of a briquette whose top has close contact with the base all along its boundary; the data being the volumes of the minor briquettes formed by the planes * = *o, x — xi, . . . and y = yo, y=°yi, • . . The method of constructing the formulae is explained in § 62. If we write S-o^SlUPyl*"^**^' we first calculate the raw values (.x, y)dx dy = | 6 / 5 udxd y ■ ( b - 2) The second and third expressions on the right-hand side represent areas of trapezettes, which can be calculated from the data; and the fourth expression represents the volume of a briquette, to be calculated in the same way as R above. 88. Cases of Failure. — When the sequence of differences is not such as to enable any of the foregoing methods to be applied, it is some- times possible to amplify the data by measurement of intermediate ordinates, and then apply a suitable method to the amplified series. There is, however, a certain class of cases in which no subdivision of intervals will produce a good result ; viz. cases in which the top of the figure is, at one extremity (or one part of its boundary), at right angles to the base. The Euler-Maclaurin formula (§ 75) assumes that the bounding values of «', «'", . . . are not infinite; this condition is not satisfied in the cases here considered. It is also clearly impossible to express u as an algebraical function of * and y if some value of du/dx or dujdy is to be infinite. No completely satisfactory methods have been devised for dealing with these cases. One method is to construct a table for interpola- tion of * in terms of u, and from this table to calculate values of x corresponding to values of u, proceeding by equal intervals; a quadrature-formula can then be applied. Suppose, for instance, that we require the area of the trapezette ABL in fig. 11; the curve being at right angles to the base AL at A. If QD is the bounding ordinate of one of the component strips, we can calculate the area of QDBL in the ordinary way. The data for the area AI>Q are a series of values of « corresponding to equidifferent values of x; if we denote by y the distance of a point Fig. 11. on the arc AD from QD, we can from the series of values of w construct a series of values of y corresponding to equidifferent values of u, and thus find the area of ADQ, treating QD as the base. The process, however, is troublesome. 89. Examples of Applications. — The following are some examples of cases in which the above methods may be applied to the calcula- tion of areas and integrals. (i) Construction of Mathematical Tables. — Even where u is an explicit function of x, so that j x udx may be expressed in terms 'of'*, it is often more convenient, for construction of a table of values of such an integral, to use finite-difference formulae. The formula of § 76 may (see Differences, Calculus of) be written /x udx = h .jucrM + h( — -^ ftSu + fVj m^ 3 w — . . .) = n= JH/V 3 = =*= -2887^! from the middle section, where H is the total internal length; and their arithmetic mean is taken to be the mean section of the cask. Allowance must of course be made for the thickness of the wood. 91. Certain approximate formulae for the length of an arc of a circle are obtained by methods similar to those of §§ 71 and 79. Let a be the radius of a circle, and 6 (circular measure) the un- known angle subtended by an arc. Then, if we divide 6 into m equal parts, and Li denotes the sum of the corresponding chords, so that Li = 2ma sin (f)/2m), the true length of the arc is Li + 00 \ !n — Tt + ,,.(, where 4>~8J2m. Similarly, if L 2 repre- sents the sum of the chords when m (assumed even) is replaced by \m, we have an expression involving L2 and 20. The method of § 71 then shows that, by taking J(4Li — L2) as the value of the arc, we get rid of terms in 2 . If we use Ci to represent the chord of the whole arc, ci the chord of half the arc, and c t the chord of one N quarter of the arc, then corresponding to (i) and (iii) of § 70 or § 79 we have $(8cz— Ci) and a 1 s(256£4— 40C2-K1) as approximations to the length of the arc. The first of these is Huygens's rule. References. — For applications of the prismoidal formula, see Alfred Lodge, Mensuration for Senior Students (1895). Other works on elementary mensuration are G. T. Chivers, Elementary Mensura- tion (1904) ; R. W. K. Edwards, Elementary Plane and Solid Mensura- tion (1902); William H. Jackson, Elementary Solid Geometry (1907); P. A. Lambert, Computation and Mensuration (1907). A. E. Pier- point's Mensuration Formulae (1902) is a handy collection. Rules for calculation of areas are also given in such works as F. Castle, Manual of Practical Mathematics (1903) ; F. C. Clarke, Practical 1 Mathematics (1907) ; C. T. Millis, Technical Arithmetic and Geometry 146 MENTAWI— MENZEL, A. F. E. VON ('9°3)- F° r examples of measurement of areas by geometrical construction, see G. C. Turner, Graphics applied to Arithmetic, Mensuration and Statics (1907). Discussions of the approximate calculation of definite integrals will be found in works on the in- finitesimal calculus; see e.g. E. Goursat, A Course in Mathematical Analysis (1905; trans, by E. R. Hedrick). For the methods involv- ing finite differences, see references under Differences, Calculus of; and Interpolation. On calculation of moments of graphs, see W. P. Elderton, Frequency- Curves and Correlation (1906) ; as to the formulae of §82, see also Biomeirika, v. 450. For mechanical methods of calculating areas and moments see Calculating Machines. (W. F. Sh.) MENTAWI, a chain of islands in the Dutch East Indies, off the west coast of Sumatra, between i° and 3 30' S. There are twenty-one islands in all, of which the majority lie close to or between the four largest — Siberut, Sikaban or Sipora, North Pageh and South Pageh. The two last (also called Pagi or Poggy) are sometimes termed the Nassau Islands. The total land area is 1224 sq. m. The islands are included in the admini- stration of Padang, Sumatra. They are apparently volcanic. Coral reefs lie off the coasts and render them difficult of access. The natives in language and customs present affinities with some Polynesians, and have been held to be a survival of the eastward immigration of people of Caucasian stock which took place before those which established the " pre-Malay " peoples (such as the Dyaks and Battas) in the Malay Archipelago. The islands produce some coco-nuts "sago, trepang and timber. MENTEITH, or Monteith, a district of south Perthshire, Scotland, roughly comprising the territory between the Teith and the Forth. Formerly it was a stewartry and gave the title to an earldom. The title was first held by Gilchrist, a Celtic chief ennobled by Malcolm IV., and passed successively to Walter Comyn (d. 1258), to a branch of the Stewarts, and finally to the Grahams, becoming extinct in 1694. The lake of Menteith, situated 2% m. S. of Loch Vennachar measures 13 m. long by 1 m. broad, and contains three islands. On Inchmahome (Gaelic, " the Isle of Rest") are the ruins of an Augustinian priory founded in 1238 by Walter Comyn. It is Early English, with an ornate western doorway. The island was the residence of Queen Mary, when a child of five, for a few months before her departure to France in 1548. On Inch Talla stands the ruined tower of the earls of Menteith, dating from 1428. The village of Port of Monteith (pop. of parish, 1088), on the north shore of the lake, is 3 j m. north by west of the station of the same name on the North British Railway Company's Forth & Clyde line. MENTONE (Fr. Menton), a town in the department of the Alpes Maritimes in south-east France, situated on the shore of the Mediterranean, about 15 m. by rail E. of Nice. Pop. (1901), 9944. It is built in the form of an amphitheatre on a rocky promontory, which divides its semicircular bay into two portions. The main town is composed of two parts. Below, along the sea- shore, is the town of hotels and foreigners, while above, and inaccessible to wheeled vehicles, is that of the native Mentonese, with steep, narrow and dark streets, clinging to the mountain side around the strong castle which was once its protection against pirates. In the old town is the church of St Michel, rebuilt in great part since an earthquake in 1887, while below, in the principal street, the Corniche road, is the monument set up in 1896 to commemorate the union (in i860) of Men tone with France. East of the main town is the suburb of Garavan, sheltered by cliffs, and filled with hotels. A mile and a half far- ther on is the Pont St Louis, which marks the frontier between France and Italy, while beyond it Sir Thomas Hanbury's villa at La Murtola is soon reached, with its marvellous gardens of 250 acres. West of the main town more hotels and villas are scattered along the coast towards Cap Martin. This is a pine- covered promontory which shelters the Bay of Mentone on the west, and is crowned by a great hotel, not far from which is the villa of the ex-empress Eugenie. Facing south-east, and sheltered on the north and west by mountains, the Bay of Mentone has a delicious climate and is frequented by invalids. The mean for the year is 6i° F., while that for the winter is 7 2° in the sun, and 55° in the shade. Frost occurs on the average only once in ten years. Besides the charms of its climate Mentone offers those of an almost tropical vegetation. Lemon-trees, olive- trees and pines rise in successive stages on surrounding slopes. The district produces 40,000,000 lemons yearly, and this is its principal natural wealth. In the east bay is the harbour, con- structed in 1890. It has a depth of about 26 ft., and is sheltered by a jetty about 400 yds. in length. The harbour is frequented by pleasure yachts and a few coasting vesssls- Mentone was probably the Lumone of the Itineraries, but no Roman remains exist. After having belonged to the counts of Ventimiglia and a noble Genoese family, it was purchased about the middle of the 14th century by the Grimaldis, lords of Monaco. During the First Republic and the First Empire it belonged to France, but in 1815 it reverted to the prince of Monaco, who subjected it to such exactions that in 1848 its inhabitants proclaimed the town (with Roquebrune on the west) independent, under the protection of Sardinia. In i860 both Mentone and Roquebrune were purchased by France from the prince of Monaco, and added to the department of the Alpes Maritimes then formed out of the county of Nice, ceded the same year to France by Sardinia. MENTOR, in Greek legend, the son of Alcimus and the faithful friend of Odysseus. During the absence of the latter, Mentor was entrusted with the care of his household and the guardian- ship of his son Telemachus. The word " mentor " is now used in the sense of a wise and trustworthy adviser, a meaning probably connected with the etymology of the name, from the root mon-, seen, in Lat. monere, to advise, monitor, adviser. The New English Dictionary points out that the transferred use is due less to Homer's Odyssey than to Fenelon's TeUmaque, in which Mentor is a somewhat prominent character. MENTOR OF RHODES, brother of Memnon (5.11.), a Greek condottiere who appears first in the service of the rebellious satrap Artabazus of Phrygia in 363. When Artabazus had rebelled a second time and was in 353 forced to flee with Memnon into Macedonia, Mentor entered the service of the Egyptian king Nectanebus, and was sent by him with a body of Greek mercenaries to support the rebellious king Tennes (Tabnit) of Sidon against Artaxerxes III. But Tennes and Mentor betrayed the besieged town to the Persians (344 B.C.). Tennes was killed after his treason, but Mentor gained the favour of the king. It was due largely to him that Egypt was conquered in 343 (Diod. xvi. 45 sqq.). He now closely allied himself with the eunuch Bagoas (q.v.), the all-powerful vizier of Artaxerxes III. He was appointed general in Asia Minor, and with the help of Artabazus and Memnon, whose pardon and recall he obtained from the king, subdued the rebels and local dynasts. The most famous among them was Hermias of Atarneus, the protector of Aristotle, who had become master of some towns of Aeolis and Troas. By treachery he made him prisoner and occupied his towns (342 B.C.) ; Hermias was executed by order of the king (Diod. xvi. 52; Polyaen. vi. 48; pseudo-Arist. Oecon. ii. 27; Strabo xiii. 610; Didymus' commentary on Demosthenes Phil. 4, p. 6; cf. Diog. Laert. vi. 9). Shortly afterwards Mentor died, and was succeeded by his brother Memnon. His son Thymondas commanded in the naval war against Alexander and at Issus (Arrian ii. 2, 1; 13, 2). (Ed. M.) MENZEL, ADOLPH FRIEDRICH ERDMANN VON (1815- 1905), German artist, was born at Breslau on the 8th of December 18 1 5. His father was at the head of a school for girls, and intended to educate his son as a professor; but he would not thwart his taste for art. Left an orphan in 1832, Menzel had to maintain his family. In 1833 Sachse of Berlin published his first work, an album of pen-and-ink drawings reproduced on stone, to illustrate Goethe's little poem, " Kiinstlers ErdenwallenJ' He executed lithographs in the same manner to illustrate* Denkwiirdigkeiten aus der brandenburgisch-preussischen Geschichte, pp. 834-836; " The Five Senses " and " The Prayer," as well as diplomas for various corporations and societies. From 1839 to 1842 he produced 400 drawings, reviving at the same time the technique of engraving on wood, to illustrate the Geschichte Friedrichs des Grossen (" History of Frederick the Great ") by Franz Kugler. He subsequently brought out Friedrichs des Grossen Artnee in ihrer Unijormirung (" The Uniforms of the Army under Frederick the Great "), Soldaten Friedrichs des Grossen (" The Soldiers of Frederick the Great ") ; and finally, by MENZEL, W.— MEQUINEZ order of the king Frederick William IV., he illustrated the works of Frederick the Great, Illustrationen zu den Werken Friedrichs des Grossen (1843-1849). By these works Menzel established his claim to be considered one of the first, if not actually the first, of the illustrators of his day in his own line. Meanwhile Menzel had set himself to study unaided the art of painting, and he soon produced a great number and variety of pictures, always showing keen observation and honest workman- ship— subjects dealing with the lif e and achievements of Frederick the Great, and scenes of everyday life, such as " In the Tuileries," " The Ball Supper," and " At Confession." Among the most important of these works are " The Forge " (1875) and " The Market-place at Verona." Invited to paint " The Coronation of William I. at Koenigsberg," he produced an exact representation of the ceremony without regard to the traditions of official painting. Menzel died at Berlin on the oth of February 1905. In Germany he received many honours, and was the first painter to be given the order of the Black Eagle. MENZEL, WOLFGANG (1798-1873), German poet, critic and literary historian, was born on the 21st of June 1798, at Walden- burg in Silesia, studied at Breslau, Jena and Bonn, and after living for some time in Aarau and Heidelberg finally settled in Stuttgart, where, from 1830 to 1838, he had a seat in the Wiirt- temberg Diet. His first work, a clever and original volume of poems, entitled Streckverse (Heidelberg, 1823), was followed in 1824-1825 by a popular Geschichte der Deutschen in three volumes and in 1829 and 1830 by Rubezahl and Narcissus, the dramatized fairy-stories upon which his reputation as a poet chiefly rests. In 1851 he published the romance of Furore, a lively picture of the period of the Thirty Years' War; his other writings include Geschichte Europas, 1789-1815 (2 vols. Stuttgart, 1853), and histories of the German War of 1866 and of the Franco-German War of 1870-71. From 1826 to 1848 Menzel edited a " Litera- turblatt " in connexion with the Morgenblatt; in the latter year he transferred his allegiance from the Liberal to the Conservative party, and in 1852 his " Literaturblatt " was revived in that interest. In 1866 his political sympathies again changed, and he opposed the " particularism " of the Prussian " junkers " and the anti-unionism of south Germany. He died on the 23rd of April 1873 at Stuttgart. His library of 18,000 volumes was afterwards acquired for the university of Strassburg. MENZELINSK, a town of eastern Russia, in the government of Ufa, 142 m. N.W. of the town of Ufa, and 10 m. from the left bank of the Kama. Pop. (1897), 7542. Its fair is one of the most important in the southern Ural region for cattle, hides, furs, grain, tea, manufactured articles, crockery, &c, which are sold to the annual value of £500,000. The town was founded in 1584. MEPHISTOPHELES, 1 in the Faust legend, the name of the evil spirit in return for whose assistance Faust signs away his soul. The origin of the conception and name of Mephistopheles has been the subject of much learned debate. In Dr Fausts Hbllenzwang " Mephistophiel " is one of the seven great princes of hell; " he stands under the planet Jupiter, his regent is named Zadkiel, an enthroned angel of the holy Jehovah . . .; his form is firstly that of a fiery bear, the other and fairer appearance is as of a little man with a black cape and a bald head." The origin of the idea of Mephistopheles in Faust's mind is thus clear. He was one of the evil demons of the seven planets, the Maskim of the ancient Akkadian religion, a conception transmitted through the Chaldeans, the Babylonians and the Jewish Kabbala to medieval and modern astrologers and magicians. This fact suggests a plausible theory of the origin of the name. In the ancient Mesopotamian religion the Intelligence of Jupiter was Marduk, " the lord of light," whose antithesis was accordingly conceived as the lord of darkness. Mephistopheles, then (or rather Mephostophiles, as the Faust-books spell the name) is " he who does not love light "(Gr./iiJ, #os, <#Xjj S ). 2 »/ J i}- the f9, usib ^ ch of r 587 it is spelt Miphostophiles; by Marlowe Mephistophihs; by Shakespeare {Merry Wives of Windsor, Act i) Mephostophilus. The form Mephistopheles adopted by Goethe first appears in the version des Christlich Meinenden, c. 1712 * Kiesewetter, p. 163. To Schroer this derivation seems improb- able, and he appears to prefer that from Hebrew Mephiz, destroyer 147 To Faust himself, somnambulist and medium, Mephistopheles had— according to Kiesewetter— a real existence: he was " the objectivation of the transcendental subject of Faust," an experi- ence familiar in dreams and, more especially, in the visions of mediums and clairvoyants. He was thus a " familiar spirit," akin to the " daemon " of Socrates; and if he was also half the devil of theology, half the kobold of old German myth, this was only because such " objectivations " are apt to clothe themselves in forms borrowed from the common stock of ideas current at the time when the seer lives; and Faust lived in an age obsessed with the fear of the devil, and by no means sceptical of the existence of kobolds. It is suggested, then, in the light of modern psychical research, that Mephistopheles, though (as the Faust-books record) invisible to any one else, was visible enough to Faust himself and to Wagner, the famulus who shared his somnambu- listic experiences. He was simply Faust's " other self," appear- ing m various guises— as a bear, as a little bald man, as a monk, as an invisible presence ringing a bell— but always recognizable as the same " familiar." The Mephostophiles of the Faust-books and the puppet plavs passed withhtt e or no modification into literature as the Mephisto- phihs of Marlowe s Faustus. Mephistophihs has the kobold qualities: he not only waits upon Faustus arid provides him with sumptuous fare ; he indulges in horse-play and is addicted to practical joking of a homely kind. He is, however, also the devil, as the age ot the Reformation conceived him: a fallen angel who has not for- gotten the splendour of his first estate, and who pictures to Faust the glories of heaven, in order to accentuate the horrors of the hell to which he triumphantly drags him. Goethe's Mephistopheles is altogether another conception. Some of the traditional qualities are indeed preserved: the practical joke, for instance, in the scene in Auerbach s Keller shows that he has not altogether shed his character as kobold; and, like the planet-spirits of the old magic ^f appears alternately in animal and human shape. He is also identified with the devil; thus, in accordance with old German tradi- tion he is dressed as a nobleman (ein edler Junker), all in red, with a little cape of stiff silk, a cock's feather in his hat, and a long pointed sword; at the witches' Sabbath on the Brocken he is hailed aV" the knight with the horse's hoof," and Sybel in Auerbach's Keller is not too drunk not to notice that he limps. But his limp is the only indication that he is Lucifer fallen from heaven. He could not, like Marlowe s Mephistophihs or Milton's Satan, regretfully paint the glories of the height from which he has been hurled; for he denies the distinction between high and low, since " everything that comes into being deserves to be destroyed." " He is, in short, not the devil 01 Christian orthodoxy, a spirit conscious of the good against which he is in revolt, but akin to the Evil Principle of the older dualistic systems with their conception of the eternal antagonism between good and evil, light and darkness, creation and destruction. (See *aust.) (W.AP.) MEPPEL, a town in the province of Drente, Holland, i6£ m. by rail N. by E. of Zwolle. Pop. (1903), 10,470. It is favourably situated at the confluence of a number of canals and rivers which communicate hence with the Zuider Zee by the Meppeler Diep, and rose rapidly into prominence in the 19th century. The chief business is in butter, eggs, cattle and pigs, while bleaching, dyeing and shipbuilding are also carried on here. MEQUINEZ (the Spanish form of the Arabic Miknasa), a city of Morocco, situated 1600 ft. above the sea, about 70 m from the west coast and 36 m. W.S.W. of Fez, on the road to Rabat in 33 56' N., 5 50' W. The town wall with its four-cornered towers is pierced by nine gates, one, the Bab Bardain, with fine tile-work. A lower wall of wider circuit protects the luxuriant gardens in the outskirts. Mequinez at a distance appears a city of palaces, but it possesses few buildings of any note except the palace and the mosque of Mulai Ismail, which serves as the royal burying-place. The palace, founded in 1634, was described io 1821 by John Windus in his Journey to Mequinez (London 1825) as ' about 4 m. in circumference, the whole building exceeding massy, and the walls in every part very thick; the outward one about a mile long and 25 ft. thick." The interior is composed of oblong court-yards surrounded by buildings and arcades. These buildings are more or less square with pyramidal roofs ornamented outside with green glazed tiles, and inside with and Itophel, liar (Faust, ed. 1886, i. 25), which is certainly supported by the fact that almost all the names of devils in the magic-books , TVi centur y ar e derived from the Hebrew. Alles was entsteht ist werth dass es zu Grunde geht. 148 MERAN— MERCANTILE SYSTEM richly carved and painted woodwork in Mauresque style. The walls are tiled to a height of 4 or 5 ft., and above they are finished in plaster, whitewashed or carved into filigree work. The popu- lation numbers being between thirty and forty thousand. Idrisi, writing in a.d. iioo, calls the place Takarart, and describes it as an ordinary citadel, from which the town gradually developed, taking its name from the Miknasa Berbers. MERAN, the chief town of the administrative district of the same name in the Austrian province of the Tirol, 20 m. by rail N.W. of Botzen.on the Brenner line, while the Vintschgau railway connects it with Mais, 37 m. N.W. It is the chief town in the upper Adige valley, a region which bears the special name of the Vintschgau, and is on the high road either to Landeck and the Lower Engadine by the Reschen Scheideck Pass (4902 ft.), or more directly to the Lower Engadine by the Minister valley and the Ofen Pass (7071 ft.). In 1900 Meran had 9284 inhabitants (or, with the neighbouring villages of Untermais and Obermais, 13,201), mainly German-speaking and Romanist. The town is picturesquely situated, at a height of 1001 ft., at the foot of the vine-clad Kiichelberg, and on the right bank of the Passer River, just above its junction with the Adige or Etsch. Meran proper consists mainly of one long narrow street, the Laubengasse, flanked by covered arcades, but the name is often used to include several adjacent villages, Untermais and Obermais being on the left bank of the Passer, while Gratsch is on its right bank and north-west of the main town. The most noteworthy buildings are the parish church (14th to 15th centuries) and the old residence (15th century) of the counts of the Tirol. Meran is best known as a much -frequented resort for consumptive patients, for whom it is well suited by reason of the purity of the air and the compara- tive immunity of the place from wind and rain in the winter. It is also visited in spring for the whey cure and in autumn for the grape cure. To the north-west, on the Kiichelberg, is the half-ruined castle of Tirol (2096 ft.), the original seat of the family which gave its name to the county. Meran may have been built on the site of a Roman settlement, but is first mentioned in 857. From the 12th century to about 1420 it was the capital of the ever-extending land named after it Tirol, but then had to give way to Innsbruck, while the building of the Brenner railway (1864-1867) and the rise of Botzen have decreased its commercial importance. (W. A. B. C.) MERBECK (or Marbeck), JOHN (d. c. 1585), English theo- logical writer and musician, was organist of St George's, Windsor, about 1540. Four years later he was convicted of heresy and sentenced to the stake, but received a pardon owing to the intervention of Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, though Gardiner had himself censured Merbeck for compiling an English Con- cordance of the Bible. This work, the first of its kind in English, was published in 1550 with a dedication to Edward VI. In the same year Merbeck published his annotated Book of Common Prayer, intended to provide for musical uniformity in the use of the First Prayer Book of Edward VI., which was several times reprinted in the 19th century. Merbeck wrote several devo- tional and controversial works of a strongly Calvinistic character, and a number of his musical compositions are preserved in manu- script in the British Museum, and at Oxford and Cambridge. He died, probably while still organist at Windsor, about 1585. His son, Roger Merbeck (1536-1605), a noted classical scholar, was appointed public orator in the university of Oxford in 1564, and in 1565 became a canon of Christ Church and was elected provost of Oriel; he left Oxford on account of an unfortunate marriage, and took to medicine as a profession, becoming the first registrar of the College of Physicians in London, and chief physician to Queen Elizabeth. MERCADIER (d. 1200), French warrior of the 12th century, and chief of freebooters in the service of Richard I. of England. In 1 183 he operated for Richard, then duke of Aquitaine, in the Limousin and the Angoumois, taking castles and laying waste the country. We know nothing of him during the ten years 1184-1194, but after Richard's return from Palestine, Mercadier accompanied him everywhere, travelling and fighting by his side. Richard eulogized Mercadier's exploits in his letters, and gave him the estates left by Ademar de Bainac, who died without heirs about 1190. During the various wars between Richard and Philip Augustus of France, Mercadier fought successively in Berry, Normandy, Flanders and Brittany. When Richard was mortally wounded at the siege of Chalus in March 1199, Mercadier avenged him by hanging the defenders of the chateau and flaying the crossbowman who had shot the king. Mercadier then entered the service of John, and ravaged Gascony. On Easter Monday, the 10th of April 1 200, he was assassinated while on a visit to Bordeaux to pay his respects to Eleanor of Aquitaine, who was bringing from Spain Blanche of Castile. His murderer was an agent of Brandin, another freebooter in the service of John. See Geraud, Mercadier, in Bibliotheque de 1'Ecole des Chartes, 1st series, t. iii., pp. 417-443. MERCANTILE (or Commercial) AGENCIES, the name given in America to organizations designed to collect, record and distribute to regular clients information relative to the standing of commercial firms. In Great Britain and some European coun- tries trade protective societies, composed of merchants and trades- men, are formed for the promotion of trade, and members ex- change information regarding the standing of business houses. These societies had their origin in the associations formed in the middle of the 19th century for the purpose of disseminating information regarding bankruptcies, assignments and bills of sale. The mercantile agency in the United States is a much more comprehensive organization. It came into existence after the financial crisis of 1837. Trade in the United States had become scattered over a wide territory. Communication was slow, and the town merchant was without adequate information as to the standing of many business men seeking credit. Un- doubtedly the severity of the collapse of 1837 was due in part to the insufficiency of this information. New York merchants, who had suffered so severely, determined to organize a head- quarters where reports regarding the standing of customers could be exchanged. Lewis Tappan (1788-1873), founder of the Journal of Commerce (1828) and a prominent anti-slavery leader, undertook the work, and established in New York, in 1841, the Mercantile Agency, the first organization of its kind. The system has been wonderfully developed and extended since. MERCANTILE SYSTEM, the name given to the economic policy which developed in Europe at the close of the middle ages. The doctrine of the mercantile system, stated in its most extreme form, made wealth and money identical, and regarded it there- fore as the great object of a community so to conduct its dealings with other nations as to attract to itself the largest possible share of the precious metals. Each country's interest was to export the utmost possible quantity of its own manufactures and tc import as little as possible of those of other countries, receiving the difference of the two values in gold and silver. This differ- ence is called the balance of trade, and the balance is favourable when more money is received than is paid. Governments might resort to all available expedients — prohibition of, or high duties on, the importation of foreign wares, bounties on the export of home manufactures, restrictions on the export of the precious metals — for the purpose of securing such a balance. But this statement of the doctrine, though current in text- books, does not represent correctly the views of all who belonged to the mercantile school. Many members of that school were much too clear-sighted to entertain the belief that wealth consists exclusively of gold and silver. The mercantilists may be best described, as W. G. F. Roscher remarked, not by any definite economic theorem which they held in common, but by a set of theoretic tendencies, commonly found in combination, though severely prevailing in different degrees in different minds. The underlying principles may be enumerated as follows: (1) the importance of possessing a large amount of the precious metals; (2) an exaltation (a) of foreign trade over domestic, and (6) of the industry which works up materials over that which provides them; (3) the value of a dense population as an element of national strength; and (4) the employment of state action in furthering artificially the attainment of the ends proposed. MERCAPTANS— MERCATOR 149 The discoveries in the New World had led to a large develop- ment of the European currencies. The old feudal economy, founded principally on dealings in kind, had given way before the new " money economy," and the dimensions of the latter were everywhere expanding. Circulation was becoming more rapid, distant communications more frequent, city life and movable property more important. The mercantilists were impressed by the fact that money is wealth sui generis, that it is at all times in universal demand, and that it puts into the hands of its possessor the power of acquiring all other commodities. The period, again, was marked by the formation of great states, with powerful governments at their head. These governments required men and money for the maintenance of permanent armies, which, especially for the religious and Italian wars, were kept up on a great scale. Court expenses, too, were more lavish than ever before, and a larger number of civil officials was employed. The royal domains and dues were insufficient to meet these require- ments, and taxation grew with the demands of the monarchies. Statesmen saw that for their own political ends industry must flourish. But manufactures make possible a denser population and a higher total value of exports than agriculture; they open a less limited and more promptly extensible field to enterprise. Hence they became the object of special governmental favour and patronage, whilst agriculture fell comparatively into the back- ground. The growth of manufactures reacted on commerce, to which a new and mighty arena had been opened by the establish- ment of colonies. These were then viewed simply as estates to be worked for the advantage of the mother countries, and the aim of statesmen was to make the colonial trade a new source of public revenue. Each nation, as a whole, working for its own power, and the greater ones for predominance, they entered into a competitive struggle in the economic no less than in the political field, success in the former being indeed, by the rulers, regarded as instrumental to pre-eminence in the latter. A national economic interest came to exist, of which the government made itself the representative head. States became a sort of artificial hothouse for the rearing of urban industries. Production was subjected to systematic regulation, with the object of securing the goodness and cheapness of the exported articles, and so maintaining the place of the nation in foreign markets. The industrial control was exercised, in part directly by the state, but largely also through privileged corporations and trading companies. High duties on imports were resorted to, at first perhaps mainly for revenue, but afterwards in the interest of national production. Commercial treaties were a principal object of diplomacy, the end in view being to exclude the competition of other nations in foreign markets, whilst in the home market as little room as possible was given for the introduction of anything but raw materials from abroad. The colonies were prohibited from trading with other European nations than the parent country, to which they supplied either the precious metals or raw produce purchased with home manufactures. That the efforts of governments for the furtherance of manu- factures and commerce under the mercantile system were really effective towards that end is admitted by Adam Smith, and cannot reasonably be doubted, though doctrinaire free-traders have often denied it. Technical skill must have been promoted by their encouragements; whilst new forms of national produc- tion were fostered by attracting workmen from other countries, and by lightening the burden of taxation on struggling industries. Communication and transport by land and sea were more rapidly improved; and the social dignity of the industrial professions was enhanced relatively to that of the classes before exclusively dominant. The foundation of the mercantile system was at the time when it took its rise inspired by the situation of the European nations. Such a policy had been already in some degree practised in the 14th and 15th centuries, thus preceding any formal exposition or defence of its speculative basis. At the commencement of the 16th century it began to exercise a widely extended influence. Charles V. adopted it, and his example contributed much to its predominance. Henry VIII. and Elizabeth conformed their measures to it. The leading states soon entered on a universal competition for manufacturing and commercial preponderance. Through almost the whole of the 17th century the prize, so far as commerce was concerned, remained in the possession of Holland, Italy having lost her former ascendancy by the opening of the new maritime routes, and Spain and Germany being depressed by protracted wars and internal dissensions. The admiring envy of Holland felt by English politicians and economists appears in such writers as Raleigh, Mun, Child and Temple. Cromwell, by his Navigation Act, which destroyed the carrying trade of Holland and founded the English empire of the sea, and Colbert, by his whole economic policy, domestic and inter- national, were the chief practical representatives of the mercantile system. See G. Schmoller, The Mercantile System (Eng. trans., 1896) ; also the articles, Balance of Trade ; Free Trade ; Protection ; Physiocratic School, &c. MERCAPTANS (Thio-alcohols), organic chemical compounds of the type R.SH (R = an alkyl group). The name is derived from mercurium captans, in allusion to the fact that these compounds react readily with mercuric oxide to form crystalline mercury derivatives. The mercaptans may be prepared by the action of the alkyl halides on an alcoholic solution of potas- sium hydrosulphide; by the reduction of the sulpho-chlo rides, e.g. C2H5SO2CI (chlorides of sulphonic acids), by heating the salts of esters of sulphuric acid with potassium hydrosulphide, and by heating the alcohols with phosphorus pentasulphide. They are colourless liquids, which are insoluble in water and possess a characteristic offensive smell. On oxidation by nitric acid they yield sulphonic acids. They combine with aldehydes and ketones, with elimination of water and formation of mer- captals and mercaptols. (See Sulphonal.) Methyl mercaptan, CH3.SH, is a liquid which boils at 5-8° C. (752 mm.), and forms a crystalline hydrate with water. Ethyl mercaptan, C 2 H 6 .SH, is a colourless liquid which boils at 36-2° C. It is used commercially in the preparation of sulphonal (?.».). The mercury salt, Hg(SC2H 6 ) 2 , crystallizes from alcohol in plates. When heated with alcohol to 190 C. it decomposes into mercury and ethyldisulphide. MERCATOR, GERARDUS [latinized form of Gerhard Kremer] (1512-1594), Flemish mathematician and geographer, was born at Rupelmonde, in Flanders, on the 5th of March 151 2. Having studied at Bois-le-Duc and Louvain (where he matricu- lated on the 29th of August 1530, and became licentiate in October 1532), he met Gemma Frisius, a pupil of Apian of Ingolstadt, who at the request of the emperor Charles V. had settled in Louvain. From Frisius young Kremer derived much of his inclination to cartography and scientific geography. In 1534 he founded his geographical establishment at Louvain; in 1537 he published his earliest known map, now lost {Terr tie sanctae descriptio). In 153 7-1 540 he executed his famous survey and map of Flanders {Exactissima Flandriae descriptio), of which a copy exists in the Musee Plantin, Antwerp. At the order of Charles V. Mercator made a complete set of instruments of observation for the emperor's campaigns: when these were destroyed by fire, in 1546, another set was ordered of the same maker. In 1538 appeared Mercator's map of the world in (north and south) hemispheres, which was rediscovered in 1878 in New York; this work shows Ptolemy's influence still dominant over Mercatorian cartography. In 1541 he issued the celebrated terrestrial globe, which he dedicated to Nicolas Perrenot, father of Cardinal Granvelle: this was accompanied by his Libellus de usu globi, which is said to have been presented to Charles V. In 1 5 51 a celestial globe followed. Mercator early began to inclirie towards Protestantism; in 1533 he had retired for a time from Louvain to Antwerp, partly to avoid inquiry into his religious beliefs; in 1544 he was arrested and prosecuted for heresy, but escaped serious consequences (two of the forty-two arrested with him were burnt, one beheaded, two buried alive). He now thought seriously of emigrating; and when in 1552 Cassander, ordered by the duke of Juliers, Cleves and Berg to organize a university at Duisburg, offered Mercator the chair of cosmo- graphy the offer was accepted. The organization of the i5o MERCENARY— MERCERIZING university was adjourned, and never completed in Mercator's lifetime; but he now became cosmographer to the duke and permanently settled on the German soil to which many of his ancestors and relatives had belonged. Soon after this, however, he paid a visit to Charles V. at Brussels, and presented the emperor with a cosmos, a celestial sphere enclosing a terres- trial, together with an explanatory Declaratio: this work marks an era in the observation of longitude by magnetic declination, perfected by Halley. Charles rewarded the author with the title of imperalorii domeslicus {H of rath in the epitaph at Duisburg). In 1 554 Mercator published his great map of Europe in six sheets, three or four of which had already been pretty well worked out at Louvain; a copy of this was rediscovered at Breslau in 1889. Herein, though still greatly under Ptolemy's influence, Mercator begins to emancipate himself; thus Ptolemy's 62°for the length of the Mediterranean, reduced to 58 in the globe of 1541, he now cuts down to 53 . On the 28th of October 1556 he observed an eclipse at Duisburg; in 1563 he surveyed Lorraine, at the request of Duke Charles, and completed a map of the same (Lotharingiae descriptio) ; but it is uncertain if this was ever published. In 1564 he engraved William Camden's map of the British Isles; in 1568 he brought out his Ckronologia, hoc est temporum demonstratio . . . ab initio mundi usque ad annum domini 1568, ex eclipsibus et observationibus astronomicis. In the same year was published his memorable planisphere for use in navigation, the first map on " Mercator's projection," with the parallels and meridians at right angles (Nova et aucta orbis terrae descriptio ad usum naviganlium accommodata) . Improvements were introduced in this projection by Edward Wright in 1590; the more general use of it dates from about 1630, and largely came about through Dieppese support. In 1572 Mercator issued a second edition of his map of Europe; in 1578 appeared his Tabulae geographicae ad mentem Ptolemaei restitutae et emendatae; and in 1585 the first part (containing Germany, France and Belgium) of the Atlas, she cosmographicae meditationes defabrica mundi, in which he planned to crown his work by uniting in one volume his various detailed maps, so as to form a general description of the globe In 1585 he adapted his Europe to the Atlas; in 1587, with the help of his son Rumold, he added to the same a world- map (Orbis terrarum compendiosa descriptio), followed in 1590 by a second series of detailed maps (Italy, Slavonia, Greece and Candia). The rest of the regional and other plans in this under- taking, mostly begun by Gerard, were finished by Rumold; they include Iceland and the Polar regions, the British Isles (dedicated to Queen Elizabeth), the Scandinavian countries (dedicated to Henr. Ranzovius), Prussia and Livonia, Russia, Lithuania, Transylvania, the Crimea, Asia, Africa and America (in the last Michael Mercator, in Asia and Africa Gerard Mercator the younger, assisted) The designs are accompanied by cosmo- graphical and other dissertations, sflme of the theological views in which were condemned as heretical (see the Duisburg edition ol 1594, folio). In 1592 Mercator published, two years after his first apoplectic stroke, a Harmonia evangeliorum. He died on the 5th of December 1594, and was buried in St Saviour's church, Duisburg. Besides his famous projection, he did ex- cellent service with Ortelius in helping to free the geography of the 1 6th century from the tyranny of Ptolemy; his map and instrument work is noteworthy for its delicate precision and admirable execution in detail. See the Vita Mercatoris by Gualterus Ghymnius in the Latin editions of the Atlas; Gerard Mercator, sa vie et ses ceuvres, by Dr J. van Raemdonck (St Nicolas, 1869); A. Breusing, Gerhard Kremer (Duisburg, 1878), and article " Mercator " in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie; General Wauwermans, Hisloire de I'ecole cartographique beige ... at* XVI.-siecle, and article "Mercator" in Biographie nationale (de Belgique), vol. xiv. (Brussels, 1897). Also the lesser studies of Dr J. van Raemdonck, Sur les exemplaires des grandes cartes de Mercator; Carte de Flandre de Mercator; Relations entre . . Mercator et . . . Plantin ... (St Nicolas, 1884); La Geo- graphie ancienne de la Palestine: Lettre de Girard Mercator . . . mat 22, 1567 (St N.. 1884) ; Les Spheres terrestre et cttestc de Mercator, 1541 . . . 1551 (St N., 1885); Van Ortroy, L'CBuvre giographique de Mercator. (C. R. B.) MERCENARY (Lat. mercenarius, from merces, reward, gain), one who serves or acts solely for motives of personal gain, particu- larly a soldier who offers himself for service in any army which may hire him. The name is sometimes used as a term of reproach by nations who raise their armies by conscription, of armies raised by voluntary enlistment whose members are paid a more or less living wage. MERCER (through Fr. mercier, from popular Lat. mercerius, a dealer, merx, merces, merchandise), a dealer in the more costly textiles, especially in silks and velvets. The word formerly had a wider meaning. Mercery, according to W. Herbert (History of the Twelve Great Livery Companies, 1834), " compre- hended all things sold by retail by the ' little balance ' or small scales (in contradistinction to the things sold by the ' beam ' or in gross), and included not only toys, together with haber- dashery and various other articles connected with dress, but also spices and drugs." Many of the articles in which they dealt fell later within the sphere of other trades; thus the trade in the smaller articles of dress was taken over by the haberdashers (q.v.). The trade in silk seems to have been originally in the hands of the " silkmen and throwsteres." The Mercers' Com- pany is the first in precedence of the twelve great livery com- panies of the city of London, and is also the wealthiest both in trust and corporate property. The first charter was obtained in 1393, but the mercers appear to have been formed into a gild much earlier. Herbert finds the mercers as patrons of a charity a few years after n 72, and one Robert Searle, who was mayor in 1214, was a " mercer." A further charter was granted in 1424, with the right to use a common seal. The history of the company is closely connected with the name of Richard Whittington (q.v.), and later with that of Dean Colet, who chose the company as the manager of St Paul's School. (See Livery Companies.) MERCERIZING, the term applied to a process, discovered in 1844 by John Mercer, a Lancashire calico printer, which consists in treating cotton (and to a limited extent other plant fibres) with strong caustic soda or certain other reagents, where- by morphological and chemical changes are brought about in the fibre. Thus, if a piece of bleached calico be immersed in caustic soda of 50 Tw. strength (sp. gr. 1-25), it rapidly changes in appearance, becoming stiff and translucent, but when taken out and well washed in running water it loses these properties and apparently reverts to its original condition. On closer examination, however, the fabric is found to have shrunk con- siderably both in length and breadth, so as to render the texture quite different in appearance to that of the original calico; it is also considerably stronger, and if dyed in the same bath along with some of the untreated fabric is found to have acquired a greatly increased affinity for colouring matters. This peculiar action is not restricted to caustic soda, similar effects being obtained with sulphuric acid of 105° Tw., nitric acid of 83 Tw., zinc chloride solution of 145 Tw., and other reagents. Mercer assumed that a definite compound, corresponding to the formula Ci2H2oOio.Na20 is formed when the cotton is steeped in caustic soda, and that this is decomposed by subsequent washing with water into a hydrated cellulose C12H20O10.H2O, which would account for the fact that in the air-dried condition mercerized cotton retains about 5% more hygroscopic moisture than ordinary cotton. This view is strengthened by the observation that when cotton is immersed in nitric acid of 83 Tw. it acquires similar properties to cotton treated with caustic soda. If, after immersion in the nitric acid, it is squeezed and then dried (without washing) in a vacuum over burnt lime, it is found to" have formed a compound which corresponds approximately to the formula CeHioOg.HNOs, which is decomposed by water into free nitric acid and a hydrated cellulose. When viewed under the microscope, mercerized cotton is seen to have undergone considerable morphological changes, inas- much as the lumen or central cavity is much reduced in size, while the fibre has lost its characteristic band-shaped appearance and becomes rounded. In Mercer's time the process, which he himself termed " sodaizing " or " fulling," never acquired any degree of com- MERCHANT— MERCIA i5i mercial success, partly on account of the expense of the caustic soda required, but mainly on account of the great shrinkage (20 to 25%) which took place in the cloth. An important application of the process in calico printing for the production of permanent crimp or " crepon " effects, which was originally devised by Mercer, was revived in 1890-1891 and is still largely practised by calico printers (see Textile Printing). Another application, also dependent upon the shrinking action of caustic soda on cotton, was patented in 1884 by Depoully, and has for its object the production of crimp effects on piece-goods consist- ing of wool and cotton or silk and cotton. In the manu- facture of such goods cotton binding threads are introduced at definite intervals in the warp or weft, or both, and the piece is passed through cold caustic soda, washed, passed through dilute sulphuric acid, and washed again till neutral. The cotton con- tracts under the influence of the caustic soda, while both wool and silk remain unaffected, and the desired crimped or puckered effect is thus obtained. By far the most important application of the mercerizing process is that by which a permanent lustre is imparted to cotton goods; this was discovered in 1889 by H. A. Lowe, who took out a patent for his process in that year, this being supple- mented by a further patent in 1890. Since Lowe's invention did not receive sufficient encouragement, he allowed his patents to lapse and the process thus became public property. It was not until 1895, when Messrs Thomas & Prevost repatented Lowe's invention, that actual interest was aroused in the new product and the process became a practical success. Their patent was subsequently annulled on the ground of having been anticipated. The production of a permanent lustre on cotton by mercerizing is in principle a very simple process, and may be effected in two ways. According to the first method, the cotton is treated in a stretched condition with strong caustic soda, and is then washed, while still stretched, in water. After the washing has been continued for a short time the tension relaxes, and it is then found that the cotton has acquired a permanent lustre or gloss similar in appearance to that of a spun silk though not so pronounced. According to the second method, which constitutes but a slight modification of the first, the cotton is immersed in caustic soda of the strength required for mercerizing, and is then taken out, stretched slightly beyond its original length, and then washed until the tension slackens. Not all classes of cotton are equally suited for being mercerized. Thus, in the case of yarns the most brilliant lustre is always obtained on twofold or multifold yarns spun from long-stapled cotton (Egyptian or Sea Island). Single yarns made from the same quality of cotton are only slightly improved in appearance by the process, and are consequently seldom mercerized; and the same applies to twofold yarns made from ordinary American cotton. In piece-goods, long-stapled cotton also gives the best results, but it is not necessary that the yarn used for weaving should be twofold. In the great majority of cases, the mercerizing of cotton, whether it be in the yarn or in the piece, is done before bleaching, but sometimes it is found preferable to mercerize after bleaching, or even after bleaching and dyeing. The strength of the caustic soda employed in practice is generally between 55 ° and 60" Tw. The temperature of the caustic soda hasj a material influence on its action on the cotton fibre, very much stronger solutions being required to produce the same effect at elevated temperatures than at the ordinary temperature, while, on the contrary, by lowering the temperature it is possible to obtain a good lustre with considerably weaker lyes. Cotton yarn may be mercerized either in the hank or in the warp, and a great number of machines have been patented and constructed for the purpose. The simplest form of machine for hanks consists essentially of two superposed strong steel rollers, on which the hanks are placed and spread out evenly. The upper roller, the bearings of which run in a slotted groove, is then raised by mechanical means until the hanks are taut. Caustic soda of 60° Tw. is now applied, and the upper roller is caused to revolve slowly, the hanks acting as a belt and causing the lower roller to revolve simultaneously. After about three minutes the caustic soda is allowed to drain off and the hanks are washed by spurt pipes until they slacken, when they are taken off and rinsed, first in dilute sulphuric acid (to neutralize the alkali and facilitate washing), and then in water till neutral. The hanks are then bleached in the ordinary way and may be subsequently dyed, no diminution being brought about in the lustre by these operations. Cotton warps are usually mercerized on a machine similar in construction to a four box dyeing machine (see Dyeing), but with the guiding rollers and their bearings of stronger construction and the squeezers at each end of the first box with a double nip (three rollers). The first box con- tains caustic soda, the second water, the third dilute sulphuric acid, and the fourth water. For the continuous mercerizing of cotton in the piece much more complicated and expensive machinery is required than for yarn, since it is necessary to prevent contraction in both length and breadth. The mercerizing range in most common use for pieces is constructed on the same principle as the stentering machine used in stretching pieces after bleaching, dyeing or printing, and consists essentially of two endless chains carried at either end by sprocket wheels. The chains carry clips which run in slotted grooves in the horizontal frame of the machine, which is about 40 ft. in length. The clips close automatically and grip the cloth on either side as it is fed on to the machine from the mangle, in which it has been saturated with caustic soda. The stretching of the piece begins immediately on entering the machine, the two rows of clips being caused to diverge by setting the slotted grooves in such a manner that when the piece has travelled about one-third of the length of the machine it is stretched slightly beyond its original width. At this point the piece meets with a spray of water, which is thrown on by means of spurt pipes ; and in consequence the tension slackens and the mercer- izing is effected. When the piece arrives at the end of the machine the clips open automatically and release it. Thence it passes through a box containing dilute sulphuric acid, and then through a second box where washing with water is effected. In most large works the caustic soda washings, which were formerly run to waste or were partly used up for bleaching, are evaporated down in multiple effect evaporators to 90 ° Tw., and the solution is used over again for mercerizing. Cotton mercerized under tension has not as much affinity for colouring matters as cotton mercerized without tension, and although the amount of hygroscopic moisture which it retains in the air-dried condition is greater than in the case of ordinary untreated cotton, it is not so great as that held by cotton which has been mercerized without tension. By drying cotton which has been mercerized with or without tension at temperatures above 100° C. its affinity for colouring matters is materially decreased. The cause of the lustre produced by mercerizing has been variously explained, and in some cases antagonistic views have been expressed on the subject. When viewed under the microscope by reflected light, the irregularly twisted band-shaped cotton fibre is seen to exhibit a strong lustre at those points from which the light is reflected from the surface. Cotton mercerized without tension shows a similar appearance. In the .yarn or piece the lustre is not apparent, because the innumerable reflecting surfaces disperse the light in all directions. If, however, the cotton has been mercerized under tension, being plastic while still containing the caustic soda, it is stretched and is set in this condition by the washing. Thus in the finished product a large proportion of the rounded fibres are laid parallel to each other, as in the case of spun silk, and the lustre inherent to the fibre becomes visible to the naked eye. See The Life and Labours of John Mercer, by E. A. Parnell (Long- mans Green & Co) ; Die Mercerisation ier Baumwolle, by Paul Gardner (Julius Springer, Berlin) ; Mercerisation, by the editors of The Dyer and Calico Printer (Heywood & Co.). (E. K.) MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcheant, modern marchand; from Lat. mercari, to trade, rnerx, goods, merchandise), a trader, one who buys and sells goods for profit. The term is now usually confined to a wholesale dealer or one who trades on an extended scale with foreign countries. MERCIA, one of the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England. The original kingdom seems to have lain in the upper basin of the Trent, comprising the greater part of Derbyshire and Staffordshire, the northern parts of Warwickshire and Leicester- shire,, and the southern part of Nottinghamshire. The name (Merce) seems to denote men of the March, and presumably was first applied when this district bordered upon the Welsh. In later times Mercia successively absorbed all the other terri- tories between the Humber and the Thames except East Anglia, and some districts even beyond the Thames. The origin of the kingdom is obscure. The royal family, according to Felix, Life of St Guthlac (Anglo-Saxon version), were called Iclingas. Icel, their ancestor, may have been the founder of the kingdom, but nothing is known of him. The^ family, however, claimed descent from the ancient kings of Angle (cf. Offa I. and Wermund). The first Mercian king of whom we have any record was Cearl, who apparently reigned about the beginning of the 7th century, and whose daughter Coenburg married Edwin, king of Deira. During Edwin's reign Mercia was subject to his supremacy, though it may have been governed throughout by princes of its own royal family. Its first prominent appearance in English history may be dated in the year 633, when the Mercian prince Penda joined the Welsh king Ceadwalla in overthrowing Edwin. According to the Saxon Chronicle, Penda began to reign in 626, and fought against the *5* MERCIE West Saxons at Cirencester in 628. In the Mercian regnal tables, however, he is assigned a reign of only twenty-one years, which, as his death took place in 654 or 655, would give 634 as the date of his accession, presumably on the overthrow of Edwin, or perhaps on that of Ceadwalla. During the reign of Oswald Penda clearly reigned under the suzerainty of that king. In 642, however, Oswald was slain by Penda in a battle at a place called Maserfeld, which has not been identified with certainty. During the early part of Oswio's reign the North- umbrian kingdom was repeatedly invaded and ravaged by the Mercians, and on one occasion (before 651) Penda besieged and almost captured the Northumbrian royal castle at Bamborough. At the same time he extended his influence in other directions, and expelled from the throne of Wessex Coenwalh, who had divorced his sister. Indeed, at this time nearly all the English kingdoms must have acknowledged his supremacy. The king- dom of Middle Anglia, which appears to have included the counties of Northampton, Rutland, Huntingdon, and parts of Bedfordshire, Cambridgeshire, Leicestershire and Lincolnshire, was formed into a dependent principality under his son Peada. At this time also the territory corresponding to the modern counties of Cheshire, Shropshire and Herefordshire seems to have been occupied. The last of these counties is said some time later to have been under the government of another son of Penda, named Merewald. In 654 or 655 Penda again invaded North- umbria, with a huge army divided into thirty legiones, each under a royal prince, among whom were ^Ethelhere, king of East Anglia, and several Welsh kings. He was defeated and slain, however, by Oswio, at a river called the Winwaed. Mercia then came again under Northumbrian rule. Peada, the eldest son of Penda, was allowed to govern the part south of the Trent, while north Mercia was put in charge of Northumbrian officials. Penda, although he did not prohibit the preaching of Christianity, had remained a heathen to the end of his life. His death was followed by the conversion of his kingdom. Peada had embraced Christianity on his marriage with a daughter of Oswio, and under him the first Mercian bishopric was founded. Shortly afterwards Peada was murdered; but in 658 the Mercians rose under his younger brother Wulfhere and threw off the Northumbrian supremacy. Wulfhere seems to have been a vigorous ruler, for he extended the power of Mercia as far as it had reached in the days of his father, and even farther. According to the Chronicle he invaded Wessex as far as Ashdown in Berkshire in the year 661. At the same time he conquered the Isle of Wight, which he gave to iEthelwalh, king of Sussex. .Between the years 661 and 665 he was defeated by the Northumbrian king Ecgfrith and had to give up Lindsey. In 675 he again fought with the West Saxons under Aescwine, and shortly afterwards died. His brother ^Ethelred, who succeeded him, invaded Kent in the following year, and in 679 fought a battle on the Trent against Ecgfrith, by which he recovered Lindsey. After this, however, we hear little of Mercian interference with the other kingdoms for some time; and since it is clear that during the last 1 5 years of the 7th cen- tury Wessex, Essex, Sussex and Kent were frequently involved in strife, it seems likely thatthe Mercian king had somewhat lost hold over the south of England. In 704 jEthelred resigned the crown and became a monk, leaving his kingdom to Coenred, the son of Wulfhere. Coenred also abdicated five years later and went to Rome. Ceolred, the son of iEthelred, who succeeded, fought against the West Saxon king Ine in 715. On his death in the following year ^Ethelbald, a distant relative, came to the throne, and under him Mercian supremacy was fully restored over all the kingdom south of the Humber. He reigned for 41 years. After his murder in 757 the Mercian throne was held for a short time by Beornred. He was expelled the same year by Offa, who soon restored the power of Mercia, which seems to have suffered some diminution during the later years of ^Ethel- _ Koi^ Offa's policy was apparently the extinction of the depen- ngdoms. In his reign the dynasties of Kent, Sussex and icce seem to have disappeared, or at all events to have p the kingly title. In 787 he associated his son Ecgfrith with him in the kingdom, and after his death (796) Ecgfrith reigned alone for a few months. On the death of Ecgfrith the. throne passed to Coenwulf, a descendant of Pybba, father of Penda. In 821 Coenwulf was succeeded by his brother Ceolwulf, who was deprived of the throne in 823, being succeeded by Beornwulf. In 825 Beornwulf was defeated by Ecgberht, king of Wessex, and in the same year he was overthrown and slain by the East Angles. The supremacy now passed to Wessex. In 827 Ludeca, the successor of Beornwulf, was slain in battle with five of his earls. Wiglaf, who succeeded him, was expelled two years later by Ecgberht, but regained the throne in the following year. He died, probably in 839, and was succeeded by Berhtwulf, who reigned until 852. Under these later kings Mercia seems to have extended from the Humber to the Thames, including London, though East Anglia was independent, and that part of Essex which corresponds to the modern county of that name had been annexed to Wessex after 825. Berhtwulf was succeeded in 852 by Burgred, who married ^Ethelswith, daughter of jEthelwulf. His power seems to have been more or less dependent on the West Saxons. In 853, with the assistance of vEthelwulf he reduced North Wales to subjection. Again in 868 he called upon the West Saxon king ^Ethelred for assist- ance against the Danes under LoSbrok's sons, who at this time invaded Mercia after their overthrow of the Northumbrians at York. No battle took place, and the Mercians subsequently made peace with the Danes. In 872 the Danes occupied London on their return from invading Wessex, after which a truce was again made. In 873 the Danes encamped at Torksey in Lincoln- shire, and although another truce ensued, they advanced in the following year to Repton, and Burgred was driven from the kingdom. He went to Rome, where he remained until his death. In 874 Ceolwulf, a king's thegn or baron, was made king by the Danes, and definitely acknowledged their overlordship. In 877, after the second invasion of Wessex, the Danes seem to have taken the eastern part of Mercia into their own hands. How long Ceolwulf reigned over the western portion is unknown. About the year 884 the most important person in English Mercia was an earl, /Ethelred, who accepted the suzerainty of Alfred, and in or before the year 887 married his daughter ^Ethelflaed. ^Ethelred and ^Ethelflaed appear to have had practically regal power, though they did not use the royal title. In 886 London, which had been recovered by Alfred from the Danes, was re- stored to ^thelred. During the invasion of 893-97 English Mercia was again repeatedly ravaged by the Danes; but in the last of these years, by the united efforts of Alfred and Mthtlxtd, they were at length expelled. With this exception, Watling Street, the Ouse and the Lea, continued to be the boundary between Mercia and the Danish kingdom of East Anglia down to the death of ^Ethelred, between 910 and 912. The government was then carried on by ^Ethelflaed, who built a number of fort- resses, and in conjunction with her brother, King Edward the Elder, succeeded in expelling the Danes from Derby and Leicester by the year 917-18. After her death in the latter year her daughter ^Elfwyn was soon deprived of the government by Edward, and Mercia was definitely annexed to Wessex. From this time onwards its existence as a separate kingdom was at an end, though during the last years of Eadwig's reign the Mercians and Northumbrians set up Eadgar as king. In the last century of the Saxon period the earls of Mercia frequently occupied a semi-royal position. The most important of thgse were ^Elfhere under Eadgar, Edward and iEthelred, Eadrlftt Streona, under the last-mentioned king, and Leofric, under the Danish kings. Authorities. — Bede, Historia ecclesiastica (ed. C. Plummer, Oxford, 1896); Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (ed. Earle and Plummer, Oxford, 1899); W. de G. Birch, Cartularium saxonicum (London, 1885-1893). (F. G. M. B.) MERCI& MARIUS JEAN ANTONIN (1845- ), French sculptor and painter, was born in Toulouse on the 30th of October 1845. He entered the ficole des Beaux Arts, Paris, and studied under Falguiere and Jouffroy, and in 1868 gained the Grand Prix MERCIER, H— MERCK 153 de Rome. His first great popular successes were the " David " and " Gloria Victis," which was shown and received the medal of honour of the Salon. The bronze was subsequently placed in the Square Montholon. " The Genius of the Arts " (1877), a relief, is in the Tuileries, in substitution for Barye's " Napoleon III."; a similar work for the tomb of Michelet (1879) is in the cemetery of Pere la Chaise; and in the same year Mercie produced the statue of Arago with accompanying reliefs, now erected at Perpignan. In 1882 he repeated his great patriotic success of 1874 with a group " Quand Meme!" replicas of which have been set up at Belfort and in the garden of the Tuileries. " Le Souvenir " (1885), a marble statue for the tomb of Mme Charles Ferry, is one of his most beautiful works. " Regret," for the tomb of Cabanel, was produced in 1892, along with " William Tell," now at Lausanne. Mercie also designed the monuments to " Meissonier " (1895), erected in the Jardin de l'lnfante in the Louvre, and " Faidherbe " (1896) at Lille, a statue of " Thiers " set up at St Germain-en-Laye, the monument to " Baudry " at Pere-la-Chaise, and that of " Louis-Philippe and Queen Amelie " for their tomb at Dreux. His stone group of " Justice " is at the Hdtel de Ville, Paris. Numerous other statues, portrait busts, and medallions came from the sculptor's hand, which gained him a medal of honour at the Paris Exhibi- tion of 1878 and the grand prix at that of 1889. Among the paintings exhibited by the artist are a " Venus," to which was awarded a medal in 1883, " Leda " (1884), and " Michael- angelo studying Anatomy " (1885) — his most dramatic work in this medium. Merci6 was appointed professor of drawing and sculpture at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, and was elected a member of the Academie Francaise in 1891, after being awarded the biennial prize of the institute of £800 in 1887. MERCIER, HONORS (1840-1894), Canadian lawyer and statesman, was the son of Jean Baptiste Mercier, fanner, and of Marie Kimener, his wife. He was born in the village of St Athanase d'Iberville on the 15th of October 1840. The family came from France, and settled in the district of Mont- magny, and later removed to Iberville. Mercier entered the Jesuit College of St Mary, Montreal, at the age of fourteen, and throughout his life retained a warm friendship for the society. He married, firstly in 1866 Leopoldine Boivin, and secondly in 1871 Virginie St Denis. On the completion of his course at St Mary's he studied law in the office of Laframboise and Papineau, in St Hyacinthe, and was admitted to the bar of the province in April 1865. At the age of twenty-two he became the editor of the Conservative Courrier de St Hyacinthe, and in this journal supported the policy of the Sicotte administration, which then represented the interests of Quebec, under the Act of Union (1840); but when Sicotte accepted a seat on the bench Mercier joined the Opposition, and contributed largely to the defeat of the Ministerial candidate. In 1864 he vigorously opposed the scheme of confederatfon, on the ground that it would prove fatal to the distinctive position held by the French Canadians. He resumed the editorship of the Courrier in 1866; but after a few months retired from journalism, and for the next five years devoted all his energy to his profession. At the commencement of the year 1871 the national party was organized in Quebec, and Mercier supported the candidates of the party on the platform. In August 1872 he was elected as a member of the House of Commons for the county of Rouville, and proved a vigorous opponent of Sir John A. Macdonald on the question of separate schools for New Brunswick. He was a candidate at the general elections in 1874; but retired on the eve of the contest in favour of another candidate of his own party. Mercier entered the arena of provincial politics in May 1879 as solicitor- general in the Joly government, representing the county of St Hyacinthe; and on the defeat of the ministry in October he passed, with his leader, into opposition. On the retirement of M. Toly from the leadership of the Liberal party in Quebec in 1883 Mercier was chosen as his successor. Towards the close of 1885 the French-Canadian mind was greatly agitated over the execution of Louis Riel, leader of the north-west rebellion, and in consequence of the attitude of Mercier on this Question the Liberal minority in the Legislative Assembly, which had been reduced to fifteen, rapidly gained strength, until at the general elections held in October 1886 the province was carried in the Liberal interest. In January 1887 Mercier was sworn in as premier and attorney-general, and from this moment he exer- cised an extraordinary influence in the province. He succeeded in passing without opposition the Jesuit Estates Act, a measure to compensate the order for the loss of property confiscated by the Crown. This act came before the Federal House for disallow- ance, but, was carried on division. When Mercier appealed to the electorate in 1890, his policy was endorsed, and he was able to give effect to many important measures. Early in 1891 he negotiated a loan in Europe for the province, and whilst on a visit to Rome he was created a count of the Roman Empire by Leo XIII., who three years previously had conferred upon him the rank of a commander of the order of St Gregory the Great. Of commanding presence, firm, decisive, courteous in manner, convincing in argument, and deeply attached to his native province, he had all the qualities of a popular leader. For a few years he was the idol of the people of Quebec, and French Canada loomed large in the public eye; but towards the end of 1891 serious charges were preferred against his ministry, on the ground that subsidies voted for railways had been diverted to political use, and he was dismissed by the lieutenant-governor. At the subsequent elections held in March 1892 he was returned for the county of Bona venture, but his party was hopelessly defeated. On the formation of a new government he was brought to trial, and declared not guilty; his health, however, gave way, and he never regained his former influence. See Biographie, discours, conferences, &c, de VHon. Honorb Mercier, by J.-O. Pelland (Montreal, 1893). (A. G. D.) MERCIER, LOUIS SEBASTIEN (1 740-1814), French drama- tist and miscellaneous writer, was born in Paris on the 6th of June 1740. He began his literary career by writing heroic epistles, but early came to the conclusion that Boileau and Racine had ruined the French language, and that the true poet was he who wrote in prose. The most important of his miscel- laneous works are L' An 2440 (1770); L' Essai sur I' art dramatique (1773); NSologie (1801); Le Tableau de Paris (1781-1788); Le nouveau Paris (1799); Histoire de France (1802) and Satire contre Racine et Boileau (1808). He decried French tragedy as a caricature of antique and foreign customs in bombastic verse, and advocated the com&die larmoyante as understood by Diderot. To the philosophers he was entirely hostile. He denied that modern science had made any real advance; he even carried his conservatism so far as to maintain that the earth was a circular flat plain around which revolved the sun. Mercier wrote some sixty dramas, among which may be mentioned Jean Hennuyer (1772); La Destruction de la ligue (1782); Jennival (1769); Le Juge (1774); Natalie (1775) and La Brouette du vinaigrier (1775). In politics he was a Moderate, and as a member of the Convention he voted against the death penalty for Louis XVI. During the Terror he was imprisoned, but was released after the fall of Robespierre. He died in Paris on the 25th of April 1814. See Leon Bechard, Sebastien Mercier, sa vie, son ceuvre (Paris, 1903); R. Doumic in the Revue des deux mondes (15th July 1903). MERCK, JOHANN HEINRICH (1741-1791), German author and critic, was born at Darmstadt on the nth of April 1741, a few days after the death of his father, a chemist. He studied law at Giessen, and in 1767 was given an appointment in the paymaster's department at Darmstadt, and a year later himself became paymaster. For a number of years he exercised con- " siderable influence upon the literary movement in Germany; he helped to found the Frankfurter gelehrte Anzeigen in 1772, and was one of the chief contributors to Nicolai's Allgemeine Bibliothek. In 1782 he accompanied the Landgravine Karoline of Hesse-Darmstadt to St Petersburg, and on his return was a guest of the duke Charles Augustus of Weimar in the Wartburg, Unfortunate speculations brought him into pecuniary embarrass- ment in 1788, and although friends, notably Goethe, were ready to come to his assistance, his losses — combined with the death of five of his children — so preyed upon his mind that he committed 154 MERCCEUR— MERCURY suicide on the 27th of June 1701. Merck distinguished himself mainly as a critic; his keen perception, critical perspicacity and refined taste made him a valuable guide to the young writers of the Sturm und Drang. He also wrote a number of small treatises, dealing mostly with literature and art, especially painting, and a few poems, stories, narratives and the like; but they have not much intrinsic importance'. Merck's letters are particularly interesting and instructive, and throw much light upon the literary conditions of his time. Merck's Ausgewdhlte Schriften zur schonen Literatur und Kunst were published by A. Stahr in 1840, with a biography. See Brief e an J. H. Merck von Goethe, Herder, Wieland und andern bedeutenden Zeitgenossen (1835), Briefe an und von J. H. Merck (1838) and Briefe aus dent Frcundeskreise von Goethe, Herder, Hopfner und Merck (1847), all edited by K. Wagner. Cf. G. Zimmermann, /. H. Merck, seine Umgebung und seine Zeit (1871). MERCCEUR, SEIGNEURS AND DUKES OF. The estate of Mercceur in Auvergne, France, gave its name to a line of powerful lords, which became extinct in the 14th century, and passed by inheritance to the dauphins of Auvergne, counts of Clermont. In 1426 it passed to the Bourbons by the marriage, of Jeanne de Clermont, dauphine of Auvergne, with Louis de Bourbon, count of Montpensier. It formed part of the, confis- cated estates of the Constable de Bourbon, and was given by Francis I. and Louise of Savoy to Antoine, duke of Lorraine, and his wife, Renee de Bourbon. Nicolas of Lorraine, son of Duke Antoine, was created duke of Mercceur and a peer of France in 1569. His son Philippe Emmanuel (see below) left a daughter, who married the due de Vendome in 1609. MERCCEUR, PHILIPPE EMMANUEL DE LORRAINE, Due de (1558-1602), French soldier, was born on the 9th of Septem- ber 1558, and married Marie de Luxemburg, duchesse de Pen- thievre. In 1582 he was made governor of Brittany by Henry III., who had married his sister. Mancceur put himself at the head of the League in Brittany, and had himself proclaimed protector of the Roman Catholic Church in the province in 1588. Invoking the hereditary rights of his wife, who was a descendant of the dukes of Brittany, he endeavoured to make himself independent in that province, and organized a government at Nantes, calling his son " prince and duke of Brittany." With the aid of the Spaniards he defeated the due de Montpensier, whom Henry IV. had sent against him, at Craon in 1592, but the royal troops, reinforced by English contingents, soon re- covered the advantage. The king marched against Mercceur in person, and received his submission at Angers on the 20th of March 1598. Mercceur subsequently went to Hungary, where he entered the service of the emperor Rudolph II., and fought against the Turks, taking Stuhlweissenburg (Szekes-Fehervar) in 1 599. Mercceur died on the 19th of February 1602. MERCURY (Mercurius), in Roman mythology, the god of merchandise (merx) and merchants; later identified with the Greek Hermes. His nature is more intelligible and simple than that of any other Roman deity. In the native Italian states no trade existed till the influence of the Greek colonies on the coast introduced Greek customs and terminology. It was no doubt under the rule of the Tarquins that merchants began to ply their trade. Doubtless the merchants practised their religious ceremonies from the first, but their god Mercurius was not officially recognized by the state till the year 495 B.C. Rome frequently suffered from scarcity of grain during the unsettled times that followed the expulsion of the Tarquins. Various religious innovations were made to propitiate the gods; in 496 the Greek worship of Demeter, Dionysus and Persephone was established in the city, and in 495 the Greek god Hermes was introduced into Rome under the Italian name of Mercurius (Livy ii. 21, 27), as protector of the grain trade, especially with Sicily. Preller thinks that at the same time the trade in grain was regulated by law and a regular college or gild of merchants instituted. This college was under the protection of the god; its annual festival was on the 1 5th (the ides) of May, on which day the temple of the god had been dedicated at the southern end of the Circus Maximus, near the Aventine; and the members were called mercuriales as well as mercatores. Mommsen, however^ considers the mercuriales to be a purely local, gild — the paganiot the Circus valley. The 15th of May was chosen as the feast of Mercury, obviously because Maia was the mother of Hermes, that is of Mercury; and she was worshipped along with her son by the mercuriales on this day. According to Preller, this religious foundation had a political object: it established on a legitimate and sure basis the trade between Rome and the Greek colonies of the coast, whereas formerly this trade had been exposed to the capricious interference of government officials. Like all borrowed religions in Rome, it must have retained the rites and the terminology of its Greek original (Festus p. 257). Mercury became the god, not only of the mercatores and of the grain trade, but of buying and selling in general; and it appears that, at least in the streets where shops were common, little chapels and images of the god were erected. There was a spring dedicated to Mercury between his temple and the Porta Capena; every shopman drew water from this spring on the 15th of May, and sprinkled it with a laurel twig over his head and over his goods, at the same time entreating Mercury to remove from his head and his goods the guilt of all his deceits (Ovid, Fasti, v. 673 seq.). The word mercurialis was popularly used as equivalent to cheat. . im Roman statuettes of bronze, in which Mercury is represented, like the Greek Hermes, standing holding the caduceus or staff in the one hand and a purse in the other (an element very rare in purely Hellenic representations), are exceedingly common. MERCURY, in astronomy, the smallest major planet and the nearest to the sun; its symbol is g. Its proximity to the sun makes the telescopic study of its physical constitution extremely difficult. The result is that less is known on this subject than in the case of any other planet. Even the time of rotation on its axis is uncertain. J. H. Schroter inferred a period of rotation of 24 h. 5m. 30s., which was in seeming agreement with the obser- vations of K. L. Harding. This period was generally accepted, though Herschel had been unable to see any changes indicating rotation. In 1882 G. Schiaparelli began a careful study of the face of the planet with a refractor of 8 in. aperture, subse- quently replaced by one of 18 in. His unexpected conclu- sion was that the rotation of Mercury resembles that of the moon, in having its period equal to that of its orbital revolution. As the moon always presents the same face to the earth, so Mercury must, in this case, always present very nearly the same face to the sun. Schiaparelli also announced that the axis of rotation of the planet is nearly perpendicular to the plane of its orbit. The rotation being uniform, while the orbital motion, owing to the great eccentricity of the orbit, is affected by a very large inequality, it would follow that there is a libration in longitude of nearly 24 on each side of the mean position. Peraival Lowell in 1897 took up the question anew by combining a long series of measured diameters of the planet with drawings of its apparent surface. The seeming constancy of the surface appearance was considered to confirm the view of Schiaparelli as to the slow rotation of the planet. But there is wide room for doubt on the question. The period of orbital revolution of Mercury is nearly 88 days, or somewhat less than three months. Consequently, the period of synodic revolution is less than four months, during which the entire round of phases is completed. When near greatest elongation Mercury shines as a star of the first magnitude, or brighter; but in the latitudes of central and northern Europe it is so near the horizon soon after sunset as to be generally obscured by vapours or clouds. > The eccentricity of the orbit, 0-20, is far greater than that of any major planet, and nearly the average of that of the minor planets. Consequently, its distance and its greatest elongation from the sun vary widely with its position in its orbit at the time. The mass of Mercury can be determined only from its action upon Venus; this is so small that the result is doubtful. Leverrier adopted in his tables 1: 3,000,000 as the ratio of the mass of Mercury to that of the sun. S. Newcomb, from the action upon Venus, reduced this to one-half its amount, or 1 : 6,000,000. MERCURY 155 G. W. Hill, basing his conclusions on the probable density of the planet, estimated the mass to be less than 1 : 10,000,000 The adoption of a mass even as large as that of Newcomb implies a greater density than that of the earth, but it is not possible to estimate the probability that such is the case. The most interesting phenomenon connected with Mercury is that of its occasional transit over the disk of the sun at inferior conjunction. These occur only when the planet is near one of its nodes at the time. The earth, in its orbital revolution, passes through the line of the nodes of Mercury about the 8th of May and the 10th of November of each year. It is only near one of these times that a transit can occur. The periodic times of Mercury and the earth are such that the transits are generally repeated in a cycle of 46 years, during which 8 transits occur in May and 6 in November. The following table shows the Green- wich mean time of the middle of all the transits from 1677, the date of the first one accurately observed, until the end of the present century. Transits of Mercury from 1677 to 2003. h. 8 1677 Nov. 7 1845 May 8 1690 Nov. 9 18 1848 Nov. 9 2 1697 Nov. 2 18 1861 Nov. 11 20 1707 May 5 11 1868 Nov. 4 19 1710 Nov. 6 11 1878 May 6 7 1723 Nov. 9 5 1881 Nov. 7 "3 1736 Nov. 10 22 1891 May 9 H 1740 May 2 11 1894 Nov. 10 7 1743 Nov. 4 22 1907 Nov. 14 1753 May 5 18 1914 Nov. 7 1756 Nov. 6 16 1924 May 7 »4 1769 Nov. 9 10 1927 Nov. 9 18 1776 Nov. 2 10 1940 Nov. 11 11 1782 Nov. 12 3 1953 Nov. 14 5 1786 May 3 18 1957 May 5 13 1789 Nov. 5 3 i960 Nov. 7 5 1799 May 7 1 1970 May 8 20 1802 Nov. 8 21 1973 Nov. 9 23 1815 Nov. 11 15 1986 Nov. 12 16 1822 Nov. 4 14 1993 Nov. 5 16 1832 May 5 j 1999 1 Nov. 15 9 1835 Nov. 7 8 1 2003 May 6 19 of the node of Mercury is somewhat less than that computed from the gravitation of the known planets. The same is true of the node of Venus, which might also be affected by the same attraction. To produce the observed result, the inclination of the ring would have to be greater than that of the orbit of either Mercury or Venus. In 1895 Newcomb showed that the observed motions, both of the perihelion of Mercury and of the nodes of Mercury and Venus, could be approximately represented by the attraction of a ring of inter-mercurial bodies having a mean inch- nation of 9 and the mean node in 48 longitude. He also showed that if the ring was placed between the orbits of Mercury and Venus, the inclination would be 7-5° and the longitude of the node 35°. The fact that the zodiacal light appears to be near the ecliptic, and the belief that, if it were composed of a lens of discrete particles, their nodes would tend to scatter themselves equally around the invariable plane of the solar system, led him to drop these explanations as unsatisfactory, and to prefer provisionally the hypothesis that the sun's gravitation is not exactly as the inverse square. (See Gravitation.) In 1896 H. H. Seeliger made a more thorough investigation than his predecessor had done of the attraction of the matter producing the zodiacal light, assuming it to be formed of a series of ellipsoids. He showed that the motions of the nodes and perihelion could be satisfactorily represented in this way. The following are the three principal elements of the hypothetical orbits as found by the two investigators: — A perplexing problem is offered by the secular motion of the perihelion of Mercury. In 1845 Leverrier found that this motion, as derived from observation of the transits, was greater by 35" per century than it should be from the gravitation of all the other planets. This conclusion has been fully confirmed by subsequent investigations, a recent discussion showing the excess of motion to be 43' per century. It follows from this either that Mercury is acted upon by some unknown masses of matter, or that the intensity of gravitation does not precisely follow Newton's law. The most natural explanation was proposed by Leverrier, who attributed the excess of motion to, the action of a group of intra- Mercurial planets. At first this conclusion seemed to be con- firmed by the fact that occasional observations of the transit of a dark object over the sun had been observed. But no such observation was ever made by an experienced astronomer, and the frequent photographs of the sun, which have been taken at the Greenwich observatory and elsewhere since 1870, have never shown the existence of any such body. We may therefore regard it as certain that, if a group of intra-Mercurial planets exists, its members are too small to be seen when projected on the sun's disk. During the eclipses of 1900 and 1905 the astronomers of the Harvard and Lick Observatories photographed the sky in the neighbourhood of the sun so fully that the stars down to the 7th or 8th magnitude were imprinted on the plates. Careful examination failed to show the existence of any unknown body. It follows that if the group exists the members must be so small as to be entirely invisible. But in this case they must be so numerous that they should be visible as a diffused illumination on the sky after sunset. Such an illumination is shown by the zodiacal light. But such a group of bodies, if situated in the plane of the ecliptic, would produce a motion of the node of Mercury equal to that of its perihelion, while the observed motion 1 Mercury grazes sun's limb. Newcomb. Seeliger. Intra- Mercurial Ring. Ring between Mercury and Venus. Zodiacal Light Matter. Inclination . Node Mass jf1 7-5° , 35 1/37,000,000 6-95° 40-0* 1/2,860,000 The demonstration by E. W. Brown that the motion of the moon's perigee is exactly accordant with the Newtonian law of gravitation, seems to preclude the possibility of any deviation from that law, and renders the hypothesis of Seeliger the most probable one in the present state of knowledge. But the ques- tion is still an open one whether the zodiacal light has an inclina- tion of the ecliptic as great as that computed by Seeliger. This is a difficult one because the action on Mercury is produced by the inner portions of the matter producing the zodiacal light. These are so near the sun that they cannot be observed, unless possibly during a total eclipse. (S. N.) MERCURY (symbol Hg, atomic weight = 200) ,'in chemistry, a metallic element which is easily distinguished from all others by its being liquid at even the lowest temperatures naturally occur- ring in moderate climates. To this exceptional property it owes the synonyms of quicksilver in English (with the Germans Queck- silber is the only recognized name) and of hydrargyrum (from v8a>p, water, and apyvpos, silver) in Graeco-Latin. This metal does not appear to have been known to the ancient Jews, nor is it mentioned by the earlier Greek writers. Theophrastus (about 300 B.C.) mentions it as prepared from cinnabar by treatment with copper and vinegar; Dioscorides obtained it from the same mineral with the aid of iron, employing at the same time a primitive distillation apparatus. With the alche- mists it was a substance of great consequence. Its appearance commended it as a substance for investigation; many of its compounds, especially corrosive sublimate and calomel, were' studied, and improved methods for extracting and purifying the metal were devised. Being ignorant of its susceptibility of freezing into a compact solid, they did not recognize it as a true metal, and yet, on the authority of Geber, they held that mercury (meaning the predominating element in this metal) enters into the composition of all metals, and is the very cause of their metallicity (see Element). When, about the beginning of the 16th century, chemistry and scientific medicine came to merge into one, this same mysterious element of " mercury " played a great part in the theories of pathology; and the metal, i 5 o MERCURY in the free as in certain combined states, came to be looked upon as a powerful medicinal agent. Occurrence. — Mercury occurs in nature chiefly in the form of a red sulphide, HgS, called cinnabar (q.v.), which, as a rule, is accompanied by more or less of the reguline metal — the latter being probably derived from the former by some secondary reaction. The most important mercury mines in Europe are those of Almaden in Spain and of Idria in Illyria; and in America those of California and Texas. Deposits also occur in Russia, the Bavarian palatinate, in Hungary, Italy, Transylvania, Bohemia, Mexico, Peru and in some other countries. Mercury occurs in formations of all ages from the Archean to the Quaternary, and it has been found in both sedimentary and eruptive rocks of the most varied character, e.g. conglomerates, sandstones, shales, limestones, quartzites, slates, serpentines, crystalline schists, and eruptive rocks from the most acid to the most basic. It appears that nearly all known deposits occur along lines of continental uplift, where active shearing of the formations has occurred. Large deposits are seldom found in eruptive rocks, but generally near such formations or near active or extinct hot springs. The deposits are of many types, simple fissure veins being less usual than compound, reticulated, or linked veins. Segregations and impregnations are very common. The form of the deposit seems to depend chiefly on the physical properties and structure of the enclosing rocks and the nature of the fissure systems that result from their disturbance. The principal ore is cinnabar, though metacinnabarite and native mercury are often abundant; the selenide (tiemannite), chloride, and iodide are rare. Of the associated heavy minerals, pyrite (or marcasite) is almost universal, and chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite, blende and realgar are frequent. Many deposits contain traces of gold and silver, and some deposits, as the Mercur in Utah, are more valuable for their gold than their mercury content. The usual gangue-forming minerals are quartz, dolomite, calcite, barite, fluorspar and various zeolites. Some form of bituminous matter is one of the most universal and intimate associates of cinnabar. Formerly quicksilver deposits were supposed to be formed by sublimation, but from a careful study of the California occurrences S. B. Christy was convinced as early as 1875 that this was unlikely, and that deposition from hot alkaline sulphide solutions was more probable. By treating the black mercuric sulphide with such solutions, hot and under pressure, he succeeded in producing artificial cinnabar and metacinnabarite. He also showed that the mineral water at the New Almaden mines, when charged with sulphydric acid and heated under pressure, was capable of effecting the same change, and that this method of pro- duction agreed better with all the facts than the sublimation theory. (See " Genesis of Cinnabar Deposits," Amer. Jour. Science, xvii. 453.) The investigations of Dr G. F. Becker on the " Quicksilver Deposits of the Pacific " (U.S. Geol. Survey, Mon. xiii., 1888) estab- lished the correctness of these views beyond doubt. Production. — At one time the world's supply of mercury was almost entirely derived from the Almaden and Idrian mines; but now the greater proportion is produced in California and Texas, where cinnabar was used by the Indians as a pigment, and first turned to metallurgical purpose in 1845 by Castellero. In the United States mercury has also been found in Utah, Nevada, Oregon and Arizona. In the 16th century the Almaden and Idrian mines were practically the only producers of this metal; statistics of Almaden dating from 1564 and of Idria since 1525 are given in B. Neumann, Die Metalle (1904). Spain produced 1151 metric tons in 1870, and in 1889 its maximum of 1975 tons; since then it has, on the whole; been decreasing. The Austria-Hungary output steadily increased to about 550-600 tons at which it appears to remain. In 1887 Russia produced 64 tons, and has steadily improved. The United States output was over 1000 tons, in 187 1, and declined to 800-900 in the period 1889-1892; it has since increased and surpassed the supply from Spain. The following table gives the production in various countries for selected years: — Spain. United States. Russia. Austria- Hungary. Italy. Mexico. Total (Metric Tons). 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 754 H25 914 1020 800 1031 1208 1288 1 192 1043 368 416 362 393 3i8 558 556 567 58i 564 278 259 314 357 370 128 191 188 190 l 190 1 3120 4056 3633 3733 3285 1 Estimated. Mercury is transported in steel bottles closed by a screw stopper; the Almaden and Idrian bottles contain 76 lb; and until the 1st of June 1904, the Californian bottles contained 76§ lb of mercury; they now hold 75 lb. From the smaller works the metal is sometimes sent out in sheepskin bags holding 55 lb of mercury. Metallurgy. — Chemically speaking, the extraction of mercury from its ores is a simple matter. Metallic mercury is easily volati- lized, and separated from the gangue, at temperatures far below redness, and cinnabar at a red heat is readily reduced to the metallic state by the action of iron or lime or atmospheric oxygen, the sulphur being eliminated, in the first case as iron sulphide, in the second as calcium sulphide and sulphate, in the third as sulphur dioxide. A close iron retort would at first suggest itself as the proper kind of apparatus for carrying out these operations, and this idea was,' at one time, acted upon in a few small establishments — for instance, in that of Zweibriicken in the Palatinate, where lime was used as a decomposing agent; but the method has now been discarded. In all the large works the decomposition of the cinnabar is effected by the direct exposure of the ore to the oxidizing flame of a furnace, and the mercury vapour, which gets diffused through an immense mass of combustion gases, is recovered in more or less imperfect condensers. With the exception of the massive deposits of Almaden in Spain and a few of those in California and Idria, cinnabar occurs in forms so disseminated as to mate its mining very expensive. Rude hand- sorting of the ores is usually practised. Wet concentration has not been successful, because it necessitates ore crushing and extensive slime losses of the brittle cinnabar. As a rule low-grade ores can be roasted directly with less loss and expense. At Almaden in Spain the ores average from 5 to 7 %, but in other parts of the world much poorer ores have to be treated. In California, in spite of the high cost of labour, improved furnaces enable ores containing not more than § % to be mined and roasted at a profit. The furnaces originally used at Almaden and Idria differ only in the condensing plant. The roasting was carried out in internally fired, vertical shafts of brickwork, and, at Almaden, the vapours were led through a series of bottles named aludels, so arranged that the neck of one entered the sole of the next ; and at Idria the vapours were led into large brickwork chambers lined with cement, and there condensed. The aludel furnace, which was designed in 1633 by Lopez Saavedra Barba in Huancavelica, Peru (where cinnabar was discovered in 1566), and introduced at Almaden in 1646 by Busta- mente, by whose name it is sometimes known, has now been entirely given up. The Idrian furnace was designed in 1787 by von Leithner; it was introduced at Almaden in 1800 by Larrafiaga, and used side by side with the aludel furnace. The crude mercury is purified by straining through dense linen or chamois leather bags. The most important improvements in the metallurgy of mercury are the introduction of furnaces for treating coarse ores, and the replacement of the old discontinuous furnaces by those which work continuously. The most successful of these continuous furnaces was a modification of Count Rumford's continuous lime- kiln. This furnace was introduced at New Almaden by J. B- Randol, the author of many improvements in the metallurgy of mercury. The success of the continuous coarse-ore furnace at New Almaden led Randol to attempt the continuous treatment of fine ores also, and the Huettner and Scott continuous fine-ore furnace, which was the result of these experiments solved the problem com- pletely. It contains several vertical shafts in which the descending ore is retarded at will by inclined shelving, which causes it to be exposed to the flames as long as may be necessary to roast it thor- oughly. The time of treatment is determined by the rapidity with which the roasted ore is withdrawn at the bottom. Several similar furnaces are in use, as the Knox and Osborne, the Livermore and the Cormak-Spirek. The fumes from the roasting furnaces are received in masonry chambers, usually provided with water-cooled pipes; from these they pass through earthenware pipes, and finally through others of wood and glass. Not all the yield is in liquid mercury ; much of it is entangled in masses of soot that cover the condenser walls, and this is only recovered after much labour. The conditions for effective condensation are: (1) The furnace gases should be well oxidized, to avoid the production of an excess of soot. Gas firing would meet this requirement better than the use of wood or coal. (2) The volume of permanent gases passing through the furnace should be reduced to a minimum consistently witrr complete oxidation. (3) The cross-section of the condensers should be sufficient to reduce the velocity of the escaping gases, and the surface large enough for cooling and for the adhesion of condensed mercury. The latter requirement is best provided for by hanging wooden aprons in the path of the cooled gases. (4) The temperature of the escaping gases should not exceed 15 to 20° C, but cooling below this temperature would not give any adequate return for the expense. Cooling by water is quicker, but more expensive than by air. Water sprays, acting directly on the fumes, have not given good results, on account of the difficulty of recovering " floured " quicksilver from the water. (5) The use of an artificial inward draught is absolutely necessary to control the operation of the MERCURY r 57 furnaces and condensers and to avoid the salivation of the workmen. (6) The condenser should be easily and quickly cleaned during the operation of the furnace. (7) Both furnaces and condensers should have inclined iron plates in their foundations to prevent the infiltra- tion of mercury. (8) There is a great need of some substance for the construction of quicksilver condensers which shall be strong enough to be made thin, be a good conductor of heat, and resistant to abrasion and the alternate action of heat and cold. It should also resist the action of mercury and warm dilute sulphuric acid, and be not too expensive. Quicksilver is best removed from the " soot," not by pressure, but by the opposite treatment. A machine in use for this purpose at New Almaden, devised by Colonel von Leicht, consists of an iron bowl, perforated at the bottom, in which revolves a vertical shaft carrying a propeller blade which tosses the soot (mixed with wood ashes and a little coal oil) into the air, so that the entangled mercury is free to run out through the bottom of the bowl. The residue from which no more mercury can be extracted mechanically is returned to the roasting furnace. The losses of treatment are: (1) Furnace loss, which is easily reduced to nothing, and (2) condenser loss, which can never be zero. The latter consists of mercury lost as vapour and as mist, and its minimum amount is determined not by the richness of the ore but by the volume of escaping gases, their velocity and temperature. The percentage of loss will be higher with a poor than a rich ore. On a 3 % ore the losses need not exceed 3 or 4 % ore content. On a 1 % ore they will run from 5 to 10 %. But in poorly arranged plants under bad management they may easily be doubled or even trebled. The Huettner and Scott fine-ore furnace costs with condensers in California about $30,000, and roasts from 30 to 45 tons of ore (from 2 J in. to dust) in- 24 hours at a cost of from $1 to $0-62 per ton. Purification. — Commercial mercury, as a rule, only needs to be forced through chamois leather or allowed to run though a very fine hole to become fit for all ordinary applications; but the metal, having the power of dissolving most other metals, is very liable to get contaminated, and requires then to be purified. For this purpose many chemical methods have been proposed; the commonest consist in allowing the metal to fall in a very fine stream through a column of a mixture of nitric acid and mercurous nitrate, or of sulphuric acid, or of potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid; the metal being subsequently dried and filtered through a perforated paper filter. The only really exhaustive method is distillation in a vacuum out of a glass apparatus. Many forms of apparatus have been devised to effect this. Recent researches have shown, however, that the metal so obtained is not chemically pure, there being found in the distillate traces of other metals. Absolutely pure mercury does not at all adhere to any surface which does not consist of a metal soluble in mercury. Hence the least quantity of it, when placed on a sheet of paper, forms a neatly rounded-off globule, which retains its form on being rolled about, and, when subdivided, breaks up into a number of equally perfect globules, which tend to coalesce when sufficiently near to each other. The presence in it of the minutest trace of lead or tin causes it to " draw tails." A very impure metal may adhere even to glass, and in a glass vessel, instead of the normal convex, form an irregular flat meniscus. Properties. — Pure mercury is a freely flowing liquid, which does not wet objects placed in it, and has a silvery white colour and perfect metallic lustre; in very thin layers it transmits a bluish-violet light. It freezes at about - 39° C. (Mallet gives - 38-85°; Hutchins, - 39-44°) with contraction, and the forma- tion of a white, very ductile and .malleable mass, easily cut with a knife, and exhibiting crystals belonging to the cubic system. When heated the metal expands very uniformly, and vaporizes at about 360°; the volatility is generally increased by the presence of impurities; its high expansion and the wide range of temperature over which it is fluid render it especially valuable as a thermometric fluid (see Thermometry). The vapour is colourless, and its density points to the conclusion that the mole-* cules are monatomic. Its specific gravity at 0° is 13-5959, i.e. it is about half as heavy again as copper volume for volume, a quarter as heavy again as lead, and nearly twice as heavy as zinc; this property is turned to account in the construction of barometers and air-pumps. Its specific heat is about 0-0333 (see Calorimetry) ; its electrical conductivity is involved in the definition of the ohm (see Conduction, Electric) ; and its thermal conductivity is about two thirds that of silver. Pure mercury remains unchanged in dry air, oxygen, nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide, ammonia and some other gases at ordinary temperatures; hence its application for collecting and measuring gases. In damp air it slowly becomes coated with a film of mercurous oxide; and when heated for some time in air or oxygen it becomes transformed into the red mercuric oxide, which decomposes into mercury and oxygen when heated to a higher temperature; this reaction is of great historical impor- tance, since it led to the discovery of oxygen at the hands of Priestley and Scheele. The halogen elements and sulphur combine directly with the metal. Mercuty is unattacked by dilute sulphuric acid; the strong acid, however, dissolves it on heating with the formation of sulphur dioxide and mercurous or mercuric sulphate according as mercury is in excess or not. Hydrochloric acid has no action. Dilute nitric add readily attacks it, mercurous nitrate being formed in the cold with excess of mercury, mercuric nitrate with excess of acid, or with strong acid, in the warm. The metal dissolves in solutions containing chlorine or bromine, and consequently in aqua regia. Mercury readily dissolves many metals to form a class of com- pounds termed amalgams, which have considerable applications in the arts. Compounds of Mercury. Mercury forms two well-defined series of salts — the mercurous salts derived from the oxide Hg20, and the mercuric salts from the oxide HgO; the existence of these salts can hardly be inseparably connected with a variable valency, i.e. that mercury is monovalent in mercurous, and divalent in mercuric compounds, for according to Baker mercurous chloride or calomel (g.f.) has the formula Hg 2 Cl 2 . Mercurous Oxide, HgjO, is an unstable dark-brown powder formed when caustic potash acts on calomel; it is decomposed by light or on trituration into mercury and mercuric oxide Mercuric oxide, HgO, occurs in two forms : it is obtained as a bright-red crystalline powder (also known as " red precipitate," or as mercurius praecipi- tatus per se) by heating the metal in air, or by calcining the nitrate, and as an orange-yellow powder by precipitating a solution of a mercuric salt with potash ; the difference is probably one of subdivi- sion. The yellow form is the most reactive and is transformed into the red when heated to 400 °. If the red oxide be heated it becomes black, regaining its colour on cooling, and on further heating to 630° it decomposes into, mercury and oxygen. It is slightly soluble in water, to which it imparts an alkaline reaction and strongly metallic taste. A peroxide is obtained as a brown solid from mercury and slightly acid 30 % hydrogen peroxide at low temperatures. Mercurous and mercuric chlorides, known respectively as calomel (q.v.) and corrosive sublimate (q.v.), are two of the most important salts of mercury. Mercurous bromide, Hg 2 Br2, is a yellowish- white powder, insoluble in water. Mercuric bromide, HgBft, forms white crystals, sparingly soluble in cold water, readily in hot, and prepared by the direct union of its components. Mercurous iodide, Hg2la, is a yellowish-green powder obtained by heating its components to about 250°, or by triturating them with a little alcohol; it is also obtained by precipitating a solution of mercurous nitrate with potassium iodide. It is blackened by exposure to light. Mercuric iodide, Hgl2, exists in two crystalline forms. By mixing solutions of mercuric chloride and potassium iodide under a microscope, yellow rhombic plates are seen to be formed which are transformed very quickly into scarlet quadratic octahedra. On heating to about 126 the red form is transformed into the yellow modification; on cooling the reverse gradually occurs, and immediately if the yellow iodide be touched. Mercuric iodide is insoluble in water, but soluble in absolute alcohol; and also in potassium iodide solution, with the formation of KjHgl4, which may be obtained in lemon-yellow crystals. A strongly alkaline solution of this salt is known as Nessler's reagent, and is specially used for determining traces of ammonia (see below). Mercuric iodide dissolves in other iodide solutions to form similar compounds; these solutions are characterized by their exceptionally high specific gravity, and hence are employed in density deter- minations (see Density). It also forms many other double salts. Oxidation with strong nitric acid gives the iodate, Hg(IOs)s. An iodide, Hg2l 8 , intermediate between mercurous and mercuric iodides, is obtained as a yellow insoluble powder by precipitating mercurous nitrate with a solution of iodine in potassium iodide. Mercurous fluoride, HgjF2, and mercuric fluoride, HgF2, are unstable substances obtained from the corresponding oxide and hydrofluoric acid. Mercurous Nitrate, Hg2(N0s)2 • 2H2O, is obtained as a white crystalline salt soluble in water by dissolving the metal in cold dilute nitric acid; if the metal be in excess a basic salt Hg 2 (NOa)2 . 2HG2O. 3H2O is obtained. Several other basic salts are known. By adding ammonia to a solution of mercurous nitrate a black precipitat* of variable composition, known in pharmacy as mercurius solubilis Hahnemanni, is obtained. Mercuric Nitrate. — By dissolving mercuric oxide in strong nitric acid there is obtained a thick liquid which will not crystallize, and which gives on the addition of strong nitric acid a white precipitate of 2Hg(N0 3 ) 2 . H 2 0. Water decomposes it to_ give basic salts of variable composition. By dissolving the oxide in dilute nitric acid, the basic salt Hg(N0 3 )2 ■ HgO . H 2 0, crystallizing in needles, is obtained. Mercurous Sulphide, HgzS, is an unstable black powder obtained by acting with sulphuretted hydrogen, diluted with carbon dioxide, on calomel at -10°. It decomposes into mercuric sulphide and mercury at 0°. Mercuric sulphide, HgS, is one of the most important i 5 8 MERCURY mercury compounds; it is the principal ore, occurring in nature as the mineral cinnabar (q.v.), and is extensively used as a pigment, vermilion (q.v.). It is obtained as a black powder by triturating mercury with sulphur, the compound thus formed being known in pharmacy as Aethiops mineralis, and also by precipitating a mercuric salt with sulphuretted hydrogen. It is only slightly acted upon by nitric acid; it dissolves in aqua regia; chlorine gives a yellow compound, 2HgS . HgCl 2 ; and it dissolves in potassium sulphide solutions to form double salts of variable composition. Mercurous Sulphate, Hg 2 S04, is a white, sparingly soluble, crystal- line substance obtained by adding sodium sulphate to a solution of jnercurous nitrate. Mercuric sulphate, HgS04, is a white, soluble salt obtained by dissolving mercury in hot strong sulphuric acid; on digestion with water, it decomposes into a basic salt HgSO< . 2HgO known as turbith or turpeth mineral, and into an acid salt, HgSO< . 2SO3. Mercury Phosphide, Hg 3 P 2 , is obtained as brilliant red, hexagonal crystals by heating mercury with phosphorus iodide to 300 and removing the mercuric iodide simultaneously formed by means of potassium iodide solution. Mercurous phosphate, Hg 3 P04, and mercuric phosphate, Hg 3 (P04) 2 , are obtained as white precipitates by adding sodium phosphate to solutions of mercurous and mercuric nitrates respectively. Mercurammonium Compounds. — By the action of ammonia and ammonium salts mercury compounds yield a number of substances, many of which have long been used in medicine. By the action of dry ammonia on calomel mercuroso-ammonium chloride, NH 3 HgCl, is obtained; aqueous ammonia on calomel gives di- mercuroso-ammonium chloride, NH 2 Hg 2 Cl. By adding ammonia to a solution of mercuric chloride, mercurammonium chloride, known in pharmacy as " infusible white precipitate," NH 2 HgCl, is obtained; "fusible white precipitate" is mercuro-diammonium chloride, Hg(NH 3 Cl) 2 , and is obtained by adding a solution of mercuric chloride to hot solutions of ammonium chloride and ammonia so long as the precipitate first formed redissolves; the substance separates out on cooling. By precipitating a strongly alkaline solution of mercuric iodidejn potassium iodide (Nessler's solution) there is obtained a yellow precipitate of NH 2 Hg 2 OI ; this reaction is the most delicate test for ammonia, a yellow coloration being given by minute traces. By passing dry ammonia over pre- cipitated mercuric oxide at 130 , a nitride N 2 Hg 3 is obtained. The oxide and ammonia solution gives the stable and basic mercur- hydroxylamine, NHg 2 OH. The constitution of these compounds has been especially studied by K. A. Hofmann and E. C. Marburg (Zeit. Anorg. Chem. 23, p. 126); these chemists formulate " infusible precipitate " as Hg(NH 2 )Cl, " fusible precipitate " as Hg(NH 3 Cl) 2 " Millon's base" as (HO . Hg) 2 :NH 2 OH, thus postulating three distinct types of compounds, (1) amidochlorides ; (2) amines; (3) substituted ammonium derivatives. Analysis. — Mercury compounds, when heated in a closed tube with sodium carbonate, yield a grey to black sublimate of metallic mercury, which readily unites to form visible globules. The metal is precipitated from solutions by digestion with bright copper-foil, a coating being formed on the copper, which becomes silvery on rubbing, and disappears when the quicksilvered copper is heated irt a sublimation tube. Solutions of mercurous salts with hydrochloric acid give a white precipitate of calomel, which becomes jet-black on treatment with ammonia. Stannous chloride, in its twofold capacity as a chloride and a reducing agent, precipitates both mercurous and mercuric solutions, at first as calomel, and on addition of an excess of reagent the precipitate becomes grey through-conversion into finely-divided quicksilver. Sulphuretted hydrogen, when added very gradually to an acid mercuric solution, gives at first an almost white pre- cipitate, which, on addition of more and more reagent, assumes successively a yellow, orange and at last jet-black colour. The black precipitate is HgS, which is identified by its great heaviness, and by being insoluble in boiling nitric and in boiling hydrochloric acid. A mixture of the two (aqua regia) dissolves it as chloride. " Mercurous " mercury is quantitatively estimated by precipitat- ing as calomel and weighing the precipitate on a tared filter at 100 . The metal may also be estimated by distillation in a closed tube with lime, the metal being collected and weighed, or by precipitating the solution with an excess of stannous chloride. More convenient is the method of precipitating as sulphide by an excess of sulphuretted hydrogen, and weighing the precipitate on a tared filter; or by means of a Gooch crucible. Pharmacology and Therapeutics The use of mercury as a therapeutic agent is of comparatively recent date. To the Greeks and Romans its value was unknown, and the Arabian physicians only used it for skin affections. It was not till the middle of the 16th century that the special pro- perties of mercury were fully appreciated, but since that time the metal has continued to hold a high though fluctuating value as a medicine. At first the metal in a finely divided state or in vapour was used; but very soon its various compounds were found to be endowed with powers even greater than those of the metal itself, and with the discovery of new compounds the number of mercurial medicines has largely increased. The British Pharmacopeia contains some twenty-five mercurial preparations, including those of calomel (q.v.). Only the useful preparations will be mentioned here. Free mercury is contained in Hydrargyrum cum Creta, or " grey powder," which consists of one part of mercury to two of prepared chalk. The power of this valuable and widely used preparation varies somewhat with its age, as old specimens contain some mercuric oxide, which makes them more active. The dose is 1-5 gr., and the preparation is usually employed for children. The Pilula Hydrargyri, or " blue pill, ' contains one part of mercury in three, and the dose is 4-8 gr. It is usually employed for adults. There are also five preparations of free mercury for external use. Of these the most useful is the Unguentum Hydrargyri, " or blue ointment," which contains one part of mercury in two. Weaker ointments are also prepared from the red and the yellow forms of mercuric oxide. The perchloride of mercury or corrosive sublimate is therapeutically the most im- portant salt of mercury. The dose is s^-A gr. It is incompatible with alkalies, alkaline carbonates, potassium iodide, albumen and many other substances, and should therefore be prescribed alone. It is decomposed by impure water, and distilled water is therefore used in making the Liquor Hydrargyri Perchloridi, in which form it is usually prescribed. This contains half a grain of the perchloride to the fluid ounce and its dose is 30-60 minims. The perchloride is also compounded with lime-water to form the Lotio Hydrargyri Flava, or yellow wash," which contains two grains of the salt to the fluid ounce. Mercuric iodide is an equally potent salt and has come into wide use of late years. It has the same dose as the perchloride and is largely prescribed in the Liquor Arsenii et Hydrargyri Iodidi, or Donovan's solution, which contains I % of arsenious iodide and I % of mercuric iodide, the dose being 5-20 minims. An ointment widely used is prepared from the mercur- ammonium chloride (Unguentum Hydrargyri ammoniatum) of which it contains one part in ten. It is known as " white precipitate ointment." In discussing the pharmacology of mercury and its compounds, it is of the first importance to observe that metallic mercury is inert as such, and that the same may practically be said of mercurous salts generally. Both mercury itself and mercurous salts tend to be converted in the body into mercuric salts, to which the action is due. When metallic mercury is triturated or exposed to air it is partly oxidized, the first stage of its transformation to an active condition being thus reached. Metallic mercury can be absorbed by the skin, passing in minute globules through the ducts of the sweat-glands. The mercury contained in " blue ointment " is certainly thus absorbed, actually circulating in the blood in a very different form, as described below. There is no local action on the skin. The mercuric salts, and espe- cially the chloride and iodide, are probably the most powerful of all known antiseptics. One part of the perchloride in 500,000 will prevent the growth of anthrax bacilli, and one part in 2000 — the strength commonly employed in surgery — kills all known bacteria. The action is apparently specific and not due to the fact that per- chloride of mercury precipitates albumen, including the albuminous bodies of bacteria, for the iodide is still more powerful as a germicide, though it does not coagulate albumen. These salts cannot be employed for sterilizing metallic instruments, which they tarnish. As these drugs are essentially poisons they must be used with the greatest care in surgical practice, and as they are particularly dele- terious to the secreting structure of the kidney they must not be employed as antiseptics in diseases where renal inflammation is already present or probable. They are therefore contra-indicated for application to the throat in scarlet-fever or to the uterus in eclampsia. The stronger mercurial ointments kill cutaneous para- sites and also possess some degree of antipruritic action, especially when the cause of the itching is somewhat obscure. Mercuric salts, when in strong solution, are caustic. It is important to observe •that the volatility of metallic mercury and many of its compounds causes their absorption by the lungs even when no such effect is intended to follow their external application. This fact explains the occurrence of chronic mercurial poisoning in certain trades. Single doses of mercury or its compounds have no action upon the mouth, the characteristic salivation being produced only after many doses. Their typical action on the bowel is purgative, the effect varying with the state of the mercury. So relatively inert is metallic mercury that a pound of it has been given without ill effects in cases of intestinal obstruction, which it was hoped to relieve by the mere weight of the metal. Half a grain of the perchloride, on the other hand, is a highly toxic dose. The action of mercurials on the bowel is mostly exerted on the duodenum and jejunum, though the lower part of the bowel is slightly affected. Hence a dose of mercury usually needs a saline aperient to complete its action, as in the " blue pill and black draught " of former days. Mercurials do not cause, in therapeutic doses, much increase in the intestinal secretion, the action being mainly exerted on the muscular wall of the bowel. The bile is rapidly removed from the duodenum, before any re-absorption can occur, and the bacterial action which MERCY, F.— MERCY-ARGENTEAU *S9 decomposes the bile-pigment is arrested by the antiseptic power of the drug, so that the excreta are of a very dark colour. The classical experiments of William Rutherford (1839-1899), of Edinburgh, showed that calomel does not increase the amount of bile formed by the liver. Corrosive sublimate does, however, stimulate the liver to a slight degree. The value of calomel in hepatic torpor is as an excretory, not a secretory, cholagogue, the gall-bladder being stimulated to expel its stagnant contents. In large doses mercurials somewhat diminish the secretion of bile. The greater part of the mercury administered by the mouth, in whatever form, is excreted as mercuric sulphide. Prior to this decomposition the mercury exists as a complex soluble compound with sodium, chlorine and albumen. When perchloride of mercury is injected subcutaneously the sodium chloride in the blood similarly prevents the precipitation of the albuminate of mercury, and it is therefore desirable to add a little sodium chloride to the solution for injection of mercuric chloride. Some observers assert that mercury is a haematinic, increasing, like iron, the amount of haemoglobin in the blood. Whilst this is doubtful it is certain that large doses, when continued, produce marked anaemia. The excretion of the drug is accomplished by all the secreting glands, including the breasts, if these are functioning. All the secretions of the body, except that of the peptic glands of the stomach, are stimulated, but the excretion of mercury is slow, and it is typically one of the drugs that are cumulative, like arsenic and digitalis. Mercury is largely used in affections of the alimentary canal, and has an obscure but unquestionable value in many cases of heart- disease and arterial degeneration. But its value in syphilis (see Venereal Diseases) far outweighs all its other uses. Toxicology. — Acute poisoning by mercurials usually occurs in the case of corrosive sublimate. There is intense gastro-intestinal inflammation, with vomiting, frequent " rice-water " stools and extreme collapse. The treatment, except when the case is seen at once, is very difficult, but white-of-egg or other form of albumen is the antidote, forming an insoluble compound with the perchloride. Chronic poisoning (hydrargyrism or mercurialism) is of great importance, since any indication of its symptoms must be closely watched for in patients who are under mercurial treatment. Usually the first symptom is slight tenderness of the teeth whilst eating, and some foetor of the breath. These symptoms become more marked and the gums become the seat of severe inflammation, being spongy, vascular and prone to bleed. The salivary glands are swollen and tender, and the saliva pours from the mouth, "and may amount to pints in the course of a day. The teeth become quite loose and may fall out. The symptoms are aggravated until the tongue and mouth ulcerate, the jaw-bone necroses, haemorrhages occur in various parts of the body, and the patient dies of anaemia, septic inflamma- tion or exhaustion. The treatment consists, besides stopping the intake of poison and relieving the symptoms, in the administration of potassium iodide in small, often repeated doses. Bibliography. — For the history of mercury see B. Neumann, Die Metalle (1904); A. Rossing, Geschichte der Metalle (1901). The general chemistry is treated in detail in O. Dammer, Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie, and H. Moissan, Traili de chimie min&rale. For the metallurgy reference may be made to Carl Schnabel, Hand- book of Metallurgy, vol. ii. (1906), translated by H. Louis. MERCY (or Merci), FRANZ, Freiherr von, lord of Mandre and Collenburg (d. 1645), German general in the Thirty Years' War, who came of a noble family of Lorraine, was born at Longwy between 1590 and 1598. From 1606 to 1630 he was engaged in the imperial service. By the latter year he had attained high military rank, and after distinguishing himself at the first battle of Breitenfeld (1631) he commanded a regiment of foot on the Rhine and defended Rheinfelden against the Swedes with the utmost bravery, surrendering only after endur- ing a five-months' siege. He now became a general officer of cavalry (General-Feldwachtmeister), and in 1635, 1636 and 1637 took part in further campaigns on the Rhine and Doubs. In September 1638 he was made master-general of ordnance in the army of Bavaria, then the second largest army in Germany. In the next campaign he was practically commander-in-chief of the Bavarians, and at times also of an allied army of Imperialists and Bavarians. He was now considered one of the foremost soldiers in Europe, and was made general field marshal in 1643, when he won his great victory over the French marshal Rantzau at Tuttlingen (Nov. 24-25), capturing the marshal and seven thousand men. In the following year Mercy opposed the French armies, now under the duke of Enghien (afterwards the great Conde) and the vicomte de Turenne. He fought, and in the end lost, the desperate bat le of Freiburg, but revenged himself next year by inflicting upon Turenne the defeat of Mergentheim (Marienthal) . Later in 1 645 , fighting once more against Enghien and Turenne, Mercy was killed at the battle of Nordlingen (or Allerheim) at the crisis of the engagement, which, even without Mercy's guiding hand, was almost a drawn battle. He died on the 3rd of August 1645. On the spot where he fell, Enghien erected a memorial, with the inscription Sta viator, heroem caicas. His grandnephew Claudius Florimond, Count Mercy de Villets (1666-1734), Imperial field marshal, son of his brother Kaspar, who fell at Freiburg, was born in Lorraine, and entered the Austrian army as a volunteer in 1682. He won his com- mission at the great battle of Vienna in the following year; and during seven years of campaigning in Hungary rose to the rank of Rittmeister. A wound sustained at this time permanently injured his sight. For five years more, up to 1697, he was employed in the Italian campaigns, then he was called back to Hungary by Prince Eugene and won on the field of Zenta two grades of promotion. He displayed great daring in the first campaigns of the Spanish Succession War in Italy, twice fell into the hands of the enemy in fights at close quarters and for his conduct at the surprise of Cremona (Jan. 31, 1702) received the emperor's thanks and the proprietary colonelcy of a newly raised cuirassier regiment. With this he took part in the Rhine campaign of 1703, and the battle of Friedlingen, and his success as an intrepid leader of raids and forays became well known to friend and foe. He was on that account selected early in 1704 to harry the elector of Bavaria's dominions. He was soon afterwards promoted General-Feldwachtmeister, in which rank he was engaged in the battle of the Schellenberg (July 2, 1704). In the rest of the war he was often distinguished by his fiery courage. He rose to be general of cavalry in the course of these ten years. His resolute leadership was conspicuous at the battle of Peterwardein (1716) and he was soon afterwards made commander of the Banat of Temesv&r. At the great battle of Belgrade (1717) he led the second line of left wing cavalry in a brilliant and decisive charge which drove the Turks to their trenches. After the peace he resumed the administra- tion of the Banat, which after more than 150 years of Turkish rule needed a humane and capable governor. But before his work was done he was once more called away to a command in the field, this time in southern Italy, where he fought the battle of Franca villa (June 20, 1719), took Messina and besieged Palermo. For eleven years more he administered the Banat, reorganizing the country as a prosperous and civilized com- munity. In 1734 he was made a general field marshal in the army, but on the 29th of June was killed at the battle of Parma while personally leading his troops. He left no children, and his name passed to Count Argenteau, from whom came the family of Mercy- Argenteau (see below). MERCY (adapted from Fr. merci, Lat. merces, reward), compassion, pardon, pity or forgiveness. The Latin word was used in the early Christian ages for the reward that is given in heaven to those who have shown kindness without hope of return. The French word, except in such phrases as Dieu merci, sans merci, is principally used in the sense of " thanks," and is seen in the old English expression " gramercy," i.e. grant merci, great, many thanks, which Johnson took for " grant me mercy." In the medieval Church there were seven " corporal " and seven "spiritual works of mercy" (opera misericordiae); these were (a) the giving of food to the hungry and drink to the thirsty, the clothing of the naked, the visitation of the sick and of prisoners, the receiving of strangers, and the burial of the dead; (b) the conversion of sinners, teaching of the ignorant, giving of counsel to the doubtful, forgiveness of injuries, patience under wrong, prayer for the living and for the dead. The order "bf the Sisters of Mercy is a religious sisterhood of the Roman Church. It is found chiefly in England and Ireland, but there are branches in the United States of America, in South America and in Aus- tralia and New Zealand. It was founded in 1827 in Dublin by Miss Catherine McAuley (1787-1841). The object was to per- form the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. MERCY-ARGENTEAU, FLORIMOND CLAUDE, Comte de (1727-1794), Austrian diplomatist, son of Antoine, comte de Mercy-Argenteau, entered the diplomatic service of Austria, going to Paris in the train of Prince Kaunitz. He became i6o MERE— MEREDITH Austrian minister at Turin, at St Petersburg, and in 1766 at Paris, where his first work was to strengthen the alliance between France and Austria, which was cemented in 1770 by the marriage of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XVI., with Marie Antoinette, daughter of the empress Maria Theresa. When four years later Louis and Marie Antoinette ascended the throne, Mercy-Argen- teau became one of the most powerful personages at the French court. He was in Paris during the turbulent years which heralded the Revolution, and his powerful aid was given first to Lomenie de Brienne, and then to Necker. In 1702 he became governor-general of the Belgian provinces, which had just been reduced to obedience by Austria, and here his ability and experi- ence made him a very successful ruler. Although at first in favour of moderate courses, Mercy-Argenteau supported the action of Austria in making war upon his former ally after the outbreak of the Revolution, and in July 1794 he was appointed Austrian ambassador to Great Britain, but he died a few days after his arrival in London. See T. Juste, Le Comte de Mercy-Argenteau (Brussels 1863); A. von Arneth and A. Geoffroy, Correspondances secretes de Marie Thirese avec le comte de Mercy (Paris 1874) ; and A. von Arneth and J. Flammermont, Correspondance secrete de Mercy avec Joseph II. et Kaunitz (Paris 1889-1891). Mercy-Argenteau's Correspondances secretes de Marie There.se has been condensed and translated into English by Lilian Smythe under the title of A Guardian of Marie Antoinette {2 vols., London 1902). HERE. 1. (From Lat. merus, pure, unmixed; O. Fr. mier), an adjective primarily indicating something pure and unmixed; thus " mere wine " implied pure and unadulterated wine, as " mere folly " expressed folly pure and simple. Modern usage has, however ; given both to the adjective " mere " and the adverb " merely " a deprecatory and disparaging idea, so that expressions like " the mere truth," a " mere statement of fact," &c, often convey the impression that they are far from being " mere " in the sense of " entire " or " absolute," but are, on the contrary, fragmentary and incomplete. The earlier idea of the word is retained in some legal phrases, especially in the phrase " mere motion,'' that is, of one's own initiative without help or sugg^tion from the outside. Another legal phrase is " mere right" (law Latin jus merum), i.e. right without possession. 2. A word which appears in various forms in several Teutonic and other languages ; cf. Dutch and Ger. Meer. From the cognate Lat. mare are derived the Romanic forms, e.g. Fr. mer, Span, mar, &c; the word appears also in the derivative "marsh" for " marish "; the ultimate origin has been taken to be an Indo- European root, meaning " to die," i.e. to lie waste; cf. Sansk. maru, desert), an arm of the sea or estuary; also the name given to lakes, pools and shallow stretches of water inland. In the Fen countries a mere signifies a marsh or a district nearly always under water. 3. (Derived from an O. Eng. source, maere, a wall or boundary; cognate with Lat. murus, a wall), a landmark or boundary, also an object indicating the extent of a property without actually enclosing it. A special meaning is that of a road, which forms a dividing line between two places. A " meresman " is an official appointed by parochial" authorities to ascertain the exact boundaries of a parish and to report upon the condition of the roads, bridges, waterways, &c, within them. In the mining districts of Derbyshire a mere is a certain measurement of land in which lead-ore is found. MEREDITH, GEORGE (1828-1909), British novelist and poet, was born at Portsmouth, Hampshire, on the 12th of Feb- ruary 1828; the parish church register records his baptism on the 9th of April. About his early life' few details are recorded, but there is a good deal of quasi-autobiography, derived appar- ently from early associations and possibly antipathies, in some of his own novels, notably Evan Harrington and Harry Rich- mond, as to which the judicious may speculate. He had, as he used to boast, both Welsh (from his father) and Irish blood {from his mother) in his veins. His father, Augustus Armstrong Meredith, was a naval outfitter at Portsmouth (mentioned as such in Marryat's Peter Simple); and his grandfather, Mel- chisedek Meredith, clearly suggested the " Old Mel " of Evan Harrington. Melchisedek was 35 when in 1796 he was initiated as a freemason at Portsmouth ; and he appears to have been known locally as " the count," because of a romantic story as to an adventure he once had at Bath; he was churchwarden in 1801 and 1804; and some of the church plate still bears his name. Meredith's mother died when he was three years old, and he was made a ward in chancery. He was sent to school at Neuwied on the Rhine, and remained in Germany till he was sixteen. During these impressionable years he imbibed a good deal of the German spirit; and German influence, especially through the media of poetry and music, can often be traced in the cast of his thought and sentiment, as well as in some of the intricacies of his' literary style. Returning to England he was at first articled to a solicitor in London, but he had little inclina- tion for the law, and soon abandoned it for the more congenial sphere of letters, of which he had become an eager student. At the age of twenty-one he began to contribute poetry to the maga- zines, and he eked out a livelihood for some years by journalism, for the Daily News and other London papers, and for the Ipswich Journal, for which he wrote leaders; a certain number of his more characteristic fugitive writings are collected in the memo- rial edition of his works (1910). In London he became one of the leading spirits in the group of young philosophical and positivistic Radicals, among whom were John (afterwards Lord) Morley, Frederic Harrison, Cotter Morison and Admiral Maxse. But during the years when he was producing his finest novels he was practically unknown to the public. In 1849 fle married Mrs Nicholls, daughter of Thomas Love Peacock, the novelist, a widow, eight years his senior, whose husband had been acciden- tally drowned a few months after her first marriage (1844), and who had one child, a daughter; but their married life was broken by separation; she died in 1861, and in 1864 Meredith married Miss Vulliamy, by whom he had a son and daughter. His second wife died in 1885. Up to that time there is little to record in the incidents of his life; he had not been " discovered " except by an " honourable minority " of readers and critics. It must suffice to note that during the Austro-Italian War of 1866 he acted as special correspondent for the Morning Post; and though he saw no actual fighting, he enjoyed, particularly at Venice, opportunities for a study of the Italian people which he turned to account in several of his novels. Towards the close of 1867, when his friend John Morley paid a visit to America, Meredith undertook in his absence the editorship of the Fort- nightly Review for Messrs Chapman & Hall. They were not only the publishers of his books, but he acted for many years as their literary adviser, in which capacity he left a reputation for being not only eminently wise in his selection of the books to be published, but both critical and encouraging to authors of promise whose works he found himself obliged to reject. Thomas Hardy and George Gissing were among those who expressed their grateful sense of his assistance. He was indeed one of the last of the old school of " publishers' readers." In his early married life he lived near Weybridge, and later at Copsham between Esher and Leatherhead, while soon after his second marriage he settled at Flint Cottage, Mickleham, near Dorking, where he remained for the rest of his life. Meredith's first appearance in print was in the character of a poet, and his first published poem " Chillian Wallah," may be found in Chambers's Journal for the 7th of July 1849. Two years later he put forth a small volume of Poems (1851), which was at least fortunate in eliciting the praise of two judges^ whose opinion was of the first importance to a beginner. Tenny- son was at once struck by the individual flavour of the verse, and declared of one poem, " Love in the Valley," that he could not get the lines out of his head. Charles Kingsley's eulogy was at once more public and more particular. In Fraser's Magazine he subjected the volume to careful consideration, praising it for richness and quaintness of tone that reminded him of Herrick, for completeness and coherence in each separate poem, and for the animating sweetness and health of the general atmosphere. At the same time he censured the laxity of I rhythm, the occasional lack of polish, and the tendency to MEREDITH 161 overload the description with objective details to the con- fusion of the principal effect. No doubt as a result of Kingsley's introduction, two poems by Meredith appeared in Fraser's Magazine shortly afterwards; but with the exception of these, and a sonnet in the Leader, he did not publish anything for the next five years. In the meanwhile he was busy upon his first essay in prose fiction. It was early in 1856 that the Shaving of Shagpat, a work of singular imagination, humour and romance, made its appearance. Modelled upon the stories of the Arabian Nights, it catches with wonderful ardour the magical atmosphere of Orientalism, and in this genre it remains a unique triumph in modern letters. Though unappreciated by the multitude, its genius was at once recognized by such contemporaries as George Eliot and Dante Gabriel Rossetti, the latter of whom was one of Meredith's intimate friends. For his next story it occurred to Meredith to turn his familiarity with the life and legendary tradition of the Rhinelander into a sort of imitation of the grotcsquerie of the German romanticists, and in 1857 he put forth Farina, a Legend of Cologne, which sought to transfer to English sympathies the spirit of German romance in the same way that Shagpat had handled Oriental fairy-lore. The result was less successful. The plot of Farina lacks fibre, its motive is insufficient, and the diverse elements of humour, serious narrative, and romance scarcely stand in proportion to one another. But the Ordeal of Richard Feverel, which followed in 1859, transferred Meredith at once to a new sphere and to the altitude of his accomplishment. With this novel Meredith deserted the realm of fancy for that of the philosophical and psychological study of human nature, and Richard Feverel was the first, as it is perhaps the favourite, of those wonderful studies of motive and action which placed him among the demigods of English literature. The essential theme of this fine criticism of life is the question of a boy's education. It depicts the abortive attempt of a proud and opinionated father, hide-bound by theory and precept, to bring up his son to a perfect state of manhood through a " system " which controls all his early circumstances and represses many of the natural and wholesome instincts and impulses of adolescence. The love scenes in Richard Feverel are gloriously natural and full of vitality, and the book throughout marked a revolution in the English treatment of manly passion. Those who have not read this novel in the original form, with the chapters which were afterwards omitted, have lost, however, the key to many passages in the story: In the following year Meredith contributed to Once a Week, and in 1861 published as a book the second of his novels of modern life, Evan Harrington, origi- nally with the sub-title " He Would be a Gentleman " — in allusion to the hero being the son of " Old Mel," the tailor — which contains a richly humorous — in its unrevised form, splendidly farcical — plot, with some magnificent studies of character. Afterwards revised, a" certain amount of the farcical element was cut out, with the result that, considered as comedy, it has weak spots; but the Countess de Saldar remains a genuine creation. A year later he produced his finest volume of poems, entitled Modern Love, and Poems of the English Roadside, with Poems and Ballads. An attack upon the dramatic poem which gives the volume its title appeared in the Spectator, and is memorable for the fact that Meredith's friend, the poet Swinburne, with one of his characteristically generous impulses, replied (Spectator, June 7, 1862) in a spirit of fervent eulogy. Some of the individual " sonnets " (of sixteen lines) into which Modern Love is divided are certainly worthy of being ranked with the most subtle and most intense poetic work of the 19th century. Returning to fiction, Meredith next published Emilia in England (1864), afterwards renamed Sandra Belloni. His powerful story Rhoda Fleming (1865) followed soon afterwards. Vittoria, published in the Fortnightly Review in 1866, and in book form in 1867, is a sequel to Emilia in England. Four years later appeared The Adventures of Harry Richmond in the pages of Cornhill (1870-1871). Its successor was Beauchamp's Career (Fortnightly Review, 1874-1875), the novel which Meredith usually described as his own favourite. Its hero's character is supposed xvm. 6 to have been founded upon that of Admiral Maxse. Sandra Belloni, Rhoda Fleming, Vittoria and Beauchamp are all master- pieces of his finest period, rich in incident, character and work- manship. " The House on the Beach " and " The Case of General Opie and Lady Camper " (New Quarterly Magazine, 1877) were slight but glittering exercises in comedy; the next important novel was The Egoist (1879), which shows an increase in Meredith's twistedness of literary style and is admittedly hard to read for those who merely want a " story," but which for concentrated analysis and the real drama of the human spirit is an astounding production. In an interesting series of lectures which Meredith delivered at the London Institution in 1877 his main thesis was that a man without a sense of comedy is dead to the finer issues of the spirit, and the conception of Sir Willoughby Patterne, the central figure of The Egoist, is an embodiment of this idea in the flesh. The Tragic Comedians (1880), the next of Meredith's novels, slighter in texture than his others, combines the spirits of comedy and tragedy in the story of the life of Ferdinand Lassalle, the German Socialist. The appearance of Diana of the Crossways (1885), a brilliant , book, full of his ripest character-drawing, though here and there tormenting the casual reader by the novelist's mannerisms of expression, marks an epoch in Meredith's career, since it was the first of his stories to strike the general public. Its heroine was popularly identified with Sheridan's granddaughter, Mrs Norton, and the use made in it of the contemporary story of that lady's communication to The Times of the cabinet secret of Peel's conversion to Free Trade had the effect of producing explicit evidence of its inaccuracy from Lord Dufferin and others. As a matter of historical fact it was Lord Aberdeen who himself gave Delane the information, but the popular acceptance of the other version of the incident gave a factitious interest to the novel. , Meanwhile further instalments of poems — Poems and Lyrics of the Joy of Earth (1883) — had struck anew the full, rich note of natural realism which is Meredith's chief poetic characteristic. " The Woods of Westermain," in particular, has a sense of the mysterious communion of man with nature unapproached by any English poets save Wordsworth and Shelley. Ballads ind Poems of Tragic Life (1887) and A Reading of Earth (1888) gave further evidence of the wealth of thought and vigour of expression which Meredith brought to the making of verse. To "the general," no doubt, Meredith's verse is prohibitive, or nearly so — for, after all, he has written some poems, like " Martin's Puzzle," " The Old Chartist," and " Juggling Jerry," which anybody can read with ease. But his most characteristic , style in verse is so concentrated that any one accustomed to " straightforward " writing, and unwilling to read with the mind rather than with the eye, must needs, to his loss, be put off. His readers, of the verse even more than of the prose, must be prepared to meet him on a common intellectual footing. When once that is granted, however, the music and magic of such poems as " Seed-time," " Hard Weather," " The Thrush in February," " The South- Wester," " The Lark Ascending," " Love in the Valley," " Melampus," "A Faith on Trial," are very real, amid all their occasional obscurities of diction. Meredith had now Completed his sixtieth year, and with his advancing years the angles of his individuality began to grow sharper, while the difficulties of his style became accentuated. The increase in mannerism was marked in One of Our Conquerors (1891), otherwise a magnificent rendering of a theme fulft>f both tragedy and comedy, and in the poem of " The Empty Purse " (1892). Neither Lord Ormont and His Aminta (1894) nor The Amazing Marriage (1895) reached the level of the earlier novels, though in the latter he seemed to catch an after- glow of genius. In 1898 appeared his Odes in Contribution to the Song of French History, consisting of one ode (" France, December 1870") reprinted from Ballads and Poems (187 1), and three others previously unpublished; a fine example of his lofty thought, and magnificent — if often difficult — and individual diction. In 1901 another volume of verse, A Reading tt l62 MEREDITH of Life, appeared. In later years too he contributed occasional poems to newspapers and reviews and similar publications, which were collected after his death (Last Poems, 1910). His comedy, The Sentimentalists, was performed on the 1st of March 1910; his early but unfinished novel, Celt and Saxon, was also posthumously published in that summer. From the early 'nineties onward Meredith's fame had been firmly established. His own literary contemporaries still living could join hands with the younger generation of enthusiastic admirers in insisting on a greatness of which they themselves had been unable to persuade the public. He was chosen to succeed Tennyson as president of the Authors' Society; on his seventieth birthday (1898) he was presented with a congratulatory address by thirty of the most prominent men of letters of the day; before he died he had been included by the king in the Order of Merit; and in various other ways his position as the chief living English writer had come to be popu- larly recognized. The critics discussed him; and new editions of his books (both prose and verse), for which there had long been but scanty demand, were called for. One of the iresults was that Meredith, with very doubtful wisdom, recast some of his earlier novels; and in the sumptuous " authorized edition " of 1897 (published by the firm of Constable, of which his son, William Maxse Meredith, was a member) very large alterations are made in some of them. In fact, a reader who compares the first and last editions either of Richard Feverel or Evan Harrington will notice changes little short of revolutionary. Even in the previously current editions of 1878 onwards, pub- lished by Chapman & Hall, Richard Feverel had been consider- ably shortened as compared with the original three-volume edition; but it was now robbed again of some of its best-known passages. It is no doubt competent to an author himself to revise his earlier published work even to the extent to which Meredith in the 1897 edition revised these novels; but certainly it is not necessary to accept his judgment when this involves the excision in old age of some of the most virile passages of books that were written in the full glow and vigour of his prime. In Constable's memorial edition (19 10) of his complete works the excisions were published separately, and are therefore on record for those to consult who care. But the wise will read Richard Feverel and Evan Harrington in the original versions. Meredith's literary quality must always be considered in the light of the Celtic side of his temperament and the peculiar- ities of his mental equipment. His nature was intuitive rather than ratiocinative; his mental processes were abrupt and far- reaching; and the suppression of connecting associations fre- quently gives his language, as it gave Browning's, but even to a greater extent, the air of an impenetrably nebulous obscurity. This criticism applies mainly to his verse, but is also true of his prose in many places, though there is much exaggera- tion about the difficulties of his novels. When once, however, his manner has been properly understood, it is seen to be insepar- able from his method of intellection, and to add to the narrative of description both vividness of delineation and intensity of realization. The essential respect in which Meredith's method of describing action and emotion in narrative differs from that of convention is that, while the ordinary method is to relate what happens from the point of view of the onlooker, Meredith frequently describes it from the point of emotion of the actor; and his influence in this direction has largely modified the art of fiction. Herein lies the secret of the peculiar brilliancy of his style, derived from his combination of the narrator with the creator, or — in its strict sense — the seer. The reader, by the transference of the interest from the audience to the stage, is transported into the very soul of the character, and made to feel as he feels and act as he acts. Moreover, Mere- dith's instinct for psychology is so intimate, and his sense of motive and action so true, that the interaction of character and character directly dominates the sequence of events depicted in his imaginary world, and discloses the moral idea or criticism of life, instead of the preconceived " moral " being merely illustrated by the plot. In building up the minds, actions, creeds, and tragedies or comedies of his imaginary personalities amid the selected circumstances, and inspiring them with the identical motives and educational influences of life itself, Mere- dith spent an elaboration and profundity of thought and an originality and vigour of analysis upon his novels which in explicitness go far beyond what had previously been attempted in fiction, and which give to his works a philosophical value of no ordinary kind. Simplicity can scarcely be expected of his language, for the interplay of ideas is in itself original and complex, and their interpretation is necessarily original and complex too. But when Meredith is at his best he is only involved with the involution of his subject; the aphorisms that decorate his style are simple when the idea they convey is simple, elaborate only in its elaboration. Pregnant, vividly graphic, capable of infinite shades and gradations, his style is a much finer and subtler instrument than at first appears, and must be judged finally by what it conveys to the mind, and not by its superficial sound upon the conventional ear. It owes something to Jean Paul Richter; something, too, to Carlyle, with whose methods of narrative and indebtedness to the apparatus of German metaphysics it has a good deal in common. To the novelist Richardson, too,, a careful reader will find that Meredith, both in manner and matter (notably in The Egoist and in Richard Feverel), owes a good deal; in " Mrs Grandison " in Richard Feverel he even recalls " Sir Charles Grandison " by name; and nobody can doubt that Sir Willoughby Patterne, both in idea and often in expression, was modelled on Richardson's creation. Careful students of the early 19th-century English novel will find curious echoes again in Meredith of Bulwer-Lytton's (Baron Lytton's) literary manner and romantic outlook. 1 But he was, after all, an originator, and at first suffered in esti- mation on that score; he wrote in his own way, and what is most characteristic in Meredith remains individual. Like all the great masters, he has his own tone of voice, his own fashion of expressing an idea. Feeling, perception, reflection, judgment, have equal shares in determining his architectonic relation to a problem or a situation. He rings changes on the changing emotions of humanity, but every chime rings true. He is a literary artist. He takes great themes, not little ones; the characters in his fiction are personalities, human beings, neither "heroes" nor "sports"; and he does not descend to pander to lubricity or cater for the " reading public." His gallery of portraits of real human women, not dolls, would alone place him among the few creators in English literature. It is beyond our scope here to enter into details concerning the philosophy which represents Meredith's " criticism of life." Broadly speaking, it is a belief in the Tightness and wholesome- ness of Nature, when Nature — " Sacred Reality " — is lovingly and faithfully and trustfully sought and known by the pure use of reason. Man must be " obedient to Nature, not her slave." Mystical as this philosophy occasionally becomes, it is yet an inspiring one, clean, austere and practical; and it is always dominated by the categorical imperative of self-know- ledge and the striving after honesty of purpose and thought. A strong vein of political Radicalism runs through Meredith's creed. It is, however, a Radicalism allied to that of the French philosophes, rather than to the contemporary developments of British party politics, though in later life he gave his open support to the Liberal party. In spite of his German upbringing Meredith was always strongly French in his sympathies, arid his appreciation of French character at its best and at its worst* is finely shown in his Napoleon odes. In the main his politics may be summed up as a striving after liberty for reason and conscience and the constant progress of humanity — The cry of the conscience of life ; Keep the young generations in hail, And, bequeath them no tumbled house. 1 The fact that Bulwer-Lytton's son, the 1st Earl of Lytton, Meredith's junior by three years, took the pen-name of " Owen Meredith," led occasionally to some confusion among uninstructed contemporaries, and even the suggestion of a family connexipn. MEREJKOVSKY— MERGANSER 163 It is part of Meredith's philosophy — and this must be remem- bered in considering his diction — that verbal expression is itself a test of right thought and action. Hence is derived his passion for verbal analysis. Hence also his impulse towards and vindication of poetry— meaning still " the best words in the best order "; and hence his own dictum, otherwise perhaps hard to undiscerning minds, that Song itself is the test by which truth may be tried. The passage occurs in " The Empty Purse " — a poem which throughout is a careful though mannered exposition of Meredith's general views on life — Ask of thyself : This furious Yea Of a speech I thump to repeat, In the cause I would have prevail, For seed of a nourishing wheat, Is it accepted of Song ? Does it sound to the mind through the ear, Right sober, pure sane ? has it disciplinedfeet ? Thou wilt find it a test severe ; Unerring whatever the theme. Rings it for Reason a melody clear, We have bidden old Chaos retreat, We have called on Creation to hear; All forces that make us are one full stream. Meredith is generally ranked far less high as a poet than as a novelist. But he can only be understood and appreciated properly by those who realize that not prose (in the ordinary sense) but poetry was to him the highest form of expression, and that only in it could he fully deliver his message, as a writer who aspired to contribute something more to the common stock of ideas than could be embodied dramatically in prose fiction. On Meredith's 80th birthday in 1908, the homage of the English literary world was again paid in an address of con- gratulation. But his health, which for many years had been precarious, was now failing. He died at Flint Cottage, Box Hill, Surrey, on the 18th of May 1909. A strong feeling existed that he should be buried in Westminster Abbey, and a petition to that effect, which was approved by the prime minister, Mr Asquith, was signed by a large number of men of letters. But this was not to be. A memorial service was held in the abbey, but Meredith's own remains, after cremation, were interred at Dorking by the grave of his second wife. He had died only a brief span after his old friend Swinburne, his affection for whom had never suffered abatement, and it was felt that, with them, a great epoch in English literary history had closed. They were the last of the great Victorians; and in Meredith went the writer who had raised the creative art of the novel, as a vehicle of character and constructive philosophy, to its highest point — a point higher indeed than most contem- porary readers were prepared for. The estimate of his genius formed by " an honourable minority," who would place him in the highest class of all, by Shakespeare, has yet to be confirmed by the wider suffrage of posterity. A carefully compiled bibliography by John Lane was included in George Meredith: Some Characteristics, by R. Le Gallienne (1890). This sympathetic essay in criticism was the first substantial publi- cation addressed to that stimulation of a wider appreciation of Meredith which was carried on by several later books, perhaps the best of which is M. Sturge Henderson's George Meredith: Novelist Poet, Reformer (1908) ; but such earlier testimonies to Meredith's importance as Justin McCarthy's, in his History of Our Own Times, must not be forgotten. See also J. A. Hammerton, George Mere- dith in Anecdotes and Criticism (1909). (H. Ch.) MEREJKOVSKY (or Merezhkovskiy), DMITRI SERGYEE- VICH (1865- ), Russian novelist and critic, was born at St Petersburg in 1865. His trilogy of historical romances, collectively entitled Christ and Antichrist, has been translated into many European languages, notably English and French. It comprises Smert Bogov (Eng. trans. " The Death of the Gods," London, 1901), the central figure in which is Julian the Apostate; Voskresenie Bogi (" The Forerunner," London, 1902), which describes the life and times of Leonardo da Vinci; and Antikhrist: P'etr i Aleksyey (" Peter and Alexis," London, 1903), which is based on the tragic story of the relations between Peter the Great and his son. The influence of Sienkiewicz can be traced in many of Merejkovsky's writings, which include critical studies of Pliny the Younger, Calderon, Montaigne, Ibsen, Tolstoy {Tolstoy as Man and Artist, London, 1902), and of Gorki and other Russian writers. Merejkovsky married Zinaida Nikolaevna, known in Russia for her poems, essays and short stories written under the pseudonym of Zinaida Hippius (or Gippius); her collected poems (1889-1903) were published in Moscow in 1904. MERES, FRANCIS (1565-1647), English divine and author, was born at Kirton in the Holland division of Lincolnshire in 1565. He was educated at Pembroke College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1587, and M.A. in 1591. Two years later he was incorporated M.A. of Oxford. His kinsman, John Meres, was high sheriff of Lincolnshire in 1596, and appar- ently helped him in the early part of his career. In 1602 he became rector of Wing in Rutland, where he had a school. He died on the 29th of January 1647. Meres rendered immense service to the history of Elizabethan literature by the publication of his Palladis Tamia, Wits Treasury (1598). It was one of a series of volumes of short pithy sayings, the first of which was Politeuphuia: Wits Commonwealth (1597), compiled by John Bodenham or by Nicholas Ling, the publisher. The Palladis Tamia contained moral and critical reflections borrowed from various sources, and embraced sections on books, on philosophy, on music and painting, and a famous " Comparative Discourse of our English poets with the Greeke, Latin, and Italian poets." This chapter enumerates the English poets from Chaucer to Meres's own day, and in each case a comparison with some classical author is instituted. The book was issued in 1634 as a school book, and has been partially reprinted in the Ancient Critical Essays (1811-1815) of Joseph Haslewood, Professor E. Arber's English Garner, and Gregory Smith's Elizabethan Critical Essays (1904). A sermon entitled Gods Arithmetiche (1597), and two translations from the Spanish of Luis de Granada entitled Granados Devotion and the Sinners Guide (1598) com- plete the list of his works. MERGANSER, a word due to C. Gesner {Hist, animalium iii. 129) in 1555, and for long used in English as the general name for a group of fish-eating ducks possessing great diving powers, and forming .the genus Mergus of Linnaeus, now regarded by ornithologists as a sub-family, Merginae, of the family Anatidae. The mergansers have a long, narrow bill, with a small but evident hook at the tip, and the edges of both mandibles beset by numerous horny denticulations, whence in English the name of "saw-bill " is frequently applied to them. Otherwise their structure does not much depart from the Anatine or Fuliguline type. All the species bear a more or less developed crest or tuft on the head. Three of them, Mergus merganser or castor, M. senator, and M. albellus, are found over the northern parts of the Old World, and of these the first two also inhabit North America, which has besides a fourth species, M. cucullatus, said to have occasionally visited Britain. M. merganser, commonly known as the goosander, is the largest species, being nearly as big as the smaller geese, and the adult male in breeding- attire is a very beautiful bird, conspicuous with his dark glossy- green head, rich salmon-coloured breast, and the upper part of the body and wings black and white. This full plumage is not assumed till the second year, and in the meantime, "as well as in the post-nuptial dress, the male much resembles the female, having, like her, a reddish-brown head, the upper parts grey and the lower white. In this condition the bird is often known as the " dun diver." This species breeds abun- dantly in many parts of Scandinavia, Russia, Siberia and North America, and occasionally in Scotland. M . senator, commonly called the red-breasted merganser, is a somewhat smaller bird; and, while the fully-dressed male wants the delicate hue of the lower parts, he has a gorget of rufous mottled with black, below which is a patch of white feathers, broadly edged with ■black. Both these species have the bill and feet of a bright reddish-orange, while the much smaller M . albellus, known as the smew, has these parts of a lead colour, and the breeding plumage of the adult male is white, with quaint crescentic markings of black, and the flanks most beautifully vermiculated. 164 MERGENTHEIM— MERIAN M. cucullatus, the hooded merganser of North America, is in size intermediate between M . albellus and M. senator; the male is easily recognizable by his broad semicircular crest, bearing a fanshaped patch of white, and his elongated subscapulars of white edged with black. The conformation of the trachea in the male of M. merganser, M. senator and M. cucullatus is very like that of the ducks of the genus Clangula, but M . albellus has a less exaggerated development more resembling that of the ordinary Fuligula. 1 From the southern hemisphere two species of Mergus have been described, M. octoseta-ceus or brasilianus, L. P. Vieillot (N. Diet. a" Hist, naturelle, ed. 2, vol. xiv. p. 222; Gal. des oiseaux, torn. ii. p. 209, pi. 283), inhabiting South America, of which but few specimens have been obtained, having some general resemblance to M . senator, but much more darkly coloured, and M. australis, Hombron and Jacquemont {Ann. sc. nat. zoologie, ser. 2, vol. xvi. p. 320; Voy. au Pol Sud, oiseaux, pi. 31, fig. 2), known only by the unique example in the Paris Museum procured by the French Antarctic expedition in the Auckland Islands. Often associated with the mergansers is the genus Merganetla, the so-called torrent-ducks of South America, of which six species have been described; but they possess spiny tails and have their wings armed with a spur. These with Hymenolaemus Malacorhynchus, the blue duck of New Zealand, and Salvadorina waigiuensis of Waigiou are placed in the sub-family Mergan- ettinae. (A. N.) MERGENTHEIM, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wiirttemberg, situated in the valley of the Tauber, 7 m. S. from Lauda by rail. Pop. (1905), 4535. It contains an Evan- gelical and three Roman Catholic churches, a Latin and other schools, and a magnificent castle with a natural history collection and the archives of the Teutonic order. This is now used as barracks. The industries of the town include tanning, the manufacture of agricultural machinery and wine-making. Near the town is a medicinal spring called the Karlsbad. Mergentheim (Mariae downs) is mentioned in chronicles as early as 1058, as the residence of the family of the counts of Hohenlohe, who early in the 13th century assigned the greater part of their estates in and around Mergentheim to the Teutonic order. It rapidly increased in fame, and became the most important of the eleven commanderies of that society. On the secularization of the Teutonic Order in Prussia in 1525, Mergentheim became the residence of the grand master, and remained so until the final dissolution of the order in 1809. See Horing, Das Karlsbad bet Mergentheim (Mergentheim, 1887); and Schmitt, Garnisongescb.icb.te der Stadt Mergentheim (Stuttgart, 1895). MERGER (Fr. merger, to sink), in law, the sinking or " drowning " of a lesser estate in a greater, when the two come together in one and the same person without any intervening estate. In order to effect a merger the two estates must vest in the same person at the same time, must be immediately expectant one on the other, and the expectant estate must be larger than the preceding estate. The term is also used for the extinguishment of any right, contract, &c, by absorption in another, e.g. the acceptance of a higher security for a lower, or the embodying of a simple contract in a deed. MERGUI, the southernmost district of Lower Burma, in the Tenasserim division, bounded on the W. by the Bay of Bengal and on the E. by Siam. Area 9789 sq. m. Two principal ranges cross the district from north to south, running almost Hybrids between, as is presumed, M. albellus and Clangula elaucion, the common golden-eye, have been described and figured (Eimbeck, Isis, 1831, 300, tab. iii.; Brehm, Naturgesch. oiler Vog. Deutschlands, p. 930; Naumann, Vog. Deutschlands, xii. 194, frontispiece; Kjserbolling, Jour, fur Ornithologie, 1853, Extraheft, p. 29, Naumannia, 1853, p. 337, Ornithol. danica, tab. lv., suppl. tab. 29) under the names of Mergus anatarius, Clangula angustirostris, and Anas (Clangula) mergoides, as though they were a distinct species; but the remarks of De Selys-Longchamps (Bull. Ac. Sc. Bruxelles, 1845, pt. ii. p. 354, and 1856, pt. ii. p. 21) leave little room for doubt as to their origin, which, when the cryptogamic habit and common range of their putative parents, the former unknown to the author last-named, is considered, will seem to be still more likely. parallel to each other for a considerable distance, with the Tenasserim river winding between them till it turns south and flows through a narrow rocky gorge in the westernmost range to the sea. The whole district, from the water's edge to the loftiest mountain on the eastern boundary, may be regarded as almost unbroken forest. The timber trees found towards the interior, and on the higher elevations, are of great size and beauty, the most valuable being teak ( Tectona grandis) , then-gan (Hopea odorata), ka-gnyeng (Dipterocarpus laevis), &c. " The coast-line of the district, off which lies an archipelago of two hundred and seven islands, is much broken, and for several miles inland is very little raised above sea-level, and is drained by numerous muddy tidal creeks. Southwards of Mergui town it consists chiefly of low mangrove swamps alternating with small fertile rice plains. After passing the mangrove limits, the ground to the east gradually rises till it becomes mountainous, even to the banks of the rivers, and finally cul- minates in the grand natural barrier dividing Burma from Siam. The four principal rivers are the Tenasserim, Le-nya, Pakchan and Palauk, the first three being navigable for a considerable distance. Coal is found on the banks of the Tenasserim and its tributaries, but is still unworked. Gold, copper, iron and manganese are also found in various parts of the district, and there are tin mines at Maliwun, upon which European methods have been tried without much profit, owing to the cost of labour. From the notices of early travellers it appears that Mergui, when under Siamese rule, before it passed to the Burmese, was a rich and densely peopled country. On its occupation by the British in 1824-1825 it was found to be almost depopulated — the result of border warfare and of the cruelties exercised by the Burmese conquerors. At that time the entire inhabitants numbered only 10,000. It had a population of 88,744 in 1901, showing an increase of 20% in the decade and giving a density of 9 inhabitants to the sq. m. Mergui carries on a flourish- ing trade with Rangoon, Bassein and the Straits Settlements. The chief exports consist of rice, rattans, torches, dried fish, areca-nuts, sesamum seeds, molasses, sea-slugs, edible birds' nests and tin. The staple imports are piece goods, tobacco, cotton, earthenware, tea and sugar. The climate is remarkably healthy, the heat due to its tropical situation being moderated by land and sea breezes. The rainfall is very heavy and usually exceeds 150 inches. Mergui town has risen into prominence in recent years as the centre of the pearling trade in the neighbouring archipelago. The pearling grounds were practically unknown in 1890, but in the following decade they produced pearls and mother-of- peal shell of considerable value. In 1901 the population was 11,987; but the census is taken at a time when many of the fishermen and their families are away in the islands. There is a considerable coasting trade with other Burmese ports and with the Straits Settlements. MERGUI ARCHIPELAGO, a cluster of islands in the Bay of Bengal, near the southern coast of Lower Burma. They are chiefly noted for their picturesque beauty, some of them rising to 3000 ft. They are only sparsely inhabited by the island race of Selungs. MERIAN, MATTHEW (1593-1650), Swiss engraver, was born in Basel, on the 25th of September 1593. The family came originally from near Delemont, but in his grandfather's time settled in Basel, where in 1553 it obtained the burghershjp of the city. As Matthew early showed signs of artistic tastes, he was placed (1609) under the care of Dietrich Meyer, a painter and engraver of Zurich (1572-1658). He went on to Nancy in 1613, where he already displayed considerable talents as an engraver on copper. After studying in Paris, Stuttgart (1616) and the Low Countries, he came to Frankfort, where in 1618 he married the eldest daughter of J. T. de Bry, who was a publisher and bookseller as well as an engraver. Merian worked for some time with his father-in-law in Oppenheim, but then returned to Basel, whence he came back (1624) to Frankfort after Bry's death (1623), in order to take over his business; MERIDA— MERIDIAN 165 this remained in his family till 1726, when, after a great fire that destroyed most of the books in stock, it came to an end. In 1625 Merian became a burgher of Frankfort, then the great centre of the book trade in Germany, and lived there till his death on the 22nd of June 1650. Among his many works two deserve to be specially mentioned. The first is the long series of works, each entitled Topographia, which contained descrip- tions of various countries, illustrated by copper plates, largely done by Merian himself, while the accompanying text was due to Martin Zeiller (1580-1661), an Austrian by birth. The first volume was published in 1642 and described Switzerland, with the Grisons and the Valais; it contains the first known view of the glaciers of Grindelwald. " Austria " appeared in 1649, but the volume relating to Upper Saxony and Bohemia (1650) was the last issued by Merian himself. " France " appeared in 1655-1656, while in 1688 the series (extending to 30 parts, in 18 vols.) came to an end with " Italy," the volume as to Rome having appeared in 1681. The other great enter- prise of Merian was the series entitled Thealrum Europaeutn, which appeared in 21 parts between 1635 an d 1738 — it is a historical chronicle of events in Europe from 161 7 onwards. In 162 5-1630 Merian published a series of illustrations to the Bible, and in 1649 a Dance of Death. But he is best remembered by his views of towns, which have very considerable historical value. His best pupil, Wenceslaus Hollar (1607-1677), of Prague, settled in London (1635-1643, i652-i677),and worthily carried on the Merian tradition. (W. A. B. C.) See Life, by H. Eckardt (Basel, 1887). MERIDA, a city of Mexico and capital of the state of Yucatan, 23 m. by rail S. of Progreso, its port on the Gulf of Mexico. Pop. (1900), 43,630, the Maya element being predominant. Merida is the centre of an isolated railway system, connected with the ports of Progreso and Campeche, and having short lines radiating in all directions to Peto, Valladolid and Izamal. It stands on a broad, partly open plain near the northern border of the peninsula, where the thin loose soil covering a limestone foundation permits the rapid percolation and evaporation of the rainfall, and therefore supports a compara- tively scanty vegetation. It is highly favourable to maguey cultivation, however, and Merida is the centre of the henequen, or sisal fibre, industry. There is an imposing 16th-century cathedral facing upon the principal plaza, together with the government and episcopal palaces. There are also an old university, with schools of law, medicine and pharmacy, an episcopal seminary and other educational institutions. The most interesting building in the city is a Franciscan convent, dating from 1547, which covers an area of 6 acres and is sur- rounded by a wall 40 ft. high and 8 ft. thick. It once harboured no less than 2000 friars, but has been allowed to fall into com- plete decay since the expulsion of the order in 1820. The manufactures include straw hats, hammocks, cigars, soap, cotton fabrics, leather goods, artificial stone, and a peculiar distilled beverage called estabentun. The exports are henequ6n, or sisal fibre, hides, sugar, rum, chicle and indigo — all products of the vicinity. Merida was founded in 1542 by the younger Francisco de Montejo on the site of a native city called Tihoo, or Tho, whose stone pyramids furnished building material in abun- dance for the invaders. It became an episcopal see in 1561. MERIDA (anc. Augusta Emerita, capital of Lusitania), a town of western Spain, in the province of Badajoz, on the right bank of the river Guadiana, 30 m. E. of Badajoz. Pop. (1900), 11,168. Merida is an important railway junction, for here the Madrid-Badajoz railway meets the lines from Seville, Huelva and Caceres. No Spanish town is richer in Roman antiquities. Most of these are beyond the limits of modern Merida, which is greatly inferior in area to the ancient city. Chief among them is the Roman bridge, constructed of granite under Trajan, or, according to some authorities, under Augustus, and restored by the Visigoths in 686 and by Philip III. in 1610. It comprised 81 arches, 17 of which were destroyed during the siege of Badajoz (1812), and mea- sured 2575 ft. in length. There are a few remnants of Roman temples and of the colossal wall which encircled the city, besides a Roman triumphal arch, commonly called the Arco de Santiago, and a second Roman bridge, by which the road to Salamanca was carried across the small river Albarregas {Alba Regia). The Moorish alcdzar or citadel was originally the chief Roman fort. From the Lago de Proserpina, or Charca de la Albuera, a large Roman reservoir, 3 m. north, water was conveyed to Merida by an aqueduct, of which 37 enormous piers remain standing, with ten arches in three tiers built of brick and granite. The massive Roman theatre is in good preservation; there are also a few vestiges of an amphitheatre and of a circus which measured 485 yds. by 120. Other Roman remains are exhibited in the archaeological museum, and much Roman masonry is incorporated in the 16th century Mudejar palace of the dukes of La Roca, the palace of the counts of Los Corbos, and the convent of Santa Eulalia, which is said by tradition to mark the spot where St Eulalia was martyred (c. 300). Augusta Emerita was founded in 25 B.C. As the capital of Lusitania it soon became one of the most splendid cities in Iberia, and was large enough to contain a garrison of 90,000 men. Under the Visigoths it continued to prosper, and was made an archbishopric. Its fortifications included five castles and eighty-four gateways; but after a stubborn resistance it was stormed by the Moors in 713. Its Moorish governors frequently, and sometimes successfully, asserted their indepen- dence, but Menda was never the capital of any large Moorish- state. In 1 1 29 its archbishopric was formally transferred to Santiago de Compostela, and in 1228, when Alphonso IX. of Leon expelled the Moors, Merida was entrusted to the order of Santiago, in whose keeping it soon sank into decadence. MERIDEN, a city of New Haven county, Connecticut, U.S.A., in the township of Meriden, S.W. of the centre of the state, about 18 m. N.N.E. of New Haven and about the same distance S.S.W. of Hartford. Pop. of the township, including the city (1900), 38,695; (1910), 32,066; of the city (1900), 24,296, of whom 7215 were foreign-born; (1910), 27,265. Meriden is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway and by an inter-urban electric line. The city is bisected by Harbor Brook, a small stream, and through the S.W. part of the township flows the Quinnipiac river. A short distance N.W. of the city, in Hubbard Park, an attractive reservation of more than 900 acres, are the Hanging Hills, three elevations (West Mountain, South Mountain and Cat-Hole Mountain) in a broken range of trap ridges, which have resisted the erosion that formed the lowlands of the Connecticut valley; they rise to a height of about 700 ft. above the sea. In their vicinity, near the boundary of Berlin township, is Merimere, one of the city's four reservoirs. Meriden is the seat of the Connecticut School for Boys (Reform- atory). There are also a public library (1899), a state armoury, a hospital, the Curtis Home for orphans and aged women, and a tuberculosis sanitarium supported by the city. Meriden is one of the most important manufacturing cities of Connecticut, and in 1905 produced 59-9% of the plated ware manufactured in the state, and much sterling silver. In 1905 the factory product was valued at $13,763,548, an increase of 17-1% over that of 1900. Meriden was originally a part of the township of Wallingford, but a tract in the northern part of this township was designated as Merideen by an Indian deed of 1664. It was made a separate parish under that name in 1728, but did not become a separate township until 1806. The city Tjtas chartered in 1867. ^ See G. W. Perkins, Historical Sketches of Meriden (West Meriden, 1849); C. H. S. DaVis, History of Wallingford (Meriden, 1870), and G. M. Curtis and C. Bancroft Gillespie, A Century of Meriden (Meriden, 1906). MERIDIAN, a city and the county-seat of Lauderdale county, Mississippi, U.S.A., about qo m. E. of Jackson. Pop. (1890), 10,624; (1900), 14,050, of whom 5787 were negroes; (1910 census), 23,285. It is served by the Southern, the Alabama Great Southern, the Mobile & Ohio, and the New Orleans & North Eastern and the Alabama & Vicksburg (Queen & i66 MERIDIAN— MERIMEE Crescent Route) railways. It is the seat of the East Mississippi Insane Hospital, of the state Masonic Widows and Orphans' Home and of the Meridian Women's College (non-sectarian, opened in 1903), the Meridian Male College (opened in 1001), and, for negroes, the Lincoln School (Congregational) and Meridian Academy (Methodist Episcopal) . The city is an impor- tant market for cotton grown in the surrounding country, and is the principal manufacturing city in the state. Its factory products, chiefly railway supplies and cotton products, increased in value from $1,924,465 in 1900 to $3,267,600 in 1905, or 69-8% in five years. Mineral waters (especially lithia) are bottled in and near the city. Meridian was laid out in 1854 at a proposed railway crossing, and was chartered as a city in i860. In February 1864 General William Tecumseh Sherman, with an army of about 20,000, made an expedition from Vicks- burg to Meridian, then an important railway centre and dep6t for Confederate supplies, chiefly for the purpose of making inoperative the Mobile & Ohio and the Jackson & Selma railways; on the 14th of the month his army entered Meridian, and within a week destroyed nearly everything in the city except the private houses, and tore up over no m. of track. In the " Meridian riot " of 1871 — a prominent episode of recon- struction — -when one of several negroes on trial for urging mob violence had shot the presiding judge, the whites, especially a party from Alabama interested in the trial, killed a number of negroes and burned a negro school. On the 2nd of March 1906 a cyclone caused great loss of life and property. MERIDIAN (from the Lat. meridianus, pertaining to the south or mid-day), in general a direction toward the south or toward the position of the sun at mid-day. The terrestrial meridian of a place is the great circle drawn on the earth's surface from either pole through the place. As determined astronomically the celestial meridian is the great circle passing through the celestial pole and the zenith. The terrestrial meridian as practically determined is the circle on the earth's surface in which the plane of the celestial meridian cuts that surface. Owing to local deviations of the plumb-line the meridian thus determined does not strictly coincide with the terrestrial meridian as ordinarily defined, but the deviation, though perceptible in mountainous regions, is so minute that it is generally ignored. > MERIM&E, PROSPER (1803-1870), French novelist, archaeo- logist, essayist, and in all these capacities one of the greatest masters of French style during the 19th century, was born at Paris on the 28th of September 1803. His grandfather, of Norman abstraction, had been a lawyer and steward to the marechal de Broglie. His father, Jean Francois Leonor Merimee (1757-1836), was a painter of repute. Merimee had English blood in his veins on the mother's side, and had English pro- clivities in many ways. He was educated for the bar, but entered the public service instead. A young man at the time of the Romantic movement, he felt its influence strongly, though his peculiar temperament prevented him from joining any of the c6teries of the period. Nothing was more prominent among the romantics than the fancy, as Merimee himself puts it, for " local colour," the more unfamiliar the better. He exhibited this in an unusual way. In 1825 he published what purported to be the dramatic works of a Spanish lady, Clara Gazul, with a preface stating circumstantially how the supposed translator, one Joseph L'Estrange, had met the gifted poetess at Gibraltar. This was followed by a still more audacious and still more successful supercherie. In 1827 appeared a small book entitled la Guzla (the anagram of Gazul), and giving itself out as translated from the Illyrian of a certain Hyacinthe Maglanovich. This book, which has greater formal merit than Clara Gazul, is said to have taken in Sir John Bowring, a competent Slav scholar, the Russian poet Poushkin, and some German authorities, although not only had it no original, but, as Merimee declares, a few words of Illyrian and a book or two of travels and topography were the author's only materials. In the next year appeared a short dramatic romance, La Jacquerie, in which are visible M6rimee's extraordinary faculty of local and historical colour, his command of language, his grim irony, and a certain predilection for tragic and terrible subjects, which was one of his numerous points of contact with the men of the Renaissance. This in its turn was followed by a still better piece, the Chronique de Charles IX. (1829), which stands towards the 16th century much as the Jacquerie does towards the middle ages. All these works were to a certain extent second-hand. But they exhibited all the future literary qualities of the author save the two chiefest, his wonder- fully severe and almost classical style, and his equally classical solidity and statuesqueness of construction. He had already obtained a considerable position in the civil service, and after the revolution of July he was chef de cabinet to two different ministers. He was then appointed to the more congenial post of inspector-general of historical monuments. Merimee was a born archaeologist, combining linguistic faculty of a very unusual kind with accurate scholarship, with remark- able historical appreciation, and with a sincere love for the arts of design and construction, in the former of which he had some practical skill. In his official capacity he published numerous reports, some of which, with other similar pieces, have been republished in his works. He also devoted himself to history proper during the latter years of the July monarchy, and pub- lished numerous essays and works of no great length, chiefly on Spanish, Russian and ancient Roman history. He did not, however, neglect novel writing during this period, and numerous short tales, almost without exception masterpieces, appeared, chiefly in the Revue de Paris. The best of all, Colomba, a Corsican story of extraordinary power, appeared in 1840. He travelled a good deal; and in one of his journeys to Spain, about the middle of Louis Philippe's reign, he made an acquaint- ance destined to influence his future life not a little — that of Mme de Montijo, mother of the future empress Eugenie. Merimee, though in manner and language the most cynical of men, was a devoted friend, and shortly before the accession of Napoleon III. he had occasion to show this. His friend, Libri Carucci dalla Sommaja, was accused of having stolen valuable manuscripts and books from French libraries, and Merimee took his part so warmly that he was actually sentenced to and underwent fine and imprisonment. He had been elected of the Academy in 1844, and also of the Academy of Inscriptions, of which he was a prominent member. Between 1840 and 1850 he wrote more tales, the chief of which were Arsene Guillot and Carmen (1847), this last, on a Spanish subject, hardly ranking below Colomba. The empire made a considerable difference in Merimee's life. His sympathies were against democracy, and his habitual cynicism and his irreligious prejudices made legitimism dis- tasteful to him. But the marriage of Napoleon III. with the daughter of Mme de Montijo at once enlisted what was always strongest with Merimee — the sympathy of personal friendship — on the emperor's side. He was made a senator, but his most important role was that of a constant and valued private friend of both the " master and mistress of the house," as he calls the emperor and empress in his letters. He was occasionally charged with a kind of irregular diplomacy, and once, in the matter of the emperor's Caesar, he had to give literary assistance to Napoleon. But for the most part he was strictly the ami de la maison. At the Tuileries, at Com- piegne, at Biarritz, he was a constant though not always a very willing guest, and his influence over the empress,was very considerable and was fearlessly exerted, though he usecito call himself, in imitation of Scarron, " le bouffon de sa majeste." He found, however, time for not a few more tales, of which more will be said presently, and for correspondences, which are not the least of his literary achievements, while they have an extraordinary interest of matter. One of these consists of the letters which have been published as Lettres a une inconnue, another of the letters addressed to Sir Anthony Panizzi, librarian of the British Museum. After various conjectures it seems that the inconnue just mentioned was a certain Mile Jenny I Daqin of Boulogne. The acquaintance extended over many MERINO 167 years; it partook at one time of the character of love, at another of that of simple friendship, and Merimee is exhibited in the letters under the most surprisingly diverse lights, most of them more or less amiable, and all interesting. The correspondence with Panizzi has somewhat less personal interest. But Merimee often visited England, where he had many friends (among whom the late Mr Ellice of Glengarry was the chief), and certain similarities of taste drew him closer to Panizzi personally, while during part of the empire the two served as the channel for a kind of unofficial diplomacy between the emperor and certain English statesmen. These letters are full of shrewd aperQus on the state of Europe at different times. Both series, and others since published, abound in gossip, in amusing anec- dotes, in sharp literary criticism, while both contain evidences of a cynical and Rabelaisian or Swiftian humour which was very strong in Merimee. This characteristic is said to be so prominent in a correspondence with another friend, which now lies in the library at Avignon, that there is but little chance of its ever being printed. A fourth collection of letters, of much inferior extent and interest, has been printed by Blaze de Bury under the title of Lettres a une autre inconnue (1873), and others still by d'Haussonville (1888), and in the Revue des Deux Monies (1896). In the latter years of his life Merimee suffered very much from ill-health. It was necessary for him to pass all his winters at Cannes, where his constant companions were two aged English ladies, friends of his mother. The Terrible Year found him completely broken in health and anticipating the worst for France. He lived long enough to see his fears realized, and to express his grief in some last letters, and he died at Cannes on the 23rd of September 1870. Merimee's character was a peculiar and in some respects an unfortunate one, but by.no means unintelligible. Partly by temperament, partly it is said owing to some childish experi- ence, when he discovered that he had been duped and determined never to be so again, not least owing to the example of Henri Beyle (Stendhal), who was a friend of his family, and of whom he saw much, Merimee appears at a comparatively early age to have imposed upon -himself as a duty the maintenance of an attitude of sceptical indifference and sarcastic criticism. Although a man of singularly warm and affectionate feelings, he obtained the credit of being a cold-hearted cynic; and, though both independent and disinterested, he was abused as a hanger-on of the imperial court. Both imputations were wholly undeserved, and indeed were prompted to a great extent by political spite or by the resentment felt by his literary equals on the other side at the cool ridicule with which he met them. But he deserved in some of the bad as well as many of the good senses of the term the name of a man of the Renaissance. He had the warm partisanship and amiability towards friends and the scorpion-like sting for his foes, he had the ardent delight in learning and especially in matters of art and belles lettres, he had the scepticism, the voluptuousness, the curious delight in the contemplation of the horrible, which marked the men of letters of the humanist period. Even his literary work has this Renaissance character. It is tolerably extensive, amount- ing to some seventeen or eighteen volumes, but its bulk is not great for a life which was not short, and which was occupied, at least nominally, in little else. About a third of it consists of the letters already mentioned. Rather more than another third consists of the official work which has been already alluded to — reports, essays, short historical sketches, the chief of which latter is a history of Pedro the Cruel (1843), and another of the curious pretender known in Russian story as the false Demetrius (1852). Some of the literary. essays, such as those on Beyle, on Turgueniev, &c, where a personal element enters, are excellent. Against others and against the larger historical sketches — admirable as they are — Taine's criticism that they want life has some force. They are, however, all marked by Merimee's admirable style, by his sound and accurate scholar- ship, his strong intellectual grasp of whatever he handled, his cool unprejudiced views, his marvellous faculty of designing and proportioning the treatment of his work. In purely archaeo- logical matters his Description des peinlures de Saint-Savin is very noteworthy. It is, however, in the remaining third of his work, consisting entirely of tales either in narrative or in dramatic form, and especially in the former, that his full power is perceived. He translated a certain number of things (chiefly from the Russian); but his fame does not rest on these, on his already-mentioned youthful supercheries, or on his later semi-dramatic works. There remain about a score of tales, extending in point of composition over exactly forty years and in length from that of Colomba, the longest, which fills about one hundred and fifty pages, to that of V Enlevement de la redoute (1829), which fills just half a dozen. They are unques- tionably the best things of their kind written during the century, the only nouvelles that can challenge comparison with them being the very best of Gautier, and one or two of Balzac. The motives are sufficiently different. In Colomba and Mateo Falcone (1829), the Corsican point of honour is drawn on; in Carmen (written apparently after reading Borrow's Spanish books), the gipsy character; in la Venus d'llle (1837) and Lokis (two of the finest of all), certain grisly superstitions, in the former case that known in a milder form as the ring given to Venus, in the latter a variety of the were- wolf fancy. Arsene Guillot is a singular satire, full of sarcastic pathos, on popular morality and religion; la Chambre bleue, an 18th-century conte, worthy of C. P. J. Crebillon for grace and wit, and superior to him in delicacy; The Capture of the Redoubt just mentioned is a perfect piece of description; I' Abbe au bain is again satirical; la Double miprise (the authorship of which was objected to Merimee when he was elected of the Academy) is an exercise in analysis strongly impregnated with the spirit of Stendhal, but better written than anything of that writer's. These stories, with his letters, assure Merimee's place in literature at the very head of the French prose writers of the century. He had undertaken an edition of Brantome for the Bibliotheque Elzevirienne, but it was never completed. M6rim6e's works have only been gradually published since his death. There is no uniform edition, but almost everything is obtainable in the collections of MM. Charpentier and Calmann Levy. Most of the sets of letters above referred to from those to the first inconnue, where the introducer was Taine, have essay- prefaces on Merimee. Maurice Tourneux's Prosper Merimie, sa bibliographic (1876) and Prosper Merimee, ses portraits (1879), are useful, while Emile Faguet and many other critics have dealt with him incidentally. But the best single book on him by far is the Merimee et ses amis of Augustin Filon (1894). M. F. Chambon's Correspondence inedite (1897) gives little that is substantive, but supplies and corrects a good many gaps or faults in earlier editions. English translations, especially of Colomba and Carmen, are numer ous. The Chronique de Charles IX. was translated by G. Saintsbury in 1889 with an introduction; and the same writer has also prefixed a much more elaborate essay, containing a review of Merimfe's entire work, to an American translation. (G. Sa.) MERINO, the Spanish name for a breed of sheep, and hence applied to a woollen fabric. The Spanish word is generally taken to be an adaptation to the sheep of the name of an official {merino) who inspected sheep pastures. This word is from the medieval Latin majorinus, a steward, head official of a village, &c, from major, greater. The merino is a white short-wool sheep, the male having spiral horns, the ewes being generally hornless. It is bred chiefly for its wool, because, though an excellent grazer and very adaptable, it matures slowly and its mutton is not of the best quality. The wool is close and wavy in staple, reaching 4 in. in length, and surpasses that of all other sheep in fineness; it is so abundant that little but the muzzle, which should •be > of an orange tint, and hoofs, are left uncovered. The best wool is produced on light sandy soils. The merino is little known in Great Britain, the climatic moisture of which does not favour the growth of the finest wools, but it predominates in all regions where sheep are bred for their wool rather than their mutton, as in the western United States, Cape Colony, Australia, New Zealand and Argentina. In Australasia, especially in New Zealand, the merino has been crossed with Lincolns, Leicesters, Shropshires and other breeds, with the result of improving the quality i68 MERIONETH— MERISTEM of the mutton while sacrificing to some extent that of the wool. The merino sheep appears to have originated in Africa, whence it was brought by the Moors to Spain and thence spread over Europe, especially to Austria-Hungary, Germany and France. The best-known breeds are the Rambouillet, a large merino named after the village near Paris, to which it was imported towards the end of the 18th century, and the Negretti, which stands in closer relationship to the old Spanish stock and has shorter wool but a more wrinkled fleece. Importations to America began about the beginning of the 19th century. The so-called American merino, the Delaine, the Vermont and the Rambouillet, are well-known breeds in the United States. The term " merino " is widely employed in the textile in- dustries with very varied meanings. Originally it was restricted to denote the wool of the merino sheep reared in Spain, but owing to the superiority of the wools grown on merino sheep and shipped from Botany Bay, the name as applied to wool was replaced by the term " botany." In the dress-goods and knitting trades the term " merino " still implies an article made from the very best soft wool. The term " cashmere," however, is frequently confused with it, although cashmere goods should be made from true cashmere and not, as is often the case, from the finest botany wool. In the hosiery and remanufactured materials trades the term " merino " is applied to fibre-mixtures of cotton and wool in contradistinction to " all wool " goods. MERIONETH (Welsh, Meirionydd), a county of North Wales, bounded N. by Carnarvon and Denbigh, E. by Denbigh and Montgomery, S.E. by Montgomery, S. by the Dovey (Dyfi) estuary, dividing it from Cardigan, and W. by Cardigan Bay. It is nearly triangular, its greatest length from N.E. to S.W. being about 45 m., its greatest breadth about 30 m. The relief is less bold than that of Carnarvon, but the scenery is richer and more picturesquely varied. The highest summits are the peaks of Cader Idris (q.v.) including Pen y gader (the head of the chair; 2927 ft.); Aran Fawddwy (2970 ft.); Arenig fawr (2600 ft.); Y Llethr (2475 ft.), and Rhobell fawr (2313 ft.). Perhaps the finest of the valleys are those of Dyfi (Dovey) Dysyni, Tal y llyn (forehead of the lake), Maw (Mawddach), and Festiniog. The Dyfrdwy (Dee) drains Bala Lake (Llyn Tegid or Pimblemere), which is fed by two brooks rising at the foot of the Berwyn Hills. The Dyfrdwy leaves the lake at the north-east corner, near Castell Goronwy (erected 1202, hardly traceable), flowing slowly to Corwen, after which it is rapid, and receives the tributaries Alwen, Ceiriog, Clywedog and Alun. The Dyfi (Dovey) rising in a small lake near Aran Fawddwy, passes Machynlleth, and expands into an estuary of Cardigan Bay. Rising north of the Aran, the Mawddach (Maw) runs south-west some 12 m., being joined by rivulets. Traeth bach is formed by the Dwyryd streamlet among others. Other streams are the Wnion, Eden, Cain (variously spelled). Besides Bala and Tal y llyn lakes, there are among the hills over fifty more, e.g. Llyn Mwyngil. Among the waterfalls may be mentioned Rhaiadr y glyn (cascade of the glen), near Corwen, Rhaiadr du (black), and Pistyll Cain (Cain's waterspout), some 150 ft. high. A mountain tract of the county, 15 m. from north to south by io from east to west, stretching from the coast inland, is of the Cambrian age, composed of grits, quartzites and slates, and com- prising the Merionethshire anticlinal. The central portion of this tract is occupied mainly by Harlech Grits and Menevian beds; it is bordered on the north, east and south by the Lingula, Tremadoc and Arenig beds, which are pierced by numerous dikes and intrusive masses, mostly greenstone. The andesitic rock of Rhobell-fawr is one of the greatest igneous masses in the whole area of the Lingula beds. The Lingula beds are quarried and mined for slate at Festiniog, and near Dolgelly gold is obtained from a quartz vein, while near Bar- mouth manganese has been worked. Bordering the Cambrian area are the Ordovician rocks. The Arenig beds are interstratified with and overlaid by accumulations of volcanic ashes, felspathic traps or lava-flows, which form the rugged heights of Cader Idris, the Arans, the Arenigs, Manod and Moelwyn; and these are in turn overlaid by the Llandeilo and Bala beds, the latter including the Bala lime- stone. Lead and copper ores have been worked near Towyn. Here and there along the eastern boundary Llandovery and Wenlock strata are included. The structure of the Silurian tract is synclinal; in the Berwyn mountains the Ordovician rocks again appear with associated andesitic and felsitic lavas and tuffs. West of Llangar, near Corwen, is a small patch of Carboniferous limestone. Glacial drift with boulder clay is a prominent feature in the valleys and on the mountain sides. A good deal of blown sand fringes the coast north and south of Harlech. At the Llyn Arenig Bach a deposit of kieselguhr has been found. The climate varies much with the elevation, from bleak to genial, as at Aberdyfi (Aberdovey). Grain crops cover a small area only, green crops being poor, and fruits practically nil. While the soil is generally thin, there are fertile tracts in the valleys, and there is some reclaimed land. The small, hardy ponies (known as of Llanbedr, Conway Valley) are now almost restricted to this county and Montgomeryshire. Manufactures include woollen stockings, &c, at and near Bala, flannels at Dolgellau (Dolgelley), Towyn, and a few other places. Slate is the chief staple. The Cambrian railway skirts the coast from Portmadoc to Aberdyfi. At Barmouth junction a branch crosses to Dolgelley, where it is joined by a branch of the Great Western railway. Bala and Festiniog are also united by the Great' Western, and Festiniog is further joined with Llandudno junction by the London & North Western railway, and with Portmadoc (Minffordd) by the narrow gauge railway, a light line, opened in 1865, running between Portmadoc and Duffws, rising 700 ft. in 13 m. The tourist traffic is a source of livelihood to many of the inhabitants. The coast is almost unnavigable, owing to sand- banks, and the only havens are Barmouth and Aberdyfi. The area of the ancient county is 427,810 acres or 670 sq. m., with a population in 1891 of 49,212 and 1901 of 49,149. In the 19th century, however, the population nearly doubled. The area of the administrative county is 422,018 acres. Welsh is the tongue par excellence of Merionethshire. The county returns one member to parliament, and has neither parliamentary nor municipal borough. The urban districts are: Bala (pop. 1544), Barmouth (Abermaw, 2214), Dolgelley (Dolgellau, 2437), Festiniog (11,435), Mallwyd' (885), Towyn (3756). The shire is in the north-west circuit, and assizes are held at Dolgellau. It is partly in the diocese of St Asaph and partly in that of Bangor, and has 37 ecclesiastical parishes and districts, with parts of four others. History and Antiquities. — This is the only Welsh county retaining in English its primitive British name, latinized 'into Mervinia, a subdivision of Britannia Secunda, and in the Ordo- vices' territory. The poet Churchyard in 1587 described the county as remote and difficult of access in his day, and it was never made the field of battle in Saxon, Danish or Norman times, nor indeed until close on the period of Welsh loss of independence. There are not many remains, Celtic, Roman or medieval. Caer Drewyn, a British fort on the Dee, is near Corwen, where Owen Gwynnedd was posted to repel Henry II. and whither Owen Glendower retired before Henry IV. The numerous cromlechs are chiefly near the coast. The Roman via occidentalis ran through the county from south to north and was joined by a branch of Watling Street at Tomen y mur (perhaps Heriri Mons) on Sam Helen, not far from Castell Prysor. Tomen y mur {detritus of the wall) and Castell Prysor have yielded Roman bricks, tiles, urns and coins. Castell y bere, an extensive ruin, and once one of Wales's largest castles, has not been inhabited since the time of Edward I. Cymmer Abbey (F Fanner) near Dolgellau, a Cistercian establishment founded about 1200, and dissolved by Henry VIII., is mo§t perfect at the east end, with lancet windows, and against the south wall there are a few Gothic pillars and arches. The architecture varies from Norman to Perpendicular. Towen y Bala, east of Bala, is supposed to be a Roman encampment. It was afterwards occupied by the Welsh, to check the English lords marchers. Moel Offrwm is near Dolgellau. Among the county families may be mentioned that of Hengwrt, since the Hengwrt Welsh MSS. are famous in north Wales and among all Celtic scholars. MERISTEM (Gr. fiepiarbs, divided or divisible), a botani- ' cal term for tissue which has the power of developing new MERIVALE, C.u-MERLIN, P. A. 169 forms of tissue, such as the cambium from which new wood is developed. MERIVALE, CHARLES (1808-1893), English historian and dean of Ely, the second son of John Herman Merivale and Louisa Heath Drury, daughter of Dr Drury, head master of Harrow, was born on the 8th of March 1808. His father (1 770-1844) was an English barrister, and, from 1831, a com- missioner in bankruptcy; he collaborated with Robert Bland (1770-1825) in his Collections from the Creek Anthology, and published some excellent translations from Italian and German. Charles Merivale was at Harrow School (1818 to 1824) under Dr Butler. His chief friends were Charles Wordsworth, after- wards bishop of St Andrews, and Richard Chenevix Trench, afterwards archbishop of Dublin. In 1824 he was offered a writership in the Indian civil service, and went 'for a short time to Haileybury College, where he was distinguished for proficiency in Oriental languages. But he eventually decided against an Indian career, and went up to St John's College, Cambridge, in 1826. Among other distinctions he came out as fourth classic in 1830, and in 1833 was elected fellow of St John's. He was a member of the Apostles' Club, his fellow- members including Tennyson, A. H. Hallam, Monckton Milnes, W. H. Thompson, Trench and James Spedding. He was fond of athletic exercises, had played for Harrow against Eton in 1824. and in 1829 rowed in the first inter-university boat-race, when Oxford won. Having been ordained in 1833, he undertook college and university work successfully, and in 1839 was appointed select preacher at Whitehall. In 1848 he took the college living of Lawford, near Manningtree, in Essex; he married, in 1850, Judith Mary Sophia, youngest daughter of George Frere. In 1863 he was appointed chaplain to the Speaker of the House of Commons, declined the professorship of modern history at Cambridge in 1869, but in the same year accepted from Mr Gladstone the deanery of Ely, and until his death on the 27th of December 1893 devoted himself to the best interests of the cathedral. He received many honorary academical distinctions. His principal work was A History of the Romans under the Empire, in seven volumes, which came out between 1850 and 1862; but he wrote several smaller historical works, and published sermons, lectures and Latin verses. Merivale as a historian cannot be compared with Gibbon for virility, but he takes an eminently common-sense and appreciative view. The chief defect of his work, inevitable at the time it was composed, is that, drawing the materials from contemporary memoirs rather than from inscriptions, he relies on literary gossip rather than on numismatics and epigraphy. The dean was an elegant scholar, and his rendering of the Hyperion of Keats into Latin verse (1862) has received high praise. See Autobiography of Dean Merivale, with selections from his correspondence, edited by his daughter , Judith A. Merivale (1899) ; and Family Memorials, by Anna W. Merivale (1884). MERIVALE, HERMAN (1806-1874), English civil servant and author, elder brother of the preceding, was born at Dawlish, Devonshire, on the 8th of November 1806. He was educated at Harrow School, and in 1823 entered Oriel College, Oxford. In 1825 he became a scholar of Trinity College and also won tbe Ireland scholarship, and three years later he was elected fellow of Balliol College. He became a member of the Inner Temple and practised on the western circuit, being made in 1 84 1 recorder of Falmouth, Helston and Penzance. From 1837 to 1842 he was professor of political economy at Oxford. In this capacity he delivered a course of lectures on the British Colonies in which he dealt with questions of emigration, employ- ment of labour and the allotment of public lands. The reputation he secured by these lectures had much to do with his appointment in 1847 as assistant under-secretary for the colonies, and in the next year he became permanent under-secretary. In 1859 he was transferred to the permanent under-secretaryship for India, receiving the distinction of C.B. In 1870 Merivale was made D.C.L. of Oxford. He died on the 8th of February 1874. Besides his Lectures on Colonization and Colonies (1841), he published Historical Studies (1865), and completed the Memoirs of Sir Philip Francis (1867); he wrote the second volume of the Life of Sir Henry Lawrence (1872) in continuation of Sir Herbert Edwardes's work. A tribute to his powers as an original thinker by his chief at the Colonial Office, Sir Edward Bulwer-Lytton, is printed with a notice of his career which his brother contributed to the Transactions (1884) of the Devonshire Association. MERKARA, the capital of the province of Coorg, in Southern India, situated on a plateau about 4000 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1901), 6732. It consists of two quarters: the fort, containing the public offices, the old palace, and the residence of the com- missioner; and the native town of Mahadevapet. Here are the headquarters of the Coorg and Mysore Rifles, a body of volunteers chiefly composed of coffee planters. MERLIN, ANTOINE CHRISTOPHE (1762-1833), French revolutionist, called " of Thionville " to distinguish him from his namesake of Douai (see below), was born at Thionville on the 13th of September 1762, being the son of a procureur in the bailliage of Thionville. After studying theology, he devoted himself to law, and in 1788 was an avocat at the parlement of Metz. In 1790 he was elected municipal officer of Thionville, and was sent by the department of Moselle to the Legislative Assembly. On the 23rd of October 1791 he moved and carried the institution of a committee of surveillance, of which he became a member. It was he who proposed the law sequestrat- ing the property of the e'migre's, and he took an important part in the emeute of the 20th of June 1792 and in the revolution of the 10th of August of the same year. He was elected deputy to the National Convention, and pressed for the execution of Louis XVI., but a mission to the army prevented his attendance at the trial. He displayed great bravery in the defence of Mainz. He took part in the reaction which followed the fall of Robespierre, sat in the Council of the Five Hundred under the Directory, and at the coup d'itat of the 18th Fructidor (Sept. 4, 1797) demanded the deportation of certain repub- lican members. In 1798 he ceased to be a member of the Council of Five Hundred, and was appointed director-general of posts, being sent subsequently to organize the army of Italy. He retired into private life at the proclamation of the con- sulate, and lived in retirement under the consulate and the empire. He died in Paris on the 14th of September 1833. See J. Reynaud, Vie et correspondance de Merlin de Thionville (Paris, i860). MERLIN, PHILIPPE ANTOINE, Count (1754-1838), French politician and lawyer, known as Merlin " of Douai," was born at Arleux (Nord) on the 30th of October 1754, and was called to the Flemish bar in 1775. An indefatigable student, he collaborated in the Repertoire de jurisprudence published by J. N. Guyot, the later editions of which appeared under Merlin's superintendence, and also contributed to other important legal compilations. Elected to the states-general as deputy for Douai, he was one of the chief of those who applied the principles of liberty and equality embodied in the decree of the 4th of August 1789 to actual conditions. On behalf of the committee appointed to deal with feudal rights, he presented to the Convention reports on the seignorial rights which were subject to compensation, on hunting and fishing rights, forestry, and kindred subjects. He carried legislation for the abolition of primogeniture, secured equality of inheritance between relations of the same degree, and between men and wbmea», His numerous reports to the Constituent Assembly were supple-^ mented by popular exposition of current legislation in the Journal de legislation. On the dissolution of the Constituent Assembly he became judge of the criminal court at Douai. He was no advocate of violent measures; but, as deputy to the Convention, he voted for the death of Louis XVI., and as a member of the council of legislation he presented to the Convention on the 17th of September 1793 the infamous law permitting the detention of suspects. He was closely allied with his namesake Merlin " of Thionville," and, after the counter-revolution which brought about the fall of Robespierre, 170 MERLIN he became president of the Convention and a member of the Committee of Public Safety. His efforts were primarily directed to the prevention of any recrudescence of the tyranny exercised by the Jacobin Club, the commune of Paris, and the revolution- ary tribunal. He persuaded the Committee of Safety to take upon itself the closing of the Jacobin Club, on the ground that it was an administrative rather than a legislative measure. He recommended the readmission of the survivors of the Girondin party to the Convention, and drew up a law limiting the right of insurrection; he had also a considerable share in the foreign policy of the victorious republic. With Cambaceres he had been commissioned in April 1794 to report on the civil and criminal legislation of France, with the result that after eighteen months' work he produced his Rapport et projet de code des delils et des peines (10 Vendemiaire, an. IV.). Merlin's' code abolished confiscation, branding and imprisonment for life, and was based chiefly on the penal code drawn up in September 1791. He was made minister of justice (Oct. 30, 179s) under the Directory, and showed excessive rigour against the emigrants. After the coup d'Uat of the 18th Fructidor he became (Sept. 5, 1797) one of the five directors, and was accused of the various failures of the government. He retired into private life (June 18, 1799), and had no share in the revolution of the 18th Bru- maire. Under the consulate he accepted a modest place in the court of cassation, where he soon became procureur-general. Although he had no share in drawing up the Napoleonic code, he did more than any other lawyer to fix its interpretation. He became a member of the council of state, count of the empire, and grand officer of the Legion of Honour; but having resumed his functions during the Hundred Days, he was one of those banished on the second restoration. The years of his exile were devoted to his Repertoire de jurisprudence (5th ed., 18 vols., Paris, 1827-1828) and to his Recueil alphabetique des questions de droit (4th ed., 8 vols., Paris, 1827-1828). At the revolution of 1830 he was able to return to France, when he re-entered the Institute of France, of which he had been an original member, being admitted to the Academie des Sciences Morales et Poli- tiques. He died in Paris on the 26th of December 1838. His son, Antoine Franqois Eugene Merlin (1778-1854), was a well-known general in the French army, and served through most of Napoleon's campaigns. See M. Mignet, Portraits et notices historiques (1852), vol. i. MERLIN (Welsh, Myrddhin), the famous bard of Welsh tradition, and enchanter of Arthurian romance. His history as related in this latter may be summarized as follows. The infernal powers, aghast at the blow to their influence dealt by the Incarnation, determine to counteract it, if possible, by the birth of an Antichrist, the offspring of a woman and a devil. As in the book of Job, a special family is singled out as subjects of the diabolic experiment, their property is destroyed, one after the other perishes miserably, till one daughter, who has placed herself under the special protection of the Church, is left alone. »The demon takes advantage of an unguarded moment of despair, and Merlin is engendered. Thanks, however, to the prompt action of the mother's confessor, Blayse, in at once baptizing the child of this abnormal birth, the mother truly protesting that she has had intercourse with no man, Merlin is claimed for Christianity, but remains dowered with demoniac powers of insight and prophecy. An infant in arms, he saves his mother's life and confounds her accusers by his knowledge of their family secrets. Meanwhile Vortigern, king of the Britons, is in despair at the failure of his efforts to build a tower in a certain spot; however high it may be reared in a day, it falls again during the night. He consults his diviners, who tell him that the foundations must be watered with the blood of a child who has never had a father; the king accordingly sends messengers through the land in search of such a prodigy. They come to the city where Merlin and his mother dwell at the moment when the boy is cast out from the companionship of the other lads on the ground that he has had no father. The messengers take him to the king, and on the way he astonishes them by certain prophecies which are fulfilled to their knowledge. Arrived in Vortigern's presence, he at once announces that he is aware alike of the fate destined for him and of the reason, hidden from the magicians, of the fall of the tower. It is built over a lake, and beneath the waters of the lake in a subterranean cavern lie two dragons, a white and a red; when they turn over the tower falls. The lake is drained, the correctness of the statement proved, and Merlin's position as court prophet assured. Henceforward he acts as adviser to Vortigern's successors, the princes' Ambrosius and Uther (subsequently Uther-Pendragon) . As a monument to the Britons fallen on Salisbury Plain he brings from Ireland, by magic means, the stones now forming Stonehenge. He aids Uther in his passion for Yguerne, wife to the duke of Cornwall, by Merlin's spells Uther assumes the form of the husband, and on the night of the duke's death Arthur is en- gendered. At his birth the child is committed to Merlin's care, and by him given to Antor, who brings him up as his own son. On Arthur's successful achievement of the test of the sword in the " perron," Merlin reveals the truth of his parentage and the fact that he is by hereditary right, as well as by divine selection, king of the Britons. During the earlier part of Arthur's reign Merlin acts as counsellor; then he disappears mysteriously from the scene. According to one account he is betrayed by a maiden, Nimue or Niniane (a king's daughter, or a water-fairy, both figure in different versions), of whom he is enamoured, and who having beguiled from him a knowledge of magic spells, casts him into a slumber and imprisons him living in a rocky tomb. This version, with the great cry, or Brait, which the magician uttered before his death, appears to have been the most popular. Another represents his prison as one of air; he is invisible to all, but can see and hear, and occasionally speak to passers by; thus he holds converse with Gawain. In the prose Perceval he retires voluntarily to an " Esplumeor " erected by himself, and is seen no more of. man. The curious personality of Merlin is now generally recognized as being very largely due to the prolific invention of Geoffrey of Monmouth. Nennius, upon whose Historia Geoffrey enlarged and " improved," gives indeed the story of Vortigern and the tower, but the boy's name is Ambrosius. Geoffrey calls him Merlin-Ambrosius, a clear proof that he was adapting Nennius' story. He represents the sage in his role of court diviner, his " Prophecies " being incorporated in later manuscripts of the Historia. Subsequently Geoffrey enlarged on the theme, com- posing a Vita Merlini in which we find the magician in the r61e of a " possessed " wood-abider, fleeing the haunts of men, and consorting with beasts. This gave rise to the idea that there had originally been two Merlins, Merlin-Ambrosius and Merlin-Sylvester, a view now discarded by the leading scholars. The Vita was so successful that Geoffrey obtained as reward the bishopric of St Asaph. Welsh vernacular literature has preserved a small but interest- ing group of poems, strongly national and patriotic in character, which are attributed to Merlin (Myrddhin). A few years after Geoffrey's death Merlin's adventures were amplified into a romance, the first draft of which is attributed to Robert de Borron, and which eventually took the form of a lengthy introduction to the prose Lancelot and cyclic redaction of the Arthurian legend. The romantic, as distinguished from legendary or historical Merlin, exists in the following forms: (a) a fragmentary poem pre- served in a unique manuscript of the Bibl. nat. (this gives no more than the introduction to the story) ; (b) a prose rendering oftlje above, of which a fair number of copies exist, generally found, as in the original poem, coupled with a version of the early history of the Grail, known as Joseph of Arimathea, and in two cases followed by a Perceval and Mort Artus, thus forming a small cycle; (c) the Ordinary or Vulgate Merlin, a very lengthy romance, of which numerous copies exist (see Dr Sommer's edition) ; (d) and (e) two continuations to the above, each represented by a single manu- script — (d) the " Huth " Merlin, which was utilized by Malory for his translation, and also formed a part of the compilation used by the Spanish and Portuguese translators, and (e) a very curious manuscript, 337, Bibl. nat. (fonds Francais), which Paulin Paris calls the Livre Artus, containing much matter not found elsewhere. M. La Villemarqu6's " critical study " (Myrdhinn, ou I'enchanteur MERLON— MERMAIDS 171 Merlin, 1861) cannot be regarded as much more trustworthy than Geoffrey himself. The story of the tower, and the Boy without a Father, has been critically examined by Dr Gaster, in a paper read before the Folk-lore Society and subsequently published in Folk-lore (vol. xvi.). Dr Gaster cites numerous Oriental parallels to the tale, and sees in it the germ of the whole Merlin legend. Alfred Nutt (Revue celtique, vol. xxvii.) has since shown that Aengus, the magician of the Irish Tuatha de Danaan, was also of unknown parentage, and it seems more probable that the Boy without a Father theme was generally associated with the Celtic magicians, and is the property of no one in particular. Some years ago the late Mr Ward of the British Museum drew attention to certain passages in the life of St Kentigern, relating his dealings with a " possessed " being, a dweller in the woods, named Lailoken, and pointed out the practical identity of the adventures of that personage and those assigned by Geoffrey to Merlin in the Vita; the text given by Mr Ward states that some people identified Lailoken with Merlin (see Romania, vol. xxvii.). Ferd. Lot, in an examination of the sources of the Vita Merlini (Annates de Bretagne, vol. xv.), has pointed out the more original character of the " Lai- loken " fragments, and decides that Geoffrey knew the Scottish tradition and utilized it for his Vita. He also comes to the con- clusion that the Welsh Merlin poems, with the possible exception of the Dialogue between Merlin and Taliessin, are posterior to, and inspired by, Geoffrey's work. So far the researches of scholars appear to point to the result that the legend of Merlin, as we know it, is of complex growth, combined from traditions of independent and widely differing origin. Most probably there is a certain substratum of fact beneath all; there may have been, there very probably was, a bard and soothsayer of that name, and it is by no means improbable thatj'curious stories were told of his origin. It is worth noting that Layamon, whose translation of Wace s Brut is of so much interest, on account of the variants he introduces into the text, gives a much more favourable form of the " Birth " story; the father is a glorious and supernatural being, who appears to the mother in her dreams. Layamon lived on the Welsh border, and the possibility of his variants being drawn from genuine British tradition is generally recognized. The poem relating a dialogue between Merlin and his brother bard, Taliessin, may also derive from genuine tradition. Further than this we can hardly venture to go; the probability is that anything more told of the character and career of Merlin rests upon the imaginative powers and faculty of combination of Geoffrey of Monmouth. See also G. Paris and Ulrich (Sociite des anciens textes francais, 1886); Merlin, ed. Wheatley (Early English Text Society, 1899); Arthour and Merlin, ed. Kdlbing. (J. L. W.) MERLON, in architecture, the solid part of an embattled parapet between the embrasures, sometimes pierced by loop- holes. The word is French, adapted from Ital. merlone, possibly a shortened form of mergola, connected with Lat. mergae, pitchfork, or from a diminutive moerulus, from murus (moerus). a wall. *MERMAIDS and MERMEN, in the folk-lore of England and Scotland, a class of semi-human beings who have their dwelling in the sea, but are capable of living on land and of entering into social relations with men and women. 1 They are easily identified, at least in some of their most important aspects, with the Old German Meriminni or Meerfrau, the Icelandic Hafgufa, Margygr, and Marmennill (mod. Marbendill), the Danish Hafmand or Maremind, the Irish Merrow or Merruach, the Marie-Morgan of Brittany and the Morforwyn of Wales ; 2 and they have various points of Tesemblance to the vodyany or water-sprite and the rusalka or stream-fairy of Russian mythology. The typical mermaid has the head and body of a woman, usually of exceeding loveliness, but below the waist is fashioned like a fish with scales and fins. Her hair is long and beautiful, and she is often represented, like the Russian rusalka, as combing it with one hand while in the other she holds a looking-glass. For a time at least a mermaid may become to all appearance an ordinary human being; and an Irish legend (" The Overflowing of Lough Neagh and Liban 1 The name mermaid is compounded of mere, a lake, and nuegd, a maid ; but, though mere wif occurs in Beowulf, mere-maid does not appear till the Middle English period (Chaucer, Romaunt of the Rose, &c). In Cornwall the fishermen say merry-maids and merry-men. The connexion with the sea rather than with inland waters appears to be of later origin. " The Mermaid of Martin Meer " (Roby's Traditions of Lancashire, vol. ii.) is an example of the older force of the word ; and such " meer-women " are known to the country-folk in various parts of England (e.g. at Newport in Shropshire, where the town is some day to be drowned by the woman's agency). 'See Rhys, " Welsh Fairy Tales," in Y Cymmrodor (1881, 1882). the Mermaid," in Joyce's Old Celtic Romances) represents the temporary transformation of a human being into a mermaid. The mermaid legends of all countries may be grouped as follows, (a) A mermaid or mermaids either voluntarily or under compulsion reveal things that are about to happen. Thus the two mermaids (merewip) Hadeburc and Sigelint, in the Nibelungen- lied, disclose his future course to the hero Hagen, who, having got possession of their garments, which they had left on the shore, compels them to pay ransom in this way. According to Resenius, a mermaid appeared to a peasant of Samsoe, foretold the birth of a prince, and moralized on the evils of intemperance, &c. (Kong Fredericks den andens Kronike, Copen- hagen, 1680, p. 302). (b) A mermaid imparts supernatural powers to a human being. Thus in the beautiful story of " The Old Man of Cury " (in Hunt's Popular Romances of the West oj England, 187 1) the old man, instead of silver and gold, obtains the power of doing good to his neighbours by breaking the spells of witchcraft, chasing away diseases, and discovering thieves, (c) A mermaid has some one under her protection, and for wrong done to her ward exacts a terrible penalty. One of the best and most detailed examples of this class is the story of the " Mermaid's Vengeance " in Hunt's book already quoted, (d) A mermaid falls in love with a human being, lives with him as his lawful wife for a time, and then, some compact being unwittingly or intentionally broken by him, departs to her true home in the sea. Here, if its mermaid form be accepted, the typical legend is undoubtedly that of MSlusine (q.v.), which, being made the subject of a romance by Jean d' Arras, became one of the most popular folk-books of Europe, appearing in Spanish, German, Dutch and Bohemian versions, (e) A mermaid falls in love with a man, and entices him to go to live with her below the sea; or a merman wins the affection or captures the person of an earthborn maiden. This form of legend is very common, and has naturally been a favourite with poets. Macphail of Colonsay successfully rejects the allurements of the mermaid of Corrievrekin, and comes back after long years of trial to the maid of Colonsay. 3 The Danish ballads are especially full of the theme; as " Agnete and the Merman," an antecedent of Matthew Arnold's " Forsaken Merman "; the " Deceitful Merman, or Marstig's Daughter "; and the finely detailed story of Rosmer Hafmand (No. 49 in Grimm). In relation to man the mermaid is usually of evil issue if not of evil intent. She has generally to be bribed or compelled to utter her prophecy or bestow her gifts, and whether as wife or paramour she brings disaster in her train. The fish-tail, which in popular fancy forms the characteristic feature of the mermaid^ is really of secondary importance; for the true Teutonic mermaid — probably a remnant of the great cult of the Vanir — had no fish-tail; 4 and this symbolic appendage occurs in the mythologies of so many countries as to afford no clue to its place of origin. The Tritons, and, in the later representations, the Sirens of classical antiquity, the Phoenician Dagon, and the Chaldaean Oannes' are all well-known examples; the Ottawas and other American Indians have their man-fish and woman-fish (Jones, Traditions of the North American Indians, 1830) ; and the Chinese tell stories not unlike our own about the sea-women of their southern seas (Dennis, Folklore of China, 1875). Quasi-historical instances of the appearance or capture of mermaids are common enough, 5 and serve, with the frequent use of the figure on signboards and coats of arms, to show how thoroughly the myth had taken hold of the popular imagination. 6 • See Leyden's " The Mermaid," in Sir Walter Scott's Border,, Minstrelsy. . , 4 Karl Blind, " New Finds in Shetlandic and Welsh Folk-iote," in Gentleman's Magazine (1882). 6 Compare the strange account of the quasi-human creatures found in the Nile given by Theophylactus, Historiae, viii. 16, pp. 299-302, of Bekker's edition. 6 See the paper in Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc., xxxviii., 1882, by H. S. Cuming, who points out that mermaids or mermen occur in the arms of Earls Caledon, Howth and Sandwich, Viscounts. Boyne and Hood, Lord Lyttelton and Scott of Abbotsford, as well as in those of the Ellis, Byron, Phen6, Skeffington and other families. The English heralds represent the creatures with a single tail, the French and German heralds frequently with a double one. 172 MEROBAfUDES~-MERQVINGIANS A mermaid captured at Bangor, on the shore of Belfast Lough, in the 6th century, was not only baptized, but admitted into some of the old calendars as a saint under the name of Murgen (Notes and Queries, Oct. 21, 1882); and Stowe (Annates, under date 1 187) relates how a man-fish was kept for six months and more in the castle of Orford in Suffolk. As showing how legendary material may gather round a simple fact, the oft-told story of the sea- woman of Edam is particularly interesting. The oldest authority, Joh. Gerbrandus a Leydis, a Carmelite monk (d. 1504), tells (Annates, &c, Frankfort, 1620) how in 1403 a wild woman came through a breach in the dike into Purmerlake, and, being found by some Edam milkmaids, was ultimately taken to Haarlem and lived there many years. Nobody could understand her, but she learned to spin, and was wont to adore the cross. Ocka Scharlensis (Chronijk van Friesland, Leeuw., 1597) reasons that she was not a fish because she could spin, and she was not a woman because she could live in the sea; and thus in due course she got fairly established as a genuine mermaid. Vosmaer, who has carefully investigated the matter, enumerates forty writers who have repeated the story, and shows that the older ones speak only of a woman (see " Beschr. van de zoogen. Meermin der stad Haarlem," in Verh. van de Holl. Maatsch. van K. en Wet., part 23, No. 1786). The best account of the mermaid-myth is in Baring-Gould's Myths of the Middle Ages. See also, besides works already men- tioned, Pontoppidan, who in his logically credulous way collects much matter to prove the existence of mermaids; Maillet, Telliamed (Hague, 1755); Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, i. 404, and Altddri. Helaenlieder (1811); Waldron's Description and Train's Hist, and Stat. Ace. of the Isle of Man; Folk-lore Society's Record, vol. ii.; Napier, Hist, and Trad. Tales connected with the South of Scotland; S6billot, Traditions de la haute Bretagne (1882), and Contes des marins (1882). MEROBAUDES, FLAVIUS (5th century a.d.), Latin rhetori- cian and poet, probably a native of Baetica in Spain. He was the official laureate of Valentinian III. and Aetius. Till the beginning of the 19th century he was known only from the notice of him in the Chronicle (year 443) of his contemporary Idacius, where he is praised as a poet and orator, and mention is made of statues set up in his honour. In 18.13 the base of a statue was discovered at Rome, with a long inscription belong- ing to the year 435 (C.I.L. vi. 1724) upon Flavius Merobaudes, celebrating his merits as warrior and poet. Ten years later, Niebuhr discovered some Latin verses on a palimpsest in the monastery of St Gall, the authorship of which was traced to Merobaudes, owing to the great similarity of the language in the prose preface to that of the inscription. Formerly the only piece known under the name of Merobaudes was a short poem (30 hexameters) De Christo, attributed to him by one MS., to Claudian by another; but Ebert is inclined to dispute the claim of Merobaudes to be considered either the author of the De Christo or a Christian. The " Panegyric " and minor poems have been edited by B. G. Niebuhr (1824); by I. Bekker in the Bonn Corpus scriptorum hist. Byz. (1836) ;the " De Christo " in T. Birt's Claudian (1892), where the authorship of Merobaudes is upheld; see also A. Ebert, Geschichte ier Literatur des Mittelalters im Abendlande (1889). HEROE, the general name (as Island of Meroe) ; for the region bounded on three sides by the Nile (from Atbara to Khartum), the Atbara, and the Blue Nile; and the special name of an ancient city on the east bank of the Nile, 877 m. from Wadi Haifa by river, and 554 by the route across the desert, near the site of which is a group of villages called Bakarawiya. The site of the city is marked by over two hundred pyramids in three groups, of which many are in ruinous condition. After these ruins had been described by several travellers, among whom F. Cailliaud (Voyage d, MSroS, Paris, 1826-1828) deserves special mention, some excavations were executed on a small scale in 1834 by G. Ferlini (Cenno sugli scavi Operati nella Nubia e cat ah go degli oggetti ritrovati, Bologna, 1837), who discovered (or professed to discover) various antiquities, chiefly in the form of jewelry, now in the museums of Berlin and Munich. The ruins were examined in 1844 by C. R. Lepsius, who brought many plans, sketches and copies, besides actual antiquities, to Berlin. Further excavations were carried on by E. W. Budge in the years 1902 and 1905, the results of which are recorded in his work, The Egyptian Sudan: its History and Monuments (London, 1907). Troops were furnished by Sir Reginald Wingate, governor of the Sudan, who made paths to and between the pyramids, and sank shafts, &c. It was found that the pyramids were regularly built over sepulchral chambers, containing the remains of bodies either burned or buried without being mummi- fied. The most interesting objects found were the reliefs on the chapel walls, already described by Lepsius, and containing the names with representations of queens and some kings, with some chapters of the Book of the Dead; some steles with inscrip- tions in the Meroitic language, and some vessels of metal and earthenware. The best of the reliefs were taken down stone by stone in 1005, and set up partly in the British Museum and partly in the museum at Khartum. In 1910, in consequence of a report by Professor Sayce, excavations were commenced in the mounds of the town and the necropolis by J. Garstang on behalf of the university of Liverpool, and the ruins of a palace and several temples were discovered, built by the Meroite kings. (See further Ethiopia.) Meroe was probably also an alternative name for the city of Napata, the ancient capital of Ethiopia, built at the foot of Jebel Barkal. The site of Napata is indicated by the villages of Sanam Abu Dom on the left bank of the Nile and Old Merawi on the right bank of the river. New Merawi, 1 m. east of Sanam Abu Dom and on the same side of the river, was founded by the Sudan govern- ment in 1905 and made the capital of the mudiria of Dongola. (D. S. M.*) MEROPE, the name of several figures in Greek mythology. The most important of them are the following: (1) The daughter of Cypsel'us, king of Arcadia, and wife of Cresphontes, ruler of Messenia. During an insurrection Cresphontes and two of his sons were murdered and the throne seized by Polyphontes, who forced Merope to marry him. A third son, Aepytus, contrived to escape, and, subsequently returning to Messenia, put Polyphontes to death and recovered his father's kingdom (Apollodorus ii. 8, 5; Pausanias iv. 3, 6). The fortunes of Merope have furnished the subject of tragedies by Euripides (Cresphontes, not extant), Voltaire, Maffei and Matthew Arnold. (2) The daughter of Atlas and wife of Sisyphus. She was one of the seven Pleiades, but remained invisible, hiding her light for shame at having become the wife of a mortal (Apollo- dorus i. 9,3; iii. 10, r; Ovid, Fasti, iv. 17s). - MEROVINGIANS, the name given to the first dynasty which reigned over the kingdom of the Franks. The name is taken from Merovech, one of the first kings of the Salian Franks* who succeeded to Clodio in the middle of the 5th century, and soon became the centre of many legends. The chronicler known as Fredegarius Scholasticus relates that a queen was once sitting by the seashore, when a monster came out of the sea, and by this monster she subsequently became the mother of Merovech, but this myth is due to an attempt to explain the hero's name, which means " the sea-born." At the great battle of Mauriac (the Catalaunian fields) in which Aetius checked the invasion of the Huns (451), there were present in the Roman army a number of Frankish foederati, and a later document, the Vita lupi, states that Merovech (Merovaeus) was their leader. Merovech was the father of Childeric I. (457-481), and grandfather of Clovis (481-511), under whom the Salian Franks conquered the whole of Gaul, except the kingdom! of Burgundy, Provence and Septimahia. The 'sens of Clovis divided the dominions of their father between them, made themselves masters of Burgundy (532), and in addition received Provence from the Ostrogoths (535); Septimania was not taken. from the Arabs till the time of Pippin, the founder of the Carolingian dynasty. From the death of Clovis to that of Dagobert (639), the Merovingian kings displayed considerable energy, both in their foreign wars and in the numerous wars against one another in which they found an outlet for their barbarian instincts. After 639, however, the race began to decline, one after another the kings succeeded to the throne, MERRILL— MERSEBURG but none of them reached more than the age of twenty or twenty- five; this was the age of the " rois faineants." Henceforth the real sovereign was the mayor of the palace. The mayors of the palace belonging to the Carolingian family were able to keep the throne vacant for long periods of time, and finally, in 751 the mayor Pippin, with the consent of the pope Zacharias, sent King Childeric III. to the monastery of St Omer, and shut up his young son Thierry in that of St Wandrille. The Merovingian race thus came to an end in the cloister. Bibliography —See Petigny, Ztttdes sur Vepoque merovingienne (rans, 1 85 1) ; G. Richter, Annalen des frankischen Reichs im Zeitalter der Merowinger (Halle, 1873); F. Dahn, Die Konige der Germanen, vn. (Leipzig, 1894); by the same author, Urgeschichte der germamschen und romanischen Volker, iii. (Berlin, 1883); W Schultze, Deutsche Geschichte von der Urzeit bis zu den Karolimern 11. (Stuttgart, 1896). * Merovingian Legend.— It has long been conceded that the great Jrench national epics of the nth and 12th centuries must have been founded on a great fund of popular poetry, and that many of the episodes of the chansons de geste refer to historical events anterior •to the Carolingian period, , Floovant is obviously connected with the GestaVagoberti, and there are traces of the influence of popular songs on the Prankish heroes in Gregory of Tours and other chroniclers. See G. Kurth, Hist. poit. des Merovingians (Paris, Brussels and Leipzig, 1893); A. Darmesteter, De Floovante vetustiore galbco poemate (Paris, 1877) I Floovant (Paris, 1859); ed. MM. F Guessard and H. Michelant; P. Rajna, Delle Origine delV epopea francese (Florence, 1884), with which cf. G.Paris in Romania, * m - ° 02 . se 9-: F - Settegast, QueUenstudien mr gaUo-romanischen Epik (Leipzig, 1904) ; C. Voretzsch, Epische Studien (Halle, 1900) ; H. Groeber, Grundriss d. roman. Phil. (Bd. II., abt. i. pp 447 seq ) (C?Pf.)" MERRILL, a city and the eounty-seat of Lincoln county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., 185 m. N.W. of Milwaukee, on both sides of the Wisconsin river. Pqp. (19x0 census), 8689. It is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railroad. The city is situated about 1 270 ft. above the sea and has an invigorat- ing climate. Brook trout and various kinds of game, including deer, abound in the vicinity. Grandfather Falls and the Defies of the Prairie river are picturesque places near the city, and furnish good water-power. The principal public building is the Lincoln county court house, and the city contains the T. B. Scott free library, a fine high-school, and the Ravn hospital, a private institution. Riverside Park is maintained by a corporation, and a park along the Prairie river is owned and maintained by the city. MerriU is an important hardwood lumber market, and its principal industry is the manufacture of lumber and lumber products. The manufacture of paper and paper pulp and of lathes is also important. In 1905 the factory products were valued at $3,260,638. There are granite quarries and brickyards in the vicinity. Merrill was settled in 1875, incorporated as a village in 1880, and chartered as a city in 1883. MERRIMAC, 1 a river in the north-eastern part of the United States, having its sources in the White Mountains of New Hamp- shire, and flowing south into Massachusetts, and thence east and north-east into the Atlantic Ocean. With its largest branch it has an extreme length of about 183 m. The Merrimac proper is formed at Franklin, New Hampshire, by the junction of the Pemigewasset and Winnepesaukee rivers. The former is the larger branch and rises in the White Mountains in Grafton county; the latter is the outlet of Lake Winnepesaukee. The valley of the Merrimac was formed before the glacial period and was filled with drift as the ice retreated; subsequently the high flood plain thus formed has been trenched, terraces have been formed, and at different places, where the new channel did not conform to the pre-glacial channel, the river has come upon buried ledges, relatively much more resistant than the drift below, and waterfalls have thus resulted. The river falls 269 ft. in a distance of no m. from Franklin to its mouth. The greater part of the total fall is at six points, and at each of four of these is a city which owes its importance in great measure to the water-power thus provided, Lowell and 1 The name is an Indian word said to mean " swift water " In popular usage the spelling " Merrimack " is used at places alone the river above Haverhill. B 173 Lawrence in Massachusetts, and Manchester and Concord in New Hampshire; at Lowell there is a fall of 30 ft. (Pawtucket Falls), and at Manchester there is a fall of 55 ft. (Amoskeag Falls). The region drained by the river is 4553 sq. m. in extent, and contains a number of lakes, which together with some artificial reservoirs serve as a storage system. On the navigable portion of the river, which extends 17! m. above its mouth, are the cities of Newburyport, near its mouth, and Haverhill' at the head of navigation. In 1899-1908 the Federal govern- ment dredged a channel from Newburyport to Haverhill (14-5 m.) 7 ft. deep and 150 ft. wide at mean low water; vessels having a draft of 12-5 ft. could then pass over the outer bar of Newburyport. MERRIMAN, HENRY. SETON (d. 1903), the pen-name of Hugh Stowell Scott, English novelist. He was a member of the firm of Henry Scott & Sons, and was for some years as underwriter at Lloyd's. His literary career began in 1889 with The Phantom Future, and he made his first decided hit with his Russian story, The Sowers (1896), which was followed by many other well-constructed novels remarkable for excellence of plot and literary handling. The author was an enthusiastic traveller, many of his journeys being undertaken with his friend Stanley Weyman. He was about forty when he died at Melton, near Ipswich, on the 19th of November 1903. Among his most successful books were Roden's Corner (1898); The Isle of Unrest (1899); In Kedar's Tents (1897); The Velvet Glove (1901); The Vultures (1902); Barlasch of the Guard (1903); and The Last Hope (1904). MERRITT, WESLEY (1836- ), American soldier, was born in New York City on the 16th of June 1836. He graduated at West Point in i860, and was assigned to the cavalry service. He served in Utah (1861) and in the defences of Washington (1861-62); learnt the field duties of his arm as aide (1862) to General Philip St George Cooke, who then commanded the cavalry of the Army of the Potomac; became brigadier-general, United States Volunteers, in June 1863; and in September 1863 was placed in command of a brigade of regular cavalry in the Army of the Potomac. He won great distinction in the Virginian campaigns of 1864-65 and in Sheridan's Valley campaign, being brevetted major-general of volunteers for his conduct at Winchester and Fisher's Hill, and brigadier-general of the regular army for his services at Five Forks. In the final campaign about Richmond he did such good service in command of a cavalry division that he was brevetted major- general in the regular army and was promoted major-general of volunteers. With two other Federal commissioners he arranged with the Confederate commanders for the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia. He was mustered out of the Volunteer Service in February 1866, and in July became lieutenant-colonel of the 9th cavalry in the regular army, being promoted gradually to major-general (1895). He served in the Big Horn and Yellowstone Indian campaigns (1876) and in the expedition to relieve the command of Major Thornburgh, who was killed in 1879 by the Utes; was superintendent at West Point (1882-87); and commanded the military department of Missouri in 1887-95, and that of the Atlantic in 1897-98. He was assigned in May 1898 to the command of the United States forces that were sent to the Philippines, after Admiral Dewey's victory; stormed Manila on the 13th of August; and was military governor of the islands until the 30th of August, when he left Manila for Paris to join the peace commission. From 1899 until his retirement from active service in June" 1900 he commanded the Department of the East. MERSEBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Saxony, on the river Saale, 10 m. by rail S. of Halle and 15 m. W. of Leipzig. Pop. (1905), 20,024. It consists of a quaint and irregularly built old town, a, new quarter, and two extensive suburbs, Altenburg and Neumarkt. The cathedral, which was restored in 1884-1886, has a choir, a crypt and two towers of the nth, a transept of the 13th and a late Gothic nave of the 16th century. Among its numerous monuments is one' to Rudolph of Swabia, the rival of the emperor Henry IV. It contains !74 MERSEN, TREATY OF— MERTHYR TYDFIL a great organ dating from the 17th century. Near the cathedral is the Gothic palace, formerly the residence of the bishops of Merseburg, and now used as public offices. The town hall and the Standehaus, where the meetings of the provincial estates were held, are also noteworthy buildings. The industries include the manufacture of machinery, paper and celluloid, and tanning and brewing. Merseburg is one of the oldest towns in Germany. From 968 until the Reformation, it was the seat of a bishop, and in addition to being for a time the residence of the margraves of Meissen, it was a favourite residence of the German kings during the 10th, nth and 12th centuries. Fifteen diets were held here during the middle ages, when its fairs enjoyed the Importance which was afterwards transferred to those of Leipzig. The town suffered severely during the Peasants' War and also during the Thirty Years' War. From 1657 to 1738 it was the residence of the dukes of Saxe-Merseburg. See E. Hoffmann, Ilistorische Nachrichten aus Alt-Merseburg (Mers2burg, 1903). MERSEN (Meerssen), TREATY OF, a treaty concluded on the 8th of August 870 at Mersen, in Holland, between Charles the Bald and his half-brother, Louis the German, by which the kingdom of their nephew Lothair II. (d. 869) was divided between them. Charles received a portion of the kingdom of Lothair afterwards called Lorraine, extending from the mouths of the Rhine to Toul, together with the town of Besancon, the Lyonnais, the Viennais, the Vivarais, and ' the Uzege, i.e. the lands acquired by Lothair II. in 863 at the death of his brother Charles of Provence; while Louis had the cities of Cologne, Trier and Metz, together with Alsace, the Escuens, and the Varais, i.e. the greater part of the diocese of Besancon. The boundary between the two realms was marked approxi- mately by the valleys of the Meuse and Moselle and by the Jura. Great importance has been attached to the determina- tion of this frontier by some historians, who consider that it coincided with the dividing line between the Teutonic and Romance races and languages; but nothing is known of the bases upon which the negotiations were effected, and the situation created by this treaty came to an end in 879. MERSENNE, MARIN (1588-1648), French philosopher and mathematician, was born of peasant parents near Oize (Sarthe) on the 8th of September 1588, and died in Paris on the 1st of September 1648. He was educated at the Jesuit College of La Fleche, where he was a fellow-pupil and friend of Descartes. In 161 1 he joined the Minim Friars, and devoted himself to philosophic teaching in various convent schools. He settled eventually in Paris in 1620 at the convent of L'Annonciade. For the next four years he devoted himself entirely to philosophic and theological writing, and published Quaestiones celeberrimae in Genesim (1623); UlmpiUi des deistes (1624); La Viritt des sciences (1624). These works are characterized by wide scholar- ship and the narrowest theological orthodoxy. His greatest service to philosophy was his enthusiastic defence of Descartes, whose agent he was in Paris and whom he visited in exile in Holland. He submitted to various eminent Parisian thinkers a manuscript copy of the Meditations, and defended its orthodoxy against numerous clerical critics. In later life, he gave up speculative thought and turned to scientific research, especially in mathematics, physics and astronomy. Of his works in this connexion the best known is L'Harmonie universelle (1636), dealing with the theory of music and musical instruments. Among his other works are: Euclidis elementorum libri, &c. (Paris, 1626) ; Universae geometriae synopsis (1644) ; Les Michdniques de Galilee (Paris, 1634) ; Questions inouies ou recreations des savants (1634); Questions theologiques, physiques, &c. (1634); Nouvelles decouvertes de Galilee (1639) ; Cogitata physico-mathematica (1644). See Baillet, Vie de Descartes (1691); Pot6, ILloge de Mersenne (1816). MERSEY, a river in the north-west of England. It is formed by the junction of the Goyt and the Etherow a short distance below Marple in Cheshire on the first-named stream. The Goyt rises in the neighbourhood of Axe Edge, south-west of Buxton, and the Etherow in the uplands between Penistone and Glossop, watering the narrow Longdendale in which are several reservoirs for the Manchester, water supply. The Mersey thus drains a large part of the Peak district of Derby- shire and of the southern portion of the Pennine system. The general direction from Marple is westerly. At Stockport the river Tame joins from the north, rising in the moors to the north-east of Oldham, and the Mersey soon afterwards debouches upon the low plain to the west of Manchester, which lies on its northern tributary the Irwell. The Bollin joins from the south-east near Heatley, and the main river, passing Warrington, begins to expand into an estuary before reaching Runcorn and Widnes, which face each other across it. The estuary, widening suddenly at the junction of the Weaver from the south- east, 2\ m. below Runcorn, is 3 m. wide off Ellesmere Port, but narrows to less than f m. at Liverpool, and hardly exceeds a mile at the mouth in the Irish Sea. The fall of the Mersey is about 1600 ft. in all and about 300 from Marple; its length, including the Goyt, is 70 m. exclusive of lesser windings, and it drains an area of 1596 sq. m. The estuary is one of the most important commercial waterways in the world. (See Liverpool and Birkenhead.) The Manchester Ship Canal (q.v.) joins the estuary through Eastham Locks, skirts its southern shore up to Runcorn, and crosses the river several times. From the name of the river was taken the title of Lord Mersey in 1910 by Sir John Bigham (b. 1840), on his elevation to the peerage after serving as a judge of the high court from 1897 to 1909 and president of the divorce court 1909- 19 10. MERSINA, a town on the south-eastern coast of Asia Minor, and capital of a sanjak in the vilayet of Adana. Pop. about 15,000 including many Christians, Armenian, Greek and European. Its existence as a port began with the silting up of the harbour of Tarsus and Pompeiopolis, east and west, in the early middle ages; but it did not rise to importance till the Egyptian occupation of Cilicia (1832). It is now the busiest port on the south coast, being the terminus of the railway from Tarsus and Adana, by which (but still more by road) the produce of the rich " Aleian " plain comes down. It is served by most of the Levantine steamship companies, and is the best point of departure for visitors desiring to see Tarsus, the Cilician remains, and the finest scenery of the East Taurus. There is, however, no enclosed harbour, but only a good jetty. The making of a breakwater has long been under consideration. The anchorage in the roadstead is good, but the bay shoals for a long way out, and is exposed to swell from south-west and south. Mersina is an American mission centre, and the seat of a British vice-consul. Like all lowland Cilicia, it has a notoriously bad summer climate, and all inhabitants, who can do so, migrate to stations on the lower slopes of Taurus. (D. G. H.) MERTHYR TYDFIL, or Merthyr Tydvil, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough, and market-town of Glamor- ganshire, south Wales, situated in a bleak and hilly region on the river Taff, on the Glamorganshire Canal, and the Brecon and Merthyr, Great Western, North Western, Taff Vale and Rhymney railways, 25 m. N.N.W. of Cardiff, 30 E.N.E. of Swansea, and 176 from London. Pop. (1901), 69,228. The town is said to have derived its name from the martyrdom of St Tydfil, daughter of Brychan, who was put to death by Saxons in the 5th century. It is for the most part irregularly built and was formerly subject to severe epidemics due to defective sanitation; but it now possesses a supply of the purest water from the lesser Taff on the southern slope of the Brecon- shire Beacons. The town owes its early industrial prosperity to the abundant ironstone and coal of the district, and it thus became at an early date the chief seat of the iron industry in Wales. Four great ironworks were established here between 1759 and 1782. With the earliest, that of Dowlais, the Guest family were associated, first as partners and later as sole owners from 1782 to 1901 when the works were disposed to the company of Guest, Keen and Nettlefold. In 1765, Cyfarthfa was started by Anthony Bacon, and when firmly established, sold in 1794 to Richard Crawshay by whose descendants the works were MERULA— MERV J75 carried on till the owners formed themselves in 1890 into a limited company (Crawshay Brothers Cyfarthfa Limited), the controlling interest in which has since been acquired by the Dowlais Company. The Plymouth works, started soon after Cyfarthfa, by Wilkinson and Guest, passed later into the hands of Anthony Hill from whose descendants they were purchased in 1863. They were closed down in 1882, but the collieries belonging to them continue to be worked on a large scale, yielding over 2000 tons of coal a day. The fourth great ironworks were those of Pen-y-darran which were carried on from 1782 to 1859. It was at Dowlais (in 1856) that Bessemer steel was first rolled into rails, but the use of puddled iron was not wholly abandoned at the works till 1882. It has now eighteen blast furnaces, and extensive collieries are also worked by the company, and large branch works were opened on the sea-board at Cardiff in 1891. Cyfarthfa was converted into steel works in 1883. The iron ore used is mainly imported from Spain. Merthyr Vale is almost entirely dependent on coal-mining and has one of the largest collieries in south Wales (Nixon's Navigation). The population of this district more than quintupled between 1881 and 1901. From 1850 the government of the town was vested in a local board of health which in 1894 became an urban district council; by charter granted on the 5th of June 1905, it was vested in a corporation consisting of a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors. It was made a county borough from the 1st of April 1908. It comprises about 17,759 acres, is divided into eight wards and besides the older town, it includes Penydarran (1 m. N.E.), Dowlais (2 m. N.E.), Plymouth (1 m. S.) and Merthyr Vale (5 m. S.). It has a separate commission of the peace, and in conjunction with Aberdare and Mountain Ash, has had a stipendiary magistrate since 1829. The parliamentary borough which was created and given one member in 1832 and a second in 1867, includes the parish of Aberdare and parts of the parishes of Llanwonno, Merthyr Tydfil and Vainor (Brecon). There is an electric tramway (completed in 1901) from the town to Cefn and Dowlais. In 1901 about 50% of the population above three years of age spoke both Welsh and English, 71% spoke Welsh only, and the remainder English only. The ancient parish of Merthyr Tydfil has been divided into five ecclesiastical parishes (Merthyr, Cyfarthfa, Dowlais, Pentre- bach, and Penydarran) and part of another parish (Treharris). These six parishes form the rural deanery of Merthyr in the archdeaconry and diocese of Llandaff, and in 1906 had nine churches and fifteen mission rooms. An inscribed stone (Artbeu) has been built into the east wall of the parish church; and two other inscribed stones removed from Abercar Farm in the greater Taff valley now he in the parish churchyard. The old structure of the parish church has been entirely removed except the base of the tower. There is a Roman Catholic church in Penydarran Park and 'another at Dowlais. The Nonconformists, of which the chief denominations are the Baptists, Congregationalists and Methodists — Wesleyan and Calvinistic — had in rgo6 82 chapels, 49 of which were used for Welsh services and 33 for English. The public buildings include, besides the churches, a town hall and law courts (1898), drill hall (1866), library, market house, a county intermediate school, general hospital built in 1887 and enlarged in 1897, and an isolation fever hospital, a theatre (1894) and a fountain presented by Sir W. T. Lewis as a memorial to the pioneers of the town's industry. At Dowlais there are public baths (1900) and a free library which have been provided by the owners of the Dowlais Works, Oddfellows' hall (187.8), and a fever hospital (1869). At Thomas Town there is a recreation ground of 16 acres, formed in 1902. In 1908 the corporation purchased Cyfarthfa Castle (formerly the residence of the Crawshay family) with a park of 62 acres including a lake of 6 acres. The Roman road from Cardiff and Gelligaer to Brecon passed through Merthyr and the remains of a supposed fort were discovered in Penydarran park in 1902. Three miles to the north of Merthyr, on a limestone rock about 470 ft. above the lesser (eastern) Taff are the ruins of Morlais Castle, built about 1286 by Gilbert de Clare on the northern limits of his lordship of Glamorgan, its erection causing a serious feud between him and de Bohun, earl of Hereford, who claimed its site as part of the lordship of Brecknock. (D. Ll. T.) MERULA, GEORGIUS (the Latinized name of Giorgio Mirlani; c. 1430-1494), Italian humanist and classical scholar, was born at Alessandria in Piedmont. The greater part of his life was spent at Venice and Milan, where he held a professorship and continued to teach until his death. To Merula we are indebted for the editio princeps of Plautus (147 2) , of the Scriplores rei ruslicae, Cato, Varro, Columella, Palladius (1472) and possibly of Martial (1471). He also published commentaries on portions of Cicero (especially the De finibus), on Ausonius, Juvenal, Curtius Rufus, and other classical authors. He wrote also Bellum scodrense (1474), on account of the siege of Scodra (Scutari) by the Turks, and Anliquitates vicecomitum, the history of the Visconti, dukes of Milan, down to the death of Matteo the Great (1322). He violently attacked Politian (Poliziano), whose Miscellanea (a collection of notes on classical authors) were declared by Merula to be either plagiarized from his own writings or, when original, to be entirely incorrect. See monograph by F. Gabotto and Badini-Gonfalonieri (1894) with bibliography; for the quarrel with Politian 'see also C. Meiners Lebensbeschreibungen der berilhmten Manner (1796), ii. 158. MERV, Meru or Maur, an oasis and town of Asia, in the Transcaspian province of Russia. The oasis is situated on the S. edge of the Kara-kum desert, in 37 30' N. and 62 E. It is about 230 m. N. from Herat, and 280 S.S.E. from Khiva. Its area is about 1900 sq. m. The great chain of mountains which, under the names of Paropamisus and Hindu-Kush, extends from the Caspian to the Pamirs is interrupted some 180 m. south of Merv. Through or near this gap flow northwards in parallel courses the rivers Heri-rud (Tejend) and Murghab, until they lose themselves in the desert of Kara-kum. Thus they make Merv a sort of watch tower over the entrance into Afghanistan on the north-west and at the same time create a stepping-stone or Uape between north-east Persia and the states of Bokhara and Samarkand. The present inhabitants of the oasis are Turkomans of the Tekke tribe. In 1897 they numbered approximately 240,000. The oasis is irrigated by an elaborate system of canals cut from the Murghab. The country has at all times been renowned throughout the East for its fertility. Every kind of cereal and many fruits grow in great abundance, e.g. wheat, millet, barley and melons, also rice and cotton. Silkworms are bred. The Turkomans possess a famous breed of horses and keep camels, sheep, cattle, asses and mules. They are excellent workers in silver and noted as armourers, and their carpets are superior to the Persian. They also make felts and a rough cloth of sheep's wool. The heat of summer is most oppressive. The least wind raises clouds of fine dust, which fill the air, render it so opaque as to ohscure the noonday sun, and make respiration difficult. In winter the climate is very fine. Snow falls rarely, and when it does, it melts at once. The annual rainfall rarely exceeds 5 in., and there is often no rain from June till October.' While in summer the thermometer goes up to 97 F., in winter it descends to 19-5°. The average yearly temperature is 6o°. Here is a Russian imperial domain of 436 sq. m., artificially irrigated by works completed in 1895. History. — In Hindu (the Pur anas), Parsi and Arab tradition, Merv is looked upon as the ancient Paradise, ■ the cradle of the Aryan families of mankind, and so of the human race. UndeT-^ the name of Mouru this place is mentioned with Bakhdi (Balkh) in the geography of the Zend-Avesta (Vendidad, ed. Spiegel, 1852-1863), which dates probably from at least 1.200 B.C. Under the name of Margu it occurs in the cuneiform (Behistun) inscrip- tions of the Persian monarch Darius Hystaspis, where it is referred to as forming part of one of the satrapies of the ancient Persian Empire. It afterwards became a province (Margiana) of the Graeco-Syrian, Parthian and Persian kingdoms. On the Margus — the Epardus of Arrian and now the Murghab — stood the capital of the district, Antiochia Margiana, so called after Anti- ochus Soter, who rebuilt the city founded by Alexander the Great. 176 MERX— MERYON About the 5th century, during the rule of the Persian Sassanian dynasty, Merv was the seat of a Christian archbishopric of the Nestorian Church. The town was occupied (a.d. 646) by the lieutenants of the caliph Othman, and was constituted the capital of Khorasan. From this city as their base the Arabs, under Kotaiba (Qotaiba) ibn Moslim, early in the 8th century brought under subjection Balkh, Bokhara, Ferghana and Kashgaria, and penetrated into China as far as the province of Kan-suh. In the latter part of the 8th century Merv became obnoxious to Islam as the centre of heretical propaganda preached by Mokanna (q.v.). In 874 Arab rule in Central Asia came to an end. During their dominion Merv, like Samarkand and Bokhara, was one of the great schools of learning, and the celebrated historian Yaqut studied in its libraries. In 1040 the Seljuk Turks crossed the Oxus from the north, and having defeated Masud, sultan of Ghazni, raised Toghrul Beg, grandson of Seljuk, to the throne of Persia, founding the Seljukian dynasty, with its capital at Nishapur. A younger brother of Toghrul, Daud, took possession of Merv and Herat. Toghrul was succeeded by his nephew Alp Arslan (the Great Lion), who was buried at Merv. It was about this time that Merv reached the zenith of her glory. During the reign of Sultan Sanjar or Sinjar of the same house, in the middle of the nth century, Merv was overrun by the Turkish tribes of the Ghuzz from beyond the Oxus. It eventually passed under the sway of the rulers of Khwarizm (Khiva). In 1 22 1 Merv opened its gates to Tule, Son of Jenghiz Khan, chief of the Mongols, on which occasion most of the inhabitants are said to have been butchered. From this time forward the city began to decay. In the early part of the 14th century the town was made the seat of a Christian archbishopric of the Eastern Church. On the death of the grandson of Jenghiz Khan Merv was included (1380) in the possessions of Timur-i- Leng (Tamerlane), Mongol prince of Samarkand. In 1505 the city was occupied by the Uzbegs, who five years later were expelled by Ismail Khan, the founder of the Safawid dynasty of Persia. Merv remained in the hands of Persia until 1787, when it was captured by the emir of Bokhara. Seven years later the Bokharians razed the city to the ground, broke down the dams, and converted the district into a waste. When Sir Alexander Burnes traversed the country in 1832, the Khivans were the rulers of Merv. About this time the Tekke Turkomans, then living on the Heri-rud, were forced by the Persians to migrate northward. The Khivans contested the advance of the Tekkes, but ultimately, about 1856, the latter became the sovereign power in the country, and remained so until the Russians occupied the oasis in 1883. The ruins of Old Merv cover an area of over 15 sq. m. They consist of a square citadel (Bairam Ali Khan kalah), 15 m. in circuit, built by a son of Tamerlane and destroyed by the Bokharians, and another kalah or walled inclosure known as Abdullah Khan. North from these lies the old capital of the Seljuks, known as Sultan Kalah, and destroyed by the Mongols in 1 2 19. Its most conspicuous feature is the burial mosque of Sultan Sanjar, reputedly dating from the 12th century. East of the old Seljuk capital is Giaur Kalah, the Merv of the Nestorian era and the capital of the Arab princes. North of the old Seljuk capital are the ruins of Iskender Kalah, probably to be identified with the ancient Merv of the Seleucid dynasty. New Merv, the present chief town of the oasis, founded in the first quarter of the 19th century, is on the Transcaspian railway, 380 m. by rail south-west from Samarkand. It stands on both banks of the Murghab, 820 ft. above the Caspian. Pop. (1897), 8727, including Russians, Armenians, Turkomans, Persians and Jews. It has a meteorological observatory. Corn, raw cotton, hides, wool, nuts and dried fruit are exported. See E. O'Donovan, The Merv Oasis (2 vols., London, 1882) ; C. Marvin, Merv (London, 1880); and H. Lansdell, The Russians at Merv and Herat (London, 1883). (J. T. Be.) MERX, ADALBERT (1838-1909), German theologian and orientalist, was born at Bleicherode near Nordhausen on the 2nd of November 1838. He studied at Jena, where he became extraordinary professor in 1869. Subsequently he was ordinary professor of philosophy at Tubingen, and in 1873 professor of theology at Giessen. From 1875 till his death he was professor of theology of Heidelberg. In the course of his researches he made several journeys in the East. Among his many works are: Grammatica syriacd (1867-1870); Vocabulary of the TigrS language (1868); Das Gedicht vom Hiob (1871); Die Prophetie des Joel una 1 ihre Ausleger (1879); Die Saadjanische Ubersetzung der Hohenlieder ins A'rabische (1882); Chrestomathia targumica (1888) ; Historia artis grammaticae apud Syros (1889)', Ein samari- tanisches Fragment (1893); Idee und Grundlinien einer allgemeiner Geschichte der Mystik (1893). Merx devoted much of his later research to the elucidation of the Sinaitic palimpsest discovered in 1892 by Mrs Agnes Smith Lewis (see Bible, iv. 321, ad fin:), the results being embodied in Die vier kanonischen Evangelien nach ihrem iiltesten bekannten Texte (1897-1905). His last work was an edition of the books of Moses and Joshua. He died at Heidelberg on the 6th of August 1009. MERYON, CHARLES (1821-1868), French etcher, was born in Paris in 182 1. His father was an English physician, his mother a French dancer. It was to his mother's care that Meryon's childhood was confided. But she died when he was still young, and M6ryon entered the French navy, and in the corvette " Le Rhin "made the voyage round the world. He was already a draughtsman, for on the coast of New Zealand he made pencil drawings which he was able to employ, years afterwards, as studies for etchings of the landscape of thbse regions. The artistic instinct developed, and, while he was yet a lieutenant; Meryon left the havy. Finding that he was colour-blind, he determined to devote himself to etching. He entered the work room of one Blery, from whom he learnt something of technical matters, and to whom he always remained grateful. Meryon was by this time poor. It is understood that he might have had assistance from his kindred, but he was too proud to ask it. And thus he was reduced to the need of executing for the sake of daily bread much work that was mechanical and irksome. Among learners' work, done for his own advantage, are to be counted some studies after the Dutch etchers such as Zeemanand Adrian van de Velde. Having proved himself a surprising copyist, he proceeded to labour of his own, and began that series of etchings which are the greatest embodiments of his greatest conceptions — the series called " Eaux-fortes sur Paris." These plates, executed from 1850 to 1854, are never to be met with as a set; they were never expressly published as a set. But they none the less constituted in Meryon's mind an harmonious series. Besides the twenty-two etchings " sur Paris," characterized below, Meryon did seventy-two etchings of one sort and another — ninety-four in all being catalogued in Wedmore's Miryon and Meryon's Paris; hut these include the works of his apprentice- ship and of his decline, adroit copies in which his best success was in the sinking of his own individuality, and more or less dull portraits. Yet among the seventy-two prints outside his pro- fessed series there are at least a dozen that will aid his fame. Three or four beautiful etchings of Paris do not belong to the series at all. Two or three etchings, again, are devoted to the illustration of Bourges, a city in which the old wooden houses were as attractive to him for their own sakes as were the stone- built monuments of Paris. But generally it was when Paris engaged him that he succeeded the most. He would have done more work, however — though he could hardly have done better work — if the material difficulties of his life had not pressed,upbn him and shortened his days. He was a bachelor, unhappJMn love, and yet, it is related, almost as constantly occupied with love as with work. The depth of his imagination and the sur- prising mastery which he achieved almost from the beginning in the technicalities of his craft were appreciated only by a few artists, critics and connoisseurs, and he could not sell his etchings, or could sell them only for about iod. apiece. Disappointment told upon him, and, frugal as was his way of life, poverty must have affected him. He became subject to hallucinations. Enemies, he said, waited for him at the corners of the streets; his few friends robbed him or owed him that which they would MESA— MESHED 177 never pay. A few years after the completion of his Paris series he was lodged in the madhouse of Charenton. Its order and care restored him for a while to health, and he came out and did a little more work, but at bottom he was exhausted. In 1867 he returned to his asylum, and died there in 1868. In the middle years of his life, just before he was placed under confinement, he was much associated with Bracquemond and with Flameng, — skilled practitioners of etching, while he was himself an unde- niable genius — and the best of the portraits we have of him is that one by Bracquemond under which the sitter wrote that it represented " the sombre Meryon with the grotesque visage." There are twenty-two pieces in the Eaux-fortes sur Paris. Some of them are insignificant. That is because ten out of the twenty-two were destined as headpiece, tailpiece, or running commentary on some more important plate. But each has its value, and certain of the smaller pieces throw great light on the aim of the entire set. Thus, one little plate — not a picture at all — is devoted to the record of verses made by Meryon, the purpose of which is to lament the life of Paris. The misery and poverty of the town Meryon had to illustrate, as well as its splendour. The art of Meryon is completely misconceived when his etchings are spoken of as views of Paris. They are often " views," but they are so just so far as is compatible with their being likewise the visions of a poet and the compositions of an artist. It was an epic of Paris that Meryon determined to make, coloured strongly by his personal sentiment, and affected here and there by the occurrences of the moment — in more than one case, for instance, he hurried with particular affection to etch his im- pression of some old-world building which was on the point of destruction. Nearly every etching in the series is an instance of technical skill, but even the technical skill is exercised most happily in those etchings which have the advantage of impressive subjects, and which the collector willingly cherishes for their mysterious suggestiveness or for their pure beauty. Of these, the Abside de Notre Dame is the general favourite; it is com- monly held to be Meryon's masterpiece. Light and shade play wonderfully over the great fabric of the church, seen over the spaces of the river. As a draughtsman of architecture, Meryon was complete; his sympathy with its various styles was broad, and his work on its various styles unbiased and of equal perfec- tion — a point in which it is curious to contrast him with Turner, who, in drawing Gothic, often drew it with want of appreciation. It is evident that architecture must enter largely into any representation of a city, however much such representation may be a vision, and however little a chronicle. Besides, the archi- tectural portion even of Meryon's labour is but indirectly imaginative; to the imagination he has given freer play in his dealings with the figure, whether the people of the street or of the river or the people who, when he is most frankly or even wildly symbolical, crowd the sky. Generally speaking, his figures are, as regards draughtsmanship, " landscape-painter's figures." They are drawn more with an eye to grace than to academic correctness. But they are not " landscape-painter's figures " at all when what we are concerned with is not the method of their representation but the purpose of their introduction. They are seen then to be in exceptional accord with the sentiment of the scene. Sometimes, as in the case of La Morgue, it is they who tell the story of the picture. Sometimes, as in the case of La Rue des Mauvais Garcons — with the two passing women bent together in secret converse — they at least suggest it. And sometimes, as in L'Arche du Pont Notre Dame, it is their expres- sive gesture and eager action that give vitality and animation to the scene. Dealing perfectly with architecture, and perfectly, as far as concerned his peculiar purpose, with humanity in his art, Meryon was little called upon by the character of his subjects to deal with Nature. He drew trees but badly, never represent- ing foliage happily, either in detail or in mass. But to render the characteristics of the city, it was necessary that he should know how to portray a certain kind of water — river-water, mostly sluggish — and a certain kind of sky — the grey obscured and lower sky that broods over a world of roof and chimney. This water and this sky Meryon is thoroughly master of; he notes with observant affection their changes in all lights. Meryon's excellent draughtsmanship, and his keen apprecia- tion of light, shade and tone, were, of course, helps to his beconv ing a great etcher. But a living authority, himself an eminent etcher, and admiring Meryon thoroughly, has called M6ryon by preference a great original engraver— so little of M6ryon's work accords with Sir Seymour Haden's view of etching. Meryon was anything but a brilliant sketcher; and, if an artist's success in etching is to be gauged chiefly by the rapidity with which he records an impression, Meryon's success was not great. There can be no doubt that his work was laborious and deliberate, instead of swift and impulsive, and that of some other virtues of the etcher — " selection " and " abstraction " as Hamerton has defined them — he shows small trace. But a genius like Meryon is a law unto himself, or rather in his practice of his art he makes the laws by which that art and he are to be judged. It is worth while to note the extraordinary enhancement in the value of Meryon's prints. Probably of no other artist of genius, not even of Whistler, could there be cited within the same period a rise in prices of at all the same proportion. Thus the first state of the Stryge " — that "with the verses," — selling under the hammer in 1873 for £5, sold again under the hammer in 1905 for £100. The first state of the " Galerie de Notre Dame," selling in 1873 for £5, and at M. Wasset's sale in 1880 for £11, fetched in !9 5> £5 2 - A " Tour de l'horloge," which two or three years after it was first issued sold for half a crown, in May 1903 fetched £70. A first state (Wedmore's, not of course M. Delteil's " first state," which, like nearly all his first states, is in fact a trial proof) of the " Saint Etienne du mont," realizing about £2 at M. Burty's sale in 1876, realized £60 at a sale in May 1906. The second state of the " Morgue " (Wedmore) sold in 1905 for £65; and Wedmore's second of the " Abside," which used to sell throughout the 'seventies for £4 or £5, reached in November 1906 more than £200. At no period have even Durers or Rembrandts risen so swiftly and steadily. Bibliography. — Philippe Burty, Gazette des beaux arts (1865); Descriptive Catalogue of the Works of Meryon (London, 1879); Aglaus Bouvenne, Notes et souvenirs sur Charles Meryon; P. G. Hamerton, Etching and Etchers (1868) ; F. Seymour Haden, Notes on Etching; H. Beraldi, Les Peintres graveurs du dix-neuvieme siecle; Baudelaire, Lettres de Baudelaire (1907); L. Delteil, Charles Mtryon (1907); Frederick Wedmore, M&ryon and Meryon's Paris, with a descriptive catalogue of the artist's work (1879; 2nd ed., 1892); and Fine Prints (1896; 2nd ed., 1905). ' (F. We.) MESA (Span, mesa, from Lat. mensa, a table), in physical geography, a high table-land capped with hard rock, being the remnant of a former plateau. This type is general where strata are horizontal. In the process of denudation the hard rock acts as a flat protective cap preserving the regions between stream valleys or other places where denudation is especially active, in the form of .," table-mountains " or "fortress-hills." Many examples are found in Spain, North and South Africa, the Bad Lands and Colorado regions of North America, in Arabia, India and Australia. MESHCHERYAKS, or Meshchers, a people inhabiting eastern Russia. Nestor regarded them as Finns, and even now part of the Mordvinians (of Finnish origin) call themselves Meshchers. Klaproth, on the other hand, supposed they were a mixture of Finns and Turks, and the Hungarian traveller Reguli discovered that the tatarized Meshchers of the Obi closely resembled Hungarians. They formerly occupied the basin of the Oka (where the town Meshchersk, now Meshchovsk, has maintained their name) and Of the Sura, extending north-east to the Volga. After the conquest of the Kazan Empire by Russia, part of them migrated north-eastwards to the basins of the Kama and Byelaya, and thus the Meshchers divided into two branches. The western branch became russified, so that the Meshcheryaks of the govern*- ments of Penza, Saratov, Ryazan and Vladimir have adopted the customs, language and religion of the conquering race; but their ethnographical characteristics can be easily distin- guished in the Russian population of the governments of Penza and Tambov, The eastern branch has taken on the customs, language and religion of Bashkirs, with whom their fusion is still more complete. MESHED (properly Mash-had, " the place of martyrdom "), capital of the province of Khorasan in Persia, situated in a plain watered by the Kashaf-rud (Tortoise river), a tributary of the 178 MESHREBIYA— MESMER Hari-rud (river from Herat, which after its junction with the Kashaf is called Tejen), 460 m. E. of Teheran (550 by road) and 200 m. N.W. of Herat, in 36 17' N., 50° 36' E., at an elevation of 3800 ft. Its population is about 70,000 fixed and 10,000 floating, the latter consisting of pilgrims to the shrine of Imam Reza. 1 The town is of irregular shape, about 6 m. in circumference and surrounded by a mud wall flanked with towers. In the south-western corner of the enclosure stands the citadel (ark), within a wall 25 ft. high and a broad dry ditch which is 40 ft. deep in parts and can be flooded from neighbouring water- courses. The city has five gates, and from one of them, called Bala Khiaban gate (upper Khiaban), the main street (Khiaban), 25 yds. broad, runs in a north-west-south-east direction, forming a fine avenue planted with plane and mulberry trees and with a stream of water running down its middle. The shrine of Imam Reza is the most venerated spot in Persia, and yearly visited by more than 100,000 pilgrims. Eastwick thus describes it (Journal of a Diplomat's Three Years' Residence in Persia, London, 1864) : — " The quadrangle of the shrine seemed to be about 150 paces square. It was paved with large flagstones and in the centre was a beautiful kiosk or pavilion, covered with gold and raised over the reservoir of water for ablutions. This pavilion was built by Nadir Shah. All round the northern, western and southern sides of the quadrangle ran, at some 10 ft. from the ground, a row of alcoves, similar to that in which I was sitting, and filled with mullas in white turbans and dresses. In each of the sides was a gigantic archway, the wall being raised in a square from above the entrance. The height to the top of this square wall must have been 90 or 100 ft. The alcoves were white, seemingly of stone or plaster; but the archways were covered with blue varnish or blue tiles, with beautiful inscriptions in white and gold. Over the western arch- way was a white cage for the muazzin, and outside it was a gigantic minaret 120 ft. high, and as thick as the Duke of York's column in London. The beauty of this minaret cannot be exagger- ated. It had an exquisitely carved capital, and above that a light pillar, seemingly 10 ft. high ; and this and the shaft below the capital, ■or about 20 f t. , were covered with gold. All this part of the mosque (shrine) was built by Shah Abbas. In the centre of the eastern side of the quadrangle two gigantic doors were thrown open to admit the people into the adytum or inner mosque (shrine) where is the marble tomb of Imam Reza, surrounded by a silver railing with knobs of gold. There was a flight of steps ascending to these doors, and beyond were two smaller doors encrusted with jewels — ■ the rubies were particularly fine. The inner mosque would contain 3000 persons. Over it rose a dome entirely covered with gold, with two minarets at the sides, likewise gilt all over, On the right of the Imam's tomb is that of Abbas Mirza, grandfather of the reigning Shah. 2 Near him several other princes and chiefs of note are buried. Beyond the golden dome, in striking and beautiful contrast with it, was a smaller dome of bright blue. Here begins the mosque of Gauhar Shad. 3 The quadrangle is larger than that of Shah Abbas; and at the eastern side is an immense blue dome, out of which quantities of grass were growing, the place being too sacred to be disturbed. In front of the dome rose two lofty minarets covered with blue tiles. In the boulevard of the Bala Khiaban is a kitchen supported by the revenues of the shrine, where 800 persons are fed daily." The buildings of the shrine together with a space extending to about one hundred yards beyond the gates of the shrine on each side is sanctuary (bast). Within it are many shops and lodgings, and criminals, even murderers, may live there in safety. The only other notable buildings in the place are some colleges (medresseh), the oldest being the M. Do-dar, i.e. " college of two doors," built in 1439 by Shah Rukh, and some fine caravan- serais, two dating from 1680. 1 Abul Hassan AH, al Reza, commonly known as Imam Reza, the eighth imam of the Shiites, a son of Musa al Kazim, the seventh imam, was the leader from whom the party of the Alids (Shiites) had such hopes under the caliphate of Mamfln. Gold coins (dinars) of this caliph are extant on which al Reza's name appears with the title of heir-apparent. The imam died in March 819 in the village Sanabad near Tus, some miles north-west of Meshed. To the Shiites he is a martyr, being believed to have been poisoned by Mamun. 2 This refers to Nasr-ud-din (d. 1896), grandfather of Shah Mahommed Ali (1907). 8 Gauhar Shad was the wife of Shah Rukh (1404-1447), and was murdered by that monarch's successor Abu Said, August 1, 1457. Her mosque was built in 1418. Without the pilgrims who come to visit it, Meshed would be a poor place, but lying on the eastern confines of Persia, close to Afghanistan, Russian Central Asia and Transcaspia, at the point where a number of trade routes converge, it is very important politically, and the British and Russian governments have main- tained consulates-general there since 1889. Meshed had formerly a great transit trade to Central Asia, of European manufactures, mostly Manchester goods, which came by way of Trebizond, Tabriz and Teheran; and of Indian goods and pro- duce, mostly muslins and Indian and green teas, which came by way of Bander Abbasi. With the opening of the Russian railway from the Caspian to Merv, Bokhara and Samarkand in 1886-1887, Russian manufacturers were enabled to compete in Central Asia with their western rivals, and the value of European manufactures passing Meshed in transit was much reduced. In 1894 the Russian government enforced new customs regula- tions, by which a heavy duty is levied on Anglo-Indian manufac- tures and produce, excepting pepper, ginger and drugs, imported into Russian Asia by way of Persia; and the importation of green teas is altogether prohibited except by way of Batum, Baku, Uzunada and the Transcaspian railway. Since then the transit trade has been practically nil. In 1890 General Maclean, the British consul-general, reported that there were 650 silk, 40 carpet and 320 shawl looms at work. The carpet-looms at work now number several hundreds, while looms of silk and shawl number less than half what they did in 1890. Meshed has telegraph (since 1876) and post (since 1879) offices, and the Imperial Bank of Persia opened a branch here in 1 89 1. The climate is temperate and healthy. The coldest month is January, with a mean temperature of about 32 F., while the hottest month is July, with a mean of 78 . The highest temperature recorded in a period of six years was 91 , the lowest 15°. The mean annual rainfall during nine years (1899-1907) was nearly 95 in., about one-eighth of it being represented by snow. (A. H.-S.) MESHREBIYA (drinking places), the Arabic term given to the projecting oriel windows in Cairo, enclosed with lattice- work, through which a good view of the street can be obtained by the occupants without being seen; the term was derived from the small semicircular bows, in which porous water- bottles are placed to cool by evaporation in the air. MESMER, FRIEDRICH (or Franz) ANTON (1733-1815), Austrian doctor,' from whose name the word " Mesmerism " was coined (see Hypnotism), was born at Weil, near the point at which the Rhine leaves the Lake of Constance, on the 23rd of May 1733. He studied medicine at Vienna under the eminent masters of that day, Van Swieten and De Haen, took a degree, and commenced practice. Interested in astrology, he imagined that the stars exerted an influence on beings living on the earth. He identified the supposed force first with electricity, and then with magnetism; and it was but a short step to suppose that stroking diseased bodies with magnets might effect a cure. He published his first work (De planetarum influxu) in 1766. Ten years later, on meeting with J. J. Gassner in Switzerland, he ob- served that the priest effected cures by manipulation alone. This led Mesmer to discard the magnets, and to suppose that some kind of occult force resided in himself by which he could influence others. He held that this force permeated the universe, and more especially affected the nervous systems of men. He re- moved to Paris in 1778, and in a short time the French capital was thrown into a state of great excitement by the marvellous effects of mesmerism. Mesmer soon made many converts; controversies arose; he excited the indignation of the medical faculty of Paris, who stigmatized him as a charlatan; still the people crowded to him. He refused an offer of 20,000 francs from the government for the disclosure of his secret, but it is asserted that he really told all he knew privately to any one for 100 louis. He received private rewards of large sums of money. His consulting apartments were dimly lighted and hung with mirrors; strains of soft music occasionally broke the profound silence; and the patients sat round a kind of vat in which various chemical ingredients were concocted. Holding each others' MESNAGER— MESOPOTAMIA 179 hands, or joined by cords, the patients sat in expectancy, and then Mesmer, clothed in the dress of a magician, glided amongst them, affecting this one by a touch, another by a look, and making " passes " with his hand towards a third. Nervous ladies became hysterical or fainted; some men became convulsed, or were seized with palpitations of the heart or other bodily disturbances. The government appointed a commission of physicians and members of the Academy of Sciences to investi- gate these phenomena; Franklin and Baillie were members of this commission, and drew up an elaborate report admitting many of the facts, but contesting Mesmer's theory that there was an agent called animal magnetism, and attributing the effects to physiological causes. Mesmer himself was undoubt- edly a mystic; and, although the excitement of the time led him to indulge in mummery and sensational effects, he was honest in the belief that the phenomena produced were real, and called for further investigation. For a time, however, animal magnetism fell into disrepute; it became a system of downright jugglery, and Mesmer himself was denounced as a shallow empiric and impostor. He withdrew from Paris, and died at Meersburg in Switzerland on the 5th of March 1815. He left many disciples, the most distinguished of whom was the marquis de Puysegur. MESNAGER (or Le Mesagner), NICOLAS (1658-1714), French diplomatist, belonged to a wealthy merchant family. He gave up a commercial career for the law, however, and became advocate before the parlement of Rouen. In 1700 he was sent as deputy of Rouen to the council of commerce which was established in Paris for the extension of French trade. Here he made his mark, and was chosen to go on three missions to Spain, between the years 1704 and 1705, to negotiate financial arrangements. In August 171 1 he was sent on a secret mission to London to detach England from the alliance against France, and succeeded in securing the adoption of eight articles which formed the base of the later Treaty of Utrecht. As a reward for his skill he was made one of the three French plenipotentiaries sent to Utrecht in January 17 12, and had the honour of signing the treaty the next year. As he had used much of his own large fortune to keep up his state as ambassador, he was granted a pension by the grateful king of France. His portrait by Hyacinthe Rigaud is in the gallery of Versailles. MESNE (an Anglo-French legal form of the O. Fr. meien, mod. moyen, mean, Med. Lat. medianus, in the middle, cf. " mean "), middle or intermediate, an adjective used in several legal phrases. A mesne lord is one who has tenants holding under him, while himself holding of a superior lord. Mesne process was such process as intervened between the beginning and end of a suit (see Process). Mesne profits are profits derived from land whilst in wrongful possession, and may be claimed in damages for trespass' either in a separate action or joined with an action for the recovery of the land. The plaintiff must prove that he has re-entered into possession, his title during the period for which he claims, the fact that the defendant has been in possession during that period, and the amount of the mesne profits. The amount recovered as mesne profits need not be limited to the rental value of the land, but may include a sum to cover such items as deterioration or reasonable costs of getting possession, &c. MESOCEPHALIC, a term applied by anthropologists to those skulls which exhibit a cephalic index intermediate between the dolichocephalic and brachycephalic crania (see Craniometry). Taking the longer diameter of a skull, i.e. the one from front to back, as 100, mesoce^halic skulls are those of which the trans- verse diameter varies between 75 to 80. MESOMEDES of Crete, Greek lyric poet, who lived during the 2nd century a.d. He was a freedman of the emperor Hadrian, on whose favourite Antinous he is said to have written a panegyric. Two epigrams by him in the Greek anthology (Anthol. pal. xiv. 63, xvi. 323) and a hymn to Nemesis are extant. The hymn is of special interest as preserving the ancient musical notation written over the text. Two other hymns — to the muse Calliope and to the sun — formerly Name. assigned to Dionysius of Alexandria, have also been attributed to him. See J. F. Bellermann, Die Hymnen des Dionysius und Mesomed.es (1840); C. de Jan, Musici scriptores graeci (1899); S. Reinach in Revue des etudes grecques, ix. (1896); Suidas, s.v. MESONERO ROMANOS, RAM6N DE (1803-1882), Spanish prose- writer, was born at Madrid on the 19th of July 1803, and at an early age became interested in the history and topography of his native city. His Manual de Madrid (183 1) was published when literature was at a low ebb in Spain; but the author's curious researches and direct style charmed the public, and next year, in a review entitled Cartas espanolas, under the pseudonym of " El Curioso parlante," he began a series of articles on the social life of the capital which were subsequently collected and called Panorama matritense (1833-1836). Mesonero Romanos was elected to the Spanish Academy in 1838 and, though he continued to write, had somewhat outlived his fame when he issued his pleasing autobiography, Memorias de un setentdn, natural y vecino de Madrid (1880). He died at Madrid on the 30th of April 1882, shortly after the publication of his Obras completas (8 vols., 4to, 1881). MESOPOTAMIA (Meowrorajuia, sc. x&pa or 2upta, from iikoos, middle, irorafibs, river), one of the Greek renderings of the earlier Semitic names for the river-country that stretches eastward from northern maritime Syria. The earliest appearance of a Semitic name of this kind is in the last para- graph of the biography of Ahmose of el-Kab, the aged officer of Tethmosis (Thutmose) I. As early therefore as the late 16th century B.C. the name Naharin (N'h'ryn') was in use. That the name was connected with nahar (a river) was plain to some of the Egyptian scribes, who wrote the word with determinative for " water " in addition to that for " country." The scribes show no suspicion, however, of the name's being anything but a singular. 1 Is it possible that a consciousness that the word was not a plural can have survived till the early Christian centuries, when the Targum of Onqelos (Ohkelos) rendered Naharaim by " the river Euphrates " (Pethor of Aram which is on the Euphrates: Deut. xxiii. 4 [5])? The Naharin or Naharen of the Egyptian texts appears some five generations later in the Canaanitic of the Amarna letters in the form Najjrim(a), which Would seem therefore to be the pronunciation then prevalent in Phoenicia (Gebal) and Palestine (Jerusalem). About the same time Naharin (N-h-ry-n) is given as the northern boundary of Egypt's domain (year 30 of Amenhotep or Amenophis III.), over against Kush in the south (tomb of Khamhet: Breasted, Anc. Rec. ii. 350). The origin of the name is suggested by the Euphrates being called " the water of Naharin,"— on the Karnak stele more fully " the water of the Great Bend (phr wr) of Naharin (N-h-r-n) " (Breasted, Anc. Rec. ii. 263), or on the Constantinople obelisk simply "the Great Bend of Naharin " (Joe. cit. note d). The precise mean- ing of phr wr is not certain. When Breasted renders " Great Bend " of the Euphrates he is probably thinking of the great sweep round between Birejik-Zeugma and Raljlja-Nicephorium. W. M. Miiller, on the other hand, rendering Kreislauf, explains it of the Euphrates water system as a whole, thought of as encom- passing Naharin. The Sea of the Great Bend would seem to be the sea fed by the north-to-south waters of Naharin, just as the Mediterranean, fed by the south-to-north' waters of the Nile, is called the Great Circle (Ire wr). For many centuries after Amenophis IV. the name cannot be found. The next occurrence is in Hebrew (Gen. xxiv. 10 = J), where the district from which a wife for Isaac is brought is called Aram-Naharaim. The diphthongal pronunciation of the termina- tion aim is probably a much later development. We should probably read something like Aram-Naharfm. The meaning is: the Nanarim portion of the Aramaic speaking domain. 2 Probably the author thought primarily of the district of Harran. 3 Some generations later Aram-Naharim is used of the district including Pethor, a town on the west bank of the Euphrates 4 (Deut. xxiii. 1 The threefold re after Nahar in a stele of Persian or GreeTs* times (healing of Bentresh) is probably only the determinative for " water," a fourth re being accidentally omitted (Breasted, Ancient Records, iii. § 434). 2 Cf . Aram-Damascus, which means, the Damascus portion of the Aramaic domain; and har-Ephraim t which means, the Ephraim portion of the (Israelitish) highlands— EV " Mount Ephraim." 3 HaleVy's suggestion that we are to look towards the Haurari, and think of the rivers of Damascus, has not met with favour. 4 Padan-Aram (Rev. Vers, better Paddan-Aram), Gen. xxv. 20, &c, rendered by the Septuagint " Mesopotamia of Syria," is obscure. Paddan has been connected phonetically with Patin, west of the Euphrates, and explained by others as a synonym for Harran. i8o MESOPOTAMIA 4 = D). The Syriac version of the Old Testament (2nd cent. a.d. ?) uses B6th Nahrin. This may or may not imply the belief that NahriH is a plural. Eventually that belief was general, as is proved by the substitution of the normal feminine plural (for the supposed masculine) in the alternative form Beth Nahrawatha (e.g. Wright, Chron. Joshua Styl. §§ 49, 50). Beth is probably the Syriac equiva- lent of the Assyrian Bit as in Bit-Adini (see below, § 3 viii.), as is shown by such names as Beth 'Arbaye, " district of Arabians," Beth Armaye, " district of Aramaeans." The Parapolamia of Strabo xvi. 2. 1 1 , would be a suitable Greek equivalent. Mesopotamia seems to imply the view that beth is the preposition " amid, which has the same form, 1 but need not imply the meaning " between," that is, the idea that there were precisely two rivers. There is evidence of the use of this form as early as the Septuagint transla- tion of the Pentateuch (3rd cent. B.C.). It is natural to suppose it was adopted by the Greeks who accompanied Alexander's expedi- tion. Xenophon does not use it. As early as the time of Ephraem (d. a.d. 373) the use of the Syriac GezirthB,, " island," had come in, and over a century earlier Philostratus reported (Life of Apollonius, i. 20) that the Arabs designated Mesopotamia as an island. 3 This term in the form al-Gazira became, and still is, the usual Arabic name. The absence of any equivalent names in Babylonian or Assyrian documents is noteworthy, 8 especially as the Babylonians spoke of the " Sea-Country " (mat Tamtim). The name was not dis- tinctive enough from the point of view of Babylonia, which belonged to the same water system. Tiglath-pileser I. (Octagon Prism, 6, 40, 42 seq.) sums up the results of the military operations of his first five years as reaching from the Lower Zab Riviera to the Euphrates Riviera (ebirtan Puratti, well rendered " Parapotamia " by Winckler 4 ) and Qatte-land; but this is obviously not a proper name in the same sense as Naharin. 6 That probably originated in the maritime district of Syria. Whilst the names we have mentioned are derived from physical geography, there are related names the meaning and origin of which are not so clear. Tethmosis III. is said, in a tomb which contains a picture of " the chief of Kheta," to have " overthrown the lands of My-tn" (Breasted, Anc. Rec. ii. § 773), which lands are mentioned also in his hymn of victory (Breasted, Anc. Rec. ii- § 659). Amenophis II. receives tribute from the " chiefs of My-tn (Breasted, Anc. Rec. ii. § 804). In the bilingual Hittite inscription of Tarqudimme the land is called " the land of the city of Metan," just as in the Hittite documents the Hittite country in Asia Minor is called " the land of the city of Khatti." Metan is clearly the same as Mitanni, over against Khatti, mentioned e.g. by Tiglath-pileser I. (vi. 63), which is the same as Mitanni, several letters from which are in the Amarna collection. Since a Mitanni princess of these letters is called in Egyptian scarabs a princess of Naharin, it is clear that Mitanni and Naharin are more or less equivalent, whilst in the Amarna letters even Tushratta, the king of Mitanni, seems to use in the same way the name Khani- galbat. A shorter form of this name is Khani, which it is difficult not to connect with Khana, the capital of which at one time was Tirqa, on the Euphrates, below the Khabur (see § 4). The slowly accumulating data have not yet made it possible to determine precisely the probably varying relations of these various names. The great astrological work uses a term of still wider signification, Subartu, eventually Suri (written Su. Edin ; see especially Winckler's discussion in Or. Lit.-Zeit., 1907). This represented one of the four quarters of the world in the early Babylonian view, the other three being Akkad (i.e. Babylonia) in the " north," Elam in the " south," and Amurru in the " west." It appears to have denoted the territory above Babylonia stretching from Anshan in the south- east north-westwards, across the Tigris-Euphrates district, inde- finitely towards Asia Minor. At an early time it seems to have formed along with Anshan a distinct kingdom. Strabo (xvi. 746) makes the south limit of Mesopotamia the Median wall; Pliny (v. 24 § 21) seems to extend it to the Persian Gulf. The Latin term naturally varied in meaning ■with the changing extent of Roman authority. For example, under Trajan Mesopotamia reached the gulf and was bounded by Assyria and Armenia. In modern times it is often 1 There may be further evidence of the prevalence of the inter- pretation " amid " if the difficult bainath athrawatha of Cureton, Anc. Syr. Doc. p. 112, 1. 21, is correctly rendered in Payne Smith, Thesaurus Syr. 469, " Mesopotamia," and if we may assume a reading Nahrawatha for Athrawatha. * Compare the use of the adjective, Ephr. Op. Gr. ii. 403 (cf. B. 0. i. 145, 168, 169), and the noun, B. 0. ii. 108, 109. * Mesopotamian personal names like Na-ha-ra-a-u occur (cf. Johns, Duds and Documents, iii. 127) ; but these may be connected with a divine name Nachor. 4 Auszug vorderas. Gesch. 34; on the meaning see AU.-orient. Forsch. iii. 349. 6 It seems worth considering, however, whether ebir nari (see Johns, Assyr. Doomsday Book, 69; Winckler, AU.-or. Forsch. 212; Hommel, Anc. Heb. Trad., index) is not in origin practically a Begriff equivalent to Naharin. Extent. used for the whole Euphrates-Tigris country.' That would pro- vide a' useful name for an important geographical unit, but is too misleading. In view of historical and geographical facts there is much to be said for applying the name Mesopotamia to the country drained by the Khabur, the Bellkh, and the part of the Euphrates connected therewith. It would thus include the country lying between Babylonia on the south and the Armenian Taurus highlands on the north, the maritime Syrian district on the west, and Assyria proper on the east. That is practically the sense in which it is treated in this article. 6 We may begin, however, with the definition of Jezira by the Arabic geographers, who take it as representing the central part of the Euphrates-Tigris system, the part, namely, lying between the alluvial plains in the south and the mountainous country in the north. Measured on the Euphrates, this would be from the place where the river, having bored its way through the rocks, issues on to the high plain a little above Samsat (Samosata) only 1500 ft. above the sea, to somewhere about Hit (Is=Id), where, probably less than 150 ft. above the sea, it begins to make its way through the alluvial deposits of the last 'few' millenniums. In these 750 m. it has descended less than 1400 ft. Measured on the Tigris Mesopotamia would stretch from some- where between Jeziret-ibn-'Omar and Mosul to somewhere below Tekrit. In the tract defined, physical changes unconnected with; civilization have been slight as compared with those in Baby- lonia; the two great rivers, having cut themselves deep channels, could not shift their courses far. i. Natural Divisions. — The stretch from Samsat and Jeziret-ibn- 'Omar to the alluvial plain seems to divide itself naturally into three parallel belts, highland watershed district, un- ^_ ' . dulating plains and steppe. (1) The Taurus foothill ue °Z ra P y- barrier that shuts off the east to west course of the Euphrates ind. Tigris culminates centrally in the rugged volcanic Karaja-DSgh (6070 ft.) which blocks the gap between the two rivers, continued eastwards by the mountainous district of Tur-'Abdin (the modern capital Midyat is at a height of 3500 ft.) and westwards by the elevated tract that sends down southwards the promontory of J. Tektek (c. 1950 ft.). (2) At the line where this east to west wall ends begins the sea of undulating plains where there is enough rain for abundant wheat and barley. (3) From the alluvial flats upwards toward these undulating plains is an extensive stretch of steppe land almost destitute of rain. Not far above the transi- tion from the barren steppe is a second mountain wall (125 in. between extremities) roughly parallel with the first, consisting of the Sinjar chain (about 3000 ft., limestone, 50 m. long, 7 m. broad), continued westwards after a marshy break by the volcanic Tell Kokab (basalt, about 1300 ft.), and then the 'Abd al-'Aziz range (limestone), veering upwards towards its western end as if to meet the Tektek promontory from the north. ii. Drainage. — The water system is thus determined. West of Tektek drains into the Belikh, east of Tektek into the Khabur. All this drainage, collected into two rivers, the Belikh arid the Khabur, is towards the left bank of the Euphrates, for the Meso- potamian watershed seems to be only some 15 m. or less from the Tigris until, south of the Sinjar range, it lies farther west, and the Tharthar river is possible. The Belikh (Balich, Bilechas, B'aXWos 7 ). a stream some 30 ft. wide, has its main source some 50 m. north in the 'Ain Khalil ar- Rahman, but receives also the waters of the united Nahr al-Kut (in its upper course formerly the Daisan, SieipTos) from Edessa and Kopru Dagh, and the Jullab from Tektek Dagh about as much farther north. The Khabur (Ch'abur, Chab5ras s ), 80-100 ft. wide, before its last 40 m. reach in a south- west direction, has a 70 m. reach due north and south from Tell Kokab (about 1300 ft.), near which are united the Jaghjagh (earlier, Hirmas, 20 ft. in width), which has come 50 m. from Nasibln in the north-east, bringing with it the waters of the many streams from theTQr 'Abdin highlands; the north 'Awij, which at certain seasons brings much water due south from Mardin, and the main strea«n of the Khabur, which has come 60 m. from Ras al-'Ain-in the north-; west, after flowing 50 m. by way of WSranshahr from Karaja Dagh in the north. The Tharthar (Assyrian Tartar, in Tukulti-Ninib II.'s inscription) begins in the Sinjar range and runs southwards, to lose itself in the desert a little above the latitude of Hit. So it was two generations before Ahab (Annates de Tukulti Ninip, V, Scheil, 1909),. The Arabian geographers represent the Tharthar as connected at its upper end (by a canal?) with the Khabur system. 6 In general the Tigris is considered to belong to Assyria or Baby- lonia, and all west of the Euphrates to Arabia or Syria. ' Cf. Ritter, Erdkunde, v. 250-253. 1 8 Ibid. xi. 253-265. MESOPOTAMIA *k m "ir Character °J Surface. 1 — (i) The tract between the Belikh and tne Euphrates is in its middle section exceedingly fertile, as is ' m P' le ° ln „ the name Anthemusia, and according to v. Oppenheim (Z .d Gesellsch. f. Erdkunde, 36, 1901, p. 80) the same is true of the southern portion also. The plain extending from Urfa to a dozen miles below Harran has a rich red-brown humus derived from the fl'S 1 R a § h ^ of Edessa - ( 2 ) The rolling plains north of the Abd al Aziz Sinjar mountain wall are intersected by the many streams of the Khabur system (the Arab geographer Mustaufi speaks of 30a feeders), which under favourable political and admini- strative conditions would produce a marked fertility. At Nasibin (Nisibis) rice is cultivated with success. (3) The country south of the mountain range is steppe land, imperfectly known, and of little use except for nomadic tribes, apart from the banks of the rivers (on which see Euphrates, Tigris). It consists mainly of grey dreary flats covered with selenite; and a little below the surface, gypsum. Bitumen is found at Hit, whence perhaps its name (Babylonian Id in Tukulti Ninib II.'s inscription referred to above), and near the Tigris. 2 lv. Climate. 3 — Mesopotamia combines strong contrasts of climate, and is a connecting link between the mountain region of western Asia and the desert of Arabia. At Der ez-Zor, for example, the heat is intense. (1) In the steppe, during the sandstorms which frequently blow from the West Arabian desert the temperature may rise to 122 F. On the other hand, in winter the warm currents coming in from the Persian Gulf being met to a large ex- tent by northerly currents from the snow-covered tracts of Armenia are condensed down on to the plain and discharge moisture enough to cover the gravel steppes with spring herbage. (2) In the higher plains, in mid winter, since the high temperature air from the gulf is drawn up the valleys of the Euphrates and the Tigris there may be, e.g. at Mosul, a " damp mildness." In spring the grass on the rolling plains is soon parched. So when the hot sandstorms blow in the lower steppe the scorching heat is carried right up to the foot ot the mountains. On the other hand, since the spurs of the 1 aurus bring the winter cold a long way south, and the cold increases trom west to east as we leave the mild coast of the Mediterranean, tar down into the Mesopotamian plain the influence of the snow- covered ridges can be felt, and in the higher parts of the plain snow and ice are not infrequent ; and although there is no point of sufficient altitude to retain snow for long, the temperature may fall as low as 14 F., especially if the cold north winds are blowing. The cycle of vegetation begins in November. The first winter rains clothe the plain with verdure, and by the beginning of the year various bulbous plants are in bloom. The full summer develop- ment is reached in June. By the end of August everything is burnt up; August and September are the low- water months in the nvers, March to May the time of flood. v. Flora.*— (1) Botanical lists have been published by von Oppenheim (Vom Mittelmeer zum Persischen Golf, ii. 373-388) of a collection made in 1893 containing 43 entries for Mesopotamia, ?d -, y .r Herzfeld {Herbaraufnahmen aus Kal'at-Serkaf-Assur, in Beiheft II. zur Or. Lit.-Zeit, 1908, pp. 29-37) of a collection made '/V3?!? -I r 9 ?i 5 '" neighbourhood of Assur, containing 181 entries. (2) lhe following are among the more important products of the Cent t r ?,!-? )ne of Mes °P°tamia: wheat, barley, rice (e.g. at Saruj, the Khabur), millet, sesemum (for oil, instead of olive), dura (Holcus sorghum and H. btcolor) ; lentils, peas, beans, vetches; cotton, hemp, safflower, tobacco; Medicago sativa (for horses) ; cucumber, melons, water-melons, figs (those of Sinjar famed for sweetness), dates (below, 'Ana and Tekrit); a few timber trees; plane and white poplar (by streams), willow and sumach (by the Euphrates). The sides of Karaja-Dagh, J. 'Abd eW'Aziz and Sinjar are wooded, but not now the neighbourhood of Nisibis. (3) In the steppe the vegetation is that which prevails in similar soil from Central Asia to Algeria; but many of the arborescent plants that grow in the rockier and more irregular plateaux of western Asia, and especially ot Persia, have been reported as missing. Endless masses of tall weeds, belonging to a few species, cover the face of the country- large Cruciferae, Cynareae and Umbelliferae—a\so large quantities of liquorice : (Glycyrrhtza glabra and echinata) and Lagonychium, and the white ears of the Imperata. In autumn the withered weeds are torn up by the wind and driven immense distances. vi. Fauna. 6 — The following abound : wild swine, hyaena, jackal, cheetah, fox; gazelle (in herds), antelope species (in the steppe); jerboa, mole, porcupine, and especially the common European rat (in the desert); bat, long-haired desert hare. The following are rare: wild ass; beaver, said to have been observed on the Euphrates- wolf, among others a variety of black wolf (Canis lycaori), said to be found in the plains; lion, said to roam as far as the Khabur. On the Euphrates are the following: vulture, owl, raven, &c, also the falcon {Ttnnanculus alaudarius), trained to hunt. Amone game birds are: wild duck and goose, partridge, francolin, soml kinds of dove, and in the steppe the buzzard. The ostrich seems almost to have disappeared. Large tortoises abound, and, in the Ain el-'Arus pool, fresh-w ater turtles and carp. Of domestic 1 Ritter, Erdkunde, xi. 493-498. 'See Geog. Journ. lx. 528-532 (with map). litter, xi. 198-499. * Ibid., xi. 499~502. J Ibid., xi. 502-510. l8l animals in the steppe the first place belongs, to the camel; next come goat and sheep (not the ordinary fat-tailed variety) ; the common buffalo is often kept by the Arabs and the Turkomans' on the Euphrates and the Tigris; on the Euphrates is found the Indian zebu. vii. Towns. 6 — The towns that have survived are on the rivers Such are Samsat: (see Samosata), Rakka (Nicephorium) above the mouth ot the Belikh, Der ez-Zor, a rising town on the right bank where there is (since 1897) a stone bridge, "Ana (on an island; see A , N - A - ) '. , y s £ ."• Id >> on the Euphrates; Jezlret ibn 'Omary Mosul (q.v.), Tekrit, on the Tigris; Edessa (q.v.), Harran (g.z,.); on confluents of the Belikh; Veranshehr (Tela), Ras al-'Ain (Rhesae- na),Mardin (half-way up the mountain wall), and Nasibin ~— ~ — « again failed in* an attempt to recover Nislbis (573), whilst Chosroes' siege of D&ra was successful. Mesopotamia naturally suffered during the time of confusion that preceded and followed the accession of Chosroes II., and the Romans recovered their old frontier (591). With the accession of Phocas (602) began the great war which shook the two kingdoms. The loss of Edessa, where Narses revolted, was temporary; but the Roman fortress of Dara fell after nine months' siege (c. 605) ; Harran, Ras al-' Ain and Edessa followed in 607, many of the Christian inhabitants being trans- ported to the Far East, and Chosroes carried the victorious arms of Persia far into the Roman Empire. Finally Heraclius turned the tide, and Kavadh II. restored the conquests of his pre- decessor. The Syrian Christians, however, found that they had only exchanged the domination of a Zoroastrian monarch for an unsympathetic ecclesiastical despotism. In the confusion that followed, when men of letters had to five and work in exile, Nislbis set up for a time (631-632) a grandson of Chosroes II. Finally all agreed on Yazdegerd III.; but, while Chosroes II. and Heraclius had been at death grips with each other a great invasion had been preparing in Arabia. The Arab tribes in Mesopotamia were Christian, and Heraclius at Edessa hoped for their support; but Karkisiya and Hit succumbed (636), and then Tekrlt; and Heraclius retired to Samosata. When in 638 he made another caliphate. attempt, it is said at the entreaty of the Mesopotamian Christians, Arab forces appeared before Rakka, Edessa, Nasibin and other places, and all Mesopotamia was soon in the hands of the Arabs. Henceforth it looked to Damascus and to Kiifa and Basra, instead of to Constantinople or Ctesiphon. The new r6gime brought welcome relief to the Christian part of the population, for the Arabs took no note of their orthodoxies or heterodoxies. (Moawiya is said to have rebuilt the dome of the great church at Edessa after an earthquake in 678.) Fortunately for Mesopotamia the seats of the factions which immediately broke the peace of Islam were elsewhere; but it could not escape the fate of its geographical position. The men of Rakka were compelled to help 'AH, after his march across Mesopotamia from near Mosul, in getting a bridge made at Rakka to convey his men to Siffin. Not long afterwards there was a new excitement in Moawiya's incursion across to the Tigris. The discontent under Yazid III. was keen in Mesopotamia, where Merwan in fact got a footing, and when the troubles increased after he became caliph he abandoned Damascus in favour of his seat at ftarran. His son was besieged by Dabbak and his Kharijites and Saffarids in Nasibin; but a fierce battle at Mardln ended in Merwan's favour (745). The cruelties that accompanied the over- throw of the Omayyad dynasty excited a revolt, wMch spread to Mesopotamia, and Harran had to undergo a siege by one of Merwan's generals. It was next besieged by al-Mansur's brother; but the battle between the brothers was fought at Nasibin. It was decisive, but there were further risings, involving Mesopotamia. 1 An inevitable effect of the reign of Islam had been that the kindred language of the Arabs gradually killed the vernacular Syriac of Mesopotamia (see Edessa) as the alien Greek and Persian had shown no tendency to do, and the classical period (4th to 8th centuries) of the only Mesopotamian literature we know, such as it is, useful but uninviting, came to an end (see Syriac Literature). This naturally encouraged grammatical study. Among the Aramaic-speaking people the revolution which displaced the Arabian court of Damascus in favour of a cosmopolitan world centred at the Babylonian seat of the civilizations dealt with in the preceding paragraphs naturally gave an impulse to the wider scholarship. Translations were made from Greek, as, e.g. by Thabit b. Qurra of Tfaxmn (d. 901), and from Pahlavi. -.'.■" Mansur built a castle at Rafiqa opposite Rakka tojcbntrol the country round, and his son Harfln al-RasMd actually" resided during most of his reign, not at Bagdad hSt' i)t Rakfcia, where two generations later al-Battani of Harrin was making the' astronomical observations on which his tables were based (see Albatecjnius) Abu Qurra, bishop of Harran, atid acquaintance of the caliph Ma'mun, who was one of the earlier Aramaean Christians to use Arabic, has been thought to have contributed to the influences 1 For thus and following section see further Cauphate and 1 86 MESOPOTAMIA that developed the Mutazilite (Motazilite) sect. Nasibin was the scene of another revolt (793) under a Kharijite leader. Harun's son Motasim displeased the people by creating a bodyguard of Turks, and therefore transferred his seat to SEmarra. This put the caliphs fatally at the mercy of their guards. Mesopotamia fell partly under the power of Ahmad ibn'fuhln of Egypt and his son; but before the end of the 9th century the Decline t Hamdanids, descendants of the Arab tribe of Taghlib, c^uhata were ' n P ossess i° n °f Mardin, and in 919 one of them ^aupoau. wag g 0vernor f D; ar Rabi'a, Later the brothers Nasir ad-Daula and Saif ad-Daula ruled over Mesopotamia and North Syria respectively. Meanhwile the caliph Mottaqi appeared as a fugitive at Mosul, _ Nasibin, Rakka (944). The Hamdanids were followed by the 'Oqaylids, who had their seats at various places, such as Mosul, Nasibin, Rakka, Hardin, between 996 arid 1096. By 1055 the Seljuks had taken the caliph under their charge. They arrived at Jerusalem in 1076, the first crusaders reached Asia in 1097, and Bit Adini became the countship of Edessa (q.v.). The power of the Seljuks quickly disintegrated. The son of a slave of the third Seljfik sultan, Zangi, governor of 'Irak, made himself gradually (Mosul, Sinjar, Jezira, Harran) master of Meso- potamia (1128), capturing Edessa in 1144. Mesopotamia fell to one of his sons, Saif ad-Din, and branches sprang up, at Sinjar and Jezira. To the same period belong other Atabeg dynasties; Begtigmids at tfarran, Tekrit, &c. ; Ortokids at Edessa, 'Ana, &c., with Mardin as their headquarters. By 1185-1186 Saladin had made Egypt supreme over all these principalities, thus achieving what the XVIIIth and XlXth Egyptian dynasties had attempted in vain. Mesopotamia remained in the hands of the Ayyubite family till the appearance of the Mongols. The petty principalities were unable to unite to resist the terribla attack, and Jezira, Edessa, Nasibin, Maridin, &c., fell in 1259-60. The 'leading men of Harran emigrated into Syria, the rest were carried into slavery, and the ancient town was laid in ruins. It was the Mamluk rulers of Egypt that checked the death-bringing flood. Near Bira was the scene of one of their victories (in 1273), and their authority extended to Karkisiya. The Ortokid dynasty survived the Mongol inundation, and it was in the 14th century that its laureate Safiy ad-Din al-r^illi flourished. From the Mongol invasions of the 13th century western Asia has never recovered. Then, before the next century was out, came the invasion of Timur (1393-94). The Ortokids were followed by the Karakuyunli. In 1502 Meso- potamia passed for a time into the hands of the Safawid shah, Ishmael ; but in 1516 it came under the Osmanli Turks, to whom it has belonged ever since. The inroad of the Persians in the 17th century was confined to the south. Since Mesopotamia finally came into the power of the Ottoman sultans considerable changes in the population have occurred. About that time parts of a confederation of tribes Arabs which had taken the name of Shammar from a moun- tain in their neighbourhood, moved northwards from Central Arabia in search of better pasture, &c. Successfully displacing their forerunners, they made themselves at home in the Syrian steppe — until their possession was in turn disputed by a later emigrant from Arabia, for whom they finally made room by moving on into Mesopotamia, over which they spread, driving before them their predecessors the Tai (whose name the Mesopotamian Aramaeans had adopted as a designation for Arab in general), partly north of the Sinjar, partly over the Tigris. Others they forced to abandon the nomadic life, and settle by the Khabur (e.g. the Jebur) or the Euphrates. These adjustments, it is supposed, had been effected by 1 700. In 1831 "Ali, a newly appointed Turkish governor of. Bagdad, induced Suftig the chief of the Jerba, the more important division of the Shammar, to help him to dislodge his predecessor, Daud, who would not Vacate his position, but then refused them the promised payment. To defend himself from the enraged Shammar "Ali summoned the "Anaza from across the Euphrates. Having also succeeded in detaching part of the Shammar under Shlosh, he told the 'Anaza he no longer needed their help. In the futile attempt of the three parties to dislodge the 'Anaza Shlosh lost his life; but with the' help of the Zubeid the other two succeeded, and Sufug was now supreme " King of the Steppe," levying blackmail as he pleased. Other methods of disposing of him having failed, the Porte made his nephew a rival sheikh; but he basely assassinated him. Sufug then suffered the same fate himself at the hands of the pasha, but has since become a hero. Two of his sons became involved in a quarrel, with the government, in consequence of which for years all Mesopotamia was in danger, till the second was put to- death in 1868, and Ferljan, the eldest son, a peaceable man who had been made pasha, became supreme. One of Sufug's widows had fled to her Tai kindred in Central Arabia with her youngest son Paris ; but when he grew up she brought him back in the seven- ties, and he immediately attracted a great following. He kept to the far north of Mesopotamia to avoid his brother Ferhan; but finally half-sedentary tribes on the Khabur and the Belikh became tributary tp him, and a more or less active warfare sprang up between the brothers, which ended in a partition of Mesopotamia. Ferhan and the South Shammar claimed the steppe south-east of a line from MSsul to Mayadin (just below JCarkisiya), and Fans and the North Shammar the north-west. Since Ferhan's death the Porte has favoured one after another of his many sons, hoping to keep the South Shammar disunited, especially as they are more than the others. The Shammar have been in undis- puted mastery from Urfa to the neighbourhood of Bagdad, practically all tribes paying khuwwa to them, and even the towns, till the government garrisoned them. Some 60 of these more or less nomadic communities, of one or two thousand tents (or houses) each, representing a population of several hundred thousands are described by Oppenheim. Each has its recognized camping ground, usually one for summer and another for winter. Most of them are Arab and Mahommedan. Some are Christian and some are not Arab: viz. Kurds, Turkomans or Circassians. For some years the Porte has been applying steady pressure on the nomads to induce them to settle, by increasing the number of military posts, by introducing Circas- sian colonies, as at Ras al-'Ain, sometimes by forcible settlement. More land is thus being brought under cultivation, the disturbing elements are being slowly brought under control, and life and property are becoming more secure. Security is what the country chiefly needs. Hence its primary interest in the railway scheme, with a view to agri- cultural development and perhaps the growth of cotton; Sir W. Willcocks' irrigation schemes had Time" not up to 1910 affected " Mesopotamia " directly. Apparently the real problem is one of population adequate to effect the improvements demanded. The new regime introduced in 1908 seems to justify a hopeful attitude. Apart from the disturbing effects of recent events in Persia, an exposition of present conditions would show progress. Exact statistics are not available because the vilayet of Mosul (3 5 , 130 sq. m. , 3 5 1 , 200 pop. ) takes in on the east territory with which we are not concerned, and omits the Osroene district, which goes with Aleppo. Urfa is a 'town of 55,000; Mosul, 61,000, Bagdad, 145,000. The exports of Mosul for 1908 were (in thousands of pounds sterling): United Kingdom 195, India 42, other countries 52, parts of Turkey 218; the imports: United Kingdom 56, India 16, other countries 35, parts of Turkey 24. The language is in most parts Arabic; but Turkish is spoken in Birejik and Urfa, Kurdish and Armenian south of Dlarbekr, and some Syriac in Tur 'Abdln. There are Christian missionary institutions of European origin in various places, such as Urfa, Mardin, Mosul. An interesting survival of early faiths is to be found in the Yezidls of the Sinjar district. Authorities — Land and People : full references to Greek, Latin, Arabic and other writers are given in Ritter, Erdkunde x. 6-284, 921-1149; xi. 247-510, 660-762; for the conditions since the Arab conquest, Guy le Strange, Lands of the Eastern Caliphate (1905), chiefly pp. 86-114, is especially useful. Of recent works the follow- ing are valuable: E. Sachau, Reise in Syrien u. Mesopotamien (1883) ; M. v. Oppenheim, Vom Mittelmeer zum Persischen Golf, vol. ii (1889). We may mention further D. G. Hogarth, The Nearer East (1902), passim; K. Regling, " Zur historischen Geographie des meso- potamischen Parallelograms" (Sarug district), in Klio, I. 443-476; M. Sykes, " Journeys in North Mesopotamia " in Geog. Journal, xxx. 237-254, 384-395; "The Western Bend of the Euphrates, op. cit. xxxiv. 61-65 (plans of two castles) ; D. Fraser, Short Cut to India (1909); W. Kurz, " Beurteilung der Aussichten auf eine Wiederbelehung der Kuitur der Euphrat- und Tigrisniederung," in Deutsche geographische Blatter, xxxi. 147-179 (1908); E. Peass, " The Bagdad Railway," in Contemp. Rev., iqo8, 570-591 ; K. Baedeker, Palestine and Syria (1906), pp. 389-412. The annual Consular Reports most nearly bearing on Mesopotamia are those for Aleppo, Mosul, Bagdad and Basra. Maps. — The following deserve special mention: v. Oppenheim, op. cii., a most valuable large scale folding map in pockets of volumes; Sachau. op. cit.; M. Sykes, Geog. Journ. xxx. opp. p. 356, and xxxiv. opp. p. 120; Hogarth, op. cit., orographic, &c. Excavations at 'Arban: A. H. Layard, Nineveh and Babylon (1849- 1851), pp. 230-242; at Tell Khalaf: M. v. Oppenheim, Der Tell Halaf (1908), in the Der alte Orient series (see an account by J. L. Myres in Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology, ii. 139-144; at Asshur: Sendschriften der deutsch. or. Gesellsch., and W. Andrae, MESOXAUG ACID-r-MBSOZOA 187 Der Ann Adad Tetnpel (1909). See also D. G. Hogarth, " Car- chemesh and its Neighbourhood " {Annals, &c. ii. 165-184), arid W. Andrae's Die Ruinen von Hatra (1908). History. — Early period : besides the histories of Babylonia and AssjWia see Winckler, various essays in his Altor. Forschungen, " Vorlaufige Nachrichten uber die Ausgrabungen in Boghaz-koi im Sommer, 1907," in Mitteilungen der Deutsch. Orient. Gesellschaft, No. 35, and " Suri " in Oriental. Lit.-Zeit, x. 281-299, 345~357, 401-412, 643; O. Weber/ the notes to Knudtzon's Die El-Amarna Tafeln; A. Ungnad, Vntersuchungen zu den . . . Urkunden aus Dilbat (1909), pp. 8-21; P. Schnabel, Studien zur bab.-assyrischen Chronologie (1908); A. Sanda, Die Aramaer (1902) in the Der Alle Orient series; M. Streck, " Ober die alteste Geschichte der Aramaer" in Klio, vi. 185-225. For the later periods see Persia: History; Hellenism; Rome: History ;P\kthia;Sykiac Literature; Cali- phate and authorities there given. (H. W. H.) MESOXALIC ACID (dioxymalonic acid), (H0 2 C) 2 C(OH) 2 or C3H4O6, is obtained by hydrolysis of alloxan with baryta water (J. v. Liebig, Ann., 1838, 26, p. 298), by warming caffuric acid with lead acetate solution (E. Fischer, Ann., 1882, 215, p. 283), or from glycerin diacetate and concentrated nitric acid in the cold (E. Seelig, Ber., 1891/24^.3471). It crystallizes in delique- scent prisms and melts with partial decomposition at 110-120 C. It behaves as a ketonic acid, being reduced in aqueous solution by sodium amalgam to tartronic acid, and also combining with phenylhydrazine and hydroxylamine. It reduces ammo- niacal silver solutions. When heated with urea to ioo° ,C. it forms allantoin. By continued boiling of its aqueous solution it is decomposed into carbon dioxide and glyoxylic acid, C2H4O4. MESOZOA. Van Beneden 1 gave this name to a small group of minute and parasitic animals which he regarded as inter- mediate between the Protozoa and the Meta- zoa. TheMesozoa.com- prise two classes: (1) the Rhombozoa, which are found only in the kidneys of CephalopodSj and(2)the Orthonectida, which infest specimens of Ophiurids, Poly- chaets,Nemertines,Tur- bellaria and possibly other groups. Class I. Rhombozoa (E.vanBenedeh). — These animals consist of a central cell from which certain reproductive cells arise, enclosed in a single layer of flattened and for the most part ciliated cells; some of them are modified at the anterior end and form the polar cap. The Rhombozoa comprises two orders : (a) Dicyemida, ciliated ver- miform creatures Whose polar cap has 8 or 9 cells arranged in two rows (Dicyema, Koll., Dicye- mennea, Whitm.) ; {b)He- terocyemida, non-ciliated animals with no, polar cap, but whose anterior ectodermal cells contain refringent bodies and may be produced into wart-like processes (Con- pcyema, v. Ben. in Octopus vulgaris; Microcyema in Sepia officinalis). Unlike the Dicyemida, which are fixed in the renal cells of their host by their polar cap, the Heterocyemida are free. The number of ectoderm cells apart from the polar cap is few, some fourteen to twenty-two. (From Cambridge Natural History, vol. ii. "Worms, &c," by permission of Macmillan & Co. Ltd. After Gamble.) Fig. i. — Dicyemennea eledones Wag. from the kidney of Eledone moschata. A. Full-grown Rhombogen with in- fusoriform embryos (emb). g. Part of endoderm cell where forma- tion of the embryos is actively proceeding. n. eel. Nucleus of ectoderm cell. n.end. Nucleus of endoderm cell. p. " Calotte." B. Developing infusoriform embryo. C. One fully developed. D. " Calotte " of nine cells; 1 Bull. Ac. Belgique (1876), p. 35. The central cell is formed by the layer of the first two blastomeres, and remains quiescent until surrounded by the micromeres or products of division of the smaller blastomere. It then divides unequally, and of the two cells thus formed the larger repeats the process. Each of the two small cells are now called primary germ cells," and they enter into and lie inside the large central cell. The primary germ cells divide until there are eight of them all lying within the axial cell. At this stage the future of the parasite may take one of two directions. Following one path, the animal (now called a " Nematogen ") gives rise by the segmenta- tion of its primary germ cells to vermiform larvae which, though smaller, are but replicas of the parent form. Following the other path, the animal (now termed a " Rhombogen ") gives origin to a number of " infusoriform larvae,", several of these arising from each primary germ-cell. The vermiform larvae leave their Nematogen parent and swimming through the renal fluid attach themselves to the renal cells. They never leave their host, and die in sea-water. The infusoriform larvae have a very complicated structure; they escape from the Rhombogen, and, unlike the vermiform larvae they can live in sea- water. They possibly serve to infect new hosts. Some authorities look upon these infusoriform larvae as males, and consider that they fertilize some of the Nematogens, (From Cambridge Natural History, vol. ii., "Worms, &c," by permission of Macmillan & Co. Ltd. After Julin.) .' . Fig. 2.—Rhopalura giardii Metschn. from Amphiura squamata. cf • Full grown male. ¥ I- Flattened form of female. $2. Cylindrical female. which then give rise to males again, whereas the females which produce the vermiform embryos arise from unfertilized vermiform larvae. , After the infusoriform larvae have jeft the parent's body, theJRhombogen takes to producing vermiform offspring, and thus becoines a secondary Nematogen. Thus, if the above views' be correct, a Rhombogen is a protandrous hermaphrodite. E. Nerescheimer has recently described under the name of I^ohmanella, catenata an organism parasitic in Fritittaria which shows marked affinities with the Rhombozoa. The genus Haplozoon of which two species have been found in the worms' Travisia and Clymene by Dogiel is classed as a new group of Mesozoa. ' ''■''■■ Class 1 1. Orthonectida (A. Giard). 1 — The Orthonectida contain animals with a central mass of eggs destined to form male and female reproductive cells surrounded, by a single layer of ciliated ectoderm cells arranged in regular rings which contain varying numbers *b£. rows of cells. Muscular fibrils occur between the outer and inner cells. The sexes are separate and unlike, and there are two .kinds of females, cylindrical and flat. There are but two genera, Rhopalura and Staecharthrum, the latter found in a Polychaet. The male R. giardii lives in the body-Cavity of Amphiura squamata, has six rings of ectodermal cells all ciliated except the second, whose cells contain refringent granules. The ectoderm encloses the testis, a mass of cells which have arisen from a single axial cell in the embryo, The female differs from the male in appearance, and in size it is larger. It occurs in two forms: (1) The cylindrical with 8 (or 9) rows of ectoderm cells; here as in the male the second ring is devoid of cilia : . (2) The flat females'are broader, Uniformly ciliated, and have not rings of ectoderm cells. The central mass of cells forms i88 MESOZOIC ERA— MESS AGER ova which are free in the cylindrical forms ; they leave the mother through the dehiscing of the cells of the non-ciliated ring, are fertilized and develop parthenogenetically into females both flat and cylindrical. R. pelseneeri and 5. giardi are said to be hermaphrodite. The parasites first make their appearance 'in a host in the form of a Plasmodium comparable with the spdrocyst of a Trematode. By the segregation of nuclei and some of the surrounding protoplasm; germ cells arise which develop into ciliated larvae and ultimately into males and females which only discharge their spermatozoa and ova when they reach sea-water. The product of the consequent fertilization is unknown ; presumably it infects new hosts, entering them in the form of a nucleated plasmodium. The original idea that in the Rhombozoa and Orthonectida we had animals intermediate between the Protozoa and Metazoa is no longer widely held. The modern view is that the simplicity of their structure is secondary and not primary, and is correllated with their parasitic habit of life. They are probably derived from some Platyhelminthine ancestor and perhaps come nearer to the Trematoda than to any other group. Literature. — E. van Beneden, Bull. Ac. Belgique (2), (1876) xli. 85, 116; (1876), xlii. 35; also Arch. Biol. (1882), iii. 197; C. O. Whitman, Mt. Stat. Neapel. (1883), iv. 1; W. M. Wheeler, Zool. Anz., (1899), xxii. 169; A. Giard, Jour. anal, physiol. (1879), xv - 449; Quart. Jour. Micr. Sci. (1880), xx. 225; St Joseph, Bull. Soc. Zool. France (1896), xxi. 58; Caullery and Mesnil, C. R. ac. sci. (1899), cxxviii. 457 and 516; C. Julin, Arch. Biol. (1882), iii. 1; E. Nerescheimer, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. (1904), lxxvi. 137; V. A. Dogiel, Trav. soc. imp. natur. St Phtersbourg (1907), xxxviii. 28, and Zool. Anz. (1906), xxx. 895. (A. E. S.) HESOZOIC ERA, in geology, the name given to the period of time between the Palaeozoic and Cainozoic eras; it is synony- mous with the older and less satisfactory term " Secondary " as applied to the major divisions of geological time and with the " Flozgebirge " of the Wernerian school. This era is sub- divided into a lower, Triassic, a middle, Jurassic, and an upper, Cretaceous period or epoch. The duration of the Mesozoic era was not more than one fourth of that of the Palaeozoic era, measured by the thickness of strata formed during these periods. It was an era marked by peaceful conditions in the earth's crust and by a general freedom from volcanic activity. The sediments as a whole are characterized by the prevalence of limestones as compared with those of the preceding era; they are seldom much altered or disturbed except in the younger mountain regions. Mammals, represented by small marsupials, and primitive forms of birds and bony fishes make their first appear- ance in rocks of Mesozoic age. Saurian reptiles played an extremely prominent part; ammonites and belemnites lived in extraordinary variety in the seas along with the echinoids and pelecypods, which had to a great extent supplanted the crinoids and brachiopods of the preceding periods. The first clear indications of monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous angio- sperms made their appearance, while Cycads and Conifers constituted the bulk of the land flora. MESQUITE, or Honey Locust, in botany, a tree, native of the southern United States and extending southwards through Mexico and the Andean region to Chile and the Argentine Republic. It is known botanically as Prosopis juliflora, and belongs to the natural order Leguminosae (suborder Mimoseae). It reaches 40 or 50 ft. in height with a trunk usually not more than 6 to 12 in. in diameter, and divided a short distance above the ground into numerous irregular 'crooked branches forming a loose straggling head. The remarkable development of its main root in relation to water-supply renders it most valuable as a dry ^country plant; the root descends to a great • depth in search of water, and does not branch or decrease much in diameter till this is reached. It can thus flourish where.no other woody plant can exist, arid its presence and condition afford almost certain indications of the depth of the water-level. When the plant attains the size of a tree, water, will be found within 40 or 50 ft. of the surface; when it grows as a bush, between 50 or 60 ft.; while, when the roots have to descend below 60 ft., the stems are only 2 or 3 ft. high. These woody roots supply valuable fuel in regions where no wood, of fuel value is produced above ground.' The leaves are compound, the main axis bearing two or sometimes four secondary axes on which are borne a number of pairs of narrow bluntish leaflets. The minute greenish-white fragrant flowers are densely crowded on slender cylindrical spikes from i| to 4 in. long; the long narrow pods are constricted between the seeds, of which they contain from ten to thirty surrounded by a thick spongy layer of sweet pulp. The wood is heavy, hard and close-grained,*' but not very strong; it is almost indestructible in contact with soil, and is largely used for fence-posts and railway ties. The ripe pods supply the Mexicans and Indians with a nutritious food; and a gum resembling gum arabic exudes from the stem. An allied species Prosopis pubescens, a small tree or tall shrub, native of the arid regions of the south-western United States, is known as the screw-bean or screw-pod mesquite from the fact that the pods are twisted into a dense screw-like spiral; they are used for fodder and are sweet and nutritious, but smaller and less valuable than those of the mesquite. For a fuller account of these trees see Charles Sprague Sargent, Silva of North America, iii. p. 99 (1892). MESS (an adaptation of O. Fr. mes, mod. meis; Ital. messo; derived from the Late Lat. missum, past participle of mitiere " to send or place in position "), a service of meat, a dish sent to table. The term is also used of the persons who are in the habit of eating their meals together, and thus particularly of the parties into which a ship's company or a regiment is divided, either according to their rank, or for convenience in catering. Originally, a mess in this sense was a group of four persons sitting at one table and helped from the same dishes. In the Inns of Court, London, the original number is preserved, four benchers or four students dining together. In early times the word mess was applied to food of a more or less liquid character, as soup, porridge, broth, &c. It is probably in allusion to the sloppy nature of semi-liquid messes of food that a mess has come also to mean a state of disorder, confusion and discomfort. Skeat takes the word in this sense to be a variant of " mash," originally to mix up. MESSAGE (a word occurring in slightly different forms in several languages, e.g. Fr. message, Span, mensaje, Ital. messagio; adapted from the Low Lat. missaticum, from mittere), a com- ntuftication either verbal, written or printed, sent from one person to another. Message is the term generally applied to the official communications addressed by the heads of states to their legislatures at the opening of the session or at other times. These also, though written, are borne and delivered by special messen- gers and have the force of a face to face speech. The sessional and other messages to Congress of the president of the United States of America are printed state documents. Washington and John Adams delivered them in person but the practice was discontinued by Jefferson. " Messenger " is of the same derivation; the earlier form of the word was messager (cf. passenger, scavenger). In ordinary language the word means one who is charged with the delivery of a message. In Scottish law a messenger-at-arms is an official appointed by Lyon-King-at-Arms to execute summonses and letters of diligence connected with the Court of Sessions and Court of Justiciary (see Writ: § Scotland). Technically the term "messenger" is given to an endless rope or chain, passing from the capstan to the cable so that the latter may be hauled in when the messenger is wound round the capstan; also to a similar contrivance for hauling in a dredge. MESSAGER, ANDRE CHARLES PROSPER (1853- ), French musician, was born at Montlugon on the 30th of December 1853; he studied at Paris, and in 1874 became organist at St Sulpice. He was for some time a pupil of Saint-Safins. „In 1876 he won the gold medal of the Societe des Compositeur^ With a symphony. In 1880 he was appointed music director at Ste Marie-des-Batignolles. In 1883 he completed Firmin Bernieat's comic opera Francois des has bleus; and in 1885 produced his own operettas, La Fauvette du temple and La BSarriaise, the latter being performed in London in 1886. His ballet.XfeS Deux pigeons was produced at the Paris Opera in'1886. But it was the production of his comic opera La Basoche in 1890 at' the Opera Comique (English version in London the following year) that established his reputation; and subse- quently this was increased by such tuneful and tasteful light MESSALL A CORVIN0 S—MESSAPII 189 operas as Madame Ckrysantheme (1893), Mirette (1894), Les Petites Michus (1897), and Veronique (1898), the latter of which had a great success in London. Besides conducting for some years at the Opera Comique in Paris, Messager's services were also secured in London in 1901 and later years as one of the directors of the Covent Garden opera. MESSALLA CORVINUS, MARCUS VALERIUS (64 b.C.-a.D. 8), Roman general, author and patron of literature and art. He was educated partly at Athens, together with Horace and the younger Cicero. In early life he became attached to republican principles, which he never abandoned, although he avoided offending Augustus by too open an expression of them. He moved that the title of pater patriae should be bestowed upon Augustus, and yet resigned the- appointment of praefect of the city after six days' tenure of office, because it was opposed to his ideas of constitutionalism. In 43 B.C. he was proscribed, but managed to escape to the camp of Brutus and Cassius. After the battle of Philippi (42) he went over to Antony, but subsequently transferred his support to Octavian. In 31 Messalla was appointed consul in place of Antony, and took part in the battle of Actium. He subsequently held commands in the East, and suppressed the revolted Aquitanians; for this latter feat he celebrated a triumph in 27. Messalla restored the road between Tusculum and Alba, and many handsome buildings were due to his initiative. His influence on literature, which he encouraged after the manner of Maecenas, was considerable, and the group of literary persons whom he gathered round him — including Tibullus, Lygdamus and the poet Sulpicia — has been called " the Messalla circle." With Horace and Tibullus he was on intimate terms, and Ovid expresses his gratitude to him as the first to notice and encourage his work. The two panegyrics by unknown authors (one printed among the poems of Tibullus as iv. 1, the other included in the Catalepton, the collection of small poems attributed to Virgil) indicate the esteem in which he was held. Messalla was himself the author of various works, all of which are lost. They included Memoirs of the civil wars after the death of Caesar, used by Suetonius and Plutarch; bucolic poems in Greek; translations of Greek speeches; occasional satirical and erotic verses; essays on the minutiae of grammar. As an orator, he followed Cicero instead of the Atticizing school, but his style was affected and artificial. Later critics considered him superior to Cicero, and Tiberius adopted him as a model. Late in life he wrote a work on the great Roman families, wrongly identified with an extant poem De progenie Augusti Caesaris bearing the name of Messalla, but really a 15th-century production. Monographs by L. Wiese (Berlin, 1829), J. M. Valeton (GrSningen, 1874), L. Fontaine (Versailles, 1878); H. Schulz, De M. V. aelate (1886); "Messalla in Aqiiitania " by J. P. Postgate in Classical Review, March 1903; W. Y. Sellar, Roman Poets of the Augustan Age. Horace and the Elegiac Poets (Oxford, 1892), pp. 213 and 221 to 258 ; the spurious poem ed. by R. Mecenate (1820). Two other members of this distinguished family of the Valerian gens may be mentioned: — 1. Marcus Valerius Messalla, father of the preceding, consul in 53 B.C. He was twice accused of illegal practices in connexion with the elections; on the first occasion he was acquitted, in spite of his obvious guilt, through the eloquence of his uncle Quintus Hortensius; on the second he was con- demned. He took the side of Caesar in the civil war. Nothing appears to be known of his later history. He was augur for fifty-five years and wrote a work on the science of divination. Cicero, Ad Fam. vi. 18, viii. 4, ad Alticum, iv. 16; Dio Cassius xl. 17, 45; Bellum africanum, 28; Macrobius, Saturnalia, i. 9, 14; Aulus Gellius xiii. 14, 3. 2. Manius Valerius Maxtmus Corvlnus Messalla, consul 263 B.C. In this year, with his colleague Manius Otacilius (or Octacilius) Crassus, he gained a brilliant victory over the Carthaginians and Syracusans; the honour of a triumph was decreed to him alone. His relief of Messana obtained him the cognomen Messalla, which remained in the family for nearly 800 years. To commemorate his Sicilian victory, he caused it to be pictorially represented on the wall of the Curia Hostilia, the first example of an historical fresco at Rome. He is said also to have brought the first sun-dial from Catana to Rome, where it was set up on a column in the forum. Polybius i. 16; Diod. Sic. xxiii. 4; Zonaras viii. 9; Pliny, Nat. Hist., vii. 60, xxxv. 4 (7). MESSALLINA, VALERIA, the third wife of the Roman emperor Claudius (q.v.). She was notorious for her profligacy, avarice and ambition, and exercised a complete ascendancy over her weak-minded husband, with the help of his all-powerful freedmen. During the absence of Claudius from the city, Messallina forced a handsome youth named Gaius Silius to divorce his wife and go through a regular form of marriage with her. The f reedman Narcissus, warned by the fate of another freedman Polybius, who had been put to death by Messallina, informed Claudius of what had taken place, and persuaded him to consent to the removal of his wife. She was executed in the gardens of Lucullus, which she had obtained on the death of Valerius Asiaticus, who through her machinations had been condemned on a charge of treason. She was only twenty-six years of age. By Claudius she was the mother of the unfortunate Britannicus, and of Octavia, wife of Nero. See Tacitus, Annals, xi. 1.-38; Dio. Cassius lx. 14-31; Juvenal vi. IIS - ' 1 ^}! x - 333. x ' v - 33 1 ; Suetonius, Claudius; Merivale, Hist, of the Romans under the Empire ch. 50; A. Stahr, " Agrippina " in Bilder aus demAlterthume, iv. (1865). MESSAPII, an ancient tribe which inhabited, in historical times, the south-eastern peninsula or " heel " of Italy, known variously in ancient times as Calabria, Messapia and Iapygia. Their chief towns were Uzentum, Rudiae, Brundisium and Uria. They are mentioned (Herod, vii. 1 70) as having inflicted a serious defeat on the Greeks of Tarenttim in 473 b.c. Herodotus adds a tradition which links them to the' Cretan subjects of "King Minos." Their language is preserved for us in a scanty group of perhaps fifty inscriptions of which only a few contain more than proper names, and in a few glosses in ancient writers collected by Mommsen {Unteritalische Dialekte, p. 70). Unluckily very few originals of the inscriptions are now in existence, though some few remain in the museum at Taranto. The only satisfactory transcripts are those given by (1) Mommsen (loc. cit.) and by (2) I. P. Droop in the Annual of the British School at Athens (1905-1906), xii. 137, who includes, for purposes of comparison, as the reader should be warned, some specimens of the unfortunately numerous class of forged inscriptions. A large number of the inscriptions collected by Gamurrini in the appendices to . Fabretti's Corpus inscriptionum ilalicdrum are forgeries, and the text of the rest is negligently reported. It is therefore safest to rely on the texts collected by Mommsen, cumbered though they are by the various readings given tq 'him by various . authorities. In spite, however, of these difficulties some facts of considerable importance have been established. The inscriptions, so far as it is safe to judge from the copies of the older finds and from Droop's facsimiles of the newer, are all in the Tarentine-Ionic alphabet (with [ for v and (-for h). For limits of date 400-150 B.C. may be regarded as approxi- mately probable; the two most important inscriptions— those of Bindisi arid Vaste — may perhaps be assigned provisionally to the 3rd century B.C. Mo'mms'en's first attempt at dealing with the inscriptions and the language attained solid, if not very numerous, results, chief of which were the genitival character of the endings — aihi and ihi; and the conjunctional value of inOi {loc. cit. 79-84 sq^) f Since that time (1850) very little progress has been mad<£ There is, in fact, only one attempt known to the present writer to which the student can be referred as proceeding; upon thoroughly' scientific lines, that of Professor Alf Torp in Indoger- manische Forschungen (1895), v -> *95> which deals fully with the two inscriptions just mentioned, and practically sums up all that is either certain or probable in the conjectures of his' pre- decessors. Hardly more than a few words can be said to have been separated and translated with certainty— kalatoras (masc. gen. sing.) "of a herald ." (written upon a herald's staff which was once in the Naples Museum); aran (ace. sing, fern.) " arable 190 MESSENE-^MESSENIA land"; mazzes, "greater" (neut. ace. sing.), the first two syllables of the Latin maiestas; while tepise (3rd sing, aorist indie.) " placed " or " offered "; and forms corresponding to the article (ta- = Greek to) seem also reasonably probable. Some phonetic characteristics of the dialect may be regarded as quite certain; (1) the change of the original short d to & (as in the last syllable of the genitive kalatoras) ; (2) of final -m to -n (as in arari) ;, (3) of -ni- -ti- -si- respectively to -nn- -td- and -ss- as in dazohonnes " Dasonius," dazohonnihi " Das5nii "; dazetdes, gen. dazetdihi "Dazetius, Dazetii," from the shorter stem dazet-; Vallasso for Vallasio (a derivative from the shorter name Valla) ; (4) the loss of final d (as in tepise), and probably of final t (as in -des, perhaps meaning "set," from the root of Gr. tWtuii); (5) the change of original dh to d [anda = Gr. evda, and bh to b (beran = Lat. ferant) ; (6) -an- before (at least some) consonants becomes -a- (Bdsta, earlier (Savcra). (7) Very great interest attaches to the form penkaheh — which Torp very probably identifies with the Oscan stem pompaio — which is a derivative of the Indo-European numeral *penque " 5." If this last identification be correct it would show that in Messapian (just as in Venetic and Ligurian) the original velars were retained as gutturals and not converted into labials. The change of to a is exceedingly interesting as being a phenomenon associated with the northern branches of Indo-European such as Gothic, Albanian and Lithuanian, and not appearing in any other southern dialect hitherto known. The Greek 'A}, Onomastica, ed. Lag., pp. 247, 28I, Bao-. /3 ii. 3. For the termination -as for ten, see Lagarde, Psalt. Memph., p. vii. . . 2 The plural is found in Ps. cv. 15, of the patriarchs as conse- crated persons. 3 In Ps. lxxxiv. 9 [10] it is disputed whether the anointed one is the king, the priest, or the nation as a whole. The second view is perhaps the best. 192 MESSIAH never realized iH the imperfect kingship of the past. Thus the Psalms were necessarily viewed as prophetic; and meantime, in accordance with the common Hebrew representation of ideal things as existing in heaven, the true king remains hidden with God. The steps by which this result was reached must, however, be considered in detail. The hope of the ^dyent. of an ideal king was only one feature of that larger hope of the salvation of Israel from all .evils, which was constantly held forth by all the prophets, from the time when the seers of the 8th century B.C. proclaimed that the true conception of Yahweh's relation to His people could become a practical reality only through a great deliverance following a sifting judgment of the most terrible kind. The idea of a judgment so severe as to render possible an entire breach with the guilty past is common to all the prophets, but is expressed in a great variety of forms and images. As a rule the prophets directly connect the final restoration with the removal of the sins of their own age; to Isaiah the last troubles are those of Assyrian invasion,, to Jeremiah the restoration follows on the exile to Babylon, to Daniel on the overthrow of the Greet monarchy. But all agree in giving the central place to the realization of a real effective kingship of Yahweh; in fact the conception of the religious subject as the nation of Israel, with a national organization under Yahweh as king, is common to the whole Old Testament, and connects prophecy proper with the so-called Messianic psalms and similar passages which speak of the religious relations of the Hebrew commonwealth, the religious meaning of: national institutions* and so necessarily contain ideal elements reaching beyond the empirical present. All such passages are frequently called Messianic; but the term is more properly reserved as the specific designation of one particular branch of the Hebrew hope of salvation, which, becoming prominent in post-canonical Judaism, used the name of the Messiah as a technical term (which it never is in the Old Testament), and exercised a great influence on. New Testament thought — the term " the Christ " (6 xP'otoj), being itself nothing more than the translation of " the Messiah." In the period of the Hebrew monarchy the thought that Yahweh is the divine king of Israel was associated with the conception that the human king reigns by right only if he reigns by commission or " unction " from Him. Such was the theory of the kingship in Ephraim as well as in Judah (Deut. xxxiii. ; 2 Kings ix. 6), till in the decadence of the northern state Amos (ix. 11) foretold 1 the redintegration of the Davidic kingdom, and Hosea (iii. 5 ; viii. 4) expressly associated a similar prediction with the condemnation of the kingship of Ephraim as illegitimate. So the great Judaean prophets of the 8th century connect the salvation of Israel with the rise of a Davidic king, full of Yahweh 's Spirit, in whom all the energies of Yahweh's transcendental kingship are as it were incarnate (Isa.ix. 6 seq. ; xi. 1 seq. ; Micah v. ) . This conception, however, ,is not one of the constant elements of prophecy; other prophecies of Isaiah look for the decisive interposition of Yahweh in the crisis of history without a kingly deliverer. Jeremiah again speaks of the future David or righteous sprout of David's stem (xxiii. 5 seq.; xxx. 0) and Ezekiel uses similar language (xxxiv., xxxvii.) ; but that such passages do not necessarily mean more than that the Davidic dynasty shall be continued in the time of restoration under worthy princes seems clear from the way in which Ezekiel speaks of the prince in chs. xlv., xlvi. As yet we have no fixed doctrine of a personal Messiah, but only material from which such a doctrine might be drawn. The religious view of the kingship is still essentially the same as in 2 Sam. vii., where 1 Most recent critics regard Amos ix.9-15 as a later addition, and the same view is held by Nowack, Harper and others respecting Hos. iii. 5, though on grounds which seem questionable. Isa. ix. 1-7, xi. 1 sqq. are held by Hackmann, Cheyne, Marti, and other critics to be post-exilian. Duhm and others hold that they are genuine. It may be admitted that Isa. xi. 1 seq. might be held to be contemporary with Isa. lv. 3, 4, and to refer to Zerubbabel. Cf. Haggai ii. 21-23, composed seventeen years afterwards. Mic. v. 1-8 can with difficulty be regarded as genuine. the endless duration of the Davidic dynasty is set forth as part of. Yahweh's plan. • There are other parts of the Old Testament — notably 1 Sam. viii., xii. (belonging to the later stratum)— in which the very existence of a human kingship is represented as a departure from the theocratic ideal, and after the exile, .when the monarchy had come to an end, we find pictures of the latter days in which its restoration has no place., Such is the great prophecy of Isa. xl.-xlviii. , in which Cyrus is the anointed of Yahweh. So too there is no allusion to a human kingship in Joel or in Malachi; the old forms of the Hebrew state were broken, and religious hopes expressed themselves in other shapes. 2 In the book of Daniel it is collective Israel that, under the symbol of a " son of man," receives the kingdom (vii. 13, 18, 22^ 27). Meantime, however; the decay and ultimate silence of the ris- ing prophetic word concurred with prolonged political servitude to produce an important change in Hebrew religion. To the prophets the kingship of Yahweh was not a mere ideal, but an actual reality. Its full manifestation indeed, to the eye of sense and to. the unbelieving, world, lay in the future; but true faith found a present stay in the sovereignty of Yahweh, daily exhibited in providence and interpreted to each generation by the voice of the prophets. And, while Yahweh's kingship was a living and present fact, it refused to be. formulated in fixed invariable shape. But when the prophets were succeeded by the scribes, the interpreters of the written word, and the yck& Of foreign oppres- sors rested on the land, Yahweh's kingship, which presupposed a living nation, found not even the most inadequate expression in daily political life. Yahweh was still the lawgiver of Israel, but His, law was written in a book, and He was not present to administer it. , He was still the hope of Israel, but the hope too was only to be read in books, and these were interpreted of a future which was no longer the ideal development of forces already a,t work, but wholly new and supernatural. The present was a blank, in which religious duty was summed up in patient Obedience to the law and penitent submission :to the • Divine chastisements. The scribes were mainly busied with the law; but no religion can subsist on mere law; and the systematization of the prophetic hopes, and of those more ideal parts of the other sacred literature which, because ideal and dissevered from the present, were now set on one line with .the prophecies, went on side by side with the systematization of the law, by meansof a harmonistic exegesis, which sought to gather up every prophetic image in one grand panorama of the issue of Israel's and the world's history. The beginnings of this process can probably be traced within the canon itself, in the book of Joel and the last, chapters of Zechariah; 3 and, if this be so, we see from Zech. ix. that the picture of the ideal king claimed a place in such constructions. The full development of the method belongs, however, to the post-canonical literature, and was naturally much less regular and rapid than the growth of the legal tradi- tions of the scribes. It was in crises of national anguish that men turned most eagerly to the prophecies, and sought to construe their teachings as a promise of speedy deliverance (see ApcJcalyptic Literature)., But these books, however influen- tial, had ho public authority, and when the yoke of oppression was lightened but a little their enthusiasm lost much of its contagious power. It is not therefore safe to measure the general growth of eschatological doctrine by the apocalyptic books, of which Daniel alone attained a canonical position, fe. the Apocrypha eschatology has a relatively small place; but there is enough to show that the hope of Israel was never forgotten, and that the imagery of the prophets was accepted with a literalness not contemplated by the prophets themselves. It was, however, only very gradually that the figure and name of the Messiah acquired the prominence which they have in 2 The hopes which Haggai and Zechariah connect with the name of Zerubbabel, a descendant of David, hardly form an exception to.this statement. There may even be a reference to him in Isa. lv. 3v4^ 3 See Stade's articles " Deuterozacharja," Z.f. A.-T.-liche Wtis., 1881-1882. Cf. Dan. ix. 2 for the use of the older prophecies 1 in the solution of new problems of faith. MESSIAH 193 later Jewish doctrine of the last things and in the official exegesis of the Targums. In the very developed eschatology of Daniel they are, as we have seen, altogether wanting, and in the Apocrypha, both before and after the Maccabean revival, the everlasting throne of David's house is a mere historical reminis- cence (Ecclus. xlvii. 11; 1 Mace. ii. 57). So long as the wars of independence occupied the Palestinian Jews, and the Hasmo- naean sovereignty promised a measure of independence and felicity under the law, the hope that connected itself with the House of David was not likely to rise to fresh life, especially as a considerable proportion of the not very numerous passages of Scripture which speak of the ideal king might with a little straining be applied to the rising star of the new dynasty (cf. 1 Mace. xiv. 4-15). It is only in Alexandria, where the Jews were still subject to the yoke of the Gentile, that at this time (c. 140 B.C.) we find the oldest Sibylline verses (iii. 652 seq.) proclaiming the approach of the righteous king whom God shall raise up from the East (Isa. xli. 2.) The name Messiah is still lacking, and the central point of the prophecy is not the reign of the deliverer but the subjection of all nations to the law and the temple. 1 With the growing weakness and corruption of the Hasmonaean princes, and the alienation of a large part of the nation from their cause, the hope of a better kingship begins to appear in Judaea also; at first darkly shadowed forth in the Book of Enoch (chap, xc), where the white steer, the future leader of God's herd after the deliverance from the heathen, stands in a certain contrast to the actual dynasty (the horned lambs) ; and then much more clearly, and for the first time with use of the name Messiah, in the Psalter of Solomon, the chief document of the protest of Pharisaism against its enemies the later Hasmonaeans. The struggle between the Pharisees and Sadducees, between the party of the scribes and the aristocracy, was a struggle for mastery between a secularized hierarchy whose whole interests were those of their own selfish politics, and a party to which God and the exact fulfilment of the law according to the scribes were all in all. This doctrine had grown up under Persian and Grecian rule, and no government that possessed or aimed at political independence could possibly show constant deference to the punctilios of the schoolmen. The Pharisees themselves could not but see that their principles were politically impotent; the most scrupulous observance of the Sabbath, for example — and this was the culminating point of legality — could not thrust back the heathen. Thus the party of the scribes, when they came into conflict with an active political power, which at the same time claimed to represent the theocratic interests of Israel, were compelled to lay fresh stress on the doctrine that the true deliverance of Israel must come from God. But now the Jews were a nation once more, and national ideas came to the front. In the Hasmonaean sovereignty these ideas took a political form, and the result was the secularization of the kingdom of God for the sake of a harsh and rapacious aristocracy. The nation threw itself on the side of the Pharisees ; not in the spirit of punctilious legalism, but with the ardour of a national enthusiasm deceived in its dearest hopes, and turning for help from the delusive kingship of the Hasmonaeans to the true kingship of Yahweh, and to His vicegerent the kihg of David's house. It is in this connexion that the doctrine and name of the Messiah appear in the Psalter of Solomon. The eternal kingship of the House of David, so long forgotten, is seized on as the proof that the Hasmonaeans have no divine right. " Thou, Lord, art our king For ever and ever. . . . Thou didst choose David as king over Israel, arid swarest unto him concerning his seed for ever that his kingship should never fail before Thee. And for our sins sinners (the Hasmonaeans) have risen up over us, taking with force the kingdom which Thou didst not promise' to them, profaning the throne of David in their pride. But Thou, O Lord, will cast them down and root out their seed from the' land, when a man not of our race (Pompey) rises up against _them. . . . . Behold, O Lord, and raise up their king the Son of David at the time that Thou hast appointed, to reign over Israel Thy servant ; and gird him with strength to crush unjust rulers; to cleanse Jerusalem from the heathen that tread it under foot, to cast out sinners from Thy 1 In Sibyll. iii. 775, vnbv must undoubtedly be read for vl6v. inheritance; to break the pride of sinners and all their strength as potter's vessels with a rod of iron (Ps. ii. 9) ; to destroy the law- less nations with the word of his mouth (Isa. xi. 4); to gather a holy nation and lead them in righteousness. . . . He shall divide them by tribes in the land, and no stranger and foreigner shall dwell with them; he shall judge the nations in wisdom and righteousness. The heathen nations shall serve under his yoke; he shall glorify the Lord before all the earth, and cleanse Jerusalem in holiness, as m the beginning. From the ends of the earth all nations shall come to see his glory and bring the weary sons of Zion as gifts (Isa. lx.'3;seq.); to see the, glory of the Lord with which God hath crowned him, for he is over them a righteous king taught of God. In his days there shall be no unrighteousness in their midst; for they are all holy and their king the anointed of the Lord (xptoris Kvpios, mistranslation of mnvrt'E'D); — Psalt. Sol. xvii. This conception is traced in lines too firm to be those of a first essay; it had doubtless grown up as an integral part of the religious protest against the Hasmonaeans. And while the polemical motive is obvious, and the argument from prophecy against the legitimacy of a non-Davidic dynasty is quite in the manner of the scribes, the spirit of theocratic fervour which inspires the picture of the Messiah is broader and deeper than their narrow legalism. In a word, the Jewish doctrine of the Messiah marks the fusion of Pharisaism with the national religious feeling of the Maccabean revival. ' This national feeling, claiming a leader against the Romans as well as deliverance from the Sadducee aristocracy, again sets the idea of the kingship rather than that of resurrection and individual retribution in the central place. Henceforward the doctrine of the Messiah is the centre of popular hope and the object of theological culture. . The New Testament is the best evidence of its influence on the , masses (see Especially Matt. xxi. 9) ; and the exegesis of the Targums, which: in its beginnings doubtless reaches back before the time of Christ, shows how it was fostered by the Rabbins and preached, in the synagogues. 2 Its diffusion far beyond Palestine, and in circles least accessible to such ideas, is proved by the fact that Philo himself (De praem. et poen. § 16) gives a Messianic interpretation of Num. xxiv. 27 (LXX). It must not! indeed be supposed that the, doctrine 'was as yet the undisputed part of Hebrew faith which it becarjie when the fall of the state and the antithesis to Christianity threw all Jewish thought into the lines of the Pharisees. It has, for example, no place in the Assumption of Moses or the Book of Jubilees. But, as the fatal struggle with Rome became more and more imminent, the eschatological hopes which increasingly absorbed the Hebrew mind all group themselves round the person of the Messiah. In the' later parts of the Book of Enoch (the " symbols " of chap. xlv. seq.) the judgment day of the Messiah (identified with Daniel's " Son of Man ") stands in the .fore- front of the eschatological picture. Josephus (B. J. vi. 5, § 4) testifies that the belief it) the immediate appearance of the Messianic king gave the chief impulse to the war that ended in the destruction of the Jewish state; after the fall of the, temple the last apocalypses (Baruch, 4 Ezra) still loudly proclaim the near victory df trie God-sent king; and Bar Cochebas; the leader of the revolt against Hadrian, was actually greeted as the Messiah by Rabbi Aqiba (cf. Luke xxi. 8). These hopes were again quenched in blood; the political idea of the Messiah, the restorer of the Jewish sta^e, still finds utterance in the daily prayer of every Jew (the Shemone Esre), and is enshrined in the system of Rabbinical theology; but its historical significance was buried in the ruins of Jerusalem. 3 2 The Targumic passages that speak of the Messiah are registered by Buxtorf, Lex. Cho2d., h s.v. _ "^ 3 False Messiahs have continued from time to time to appear among the Jews. Such was Serenus of Syria if. 720. a.d.). Soon after, Messianic hopes were active at the time of the fall of the Omayyads, and led to a serious rising under Abu 'Isa of Ispahan, who called himself forerunner of the Messiah.. The false Messiah David Alrui (Alroy) appeared among the warlike Jews in Azerbijan in the middle of the 12th century. The Messianic claims of Abraham Abulafia of Saragossa (born 1246) had a cabalistic basis, and the same studies encouraged the wildest hopes at a later time. Thus Abarbanel calculated the coming of the Messiah for 1503 a.d.; the year 1500 was in maiiy places observed as a preparatory season of penance; and throughout the 16th century the Jews were much stirred -and more than one false Messiah appeared. ' Sabbatai; Sebi. II See also 194 MESSINA But this proof that the true kingdom of God could not be realized in an earthly state, under the limitations of national particularism, was not the final refutation of the pld Testament hope. Amidst the last convulsions of political Judaism a new spiritual conception of the kingdom of God, of salvation, and of the Saviour of God's anointing, had shaped itself through the preaching, the death, and the resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth. As applied to Jesus the name of Messiah lost all its political and national significance. Between the Messiah of the Jews and the Son of Man who came to give His life a ransom for many there was on the surface little resemblance; and from their standpoint the Pharisees reasoned that the marks of the Messiah were conspicuously absent from this Christ. But when we look, at the deeper side of the Messianic conception in the Psalter of Solomon, at the heartfelt longing for a leader in the way of righteousness and acceptance with God which underlies the aspirations after political deliverance, we see that it was in no mere spirit of accommodation to prevailing language that Jesus did not disdain the name in which all the hopes of the Old Testament were gathered up. Messianic Parallels. — Within the limits of this article it is im- possible to attempt any extended survey of parallels to Hebrew Messianic conceptions drawn from other religions. One interest- ing analogy communicated by Professor Rapson, may, however, be cited from the Bhagavad-glta., iv. 5-8, in which Krishna says: — • 5 " Many are the births that have passed of me arid of thee Arjuna. All these I know: thou knowest them not, O conqueror of thy foes. 6 Unborn, of imperishable soul, the Lord of all creatures, Taking upon me mine own nature, I arise by my own power. 7 For whensoever, O son of Bharata, there is decay of righteous- ness And a rising up of unrighteousness, then I create myself, 8 For the protecting of the good and for the destroying of evil-doers, . And for the establishing of righteousness I arise from age to age." " Somewhat similar are the avatars of Vishnu, who becomes incarnate in a portion of his essence on ten occasions to deliver, mankind frorii certain great dangers. Krishna himself is usually regarded as one of these avatars." This we may consider as one of the striking parallels which meet us in other religions to that " hope of the advent of an ideal king which was one of the features of that larger hope of the salvation of Israel from all evils, the reali- zation of perfect reconciliation with Jehovah and the felicity of the righteous in Him," to which reference was made in an early portion of this article and which constitutes the essential meaning of Messiah- ship. The form in which the Indian conception presents itself in the above quoted lines is more closely analogous amid many differ- ences to the later and apocalyptic type of the Messianic idea as it appears in Judaism. The interesting parallels between the Babylonian Marduk (Merodach) god of light and Christ as a world saviour are ingeniously set forth by Zimmern in K.A.T., 3rd ed., pp. 376-391, but the total impression which they leave is vague. It would carry us too far to consider in this place the details of the Jewish conception of the Messiah and the Messianic times as they appear in the later apocalypses or in Talmudic theology. See for the former the excellent summary of Schiirer, Geschichte des judischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi, 3rd ed., vol. ii. pp. 497- 556. See also Weber, Judische Theologie, ch. xxiii. For the whole subject see also Drummond, The Jewish Messiah, and Kuenen, Religion of Israel, ch. xii. For the Messianic hopes of the Pharisees and the Psalter of Solomon see especially Wellhausen, Pharisder und Sadducder (Greifswald, 1874). In its ultimate form the Messianic hope of the Jews is the centre of the whole eschatology, embracing the doctrine of the last troubles of Israel (called by the Rabbins the " birth pangs of the Messiah "), the appearing of the anointed king, the annihilation of the hostile enemy, the return of the dispersed of Israel, the glory and world-sovereignty of the elect, the new world, the resurrection of the dead and the last judgment. But even the final form of Jewish theology shows much vacillation as to these details, especially as regards their sequence and mutual relation, thus betraying the inadequacy of the harmonistic method by which they were derived from the Old Testament and the stormy excitement in which the Messianic idea was developed. It is, for example, an open question among the Rabbins whether the days of the Messiah belong to the old or to the new world (n»n n?ij;n or x?n ojiyij), whether the resurrection embraces all men or only the righteous, whether it precedes or follows the Messianic age. Compare Millennium. We must also pass over the very important questions that arise as to the gradual extrication of the New Testament idea of the Christ from the elements of Jewish political doctrine which had so strong a hold of many of the first disciples — the relation, for example, of the New Testament Apocalypse to contemporary Jewish thought. A word, however, is necessary as to the Rabbinical doctrine of the Messiah who suffers and dies for Israel, the Messiah son of Joseph or son of Ephraim, who in Jewish theology is dis- tinguished from and subordinate to the victorious son of David. The developed form of this idea is almost certainly a product of the polemic with Christianity, in which the Rabbins were hard pressed by arguments from passages (especially Isa. liii.) which their own exegesis admitted to be Messianic, though it did not accept the Christian inferences as to the atoning death of the Messianic king. That the Jews in the time of Christ believed in a suffering and atoning Messiah is, to say the least, unproved and highly improbable. See, besides the books above cited, De Wette, Opuscula; Wiinsche, Die Leiden des Messias (1870). See the articles on " Messiah " in Hastings's D. B. (together with Fairweather'sart., " Development of Doctrine," in extra vol., pp. 295- 302) in Ency. Bibl. Also P.R.E. 3rd ed., as well as Hastings's Diet, of Christ and the Gospels, should be consulted. Comp. Edersheim, Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, 2nd ed., i. 160-179, ii. 434 sqq., 710-741; Stanton, The Jewish and the Christian Messiah (1886); Wendt, Teaching of Jesus, i. 60-84, 176-181, ii. 122-139; Holtz- mann, N.'T. Theologie (1897), pp. 81-85, 234-304; Baldensperger, Das Selbstb&wusstsein Jesu; Wellhausen, Israel, u. jud. Geschichte (1895), pp. 198-204; Charles's Book of Enoch and Apocalypse of Baruch (especially the introductions) ; Bousset, Religion des Juden- tums, 2nd ed., pp. 245-277; Volz, Judische Eschatdogie von Daniel bis Akiba, pp. 55-68, 213-237; Dalman; Der leidende u. sterbende Messias; Gressmann, Ursprung der israelitisch-jiidischen Eschato- logie, pp. 250-345. A fuller survey of literature will be found in Schiirer. op. cit., p. 496 sqq. (W. R. S. ; O. C. W.) MESSINA, a city of Sicily, 7 m. S.S.W. of the promontory of Faro (anc. Promontorium Pelorum), which forms the north- eastern angle of the island, the capital of the province of Messina and the seat of an archbishop. Pop. (1850), 97,074; (1881), 126,497; (1901), 149,778; (1905), 158,812. The site of the town curves round the harbour, between it and the strongly fortified hills of Antennamare, the highest point of which is 3707 ft. The straits, which take their name from the town, are here about 35 m. wide, and only a little over 2 m. at the promontory of Faro. The numerous earthquakes from which the city had suffered, notably that in 1783, had left it few remains of antiquity. But it was a flourishing and beautiful city when in 1908 one of the most disastrous earthquakes ever recorded destroyed it totally. The earthquake occurred early in the morning of December 28, . and so far as Messina was concerned the damage was done chiefly by the shock and by the fires which broke out afterwards; the seismic wave which followed was comparatively innocuous. But it did vast damage elsewhere along the strait, notably at Reggio, Calabria, which was also totally destroyed. Many other smaller towns suffered both in Sicily and in Calabria; the loss of life was appalling and the distress widespread, in spite of the prompt assistance rendered by Italian naval and military forces and by the crews of British, Russian and German warships and other vessels, and the contribution of funds for relief works from every part of the world. The immediate seismic focus appeared to be in the straits, but Dr E. Suess pointed out that it was surrounded by a curved line of earth-fracture, following an arc drawn from a centre in the Lipari Islands, from Catanzaro to Etna, and so westward; within this arc he held that the crust of the earth is gradually sinking, and is in an unstable condition. According to an official estimate the earthquake caused the loss of 77,283 lives. 1 (See also Earthquake.) The facades of buildings at Messina in great part withstood the earthquake, but even when they did so the remainder of the buildings was destroyed. The cathedral, which was completely wrecked, was begun in 1098 and finished by Roger II, It had* a fine Gothic f acade : the interior had mosaics in the apses dating from 1330, and the nave contained 26 granite columns, said to have been brought from a temple of Poseidon near Faro, and had a fine wooden roof of 1260. The rest of the edifice was in the baroque style; the high altar (containing the supposed letter of the Virgin Mary to the people of Messina), richly decorated with marbles, lapis lazuli, &c., was begun in 1628 and completed in 1726. The importance of Messina was almost entirely due to its 1 See S. Franchij " II Terremoto ... a Messina . . . ," in Boll. R. Comit. geologico d'ltal., 4th series, vol. x. (1909). MESSUAGE— METABOLIC DISEASES *95 harbour, a circular basin open on the north only, formed by a strip of land curving round like a sickle, from which it took its original name, Zancle (f kyickDv, or rather 8ayK\ov, the Sicilian equivalent of the Greek Spiiravov, 1 according to Thucydides, vi. 4). Zancle was first founded, no doubt on the site of an earlier settlement, by pirates from Cumae, and again more regularly settled, after an unknown interval, by settlers from Cumae under Perieres, and from Chalcis under Crataemenes, in the first quarter of the 8th century B.C. Mylae must have been occupied as an outpost very soon afterwards, but the first regular colony of Zancle was Himera, founded in 648 B.C. After the capture of Miletus by the Persians in 494 B.C. Skythes, king of Zancle, invited the Ionians to come and settle at KaXi) 'Aktij, then in the occupation of the Sicels (the modern Marina di Caronia, 25 m. east of Cefalu) ; but at the invitation of Anaxilas of Regium the Samians proceeded instead to the latter place. About 488 B.C. Anaxilas and the Samians occupied Zancle in the absence of Skythes, and it was then that the name was changed to Messene, as the existence of coins of the Samian type, bearing the new name, proves. About 480, however, Anaxilas thoroughly estab- lished his authority at Messene, and the types of coinage intro- duced by him persevere down to about 396 B.C., 2 when Anaxilas himself zealously supported his son-in-law Terillus in inviting the Carthaginians' invasion of 480 B.C. In 426 the Athenians gained the alliance of Zancle, but soon lost it again, and failed to obtain it in 415. Messina fell into the hands of the Carthaginians during their, wars with Dionysius the elder of Syracuse (397 B.C.). The Carthaginians destroyed the city, but Dionysius recaptured and rebuilt it. During the next fifty years Messina changed masters several times, till Timoleon finally expelled the Carthaginians in 343 B.C. In the wars between Agathocles of Syracuse and Carthage, Messina took the side of the Carthaginians. After Agathocles' death, his mercenaries, the Mamertines, treacher- ously seized the town about 282 B.C. and held it. They came to war with Hiero II. of Syracuse and appealed for help to Rome, which was granted, and this led to a collision between Rome and Carthage, which ended in the First Punic War. Messina was almost at once taken by Rome. At the close of the war, in 241 B.C., Messina became a free and allied city {civitas foederata) , and obtained Roman citizenship before the rest of Sicily, probably from Caesar himself. During the civil wars which followed the death of Caesar, Messina held with Sextus Pompeius; and in 35 B.C. it was sacked by Octavian's troops. After Octavian's proclamation as emperor he founded a colony here; and Messina continued to flourish as a trading port. In the division of the Roman empire it belonged to the emperors of the East; and in a.d. 547 Belisarius collected his fleet here before crossing into Calabria. The Saracens took the-city in a.d. 831; and in 1061 it was the first permanent conquest made in Sicily by the Normans. In 1 190 Richard I. of England, with his crusaders, passed six months in Messina. He quarrelled with Tancred, the last of the Hauteville dynasty, and sacked the town. In 1194 the city, with the rest of Sicily, passed to the house of Hohenstaufen under the emperor Henry VI., who died there in 1197; and after the fall of the Hohenstaufen was contended for by Peter I., king of Aragon, and Charles I., count of Anjou. At the time of the Sicilian Vespers (1282), which drove the French out of Sicily, Messina bravely defended itself against Charles of Anjou, and repulsed his attack. Peter I., through his commander Ruggiero di Loria, defeated the French off the Faro; and from 1282 to 17 13 Messina remained a possession of the Spanish royal house. In 1 571 the fleet fitted out by the Holy League against the Turk assembled at Messina, and in the same year its commander, Don John of Austria, celebrated a triumph in the city for his victory at Lepanto. Don John's statue stands in the Piazza dell' Annuziata. For one hundred years, thanks to the favours and 1 From this word Trapani derives its name. 2 This account is at variance with the literary evidence and refts on that of the coins, as set forth by I. H. Dodd in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxviii. (1908) 56 sqq. the concessions of Charles V., Messina enjoyed great prosperity. But the internal quarrels between the Merli, or aristocratic faction, and the Malvezzi, or democratic faction, fomented as they were by the Spaniards, helped to ruin the city (1671-1678). The Messinians suspected the Spanish court of a desire to destroy the ancient senatorial constitution of the city, and sent to France to ask the aid of Louis XIV. in their resistance. Louis despatched a fleet into Sicilian waters, and the French occupied the city. The Spaniards replied by appealing to Holland, who sent a fleet under Ruyter into the Mediterranean. In 1676 the French admiral, Abraham Duquesne, defeated the combined fleet of Spain and Holland; but, notwithstanding this victory, the French suddenly abandoned Messina in 1678, and the Spanish occupied the town once more. The senate was suppressed, and Messina lost its privileges. This was fatal to the importance of the city. In 1743 the plague carried off 40,000 inhabitants. The city was partially destroyed by earthquake in 1783. During the revolu- tion of 1848 against the Bourbons of Naples, Messina was bom- barded for three consecutive days. In 1854 the deaths from cholera numbered about 15,000. Garibaldi landed in Sicily in i860, and Messina was the last city in the island taken from the Bourbons and made a part of united ' Italy under Victor Emmanuel. Messina was the birthplace of Dicaearchus, the historian {c. 322 B.C.) ; Aristocles, the Peripatetic ; Euhemerus, the rationalist [c. 316 B.C.) ; Stefano Protonotario, Mazzeo di Ricco and Tommaso di Sasso, poets of the court of Frederick II. (a.d. 1250) ; and Anto- nello da Messina, the painter (1447-1499), of whose works one is preserved in the museum. During the 1 5th century the grammarian, Constantine Lascaris, taught in Messina; and Bessarion was for a time archimandrite there. (T. As.) MESSUAGE (from Anglo-French mesuage, probably a cor- ruption of mesuage, mSnage, popular Lat. mansionaticum, from mansio, whence mod. Fr. maison, from manere, to dwell), in law, a term equivalent to a dwelling-house, and including out- buildings, orchard, curtilage or court-yard and garden. ■ At one? time " messuage " is supposed to have had a more extensive meaning than that comprised in the word " house," but such: distinction, if it ever existed, no longer survives. MESTIZO (adopted from the Spanish, the Portuguese form being mestico, from Lat. miscere, to mix), a term originally meaning a half-breed, one of whose parents was Spanish, and now used occasionally of any half-breed, but especially to denote persons of mixed Spanish (or Portuguese) and American Indian blood. The offspring of such half-breeds are also called mestizoes. The feminine form is mestiza. MESUREUR, GUSTAVE EMIL EUGENE (1847- ), French politician, was born at Marcq-en-Baroeul (Nord) on the 2nd of April 1847. He worked as a designer in Paris, and became prominent as a member of, the municipal council of Paris, rousing much angry discussion by a proposal to rename the Parisian streets which bore saints' names. In 1887 he became president of the council. The same year he entered the Chamber of Deputies, taking his place with the extreme left. He joined theL. Bourgeois ministry of 1895-1896 as minister of commerce, industry, post and telegraphs, was vice-president of the Chamber from 1898 to 1902, and presided over the Budget Commission of 1899, 1901 and 1902. He was defeated at the polls in, 1902, but became director of the Assistance Publique. His wife, Amelie de Wailly (b. 1853), is well known as a writer of light verse and of some charming children's books. META, the Latin word for the goal which formed the turrirsg- point for the chariot races in the Roman circus. The metae consisted of three conical pillars resting on a single podium. None have been preserved, but they are shown on coins, gems and terra-cotta bas-reliefs. METABOLIC DISEASES. All disease is primarily due to alterations (Gr. iierafioKr), change), quantitative or qualitative, in the chemical changes in the protoplasm of some or all of the tissues of the body. But while in some pathological states these modifications lead to structural changes, in others they do not produce gross lesions, and these latter conditions are commonly classified as Functional Diseases. When such 196 METABOLIC DISEASES functional disturbances affect the general nutrition of the body they have been termed Metabolic Diseases (Stoffwechselkrank- heiten). It is impossible to draw a hard and fast line between functional and organic disease, since the one passes gradually into the other, as is well seen in gout. Nor is it always easy to decide how far the conditions are due merely to quantitative alterations in the metabolism and how far to actual qualitative changes, for it is highly probable that many of the apparently qualitative alterations are really quantitative disturbances in one part of the protoplasmic mechanism, leading to an apparent qualitative change in the total result of the ^activity. Obesity. — It is as fat that the surplus- food absorbed is stored in the body; but the power of storing fat varies enormously in different individuals, and in some it may be considered patho- logical. The reasons of this are very imperfectly understoodi One undoubted cause of obesity is taking a supply of food in excess of the energy requirements of the individual. The amount of food may be absolutely large, or large relatively to the muscular energy evolved in mechanical work or in heat->produc- tion; but in either case, when fat begins to be deposited, the muscular activity of the body tends to diminish and the loss of heat from the surface is reduced; and thus the energy require- ments become less, and a smaller diet is sufficient to yield the surplus for further storage of fat. Fat is formed from carbo- hydrates, and possibly indirectly from proteids (see Nutrition). Individuals probably vary in their mode of dealing With these substances, some having the tendency to convert them to fat, some to burn them off at once. Carl von Noorden, however, who has studied the metabolism in cases of obesity, finds no marked departure from the normal. It may be that in some persons there is a very perfect absorption of food, but so far ho scientific evidence for this view is forthcoming. In all cases the fat stored is available as a source of energy, and this circum- stance is taken advantage of in the various'fat " cures," which consist in giving a diet containing enough proteids to cover the requirements of the body, with a supply of fats and carbohydrates insufficient to meet the energy requirements of the individual. This is illustrated by the dietaries of some of the best known of these " cures " : — In Grms. per Diem. Proteid. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Calories. Banting's cure Oertel's ,, Ebstein's ,, 172 156-170 102 8 25-45 85 81 75-120 47 1112 1 180-1608 1 40 1 In a normal individual in moderate muscular activity about 3000 Calories per diem are required (see Dietetics), and there- fore under the diets of these " cures," especially when accom- panied by a proper amount of muscular exercise, the fats stored in the body are rapidly used up. . Diabetes, as distinguished from transitory glycosuria, is pro- duced by a diminution in the power of the tissues to use sugar, which thus accumulates in the blood and escapes in the urine. One great source of energy being unavailable, the tissues have to use more fats and more proteids to procure the necessary energy, and hence, unless these are supplied in very large quantities, there is a tendency to emaciation. The power of storing and using sugar in the tissues is strictly limited, and varies considerably in healthy individuals. Normally, when about 200 grms. of glucose are taken at one time, some of it appears in the urine within one hour. In some individuals the taking of even 100 grms. leads to a transient glycosuria, while others can take 250 grms. or more and use it all. But even in the same healthy, individual the power of using sugar varies at different times and in different conditions, muscular exercise markedly increasing the combustion. Again, some sugars are more readily used than others, and therefore have a less tendency to appear in the urine when taken in the food. Milk-sugar and laevulose appear in the urine more readily than glucose. This power of using sugar possessed by an individual may depend to a small extent on the capacity of the liver to store as glycogen any excess of carbohydrates absorbed from the food, and some slight cases of transient glycosuria may be accounted for by a dimi- nution of this capacity. But the typical form of diabetes cannot be thus explained. It has been maintained that increased production of sugar is a cause of some cases of the disease, and this view has been supported by Claude Bernard's classical experiment of producing glycosuria by puncturing the floor of the fourth ventricle in the brain of the rabbit. But after such puncture the glycosuria occurs only when glycogen is present in the liver. It is transient and has nothing to do with true diabetes. The fact that various toxic substances, e.g. carbon monoxide, produce glycosuria has been used as an argument in support of this view, but they too seem to act by causing a conversion of glycogen to glucose, and are effective only when the liver is charged with the former substance. At one time it was thought that the occurrence of glycosuria under the admini- stration of phloridzin proved that diabetes is due to a poison. But the fact that, while sugar appears abundantly in the urine under phloridzin, it is not increased in the blood, shows that the drug acts not by diminishing the power of the tissues to use sugar, but by increasing the excretion of sugar through the kidneys and thus causing its loss to the body. Hence the tissues have 1 to fall back upon the proteids, and an increased excretion of nitrogen is produced. This, however, is a totally different condition from diabetes. • Anything which produces a marked diminution in the normally limited power of the tissues to use sugar will cause the disease in a lighter or graver form. As age advances the activity of the various metabolic processes inay diminish irregularly in certain individuals, and it is possible that the loss of the power of using sugar may be sooner impaired in some than in others, and thus diabetes be produced. But Minkowski and von Mering have demonstrated, by experiments upon animals, that pathological changes in the pancreas have probably a causal relationship with the disease. They found that excision of that organ in dogs, &c, produced all the symptoms of diabetes — the appear- ances of sugar in the urine, its increased amount in the blood, the rapid breaking-down of proteids, and the resulting emaciation and azoturia. At the same time the absorption from the intestine of proteids, fats and carbohydrates was diminished. ■ How this pancreatic diabetes is produced has not been explained. It has been suggested that the pancreas forms an internal secretion which stimulates the utilization of sugar in the tissues. Though in a certain number of cases of diabetes disease of the pancreas has been found, other cases are recorded where grave disease of that organ has not produced this condition. But the apparent extent of a lesion is often no measure of the depth to which the functions of the structure in which it is situated aire altered, and it is very possible that the functions of the pancreas may in many cases be profoundly modified without our methods of research being able to detect the change. The pancreas consists of two parts, the secreting structure and the epithelial islets, and one or other of these may be more specially involved, and thus alteration in digestion and absorption on the one hand, and changes in the utilization of carbohydrates on the other, may be separately produced. The subcutaneous injection of large doses of extracts of the supra-renal bodies causes glycosuria and an increase of sugar in the blood, but the relationship of this con- dition to diabetes has not yet been investigated. The disease may be divided into two forms : — 1. Slight Cases. — The individual can use small quantities of sugar, but the taking of larger amounts causes glycosuria. Supposing that the energy requirements of an individual are met by a diet Proteid . 100 grms. 410 Calories. Fat 100 „. . 930 . „ Carbohydrate 400 „ . . 1640 „ of— 2980 „ then if only 100 grms. of glucose can be used, the energy value of 300 grms., i.e. 1230 Calories, must be supplied from proteids and fats. To yield this, 300 grms. of proteids or 132 grms. of fats would be required. If these are not forthcoming in the diet, they must METABOLIC DISEASES 1 97 be supplied from the tissues, and the individual will become emaci- ated; hence a diabetic on an ordinary diet is badly nourished, and hence the huge appetite characteristic of the disease. 2. Grave Cases. — From the products of the splitting of proteids sugar can be formed, probably in the liver, and in the more serious form of the disease, even when carbohydrates are excluded from the food, a greater or lesser quantity of the sugar thus formed escapes consumption and may be excreted. Theoretically, ioo grms. of proteid can yield 113-6 grms. of glucose, i.e. 1 grm. of nitrogen will be set free for each 7-5 grms. of glucose formed. In the urine of grave cases of diabetes on a proteid diet, the proportion of nitrogen to sugar is about 1 to 2. This may mean that the theoretically possible amount of sugar is not yielded, or that some of the sugar formed is used in the economy. Both hypotheses may be correct, but the latter is supported by the fact that even in grave cases the decomposition of proteid may be diminished by giving sugar, and that in muscular exercise the proportion of sugar may fall. In the course of the disease the amount of sugar which the tissues can use varies from day to day. It is in the utilization of glucose — the normal sugar of the body — that the tissues chiefly fail. Many diabetics are able to use laevulose, or the inulin from which it is derived, and lactose (milk-sugar) to a certain extent. It has, however, been observed that under the administration of these sugars the excretion of glucose may be increased, the tissues, apparently by using the foreign sugar, allowing part of the glucose which they would have consumed to escape. The increased decomposition of proteid, rendered necessary to supply the energy not forthcoming in the sugar, leads to the appear- ance of a large quantity of nitrogen in the urine — azoturia — and it also leads to the formation of various acids. Sulphuric acid and phosphoric acid are formed by oxidation of the sulphur and phos- phorus in the proteid molecule. Organic acids of the lower fatty acid series f> oxybutyric and aceto-acetic acid with their derivative acetone also appear in the course of diabetes. They are in part formed from the disintegration of proteids and in part from fats, as the result of a modified metabolism induced by the withdrawal of carbohydrates. To neutralize them ammonia is developed and hence the proportion of ammonia in the urine is increased. By the development of these various acids the alkalinity of the blood is diminished. The development of these acids in large quantities is associated with extensive decomposition of proteid, and is some- times indicative of the onset of a comatose condition, which seems to be due rather to an acid intoxication than to the special toxic action of any particular acid. Myxoedema. — The thyroid gland forms a material which has the power of increasing the metabolism of proteids and of fats; and when the thyroid is removed, a condition of sluggish metabol- ism, with low temperature and a return of the connective tissues to an embryonic condition, supervenes, accompanied by the appearance of depression of the mental functions and by other nervous symptoms. The disease myxoedema, which was first described by Sir William Gull in 1873, was shown by Ord in 1878 to be due to degenerative changes in the thyroid gland. It affects both sexes, but chiefly females, and is characterized by a peculiar puffy appearance of the face and hands, shedding of the hair, a low temperature, and mental hebetude. The symptoms are similar to those produced by removal of the thyroid, and are indicative of a condition of diminished activity of metabolism. The nervous symptoms may be in part due to some alteration in the metabolism, leading to the formation of toxic substances. The administration of thyroid gland extract causes all the symptoms to disappear. Cretinism may now be defined as myxoedema in the infant, and it has been definitely proved to be associated with non- development or degeneration of the thyroid gland. The char- acters of the disease are all due to diminished metabolism, leading to retarded development, and the treatment which has proved of service, at least in some sporadic cases, is the administration of various thyroid preparations. Exophthalmic Goitre — Graves's Disease or Basedow's Disease. — This disease chiefly affects young women, and is characterized by three main symptoms: increased rate and force of the heart's action, protrusion of the eyeballs, and enlargement of the thyroid gland. The patient is nervous, often sleepless, and generally becomes emaciated and suffers from slight febrile attacks. The increased action of the heart is the most constant symptom, and the enlargement of the thyroid gland may not be manifest. Various theories as to- the pathology of the condition have been advanced, but in the light of our knowledge of the physio- logy of the thyroid the most probable explanation is an increased functional activity of that gland or of changes in the parthyroids. Gout has often been divided into the typical and atypical forms. The first is undoubtedly a clinical and pathological entity, but the second, though containing cases of less severe forms of true gout, is largely constituted of imperfectly diagnosed morbid conditions. The accumulation of urate of soda in the tissues in gout formerly led physicians to believe in a causal relationship between an increased formation of that substance and the onset of the disease. Sir A. Garrod's investigations, however, seemed to indicate that diminished excretion rather than : increased production is the cause of the condition. He found an accumulation of uric acid in the blood and a diminution in its amount in the urine during the attack. That uric acid is increased in the blood is undoubted, but the changes described by Garrbd in the urine, and considered by him -as indicative of diminished excretion and retention, are rendered of less value by the imperfections of the analytic method employed. More recent work with better methods has thrown still further doubt upon the existence of such a relationship, and points rather to the accumulation of uric acid being, like the other symptoms of the condition, a result of some unknown modification in the metabol- ism, and a purely secondary phenomenon. The important fact that in leucaemia (von Jaksch), in lead-poisoning (Garrod), and in other pathological conditions, uric acid may be increased in the blood and in the urine without any gouty symptoms supervening, is one of the strongest arguments against the older views. That the gouty inflammation is not caused by the deposit of urate of soda, seems to be indicated by the occurrence of cases in which there is no such deposition. The source of the uric acid which is so widely deposited in the gouty is largely the phosphorus containing nucleins of the food and tissues. These in their decomposition yield a series of di-ureides, the purin bodies, of which uric acid is one. Their excretion is increased when substances rich in nuclein, e.g. sweetbreads, &c, are ad- ministered. While uric acid itself has. not been demonstrated to have any injurious action, the closely allied adenin has been found to produce toxic symptoms. After the discovery of this source of uric acid, physiologists for a time inclined to regard it as the only mode of production. ' But it must be remembered that in birds uric acid is formed from the ammonia compounds coming from the intestine and muscles, just as urea is formed from the same substance in mammals. Uric acid is a di-ureide — a body composed of two urea molecules linked by acrylic acid— an unsaturated propionic acid. It is therefore highly probable that in many conditions the con- version of ammonia compounds to urea is not complete, and that a certain amount of uric acid is formed apart from the decomposition of nucleins. Sir William Roberts has adduced evidence to shpw that uric acid circulates in the blood in a freely soluble combination or quadurate— that is, a compound in which one molecule of an acid salt BHU is linked to a molecule of the acid BHU. H 2 U. These compounds are said to be readily decomposed and the bi-urates formed, which are at first gelatinous but become crystalline. The deposition of urate of soda in joints, &c, has been ascribed to this change. Francis Tunnicliffe, however, has published the results of certain investigations which throw doubt upon this explanation. The most recent investigations on the metabolism of the gouty have shown that there is undoubtedly a slowing in the rate of elimination of uric acid and also of the total nitrogen of the urine with occasional sudden increases sometimes connected with a gouty paroxysm, sometimes independent of it. Whether this is due to the action of Some toxin developed in the body or is caused bya constitutional renal inadequacy is difficult to decide. Certain it is these renal diseases often develop in the course of gout. Rheumatism. — Rheumatic fever was formerly regarded as due to some disturbance in the metabolism, but it is now known to be a specific micro-organismal disease. The whole clinical picture is that of an infective fever, and it is closely related to gonor- rhoeal rheumatism and to certain types of pyaemia. A number of independent observers have succeeded in isolating from cases of rheumatic fever a diplococcus which produces similar ig8 METABOLISM— METAL symptoms in the rabbit to those which characterize the disease in man. Excluding the peculiar changes in the joints which occur in rheumatoid arthritis and in Charcot's disease, and which are almost certainly primary affections of the nervous system, it is found that a large number of individuals suffer from pain in the joints, in the muscles, and in the fibrous tissues, chiefly on exposure to cold and damp or after indiscretions of diet. This so-called chronic rheumatism appears to be a totally distinct condition from rheumatic fever; and although its pathology is not deter- mined, it looks as if it were due either to a diminished elimina- tion or an increased production of some toxic substance or substances, but sb far we have no evidence as to their nature. Rickets is undoubtedly a manifestation of a profound alteration of the metabolism in childhood, but how far it is an idiopathic condition and how far a result of the action of toxins introduced from without is not yet definitely known. Kassowitz long ago showed that the bone changes are similar to those which can be produced in animals by chronic phosphorus poisoning, and that they are really irritative in nature. Spillmann, in his work Le Rachitisme, discusses the evidence as regards the action of various conditions, arid comes to the conclusion that there is no evidence that it is due to a mere primary disturbance of the metabolism, or to excessive production of lactic acid, or to any specific micro-organismal poisoning. But he adduces evidence, perhaps not very convincing, that in the disease there is a specific intoxication derived from the alimentary canal and provoking inflammatory lesions in the bones. See generally Carl von Noorden, Metabolism and Practical Medicine (1907). (D. N. P.) METABOLISM (from Gr. nerafioXr], change), the biological term for the process of chemical change in a living cell (see Physiology). METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. ju«raXXof, in the same sense, probably con- nected with neToXKav, to search after, explore, ixera., after, aXXos, other). Originally applied to gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, lead and bronze, i.e. substances having high specific gravity, malleability, opacity, and especially a peculiar lustre, the term " metal " became generic for all substances with these properties. In modern chemistry, however, the metals are a division of the elements, the members of which may or may not possess all these characters. The progress of science has, in fact, been accompanied by the discovery of some 70 elements, which may be arranged in order of their " metallic " properties as above indicated, and it is found that while the end members of the scale are most distinctly metallic (or non-metallic), certain central members, e.g. arsenic, may be placed in either division, their properties approximating to both metallic and non-metallic. One chemical differentia utilizes the fact that metals always form at least one basic oxide which yields salts with acids, while non- metals usually form acidic oxides, i.e. oxides which yield acids with water. This definition, however, is highly artificial' and objectionable on principle, because when we speak of metals we think, not of their chemical relations, but of a certain sum of mechanical and physical properties which unites them all into one natural family. All metals, when exposed in an inert atmosphere to a sufficient temperature, assume the form of liquids, which all present the following characteristic properties. They are (at least practically) non-transparent; they reflect light in a peculiar manner, produc- ing what is called " metallic lustre." When kept in non-metallic vessels they take the shape of a convex meniscus. These liquids, when exposed to higher temperatures, some sooner than others, pass into vapours. What these vapours are like is not known in many cases, since, as a rule, they can be produced only at very high temperatures, precluding the use of transparent vessels. Silver vapour is blue, potassium vapour is green, many others (meicury vapour, for instance) are colourless. The liquid metals, when cooled down sufficiently, some at lower, others at higher, temperatures freeze into compact solids, endowed with the (relative) non-transparency and the lustre of their liquids. These frozen metals in general form compact masses consisting of aggregates of crystals belonging to the regular or rhombic or (more rarely) the quadratic system. Compared with non- metallic solids, they in general are good conductors of heat and of electricity. But their most characteristic, though not perhaps their most general, property is that they combine in themselves the apparently incompatible properties of elasticity and rigidity on the one hand and plasticity on the other. To this remarkable combination of properties more than to anything else the ordinary metals owe their wide application in the mechanical arts. In former times a high specific gravity used to be quoted as one of the characters of the genus; but this no longer holds, since we now know a series of metals lighter than water. Non-Transparency. — This, in the case of even the solid metals, is perhaps only a very low degree of transparency. In regard to gold this has been proved to be so; gold leaf, or thin films of gold produced chemically on glass plates, transmit light with a green colour. On the other hand, infinitely thin films of silver which can be produced chemically on glass surfaces are absolutely opaque. Very thin films of liquid mercury, according to Melsens, transmit light with a violet-blue colour; also thin films of copper are said to be translucent. Colour. — Gold is yellow; copper is red; silver, tin, and some others are pure white; the majority are greyish. Reflection of Light. — Polished metallic surfaces, like those of other solids, divide any incident ray into two parts, of which one is refracted while the other is reflected — with this difference, however, that the former is completely absorbed, and that the latter, in regard to polarization, is quite differently affected. The following values are due to Rubens and Hagen {Ann. der Phys., 1900, p. 352) ; they express the percentage of incident light reflected. The superiority of silver is obvious. Name of Metal. Violet. Yellow. Red. A = 450 * = 55o X = 65o Nickel Gold Glass backed with silver Glass backed with mercury . 906 55-8 58-5 58-6 36-8 48-8 79-3-85-7 72-8 9?-5 6i-i 62-6 59-4 74-7 59-5 82-88 71-2 93-6 66-3 65-9 6o-i 88-2 89 83-89 71-5 Crystalline Form and Structure. — Most (perhaps all) metals are capable of crystallization. The crystals belong to the following systems: regular system — silver, gold, palladium, mercury, copper, iron, lead; quadratic system — tin, potassium; rhombic system — antimony, bismuth, tellurium, zinc, magnesium. Per- haps all metals are crystalline, only the degree of visibility of the crystalline arrangement is very different in different metals, and even in the same metal varies according to the slowness of solidification and other circumstances. Antimony, bismuth and zinc exhibit a very distinct crystalline structure: a bar-shaped ingot readily breaks, and the crystal faces are distinctly visible on the fracture. Tin also is crystalline: a thin bar, when bent, "creaks" audibly from the sliding of the crystal faces over one another; but the bar is not easily broken, and exhibits an apparently non-crystalline fracture. — Class I. Gold, silver, copper, lead, aluminium, cadmium, iron (pure), nickel and cobalt are practically amorphous, the crystals (where they exist) being so closely packed as to produce a virtually homo- geneous mass. — Class II. The great contrast in apparent structure between cooled ingots of Class I. and of Class II. appears to be owing chiefly to the fact that, while the latter crystallize in the regular system, metals of Class I. form rhombic or quadratic crystals. Regular crystals expand equally in all directions; rhombic and quadratic expand differently in different directions. Hence, supposing the crystals immediately after their formation to be in absolute contact with one another all round, then, in the case of Class II., such contact will be maintained on cooling, while in the case of Class I. the contraction along a given straight line will in general have different values in any two neighbouring crystals, and the crystals con- sequently become slightly detached from one another. The crystal- line structure which exists on both sides becomes visible only in the metals of the first class, and only there manifests itself as brittleness. METAL 199 Closely related to the structure of metals is their degree of " plasticity " (susceptibility of being constrained into new forms without breach of continuity). This term of course includes as special cases the qualities of " malleability " (capability of being flattened out under the hammer) and " ductility " (capa- bility of being drawn into wire) ; but these two special qualities do not always go parallel to each other, for this reason amongst others — that ductility in a higher degree than malleability is determined by the tenacity of a metal. Hence tin and lead, though very malleable, are little ductile. The quality of plasticity is developed to very different degrees in different metals, and even in the same species it depends on temperature, and may be modified by mechanical or physical operations. ' A bar of zinc, for instance, as obtained by casting, is very brittle; but when heated to ioo° or 150° C. it becomes sufficiently plastic to be rolled into the thinnest sheet or to be drawn into wire. Such sheet or wire then remains flexible after cooling, the originally only loosely cohering crystals having got intertwisted and forced into absolute contact with one another — an explanation supported by the fact that rolled zinc has a. somewhat higher specific gravity (7-2) than the original ingot (6-9). The same metal, when heated to 205° C, becomes so brittle that it can be powdered in a mortar. Pure iron, copper, silver and other metals are easily drawn into wire, or rolled into sheet, or flattened under the hammer. But all these operations render the metals harder, and detract from their plasticity. Their original softness can be restored to them by " annealing," i.e. by heating them to redness and then ouenching them in cold water. In the case of iron, however, this applies only if the metal is perfectly pure. If it contains a few parts of carbon per thousand, the annealing process, instead of softening the metal, gives it a " temper," meaning a higher degree of hardness and elasticity (see below). What we have called plasticity must not be confused with the notion of " softness," which means the degree of facility with which the plasticity of a metal can be discounted. Thus lead is far softer than silver, and yet the latter is by far the more plastic of the two. The famous experiments of H. E. Tresca show that the plasticity of certain metals at least goes consider- ably farther than had before been supposed. He operated with lead, copper, silver, iron and some other metals. Round disks made of these substances were placed in a closely fitting cylindrical cavity drilled in a block of steel, the cavity having a circular aperture of two or four centimetres below. By an hydraulic press a pressure of 100,000 kilos was made to act upon the disks, when the metal was seen to " flow " out of the hole like a viscid liquid. In spite of the immense rearrangement of parts there was no breach of continuity. What came out below was a compact cylinder with a rounded bottom, consisting of so many layers super- imposed upon one another. Parallel experiments with layers of dough or sand plus some connecting material proved that the particles in all cases moved along the same tracks as would be followed by a flowing cylinder of liquid. Of the better known metals potassium and sodium are the softest ; they can be kneaded between the fingers like wax. After these follow first thallium and then lead, the latter being the softest of the metals used in the arts. Among these the softness decreases in about the following order: lead, pure silver, pure gold, tin, copper, aluminium_platinum, pure. iron. As liquidity might be looked upon as the ne plus ultra of softness, this is the right place for stating that, while most metals, when heated up to their melting points, pass pretty abruptly from the solid to the liquid state, platinum and iron first assume, and throughout a long range of temperatures retain, a condition of viscous semi-solidity which enables two pieces of them to be " welded " together by pressure into one continuous mass. According to Prechtl, the ordinary metals, in regard to the degree of facility or perfection with which they can be hammered flat on the anvil, rolled out into sheet, or drawn into wire, form the following descending series: — ■ Hammering. Lead. Tin. Gold. Zinc. Silver. Copper. Platinum. Iron. Rolling into Sheet. Gold. Silver. Copper. Tin. Lead. Zinc. Platinum. Iron. Drawing into Wire. Platinum. Silver. Iron. Copper. Gold. Zinc. Tin. Lead. To give an idea of what can be done in this way, it may be stated that gold can be beaten out to leaf of the thickness of u^nr mr n. ; and that platinum, by judicious work, can be drawn into wire a i mm. thick. By the "hardness " of a metal we mean the resistance which it offers to the file or engraver's tool Taking it in this sense, it does not necessarily measure, e.g. the resistance of a metal to abrasion by friction. Thus, for instance, 10% aluminium bronze is scratched by an ordinary steel knife-blade, yet the sets of needles used for perforating postage stamps last longer if made of aluminium bronze than if made of steel. Elasticity. — All metals are elastic to this extent that a change of form, brought about by stresses not exceeding certain limit values, will disappear on the stress being removed. Strains exceeding the "limit of elasticity" result in permanent deformation or (if suffi- ciently great) in rupture. Referring the reader to the article Elasti- city for the theoretical and to the Strength of Materials for the practical aspects of this subject, we give here a table of the " modulus of elasticity, ' E (column 2), for millimetre and kilogramme. Hence 1000/E is the elongation in millimetres per metre length per kilo. Column 3 shows the charge causing a permanent elongation of 0-05 mm. per metre, which, for practical purposes, Wertheim takes as giving the limit of elasticity ; column 4 gives the breaking strain. These values may vary within certain limits for different specimens. For Wire of 1 sq. mm. Section, Weight (in Kilos) causing E Permanent Elongation Breakage. °f ~ZTSOTSV- Lead, drawn .... 1,803 0-25 2.1 „ annealed 1.727 0-20 1-8 Tin, drawn. . 4,148 o-45 2 -45 „ annealed . 1,700 0-20 Cadmium . 7,070 2-24 Gold, drawn 8,131 13-5 27 ,, annealed . 5.585 30 10 Silver, drawn . 7.357 n-3 29 „ annealed . 7,140 2-6 16 Zinc, pure, cast in mould 9,021 „ ordinary, drawn 8.735 o-75 13 Palladium, drawn . 1 1.759 18 „ annealed . 9.709 under 5 27 Copper, drawn. 12.449 12 40 „ annealed . 10.519 under 3 30 Platinum wire, mediun 1 thickness,' drawn 17,004 26 34 Platinum, annealed I5.5I8 14 23 Iron, drawn 20,869 32 61 ,, annealed . 20,794 under 5 . 47 Nickel, drawn . 23.950 1X61 Aluminium 7,200 „ bronze 10,700 Brass (ZnCu 2 ) . 8.543 German silver (ZmCuisNis) 10,788 Specific Gravity. — This varies in metals from -594 (lithium) to 22-48 (osmium), and in one and the same species is a function of temperature and of previous physical and mechanical treatment. It has in general one value for the powdery metal as obtained by reduction of the oxide in hydrogen below the melting point of the metal, another for the metal in the state which it assumes spon- taneously on freezing, and this latter value, in general, is modified by hammering, rolling, drawing, &c. These mechanical operations do not necessarily add to the density; stamping, it is true, does so necessarily, but rolling or drawing occasionally causes a diminution of the density. Thus, for instance, chemically pure iron in the ingot has the specific gravity 7-844; when it is rolled out into thin sheet, the value falls to 7-6; when drawn into thin wire, to 7-75. The following table gives the specific gravities of many metals. Where special statements are not made, the numbers hold for the ordinary temperature (15 to 17° or 20 C), referred to water of the same temperature as a standard, and to hold for the natural frozen metal. Name of Metal. Specific GravHy. Potassium Sodium Strontium Aluminium, pure, ingot . : " ordinary, hammered . . , . •594 •875 ■978 1-52 1-578 1-743 1-88 2-1 2-583 at 4 2-67 200 METAL Name of Metal. Barium . .... . . Zirconium . Vanadium, powder Gallium Lanthanum . . . . . . Cerium Antimony Chromium . Zinc, ingot „ rollei iut Manganese . . . Tin, cast „ crystallized by electrolysis from solutions Indium Iron, chemically pure, ingot ,, thin sheet ,, wrought, high quality ..... Nickel, ingot . ,, forged . Cadmium, ingot . . . . . . . „ hammered Cobalt Molybdenum, containing 4 to 5 % of carbon . Copper, native „ cast „ wire or thin sheet „ electrotype, pure Bismuth Silver, cast ,, stamped Lead, very slowly frozen . . „ quickly frozen in cold water Palladium Thallium Rhodium Ruthenium Mercury, liquid „ solid Tungsten, compact, by H 2 from chloride I vapour \ ,, as reduced by hydrogen, powder Uranium Gold, ingot „ stamped „ powder, precipitated by ferrous sul- ) phate ........ 5 Platinum, pure . . Iridium . Osmium . Specific Gravity. 3-75 4-15 5-5 5-95 6-163 6-68 662 6-50 6-915 . 7-2 7-39 7-29 to 7-299 7-178 7-42 7-844 7-6 7-8 to 7-9 8-279 8-666 8.546 8667 8-6 8-6 8-94 .8-92 8-94 to 8-95 8-945 9-823 at 12 10-4 to 10-5 10-57 11-254 11-363 1 1 -4 at 22-5° n-86 I2-I 12-26 at 0° 13-595 ato° 14-39 below -40 ° 16-54 19-13 187 19-265 at 13 19-31 to 19-34 19-55 to 19-72 21-50 22-2 22-477 Thermal Properties. — The specific heats of most metals have been determined. The general result is that, conformably with Dulong and Petit's law, the " atomic heats " all come to very nearly the same value (of about 6-4) ; i.e. atomic weight by specific heat =6-4. Thus we have for silver by theory 6-4/108- -0593, and by experi- ment -0570 for io" to 100° C. The expansion by heat varies greatly. The following table gives the linear expansions from 0° to ioo° C. according to Fizeau {Comptes rendus, brviii. 1125), the length at 0° being taken as unity.' Name of Metal. Platinum, cast Gold, cast Silver, cast Copper, native, from Lake Superior ,, artificial Iron, soft, as used for electromagnets „ reduced by hydrogen and compressed Cast steel, English annealed . . Bismuth, in the direction of the axis „ at right angles to axis . . . . „ mean expansion, calculated . Tin, of Malacca, compressed powder . Lead, cast Zinc, distilled, compressed powder ... Cadmium, distilled, compressed powder . Aluminium, cast Brass(7l-5%copper,28-5%zinc) ... Bronze (86-3 % copper, 9-7 % tin, 4-0 % zinc) Expansion 0° to 100°. •000 907 •001 451 •001 936 •001 708 •001 869 •001 228 •001 208 •001 no •001 642 •001 239 ■001 374 ■002 269 •002 948 •002 905 ■003 102 •002 336 •001 879 •001 802 uncertainty these metals were employed as compressed powders. The cubical expansion of mercury from 0° to ioo° C. is -018153 — spW (Regnault). (See Thermometry.) Fusibility and Volatility. -r-The fusibility in different metals is very different, as shown by the following table, which, besides including all the fusing points (in degrees C.) of metals which have been determined numerically, indicates those of a selection of other metals by the positions assigned to them in the table. Name of Metal. Mercury . . . . Caesium . . . . . Gallium Rubidium .... Potassium .... Sodium Indium Lithium . . Tin Bismuth . . . Thallium . . . . Cadmium . . . Lead Zinc Incipient red heat Antimony .... Magnesium . . . . Aluminium . . . . Cherry red heat . Calcium ...'.. Lanthanum ..-.'. Barium . . . . . Silver Gold Copper . . . . . Yellow heat . . . Iron Nickel . . . . . Cobalt . . . . . Dazzling white heat . Palladium . . . . Platinum . . . . Rhodium. . . . . Iridium Ruthenium . . . . Tantalum . . . . Osmium . . . Melting Point. Boiling Point- -38-8 357-3 26-27 30-1 38-5 62-5 719-731 95-6 861-954 155 180-0 231-9 1 450-1 600 269*2 1090-1450 290 320-7 780 327-7 1 450- 1 600 419 929-954 525 629-5 632-6 about 1100 655 700 780 ■ 810 850 962 1064 1082 2100 IIOO 1300-1400 1427 1800 (?) I 500- I 600 1500 1760 above Pt. „ 2200 „ Ir- Indectric furnace For practical purposes the volatility of metals may be stated as follows: — 1. Distillable below redness:, mercury. 2. IJistillable at red heats: cadmium, alkali metals, zinc, mag- nesium. 3. Volatilized more or less readily when heated beyond their fusing points in open crucibles: antimony (very readily), lead, bismuth, tin, silver. 4. Barely so: gold, (copper). 5. Practically non- volatile : (copper), iron, nickel, cobalt, alu- minium; also lithium, barium, strontium and calcium. In the oxyhydrogen flame silver boils, forming a blue vapour, while platinum volatilizes slowly, and osmium, though infusible, very readily. Latent Heats of Liquefaction. — Of these we know little. The fol- lowing numbers are due to Person — ice, it may be stated, being 80. Name of Metal. Latent Heat. Name of Metal. Latent Heat. Mercury .... Lead Bismuth .... 2-82 5-37 12-4 Cadmium . . . . Silver Zinc 13-6 2I-I 28-1 The coefficient of expansion is constant for such metals only as crystallize in the regular system; the others expand differently in the directions of the different axes. To eliminate this source of The latent heat of vaporization of mercury was found by MarignaEx to be 103 to 106. Conductivity. — Conductivity, whether thermic or electric, is very differently developed in different metals; and, as an exact knowledge of these conductivities is of great importance, much attention has been given to their numerical determination (see Conduction, Electric; and Conduction of Heat). The following table gives the electric conductivities: of a number of metals as determined by Matthiesen, and the relative internal thermal conductivities of (nominally) the same metals as determined by Wiedemann and Franz, with rods about 5 mm. thick, of which one end was kept at ioo C, the rest of the rod in a " vacuum ■ ' (of 5 mm. tension) at 12 C. Matthiesen's results, except in the two cases noted, are from his memoir in Pogg. Ann., 1858, ciii. 42S METAL 20 1 Name of Metal. Copper, commercial, No. 3 . . . No. 2 . . . ,, chemically pure, hard drawn Copper Gold, pure „ absolutely pure .... Brass Tin, pure Pianoforte wire Iron rod Steel Lead, pure Platinum German silver Bismuth Aluminium Mercury Silver, pure Relative Conductivities. Electric. •774 •721 •93 1 •552 •73 l •US •144 •0777 , •105 , •0767 •01 19 •196 •0163 i-ooo at 18-8' „ 22-6 21-8 19-0 21-0 20-4 17-3 20-7 i8- 7 13-8 19-6 22-8 Thermic. •748 •548 •25 •154 • 101 •103 •079 •094 •073 Magnetic Properties. — Iron, nickel and cobalt are the only metals which are attracted by the magnet and can become magnets them- selves. But in regard to their power of retaining their magnetism none of them comes at all up to the compound metal steel. See Magnetism. Chemical Changes. — Metals may unite chemically both with metals and with non-metals. The compounds formed in the first case, which may be either definite chemical compounds or solid solutions, are discussed under Alloys; in this place only com- binations with non-metals are discussed, it being premised that the free metal takes part in the reaction. Metallic Substances Produced by the Union of Metals with Small Proportions of Non-Metallic Elements. Hydrogen, as was shown by Graham, is capable of uniting with or being occluded by certain metals, notably with palladium (q.v.), into metal-like compounds. Oxygen. — Mercury and copper and some other metals are capable of dissolving their own oxides. Mercury, by, doing so, becomes viscid and unfit for its ordinary applications. Copper, when pure to start with, suffers considerable deterioration in plasticity. But the presence of moderate proportions of cuprous oxide has been found to correct the evil influence of small contaminations by arsenic, antimony, lead and other foreign metals. Commercial coppers sometimes owe their good qualities to this compensating influence. Arsenic combines readily with all metals into true arsenides, which latter, in general, are soluble in the metal itself. The presence in a metal of even small proportions of arsenide generally leads to considerable deterioration in mechanical qualities. Phosphorus. — The remark just made might be said to hold for phosphorus were it not for the existence of what is called " phos- phorus-bronze," an alloy of copper with phosphorus (i.e. its own phosphide), which possesses valuable properties. According to Abel, the most favourable effect is produced by from 1 to i| / of phosphorus. Such an alloy can be cast like ordinary bronze, but excels the latter in hardness, elasticity, toughness and tensile strength. Carbon. — Most metals when malten are capable of dissolving at least small proportions of carbon, which, in general, leads to a deterioration in metallicity, except in the case of iron, which by the addition of small percentages of carbon gains in elasticity and tensile strength with little loss of plasticity (see Iron). Silicon, so far as we know, behaves to metals pretty much like carbon, but our knowledge of facts is limited. What is known as cast iron is essentially an alloy of iron proper with 2 to 6 % of carbon and more or less of silicon (see Iron). Alloys of copper and silicon were prepared by Deville in 1863. The alloy with 12 % of silicon is white, hard and brittle. When diluted down to 4-8 %, it assumes the colour and fusibility of bronze, but, unlike it, is tenacious and ductile like iron. Action of the More Ordinary Chemical Agents on Simple Metals. The metals to be referred to are always understood to be given in the compact (frozen) condition, and that, wherever metals are enumerated as being similarly attacked, the degree of readiness in the action is indicated by the order in which the several members are named — the more readily changed metal always standing first. Water, at ordinary or slightly elevated temperatures, is decom- posed more or less readily, with evolution of hydrogen gas and forma- tion of a basic hydrate, by (1) potassium (formation of KHO), sodium (NaHO), lithium (LiOH), barium, strontium, calcium (BaHiOj, &c.) ; (2) magnesium, zinc, manganese (MgQ 2 H 2 , &c). In the case of group 1 the action is more or less violent, and the hydroxides formed are soluble in water and very strongly basic; metals of group 2 are only slowly attacked, with formation of rela- tively feebly basic and less soluble hydroxides. Disregarding the rarer elements, the metals not named so far may be said to be proof against the action of pure water in the absence of free oxygen (air). By the joint action of water and air, thallium, lead, bismuth are oxidized, with formation of more or less sparingly soluble hydroxides (ThHO, PbH 2 2 , BiH s 3 ), which, in the presence of carbonic acid, pass into still less soluble basic carbonates. ' Iron, when exposed to moisture and air, " rusts "; but this process never takes place in the absence of air, and it is questionable whether it ever sets in in the absence of carbonic acid (see Rust). Copper, in the present connexion, is intermediate between iron and the following group of metals. Mercury, if pure, and all the " noble " metals (silver, gold, plati- num and platinum- metals), are absolutely proof against water even in the presence of oxygen and carbonic acid. The meta.ls grouped together above, under I and 2, act on steam pretty mucK as they do on liquid water. Of the rest, the following are readily oxidized by steam at a red heat, with formation of hydrogen gas — zinc, iron, cadmium, cobalt, nickel, tin. Bismuth is similarly attacked, but slowly, at a white heat. Aluminium is barely affected even at a white heat, if it is pure; the ordinary impure metal is liable to be very readily oxidized. Aqueous Sulphuric or Hydrochloric Acid readily dissolves groups I and 2, with evolution of hydrogen and formation of chlorides or sulphates. The same holds for the following group (A) : [manga^ nese, zinc, magnesium] iron, aluminium, cobalt, nickel, cadmium. Tin dissolves readily in strong hot hydrochloric acid as SnCl 2 ; aqueous sulphuric acid does not act on it appreciably in the cold; at 150 it attacks it more or less quickly, according to the strength of the acid, with evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen or, when the acid is stronger, of sulphurous acid gas and deposition of sulphur (Calvert and Johnson). A group (B), comprising copper, is, substantially, attacked only in the presence of oxygen or air. Lead, in sufficiently dilute acid, or in stronger acid if not too hot, remains unchanged. A group (C) may be formed of mercury, silver, gold and platinum, which are not touched by either aqueous acid in 1 Published in i860, and declared by Matthiesen to be more exact than the old numbers. pi; any circumstances. Hot (concentrated) sulphuric acid does not attack gold, platinum and platinum-metals generally ; all other metals (including silver) are converted into sulphates, with evolution of sulphur dioxide. In the case of iron, ferric sulphate, Fe^SO^, is produced; tin yields a somewhat indefinite sulphate of its oxide Sn0 2 . Nitric Acid (Aqueous.) — Gold, platinum, iridium and rhodium only are proof against the action of this powerful oxidizer. Tin and antimony (also arsenic) are converted by it (ultimately) into hydrates of their highest oxides Sn0 2 , Sb 2 6 (As^s) — the oxides of tin and antimony being insoluble in water and in the acid itself. All other metals, including palladium, are dissolved as nitrates, the oxidizing part of the reagent being generally reduced to oxides of nitrogen. Iron, zinc, cadmium, also tin under certain conditions, reduce the dilute acid, partially at least, to nitrous oxide, N 2 0, or ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3. Aqua Regia, a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, converts all metals (even gold, the " king of metals," whence the name) into chlorides, except only rhodium, iridium and ruthenium, which; when pure, are not attacked. Caustic Alkalis. — Of metals not decomposing liquid pure water, only a few dissolve in aqueous caustic potash or soda, with evolution of hydrogen. The most important of these are aluminium and zinc, which are converted into aluminate, Al(OK,Na) s , and zincate, Zn(OK,Na) 2 , respectively. But of the rest the majority, when treated with boiling sufficiently strong alkali, are attacked at least superficially; of ordinary metals only gold, platinum, and silver are perfectly proof against the reagents under consideration, and these accordingly are used preferably for the construction of vessels intended for analytical operations involving the use of aqueous caustic alkalis. For commercial purposes iron is universally em- ployed and works well ; but it is not available analytically, because a superficial oxidation of the empty part of the vessel (by the water and air) cannot be prevented. Basins made of pure malleable nickel are free from this drawback; they work as well as platinum, and rather better than silver ones do. There is hardly a single metal which holds out against the alkalis themselves when in the state of r fiery fusion; even platinum is most violently attacked. In chemical laboratories fusions with caustic alkalis are always effected in vessels made of gold or silver, these metals holding out fairly well even in the presence of air. Gold is the better of the two. Iron, which stands so well against aqueous alkalis, is most violently attacked by the fused reagents. Yet tons of caustic soda are fused daily in chemical works in iron pots without thereby suffering contamination, which seems to show that (clean) iron, like gold and silver, is at- tacked only by the joint action of fused alkali and air, the influence of the latter being of course minimized in large-scale operations. Oxygen or Air. — The noble metals (from silver upwards) do not combine directly with oxygen given as oxygen gas (0 2 ), although, like silver, they may absorb this gas largely when in the fused condition, and may not be proof against ozone, 8 . Mercury, within 202 METALLOGRAPHY a certain range of temperatures situated close to its boiling point, combines slowly with oxygen into the red oxide, which, however, breaks up again at higher temperatures. All other metals, when heated in oxygen or air, are converted, more or less readily, into stable oxides. Potassium, for example, yields peroxide, K2O2 or KjO^; sodium gives Na 2 2 ; the barium-group metals, as well as magnesium, cadmium, zinc, lead, copper, are converted into their monoxides MeO. Bismuth and antimony give (the latter very readily) sesquioxide (Bi 2 3 and Sb 2 3 , the latter being capable of passing into SbjO^. Aluminium, when pure and kept out of contact with siliceous matter, is only oxidized at a white heat, and then very slowly, into alumina, A1 2 3 . Tin, at high temperatures, passes slowly into oxide, Sn02. Sulphur. — Amongst the better known metals, gold and aluminium are the only ones which, when heated with sulphur or in sulphur vapour remain unchanged. All the rest, under these circumstances, are converted into sulphides. The metals of the alkalis and alkaline earths, also magnesium, burn in sulphur vapour as they do in oxygen. Of the heavy metals, copper is the one which exhibits by far the greatest avidity for sulphur, its subsulphide CU2S being' the stablest of all heavy metallic sulphides in opposition to dry reactions. Chlorine. — All metals, when treated with chlorine gas at the proper temperatures, pass into chlorides. In some cases the chlorine is taken up in two instalments, a lower chloride being produced first, to pass ultimately into a higher chloride. Iron, for instance, is converted first into FeCl 2 , ultimately into FeCl 3 , which practically means a mixture of the two chlorides, or pure FeCl 3 as a final product. Of the several products, the chlorides of gold and platinum (AuCl 3 and PtCU) are the only ones which when heated beyond their temperature of formation dissociate into metal and chlorine. The ulti- mate chlorination product of copper, CuCU, when heated to redness, decomposes into the lower chloride, CuCl, and chlorine. All the rest, when heated by themselves, volatilize, some at lower, others at higher temperatures. Of the several Individual chlorides, the following are liquids or solids, volatile enough to be distilled from glass vessels: AsCli, SbCl 3 , SnCl 4 , BiCl 3 , HgCl 2 , the chlorides of arsenic, antimony, tin, bismuth, mercury respectively. The following are readily volatilized in a current of chlorine, at a red heat: A1C1 3 , CrCl 3 , FeCl 3 , the chlorides of aluminium, chromium, iron. The following, though volatile at higher temperatures, are not volatilized at dull redness: KC1, NaCl, LiCl, NiCl,, C0CI2, MnCl 2 , ZnCl 2 , MgCU, PbCl 2 , AgCl, the chlorides of potassium, sodium, lithium, nickel, cobalt, manganese, zinc, magnesium, lead, silver. Somewhat less volatile than the last-named group are the chlorides (MCI2) of barium, strontium and calcium. Metallic chlorides, as a class, are readily soluble in water. The following are the most important exceptions: silver chloride, AgCl, and mercurous chloride, HgCl, are absolutely insoluble; lead chloride, PbCl 2 , and cuprous chloride, CuCl, are very sparingly soluble in water. The chlorides AsCl 3 , SbCl 3 , BiCl 3 , are at once decomposed by (liquid) water, with formation of oxide (As 2 3 ) or oxychlorides (SbOCl,.BiOCl) and hydrochloric acid. The chlorides MgCl 2 , A1C1 3 , CrCl 3 , FeCl 3 , suffer a similar decomposition when evaporated with water in the heat. The same holds in a limited sense for Z11CI2, CoClj, NiCl 2 , and even CaCl 2 . All chlorides, except those of silver and mercury (and, of course, those of gold and platinum), are oxidized by steam at high temperatures, with elimination of hydro- chloric acid. For the characters of metals as chemical elements see the special articles on the different metals. See generally A. Rossing Geschichte der Metalle (1901); B. Neumann, Die Metalle (1904) ; also treatises on chemistry. METALLOGRAPHY. — The examination of metals and alloys by the aid of the microscope has assumed much importance in comparatively recent years, and it might at first be considered to be a natural development of the use of the microscope in determining the constitution of rocks, a study to which the name petrography has been given. It would appear, however, that it is an extension of the study of the structure of meteoric irons. There can be no question that in the main it was originated by Dr H. C. Sorby, who in 1864 gave the British Association an account of his work. Following the work of Sorby came that of Professor A. Mar' ens of Charlottenburg, presenting many features of originality. F. Osmond has obtained results in connexion with iron and steel which are of the highest interest. A list of the more important papers by these and other workers will be found in the appended bibliography. Preparation of the Specimen. — Experience alone can enable the operator to determine what portion of a mass of metal or alloy will afford a trustworthy sample of the whole. In studying a series of binary alloys it has been found advantageous in certain cases to obtain one section which will show in a general way the variation in structure from one end of the series to the other. This has been effected by pouring the lighter constituent carefully on the surface of the heavier constituent, and allowing solidificar tion to take place. A section through the culot so obtained will show a gradation in structure from pure metal on one side to pure metal on the other. A thin slice of metal is usually cut by means of a hack-saw driven by mechanism. The thickness of the piece should not be less than J in. and in order that it may be firmly held between the fingers it should not be less than 1 in. square. The preliminary stages of polishing are effected by emery paper placed preferably on wooden disks capable of being revolved at a high rate of speed. The finest grade of emery paper that can be obtained is used towards the end of the operation. Before use the finer papers should be rubbed with a hard steel surface to remove any coarse particles. The completion of the operation of polishing is generally effected on wet cloth or parch- ment covered with a small amount of carefully washed jeweller's rouge. Various mechanical appliances are employed to minimize the labour and time required for the polishing. These usually consist of a series of interchangeable revolving disks, each of which is covered with emery paper, cloth or parchment, according to the particular stage of polishing for which it is required. In the case of brittle alloys and of alloys having a very soft constituent, which during polishing tends to spread over and obliterate the harder constituents, polishing is in many cases altogether avoided by casting the alloy on the surface of glass or mica. In this way, with a little care, a perfect surface is obtained, and it is only necessary to develop the structure by suitable etching. In adopting this method, however, instances have occurred in which the removal of the cast surface has shown a structure differing considerably from the original. Polishing in Bas-Relief. — If the polishing be completed with fine rouge on a sheet of wet parchment, placed upon a compara- tively soft base such as a piece of deal, certain soft constituents of an alloy may often be eroded in such a manner as to leave the hardest portions in relief. For the later stages of polishing H. L. Le Chatelier recommends the use of alumina obtained by the calcination of ammonium alum; and for the final polish of soft metals, chromium oxide. Although in some cases a pattern becomes visible after polish- ing, yet more frequently a mirror-like surface is produced in which no pattern can be detected, or if there is a pattern it is blurred, as if seen through a veil or mist. This is due to a thin layer of metal which has been dragged, or smeared, uniformly over the whole surface by the friction of the polishing process. Such a surface layer is formed in all cases of polishing, and the peculiar lustre of burnished silver or steel is probably due to this layer. But to the metallographist it is an inconvenience, as it conceals scratches left by imperfect polishing, and also hides the pattern. It is therefore desirable to conduct the polishing so as to make this layer as thin as possible: it is claimed for alumina that it can be so used as to produce a much thinner surface layer than that due to the employment of rouge. The surface layer is very readily removed by appropriate liquid reagents, and, the true surface of the metal having been laid bare, the etching reagent acts differently on the individual substances in the alloy and the pattern can thus be emphasized to any required extent. Osmond divides etching reagents into three classes— acids, halogens and salts. As regards acids, water containing from 2 to 10% of hydrochromic acid is useful. It is made by mixing 10 grams of potassium bichromate with 10 grams of sulphuric acid in 100 grams of water. The use of nitric acid requires much experience. It is frequently employed in the examination of* steels, Sir W. C. Roberts-Austen preferred a 1% solution in alcohol, but many workers use concentrated acid, and effect the etching by allowing a stream of water to dilute the film of acid left on the surface of the specimen after dipping it. Of the halogens, iodine is the most useful. A solution in alcohol is applied, so that a single drop covers half a square inch of surface. The specimen is then washed with alcohol, and dried with a piece of fine linen or chamois leather. Tincture of iodine also affords a means of identifying lead in certain alloys by the formation of a yellow iodide of lead, while the vapour of iodine has in certain cases been METALLURGY 203 used to tint the constituents. Thin coloured films may often be produced by the oxidation of the specimen when heated in air. This, as a means of developing the structure, in the case of the copper alloys is specially useful. Tinted crystals may thus be distinguished from the investing layer caused by the presence of a minute quantity of another constituent. The temper colours produced by heating iron or steel in air are well known. Carbide of iron is less oxidizable than the iron with which it is intimately associated, and it assumes a brown tint, while the iron has reached the blue stage. These coloured films may be fixed by covering with thin films of gelatine. In some cases the alloy may be attacked electrolytically by exposing it for a few minutes to a weak electric current in a bath of very dilute sulphuric acid. Certain organic bodies give very satisfactory results. The Japanese, for instance, produce most remarkable effects by simple reagents of which an infusion of certain forms of grass is a not unimportant constituent. In the case of iron and steel a freshly prepared infusion of liquorice root has been found to be most useful for colouring certain constituents of steel. Osmond, who was the first to use this reagent, insisted that it should be freshly prepared and always used under identical conditions as regards age and concentration. His method of applying it was to rub the specimen on parchment moistened with it, but he has subsequently modified this " polish attack " by substituting a 2 % solution of ammonium nitrate for the liquorice infusion. In each case a small quantity of freshly precipitated calcium sulphate is used on the parchment to assist the polishing. Appliances used in Micrography. — The method of using the microscope in connexion with a camera for photographic purposes will now be considered. Every micrographer has his own views as Micrographic Apparatus. to the form of an installation to be adopted, and it will therefore be well to give an illustration of a definite apparatus which has been found to give satisfactory results. It consists of a micro- scope A with a firm base placed in a horizontal position. The microscope can be connected by a tube] B with the expanded camera CC, at the end of which is the usual frame to receive the photographic plate. A practised observer can focus on a plate of clear glass by the aid of a subsidiary low-power microscope lens. If a semi-transparent plate is employed it should be as fine as possible. The surface of the table is cut in such a way near H that the observer who is seated may conveniently examine the object on the stage of the microscope, the portion B turning aside for this purpose. The subsequent focusing is effected by a rod, FFF, and gearing attached to the fine adjustment of the microscope, GA; flap J when raised forms the support of the lamp used for illumination. As an illuminant an arc light has many advantages, as the exposure of the plate used will seldom exceed 10 seconds. The filament of a Nernst lamp can be used as the source of light; though not so brilliant as the arc it pos- sesses the great advantage of perfect immobility. For the best results, especially with high powers, the source of light must be small, so that its image can be focussed on to the surface of the object ; this advantage is possessed by both of these illuminants. Next in value comes the acetylene flame, and an incandescent lamp or a gas lamp with a mantle will give good results, but with much longer exposure. Actual illumination is best effected by a Beck vertical illuminator or a Zeiss prism. It is necessary that the lens used for concentrating the light on the illuminator should be an achromatic one, as colour effects cause trouble in photographing the objects. For lower powers the Lieberkuhn parabolic illuminator is useful. Certain groups of alloys show better under oblique illumination, which may be effected by the aid of a good condensing lens, the angle of incidence being limited by the distance of the object from the objective in the case of high magnification. As regards objectives, the most useful are the Zeiss 2 mm., 4 mm. and 24 mm.; two other useful objectives for low powers being 35 mm. and 70 mm., both of which are projecting objectives. A projecting eye-piece, prefer- ably of low power, should be employed with all but the two latter objectives. The immersion lens, the Zeiss 2 mm., is used with specially thickened cedar oil, and if the distance from the objective to the plate is 7 feet, magnifications of over 2000 diameters can easily be obtained. As regards sensitized plates, excellent results have been obtained with Lumiere plates sensitive to yellow and green. The various brands of " process " plates are very serviceable where the contrasts on the specimen are not great. Some reproductions of photo-micrographs of metals and alloys will be found in the plate accompanying the article Alloys. Authorities. — H. C. Sorby, " On Microscopical Photographs of Various Kinds of Iron and Steel," Brit. Assoc. Report (1864), pt. ii. p. 189; " Microscopical Structure of Iron and Steel," Journ. Iron and Steel Inst. (1887), p. 255; A. Martens, " Die mikroskopische Untersuchung der Metalle," Glaser's Annalen (1892), xxx. 201; H. Wedding, " Das Gefiige der Schienenkopfe," Stahl und Eisen (May 15, 1892), xii. 478; F. Osmond, " Sur la metallographie microscopique," Rapport presents a la commission des methodes d'essai des materiaux de construction le 10 fevrier 1892; et ii. 7-17 (Paris, 1895); "Microscopic Metallography," Trans. Ainer. Inst. Mining Eng. xxii. 243; J. E. Stead, " Methods of preparing Speci- mens for Microscopic Examination," Journ. Iron and Steel Inst. (i894),pt.i.p.292); W. C. Roberts-Aus- ten and F. Osmond, " On the Structure of Metals, its Origin and Causes," Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. clxxxvii. 417-432; and Bull, de la Soc. a" encouragement pour Vindustrie na- tionals 5 e serie, i. 1 136 (Aout 1896); G. Charpy, " Micro- scopic Study of Me- tallic Alloys," Bull. de la soc. d' encouragement pour Vindustrie nationals (March, 1897) ; A. Sauveur, " Constitution of Steel," Technology Quarterly (June, 1898); Metallographist, vol. i. No. 3; " Metallography applied to Foundry Work," The Iron and Steel Magazine, vol. ix. No. 6, and vol. x. No. 1 ; J. E. Stead, " Crystalline Structure of Iron and Steel," Journ. Iron and Steel Inst. (1898), i. 145; "Practical Metallography," Proc. Cleveland Inst, of Engineers (Feb. 26, 1900) ; Ewing and Rosenhain, " Crystalline Structure of Metals," Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. cxciii. 353 and cxcv. 279; F. Osmond, " Crystallography of Iron," Annates des Mines (January 1900) ; Le Chatelier, " Technology of Metallo- graphy," Metallographist, vol. iv. No. 1 ; Contribution a V'etude des alliages. Societe d 'encouragement pour Vindustrie nationale (1901); Smeaton, " Notes on the Etching of Steel Sections," Iron and Steel Magazine, vol. ix. No. 3. (W. C. R.-A.; F. H. Ne.) METALLURGY, the art of extracting metals from their ores; the term being customarily restricted to commercial as opposed to laboratory methods. It is convenient to treat electrical processes of extraction as forming the subjects of Electro- chemistry and Electrometallurgy (qq.v.). The following table enumerates in the order of their importance the metals whicTvpur subject at present is understood to include; the second column gives the chemical characters of the ores utilized, italics indicat- ing those of subordinate importance. The term " oxide " includes carbonate, hydrate, and, when marked with*, silicate. Metal. Character of Ores. Iron Oxides, sulphide. . Copper Complex sulphides, also oxides, metal. Silver Sulphide and reguline metal, chloride. Gold Reguline metal. Lead Sulphide and basic carbonate, sulphate, &c. Zinc Sulphide, oxide.* Tin Oxide. 204 METALLURGY Metal. Character of Ores. Mercury Sulphide, reguline metal. Antimony .... Sulphide. Bismuth Reguline metal. Nickel and cobalt . . Arsenides. Platinum, iridium, &c. . Reguline. General Sequence of Operations. — Occasionally, but rarely, metallic ores occur as practically pure compact masses, from which the accompanying matrix or " gangue " can be detached by hand and hammer. In most cases the " ore " (see Mineral Deposits; Veins), as it comes out of the mine or quarry, is simply a mixture of ore proper and gangue, in which the latter not unfrequently predominates. Hence it is generally necessary to purify the ore before the liberation of the metal is attempted. Most metallic ores are specifically heavier than the accompanying impurities and their purification is generally effected by reducing the crude ore to a fine enough powder to detach the metallic from the earthy part, and then washing away the latter by a current of water, as far as possible (see Ore-dressing). The majority of ores being chemical compounds, the extraction of their metals demands chemical treatment. The chemical operations involved may be classified as follows: — i. Fiery Operations. — The ore, generally with some " flux," is exposed to the action of fire. The fire in most cases has a chemical, in addition to its physical, function. Moreover the furnace (vpij\aT(x; Fr. repousse), was probably adopted for bronze- work on a large scale before the art of forming large castings was dis- covered. In the most primitive method thin plates of bronze were hammered over a wooden core, rudely cut into the required shape, the core serving the double purpose of giving shape to and strengthening the thin metal. A further development in the art of hammered work consisted in laying the metal plate on a soft METAL-WORK 207 and elastic bed of cement made of pitch and pounded brick. The design was then beaten into relief from the back with hammers and punches, the pitch bed yielding to the protuberances which were thus formed, and serving to prevent the punch from break- ing the metal into holes. The pitch was then melted away from the front of the embossed relief, and applied in a similar way to the back, so that the modelling could be completed on the face of the relief, the final touches being given by the graver. This process was chiefly applied by medieval artists to the precious metals, but by the Assyrians, Greeks and other early nations it was largely used for bronze. The great gates of Shalmaneser II., 858-823 B.C., from Balawat, now in the British Museum, are a remarkable example of this sort of work on a large scale, though Fig. 2. — One of the Siris Bronzes. the treatment of the reliefs is minute and delicate. The " Siris bronzes," in the same museum, are a most astonishing example of the skill attained by Greek artists in this repousse work (see Bronsted's Bronzes of Siris, 1836). They are a pair of shoulder- pieces from a suit of bronze armour, and each has in very high relief a combat between a Greek warrior and an Amazon. No work of art in metal has probably ever surpassed these little figures for beauty, vigour and expression, while the skill with which the artist has beaten these high reliefs out of a flat plate of metal appears almost miraculous. The heads of the figures are nearly detached from the ground, their substance is little thicker than paper, and yet in no place has the metal been broken through by the punch. They are probably of the school of Praxiteles, and date from the 4th century B.C. (see fig. 2). Copper and tin have been but little used separately. Copper in its pure state may be worked by the same methods as bronze, but it is inferior to it in hardness, strength and beauty of surface. Tin is too weak and brittle a metal to be employed alone for any but small objects. Some considerable number of tin drinking- cups and bowl* of the Celtic period have been found in Cornwall in the neighbourhood of the celebrated tin and copper mines, which have been worked from a very early period. The use of lead has been more extended. In sheets it forms the best of all coverings for roofs and even spires. In the Roman and medieval periods it was largely used for coffins, which were often richly ornamented with cast work in relief. Though fusible at a very low temperature, and very soft, it has great power of resisting decay from damp or exposure. Its most important use in an artistic form has been in the shape of baptismal fonts, chiefly between the nth and the 14th centuries. The superior beauty of colour and durability of old specimens of lead is owing to the natural presence of a small proportion of silver. Modern smelters carefully extract this silver from the lead ore, thereby greatly impairing the durability and beauty of the metal. As in almost all the arts, the ancient Egyptians excelled in their metal-work, especially in the use of bronze and the precious metals. These were worked by casting and hammering, and ornamented by inlay, gilding and enamels with the greatest possible skill. From Egypt perhaps was derived the early skill of the Hebrews. Further instruction in the art of metal-working came probably to the Jews from the neighbouring country of Tyre. The description of the great gold lions of Solomon's throne, and the laver of cast bronze supported on figures of oxen, shows that the artificers of that time had overcome the difficulties of metal-working and founding on a large scale. The Assyrians were perhaps the most remarkable of all ancient nations for the colossal size and splendour of their works in metal; whole circuit walls of great cities, such as Ecbatana, are said to have been covered with metal plates, gilt or silvered. Herodotus, Athenaeus and other Greek and Roman writers have recorded the enormous number of colossal statues and other works of art for which Babylon and Nineveh were so famed. The numerous objects of bronze and other metals brought to light by the excavations in the Tigris and Euphrates valleys, though mostly on a small scale, bear witness to the great skill and artistic power of the people who produced them; while the discovery of some bronze statuettes, shown by inscriptions on them to be not later than 2200 B.C., proves how early was the development of this branch of art among the people of Assyria. The 'Metal-Work of Greece. — The early history of metal- working in Greece is extremely obscure, and archaeologists are divided in opinion even on so important a question as the relative use of bronze and iron in the Homeric age. The evidence of Mycenaean remains, as compared with the literary evidence of Homer, is both inadequate and inconclusive (see Aegean Civilization; Greek Art; Arms and Armour, Ancient; Plate; &c). The poems of Homer are full of descriptions of elaborate works in bronze, gold and silver, which, even when full allowance is made for poetic fancy, show clearly enough very advanced skill in the working and ornamenting of these metals. Homer's description of the shield of Achilles, made of bronze, enriched with bands of figure reliefs in gold, silver and tin, could hardly have been written by a man who had not some personal acquaintance with works in metal of a very elaborate kind. Again, the accuracy of his descriptions of brazen houses — such as that of Alcinous, Od. vii. 81 — is borne witness to by Pausanias's mention of the bronze temple of Athena XaXdoiicos in Sparta, and the bronze chamber dedicated to Myron in 648 B.C., as well as by the dis- covery of the stains and bronze nails, which show that the whole interior of the so-called treasury of Atreus at Mycenae was once covered with a lining of bronze plates. Of the two chief methods of working bronze, gold and silver, it is probable that.the hammer process was first practised, at least for statues, among the Greeks, who themselves attributed the invention of the art of hollow casting to Theodorus and Rhoecus, both Samian sculptors, about the middle of the 6th century B.C. Pausanias specially mentions that one of the oldest statues he had ever seen was a large figure of Zeus in Sparta, made of hammered bronze plates riveted together. With increased skill in large castings, and the dis- covery of the use of cores, by which the fluid bronze was poured into a mere skin-like cavity, hammered or repousse work was only used in the case of small objects in which lightness was 208 METAL-WORK desirable, or for the precious metals in order to avoid large expenditure of metal. The colossal statues of ivory and gold by Pheidias were the most notable examples of this use of gold, especially his statue of Athena in the Parthenon, and the one of Zeus at Olympia. The nude parts, such as face and hands, were of ivory, while the armour and drapery were of beaten gold. The comparatively small weight of gold used by Pheidias is very remarkable when the great size of the statues is considered. A graphic representation of the workshop of a Greek sculptor in bronze is given on a fictile vase in the Berlin Museum (see Gerhard's Trinkschalen, plates xii., xiii.). One man is raking out the fire in a high furnace, while another behind is blowing the bellows. Two others are smoothing the surface of a statue with scraping tools, formed like a strigil. A fourth is beating the arm of an unfinished figure, the head of which lies at the workman's feet. Perhaps the most important of early Greek works in cast bronze,, both from its size and great historical interest, is the bronze pillar (now in the Hippodrome at Constantinople) which was erected to commemorate the victory of the allied Greek states over the Persians at Plataea in 479 B.C. (see Newton's Travels in the Levant). It is in the form of three serpents twisted together, and before the heads were broken off was at least 20 ft. high. It is cast hollow, all in one piece, and has the names of the allied states engraved on the lower part of the coils. Its size and the beauty of its surface show great technical skill in the founder's art. On it once stood the gold tripod dedicated to Apollo as a tenth of the spoils. It is described by both Herodotus and Pausanias. Marble was comparatively but little used by the earlier Greek sculptors, and even Myron, a rather older man than Pheidias, •Boss front the Milanese Candelabrum. seems to have executed nearly all his most important statues in metal. Additional richness was given to Greek bronze-work by gold or silver inlay on lips, eyes and borders of the dress; ; one remarkable statuette in the British Museum has eyes inlaid with diamonds and fret-work inlay in silver on the border of the chiton. The mirrors of the Greeks are among the most important speci- mens of their artistic metal-work. These are bronze disks, one side polished to serve as a reflector, and the back ornamented with engraved outline drawings, often of great beauty (see Gerhard, Etruskische Spiegel, 1843-1867). In metal-work, as in other arts, the Romans were pupils and imitators of the Greeks. Owing to the growth of the spirit of luxury, a considerable demand arose for magnificent articles of gold and silver plate. The finest specimens of these that still exist are the very beautiful set of silver plate found buried near Hildesheim in 1869, now in the Berlin Museum. They consist of drinking vessels, bowls, vases, ladles and other objects of silver, parcel-gilt, and exquisitely decorated with figures in relief, both cast and repousse. There are electrotypes of these in the Victoria and Albert Museum. When the seat of the empire was changed, Byzantium became the chief centre for the production of artistic metal-work. From Byzantium the special skill in this art was transmitted in the 9th and 10th centuries to the Rhenish provinces of Germany and to Italy, and thence to the whole of western Europe; in this way the 1 8th century smith who wrought the Hampton Court iron gates was the heir to the mechanical skill of the ancient metal- workers of Phoenicia and Greece. In that period of extreme degradation into which all the higher arts fell after the destruc- tion of the Roman Empire, though true feeling for beauty and knowledge of the subtleties of the human form remained for centuries almost dormant, yet at Byzantium at least there still survived great technical skill and power in the production of all sorts of metal-work. In the age of Justinian (first half of the 6th century) the great church of St Sophia at Constantinople was adorned with an almost incredible amount of wealth and splen- dour in the form of screens, altars, candlesticks and other ecclesi- astical furniture made of massive gold and silver. Metal-Work in Italy. — It was therefore to Byzantium that Italy turned for metal-workers, and especially for goldsmiths, when, in the 6th to the 8th centuries, the basilica of St Peter's in Rome was enriched with masses of gold and silver for decor- ations and fittings, the gifts of many donors from Belisarius to Leo III., the mere catalogue of which reads like a tale from the Arabian Nights. The gorgeous Pala d'oro, still in St Mark's at Venice, a gold retable covered with delicate reliefs and enriched with enamels and jewels, was the work of Byzantine artists during the nth century. This work was in progress for more than a hundred years, and was set in its place in 1106 a.d., though still unfinished (see Bellomo, Pala d'oro di St Marco, 1847). It was, however, especially for the production of bronze doors for churches, ornamented with panels of cast work in high relief, that Italy obtained the services of Byzantine workmen (see Garrucci, Arte cristiana, 1872-1882). One artist, named Staurachios, produced many works of this class, some of which still exist, such as the bronze doors of the cathedral at Amalfi, dated 1066 a.d. Probably by the same artist, though his name was spelled differently, were the bronze doors of San Paolo fuori le Mura, Rome, careful drawings of which exist, though the originals were destroyed in the fire of 1824. Other important examples exist at Ravello (1197), Salerno (1099), Amalfi (1062), Atrani (1087); and doors at Monreale in Sicily and at Trani, signed by an artist named Barisanos (end of the 1 2th century) ; the reliefs on these last are remarkable for expression and dignity, in spite of their early rudeness of modelling and ignorance of the human figure. Most of these works in bronze were enriched with fine lines inlaid in silver, and in some cases with a kind of niello or enamel. The technical skill of these Byzantine metal-workers was soon acquired by native Italian artists, who produced many important works in bronze similar in style and execution to those of the Byzantine Greeks. Such, for example, are the bronze doors of San Zenone at Verona (unlike the others, of repousse] not cast work); those of the Duomo of Pisa f cast in 11 80 by Bonannus, and of the Duomo of Troia, the last made in the beginning of the 1 2th century by Oderisius of Benevento. Another artist, named Roger of Amalfi, worked in the same way; and in the year 1219 the brothers Hubertus and Petrus of Piacenza cast the bronze door for one of the side chapels in San Giovanni in Laterano. One of the most important early specimens of metal-work is the gold and silver altar of Sant' Ambrogio [in Milan. In character of work and design it resembles the Venice Pala d'Oro, but is still earlier in date, being a gift to the church from Archbishop Angilbert II. in 835 a.d. (see Du Sommerard, and D'Agincourt, Moyen Age). It is signed wolvinivs magister PHABER;nothiiig is known of the artist, but he probably belonged to the semi-'* Byzantine school of the Rhine provinces; according to Dr Rock he was an Anglo-Saxon goldsmith. It is a very sumptuous work, the front of the altar being entirely of gold, with repousse reliefs and cloisonne enamels; the back and ends are of silver, with gold ornaments. On the front are figures of Christ and the twelve apostles; the ends and back have reliefs illustrating the life of St Ambrose. The most important existing work of art in metal of the 13th century is the great candelabrum now in Milan Cathedral. It is of gilt bronze, more than 14 ft. high ; it has seven branches for METAL-WORK 209 candles, and its upright stem is supported on four winged dragons. For delicate and spirited execution, together with refined grace- fulness of design, it is unsurpassed by any similar work of art. Every one of the numerous little figures with which it is adorned is worthy of study for the beauty and expression of the face, and the dignified arrangement of the drapery (see fig. 3). The semi- conventional open scroll-work of branches and fruit which wind around and frame each figure or group is devised with the most perfect taste and richness of fancy, while each minute part of this great piece of metal-work is finished with all the care that could have been bestowed on the smallest article of gold jewellery. Though something in the grotesque dragons of the base recalls the Byzantine school, yet the beauty of the figures and the keen feeling for graceful curves and folds in the drapery point to a native Italian as being the artist who produced this wonderful work of art. There is a cast in the Victoria and Albert Museum. Fig. 4. — Silver Repousse Reliefs from the Pistoia Retable. During the 13th and 14th centuries in Italy the widespread influence of Niccola Pisano and his school encouraged the sculptor to use marble rather than bronze for his work. At this period wrought iron came into general use in the form of screens for chapels and tombs, and grills for windows. These are mostly of great beauty, and show remarkable skill in the use of the ham- mer, as well as power in adapting the design to the requirements of the material. Among the finest examples of this sort of work are the screens round the tombs of the Scala family at Verona, 1350-1375, — a sort of network of light cusped quatrefoils, each filled up with a small ladder (scala) in allusion to the name of the family. The most elaborate specimen of this wrought work is the screen to the Rinuccini chapel in Santa Croce, Florence, of 137 1, in which moulded pillars and window-like tracery have been wrought and modelled by the hammer with extraordinary skill (see Wyatt, Metal-Work of Middle Ages). Of about the same date are the almost equally magnificent screens in . Sta Trinita, Florence, and at Siena across the chapel in the Palazzo Pubblico. The main part of most of these screens is filled in with quatrefoils, and at the top is an open frieze formed of plate iron pierced, repouss6, and enriched with engraving. In the 14th century great quantities of objects for ecclesiastical use were produced in Italy. The silver altar of the Florence baptistery was begun in the first half of the 14th century, and not completed till after 1477 (see Gaz. des beaux-arts, Jan. 1883). The greatest artists in metal laboured on it in succession, among them Orcagna, Ghiberti, Verrocchio, Ant. Pollaiuolo and many others. It has elaborate reliefs in repousse work, cast canopies and minute statuettes, with the further enrichment of translucent coloured enamels. The silver altar and retable of Pistoia Cathedral (see fig. 4), and the great shrine at Orvieto, are works of the same class, and of equal importance. Whole volumes might be devoted to the magnificent works in bronze produced by the Florentine artists of this century, works such as the baptistery gates by Ghiberti, the statues of Verroc- chio, Donatello and many others, the bronze screen in Prato cathedral by Simone, brother of Donatello, in 1444-1461, and the screen and bronze ornaments of the tomb of Piero and Giovanni dei Medici in San Lorenzo, Florence, by Verrocchio, in 1472. At the latter part of the 15th century and the beginning of the 1 6th the Pollaiuoli, Ricci and other artists devoted much labour and artistic skill to the production of candlesticks and smaller objects of bronze, such as door-knockers, many of which are works of the greatest beauty. The candlesticks in the Certosa near Pavia, and in the cathedrals of Venice and Padua, are the finest examples of these. Nic- colo Grossi, who worked in wrought iron under the patronage of Lorenzo dei Medici, produced some wonderful specimens of metal-work, such as the ' candlesticks, lanterns, and rings fixed at intervals round the outside of the great palaces (see fig. 5). The Strozzi palace in Florence and the Palazzo del Magnifico at Siena have fine specimens of these — the former of wrought iron, the latter in cast bronze. At Venice fine work in metal, such as salvers and vases, was being produced, of almost Oriental design, and in some cases the work of resident Arab artificers. In the 16th century Benvenuto Cellini was supreme for skill in the production of enamelled jewellery, plate and even larger works of sculpture (see Plon's Ben. Cellini, 1882), and Giovanni de Bologna in the latter part of the same century inherited to some extent the skill and artistic power of the great 15th-century artists. Spain. — From a very early period the metal-workers of Spain have been distinguished for their skill, especially in the use of the precious metals. A very remarkable set of specimens of goldsmith's work of the 7th century are the eleven votive crowns, two crosses and other objects found in 1858 at Guar- razar, and now preserved at Madrid and in Paris in the Cluny Museum (see Du Sommerard, Muste de Cluny, 1852). Magnifi- cent works in silver, such as shrines, altar crosses and chu*ch vessels of all kinds, were produced in Spain from the 14th to the 1 6th century — especially a number of sumptuous tabernacles (custodia) for the host, magnificent examples of which still exist in the cathedrals of Toledo and Seville. The bronze and wrought-iron screens — rejas, mostly of the 15th and 16th centuries— to be found in almost every important church in Spain are very fine examples of metal-work. They generally have moulded rails or balusters, and rich friezes of pierced and repousse work, the whole being often thickly plated with silver. The common use of metal for pulpits is a peculiarity Fig. 5. — Wrought-iron Candle Pricket; late 15th-century. Florentine work. 2IO METAL-WORK of Spain; they are sometimes of bronze, as the pairs in Burgos and Toledo cathedrals, or in wrought iron, like those at Zamora and in the church of San Gil, Burgos. The great candelabrum or tenebrarium in Seville Cathedral is the finest specimen of 16th-century metal- work in Spain; it was mainly the work of Bart. Morel in 1562. It is of cast bronze enriched with delicate scroll-work foliage, and with numbers of well-modelled statuettes. Especially in the art of metal- work Spain was much influenced in the 15th and 16th centuries by both Italy and Germany, so that numberless Spanish objects produced at that time owe little or nothing to native designers. At an earlier period Arab and Moorish influence is no less apparent. produced by these varying planes. The screen by Henry V.'s tomb at Westminster is a good early specimen of this kind of work. The screen to Bishop West's chapel at Ely, and that round Edward VI. 's tomb at Windsor, both made towards the end of the 15th century, are the most magnificent English examples of wrought iron; and much wrought-iron work of great beauty was produced at the beginning of the 18th century, especially under the superintendence of Sir Christopher Wren (see Ebbetts, Iron Work of 17th and 18th Centuries, 1880). Large flowing leaves of acanthus and other plants were beaten out with wonderful spirit and beauty of curve. The gates from Hampton Court are the finest examples of this class of work (see fig. 7). From an early period bronze and latten (a variety of brass) were much used in England for the smaller objects both of ecclesiastical and domestic use, but except for tombs and lecterns were but little used on a large scale till the 16th century. The full-length recumbent effigies of Henry III. and Queen Eleanor at Westminster, cast in bronze by the " tire perdue " process, and thickly gilt, are equal, if not superior, in artistic beauty to any sculptor's work of the same period (end of the 13th century) that was produced in Italy or elsewhere. These Fig. 6. — Part of the " Eleanor Grill." England. — In Saxon times the English metal-workers, especially of the precious metals, possessed great skill, and appear to have produced shrines, altar-frontals, retables and other ecclesiastical furniture of considerable size and magnifi- cence. Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury (925-988), like Bernward, bishop of Hildesheim a few years later, and St Eloi of France three centuries earlier, was himself a skilful worker in all kinds of metal. The description of the gold and silver retable given to the high altar of Ely by Abbot Theodwin in the nth cehtury, shows it to have been a large and elaborate piece of work decorated with many reliefs and figures in the round. In 1241 Henry III. gave the order for the great gold shrine to contain the bones of Edward the Confessor. It was the work of members of the Otho family, among whom the goldsmith's and coiner's crafts appear to have been long heredi- tary. Countless other imporant works in the precious metals adorned every abbey and cathedral church in the kingdom. In the 13th century the English workers in wrought iron were especially skilful. The grill over the tomb of Queen Eleanor at Westminster, by Thomas de Leghton, made about 1294, is a remarkable example of skill in welding and modelling with the hammer (see fig. 6). The rich and graceful iron hinges, made often for small and out-of-the-way country churches, are a large and important class in the list of English wrought- iron work. Those on the refectory door of Merton College, Oxford, are a beautiful and well-preserved example dating from the 14th century. More mechanical in execution, though still very rich in effect, is that sort of iron tracery work produced by cutting out patterns in plate, and superimposing one plate over the other, so as to give richness of effect by the shadows Fig. 7. — Part of one of the Hampton Court Gates. effigies are the work of an Englishman named William Tore^ The gates to Henry VII. 's chapel, and the screen round his tomb at Westminster (see fig. 8), are very elaborate and beautiful examples of " latten" work, showing the greatest technical skill in the founder's art. In latten also were produced the numerous monumental brasses of which a large number still exist in England (see Brasses, Monumental) . In addition to its chief use as a roof covering, lead was some- times used in England for making fonts, generally tub-shaped, with figures cast in relief. Many examples exist: e.g. at Tidenham, Gloucestershire; Warborough and Dorchester Oxon; Chirton, Wilts; and other places. METAL-WORK 211 Germany. — Unlike England, Germany in the ioth and nth centuries produced large and elaborate works in cast bronze, especially doors for churches, much resembling the contemporary doors made in Italy under Byzantine influence. Bernward, bishop of Hildesheim, 992-1022, was especially skilled in this various metals. Hermann Vischer, in the 15th century, and his son and grandsons were very remarkable as bronze founders. The font at Wittenberg, decorated with reliefs of the apostles, was the work of the elder Vischer, while Peter and his son pro- duced, among other important works, the shrine of St Sebald at Nuremberg, a work of great finish and of astonishing richness of fancy in its design. The tomb of Maximilian I., and the statues round it, at Innsbruck, begun in 1521, are perhaps the most meritorious German work of this class in the 16th century, and show considerable Italian influence. In wrought iron the German smiths, especially during the 15th century, greatly excelled. Almost peculiar to Germany is the use of wrought iron for grave-crosses and sepulchral monuments, of which the Nuremberg and other cemeteries contain fine examples. Many elaborate well-canopies were made in wrought iron, and gave Fig. 8. — Part of Henry VII. 's Bronze Screen. work, and was much influenced in design by a visit to Rome in the suite of Otho III. The bronze column with winding reliefs now at Hildesheim was the result of his study of Trajan's column, and the bronze door which he made for his own cathedral shows classical influence, especially in the composition of the drapery of the figures in the panels. The bronze doors of Augsburg (1047-1072) are similar in style. The bronze tomb of Rudolph of Swabia in Merseburg Cathedral (1080) is another fine work of the same school. The production of works in gold and silver was also carried on vigorously in Germany. The shrine of the three kings at Cologne is the finest surviving example. At a later time Augsburg and Nuremberg were the chief centres for the production of artistic works in the Fig. 9. — Brass Vase, pierced and gilt; 17th century Persian work. full play to the fancy and invention of the smith. The celebrated 15th-century example over the well at Antwerp, attributed to Quintin Matsys, is the finest of these. France. — From the time of the Romans the city of Limoges has been celebrated for all sorts of metal- work, and especially for brass enriched with enamel. In the 13th and 14th centuries many life-size sepulchral effigies were made of beaten copper or bronze, and ornamented by various-coloured " champleve " enamels. The beauty of these effigies led to their being Ira- ported into England; most are now destroyed, but a fine specimen still exists at Westminster on the tomb of William de Valence (1296). In the ornamental iron-work for doors the French smiths were pre-eminent for the richness of design and skilful treatment of their metal. Probably no examples surpass those on the west doors of Notre Dame in Paris — unhappily much falsified by restoration. The crockets and finials on the fleches of Amiens and Rheims are beautiful specimens of a highly orna- mental treatment of cast lead, for which France was especially celebrated. In most respects, however, the development of 212 METAL-WORK the various kinds of metal-working went through much the same stages as in England. Persia and Damascus. — The metal-workers of the East, especially in brass and steel, were renowned for their skill even in the time of Theophilus, the monkish writer on the subject in the 13th century. But it was during the reign of Shah Abbas I. (d. 1628) that the greatest amount of skill both in design and execution was reached by the Persian workmen. Delicate pierced vessels of gilt brass, enriched by tooling and* inlay of gold and silver, were among the chief specialties of the Persians (see fig. 9). A process called by Europeans " damascening " (from Damascus, the chief seat of the export) was used to produce very delicate and rich surface ornament. A pattern was incised with a graver in iron or steel, and then gold wire was beaten into the sunk lines, the whole surface being then smoothed and polished. In the time of Cellini this process was copied in Italy, and largely used, especially for the decoration of weapons and armour. The repousse process both for brass and silver was much used by Oriental workers, and even now fine works of this class are. produced in the East, old designs still being adhered to. (J. H. M.) Modern Art Metal-Work. — The term " art metal-work " is applied to those works in metal in which beauty of form or decorative effect is the first consideration, irrespective of whether the object is intended for use or is merely ornamental; and it embraces any article from a Birmingham brass bedstead to works of the highest artistic merit. The term, as definitely distinguishing one branch of metal-working from another, is objected to by many on the ground that no such prefix was required in the best periods of art, and that allied crafts continue to do without it to the present day. Indeed, as long as metal- working remained a handicraft — in other words, until the introduction of steam machinery — every article, however humble its purpose, seems to have been endowed with some traditional beauty of form. The robust, florid and distinctly Roman rendering of the classic, which followed the refined and attenuated treatment associated with the architecture of the brothers Adam, who died in 1792 and 1794, is the last development in England which can be regarded as a national style. The massively moulded ormolu stair balustrade of Northumberland House, now at 49 Prince's Gate; the cande- labra at Windsor and Buckingham Palace, produced in Birmingham by the firm of Messenger; the cast-iron railings with javelin heads and lictors' fasces, the tripods, Corinthian column standard lamps and candelabra, boat-shaped oil lamps and tent-shaped lustres with classic mountings, are examples of the metal-work of a style which, outside the eccentric Brighton Pavilion and excursions into Gothic and Elizabethan, was universally accepted in the United Kingdom from the days of the Regency until after the accession of Victoria. Except perhaps the silversmiths, no one was conscious of being engaged in " art metal- working," yet the average is neither vulgar nor in bad taste, and the larger works are both dignified and suited to their architectural surroundings. The introduction of gas as an illuminant, about 1816, at once induced a large demand and a novel description of metal fitting; and the craft fell under the control of a new commercial class, intent on breaking with past traditions, and utilizing steam power, electjp-deposition, and every mechanical and scientific invention tending to economize metal or labour. But when all artistic perception in Great Britain appeared lost in admira- tion of the triumphs of machinery and the expansion of trade, a new influence in art matters, that of the prince consort, began to make itself felt. The Great Exhibition, state-aided schools of design, the South Kensington Museum, and the establishment of a Science and Art Department under Government, were among the results of the important art revival which he inaugurated. He is credited with having himself designed candelabra and other objects in metal, and he directly encouraged the production of the sumptuous treatise on metal-work by Digby Wyatt, which laid the foundations of the revival. To this work, and that of Owen Jones, can be traced the origin of the eclecticism which has laid all past styles of art under contri- bution. The Gothic revival also helped the recognition of art, without very directly affecting the movement. It was valuable in teaching how to work within definite limitations, but without slavish copying; it also emancipated a considerable body of craftsmen from the tyranny of manufacturers whose sole idea was that machine-work should supersede handicraft. Its greatest efforts were the metal chancel-screens designed by Sir G. G. Scott, that for Hereford Cathedral having been exhibited in 1862, It does not appear that the influence either of Owen Jones or Digby Wyatt on metal-working extended beyond bringing the variety and beauty of past styles to the direct notice of designers. Neither can the London silversmiths, though they employed the best talent available, particularly in the decade following the Great Exhibition of 1851, be credited with much influencing the art metal revival. They were rivalled by Elkington of Birmingham, who secured the permanent assistance of at least one fine artist, Morel Ladeuil, the producer of the Elcho Challenge Shield. Perhaps the first actual designer to make a lasting impression on the crafts was Thomas Jeckyll, some of whose work, including gates for Sandringham, was exhibited in 1862. Infinitely greater as a designer was Alfred Stevens, whose influence on English craftsmen might be regarded as almost comparable to that of Michelangelo on that of his Italian contemporaries. Stevens's designs certainly directly raised the standard of production in several metal-working firms by whom he was employed; whilst in the Wellington Memorial in St Paul's Cathedral, and in Dorchester House, his work is seen unfettered by commercial considerations. Omitting many whose occasional designs have had little influence on the development of the metal crafts, we come to Alfred Gilbert, whose influence for a time was scarcely less than that of Stevens himself. Monumental works, such as his statue of Queen Victoria at Winchester and his work at Windsor, may be handed down as his greatest achievements, but judged as art metal-work, his smaller productions, such as the centre- piece presented by the army and navy to Queen Victoria on her Jubilee, have been more important. The charming bronze statuettes of Onslow Ford, the most representative of which are in the Tate Gallery; the work of George Frampton, as seen in the Mitchell Memorial; and the beautiful bas-reliefs of W. Stirling Lee, examples of which are the bronze gates of the Adelphi Bank at Liverpool, have all contributed, especially when applied to architectural decoration, to a high standard of excellence. Painters also have frequently designed and modelled for metal-work, for example, Lord Leighton, who produced bronze statuettes of most refined character; and Sir L. Alma-Tadema, who designed the grilles for his studio and entrance hall; but none so conspicuously as Professor H. von Herkomer, who, whether working in gold and enamel, iron, or his favourite alloy, pewter, infuses a fresh- ness into his designs and methods which displays an unusual mastery over materials. The gift of reproducing effects of nature or art by brush or chisel is not necessarily accompanied by power to design; but a noteworthy exponent of the dual faculty is G. C. Haite, whose designs are widely applied. It is chiefly to architecture that metal- work owes its permanent artistic improvement. In England buildings of Norman Shaw and Ernest George demanded quiet and harmonious metal- work; and the custom of these architects of superintending and designing every detail, even for interiors, created the supply. The work of every worthy architect raises the standard of the crafts; but beyond others Messrs Ashbee, Lethaby and Wilson have taken an active personal interest in schools of metal- work. The technical schools have also been of immense service in creating a class of self-respecting craftsmen, whose wages enable them to regard their work as worthy occupation abound- ing in interest. Home industries such as the metal-working round Keswick (founded in 1884 by Canon and Mrs Rawnsley), executed during hours of idleness by field labourers and railway porters, educate the passer-by as well as the worker. METAL-WORK Plate X CAST BRONZE GATES, ADELPHI BANK, LIVERPOOL. Designed by W. D. Caroe, the figures by Stirling Lee, executed by Starkie Gardner and Co. PlATE IL ik f^ METAL-WORK A 4*^^ ■:■ ■■".'■ , . u .;. RAIN-WATER HEAD, IN LEAD, FOR THE VICTORIA LAW COURTS, BIRMINGHAM. Designed by Aston Webb and Ingres Bell, and executed by Dent and Hellier. COVERED BRIDGE OF IRON, SHEATHED IN CAST LEAD, GRAND HOTEL, LONDON. Designed by William Woodward, and executed by Starkie Gardner and Co. METAUWGRK 213 British architects and artists who design for the principal decorating firms are to-day as conversant with the Renaissance and succeeding styles of France and Italy as medieval revival- ists were familiar with the Gothic styles with which they made us so well acquainted. Metal-work more or less based upon every kind of past style is produced in vast quantities, and in some cases so skilful are the workers that modern forgeries and reproductions are almost beyond the power of experts to detect. This large class of designers and craftsmen, to whom a thorough knowledge of the history of design is a necessity, follows and develops traditional lines. The new art school, on the contrary, breaks wholly with tradition, unless uncon- sciously influenced by the Japanese, and awards the highest place to originality in design. It is not to be expected that an art-revival following on, and in possession 01, all the results of a period of unprecedented activity in scientific research should proceed with the same restraint as heretofore; but the unfettered activity, and the general encouragement to abandon the traditions of art, have no exact parallel in the past, and may yet prove a danger. It is perhaps the very Tapidity of the movement that is likely to retard its progress, and to fail to carry with it the wealthy clients and the decorators they employ, or perhaps even to increase the disposition to cling to the reproductions of the styles of the 17th and 18th centuries. The multiplication of art periodicals, lectures, books, photo- graphs, meetings of societies and gilds, museums, schools of arts and crafts, polytechnics, scholarships, facilities for travel, exhibitions, even those of the Royal Academy, to which objects of applied art are now admitted, not only encourages many persons to become workers and designers in the applied arts, but exposes everything to the plagiarist, who travesties the freshest idea before it has well left the hands of its originator. Thus the inspirations of genius, appropriated by those who imperfectly appreciate their subtle beauty and quality, become hackneyed and lose their charm and interest. The keen desire to be unconventional in applied art has spread from Great Britain and the United States to Germany, Austria and other countries, but without well-defined first principles, or limita- tions It seems agreed in a general way that the completed work in metal is to be wholly the conception and, as far as possible, the actual handiwork of the designer: casting by the cire-perdue process, left practically untouched from the mould, and embossing, being the two most favoured processes. The female figure is largely made use of, and rich and harmonious colours are sought, the glitter of metal being invariably sub- dued by deadening its lustre, or by patinas and oxides. Gilding, stains and lacquers, electro-plating, chasing, " matting," frosting, burnishing, mechanically produced mouldings and enrichments, and the other processes esteemed in the 19th century, are disused and avoided. New contrasts are formed by the juxtaposition of differently toned metals; or these with an inlay of haliotis shell, introduced by Alfred Gilbert; or of coloured wax, favoured by Onslow Ford; or enamelling, per- fected by Professor von Herkomer; or stained ivory, pearls, or semi-precious stones. The quality of the surface left by the skilled artist or artisan is more regarded than symmetry of design, or even than correct modelling. Frequently only the important parts in a design are carefully finished and the rest merely sketched: the mode of working, whether by model- ling-tools or hammer, being always left apparent. The newer kinds of art metal-work have, until recently, reached the purchaser direct from the producer's workshop; but they may now also be seen in the shops of silversmiths, jewellers, and general dealers, who are thus helping to transfer production from large commercial manufactories to smaller ateliers under artistic control. The production of the larger household accessories, such as bedsteads, fenders, gas and electric fittings, clocks, &c, has hardly as yet come under the influence of the art movement. The services rendered by Mr W. A. S. Benson of Chiswick, who commenced about 1886 to revolutionize the production of sheet-brass and copper utensils, cannot be passed over. The average ecclesiastical metal-work has rather receded than progressed in merit, except when designed by architects and executed under their super- vision. Though the demand for good domestic wrought-iron work has enormously increased, adaptations from the beautiful work of the 17th and 18th centuries have been found so suited to their architectural surroundings, that new departures have been relatively uncommon. Of such the gates for Sandringham, by Jeckyll; for Crewe Hall, by Charles Barry; and for the Victoria and Albert Museum, by Gamble, are the earliest and best known. Of the vast number designed upon traditional lines may be cited those for Lambton Castle, Welbeck, Eaton Hall, Twicken- ham, Clieveden, and the Astor Estate Office on the Victoria Embankment. Cast iron, brought to perfection by the Coal- brookdale Company about i860, but now little esteemed, owing to the poverty of design which so often counterfeits smiths' work, presents great opportunities to founders possessing taste or willing to submit to artistic control. A very large field is also opening for cast-lead work, whether associated with archi- tecture, as in the leaden covered-way over Northumberland Street, in London (see Plate), and the fine rain-water heads of the Birmingham Law Courts (see Plate), or with the revival of the use of metal statuary and vases in gardens. The subdued colour and soft contours of pewter render it once more a favoured material, peculiarly adapted to the methods of the art revival, and perhaps destined to supersede electro-plate for household purposes. In silver-work the proportion of new art designs exhibited by dealers and others is still relatively small; but jewellers, except when setting pure brilliants and pearls, are becoming more inclined to make their jewels of finely modelled gold and enamel enriched with precious and semi-precious stones, than of gems merely held together by wholly subordinate settings. On the continent of Europe, France was the first to recognize the merits of its bygone designers and craftsmen, and even antecedent to the Exhibition of 1851, when art in Great Britain was dormant, it was possible to obtain in Paris faithful repro^ ductions of the finest ormolu work of the 18th century. At the same time a most active production of modern designs was proceeding, stimulated by rewards, with the result that the supply of clocks, lamps, candelabra, statuettes, and other ornaments in bronze and zinc to the rest of Europe became a monopoly of Paris for nearly half a century. In all connected with their own homes the French adhere to their traditions far more than other nations, and the attempt at originality in the introduction of metal-work into the scheme of decoration of a room is almost unknown. In the domain of bronze and imitation bronze statuary the originality of the French is abso- lutely unrivalled. And not only in bronze, but in Paris jewellery, enamels, silver, pewter and iron work a cultured refinement is apparent, beside which other productions, even the most finished, appear crude. The French artist attains his ideal, and it is difficult to imagine, from his standpoint, that the metal-work of the present can be surpassed. The best English metal-worker, on the contrary, is probably not often quite satisfied with the results he attains, perhaps because in Great Britain the pursuit of art has for centuries been fitful and individual, while in France art traditions are hereditary. The metal-work of Belgium is based at > present entirely on that of France, without attaining the same standard, unless designed for ecclesiastical uses. In Holland these v crafts have not pro- gressed. Italian metal-workers are mainly employed in repro- duction; but traditions linger in some remote parts, whiles the sporadic appearance of craftsmen of a high order is eviderfte that the ancient artistic spirit is not wholly extinct. Similarly, the surprising damascening by Messrs Zuluaga of Madrid in the monument to General Prim, and that of Alvarez of Toledo, give hope that the Spanish craftsman only needs to be properly directed. German and Austrian workers had for years shown more energy than originality, but they have recently embraced the newest English developments and carried them to extremes of exaggeration. For really fresh and progressive indigenous art we may perhaps have, in the near future, to turn to America 214 METAL-WORK and to Russia, where, having little artistic past to refer to, designers and craftsmen display unequalled individuality and force. It is from the Far East, however, that the most serious rivalry may be anticipated. The metal-work of China and Japan, so pleasantly naive and inexpensive, though becoming undesirably modified as to design through contact with European buyers, is losing none of its matchless technique, which indeed in Japan is still being developed. In any history of the art revival the influence of such firms as Barbedienne and Christofle in Paris and Tiffany in New York cannot be ignored. (J.S.G.) Industrial Metal-Work. The malleability and ductility of metals lie at the basis of the work of the gold- and silver-smiths at one extreme, and of the boiler-maker at the other. Sheet metals can be made to assume almost any shape under the hammer, or by pressure, provided they are subjected to annealing to restore the property of malleability. The most awkward shapes, involving excessive extensions of metal, are pro- duced by drawing processes between dies of iron and steel in power presses. All the common domestic utensils in tinned and enamelled ware, and all the ordinary patterns of the silversmiths, are similarly done. Frequent annealings are necessary to prevent fracture of the metal ; but with these and the observance of certain other pre- cautions of a practical character the degree of extension possible is enormous. Another illustration of the malleability of metal is afforded by metal spinning. A sheet of metal set revolving at a high speed in a lathe is bent over into cup-shaped forms, with numerous mouldings, by a blunt hardened tool. A great deal of work is done in this way, though this sphere has also been invaded by the draw presses, whose output would seem incredible to those not familiar with the work. Objects that do not require annealing are produced by dozens per minute, and all the movements of feeding and stamping and removal are often automatic. The ductility of metals and alloys is utilized in wire and tube-drawing through dies on long benches. This work also requires frequent annealing, for otherwise the wires or tubes would rupture. Even hard steel is treated in this way tc form tubes for the highest hydraulic and steam pressures. Platers' Work (see Boiler) is distinguished from work in sheet metals by the fact that plates have considerable thickness, which sheets have not. Plates range in thickness from J in. to 2 in., but for most purposes they do not go beyond f in. or 1 in. Over these thicknesses they are used chiefly for the largest marine boilers. Armour plates which are several inches in thickness do not come in this group, being a special article of manufacture. Sheets are of thicknesses of less than J in. This distinction of thickness is of importance in its bearing on workshop practice. A thin sheet requires a very different kind of treatment from a thick plate. Not only is more powerful machinery required for the latter, but in bending it allowance has to be made for the difference in radius of outer and inner layers, which increases with increase of thickness. Short, sharp bends which are readily made in thin sheets cannot be done in thick plates, as the metal would be stressed too much in the outer layers. The methods of union also differ, riveting being adopted for thick plates, and soldering or brazing generally for thin. Coppersmiths' Work is an important section of sheet-metal working. It is divided into two great departments; the domestic utensil side, on which the brazier's craft is exercised; and the engineering side, which is concerned in some engine-work, locomotive and marine, and in the manufacture of brewers' utensils. The methods of the first are allied to those of the tinman, those of the second to the methods of the plater. Tinsmiths' work resembles the lighter part of the work of the coppersmith. There is no essential difference in dealing with tin (i.e. sheets of iron or steel coated with tin) and copper of the same thickness. Hence the craft of tinmen and braziers is carried on by the same individuals. There are, however, differences of treatment in detail, because copper is more malleable and softer than tin plate. The geometry of sheet-metal work and of platers' and boiler-makers' work is identical up to a certain stage. The divergence appears when plates are substituted for sheets. A thin sheet has for all practical purposes no thickness — that is, the geometrical pattern marked on it will develop the object required after it is bent. Nearly all patterns are the developments of the envelopes of geometrical solids of regular or irregular outlines, few of plane faces ; when they are made up of combinations of plane faces, or of faces curved in one plane only, there is no difference in dealing with thin sheets or thick plates. But when curving occurs in different planes at right or other angles (hollowing), the metal has to be drawn or extended on the outside, and important differ- ences arise. A typical form is the hemisphere, from which many modified forms are derived. The production of this is always a tedious task. It involves details of " wrinkling " and " razing," if done by hand-work in copper. In thick plates it is not attempted by hand, but pressing is done between dies, or segments of the sphere are prepared separately and riveted together. In tin it is effected by stamping. In all work done in thick plates the dimensions marked out must have reference to the final shape of the article. Generally the dimensions are taken as in the middle of the plate, but they may be on the inside or outside according to circumstances. But in any case the thickness must enter into the calculations, whereas in thin sheets no account is taken of thickness. Raised Work. — All the works in sheet metal that are bent in one plane only are easily made. The shapes of all polygonal and all cylindrical and conical forms are obtained by simple development — that is, the envelopments of these bodies are marked out on a flat glane, and when cut, are bent or folded to give the required envelopes, inly common geometrical problems are involved in the case of sheets of sensible thickness, and allowances are made for thickness. But in those forms where curving must take place in different directions the layers or fibres of metal are made to glide over one another, extension taking place in some layers but not in others, and this goes on without producing much reduction in the thickness. This is only possible with malleable and ductile metals and alloys. As a general rule it is restricted to metals which are not cast, for, with some sligkt exceptions, it is impossible to produce relative movements of the layers in cast iron, steel or cast brass. But most rolled metals and alloys can be so treated, copper being the best for the purpose. The methods employed are " raising " by the hammer, and pressing in dies. But the severity of the treatment would tear the material' asunder if rearrangement of the particles were not obtained by frequent annealing (g.f.). If an object has to be beaten into concave form from a flat thin sheet, the outer portions must be hammered until they occupy smaller dimensions than on the flat sheet. If a circular disk is wrought into a hemisphere and the attempt is made to hammer the edges round, crumpling must occur. This in fact is the first opera- tion, termed wrinkling, the edge showing a series of flutes. These flutes have to be obliterated by another series of hammerings termed razing. The result is that the object assumes a smooth concave and convex shape, without the thickness of the metal becoming reduced. Cast Work. — The metals and alloys which are neither malleable nor ductile can only be worked into required shapes by melting and casting in moulds. Abundance of remains which date from the Neolithic period testify to the high antiquity of this class of work, and also to the great skill which the ancient founders had acquired. Statue-founding is a highly specialized department of metal-work, in which the artists of the middle ages excelled. Two methods have been employed, the cire-perdue, or wax process (see above), and the present, or all sand method. In the latter the artist provides a model in plaster from which the founder takes a mould within an encircling box. This mould must obviously be made in scores of little separate sections (false cores or drawbacks) to permit of their removal from the model without causing fracture of the sand. These are subsequently replaced piece by piece in the encircling frame, and a core made within it, leaving a space of | in. or there- abouts into which the metal is poured. The advantage of this process is that the artist's model is not destroyed as in the cire-perdue, and if a " waster " results, a second mould can be taken. A large statue occupies from one to three months in the moulding. The extreme tenuity of objects whiqh are hammered, drawn or rolled cannot for obvious reasons be attained by casting. Casting also is complicated by the shrinkage which occurs in cooling down from the molten state, and in some alloys by the formation of eutectics, and the liquation of some constituents. The temperature of pouring is now known to be of more importance than was formerly suspected. The after-treatment of castings by annealing exercises great influence on results in malleable cast iron and steel. There are many metals and alloys which are malleable and ductile, and also readily fused and cast. This is the case with gold, silver, copper, tin, lead and others, and especially with low carbon steel, which is first cast as an ingot, then annealed and rolled into plates as well as the thinnest sheets. The ancient wootz, and the products of the native furnaces of Africa are first cast, then hammered out thin. Many of the patent bronzes are by slight variations in the proportions of the constituents made suitable for casting, for forging, and for rolling into sheets. But in all the great modern manu- facturing processes it is true that metals and alloys, though of the same name, have a different composition according as they are intended for casting on the one hand, or for forging, rolling and drawing on the other. Wrought or malleable iron has less of carbon and other elements in its composition than has cast iron. Steel intended for castings has slightly more carbon and other elements than the cast-steel ingot intended for rolling into plates. So also* with the numerous bronzes, the phosphor, the delta, the aluminium and other alloys of copper; each is made in several grades to render it suitable for different kinds of treatment. There are no materials used in manufacture of which the crafts- man is able to vary the composition and physical qualities so ex- tensively as the metals and their alloys. Much light has been thrown on facts which have long been known in a practical way, by the labours of the Alloys Research Committee of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers (England). These, together with independent researches into the heat treatment of steel and iron, have opened up many unsolved problems fraught with deepest interest and importance. One of the most difficult problems with which the metal-worker METAMERISM 215 who handles constructional forms has to deal is the maintenance of a due relation between absolute strength and a useful degree of elasticity. Only after many failures has the fact been grasped that a very high degree of strength is inconsistent with a trustworthy degree of elasticity. The reasons were not understood until the researches of VVohler demonstrated the difference between the effects of merely dead loads and of live loads, and between repetitions of stress of one kind only, and the vastly more destructive effects of both kinds alternating. The texture of metals and alloys is related to the character of the operations which can be done upon them. Broadly the malle- able and ductile metals and alloys show a fibrous character when ruptured, the fusible ones a crystalline fracture. The difference is seen both in the workshop and in the specimens ruptured in testing-machines. A piece of wrought iron, or mild steel or copper, if torn asunder shows long lustrous fibres, resembling a bundle of threads in appearance. A piece of cast iron, or steel or bronze, shows on rupture a granular, crystalline surface destitute of any fibre. The ductile metals and alloys also extend from 10 to 30 % with reduction of area before they fracture, the crystalline ones snap shortly without warning. In some instances, however, the method of application of stress exercises an influence. Wrought iron and mild steel may be made to show a short and crystalline fracture by a sudden application of stress, while if drawn asunder slowly they develop the silky, fibrous appearance. The men who design and work in metals have to take account of these vital differences and characteristics, and must be careful not to apply treatment suitable to one kind to another of a dissimilar character. Tools, appliances and methods have little in common. Between the work of the smith, the sheet-metal worker and the founder, there is a great gulf. An artistic taste will recognize the essential differences, and not endeavour, apart from questions of strength, to graft a design suitable for one on another. It is bad taste to imitate the tracery of the ductile wrought iron in cast designs, the foliations of ancient wrought-iron grilles and screens in heavy cast iron. Severe simplicity is also most in harmony with con- structional designs in plated work, where stresses occur in straight lines. From this point of view the lattice-girder bridge is an ideal design in steel. One of the most valuable characteristics of the iron alloys is their capacity for hardening, which they owe in the main to the presence of certain small percentages of carbon relatively to minute quantities of other elements: as manganese, tungsten, nickel and others of less importance. The capacity for hardening is an in- valuable property not only in regard to cutting-tools, but also in prolonging the life of parts subjected to severe friction. Great advances have been made in the utilization of this property as a result of the growth of the precision grindihg-machines, which are able to correct the inaccuracies of hardened work as effectually as those of soft materials. It is utilized in the spindles of machine- tools, in the balls and rollers for high-speed bearings, slides, pivots and such like. Methods of Union. — The methods of union of works in metal are extremely varied. An advantage in casting is that the most complicated shapes are made in one piece. But all other compli- cated forms have to be united by other means — as welding, soldering, riveting or bolting. The two first-named are trustworthy, but are evidently unsuitable for the greater portion of engineers' work, for which riveting and bolting are the methods adopted. Even the simple elements of rivets and bolts have produced immense developments since the days when bolts were made by hand, holes cored or hand-drilled, and rivets formed and closed by hand labour. Nut- and bolt-making machinery, both for forging and screw cutting, operates automatically, and drilling machinery is highly specialized. Hand-riveting on large contracts has been wholly displaced by power-riveting machines. The methods of union adopted are- not allowed to impair the strength of structures, which is calculated on the weakest sections through the rivet or bolt holes. Hence much ingenuity is exercised in order to obtain the strongest joint which is consistent with security of union. This is the explanation of all the varied forms of riveted joints, which to casual observers often appear to be of a fanciful character. Protection of Surfaces. — -The protection and coloration of metals and alloys includes a large number of industries. The engineer uses paints for his iron and steel. A small amount of work is treated by the Bower-Barff and allied processes, by which a coating of magnetic oxide is left on the metal. Hot tar— Angus Smith's process — is used for water-pipes. Boiled linseed-oil is employed as a non-corrosive coating preceding the application of the lead and iron oxide paints. In steam boilers artificial galvanic couples are often set up by the suspension of zinc plates in the boiler, so that the corrosion of the zinc may preserve the steel boiler plates from waste. Various artificial protective coatings are applied to the plates of steel ships. Bright surfaces are protected with oil or with lacquer. The ornamental bronzes and brasses are generally lacquered, though in engineers' machinery they are as a rule not protected with any coating. For ornamental work lacquering divides favour with colouring — sometimes done with coloured lacquers, but often with chemical colourings, of which the copper and iron salts are the chief basis. (J. G. H.) Literature.— Prehistoric : Worsaae, Nordiske Oldsager i Kjoben- havn (1854); Perrin, &ude prihistorique — Age du bronze (1870). Classical: Layard, Nineveh and Babylon (1853); Pliny, Natural History, bk. xxxiv. ; Brondsted, Den Fikoroniske Cista (1847); Gerhard, various monographs (1843-1867); Muller, Etrusker, &c, and other works; Ciampi, Dell' Antica toreutica (1815); Von Bibra, Die Bronzen und Kupfer-Legirungen der alien und altesten Vblker (1869); C. Bischoff, Das Kupfer in der vorchristlichen Zeit (1865) Medieval, &c. : Digby Wyatt, Metal-Work of the Middle Ages (1849); Shaw, Ornamental Metal-Work (1836); Drury Fortnum, S.K.M. Handbook of Bronzes (1877) ; King, Orfevrerie et ouvrages en mital du moyen Age (1852-1854); Hefner-Alteneck, Serrurerie du moyen Age (i860) ; Viollet-le-duc, Diet, du mobilier, " Serrurerie " and "Orfevrerie, (1858 &c); Lacroix, Tresor de S. Denis, and V Art du moyen Age (various dates) ; Karch, Die Rdthselbilder an der Broncethiire zu Augsburg (1869); Krug, Entwiirfe fur Gold-, Silber-, und Bronze-Arbeiteri Linas, Orfevrerie merovingienne (1864), and Orfevrerie du XI II™ siecle (1856); Bordeaux, Serrurerie du moyen Age (1858); Didron, Manuel des wuvres de bronze et d' orfevrerie da moyen Age (1859); Du Sommerard, Arts au moyen dge (1838-1846), and Musie de Cluny (1852) ; Rico y Sinobas, Trabajos de metales (1871); Bock, Die Goldschmiedekunst des Mittelalters (1855), and Kleinodien des heil.-romischen Reiches; Jouy, Les gemmes et les joyaux (1865); Texier, Dictionnaire a" orfevrerie (1857); Virgil Solis, Designs for Gold- and Silversmiths (1512), (facsimile reproduction, 1862); Molinier, Les Bronzes de la Renaissance (1886); Servant, Les bronzes d'art (1880); Wilhelm Bode, Italian Bronze Statuettes of the Renaissance (Eng. trans, by W. Gretor, first 2 vols., 1909). Practical Treatises: Theophilus, Diversarum artium schedula (12th cent.), (see Quellenschriften fur Kunstgeschichte, VII., Vienna 1877); Cellini, Trattati dell' oreficeria e della scultura (ed. Milanesi, Florence, 1856); Vasari, Tre arti del disegno, pt. ii. (Milanesi's ed., 1882); Gamier, Manuel du ciseleur (1859) ; Haas, Der Metallarbeiter (1902). METAMERISM (Gr. /jerd, after, fiepos, a part), a technical term used in natural science.- In chemistry it denotes the existence of different substances containing the same elements in the same proportions and having the same molecular weight; it is a form of isomerism. In zoology, metamerism is the repetition of parts in an orga- nized body, a phenomenon which is, as E. Haeckel, W. Bateson and others have recognized, only a special case of a tendency to repetition of structural units or parts Which finds one expres- sion in bilateral symmetry. It occurs in almost every group of the animal kingdom, but is most conspicuous in segmented worms, arthropods and vertebrates. In certain worms (the Cestoidea and some Planarians) metameric segmentation is accompanied by the separation of the completed metameres one by one from the older (anterior) extremity of the chain (strobilation) , but it by no means follows that metameric seg- mentation has a necessary origin in such completion and separa- tion of the " meres." On the contrary, metamerism seems to arise from a property of organisms which is sometimes more (eumerogenesis) and sometimes less (dysmerogenesis) fully exhibited, and in some groups not exhibited at all. The most complete and, at the same time, simplest instances of metameric segmentation are to be seen in the larger Chaetopods, -where some hundreds of segments succeed one another — -each practically indistinguishable in structure from the segment in front or from that behind; muscles, right and left appendage or para- podium, colour-pattern of the skin, gut, blood-vessels, coelom, nephridia, nerve-ganglion and nerves are precisely alike in neighbouring segments. The segment which is least like the others is the first, for that carries the mouth and a lobe projecting beyond it — the prostomium. If (as sometimes happens) any of the hinder segments completes itself by developing a pro- stomium, the chain breaks at that point and the segment which has developed a prostomium becomes the first or head-bearing segment of a new individual. Compare such an instancENpf metameric segmentation with that presented by one of the higher Arthropods — e.g. the crayfish. Here the somites are not so clearly marked in the tegumentary structures; neverthe- less, by examining the indications given by the paired parapodia, we find that there are twenty-one somites present — a limited definite number which is also the precise number found in all the higher Crustacea. We can state as a First Law 1 of metamerism or somite formation 1 The word " Law " is used in this summary merely as a convenient heading for the statement of a more or less general proposition. 2l6 METAMERISM that it is either indefinite in regard to number of metameres or somites produced, or is definite. Animals in the first case we call anomomeristic; those in the second case, nomomeristic. The nomomeristic condition is a higher development, a specialization, of the anomomeristic condition. The Second Law, or generalization, as to metamerism which must be noted is that the meres or somites (excepting the first with its prostomium) may be all practically alike or may differ from one another greatly by modification of the various constituent parts of the mere or somite. Metamerized animals are either homoeomeric or heteromeric. The reference of the variation in the form of the essential parts contained in a " metamere " or " somite " intro- duces us to the necessity of a general term for these constituent or subordinate parts; they may be called " meromes " (jufyws). The meromes present in a metamere or somite differ in different annulate or segmented animals according to the general organization of the group to which the animal belongs. As a matter of convenience we distinguish in the Arthropod as meromes, first, the tegumentary chitinized plates called terga, placed on the dorsal aspect of the somites ; second, the similar sternal plates. In Chaetopods we should take next to these the masses of circular and logitudinal muscular fibres of the body-wall and the dorso-ventral muscles. The latter form the third sort of merome present in the Arthropods. The fourth kind of merome is constituted by the parapodia or appen- dages ; the fifth by the coelomic pouches and their ducts and external apertures (coelomo-ducts), whether renal or genital. The sixth by the blood-vessels of the somite; the seventh by the bit of alimentary tract which traverses it; and the eighth by the neuromere (nerve ganglion pair, commissures, connectives and nerve branches). The Third Law of metamerism is that heteromerism may operate in such a way. as to produce definite regions of like modification of the somites and their appendages, differing in their modification from that observed in regions before and behind them. It is convenient to have a special word for such regions of like meres, and we call each a tagma {rayiia., a regiment). The word " tagmosis " is applicable to the formation of such regions. In the Chaetopods tagmosis always occurs to a small extent so as to form the head. In some Chaetopods, such as Chaetopterus and the sedentary forms, there is marked tagmosis, giving rise to three or even more tagmata. In Arthropods, besides the head, we find very frequently other tagmata developed. But it is to be noted that in the higher members of each great class or line of descent, the tagmosis becomes definite and characteristic just as do the total number of meres or somites, whilst in the lower grades of each great class we find what may be regarded as varying examples of tentative tagmosis. The terms nombtagmic and anomotagmic are applicable with the same kind of implication as the terms nomomeristic and anomomeristic. The Fourth Law of metamerism (auto-heterosis of the meromes) is that the meromes of a somite or series of somites may be separately and dissimilarly affected by heteromerism. It is common enough for small changes only to occur in the inner visceral meromes whilst the appendages and terga or sterna are largely changed in form. But of equal importance is the independent " heterosis " of these visceral meromes without any corresponding heterosis of the body wall. As instances, we may cite the gizzards of various earthworms and the special localization of renal, genital and gastric meromes, with obliteration elsewhere, in a few somites in Arthropoda. The Fifth Law, relating also to the independence of the meromes as compared with the whole somite, is the law of autorhythmus of the meromes. Metamerism does not always manifest itself in the formation of complete new segments; but one merome may be repeated so as to suggest several metameres, whilst the remaining meromes are, so to speak, out of harmony with it and exhibit no repetition. Thus in the hinder somites of the body of Apus the Crustacean we find a series of segments corresponding apparently each to a complete single somite; but when the appendages are examined we find that they have multiplied without relation to the other meromes of a somite : we find that the somites carry from two to seven pairs of appendages, increasing in number as we pass backwards from the genital segment. The appendages are autorhythmic meromes in this case. They take on a quasi-inde- pendent metamerism and are produced in numbers which have no relation to the numbers of the body-rings, muscles and neuro- meres. This possibility of the independent metameric multiplication of a single merome must have great importance in the case of dislocated meromes, and no doubt has application to some of the metameric phenomena of Vertebrates. The Sjxth Law is the law of dislocation of meromes. This is a very important and striking phenomenon. A merome, such as a pair of appendages (Araneae) or a neuromere or a muscular mass (frequent), may (by either a gradual or sudden process, we cannot always say which) quit the metamere to which it belongs, and in which it originated, and pass by actual physical transference to another metamere. Frequently this new position is at a distance of several metameres from that to which the wandering merome belongs in origin. The movement is more usual from behind forwards than in the reverse direction; but this, probably, has no profound significance and depends simply on the fact that, as a rule, the head must be the chief region of development on account of its containing the sense organs and the mouth. In the Vertebrata the independence of the meromes is ftiore fully developed than in other metamerized animals. Not only do we get auto-heterosis of the meromes on a most extensive scale, hut the dislocation of single meromes and of whole series (tagmata) of meromes is a common phenomenon. Thus, in fishes the pelvic fins may travel forwards to a thoracic and even jugal position in front of the pectoral fins; the branchiomeromes lose all relation to the position of the meromes of muscular, skeletal, coelomic and nervous nature, and the heart and its vessels may move backwards from their original metameres in higher Vertebrates carrying nerve-loops with them. The Seventh Law of metamerism is one which has been pointed out to the writer by E. S. Goodrich. It may be called the law of " translation of heterosis." Whilst actual physical transference of the substance of meromes undeniably takes place in such a case as the passage of the pelvic fins of some fishes to the front of the pectorals, and in the case of the backward movement of the opis- thosomatic appendages of spiders, yet the more frequent mode in which an alteration in the position of a specialized organ in the series or scale of metameres takes place is not by migration of the actual material organ from somite to somite, but by translation of the quality or morphogenetic peculiarity from somite to somite, accompanied by correlative change in all the somites of the series. The phenomenon may be compared to the transposition of a piece of music to a higher or lower key. It is thus that the lateral fins of fishes move up and down the scale of vertebral somites; and thus that whole regions (tagmata), such as those indicated by the names cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacral, are translated (accom- panied by terminal increase or decrease in the total number of somites) so as to occupy differing numerical positions in closely allied forms (cf. the varying number of cervical somites in allied Reptiles and Birds). What, in this rapid enumeration, we will venture to call the Eighth Law of metamerism is the law of homoeosis, as it is termed by W. Bateson. Homoeosis is the making of a merome into the likeness of one belonging to another metamere, and is the opposite of the process of "heterosis" — alrea.dy mentioned. We cite this law here because the result of its operation is to simulate the occur- rence of dislocation of meromes and has to be carefully distinguished from that process. A merome can, and does in individual cases of abnormality, assume the form and character of the corresponding merome of a distant somite. Thus the antenna of an insect has been found to be replaced by a perfectly well-formed walking leg. After destruction of the eye-stalk of a shrimp a new growth appears, having the form of an antenna. Other cases are frequent in Crusta- cea, as individual abnormalities. They prove the existence in the mechanism of metamerized animals, of structural conditions which are capable of giving these results. What those structural con- ditions are is a matter for separate inquiry, which we cannot even touch here. We now come to the questions of the production of new somites or the addition of new somites to the series, and the converse problem of the suppression of somites, whole or partial. We state as the Ninth Law of metamerism " that new somites or metameres are added to a chain consisting of two or more somites by growth and gradual elaboration — what is called ' budding ' — of the anterior border of the hindermost somite. This hindermost somite is therefore different from all the other somites and is called the ' telson.' However long or short or heteromerized the chain may be, new metameres or somites are only produced at the anterior border of the telson, except in the Vertebrata." That is the general law. But amongst some groups of metamerized animals partial exceptions to it occur. It is probably absolutely true for the Arthropoda from lowest to highest. It is not so certain that it is true for the Chaetopoda, and would need modification in statement to meet the cases of fissiparous multiplication occurring among Syllids and Naidids. In the Vertebrata, where tagmosis and heterosis of meromes and dislocation of merones and tagmata are, so to speak, rampant, new formation of metameres (at any rate as represented by important meromes) takes place at more than one point in the chain. Such points are found where two highly diverse " tagmata " abut on one another. It is possible, though the evi- dence at present is entirely against the supposition, that at such points in Arthropoda new somites may be formed. Such new somites are said to be " intercalated." The question of the inter- calation of vertebrae in the Vertebrata has received some attentipn. It must be remembered that a vertebra even taken with its muscular* vascular and neural accessories is only a partial metamere — a merome — and that, so far as complete metameres are concerned, the Vertebrata do conform to the same law as the Arthropods. Inter- calation of meromes, branchial, vertebral and dermal (fin-supports) seems to have taken place in Vertebrata in the fishes, while in higher groups intercalation of vertebrae in large series has been accepted as the only possible explanation of the structural facts established by the comparison of allied groups. The elucidation of this matter forms a very important part of the work lying to the hand of the investigator of vertebrate anatomy, and it is possible that the application of Goodrich's law (the seventh of our list) may throw new light on the matter. In regard to the diminution in the number of somites in the METAMORPHISM 217 course of the historical development of those various groups of metamerized animals, which have undoubtedly sprung from ances- tors with more numerous somites than they themselves possess, it appears that we may formulate the following laws as the tenth, eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth laws of metamerism. The Tenth Law is that individual somites tend to atrophy and finally disappear as distinct structures, most readily at the anterior and the posterior ends of the series constituting an animal body. This is very generally exhibited in the head of Arthropoda, where, however, the operation of the law is largely modified by fusion (see below). With regard to the posterior end of the body, the atrophy of segments does not, as a rule, affect the telson itself so much as the somites in front of it and its power of producing new somites. Sometimes, however, the telson is very minute and nonchitinized (Hexapoda). The Eleventh Law may be stated thus: any somite in the series which is the anterior or posterior somite of a tagma may become atrophied, reduced in size or partially aborted by the sup- pression of some of its meromes; and finally, such a somite may disappear and leave no obvious trace in the adult structure of its presence in ancestral forms. This is called the excalation of a somite. Frequently, however, such " excalated " somites are obvious in the embryo or leave some merome (e.g. neuromere, muscle or chitin-plate) which can be detected by minute observa- tion (microscopic) as evidence of their former existence. The somite of the maxillipede (third post-oral appendage) of Apus cancriformis is a good example of a somite on its way to excalation. The third prae-oral and the praemaxillary somites of Hexapod insects are instances where the only traces of the vanished somite are furnished by the microscopic study of early embryos. The praegenital somite of the Arachnida is an example of a somite which is preserved in some members of the group and partially or entirely excalated in other cases, sometimes with fusion of its remnants to neighbouring somites. The Twelfth Law of metamerism might very well be placed in logical order as the first. It is the law of lipomerism, and asserts that just as the metameric condition is produced by a change in the bodies of the descendants of unisegmental ancestors, so highly metamerized forms — i.e. strongly segmented forms with specialized regions of differentiated metameres — may gradually lose their metamerized structure and become apparently and practically unisegmental animals. The change here contemplated is not the atrophy of terminal segments one by one so as to reduce the size of the animal and leave it finally as a single somite. On the contrary, no loss of size or of high organization is necessary. But one by one, and gradually, the metameric grouping of the bodily structures disappears. The cuticle ceases to be thickened in rings — the muscles of the body- wall overrun their somite boundaries. Internal septa disappear. The nerve-ganglia concentrate or else become diffused equally along the cords; one pair of renal coelomoducts and one pair of genital coelomoducts grow to large size and remain — the rest disappear. The appendages atrophy or become limited to one or two pairs which are widely dislocated from their ancestral position. The animal ceases to present any indication of meta- meric repetition of parts in its entire structure. Degrees in this process are frequently to be recognized. We certainly can observe such a change in the posterior region of some Arthropods, such as the hermit-crabs and the spiders. Admitting that the Echiurids are descended from Chaetopoda, such a change has taken place in them, amounting to little short of complete lipomerism, though not absolutely complete. Recent suggestions as to the origin of the Mollusca involve the supposition that such an effacement- of once well-marked meta- merism has occurred in them, leaving its traces only in a few structures such as the multiple gill-plumes and shell-shields of the Chitons and the duplicated renal sacs of Nautilus. A further matter of importance in this connexion is that when the old metameres have been effaced a new secondary segmentation may arise, as in the jointed worm-like body of the degenerate Acarid, Demodex folliculorum. Such secondary annulation of the soft body 'calls to mind the secondary annulation of the metameres of leeches and some earth- worms. Space does not permit of more than an allusion to this subject; but it is worth while noting that the secondary annuli marking the somites of leeches and Lumbricidae in definite number and character are perhaps comparable to the redundant pairs of appendages on the hinder somites of Apus, and are in both cases examples of independent repetition of tegumentary meromes — a sort of ineffectual attempt to subdivide the somite which only pre- vails on the more-readily susceptible meromes of the integument. The last law of metamerism which we shall attempt to formulate here, as the Thirteenth, relates to the fusion or blending of neigh- bouring somites. Fusion of adjacent somites has often been errone- ously interpreted in the study of Arthropoda. There are, in fact, very varying degrees of fusion which need to be carefully distin- guished. The following generalization may be formulated. " The homologous meromes of two or more adjacent somites tend to fuse with one another by a blending of their substance: _ Very generally, but not invariably, the fused meromes are found as distinct separated structures in the embryo of the animal, in which they unite at a later stage of growth." The fusion of neighbouring meromes is often preceded by more or less extensive atrophy of the somites concerned, and by arrest of development in the individual ontogeny. Thus, a case of fusion of partially atrophied somites may simulate the appearance of incipient merogenesis or formation of new somites, and, vice versa, incipient merogenesis may be misinterpreted as a case of fusion of once separate and fully-formed somites. A very .complete fusion of somites is that seen on the head of Arthropoda. The head or prosoma of Arthropoda is a tagma consisting of one, two, or three prosthomeres or somites in front of the mouth and of one, two, three, up to five or six opisthomeres. The cephalic tagma or prosoma may thus be more or less sharply divided into two subtagmata, the prae-oral and the post-oral. (E. R.L.) METAMORPHISM (Gr. /nerd, change of, and yopM, shape), in petrology, the alteration of rocks in their structural or mineral characters by which they are transformed into new types. In the history of rock masses changes of many kinds are inevitable. Loose sands, clays and heaps of shells are gradually converted into sandstones, shales and lime- stones by the action of percolating water and the pressure of over-lying accumulations. All rocks exposed at the earth's surface or traversed by waters circulating through the earth's crust, undergo changes in their component minerals due to weathering and the chemical action of the atmo- sphere and of rain. These processes of cementation and decomposition, though not unlike those of metamorphism, are not regarded as essentially the same. They are considered, so to speak, normal episodes in the history of rocks to which all are subject. When rocks, however, are exposed to the heat of intrusive masses (granite, &c.) or have been compressed, folded, crushed, and more or less completely recrystallized, they assume new characters so different from their original ones that they are ascribed to a quite distinct class, namely, the metamorphic rocks. ' • The transformation is always gradual, so that in suitable districts every stage can be followed from an unaltered or nearly unaltered sedimentary or igneous rock to a perfectly metamorphic one. The transition may be slow or rapid, and the abundance of intermediate forms renders it impossible to lay down any hard and fast lines of distinction. A black shale with fossils may in two or three feet pass into a splintery hornfels; a sandstone or grit becomes a sheared grit, a granulitic gneiss, and a completely recrystallized gneiss sometimes within a few hundred yards; in a thoroughly metamorphic hornblende- schist or chlorite-schist small kernels sometimes occur which can easily be recognized as little modified dolerites or diabases. Still, the metamorphic rocks as a class have many well-defined characteristics, and in perfectly typical development cover enormous areas of the earth's surface and must be, in the aggregate, of vast thickness. A great number of them are recognizably of igneous origin; others are equally certainly sedimentary. Hence some writers have suggested that they are not entitled to rank as a separate class, but only as states or conditions of other rocks. It is generally agreed, however, that when the primitive structures and the original minerals of sedimentary or igneous rocks are so transformed as to be no longer easily recognizable the rock should be included in the metamorphic class. Only rarely, however, does metamorphism produce much difference in the chemical composition of the rocks affected. Sandstones become quartzites and quartz schists, limestones are converted into marbles, granite passes into gneiss, and so on, without their bulk composition being greatly modified!- From all that we know it seems established that however great the heat and pressure to which metamorphic rocks have been exposed they have very rarely been melted or reduced to the liquid state. Hence there has been no opportunity for inter- mixture by solution or diffusion; the changes, including . the growth of crystals of new-formed minerals, have gone on in the solid rocks. The chemical molecules already present have aggregated into new combinations and have built up new minerals without travelling for more than infinitesimal distances from the places they occupied in the original rock, Exceptions to this occur, but they are so few that they do not 218 METAMORPHISM invalidate the general rule. Thin bands of limestone, for example, may be followed for miles in belts of mica-schist or gneiss, never losing their identity by blending with the rocks on either side of them. By tracing out zones such as these it is often possible to unravel the highly complicated strati- graphy of metamorphic regions where the rocks have been greatly folded and displaced. Another important consequence of the persistence of the chemical individuality of metamorphosed rocks is that very often an analysis indicates in the clearest possible fashion what was the original nature of the rock mass. Sandstones, limestones, ironstones, shales, granites, dolerites and serpentines may be totally changed in structure and very completely also in mineral composition, but their chemical characters are practically indelible. Confusion arises sometimes from the fact that two rocks of different origin may have much the same composition, e.g. a felspathic sandstone may closely approach a granite, or an impure dolomite may simulate a basic igneous rock. Individual specimens, consequently, cannot always be relegated with perfect certainty to sediments or igneous rocks; but in dealing with a complex containing a variety of types the geologist is rarely long in doubt as to their original nature. Two distinct kinds of metamorphism are recognized, namely contact or thermal metamorphism, and folding or regional metamorphism. The former is associated with intrusive masses of molten igneous rock which were injected at a very high temperature and produced extensive changes in the surrounding rocks. The second occurs in districts where earth folding and the movements attendant on the formation of mountain ranges have flexured and crushed the strata, probably at the same time considerably raising their temperature. Although these processes are very different in their origin, and in the great majority of cases produce quite different effects on the rocks they involve, there are instances in which the results are closely comparable. A sandstone may be converted into quartzite and a limestone into marble by either kind of meta- morphism. It is best, however, to describe them as phenomena essentially different from one another. Contact Metamorphism (thermo-metamorphism). — Any kind of rock — igneous or sedimentary — which has come in contact with an igneous molten magma is likely to show alteration of this type. The extent and intensity of the changes depend principally on two factors: (i) the nature of the rock concerned, and (2) the magni- tude of the igneous mass. It is to be expected that a great intrusion of granite will produce more extensive effects of this kind than a narrow dike a few inches or a few feet broad. At the edges of such dikes only a slight induration may be noticeable in the country rock, or there may be recrystallization with formation of new minerals for a few inches. Rarely does the alteration extend beyond this. Shales are baked and hardened, sandstones are rendered more compact or occasionally are partly fused, limestones may be converted into marble containing garnet, wollastonite, augite or other calc-silicates. A great granite boss, which may be ten or twenty miles broad, is often surrounded by a wide aureole of contact alteration. This may be a few hundred yards broad or a couple of miles ; in rare cases the breadth of the aureole is only a few yards. These variations may have structural causes; thus when the aureole is narrow the junction of granite with country rock may be vertical ; when the aureole is broad the granite may be a flat-topped mass which dips at low angles outwards on each side. When a broad aureole accompanies a vertical junction we may suppose that molten rock has flowed upwards along this boundary line for a prolonged period, and has gradually raised the rocks to a very high temperature, even at some distance away from the contact. Where the alteration is slight and local there is usually something in the composition of the rocks or in their crystalline state to account for this. No less important is the nature of the rocks involved. Where a granite intrudes into a succession of various types of sedimentary and igneous rocks the differences in their behaviour are often very marked. Sandstones alter less readily than shales or slates, and limestones, especially if they be marly or argillaceous, are often full of new minerals, when purer shales on each side of them are not visibly affected. Schists and gneisses, being already highly crystalline, are very resistant to thermal alteration, and may show it only for a few inches where they are in actual contact with the granite, or in minute fragments which have been broken off and surrounded by the invading magma. Igneous rocks, since they consist of minerals which have formed at very high temperatures, may show no change whatever. If they are decomposed, however, their secondary products, including those 'which fill veins and amygdaloidal cavities, are often entirely recrystallized in new combinations. Instances of this will be given later. The intensity of the alteration depends very greatly on the proximity to the intrusive rock. A typical aureole surrounding a granite boss, for example, consists of rocks in all stages of altera- tion, the most affected being nearest the granite, while as we travel outwards we pass over zones of successively diminishing meta- morphism. Around the granites of Cornwall, the Lake District and Ireland there are tracts of altered slate which show these stages very well. The first sign of metamorphism is a slight increase in hardness and glossiness, making the slate a little brighter and more brittle. This is due to the formation of mica in small crystalline plates mostly parallel to the cleavage of the rock. Nearer the granite a faint spotting is visible on broken surfaces of the slates, -■ and this becomes more pronounced as we enter the middle part of the aureole. These spotted slates, in Cornwall for instance, often occupy a zone a mile in breadth. They are less fissile than the unaltered slates and have rounded or elliptical spots about a quarter of an inch across. The spots are usually darker than the body of the slate, though sometimes paler. Angular, branched, lenticular and rhomboidal spots sometimes occur. Under the microscope these rocks consist mainly of brown mica, quartz and organic matters, iron oxides, &c. ; the spots may be due to aggregation of biotite or of quartz, but often differ little in composition from the surrounding rock. Their dark colour is due to .abundance of iron oxides or graphite, with chlorite and biotite. Still closer to the granite a development of crystals takes place in the slates; the commonest are andalusite, chiastolite (with cross-shaped dark enclosures), cordierite, staurolite and garnet. At the same time the minerals formerly enumerated crystallize in larger individuals (biotite, quartz, iron oxides, &c.) , so that the rock becomes rather more coarse-grained. At this stage the fissility and cleavage structures of the slate tend to be obliterated, and the rocks are dark, lustrous (from the abun- dance of mica), hard and splintery. To this type the name hornfels is given. The innermost zones of the aureole consist mainly of hornfelses, and where there are slate fragments enclosed in the granite they usually show these characters in their most pronounced form. The nature of the new minerals produced depends principally, of course, on the chemical composition of the rocks affectecL In pure sandstones only quartz is formed, and pure limestones merely recrystallize as marbles. Argillaceous rocks are characterized by abundance of alumina; hence, when thermally altered, they may contain corundum, or silicates of alumina such as sillimanite, kyanite, andalusite and chiastolite. Most rock masses, however, are far from pure and hence the variety of minerals which may arise in them from contact alteration is very great. Argillaceous limestones, for example, very frequently contain garnet, vesuvianite, wollaston- ite, diopside, tremolite, sphene, epidote and feldspar; that is to say, minerals in which lime is present along with silica, alumina, magnesia and other substances. Calcareous sandstones yield augite, garnet, sphene, epidote; argillaceous sandstones are characterized rather by biotite, sillimanite and spinel. In each case the materials already present in the rock have united to form 1 new mineral combinations. Crystallization has been stimulated by the rise of temperature, aided, no doubt, by moisture. Water vapour, even at comparatively low temperatures when the pressure is considerable, is a powerful mineralizing agent and greatly facilitates crystallization. Often the rocks acquire ultimately a pseudoporphyritic or porphyro-blastic structure, as they contain large or conspicuous crystals scattered through a finer grained ground-mass; not only these porphyritic ingredients but the body of the rock shows increased crystallization, for contact alteration as a rule makes rocks more coarse-grained than before. In rare instances fusion may take place, but this must be excep- tional, as the finest original structures are often very perfectly preserved by rocks which have been in great measure recrystallized. Finely laminated argillaceous sandstones, for example, may pass into cordierite — or andalusite — hornfelses showing a mineral banding which corresponds exactly with the original lamination. For this reason the newly developed minerals are not frequently of good crystalline form. When weathered out of the rock they have mostly rough, imperfect faces, but exceptions to this occur in garnet, staurolite, tourmaline and a few others which often produce good crystals even in these adverse circumstances. It is only true in a general way that the rocks which are thermally altered experience no change in their chemical composition. The new minerals which are substituted for the original ones are such as are stable at high temperatures. Many of the silicates which forma large part of sedimentary rocks contain combined water; examples are chlorite, kaolin and clay. The water, or part of it, is expelled, forming silicates with little or no water, e.g. biotite, felspar, andalusite. Carbonic acid may be retained or driven out; in a siliceous limestone the silica tends to combine with the lime producing calc-silicates by replacing the carbonic acid. In a pure limestone the carbonate merely recrystallizes as marble. This loss of volatile ingredients must occasion a diminution in the bulk of the sedi- mentary mass involved; in cooling there will be contraction, and fissures are produced which may be filled with igneous dikes or with METAMORPHISM 219 veins deposited by ascending hot waters. Hence contact aureoles are common sites for mineral deposits of economic value. In some aureoles the sediments or schists have their bedding and foliation planes wedged apart by the intrusive force of the granite, and are permeated by igneous material invading them along these fissures. In this way a melange is produced of sedimentary rock with threads and veinlets of igneous nature, and to some extent a blending of the two rocks takes place, though usually each preserves its identity however intimately mixed. In microscopic sections veins of granite not more than a tenth of an inch in width may be traced, sharply distinct from the slate or schist they penetrate. Cases, however, are described in which the rocks of the aureole have been felspathized or filled with new felspar derived from the granite ; this, however, is not common. Shales are often converted, when in contact with diabase, into pale-coloured, flinty-looking rocks known as adinoles. These are exceptionally rich in albite and contain as much as 10 % of soda, an amount which is not met with in unaltered shales. It seems probable that alkalis have been transferred from the igneous rock to the sedimentary, perhaps through the medium of the vapours exhaled. The breadth of the adinole belt is as a rule only a few inches or a foot or two. The vapours given off by intrusive igneous masses may contain substances which combine v/ith the ingredients of the surrounding rocks and thus modify their composition. Boron, fluorine and phosphorus are the principal elements which are transferred in this way, and minerals such as tourmaline, topaz and mica are the characteristic products in quartzose or argillaceous rocks; while apatite, fluorspar, axinite, datolite and chondrodite are commonest in limestones. This is a form of pneumatolytic action (see Pneu- matolysis). Extreme cases of the mutual interaction of the intrusive rock with the masses invaded by it are provided by the fragments enclosed in the molten magma (known as xenoliths). These are often rounded and eroded, as if softened or partly fused and dissolved. Similar changes are found in the rocks of the aureole for a few feet or yards where in actual contact with the granite. This belt of indurated hornfelses often weathers much more slowly than the igneous rock, and stands out as a prominent, sharp-edged ridge running round the granite margin. Where sediments are dissolved in igneous rock we may expect to find modifications in the chemical composition and in the minerals produced on crystallization of the magma. Some granites, for example, which contain many rounded, partly dissolved enclosures of slate are themselves full of corundum, andalusite, cordierite and other minerals, which appear to indicate the effect of absorbed slate material. Much discussion has taken place as to the importance of such processes in modifying the facies presented by igneous rocks. Granites are alleged to have absorbed impure limestones and thus to be changed to diorites (Pyrenees). At the contact of the two rocks a narrow zone of diorite intervenes between the granite and the limestone. In this case an acid rock has become basic (or inter- mediate) in character; similarly, basic rocks — such as gabbro — -are said to become granitic where they have melted down large quantities of felspathic quartzite. On the other side it is argued that as precisely the same modifications of the igneous rocks are known to occur where these explanations cannot possibly hold good — e.g. zones of diorite at the contact of granite with quartzite or mica- schist — they are really due to chemical segregation or differentiation • in the magma and not to any admixture with foreign material. Such modifications in the igneous rock at its contacts are often said to be endomorphic, while those which take place in the aureole or country rocks are exomorphic. The endomorphic changes are not always strictly of the nature of contact alteration. The commonest are the presence of a fine-grained, sometimes glassy, chilled edge due to rapid solidification from sudden cooling of the magma. The fine-grained marginal facies is often porphyritic, while the interior of the mass is granular or eugranitic. There is often a tendency to the development of special minerals in the edge of intrusive masses. Some of these arise probably from absorption of country rock, e.g. cordierite, andalusite, iron oxides (in granite). At the same time there may be a great abundance of angular or rounded enclosures, so that the marginal,rock is brecciform. Where granite penetrates gabbro the fragments of the latter are sometimes melted down and digested in the granite till only the crystals of their augite or diallage are left (Skye). Granite margins are not always more basic than the average of the mass; they may be ex- ceedingly rich in quartz and at the same time very coarse-grained or pegmatitic. This seems to arise from the production of fissures at the contact after the granite has to a large extent solidified. In these fissures the pegmatites are laid down by escaping vapours. Metasomatic changes are especially common also in this situation, and have often formed very valuable mineral deposits along igneous contacts. There also pneumatolytic processes often concentrate their attack; schorl-rock, greisen, topaz-rock and china-stone (or kaolinized granite) are characteristic products, and the active vapours often transform the sediments around, forming schorl- schist, calc-silicate rocks and sericite-schists. Regional Metamorphism. — The second kind of metamorphism is known as " regional " because it is not confined to narrow areas like contact metamorphism, but affects wide tracts of country. Metamorphic rocks of this kind often cover a large part of a con- tinent (e.g. the centre of Africa or Scandinavia and Finland). What- ever the causes be which produced it, they must have been of widespread operation and connected either with great geophysical processes or with definite stages of the earth's development. Where such rocks occur there is generally much evidence of earth move- ment accompanied by crushing and folding. They are very charac- teristic of the central axes of great mountain chains, especially when these have been denuded and their deeper cores exposed. Most geologists believe that this connexion is causal, holding that the contraction of the outer layers of the earth's crust, due to shrinkage of a nearly rigid shell upon a cooling and contracting interior, has bent and folded the rocks, and at the same time has crushed and largely recrystallized them. According to this view regional metamorphism is the result of pressure and folding; hence the name dynamo-metamorphism is frequently applied to it. A great number of observations collected in all regions of the globe may be adduced in support of this hypothesis, forming a mass of evidence so strong as to be almost overwhelming. The structural features which prove that there has been great folding in these rocks are accompanied by microscopic and lithological characters which demonstrate that extensive crushing has taken place. Through progressive stages a slate with fossils may be traced into a phyllite, which becomes a mica-schist, or, in places, a micaceous gneiss. At first the fossils are distorted or torn apart, but they disappear as crystallization advances. Limestones under great pressure flow almost like plastic masses, losing their fossils and becoming crystalline. Grits, quartzites and granites show the effects of crushing in the pulverization of their minerals and the breaking down of their original clastic or.igneous textures, fine slabby mylo- nites (q.v.) and granulites being produced. Moreover, the degree of metamorphism in the rock can often be shown to correspond closely to the extent to which it has been folded and crushed. Another argument in favour of dynamo-metamorphism, which has been urged with much insistence by the extreme supporters of these theories, is the retention of original chemical characters in the metamorphic rocks. Some of them bear unmistakably the stamp of sedimentary origin, e.g. the limestones and marbles, quartzites, graphite-schists and aluminous mica-schists. Others have the normal composition of granites, diorites, gabbros and other types of plutonic igneous rocks. This leads to the inference that these were originally normal sediments and intrusives or lavas, and that their present crystalline state and foliated structure are the result of agencies which operated on them subsequently to their formation. Where the degree of metamorphism is not too high, and the folding and dislocation not too complex, the sand- stones, shales and limestones may be mapped out, and igneous bosses, dikes and sills, with their contact aureoles, veins, pegmatites and segregations, convincingly delineated on the maps. This shows that a whole complex or terrane, consisting of diverse peno- logical types of normal sediments and igneous rocks, may be con- verted by metamorphism into a great series of gneisses and schists. Although recrystallization has been complete, the original rock masses still retain their identity in their new state. The metamorphism in a rock series may be of nearly uniform intensity over a large area; the sediments, for example, may have all their clastic and organic structures effaced, and in the igneous rocks the porphyritic, ophitic, graphic and other textures may have completely disappeared. This, however, is not always the case, especially when the metamorphism is not of very intense degree. Parts of the rock may retain original structures, while others are typical crystalline schists and gneisses. Kernels, lumps or phacoids of massive rock are often found embedded in schists, and it is clear upon inspection that the phacoids represent the original state of the rock, while the schist is the effect of meta- morphism. At other times a rock mass, such as an intrusive sill, is schistose at its edges and surrounded by schistose sediments, while near its centre, it is almost entirely massive. The hard igneous rock has proved more rigid than the soft and plastic sedi- ments; in folding, the latter have yielded to the stresses, and internal movement has produced foliation. The crystalline rock of the intrusive sheet has been strong enough to withstand the pres- sures and has folded like a rigid mass. At the junctions the effect of differential movement is shown by the presence of a belt of rock which often has a most pronounced schistosity. Some intrusive dikes show foliation especially marked along their edges ; or they , may be traversed by planes of movement, running obliquely or directly across them, and characterized by the development of very marked schistosity. Exceedingly sudden transitions between normal igneous rocks and schists or gneisses have been described in sheared dikes. A normal dolerite, with ophitic structure and abundant augite, has been shown to pass in a few feet or inches into an epidiorite, where hornblende has replaced the primary augite, and lastly into a perfectly typical hornblende-schist, com- pletely recrystallized* with development of epidote, green horn- blende, sphene and other minerals of metamorphic facies from the original constituents of the dolerite. These phenomena are regarded as establishing that the rock had consolidated as a normal dolerite before the processes which caused the metamorphism began to act; that these processes resulted in internal movement in the rock 220 METAMORPHISM mass along certain narrow belts; and that recrystallization was set up along with the development of schistose structure. The operat- ing cause cannot have been anything but pressure, especially as the foliated rocks occur not infrequently in lines of dislocation u ^\\ eaT; in other cases tne foliated types are at the margins of the dike, and the transition from massive igneous rock to meta- morphic schist may take place within the space of one inch. The best examples of phenomena of this order are those described by J. J. H. Teall from Scourie in the north- west of Scotland. Where rocks of any kind are traversed by powerful dislocations or thrusts they often present a schistose facies in the immediate vicinity of the planes of movement. In the Highlands of Scotland great thrusts occur, along which the rocks are displaced for distances which may be as much as ten miles; and immediately adjoining these thrust-planes very perfect foliation is induced in all kinds of rocks, sedimentary, igneous or metamorphic, which have been involved in the movements. The minute structure of these rocks is generally of the mylonitic, granulitic or finely crushed type. In the same way the serpentine of the Lizard in Cornwall passes into fine talcose and tremolitic schists along narrow zones of displacement. Many other examples of this might be cited from regions where folding and crushing have taken place on a large scale. As a rule, almost without exception, the foliation thus produced is parallel to the direction of movement in the rock masses. In the mineral transformations which accompany metamorphism the operation of pressure is no less clearly indicated. There are for example, three minerals which consist of silicate of alumina' viz andalusite, sillimanite and kyanite. The last of these has the highest specific gravity. In andalusite-bearing rocks which have been sheared, with production of foliation, we sometimes find pseudomorphs of kyanite after andalusite, retaining the character- istic torm of the original mineral. Compression, it seems reasonable to suppose, would produce that one of the three crystalline silicates ot alumina which has its molecules most closely packed, and con- sequently the highest specific gravity. This explains the conversion of andalusite into kyanite. The principle that substances tend to assume that mineral form which has the least molecular volume is ot wide application among metamorphic rocks. It has been calculated, for example, that when olivine and anorthite felspar are replaced by garnet (a change which takes place not infrequently when basic igneous rocks are metamorphosed) the molecular volume ot the mineral aggregate diminishes from 145 to 121 or about 17% On the other hand, when garnet is fused it recrystallizes as a mixture of olivine and anorthite. This has led to the generalization that all minerals formed by the crystallization of a fused magma at high temperatures have a large molecular volume, while those which are produced in rocks at temperatures below their fusion points and under great pressures have smaller molecular volumes Loewinson Lessing pointed out that some minerals have a greater molecular volume than the oxides which enter into their composi- tion; in other minerals the reverse holds good. The former group are, on the whole, characteristic of igneous rocks and products of contact alteration, both of which classes have been formed at high temperatures (e.g. wollastonite, spinel, nepheline, leucite and andalusite). The mmerals of the second group are often of common occurrence in metamorphic schists and gneisses (e.g. staurolite kyanite, hornblende, talc, epidote and garnet). Although there are exceptions to this rule, there can be no doubt that it expresses a generalization which is of great value in the study of mineral paragenesis. The mineral changes are usually not of so simple a kind as those above enumerated. Mutual interaction takes place between adjacent components of the rocks. Titaniferous iron oxides, for example, obtain silica and lime from such minerals as augite or lime felspar and sphene results. Felspar often breaks up into epidote, quartz and albite; the epidote obtains its iron from adjacent crystals of augite or hornblende. Equations can be written to show the transformation of one rock to another; thus, diabase (labradonte, augite, ilmemte) may be converted into amphibolite (acid plagioclase, hornblende, garnet, sphene and quartz). In this case the molecular volumes are for diabase 671 and for amphi- bolite 635-6, indicating a diminution on metamorphism. Many striking illustrations of this principle have been adduced. Caution however, is required in applying it to concrete cases; if it was always strictly correct the metamorphic rocks should have higher i^nn° a g r £r t,eS v tha V heir representatives among sediments and igneous rocks. Very frequently this is not the case, and there must be some counteracting process at work. We find this antago- nistic principle in the tendency for the minerals of metamorphic rh\ k V°, co nt ^, m . water , of combination, e.g. .epidote, muscovite, chlorite, hornblende, talc. This indicates that they Were formed at comparatively low temperatures. We arrive then by many independent lines of reasoning (strati- graphical microscopical, chemical and minerafogical evidence being abundantly available) at the conclusion that pressure acting on sedimentary and igneous rocks at temperatures below their fusion points has been able to change them into metamorphic rocks. This is the theory of dynamo-metamorphism, which has won acceptance trom the majority of geologists who have made the petrology of metamorphic rocks their special study. It has still, however many incisive critics, and in recent years dissent has on the whole gained strength. One of the principal objections is that by these processes it is possible to destroy original structures and to break down the ra ' n ™ of whlc h a rock consists, but not to induce crystallization and build up rock structures of a new type. It is pointed out that in many regions the rocks though intensely folded are not highly metamorphic; in other places immense dislocations can be proved to exist, yet the rocks are only slightly altered or are converted into nne-grained mylomtes and not into typical schists and gneisses Conversely, it is argued, there are many districts where meta- morphism is very intense, yet evidence of folding and pressure is only slight It seems clear that another factor must be taken into account, and in all probability that factor is the action of water in rocks at a comparatively high temperature. All rock masses contain interstitial water, and many also consist of minerals in some ot which water exists in combination. Hence all meta- morphism must be regarded as taking place in presence of water It is almost equally certain that metamorphism must be accom- panied by a rise of temperature in nearly every case— in fact it is dimcult to imagine such a process going on without considerable heat. Now heated water (or water vapour) is a most potent mmerahzer Crystals of quartz, for example, have been produced in glass tubes containing a little water, heated in a furnace to a temperature of about 300° C. The heat required for the more intense stages of metamorphism may be derived from more than one source. Most regions of gneiss and schists contain igneous rocks in the form of great intrusive masses These rocks themselves are frequently gneissose, and the possibility must not be overlooked that they were injected into the older rocks at a time when folding was going on. The meta- morphism would then be partly of the contact type and partly the effect of pressure and movement, " pressure-contact-metamorphism." I he vapours already present would be augmented by those given out from the igneous rock and intensely crystalline, foliated masses, otten containing minerals found in contact zones (andalusite cordiente sillimanite, staurolite, &c), would be produced. Cases are now known where it is in every way probable that the meta- morphism is the result of a combination of causes of this order borne of the Alpine schists which surround the central granite gneisses have been referred to this group. Heat must also have been produced by the crushing of the rock components. In many metamorphic rocks we find hard minerals possessing little cleavage (such as quartz) reduced to an exceedingly fine state of _division, and it is clear that the stresses which have acted on regions of metamorphic rocks are often so powerful that all the minerals may have been completely shattered. The inter- stitial movement of the particles must also have generated heat I here are no experimental data to enable us to say what rise of temperature may have been produced in this way, but we cannot doubt that it was considerable. If the crushing was slow the heat generated may have been conducted away to the surface almost as fast as it was produced. If the belt of crushing was narrow, heat would rapidly pa.ss away into the colder rocks beyond. This mav explain why in some rocks there has been much grinding down but little crystallization. The heat also may be absorbed in promoting chemical combinations of the endothelial type, but it is not likely that much was used up in this way. With rising temperature the rocks would become more plastic and fold more readily. Then if the crushing and folding ceased, a long period would follow in which the temperature gradually fell. The minerals would crystallize in larger grains after the well-known law that the larger particles tend i iI 0W . at the , ^ ense , of t he L smaller ones, and^finely granulitic aggregates would be replaced by mosaics of coarser structure If there has been a considerable rise of temperature we might exoect analogies in structure and constitution between the folded rocks and those which come from a contact aureole; this has in fact been noted by many geologists. Another factor which must have been of importance is the depth below the surface at which the rocks lay at the time when they were folded In the deeper zones the pressures must have been greater and the escape of the heat generated must have been less rapid 1 he uppermost members of a complex which was undergoing foldine are under the lowest pressures, are at the lowest temperatures and probably also contain most moisture. Hence minerals such as epidote chlorite, albite, sericite and carbonates, which are often" produced by weathering alone, might be expected to prevail In the deepest zones the temperature and pressure are high from the hrst and are increased by folding; such minerals as biotite, augite garnet, felspar, sillimanite, kyanite and staurolite might be produced under these conditions. The earth's crust might in this way be divided into bathymetnc zones, each of which was characterized by distinctive types of mineral paragenesis. Some geologists ascribe the greatest importance to this conception; they establish two or three types of metamorphism, each of which belongs, in their opinion, to a definite horizon. This is to some extent a resuscitation of the old idea, now discarded, that the Archean rocks are sediments of a. peculiar kind formed only in the heated waters of the primal globe- the hrst deposits were laid down un<1er great heat and pressure and METAMORPHOSIS 221 are typical gneisses which may resemble igneous rocks; the schists of later origin exhibit a progressive transition to normal sediments. Without admitting that it is possible to classify metamorphic rocks according to the depth at which they were situated when meta- morphosed, we may admit that there is much reason to believe that the more intense stages of alteration characterize as a rule the rock masses which were oldest or most deeply situated during the epoch of folding. While rocks near the surface which are under comparatively slight pressures yield to stress by fracturing, it is conceivable that at greater depths the minerals would become plastic and suffer deforma- tion without rupture. For this zone of " flowage," as he terms it, van Hise estimates a depth of not more than 12 kilometres, depend- ing on many factors such as the strength of the rocks and nature of the minerals concerned, thq temperature, amount of moisture and rapidity of the deformation. -Between it and the zone of fracture, which lies above*, a gradual transition must take place. Doelter, on the other hand, believes that the depth at which plastic flow begins must be at least 35 kilometres; it is difficult to imagine that rocks which have been so profoundly buried can now be exposed at any part of the earth's, surface. In the attempt to' explain, the existence of large masses of meta- morphic rocks which are perfectly foliated, but at the same time coarsely crystalline, and show no grinding down of their components, as might be expected on the hypothesis of pure dynamo-meta- morphism, F. Becke brought into prominence another principle which may prove to be widely applicable. Although known as Riecke's law, it was advanced many years ago by Sorby. It enunci- ates that when minerals are subjected to unilateral pressure (acting in a definite direction and not like hydrostatic pressure, equally in all directions) they tend to be dissolved on those sides which face the pressure, while the sides which are not compressed tend to grow by additional deposit. Minerals having platy or rod-like forms will thus be produced, all having a parallel orientation, and the rock will be schistose, with foliation corresponding in direction to the extension of the mineral plates, and perpendicular to the stresses which were in action. The solvents which dissolve the mineral on one side and deposit it on the other side are the interstitial moisture and vapours present in the rock. By this means schists and gneisses will be produced, which are perfectly foliated yet have their minerals homogeneous and uncrushed. Experimental data are at present wanting to show how far this principle is operative and what are its limits, but as a supplementary contribution to the theory of dynamo- metamorphism it may prove to be of great importance. This has been described as the development of " schistosity by crystalliza- tion." More interesting still are E. Weinschenk's theories of pressure- crystallization and piezo-crystallization (pressure-contact action). He adduces evidence to show that many gneisses are igneous rocks which were foliated from the first, and a large body of observations in many European countries confirms his statement. In his opinion plutonic rocks crystallizing under certain conditions of pressure necessarily assume a banded structure, and contain minerals which are not identical with those of igneous rocks but with the components o.f schists and gneisses. In the surrounding rocks there is contact alteration but not of the ordinary type as the recrystallized products also have a banding or foliation owing to the pressure acting on them during metamorphism. Bonney urged tha hypothesis that many gneisses are merely plutonic igneous rocks which exhibit a flow banding and an imperfect idiomorphism of their minerals owing to their having been injected in a half -solid state; the component crystals by mutual attrition assume rounded or lenticular forms. Undoubtedly there: is much truth in ■these hypotheses, yet in both cases they seem to necessitate the presence of extraordinary earth- pressures such as accompany mountain building. We know that heat greatly increases the plasticity of rocks. Assuming that intrusions take placd during an epoch of earth movement, we may be certain that as solidification goes on the pressures will force the rock forward, and the structures will be very different from those assumed by a rock which has crystallized in a condition of rest. Lastly, there are many geologists who hold that certain kinds of gneiss are due to the injection of plutonic igneous rocks as masses of all sizes into sedimentary schists forming a melange. The igneous rock veins the sediment in every direction; the veins are often exceedingly thin and nearly parallel or branch again and again. In this way a banding or foliation is set up, and the mixed rock has the appearance of a gneiss. In the sediment, intensely heated, new minerals are set up. The igneous rock digests or absorbs the materials which it penetrates; and it is often impossible to say what is igneous and what is sedimentary. Acid intrusions may in this way break up and partly assimilate older basic rocks. Very good examples of this process are known, and they may be much more common than is at present suspected. Conditions which favour assimilation at great depths are the enormous pressures and the high temperature of the earth's crust; the igneous rocks may also be much above their consolidation points. It is quite reasonable 1 to believe that at deep levels absorption of sediments by igneous masses goes on extensively, while in higher zones there is little or none of this action. (J. S. F.) METAMORPHOSIS, a term used in zoology in different senses by different authors, and sometimes in different senses by the same author. E. Korschelt and K. Heider, in their work on the development of the Invertebrata, usually apply it to the whole of the larval development. For instance, in their account of the Bryozoa, they say (p. 18, part 2, of the English translation) : " The metamorphosis of a Bryozoan larva comprises a more or less protracted free-swimming stage during which no perceptible advance is made in the development of the larva, and the subsequent somewhat complicated changes which bring about its transformation into the first primary zooid of the young Bryozoan colony." Throughout their account of the Crustacea they use the word in the same sense, i.e. as applied to the whole of the changes which the larva undergoes in passing into the adult. On the other hand, in their account of Mollusca they seem to restrict the term to the final change by which the larva passes into the adult form (op. cit., part 4, p. 14). F. Balfour in his great work on Compara- tive Embryology seems to limit the word to a sudden change in the larval history. For instance, he says: " The chief point of interest in the above development is the fact of the primitive nauplius form becoming gradually converted without any special metamorphosis into the adult condition " (Comparative Embryology, 1885, i. 463). " By the free Cypris stage into which the larva next passes a very complete metamorphosis has been effected " (op. cit. i. 490). " The change under- gone by the Tadpole in its passage into the Frog is so con- siderable as to deserve the name of a metamorphosis " (op. cit. ii. 137). Finally and most decisively he says in his general account of larvae: " In the larval type [of develop- ment] they are born at an earlier stage of development, in a condition differing to a greater or less extent from the adult, and reach the adult state either by a series of small steps or by a more or less considerable metamorphosis " (op. cit. ii. 360). Here the term will be used in the sense of the last quota- tions from Balfour and will be regarded as applicable only to those cases of sudden and marked change which fre- quently occur at the end of the larval period and sometimes at more or less frequent intervals during its course (Crustacea). Some authors (see H. G. Bronn, Thierreich, " Myriapoda," Bd. 5, Abth. 2, p. 113) have applied the term " metamorphosis " only to those cases of larval development in which the young leaves the egg with provisional organs which are lost in the later development. Such authors apply the term " anamorphosis " to cases in which the just-hatched young is without provisional organs but differs from the adult in size, and in the number of segments and joints, &c. Such writers apply the term " epimorphosis " when there is merely an acquisition of sexual maturity and increase in size after birth or hatching. The essential feature of metamorphosis is the sudden bursting into function of new organs, whether these organs suddenly arise or have been gradually formed, without becoming func- tional in preceding larval stages. Another feature of it is the disappearance of organs which have been of use to the larva but which are not required at all or are not required in the same form in the new environment. The term is only used in connexion with larval development and is not applied to the sudden changes, due to a change of environment (e.g. the passage of the mammalian embryo from the oviduct into the uterus), which sometimes occur in embryos. Neither is it used in connexion with the suddeti changes of conditions which occur at the birth or hatching of an embryo, although, especially* in the case of birth, this event is frequently accompanied by profound morphological alteration. The most familiar examples of metamorphosis are the abrupt changes which occur at the end of the larval history of the frog and of many insects. In both these cases there is a sudden and great change of environment; there is a sudden demand for new organs which would have been quite useless in the old environment, and organs which were of use in the old environ- ment and are of no use in the new have to be eliminated. The two examples we have chosen have the advantage of showing us the two methods by which the crisis in the life-history is met. 222 METAMORPHOSTS In the frog (fig. i) the structural changes which obtain full fruition at the metamorphosis take place gradually during the previous tadpole life. They relate mainly to the alterations of the respiratory organs and vascular system which are required for the purely terrestrial life of the frog, and to the appearance of the paired limbs. The changes in the respiratory and vascular After Leuckart and Nitsche's Wandtafeln, by permission of T G. Fisher & Co. Fig. i. — Drawings illustrating the metamorphosis of the frog (Rana lemporaria). A, Side view of an advanced tadpole with well-developed posterior limbs; the anterior limbs are present but hidden beneath the operculum. B, Ventral view of the same with operculum removed showing the anterior limbs in situ; the ventral body wall has also been removed and the heart (hi) and intestine exposed, (br) Gills; (KL) spiracle. C, A frog after the metamorphosis but before the absorption of the tail. organs are led up to in the tadpole, which during the greater part of its aquatic life is a truly amphibious animal, breathing by lungs as well as by gills; but a sudden change occurs in these organs at the metamorphosis. The limbs which were slowly formed during tadpole life — the posterior pair visibly, the anterior under cover of the operculum (fig. i, B) — are of no use to the tadpole and must constitute a pure burden to it. The principal events of the metamorphosis are the sudden appear- ance of the anterior limbs, and the complete closure of the gill aperture (fig. i, C). The appearance of the anterior limbs and the acquisition of functional importance by both pairs enable the frog to leave the water and pass on to the land to lead its terrestrial life. The other larval organs, such as the gills and the tail, gradually shrink in size and ultimately vanish. In the case of the gills this shrinkage had begun before the meta- morphosis, but the tail shows no sign of diminution until the frog is ready to pass on to the land. The distinguishing feature of this type of metamorphosis is that the animal is burdened for a certain period, both before and after, with organs which are useless to it. In the next type, which is exemplified by the metabolous Insecta, this occurs to a much smaller extent, although the changes of habitat and the cor- responding changes of structure are more remarkable. In insecta the change is usually from a terrestrial or aquatic habitat to an aerial one. The larva of a butterfly is a worm-like organism which creeps on and voraciously devours the foliage of certain plants (fig. 2, C). During its life it undergoes much growth, but no important change in structure. When it leaves the egg After Leuckart and Nitsche's Wandtafeln, by per- mission of T. G. Fisher & Co. it is adapted to live and feed on a particular species of plant, on or near which the eggs are deposited by the parent butterfly. It has powerful biting jaws by which it procures its veg'etable food. The adult, on the other hand, is a winged creature which also lives on plants but in quite a different way to the larva (fig. 2, A). It flies from plant to plant and obtains its food by sucking the juices of flowers and other parts. The power- ful mandibles of the larva have disappeared and in their place we find a suctorial proboscis formed by the first maxillae [fig. 2, A (4)]. Between the larva and the adult insect there is interposed a resting stage, the so-called pupa (fig. 2, B), during which no food is taken, but very important changes of structure occur. These Fig. 2.— Three stages in the life- changes consist of two history of the cabbage butterfly, Pieris processes: (1) histolysis, brassicae, L. hv which most of the A ' Ima S° (female), side view. by wnicti most ot tne B p fixed by a cord across the larval organs are de- middle of the body and by the tail, stroyed by the action of C, Caterpillar. phagocytes; and (2) his- (1) Forewing; (5) thoracic legs; tOgenesis by which the gj «*««£ gj hawing; corresponding organs of $ first maxilla; (8) the thorax; the imago are developed (9) the abdomen, some of the segments from the imaginal disks. of which in the caterpillar carry a pair The imaginal disks ap- of prolegs (10). pear to arise in the embryo in which they develop, some of them from the epiblast and some from the hypoblast. They persist practically unchanged through larval life and become active as centres of growth in the pupa. The pupal stage in such a metamorphosis may be compared to a second embryonic stage in whith the organs of the adult assume their final shape. In this kind of metamorphosis the larval organs are entirely got rid of in the pupal stage, during which the insect is as a rule incapable of locomotion and takes no food; and the new formation of organs — especially those of locomotion and alimentation — which is necessitated by the totally different habits of the larva and mature insect, is also accomplished at the same period, largely, no doubt, at the expense of the material afforded by the disrupted larval organs. The larva itself does not form any of these organs and carry them about during its active life, though it does possess the very minute centres of growth known as the imaginal disks which burst into activity after the larval life is over. It must not be sup- posed that in all insects in which the sexual animal has a different habitat from the young form, there is a metamorphosis of the kind just described. In the may-flies and dragon-flies, in which the larva is aquatic, the change is prepared for some time before the actual metamorphosis, the organs which afe» necessary for the aerial existence being gradually acquired during larval life. In such cases, the metamorphosis belongs to our first type and consists of the act by which the organs previously and gradually acquired suddenly become functional. We have now considered in detail two typical cases of meta- morphosis. In the first the change is gradually led up to and the larva is burdened, in its later stages at least, with organs which are of no use to it and only become functional at the metamorphosis. In the other, the change is not led up to. It is sudden, and a kind of second embryonic period is established METAMORPHOSIS 223 to enable the important and far-reaching transformation to be accomplished. It is clear that the two kinds of metamorphosis AandB after Fritz Miiller in Archiv.fUr Naturgeschichte, vol. xxix., 1863; C, D t and E after C. Claus, Untersuch. zur Erforschung Crustaceen-Systems. Fig. 3. — Drawings showing various stages in the larval history of Penaeus. A, Nauplius larva, dorsal v ; ew, showing the three pairs of appendages and the simple median eye. B, Protozoaea larva, dorsal view, the rudiments of the paired eyes are visible through the cuticle, by which the rudiments of the maxillae are still covered. C, Older Protozoaea, dorsal view; the six posterior thoracic segments are distinct, but the five abdominal segments are still hidden beneath the skin. D, Zoaea larva, ventral view, with the rudiments of the thoracic limbs and the appendages of the sixth abdominal segment. E, Mysis stage, side view; the thoracic and abdominal appendages have been developed. (1) first antenna; (9) thorax; (2) second „ (10) abdomen; (3) mandible; (11) liver; (4) first maxilla; (12) frontal sense organ, just be- (5) second „ hind which are the compound (6) first maxilliped; eyes; (7) second ,, (ai) to (a6) the six abdominal (8) third „ appendages. only differ in degree and that no line can be drawn between them. In the Crustacea, as has already been pointed out, many authors apply the term metamorphosis to the whole larval development, which consists of a series of changes leading to the adult form. But this is in our opinion an incorrect use of the word. The typical larval development of a Crustacean consists of a series of small metamorphoses. At each moult new organs which have been developed since the preceding moult become manifest and some of them functional. For instance, the prawn Penaeus leaves the egg as a nauplius larva (fig. 3, A). It issues from the first moult as a metanauplius which has a forked tail, a beginning of the cephalo-thoracic shield, and a large helmet-shaped upper lip. It also possesses stump-like rudiments of the maxillae and two anterior pairs of maxillipeds. After the next moult it is known as a protozoaea (fig. 3, B), in which a cephalo-thoracic shield is well developed, the posterior part of the body is prolonged into a tail, in the anterior part of which the thoracic segments are obscurely indicated, and the four pairs of stump-like rudiments have become functional appendages [fig. 3, B (4), (5), (6), (7)]. This passes into a later protozoaea stage (C) in which the rudiments of the compound eyes and of the abdominal segments are visible beneath the cuticle and in which certain functional changes (jointing, &c.) have appeared in the limbs. This is succeeded by the zoaea stage (fig. 3, D), characterized by the stalked and functional condition of the eyes, the increased size of the abdominal segments, and the appearance of appen- dages on the sixth of them, the increase of size in the third pair of maxillipeds (8) which had appeared as small rudiments in the preceding stage, and the appearance of the five pairs of posterior thoracic limbs as small biramous appendages. The zoaea stage is followed by the mysis stage (fig. 3, E) in which the thoracic feet are biramous, as in Mysis. From this the adult form proceeds. The transformation is more gradual than would be gathered from this short description, because moults Aftei C. Claus, Untersuch. zur Erforschung Crustaceen-Systems . Fig. 5. — M etanauplius larva of Bal- anus (Naples), immediately pre- ceding the Cypris larva; ventral view. The six pairs of biramous appendages of the Cypris stage are visible beneath the cuticle. The median simple eye and the compound eye are both visible. (1) first antenna; (2) second ,, (3) mandibles; (4) rudiment of the maxilla ; (5) first pair of biramous limbs.; (6) sixth ,, „ (7) upper lip; (8) frontal sense organs. occur during the later stages from each of which the larva comes with some slight transformation. In the life-history of a typical Cirripede there may be said to be two distinct metamorphoses, with gradual developmental stages taking place between them. The animal is hatched as a nauplius. This undergoes a series of moults during which increase in size and slight changes in form occur (fig. 4, A, B). At the last of them several organs characteristic of the second After Spence Bate in Annals and Magazine of Nat. History, vol. 8, 2nd series, 1851. Fig. 4. — Nauplius of Balanus balanoides. A, As just hatched; B, After the first moult. (1) first pair of nauplius ap- pendages ; (2) second „ ,, (3) third „ " „ (4) upper lip ; (5) frontal sense organ. 224 METAPHOR— METAPHYSICS or Cypris stage are discernible [fig. 5 (5), (6)] beneath the cuticle. When this is moulted the free-swimming cypris larva is liberated with its six pairs of biramous thoracic legs, its bivalve shell, and its paired compound eyes (fig. 6). This is the first metamor- phosis. After a certain period of free life the Cypris larva attaches itself by its anterior antennae to some foreign object and enters upon the pupal stage (fig. 7). During this the larva takes no food and ceases to move, and undergoes important changes of structure and form beneath the larval cuticle, which invests it like a pupal case. These changes lead to the After C. Claus, Schriflm der Gesetlsch. tur Beford. der gesamtnten Naturwissen. %u Marburg. Fig. 6. — Cypris larva fascicularis. (1) first antenna; (2) compound eye; (3) simple eye; (4) biramous appendages After C. Claus, Untersuch. zur Erfor- scfiung Cruslaceen-Syslems. Fig. 7. — Pupa of Lepas pedinata in optical section, of Lepas (1) first antenna ; (6) tergum: (2) compound (7) biramous eye ; feet ; (3) liver; (8) carina; (4) simple eye ; (9) cement (5) scutum; gland. attainment of the adult form and structure. When they are completed the cuticle, including the shell- valves, is cast off and the young cirriped emerges. This is the second and final metamorphosis, which resembles in its main features the meta- morphosis of the metabolous Insecta. Metamorphosis occurs in most groups of the animal kingdom. It is generally found in attached organisms, for these nearly always have free-swimming larvae and the metamorphosis occurs when the change of habit is effected. For the details of the process the reader is referred to systematic works on zoology. Here only the most striking instances of it can be mentioned. It occurs in a remarkable form in some sponges, in which at the metamorphosis the larval epidermis, which acts as a locomotive organ, is said to become transformed into the collared flagellated cells of the canal system, the adult epidermis being a new formation. It occurs in the Polyzoa, and is, in some of these, characterized by an almost complete disruption of the larval organs and a subsequent new formation of the organs of the adult. The metamorphosis in such cases belongs to our second type, the new organs being new forma- tions at the metamorphosis and not developed from rudiments which make their appearance in the earlier larval history. In Phoronis the metamorphosis of the larva (Actinotrocha); which occurs on fixation, is gradually led up to, but the mode of destruc- tion of some of the larval organs is peculiar; the brain and sense organs of the larva pass into the stomach and are digested. In the Tunicata, in which fixation of the free larva is effected by the head, as in Cirripedia and some, if not all, Polyzoa, the metamorphosis occurs entirely after fixation as a rapid series of developmental changes which occur ad hoc and are not prepared for by preceding changes. In Am- phioxus there is no metamorphosis though the larval changes are most remarkable and extensive, but the larval life is a long one and the development very gradual, the new organs coming into function as soon as they are formed. In most Mollusca there is also a prolonged and important larval life, marked by very interesting stages of structure (trochosphere, veliger, &c), but it is not usual to speak of a metamorphosis for the changes are gradual, each organ developing with great rapidity and coming into function at once. In certain forms, however, a metamorphosis occurs, e.i. in the glochidium larva of Anodonla, which embeds itself in the skin of a fish and there metamorphoses into the adult. In the Echinodermata there is a particular stage in the larval history, when the ciliary locomotive apparatus breaks up and is ab- sorbed and the animal takes to its creeping adult life. This metamorphosis is gradually prepared for in the precedent larval development by changes which ultimately lead to the complete establishment of the adult radial symmetry. The metamorphosis belongs therefore to our first (After J. Muller.) Fig. 8. — A ventral view of a bipinnaria carrying the body of the young star-fish. type, but it is remarkable for the heavy burden of adult structures which the larva, in its later stages at least, carries about (fig. 8). The adult body is, in the main, fashioned out of the larval body, and it takes over most of the organs of the latter; but as a rule the adult mouth, oesophagus and anus are new formations, and the central nervous system of the larva when present shares the fate of the larval locomotory apparatus. In Asteroids and Crinoids the metamorphosis is accompanied by fixation to foreign objects, the fixation being effected as in Cirripedes by the preoral lobe. In the Vertebrata a metamorphosis occurs in the lamprey and the Amphibia. The metamorphosis of the lamprey is peculiar. It lives for three or four years as a sexless larva, known as the ammo- coete. It then quite rapidly (in three or four days) undergoes a series of changes and becomes converted into the adult. The metamorphosis affects the alimentary canal, the eyes, the respiratory apparatus and other organs, and especially the reproductive organs, which become mature. The adult lives for a few months only, spawning soon after the metamorphosis. This metamorphosis belongs to our second type, but there does not appear to be any resting stage during the few "days in which it is effected. In the Amphibia the metamorphosis is fairly exemplified by that of the frog. In many fishes there is a considerable larval development, but this is perfectly gradual and there does not appear to be any- thing of the nature of a metamorphosis. In most cases of metamorphosis those organs of the larva, which are found also in the adult, persist through the transformation, undergoing merely the ordinary modifications of development. But it sometimes happens that such organs are completely destroyed and rebuilt during the metamorphosis. This is conspicuously the case in the metabolous Insecta, in some of which all the internal organs undergo disruption and are reformed. It happens also in those nemertine worms which develop by a larva ; in these the larval epidermis is cast off, a new one having been formed. It is possible that the same phenomenon occurs in sponges. In most Echino- derms a similar phenomenon is observed with regard to the oeso- phagus and the mouth and anus. The probable explanation of this remarkable phenomenon would appear to be that in certain cases the larval organs become so highly specialized in connexion with the larval life that they are unable to undergo further change; new formation is therefore necessary. The phenomenon is one of con- siderable interest, for it is found in the case of the blastopore, in cases in which there is no metamorphosis, sometimes even in embry- onic development. There can be little doubt that the mouth and anus are both genetically connected with the earlier blastopore and that the blastopore is homologous in most animals; and yet how seldom does the blastopore become transformed into the adult openings and how various is its fate. The hypothesis suggested above applies' completely to this behaviour of the blastopore; that is to say, it is suggested that the primitive mouth or blastopore becomes, or has become in some vanished larval history, so highly specialized in connexion with larval needs that it is unable to give rise to both mouth and anus, and in some cases to either. (A. Se.*) METAPHOR (Gr. juera^opa, transfer of sense, from nera^kp^v, to carry over), a figure of speech, which consists in the trans- ference to one object of an attribute or name which strictly and literally is not applicable to it, but only figuratively and by analogy. It is thus in essence an emphatic comparison, which if expressed formally is a " simile " (Lat. similis, like) ; thus it is a metaphorical expression to speak of a ship ploughing her way through the waves, but a simile when it takes the form of " the ship, like a plough, moves," &c. The " simple " metaphor, such as the instance given, becomes the " continued " metaphor when the analogy or similitude is worked out in a series of phrases and expressions based on the primary metaphor; it is in such " continued metaphors " that the solecism of " mixed " metaphors is likely to occur. METAPHYSICS, or Metaphysic (from Gr. i*era, after, 4>v{xtls, i.e. the natural universe) , the accepted name of one of the four great departments of philosophy iq.v.). The term was first applied to one of the treatises of Aristotle on the basis of the arrangement of the Aristotelian canon mad^ by Andronicus of Rhodes, in which it was placed " after the physical treatises " with the description to. ixerb. to. vaiKa. The term was used not in the modern sense of above or transcending nature (a sense which jjierk cannot bear), but simply to convey the idea that the treatise so-called comes " after " the physical treatises. 1 It is therefore nothing more than a literary accident that the term has been applied to that department or discipline of philosophy which deals with first principles. Aristotle himself described the subject matter of the treatise as "First 1 On the true order of the Aristotelian treatises see Aristotlb. SCIENCE OF BEING] METAPHYSICS 225 Philosophy " or " Theology," which deals with being as being (Metaph. Y. i., harlv eiricrr^ij r« rj Beupet t6 ov fi bv Kal rd. Toinq imapxovTo. naff' avrb). From this phrase is derived the later term " Ontology " (q.v.). The misapprehension of the significance of /uera led to various mistaken uses of the term " metaphysics," e.g. for that which is concerned with the supernatural, not only by the schoolmen but even as late as 17th-century English writers, and within narrower limits the term has been dangerously ambiguous even in the hands of modern philosophers (see below). In the widest sense it may include both the " first philosophy " of Aristotle, and the theory of knowledge (in what sense can there be true knowledge?), i.e. both ontology and epistemology (q.v.), and this is perhaps the most convenient use of the term; Kant, on the other hand, would represent metaphysics as being " nothing more than the inventory of all that is given us by pure reason, systematically arranged" (i.e. epistemology). The earliest "metaphysicians" concerned themselves with the nature of being (ontology), seeking for the unity which they postulated behind the multi- plicity of phenomena (see Ionian School of Philosophy and articles on the separate thinkers); later thinkers tended to inquire rather into the nature of knowledge as the necessary pre-requisite of ontologicaJ investigation. The extent to which these two attitudes have been combined or separated is discussed in the ensuing article which deals with the various schools of modern metaphysics in relation to the principles of the Aristotelian " first philosophy." 1 (X) 1. — The Science of Being Side by side with psychology, the science of mind, and with logic, the science of reasoning, metaphysics is tending gradually to reassert its ancient Aristotelian position as the science of being in general. Not long ago, in England at all events, metaphysics was merged in psychology. But with the decline of dogmatic belief and the spread of religious doubt — as the special sciences also grow more general, and the natural sciences become more speculative about matter and force, evolution and teleology — men begin to wonder again about the nature and origin of things," just as it was the decay of polytheism in Greek religion and his own discoveries in natural science which impelled Aristotle to metaphysical questions. There is, however, a certain difference in the way of approaching things. Aristotle emphasized being as being, without always sufficiently asking whether the things whose existence he asserted are really knowable. We, on the contrary, mainly through the influence of Descartes, rather ask what are the things we know, and there- fore, some more and some less, come to connect ontology with epistemology, and in consequence come to treat metaphysics in relation to psychology and logic, from which epistemology is an offshoot. To this pressing question then— What is the world as we know it? — three kinds of definite answers are returned: those of materialism, idealism and realism, according to the emphasis laid by metaphysicians on body, on mind, or on both. Meta- physical materialism is the view that everything known is body or matter; but while according to ancient materialists soul is only another body, according to modern materialists mind with- out soul is only an attribute or function of body. Metaphysical idealism is the view that everything known is mind, or some mental state or other, which some idealists suppose to require a substantial soul, others not; while all agree that body has no different being apart from mind. Metaphysical realism is the intermediate view that everything known is either body or soul, neither of which alone exhaust's the universe of being. Aristotle, the founder of metaphysics as a distinct science, was also the founder of metaphysical realism, and still remains its main authority. His view was that all things are substances, in the sense of distinct individuals, each of which has a being of its 1 The article is supplemented by e.g. Idealism; Pragmatism; Relativity of Knowledge, while separate discussions of ancient and medieval philosophers will be found in biographical articles and articles on the chief philosophical schools, e.g. Scholasticism ; Neoplatonism. xvm. 8 own different from any other, whereas an attribute has only the being of its substance (Met. Z 1-3; Post. An. i. 4); that bodies in nature are obviously natural substances, and as obviously not the only kind of substance; and that there is supernatural substance, e.g. God, who is an eternal, perfect, living being, thinking, but without matter, and therefore not a body. At the present day realism is despised on the ground that its differentiation of body and soul, natural and supernatural, ignores the unity of being. Indeed, in order to oppose this unity of being to the realistic duality, both materialists and idealists describe themselves as monists, and call realists dualists by way of disparagement. But we cannot classify metaphysics by the antithesis of monism and dualism without making confusion worse confounded. Not to mention that it has led to another variety, calling itself pluralism, it confuses materialism and idealism. Extremes meet; and those who believe only in body and those who believe only in mind, have an equal right to the equivocal term " monist." Moreover, there is no real opposition between monism and dualism, for there can very well be one kind of being, without being all body or all soul; and as a matter of fact, Aristotelian realism is both a monism of substance and a dualism of body and soul. It is in any case unfair to decide questions by disparaging terms, and to argue as if the whole choice were between material- istic or idealistic monism, leaving realism out of court. In this case it would also hide the truth of things, which requires two different kinds of substance, body and soul. The strength of materialism consists in recognizing nature without explaining it away, its weakness in its utter inability to explain conscious- ness either in its nature or in its origin. On the other hand, it is the virtue of idealism to emphasize the fact of consciousness, but its vice to exaggerate it, with the consequence of resorting to every kind of paradox to deny the obvious and get rid of bodies. There are in reality two species of substances, or entirely distinct things, those which are impenetrably resisting, and those which are conscious substances; and it is impossible to reduce bodies and souls to one another, because resistance is incompatible with the attributes of spirit, and conscious- ness inexplicable by the attributes of body. So far true metaphysics is a dualism of body and soul. But this very dualism is also monism: both bodies and souls are substances, as Aristotle said; and we can go farther than Aristotle. Men are apt to dwell too much on the co-existence and too little on the inclusiveness of substances. The fact is that many sub- stances are often in one; e.g. many bodies in the one body, and both body and soul in the one substance, of man. So far true metaphysics is a monism of substance, in the sense that all things are substances and that all substances, however different, are members of one substance, the whole universe of body and spirit. In this case metaphysics generally will have to recognize three monisms, a materialistic monism of body, an idealistic monism of soul, and a realistic monism of substance, which is also a dualism of substances. But a term so equivocal, leading to an antithesis so misleading as that between monism and dualism, can never represent the real difference between meta- physical schools. We shall return, then, to the clearer and more authoritative division, and proceed to discuss materialism; idealigm and realism in their order. 2. — Materialism 1. Materialism Proper. — Materialism in its modern sense is the view that all we know is body, of which mind is an attribute or function. Several causes, beginning towards the end* of the 1 8th century, gradually led up to the materialism of Mole- schott, Vogt and Biichner, which flourished in the middle of the 19th century. The first cause was the rapid progress of natural science, e.g. the chemistry of Lavoisier, the zoology of Lamarck, the astronomy of Laplace and the geology of Lyell. These advances in natural science, which pointed to a unity and gradual evolution in nature, were accompanied by a growth in commerce, manufactures and industrialism; the same kind of spirit showed itself in the revolutionary upheaval of 1848, and in the mate- rialistic publications which immediately followed, while these 2 26 METAPHYSICS [MATERIALISM Molcschott. publications have reacted on the industrial socialism of our own time. Meanwhile, philosophic forces to counteract materialism were weak. Realism was at a low ebb. Idealism was receding for the moment. Hegelianism had made itself unpopular, and its confusion of God, nature and man had led to differences within the school itself (see Hegel). These causes, scientific, industrial and philosophical, led to the domination of materialism in the middle of the 19th century in Germany, or rather to its revival; for in its main position, that matter and motion are everything and eternal, it was a repetition of the materialism of the 18th century in France. Thus Karl Christoph Vogt (q.v.) repeated the saying of the French physician Cabanis, " The brain is determined to thought as the stomach is to digestion, or the liver to the secretion of bile," in the form, " Thought stands in the same relation to the brain as the bile to the liver or the urine to the kidneys." But the new materialism was not mere repetition. J. Moleschott (1822-1893) made a diligent use of the science of his day in his Kreislauf des Lebens (1852). Starting from Lavoisier's dis- coveries, he held that life is metabolism, a perpetual circulation of matter from the inorganic to the organic world, and back again, and he urged this metabolism against the hypothesis of vital force. Aristotle had imputed to all living beings a soul, though to plants only in the sense of a vegetative, not a sensitive, activity, and in Moleschott's time many scientific men still accepted some sort of vital principle, not exactly soul, yet over and above bodily forces in organisms. Moleschott, like Lotze, not only resisted the whole hypothesis of a vital principle, but also, on the basis of Lavoisier's discovery that respiration is combustion, argued that the heat so produced is the only force developed in the organism, and that matter therefore rules man. He put the whole materialistic view of the world into the following form: Without matter no force, without force no matter. L. Buchner (q.v.) himself said that he owed to Moleschott the first impulse to composing his important work Kraft und Stoff (1855), which became a kind of textbook of materialism, Passing from Moleschott to LyelPs view of the evolution of the earth's crust and later to Darwin's theory of natural selection and environment, he reached the general inference that, not God but evolution of matter, is the cause of the order of the world; that life is a com- bination of matter which in favourable circumstances is spon- taneously generated; that there is no vital principle, because all forces, non-vital and vital, are movements; that movement and evolution proceed from life to consciousness; that it is foolish for man to believe that the earth was made for him, in the face of the difficulties he encounters in inhabiting it; that there is no God, no final cause, no immortality, no freedom, no substance of the soul; and that mind, like light or heat, electri- city or magnetism, or any other physical fact, is a movement of matter. Sometimes he spoke of -mind as an effect of matter; but, though his expressions may be careless, nothing is to be made of the difference, for he called it movement and effect indifferently in the same context. His definitely expressed view was that psychical activity is " nothing but a radiation through the cells of the grey substance of the brain of a motion set up by external stimuli." E. Haeckel belongs to a slightly later time than the materi- alists hitherto mentioned. His book Die WeltriUhsel (Eng. trans. J. M'Cabe, The Riddle of the Universe) identifies substance with body. Starting like his predecessors, with the indestructibility of matter, Haeckel makes more than they do of the conservation of energy, and merges the persistence of matter and energy in one universal law of substance, which, on the ground that body is subject to eternal transformation, is also the universal law of evolution. His strong point consists in inferring the fact of evolution of some sort from the considera- tion of the evidence of comparative anatomy, palaeontology and embryology. On the strength of the consilience of arguments for evolution in the organic world, he carries back the process in the whole world, until he comes to a cosmology which recalls the rash hypotheses of the Presocratics. Buchner. Haeckel. He supposes that all organisms have developed from the simple cell, and that this has its origin by spontaneous generation, to explain which he propounds the " carbon-theory," that protoplasm comes from inorganic carbonates. He not only agrees with Laplace and Lyell about the evolution of the solar system, but also supposes that the affinities, pointed out by Lothar Meyer and Mendeleeff, between groups of chemical elements prove an evolution of these elements from a primitive matter (prothyl) consisting of homogeneous atoms. These, however, are not ultimate enough for him ; he thinks that everything, ponderable and imponderable or ether, is evolved from a primitive substance, which condenses first into centres of condensation (pyknatoms), and then into masses, which when they exceed the mean consistency become ponderables, and when they fall below it become imponderables. Here he stops; according to him substance is eternal and eternally subject to the law of substance; and God is the eternal force or energy of substance. What, then, is the origin of mind or soul? Haeckel answers that it has no origin, because sensation is an inherent property of all substance. He supposes that aesthesis and tropesis, as rudimentary sensation and will, are the very causes of condensation; that they belong to pyknatoms, to ponderables and imponderables, to chemical atoms and molecules. Hence, when he returns to organisms, it does not sur- prise us that he assigns to ova and spermatozoa cell-souls, to the impregnated ovum germ-soul, to plants tissue-souls, to animals nerve-souls; or that he regards man's body and soul as born together in the impregnated ovum, and gradually evolved from the bodies and souls of lower animals. It appears to his imagination that the affinity of two atoms of hydrogen to one of oxygen, the attraction of the spermatozoon to the ovum, and the elective affinity of a pair of lovers are all alike due to sensation and will. But has Haeckel solved the problems of mind? When he applies sensation and will to nature, and through plants to the lowest animals, he considers their sensation and will to be rudimentary and unconscious. Consciousness, according to his own admission, is not found even in all animals, although it is present not only in the highest vertebrates — men, mammals, birds — but also in ants, spiders, the higher crabs and molluscs. He holds indeed that, in accordance with the law of substance, consciousness must be evolved from unconsciousness with the development of sense organs and a central nervous organ. At the same time he admits, firstly, that to mark the barrier between unconscious and conscious is difficult; secondly, that it is impossible to trace the first beginning of consciousness in the lower animals; and, thirdly, that " however certain we are of the fact of this natural evolution of consciousness, we are, unfortunately, not yet in a position to enter more deeply into the question " {Riddle of the Universe, 191). Thus in presence of the problem which is the crux of materialism, the origin of consciousness, he first propounds a gratuitous hypothesis that everything has mind, and then gives up the origin of conscious mind after all. He is certain, however, that the law of substance somehow proves that conscious soul is a mere function of brain, that soul is a function of all substances, and that God is the force or energy, or soul or spirit, of nature. He, in fact, returns to ai cient hylozoism (q.v.), which has tended to revive from time to time in the history of thought. He believes that mind and soul are inherent attributes of all bodies. Curiously enough, he supposes that by making mind a universal attribute of matter he has made his philosophy not materialism, but monism. It is really both: monistic, because it reduces substance to one kind; materialistic, because it identifies that one kind of substance with body or matter, and reduces mind to an attribute 01 matter. It makes no difference to attribute mind to all matter, so long as it is attributed as an attribute. It is at least as materialistic to say that unconscious mind is an attribute of nature as to say that conscious mind is an attribute of brain; and this is the position of Haeckel. Materialists seem to dread the word " materialism." Buchner also entreats us " to abaS** don the word ' materialism,' to which (it is not clear why) a certain scientific odium attaches, and substitute ' monism ' for it " (Last Words on Materialism, 273). His reason, however, is different: it is that a philosophy, not of matter as such, but of the unity of force and matter, is not materialism. But if a philosophy makes force an attribute of matter only, as his does, it will recognize nothing but matter possessing force, and will therefore be materialism as well as monism, and in short material- istic monism. The point is that neither Buchner nor Haeckel could on their assumptions recognize any force but force of MATERIALISM] METAPHYSICS 227 Spencer. body, or any mind but mind of body, or any distinct thing or substance except body. This is materialism. 2. Materialistic Tendencies. — Besides these direct instances of materialism, there are philosophers to whom the scientific tendencies of the age have given a materialistic tendency. In Germany, for example, Eugen Duhring (q.v.) was a realist, whose intention is to prove against Kant a knowledge of the thing in itself by attributing time, space and categories generally to the real world. But, under the influence of Trendelenburg's attempt to reconcile thought and being by assigning motion to both, his Wirklickkeilsphilosophie, in a similar effort after a unity of being, lands him in the contention that matter is absolute being, the support of all reality underlying all bodily and mental states. So Avenarius (q.v.) was no materialist, but only an empiricist anxious to reclaim man's natural view of the world from philosophic incrustations, yet when his Empiriokrilicismus ends in nothing but environment, nervous system, and state- ments dependent on them, without soul, though within experi- ence, he comes near to materialism, as Wundt has remarked. In France, again, positivism is not materialism, but rather the refusal to frame a metaphysical theory. Comte tells us that man first gets "over theology, then over metaphysics, and finally rests in positivism. Yet in getting over theology he ceases to believe in God, and in getting over metaphysics he ceases to believe in soul. As Paul Janet truly remarked, positivism contains an unconscious metaphysics in rejecting final causes and an imma- terial soul. Now, when in surrendering theology and meta- physics we have also to surrender God and the soul, we are not free from materialism. Positivism, however, shelters itself behind the vague word " phenomena." Lastly, in England* we have not only an influence of positivism, but also, what is more important, the synthetic philosophy of Herbert Spencer. The point of this philosophy is not materialism, but realism. The author himself says that it is trans- figured realism — which is realism in asserting objective existence as separate from subjective existence, but anti-realism in denying that objective existence is to be known. In his Principles of Psychology he twice quotes his point that " what we are conscious of as properties of matter, even down to its weight and resistance, are but subjective affections produced by objective agencies which are unknown and unknowable." This then is his trans- figured realism, which, as far as what is known goes, is idealism, but as far as what exists goes, realism — of a sort. His First Principles, his book on metaphysics, is founded on this same point, that what we know is phenomena produced by an un- known noumenal power. He himself identifies phenomenon, appearance, effect or impression produced on consciousness through any of the senses. He divides phenomena into impres- sions and ideas, vivid and faint, object and subject, non-ego and ego, outer and inner, physicaland psychical, matter and spirit; all of which are expressions of the same antithesis among phenomena. -He holds that all the time, space, motion, matter known to us are phenomena; and that force, the ultimate of ultimates, is, as known to us, a phenomenon, " an affection of consciousness." If so, then all we know is these phenomena, affections of consciousness, subjective affections, but produced by an unknown power. So far as this main point of transfigured realism is steadily maintained, it is a compound of idealism and realism, but not materialism. But it is not maintained, on the side either of phenomena or of noumena; and hence its tendency to materialism. In the first place, the term "phenomenon " is ambiguous, some- times meaning a conscious affection and sometimes any fact whatever. Spencer sets himself to find the laws of all phenomena. He finds that throughout the universe there is an unceasing redis- tribution of matter and motion, and that this redistribution consti- tutes evolution when there is a predominant integration of matter and dissipation of motion^ and constitutes dissolution where there is a predominant absorption of motion and disintegration of matter. He supposes that evolution is primarily integration, from the inco- herent to the coherent, exemplified in the solar nebula evolv- ing into the solar system; secondly differentiation, from the more homogeneous to the more heterogeneous, exemplified by the solar system evolving into different bodies; thirdly determina- tion, from the indefinite to the definite, exemplified by the solar system with different bodies evolving into an order. He supposes that this evolution does not remain cosmic, but becomes organic. In accordance with Lamarck's hypothesis, he supposes an evolution of organisms by hereditary adaptation to the environment (which he considers necessary to natural selection), and even the possibility of an evolution of life, which, according to him, is the continuous adjustment of internal to external relations. Next, he supposes that mind obeys the same law of evolution, and exemplifies integration by generalization, differen- tiation by the development of the five senses, and determination by the development of the order of consciousness. He holds that we pass without break from the phenomena of bodily life to the phenomena of mental life, that consciousness arises in the course of the living being's adaptation to its environment, and that there is a continuous evolution from reflex action through instinct and memory up to reason. He throws out the brilliant suggestion that the experi- ence of the race is in a sense inherited by the individual ; which is true in the sense that animal organisms become hereditarily better adapted to perform mental operations, though no proof that any elements of knowledge become a priori. Now, Spencer has clearly, though unconsciously, changed the meaning of the term " phenomenon " from subjective affection of consciousness to any fact of nature, in regarding all this evolution, cosmic, organic, mental, social and ethical, as an evolution of phenomena. The greater part of the process is a change in the facts of nature before consciousness; and in all that part, at all events, the phenomena evolved must mean physical facts which are not conscious affections, but, as they develop, are causes which gradually produce life and consciousness. Moreover, evolution is defined universally as an " integration of matter and dissipation of motion," and yet mental, social and moral developments are also called evolu- tion, so that, in accordance with the definition, they are also integra- tions of matter and dissipations of motion. It is true that the author did not see that he was passing from transfigured realism into materialism. He thinks that he is always speaking of phenomena in the sense of subjective affections; and in spite of his definition, he half unconsciously changes the meaning of evolution from a change in matter and motion, first into a change in states of con- sciousness, then to a change in social institutions, and finally into a change in moral motives. He also admits himself that mental evolution exemplifies integration of matter and dissipation of motion only indirectly. But here he becomes hopelessly inconsistent, because he had already said, in defining it, that " evolution is an integration of matter and concomitant dissipation of motion " (First Principles, § 145). However, with all the author's disclaimers, the general effect left on the reader's mind is that throughout the universe there is an unceasing change of matter and motion, that evolution is always such a change, that it begins with phenomena in the sense of physical facts, gradually issues in life and conscious- ness, and ends with phenomena in the sense of subjective affections of consciousness. In the second place, having declared the noumenal power, which causes phenomena, or conscious affections, to be unknowable, and having left anybody who pleased to make it a god and an object of religion, he proceeds to describe it as if it were known force, and known in two respects as persistent and as resistant force. He supposes that the law of evolution is deducible from the law of per- sistent force, and includes in force what is now called energy. Then having discussed force as something thoroughly material, and laying special emphasis on resistance, he tells us that " the force of which we assert persistence is that Absolute Force of which we are indefinitely conscious as the necessary correlate of the force we know " (First Principles, § 62). Similarly, both in First Principles and in the Principles of Psychology, he assigns to us, in addition to our definite consciousness of our subjective affections, an indefinite consciousness of something out of consciousness, of something which resists, of objective existence. Thus it turns out that the objective agency, the noumenal power, the absolute force, declared unknown and unknow- able, is known after all to exist, persist, resist and cause our sub- jective affections or phenomena, yet not to think or to will. Such a noumenon looks very like body or matter. Lastly, when a theory of the world supposes a noumenal power, a resistent and persistent force, which results in an evolution, defined as an integration of matter and a dissipation of motion, which having resulted in in- organic nature and organic nature, further results without break in consciousness, reason, society aftd morals, then such a theory will be construed as materialistically as that of Haeckel by thelieader, whatever the intention of the author. It may be urged in reply that the synthetic philosophy could be made consistent by transferring the knowable resistance and persis- tence of the unknowable noumenon to knowable phenomena on the one hand, and on the other hand by maintaining that all phenomena from the original nebula to the rise of consciousness are only '.* impressions produced on consciousness through any of the senses, ' after all. But in that case what will become of Spencer's theory of evolution? It will have asserted the evolution of man and his consciousness out of the phenomena of his consciousness. The truth is that his theory of evolution can be carried through the whole process without a break, only by giving the synthetic philosophy a materialistic interpretation, and by adhering consistently to 228 METAPHYSICS [METAPHYSICAL IDEALISM Spencer's own materialistic definition of evolution; otherwise there will be a break at least between life and mind. If everything know- able is an example of evolution, and evolution is by definition a transformation of matter and motion, then everything knowable is an example of a transformation of matter and motion. As an exponent of universal evolution Haeckel is more consistent than Spencer. Huxley (1825-1895) developed views very like those of Spencer, and similarly materialistic without being materialism, because inconsis- liaxky. tent. He regarded everything known as evolved from matter, and reduced consciousness to a mere collateral product (" epiphenomenon ") of cerebral operations without any power of influencing them. Matter, according to him, impresses the afferent nervous system, this the brain, this the efferent nervous system, while consciousness remains a mere spectator. " In man, as in brutes," said he, " there is no proof that any state of consciousness is the cause of change in the nature of the matter of the organism "; so that " we are conscious automata." But, in spite of these materialistic tendencies, he followed Hume in reducing matter and everything knowable to phenomena of consciousness; and, supposing that nothing is knowable beyond phenomena, concluded that we can neither affirm nor deny that anything exists beyond, but ought to take up an attitude which the ancient sceptics called Aphasia, but he dubbed by the new name of. Agnosticism. Thus Huxley first reduced consciousness to a product of matter, and then matter to a phenomenon of consciousness. By combining materialism with idealism he made consciousness a product of itself. Tyndall (1820- TyadaJI. J 893)> again, came still nearer to materialism, and yet avoided it. In his Belfast address (1874), while admits ting that matter as understood by Democritus is insufficient, because atoms without sensation cannot be imagined to produce sensation, he contended, nevertheless, that matter properly understood is " the promise and potency of all terrestrial life." In thus endow- ing all matter with sensation like Haeckel he' was not avoiding materialism. But in the very same address, as well as on other occa- sions, he did not identify mind with' matter, but regarded them as concomitant. All these materialistic tendencies seem to have one expla- nation. They emanate from scientific writers who rightly try to rise from science to metaphysics, but, as Bacon says, build a universal philosophy on a few experiments. The study of evolution, without considering how many conditions are required for " the integration of matter and the dissipation of motion " to begin, and the undoubted discoveries which have resulted from the study of inorganic and organic evolution, have led men to expect too much from this one law of Nature. This tendency especially prevails in biology, which is so far off the general principles of natural philosophy that its votaries are often ignorant of the real nature of body as matter and force. The close dependency of all mental operations on brain also tempts them to the conclusion that brain is not only an organ, but the whole organ of conscious mind. 1 It appears also that Darwin, having extended his theory of evolution as far as the rational and moral nature of man, in the Descent of Man, ended in his Autobiography by declaring his attitude to first and final causes to be that of an agnostic. Not that he was a materialist, and shortly before his death, in a conversation with Buchner, he maintained his agnosticism against his opponent's atheism. Still, his agnosticism meant that, though he did not assert that there is no God, he did assert that we cannot know whether there is or is not. To the evolutionary biologist brain is apt to appear to be the crowning object of knowledge. On the other hand, scientific men, such as Herschel, Maxwell and Stokes, who approach nature from mathematics and mechanics, and there- fore from the universal laws of motion, have the opposite tendency, because they perceive that nature is not its own explanation. In order to exert force, or at all events that force of reciprocal pressure which we best understand, and on which, in impact, the third law of motion was founded, there are always at least two bodies, enduring, triply extended, mobile, each inert, mutually impenetrable or resistent, different yet similar; and in order to have produced any effect but equilibrium, some bodies must at some time have differed either in mass or in velocity, otherwise forces would only have neutralized one another. Why do bodies exist, with all these conditions, so similar yet different — that is, in so harmonious an order? Natural science has no answer: natural theology has an answer. This essence of bodies, this resemblance in difference, this prevailing 1 Cf. H. Maudesley, Lessons of Materialism (1879). order of Nature, is the deepest proof of God; and it cannot be the result of evolution, because it is the condition of natural force, and therefore of natural evolution. A second argument for God is the prevailing goodness or adaptation of Nature to the ends of conscious beings, which might conceivably be explained by Lamarckian evolution, but has not yet been so explained, and if it were, would not be inconsistent with a divine design in evolution. Further, the very existence of conscious beings is the best proof of the distinct or substantial being of the soul, existing in man with body, in God as pure spirit. It seems hope- less to expect that natural science, even with the aid of evolution, can explain by mere body the origin and nature of this fact of consciousness. If so, materialism is not the whole truth of metaphysics. 3. — The Rise of Metaphysical Idealism 1. Descartes to Leibnitz.— Metaphysical arises from psycho- logical idealism, and always retains more or less of an epistemo- logical character. Psychological idealism assumes without proof that we perceive nothing but mental objects, and meta- physical idealism draws the logical but hypothetical conclusion that all we can know from these mental objects of sense "is mental objects of knowledge. But at first this logical conclusion was not drawn. Descartes, the founder of psychological idealism, having proceeded from the conscious fact, cogito ergo sum, to the non sequitur that I am a soul, and all a soul can perceive is its ideas, nevertheless went on to the further illogical a escartes conclusion that from these mental ideas I can (by the grace of God) infer things which are extended substances or bodies, as well as thinking substances or souls. He was a psycho- logical idealist and a metaphysical realist. This illogicality could not last. Even the Cartesian school, as it came more and more to feel the difficulty of explaining the interaction of body and mind, and, indeed, any efficient causation whatever, gradually tended to the hypothesis that the real cause is God, who, on the occasion of changes in body, causes corresponding changes in mind, and vice versa. This occasionalism is not idealism, but its emphasis on the will of God gave it an idealistic tendency. Thereupon Spinoza advanced a pantheism which supposed that bodies and souls are not, as Descartes thought,' different sub- stances, but merely attributes-— the one the extension and the other the thought of one substance, Nature or God. Taking the Aristotelian theory that a substance is a thing in Spinoza. itself , not in Aristotle's sense of any individual existing differently from anything else, but in the novel meaning of some- thing existing alone, he concluded, logically enough from this mere misunderstanding, that there can be only one substance, and that, as no finite body or soul can exist alone, everything finite is merely a mode of one of the attributes of the orie infinite substance which alone can exist by itself. Spinozism, however, though it tramples down the barrier between body and soul, is not yet metaphysical idealism, because it does not reduce extension to thought, but only says that the same substance is at once extended and thinking — a position more akin to material- ism. At the same time Spinoza maintained a parallelism between extension and thinking so close as to say that the order; of ideas is the same as the order of things, so that any mode of extension and the idea of it are the same thing expressed in two ways, under the attribute of extension and under the attribute of thought (see H. H. Joachim's Study of the Ethics of Spinoza, iqoi, p. 72). It remained, however, for Schelling to convert this parallelisjm into identity by identifying motion with the intelligence of Gpd, and so to transform the pantheism of Spinoza into pantheistic idealism. Leibnitz, again, having become equally dissatisfied with Cartesianism, Spinozism and the Epicurean realism of Gassendi, in the latter part of his life came still j^ e ibnUt. nearer than Spinoza to metaphysical idealism in his monadology, or half-Pythagorean,half-Brunistic analysis of bodies into monads, or units, or simple substances, indivisible and unextended, but endowed with perception and appetite. He gradually fell under the dominion of two false assumptions. On the one hand, essentially a mathematician; he supposed that METAPHYSICAL IDEALISM] METAPHYSMS 229 unity is indivisibility, whereas everything known to be one is merely- undivided or individual, and that there must be simple because there are compound substances, although composition only requires simpler or relatively simple elements. On the other hand, under the influence of the mechanics of his day, which had hardly distin- guished between inertia, or the inability of a body to change itself, and resistance or the ability of bodies to oppose one another, he concluded that, as inertia is passive, so is resistance, and refused to recognize that in collision the mutual resistance of moving bodies is a force, or active power, of changing their movements in opposite directions. From these two arbitrary hypotheses about corporeal motion, that it requires indivisibly simple elements, and that it offers only passive resistance, he concluded that behind bodies there must be units, or monads, which would be at once substantial, simple, indivisible and active. He further supposed that the monads are " incorporeal automata," not interacting like bodies, but each perceiving what was passing in the other, and acting in consequence by appetite, or self-acting. Such mentally endowed substances might be called souls ; but, as he distinguished between perception and apperception or consciousness, and considered that perceptions are often unconscious, he preferred to divide monads into un- conscious entelechies of inorganic bodies, sentient souls of animals, and rational souls, or spirits, of men; while he further concluded that all these are derivative monads created by God, the monad of monads. All derivative monads, he allowed, are accompanied by bodies, which, however, are composed of other monads dominated by a central monad. Further, he explained the old Cartesian difficulty of the relation of body and mind by transforming the Spinozistic parallelism of extension and thought into a parallelism between the motions of bodies and the perceptions of their monads ; motions always proceeding from motions, and perceptions from per- ceptions; bodies acting according to efficient causes, and souls according to final causes by appetition, and as if one influenced the other without actually doing so. Finally, he explained the concomi- tance of these two series, as well as that between the perceptions of different monads, by supposing a pre-established harmony ordained by the primitive monad, God. Up to this point, then, Leibnitz opened one of the chief avenues to metaphysical idealism, the resolution of the material into the immaterial, the analysis of bodies into mental elements. His theory of bodies involved an idealistic analysis neither into bodily atoms nor into mathematical units, but into mentally endowed simple substances. There remained, however, his theory of the nature of bodies'; and here he hesitated between two alternatives. According to one alternative, which con- sistently flowed from the psychological idealism of Descartes, as well as from his own monadism, he suggested that bodies are real phenomena; phenomena, because they are aggregates of monads, which derive their unity only from appearing together to our perceptions; real phenomena well founded, because they result from real monads. In support of this view, he said that bodies are not substances, though substantiata; that their apparent motion and resistance are results of the passions of their monads ; that their primary matter is nothing but passive power of their monads; that the series of efficient causes between them is merely phenomenal. According to this alternative, then, there is nothing but mental monads and mental phenomena; and Leibnitz is a metaphysical idealist. According to the other alternative, however, he suggested that at least organic bodies are compound or corporeal substances, which are not pheno- mena; but something realizing or rather substantializing pheno- mena, and not mere aggregates of monads, but something substantial beyond their monads, because an organic body, though composed of monads, has a real unity (unio realis). From this point of view he believed that the real unity of a body is a vinculum substantiate, which gives it its real continuity and is the principle of its actions; that its primary matter is its own principle of resistance; and that it has not only this passive, but also an active, power of its own. He suggested that this theory of the substantial unity of a body might explain transubstantia- tion, by supposing that, while the monads and phenomena of bread remain, the vinculum substantiate of the body of Christ is substituted. He feared also whether we can explain the mystery of the Incarnation, and other things, unless real bonds or unions are added to monads and phenomena. According to this alternative, these organic bodies are compound or corporeal substances, between monads and phenomena; and Leibnitz is a metaphysical realist. He was held to this belief in the sub- stantiality of bodies by his Christianity, by the influence of Aristotle, of scholasticism and of Cartesianism, as well as by his own mechanics. But the strange thing is that at the very end of his life and at the very same time, in 1714-1716, he was writing the idealistic alternative to Remond de Montmort and Dangicourt, and the realistic alternative to Father des Bosses. He must have died in doubt. We cannot, therefore, agree with many recent idealists who regard Leibnitz as one of themselves, though it is true that, when stripped of its realism, his meta- physics easily passed into the metaphysical idealisms of Lotze and of Fechner. It is true, also, that on its idealistic side the philosophy of Leibnitz is the source of many current views of panpsychism, of psychophysical parallelism as well as of the phenomenalism of bodies, and of the analysis of bodies into mental elements. 2. Locke to Hume. — Meanwhile in England, Locke, though differing from Descartes about the origin of ideas, followed him in the illogical combination of psychological idealism with metaphysical realism. He thought that we perceive nothing but ideas both of primary and of secondary qualities, and yet that somehow we are able to infer that, while our ideas of secondary qualities are not, those of primary qualities are, like the real qualities of external things. Berkeley saw the in- consistency of this position, and, in asserting that all we perceive and all we know is nothing but ideas in " mind, spirit, soul, or myself," has the merit of having made, as Paulsen remarks, " epistemological idealism the basis of metaphysical idealism." According to him, a body such as the sun is my idea, your idea, ideas of other minds, and always an idea of God's mind; and when we have sensible ideas of the sun, what causes them to arise in our different minds is no single physical substance, the sun, but the will of God's spirit. Hume saw that in making all the objects of perception ideas Berkeley had given as little reason for inferring substantial souls as substantial bodies. He there- fore concluded that all we know from the data of psychological idealism is impressions or sensations, ideas, and associations of ideas, making us believe without proof in substances and causes, together with " a certain unknown, inexplicable something as the cause of our preceptions." We have here, in this sceptical idealism, the source of the characteristically English form of idealism still to be read in the writings of Mill and Spencer, and still the starting-point of more recent works, such as Pearson's Grammar of Science and James's Principles of Psychology. 3. Kant and Fichte. — Lastly, in Germany, partly influenced by Leibnitz and partly roused by Hume, Kant elaborated his transcendental or critical idealism, which if not, as he thought, the prolegomena to all future metaphysics, is still the starting-point of most metaphysical idealists. Kantism consists of four main positions, which it will be well to lay out, as follows: — • a. As to the origin of knowledge, Kant's position is that sense, outer and inner, affected by things in themselves, receives mere sensations or sensible ideas (Vorstellungen) as the matter which sense itself places in the a priori forms of space and time ; that thereupon understanding, by means of the synthetic unity of apperception, " I think " — an act of spontaneity beyond sense, in all consciousness one and the same, and combining all my ideas as mine in one univer- sal consciousness — and under a priori categories, or fundamental notions, such as substance and attribute, cause and effect, &c, unites groups of sensations or sensible ideas into objects and events, e.g. a house, one ball moving another; and that, accordingly, per- ception and experience, requiring both sense and understanding, are partly a posteriori and partly a priori, and constitute a knowledge of objects which, being sensations combined by synthetic unity under a priori forms, are more than mere sensa^ tions, but less than things in themselves. This first position is psychological idealism in a new form and supported by new reasons; for, if experience derives its matter from mental sensations and its form from mental synthesis of sensations, it can apprehend nothing but mental objects of sense, which, according to Kant, are sensible ideas having no existence outside our thought, not things in them- selves ; or phenomena, not noumena. , b. As to the known world, Kant's position was the logical deduc- tion that from such phenomena of experience all we can know by logical reason is similar phenomena of actual or possible experience; and therefore that the known world, whether bodily or mental, is not a Cartesian world of bodies and souls, nor a Spinozistic world of one substance, nor a Leibnitzian world of monadic substances Kant. 230 METAPHYSICS [METAPHYSICAL IDEALISM created by God, but a world of sensations, such as Hume supposed, only combined, not by association, but by synthetic understanding into phenomenal objects of experience, which are phenomenal substances and causes — a world of phenomena not noumena. This second position is a new form of metaphysical idealism, contain- ing the supposition, which lies at the foundation of later German philosophy, that since understanding shapes the objects out of sensations, and since nature, as we know it, consists of such objects, " understanding, though it does not make, shapes nature," as well as our knowledge. Known nature is a mental construction in part, according to Kant. c. As to existence, Kant's position is the wholly illogical one that, though all known things are phenomena, there are things in them- selves, or noumena; things which are said to cause sensations of outer sense and to receive sensations of inner sense, though they are beyond the category of causality which is defined as one of the notions uniting phenomena; and things which are assumed to exist and have these causal attributes, though declared unknowable by any logical use of reason, because logical reason is limited by the mental matter and form of experience to phenomena ; and all this- according to Kant himself. This third position isa relic of ancient metaphysical realism; although it must be remembered that Kant does not go to the length of Descartes and Locke, who supposed that from mere ideas we could know bodies and souls, but suggests that beneath the phenomena of outer and inner sense the thing in itself may not be heterogeneous (ungleichartig). In this form we shall find the thing in itself revived by A. Riehl. d. As to the use of reason beyond knowledge, Kant's position is that, in spite of its logical inability to transcend phenomena, reason in its pure, or a priori use, contains necessary a priori " ideals " (Ideen), and practical reason, in order to account for moral respon- sibility, frames postulates of the existence of things in themselves, or noumena, corresponding to these " ideals "; postulates of a real free-will to practise morality, of a real immortality of soul to perfect it, and of a real God to crown it with happiness. The fourth position is the coping-stone of Kant's metaphysics. It is quite inconsistent with its foundation and structure. Kant first deduced that from the experience of mental phenomena all logical use of reason is limited to mental phenomena, and then maintained that to explain moral responsibility practical reason postulates the existence of real noumena. But what is a postu- late of practical reason to explain moral responsibility except a logical use of reason ? Nevertheless, in his own mind Kant's whole speculative and practical philosophy was meant to form one system. In the preface to the second edition of the Kritik he says that it was necessary to limit speculative reason to a knowledge of phenomena, in order to allow practical reason to proceed from morality to the assumption of God, freedom, and immortality, existing b.eyond phenomena: " Ich musste also das Wissen aufheben, um zum Glauben Platz zu machen." He forgot that he had also limited all logical use of reason, and therefore of practical reason, to phenomena, and thereby undermined the rationality not only of knowledge, but also of faith. Fichte now set himself in the Wissensckaftslehre (1794) to make transcendental idealism into a system of metaphysical ideal- ism without Kant's inconsistencies and relics of realism. His point was that there are no things in themselves different from minds or acting on them ; that man is no product of things; nor does his thinking arise from passive sensations caused by things; nor is the end of his existence attainable in a world of things; but that he is the absolute free activity constructing his own world, which is only his own determination, his self-imposed limit, and means to his duty which allies him with God. In order to prove this novel conclusion he started afresh from the Cartesian " I think " in the Kantian form of the synthetic unity of apperception acting by a priori categories; but instead of allowing, with all previous metaphysicians, that the Ego passively receives sensations from something different, and not contenting himself with Kant's view that the Ego, by synthetically combining the matter of sensations with a priori forms, partially constructs objects, and therefore Nature as we know it, he boldly asserted that the Ego, in its synthetic unity, entirely constructs things; that its act of spontaneity is not mere synthesis of passive sensations, but construction of sensations into an object within itself; and that therefore under- standing makes as well as shapes Nature. Fichte. This construction, or self-determination, is what Fichte called positing (setzen). According to him, the Ego posits first itself (thesis) ; secondly, the non-Ego, the other, opposite to itself (anti- thesis) ; and, thirdly, this non-Ego within itself (synthesis), so that all reality is in consciousness. But, he added, as the Ego is not conscious of this self-determining activity, but forgets itself, the non-Ego seems to be something independent, a foreign limit, a thing in itself, or per se. Hence it is the office of the theory of know- ledge to show that the Ego posits the thing per se as only existing for itself, a noumenon in the sense of a product of its own thinking. Further, according to Fichte, on the one hand the Ego posits itself as determined through the non-Ego — no object, no subject; this is the principal fact about theoretical reason; on the other hand, the Ego posits itself as determining the non-Ego — no subject, no object; this is the principal fact about practical reason. Hence he united theoretical and practical reason, which Kant had separated, and both with will, which Kant had distinguished; for he held that the Ego, in positing the non-Ego, posits both its own limit and its own means to the end, duty, by its activity of thinking which re- quires will. The conclusion of his epistemology is that we start with ourselves positing subjective sensations — e.g.. sweet, red' — and refer them as accidents to matter in space, which, though mental, is objective, because its production is grounded on a law of all reason. The metaphysics resulting from this epistemology is that the so- called thing in itself is not a cause of our sensations, but a product of one's own thinking, a determination of the Ego, a thing known to the Ego which constructs it. Fichte thus transformed the tran- scendental idealism of Kant by identifying the thing with the object, and by interpreting noumenon, not in Kant's sense of something which speculative reason conceives and practical reason postulates to exist in accordance with the idea, but in the new meaning of a thought, a product of reason. This change led to another. Kant had said that the synthetic unity " I think " is in all consciousness one and the same, meaning that I am always present to all my ideas. Fichte transformed this unity of the conscious self into a unity of all conscious selves, or a common consciousness ; and this change enabled him to explain the unity of anything produced by the Ego by con- tending that it is not the different objects of different thinkers, but the one object of a pure Ego or consciousness common to them all. According to Kant, the objective is valid for all consciousnesses; according to Fichte it is valid for one consciousness. Here he was for the first time grappling with a fundamental difficulty in meta- physical idealism which is absent from realism, namely, the difficulty of explaining the identity of a thing, e.g. the sun. As long as even the meagre realism of the Kantian thing in itself is maintained, the account of there being one. sun is simply that one thing causes different phenomena in different minds. But as soon as the thing in itself is converted into something mental, metaphysical idealists must either say that there are as many suns as minds, or that there is one mind and therefore one sun. The former was the alternative of Berkeley, the latter of Fichte. Thus the complete metaphysical idealism of Fichte's Wissen- schaftslehretormed out of the incomplete metaphysical idealism of Kant's Kritik, is the theory on its epistemological side that the Ego posits the non-Ego as a thing in itself, and yet as only a thing existing for it as its own noumenon, and on its metaphysical side that in consequence all reality is the Ego and its own determinations, which are objective, or valid for all, as determinations, not of you or of me, but of the consciousness common to all of us, the pure or absolute Ego. Lastly, Fichte called this system realism, in so far as it posits the thing in itself as another thing; idealism, in so far as it posits it as a noumenon which is a product of its own thinking ; and on the whole real idealism or ideal realism. God does not seem to find much place in the Wissensckaftslehre, where mankind is the absolute and nature mankind's product, and where God neither could be an absolute Ego which posits objects in the non-Ego to infinity without ever completing the pro- cess, nor could be even known to exist apart from the moral order which is man's destination. Hence in his Philosophical Journal in 1798 Fichte prefaced a sceptical essay of Forberg by an essay of his own, in which he used the famous words, " The living moral order is God ; we need no other God, and can comprehend no other." Having, however, in consequence, lost his professorship at Jena, he gradually altered his views, until at length he decided that God is not mere moral order, but also reason and will, yet without consciousness and personality; that not mankind but God is the absolute; that we are only its direct manifestations, free but finite spirits destined by God to posit in ourselves Nature as the material of duty, but blessed when we relapse** into the absolute; that Nature, therefore, is the direct manifes- tation of man, and only the indirect manifestation of God; and, finally, that being is the divine idea or life, which is the reality behind appearances. In this extension of metaphysical idealism he was influenced by his disciple, Schelling. Nevertheless, he refused to go as far as Schelling, and could not bring himself to. iden- tify either man or nature with Absolute God. He wanted to believe in the absolute without sacrificing personality and freedom. God determines man, and man determines Nature: this is the final out- come of Fichte's pure idealism. Fichte completed the process from psychological and epistemo- logical to metaphysical idealism, which it has been necessary to NOUMENAL IDEALISM] METAPHYSICS 231 recall from its beginnings in France, England and Germany, in order to understand modern idealism. The assertion of absolute substance by Spinoza incited Schelling and Hegel. The analysis of bodies into immaterial elements by Leibnitz incited Lotze. The Spinozistic parallelism of extension and thought, and the Leibnitzian parallelism of bodily motion and mental action, incited Schelling and Fechner. Berkeley and Hume produced the English idealism of Mill and Spencer, with their successors, and occasioned "the German idealism of Kant. Kant's a priori synthesis of sensations into experience lies at the root of all German idealism. But Fichte was the most fertile of all. He carried metaphysical idealism to its height, by not only resolving the bodily into the mental, but also elevating the action of mind into absolute mental construction; not inferring things in them- selves beyond, but originating things from within, mind itself. By changing the meaning of " noumenon " from the thing apprehended (voovftevov) to the thought (vbrina), and in the hypothesis of a common consciousness, he started the view that a thing is not yours or my thought, but a common thought of all mankind, and led to the wider view of Schelling and Hegel that the world is an absolute thought of infinite mind. In making the essence of mind activity and construction, in destroying the separa- tion of theoretical and practical reason, in asserting that mind thinks things as means to ends of the will, he prepared the way for Schopenhauer and other voluntarists. In making the essence of the Absolute not mere reason, but will, action and life, he anticipated Lotze. In reducing the thing in itself to a thought he projected the neo-Kantism of Lange and Cohen. In the doctrine — no object, no subject — no subject, no object — that is, in the utter identification of things with objects of subjects, he anticipated not only Schelling and Hegel, but also Schuppe and Wundt with their congeners. In expanding Kant's act of synthesis till it absorbed the inner sense and the innermost soul, he started the modern paradox that soul is not substance, but subject or activity, a paradox which has been gradually handed down from Schelling and Hegel to Fechner, and from Fechner to Paulsen and Wundt. Meanwhile, through holding with Kant that man is not God, but a free spirit, whose destiny it is to use his intelligence as a means to his duty, he is still the resort of many who vindicate man's independence, freedom, conscience, and power of using nature for his moral purposes, e.g. of Eucken and Miinsterberg (qq.v.). Kant and Fichte together became the most potent philosophic influences on European thought in the 19th century, because their emphasis was on man. They made man believe in himself and his mission. They fostered liberty and reform, and even radicalism. They almost avenged man on the astronomers, who had shown that the world is not made for earth, and therefore not for man. Kant half asserted, and Fichte wholly, that Nature is man's own construction. The Kritik and the Wissenschaftslehre belonged to the revolu- tionary epoch of the " Rights of Man," and produced as great a revolution in thought as the French Revolution did in fact. Instead of the old belief that God made the world for man, philosophers began to fall into the pleasing dream, I am every- thing, and everything is I — and even I am God. 4. — Noumenal Idealism in Germany Noumenal idealism is the metaphysics of those who suppose that all known things are indeed mental, but not all are pheno- menal in the Kantian sense, because a noumenon is knowable so long as by a noumenon we mean some mental being or other which we somehow can discover beyond phenomena. The noumenal idealists of Germany assumed, like all psychological idealists, the unproved hypothesis that there is no sense of body, but there is a sense of sensations; and they usually accepted Kant's point, that to get from such sensations to knowledge there is a synthesis contributing mental elements beyond the mental data of sense. They saw also the logic of Kant's deduction, that all we can know from such mental data and mental categories must also be mental. This was the starting-point of their metaphysical idealism. But they disagreed with Kant, and agreed with Fichte about 'things in themselves or noumena, and contended that the mental things we know are not mere pheno- mena of sense, but noumena, precisely because noumena are as mental as phenomena, and therefore can be known from similar data: this was the central point of their noumenal idealism. They rightly revolted against the inconsistencies of Kant's third and fourth positions about the existence of unknown but postu- lated things in themselves, hidden from theoretical, but revealed to practical, reason. In a way they returned to the wider opinions of Aristotle, which had come down to Descartes and Locke, that reason in going beyond sense knows more* things than phenomena; yet they would not hear of external bodies, or of bodies at all. No realists, they came nearer to Spinozistic pantheism and to Leibnitzian monadism, but only on their idealistic side; for they would not allow that extension and body are different from thinking and mind. Their real founder was Fichte, on account of his definite reduction of the noumenal to a mental world. This was indeed the very point — the knowability of a noumenal mental world. At the same time it soon appeared that they could not agree among themselves when they came to ask what it is, but in attempting to define it seem to have gone through the whole gamut of mind. Schelling and Hegel thought it was infinite reason; Schopenhauer, unconscious will; Hart- mann, unconscious intelligence and will; Lotze, the activity or life of the divine spirit ; Fechner, followed by Paulsen, a world of spiritual actualities comprised in the one spiritual actuality, God, in whom we live and move and have our being. 1. Of these noumenal idealisms the earliest in time and the nearest to Fichte's philosophy was the panlogism, begun by Schelling (1775-1854), completed by his disciple ^^j,,,^ Hegel (1770-1831), and then modified by the master himself. Starting from Fichte's " Wissenschaftslehre," Schelling accepted the whole process of mental construction, and the deduction that noumena aire knowable products of universal reason, the Absolute Ego. But from the first he was bolder than Fichte, and had no doubt that the Absolute is God. God, as he thought, is universal reason, and Nature a product of universal reason, a direct manifestation, not of man, but of God. How is this Absolute known? According to Schelling it is known by intellectual intuition. Kant had attributed to God, in distinction from man's understanding, an intellectual intuition of things. Fichte had attributed to man an intellectual intuition of himself as the Absolute Ego. Schelling attributes to man an intellectual intuition of the Absolute God; and as there is, according to him, but one universal reason, the common intelli- gence of God and man, this intellectual intuition at once gives man an immediate knowledge of God, and identifies man with God himself. On Schelling's idealistic pantheism, or the hypothesis that there is nothing but one absolute reason identifying the opposites of subjectivity and objectivity, Hegel based his , panlogism. But, while he fully recognized his indebtedness to his master, he differed from him profoundly in one fundamental respect. He rightly objected that the system was wanting in logical proof: He rightly, therefore, rejected the supposed intellectual intuition of the Absolute. He rightly contended that, if we are to know anything beyond sense, we must know it by a process of logical reason. But, unfortunately, he did not mean the logical inferences described in the Organon and the Novum organum. He meant a new " speculative " method, dialectic, founded on an assumption which he had already learnt from Schelling, namely, that things which are different but similar can have the same attribute, and therefore be also the same. With this powerful instrument of dialectic in hand, he attempted to show how absolute reason differentiates itself into subjective and objective, ideal and real, and yet is the identity of both — an identity of opposites, as Schelling had said. By the same dialectic Hegel was able to justify the gradual transformation of transcendental into noumenal ideal- ism by Fichte and Schelling. If things different but similar have the same attributes, and are thereby the same, then in the first place the Kantian categories, though thoughts of mental origin and therefore confined to mind, are nevertheless applicabls 232 METAPHYSICS [NOUMENAL IDEALISM to things, because things, though different from, are the same as, thoughts, and have the categories of thoughts; in the second place, the Fichtian Ego of mankind is not the Absolute Reason of God, and yet is the same Absolute Reason; in the third place, the Schellingian Nature is the "other " of Spirit, and yet, being a mere reflex of the Idea of Nature, is identical with Spirit; and as this Spirit is everywhere the same in God and men, Nature is also identical with our Spirit, or rather with the Infinite Spirit, or Absolute Reason, which alone exists. The crux of all meta- physical idealism is the difficulty of reconciling the unity of the object with the plurality of subjects. Hegel's assumption of identity in difference at once enabled him to deal with the whole difficulty by holding that different subjects are yet one subject, and any one object, e.g. the sun, is at once different from, and identical with, the one subject which is also many. By the rough magic of this modern Prospero the universe of being is not, and yet is, thought, idea, spirit, reason, God. So elastic a solution established a dominant Hegelian school, which is now practically extinct, in Germany, and from Germany spread Hegelianism to France, England, America, and, in fact, diffused it over the civilized world to such an extent that it is still a widespread fashion outside Germany to believe that the world of being is a world of thought. The plain answer is to contest the whole assumption. Different things, however similar, have only similar attributes, and therefore CrHlci* t are never the same. God created man in His own Pantottiam ' ma S e > an d the world in the image of the Divine Idea; p ' but I am not God, and the transitory sun is not the same as God's eternal idea of it. The creatures, however like, are not the same as the Creator and His thoughts. Each is a distinct thing, as Aristotle said. Reality is not Reason. It is strange that the underlying assumption of panlogism was not at once contested in this plain way. Nevertheless, objection was soon taken to the unsatisfactoriness of the system reared upon it. Schelling himself, as soon as he saw his own formulae exposed in the logic or rather dialectic of his disciple, began to reconsider his philosophy of identity, and brought some powerful objections against both the conclusions and the method of Hegel. Schelling perceived that Hegel, in reducing everything to infinite mind, absorbed man's free but finite personality in God, and, in declaring that everything real is rational, failed to explain evil and sin: indeed, the English reader of T. H. Green's Prolegomena to Ethics can see how awkward is the Hegelian transition from " one spiritual principle" to different men's individual freedom of choice between good and evil. Again, Schelling urged that besides the rational element there must be something else; that there is in nature, as natura naturans, a blind impulse, a will without intelligence, which belongs to the existent; and that even God Himself as the Absolute cannot be pure thought, because in order to think He must have an existence which cannot be merely His thought of it, and therefore pure being is the prior condition of thought and spirit. Hence Schelling objected to the Hegelian dialectic on the ground that, although reason by itself can apprehend notions or essences, and even that of God, it cannot deduce a priori the existence either of God or of Nature, for the apprehension of which experience is required. He now distinguished two philosophies: negative philosophy starting froni notions, and positive philosophy starting from being; the former a philosophy of conditions, the latter of causes, i.e. of existence. Hegel, he said, had only supplied the logic of negative philosophy ; and it must be confessed that the most which could be extracted from the Hegelian dialectic would be some connexion of thoughts without proving any existence of corresponding things. Schelling was right ; but he had too much affinity with Hegelian assumptions, e.g. the panlogistic confusion of the essences of things with the notions of reason, to "onstruct a positive philosophy without falling into fresh mysticism, which failed to exorcise the effect of his earlier philosophy of identity in the growing materialism of the age. 2. Meanwhile, by the side of panlogism arose the panthelism of Schopenhauer (1788- 1860). This new noumenal idealism began, like the preceding, by combining psycho- haaer. ' logical idealism with the transcendentalism of Kant and Fichte. In Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung Schopenhauer accepted Kant's position that the world as phenomenal is idea ( Vorstellung) ; but he added that the world as noumenal is will {Wille). He got the hint of a noumenal will from Kant; but in regarding the noumenal as knowable, because mental, as well as in the emphasis he laid on the activity of will, he resembled Fichte. His theory of the nature of will was his own, and arrived at from a voluntaristic psychology leading to a voluntaristic metaphysics of his own. His psychological starting-point was the unproved assumption that the only force of which we are immediately aware is will; his metaphysical goal was the consistent conclusion that in that case the only force we can know, as the noumenal essence of which all else is phenomenal appearance, is will. But by this noumenal will he did not mean a divine will similar to our rational desire, a will in which an inference and desire of a desirable end and means produces our rational action. He meant an unintelligent, unconscious, restless, endless will. In considering the force of instinct in animals he was obliged to divest will of reason. When he found himself confronted with the blind forces of Nature he was obliged to divest irrational will of feeling. As he resolved one force after another into lower and lower grades of will he was obliged to divest will of all consciousness. ' In short, his metaphysics was founded on a misnomer, and simply con- sisted in calling unconscious force by the name of unconscious will {Unbewusster Wille). This abuse of language brought him back to Leibnitz. But, whereas Leibnitz imputed uncon- scious perception as well as unconscious appetition to monads, Schopenhauer supposed unconscious will to arise without per- ception, without feeling, without ideas, and to be the cause of ideas only in us. Hence he rejected the infinite intelligence sup- posed by Fichte, Schelling and Hegel against whom he urged that blind will produces intelligence, and only becomes conscious in us by using intelligence as a means to ends. He also rejected the optimism of Leibnitz and Hegel, and placed the most irra- tional of wills at the base of the worst possible of worlds (see further Schopenhauer). This pessimistic panthelism gradually won its way, and procured exponents such as J. Frauenstadt, J. Bahnsen, and, more recently, P. Deussen. The accident of its pessimism attracted F. W. Nietzsche, who afterwards, passing from the philosophy of will to the theory of evolution, ended by imagining that the struggle of the will to live produces the survival of the fittest, that is, the right of the strongest and the will to exercise power, which by means of selection may here- after issue in a new species of superior man — the U ebermensch. Finally, Schopenhauer's voluntarism has had a profound effect on psychology inside and outside Germany, and to a less degree produced attempts to deduce from voluntaristic psychology new systems of voluntaristic metaphysics, such as those of Paulsen and Wundt. 3. The first to modify the pure voluntarism of Schopenhauer was E. von Hartmann, who {Die Philosophic des Unbewussten, 1869, 1st ed.), advanced the view that the world „ as noumenal is both unconscious intelligence and unconscious will, thus founding a panpneumatism which forms a sort of reconciliation of the panlogism of Hegel and the panthel- ism of Schopenhauer. In his tract entitled' Schelling's positive Philosophie als Einheit von Hegel und Schopenhauer (1869) be further showed that, in his later philosophy, Schelling had already combined reason and will in the Absolute. Indeed, Fichte had previously characterized the life of the Absolute by reason and will without consciousness; and, before Fichte, Leibnitz had asserted that the elements of Nature are monads with unconscious perception and appetition. Hartmann has an affinity with all these predecessors, and with Spinoza, with whom he agrees that there is but one substance unaltered by the plurality of individuals which are only its modifications. Following, however, in the footsteps of Schelling, he idealizes the one extended and thinking substance into one mental being; but he thinks that its essence consists in unconscious intelli- gence and will, of which all individual intelligent wills are only* activities. The merit of this fresh noumenal idealism consists in its correction of the one-sidedness of Schopenhauer: intelli- gence is necessary to will. But Hartmann's criticism does not go far enough. He ends by outdoing the paradox of Schopenhauer, concluding that Nature in itself is intelligent will, but unconscious, a sort of immanent unconscious God. As with his master, his reasons for this view are derived, not from a direct proof that unconscious Nature has the mental attributes supposed, but from human psychology and epistemology.' Like Leibnitz, he proceeds from the fact that our perceptions are NOUMENAL IDEALISM] METAPHYSICS 233 Latze. sometimes conscious, sometimes unconscious, to the inconsequent conclusion, that there are beings with nothing but unconscious perceptions; and by a similar non sequitur, because there is the idea of an end in will, he argues that there must be an unconscious idea of an end in instinctive, in reflex, in all action. Again, in his Grund- problem der Erkenntnisstheorie (1889) he uses without proof the hypothesis of psychological idealism, that we perceive psychical effects, to infer with merely hypothetical consistency the conclusion of noumenal metaphysical idealism that all we can thereby know is psychical causes, or something transcendent, beyond phenomena indeed, yet not beyond mind. But, according to him, this transcen- dent is the unconscious (Kraflvotles unbewusst ideates Geschehen). He calls this epistemology "transcendent realism"; it is really " transcendent idealism. ' On these foundations he builds the details of his idealistic metaphysics, (a) He identifies matter with mind by identifying atomic force with the striving of unconscious will after objects conceived by unconscious intelligence, and by defining causality as logical necessity receiving actuality through will. (6) He contends that, when matter ascends to the evolution of organic life, the unconscious has a power, over and above its atomic volitions, of introducing a new element, and that in conse- quence the facts of variation, selection and inheritance, pointed out by Darwin, are merely means which the unconscious uses for its own ends in morphological development, (c) He explains the rise of consciousness by supposing that, while it requires brain as a condi- tion, it consists in the emancipation of intelligence from will at the moment when in sensation the individual mind finds itself with an idea without will. Here follows his pessimism, like to, but differing from, that of his master. In his view consciousness begins with want, and pain preponderates over pleasure in every individual life, with no hope for the future, while the final end is not consciousness, but the painlessness of the unconscious (see Pessimism). But why exaggerate? The truth of Nature is force; the truth of will is rational desire ; the truth of life is neither the optimism of Leibnitz and Hegel, nor the pessimism of Schopenhauer and Hartmann, but the moderatism of Aristotle. Life is sweet, and most men have more pleasures than pains in their lives. 4. Lotze (1817-1881) elaborated a very different noumenal idealism, which perhaps we may express by the name " Pan- teleologism," to express its conclusion that the known world beyond phenomena is neither absolute thought nor unconscious will, nor the unconscious at all, but the activity of God; causing in us the system of phenomenal appearances, which we call Nature, or bodies moving in time and space; but being in itself the system of the universal reciprocal actions of God's infinite spirit, animated by the design of the supreme good. The Metaphysik of Lotze in its latest form (1879) begins with a great truth: metaphysics must be the foundation of psychology. He saw that the theories of the origin of knowledge in idealistic epistemology are unsound. Like Aristotle, then, he proposed anew the question, What is being? Nevertheless he was too much a child of his age to keep things known steadily before him; having asked the metaphysical question he proceeded to find a psychological answer in a theory of sensation, which asserted the mere hypothesis that the being which we ascribe to things on the evidence of sensation consists in their being felt. He really accepted, like Kant, the hypothesis of a sense of sensations which led to the- Kantian conclusion that the Nature we know in time and space is mere sensible appearances in us. Further, from an early period in his Medicinische Psycho- logie (1852) he reinforced the transcendental idealism of Kant by a general hypothesis of " local signs," containing the sub- ordinate hypotheses, that we cannot directly perceive extension either within ourselves or without; that spatial bodies outside could not cause in us spatial images either in sight or in touch; but that besides the obvious data of sense, e.g. pressure, heat and colour, there must be other qualitative different excitations of different nerve-fibres, by means of which, as non-local signs of localities, the soul constructs in itself an image of extended space containing different places. This hypothesis of an ac- quired perception of a space mentally constructed by " local signs " supplied Lotze and many succeeding idealists, including Wundt, with a new argument for metaphysical idealism. Lotze concluded that we have no more reason for supposing an external space like space constructed out of our perceptions, than we have for supposing an external colour like perceived colour. Agreeing, then, with Kant that primary qualities are as mental as secondary, he agreed also with Kant that all the Nature wt; know as a system of bodies moving in time and space is sensible phenomena. But while he was in fundamental agree- ment with the first two positions of Kant, he differed from the third; he did not believe that the causes of sensible phenomena can be unknown things in themselves. What then are they? In answering this question Lotze regarded Leibnitz as his guide. He accepted the Leibnitzian fallacy that unity is indivisibility, which led to the Leibnitzian analysis of material bodies into immaterial monads, indivisible and therefore unextended, and to the theory of monadic souls and entelechies. Indeed, from the time of Leibnitz such attempts either to analyse or to con- struct matter had become a fashion. Lotze agreed with Leibnitz that the things which cause phenomena are immaterial elements, but added that they are not simple substances, self-acting, as Leibnitz thought, or preserving themselves against disturbance, as Herbart thought, but are interacting modifications of the one substance of God. In the first place, he resolved the doubt of Leibnitz about bodies by deciding entirely against his realistic alternative that an organic body is a substantia realizans phaenomena, and for his idealistic alternative that every body is a phenomenon and not a substance at all. Secondly, he accepted the Leibnitzian hypothesis of immaterial elements without accepting their self-action. He believed in recipro- cal action ; and the very essence of his metaphysics consists in sub- limating the interaction of bodies into the interaction of immaterial elements, which produce effects on one another and on the soul as one of them. According to the mechanics of Newton, when two bodies collide each body makes the other move ^equally and oppositely; but it has become a convenient habit to express this concrete fact in abstract language by calling it the conservation of momentum, by talking of one body communicating its motion to the other; as if bodies exchanged motion as men do money. Now Lotze took this abstract language literally, and had no difficulty in showing that, as an attribute is not separated from its substance, this supposed communication of motion does not really take place : nothing passes. But instead of 1 ^turning to the concrete fact of the equivalence of momentum, by which each body moving makes the other move oppositely, he denied that bodies do reciprocally act on one another, and even that bodies as mutually resisting substances press one another apart in collision. Having thus rejected all bodily mechanism, he had to suppose that reciprocal action somehow takes place between immaterial elements. This brought him to another difference from Leibnitz as well as from Newton. According to Leibnitz, while each immaterial element is a monadic substance and self-acting secondary cause, God is the primary cause of all. According to Lotze, the connexion required by reciprocity requires also that the whole of every reciprocal action should take place within one substance; the immaterial elements act on one another merely as the modifications jf that substance interacting within itself; and that one substance is God, who thus becomes not merely the primary but the sole cause, in scholastic language a causa im- manens, or agent of acts remaining within the agent's being. At this point, having rejected both the Newtonian mechanism of bodily substances and the Leibnitzian automatism of monadic substances, he flew to the Spinozistie unity of substance ; except that, according to him, the one substance, God, is not extended at all, and is not merely thinking, but is a thinking, willing and acting spirit, Lotze's metaphysics is thus distinguished from the theism of Newton and Leibnitz by its pantheism, and from the panthe- ism of Spinoza by its idealism. It is an idealistic pantheism, which is a denial of all bodily mechanism, a reduction of every- thing bodily to phenomena, and an assertion that all real action is the activity of God. At the same time it is a curious attempt to restore mechanism and reconcile it with teleology by using the word " mechanism " in a new meaning, according to which God performs His own reciprocal actions within Himself by uniform laws, which are also means to divine ends. It is also an attempt to reconcile this divine mechanism with freedom. In his Metaphysik (1879), as in his earlier M ikrokosmus{\&5(t-i§§4), Lotze vindicated the contingency of freedom by assigning '"'to God a miraculous power of unconditional, commencement, whereby not only at the very beginning but in the course of nature there may be new beginnings, which are not effects of previous causes, though once started they produce effects according to law. Thus his pantheistic is also a teleological idealism, which in its emphasis on free activity and moral order recalls Leibnitz and Fichte, but in. its emphasis on the infinity of God has more affinity to Spinoza, Schelling and Hegel. Hence his philosophy, like the Hegelian, continually torments one with the difficulty that its sacrifice of the distinct being of xvm. 8 a 234 METAPHYSICS [NOUMENAL IDEALISM all individual substances to the universality of God entails the sacrifice of the individual personality of men. Our bodies were reduced by Lotze to the general ruck of phenomenal appear- ances. Our souls he tried his best to endow with a quasi - existence, arguing that the unity of consciousness requires an indivisible subject, which is distinct from the plurality of the body but interacting with it, is in a way a centre of independent activities, and is so far a substance, or rather able to produce the appearance of a substance. But at the end of his Metaphysik, from the conclusion that everything beyond phenomena is divine interaction, he drew the consistent corollary that individual souls are simply actions of the one genuine being. ' His final view was that certain actions of the divine substance are during consciousness gifted with knowledge of themselves as active centres, but during unconsciousness are non-existent. If so, we are not persons with a permanent being of our own distinct from that of God. But in a philosophy which reduces everything to phenomenal appearance except the self-interacting substance of God, there is n& room for either the bodies or the souls of finite substances or human persons. 5. Fechner (1801-1887) affords a conspicuous instance of the idealistic tendency to mysterize nature in his Panpsychism, or Fechner ^at f orm of noumenal idealism which holds that the universe is a vast communion of spirits, souls of men, of animals, of plants, of earth and other planets, of the sun, all embraced as different members in the soul of the world, the high- est spirit — God, in whom we live and move and have our being; that the bodily and the spiritual, or the physical and the psychical, are everywhere parallel processes which never meet to interact; but that the difference between them is only a difference between the outer and inner aspects of one identical psychophysical process; and yet that both sides are not equally real, because while psychical and physical are identical, the psychical is what a thing really is as seen from within, the physical is what it appears to be to a spectator outside; or spirit is the self-appear- ance of matter, matter the appearance of one spirit to another. Fechner's panpsychism has a certain affinity both to Stahl's animism and to the hylozoism of materialists such as Haeckel. But, while it differs from both in denying the reality of body, it differs from the former in extending conscious soul not only to plants, as Stahl did, but to all Nature; and it differs from the latter in the different consequences drawn by materialism and idealism from this universal animism. According to Haeckel, matter is the universal substance, spirit its universal attribute. According to Fechner, spirit is the universal reality, matter the universal appearance of spirit to spirit; and they are identical because spirit is the reality which appears. Hence Fechner describes himself as a twig fallen from Schelling's stem. Schel- ling's adherent Oken by his Lehrbuch der Natur philosophic conveyed to his mind the life-long impression that God is the universe and Nature God's appearance. At the same time, while accepting the Schellingian parallelistic identity of all things in God, Fechner was restrained by his accurate knowledge of physics from the extravagant construction of Nature, which had failed in the hands of Schelling and Hegel. Besides, he was deeply impressed by the fact of man's personality and by the problem of his personal immortality, which brought him back through Schelling to Leibnitz, whose Monadologie throughout maintains the plurality of monadic souls and the omnipresence of perception, sketches in a few sections (§§ 23, 78-81) a pan- psychic parallelism, though without identity, between bodily motions and psychic perceptions, and, what is most remarkable, already uses the conservation of energy to argue that physical energy pursues its course in bodies without interacting with souls, and that motions produce motions, perceptions produce perceptions. Leibnitz thus influenced Fechner, as in other ways he influenced Lotze. Both, however, used this influence freely; and, whereas Lotze used the Leibnitzian argument from indivisibility to deduce indivisible elements and souls, Fechner used the Leibnitzian hypotheses of universal perception and parallelism of motions and perceptions, in the light of the Schellingian identification of physical and psychical, to evolve a world-view (Weltansicht) containing something which was neither Leibnitz nor Schelling. Fechner's first point was his panpsychism. Emphasizing the many real analogies between physical and mental agency, but under- rating the much stronger evidences that all the mental operations of men and animals require a nervous system, he flew to the paradox that soul is not limited to men and animals, but extends p aa . to plants, to the earth and other planets, to the psychlsm. sun, to the world itself, of which, according to him, God is the world-soul. In this doctrine of universal animation he was like Leibnitz, yet very different. Whereas Leibnitz confined a large area of the world to wholly unconscious perceptions, and therefore preferred to call the souls of inorganic beings " Entelechies," Fechner extended consciousness to the whole world ; and accordingly, whereas Leibnitz believed in a supramundane Creator, " au dessus du Monde " and " dans le Monde," Fechner, in the spirit of Schelling, identified God with the soul of the world. Fechner's second point was that, throughout the animated universe, physical processes accompany psychical processes without interaction. In this pan- psychistic parallelism he was again like Leibnitz, and he developed his predecessor's view, that the conservation of energy prevents interaction, into the supposition that alongside the physical there is a parallel psychical conservation of energy. Here, again, he went much further than Leibnitz, but along with Schelling, in identi- fying the physical and the psychical as outer and inner sides of the same process, in which the inner is the real and the outer the appa- rent. Fechner's third point carried him beyond all his predecessors, containing as it does the true originality of his " world- view." He advanced the ingenious suggestion that, as body is in body and all ultimately in the world-body, so soul is in soul and all ultimately in the world-soul. By this means he explained immortality and vindicated personality. His fourth point was connected with this inclusion of personal spirits in higher spirits and in the highest. It is his so-called " synechological view " of the soul. Herbart and" Lotze, both deeply affected by the Leibnitzian hypothesis of indivisible monads, supposed that man's soul is seated at a central point in the brain; and Lotze supposed that this supposition is necessary to explain the unity of consciousness. Fechner's supposi- tion was that the unity of consciousness belongs to the unity of the whole body; that the seat of the soul is the living body; that the soul changes its place as in different parts a process rises above the " threshold of consciousness "; and that soul is not substance but the single psychical life which has its physical manifestation in the single bodily life. Applying this " synechological view " to the supposed inclusion of soul in soul, he deduced the conclusion that, as here the nature of one's soul is to unite one's little body, so here- after its essence will be to unite a greater body, while God's spirit unites the whole world by His omnipresence; and he pertinently asked, in opposition to the " punctual " view, whether God's soul is centred in a point. Lastly, the whole of this " world-view " was developed by Fechner in early life,!'under the influence of his religious training, and out of a pious desire to understand those main truths of Christianity which teach us that we are children of God, that this natural body will become a spiritual body, and that, though we are different individual members, we live and move and are in God: " in Deo vivimus, movemus, et sumus." It is important to notice that Fechner maintained this " world-view " in a little book, Das Buchlein vom Leben nach dem Tode, which he originally published in 1836 under the pseudonym of Dr Mises, but which he afterwards republished in his own name in 1866, and again in 1887, as a sketch of his Weltansicht. Afterwards in Nanna (1848) he discussed the supposed souls of plants, and in Zendavesta (1851) the supposed souls of the earth and the rest of the world. Then in 1855 he published his Atomenlehre, partly founded on his physics, but mainly on his metaphysics. Under the influence of Leibnitz, Boscovich, Kant and Herbart, he supposed that bodies are divisible into punctual atoms, which are not bodies, but centres of forces of attraction and repulsion; that impenetrability is a result of repulsive force; and that force itself is only law — taking as an instance that Newton- ian force of attraction whose process we do not understand, and neglecting that Newtonian force of pressure and impact whose process we do understand from the collision of bodies already ex- tended and resisting. But, in thus adapting to his own purposes the Leibnitzian analysis of material into immaterial, he drew his own conclusions according to his own metaphysics, which required that the supposed centres of force are not Leibnitzian " monads^' nor Herbartian " reals," nor divine modifications such as Lotze afterwards supposed, but are elements of a system which in outer aspect is bodily and in inner aspect is spiritual, and obeying laws of spirit. At the same time his synechological view prevented him from saying that every atom has a soul, because according to him a soul always corresponds to a unity of a physical manifold. Thus his metaphysics is Leibnitzian, like that of Lotze, and yet is opposed to the most characteristic feature of monadology— the percipient indivisible monad. In i860 appeared Fechner's Elemente der Psychophysik, a work which deeply affected subsequent psychology, and almost revolu- tionized metaphysics of body and soul, and of physical and psychical relations generally. It becomes necessary, therefore, to determine NOUMENAL IDEALISM] METAPHYSICS 235 how far Fechner derived his psychophysics from experience, how far from fallacies of inference, from his romantic imagination and from his theosophic metaphysics, which indeed coloured his whole book on psychophysics. At the very outset he started with his previous metaphysical hypothesis of parallelistic identity without interaction. He now compared the spiritual and bodily sides of a man to the con- cave and convex sides of a circle, as inner and outer sides of the same process, which is psychical as viewed from within and physical as viewed from without. He also maintained throughout the book that physical and psychical energy do not interfere, but that the psychical is, like a mathematical quantity, a function of the physical, depend- ing upon it, and vice versa, only in the sense that a constant relation according to law exists, such that we may conclude from one to the other, but without one ever being cause of the other. By his psychophysics he meant the exact doctrine of the relations of depen- dency between physical and psychical. The name was new, but not the doctrine. From antiquity men had applied themselves to determine the relations between the physical stimuli and the so- called " quality " of sensations. But what was new was the applica- tion of this doctrine to the relations between the stimuli and the so- called "intensity " of sensations. He generalized Weber's law (q.v.) in the form that sensation generally increases in intensity as the stimulus increases by a constant function of the previous stimulus; or increases in an arithmetical progression as the stimulus increases in a geometrical ratio ; or increases by addition of the same amount as the stimulus increases by the same multiple; or increases as the logarithm of the stimulus. There are then, at least within the limits of moderate sensations, concomitant variations between stimuli and sensations, not only in " quality," as in the intervals of sounds, which were understood long ago, but also in " intensity "; and the discovery of the latter is the importance of Weber's and Fechner's law. By the rules of induction from concomitant variations, we are logically bound to infer the realistic conclusion that outer physical stimuli cause inner sensations of sensible effects. But, unfortunately for Fechner, the very opposite conclusion followed from the pre- suppositions of his parallelistic metaphysics, and from the Leibnitz- ian view of the conservation of energy, which he was the first in our time to use in order to argue that a physical cause cannot produce a psychical effect, on the ground that physical energy must be exactly replaced by physical energy. Having satisfied himself in what he called " outer psychophysics," that the stimulus causes only the nervous process and not sensation, he passed to what he called '' inner psychophysics," or the theory of the relation between nervous and psychical processes. He rightly argued against the old theory that the continuity of nervous processes in the brain is interrupted by mental processes of thought and will : there is a nervous process for every mental process. But two questions then arose. What is the relation between nervous process and sensation? What causes sensation? The first question he answered from his imagination by supposing that, while the external world is stimulus of the nervous process, the nervous process is the immediate stimulus of the sensation, and that the sensation increases by a constant fraction of the previous stimulus in the nervous system, when Weber's law proves only that it increases by a constant fraction of the previous stimulus in the external world. The second question he answered from his parallelistic metaphysics by deducing that even within the organism there is only a constant dependency of sensation on nervous process without causation, because the nervous process is physical but the sensation psychical. This answer supposed that the whole physical process from the action of the external stimulus on the nervous system to the reaction of the organism on the external world is one series, while the con- scious process beginning with sensation is only parallel and as it were left high and dry. What then is the cause of the sensation ? Huxley, it will be remembered, in similar circumstances, answered this question by degrading consciousness to an epiphenomenon, or bye-product of the physical process. Fechner was saved from this absurdity, but only to fall into the greater absurdity of his own panpsychism. Having long assumed that the whole world is animated throughout, and that there are always two parallel series, physical and psychical, he concluded that, while a physical stimulus is causing a physical nervous process, a psychical accompaniment of the stimulus is causing the sensation, which, according to him, is the psychical accompaniment of the nervous process; and that, as the whole physical and the whole psychical series are the same, differing only as outer and inner, this identity holds both of stimulus and its psychical accompaniment and of nervous process and its accompanying sensation. Accordingly, he calls these and all other processes "psychophysical"; and as he recognized two parallel energies, physical and psychical, differing only as outer and inner aspects of the same energy, he called this "psychophysical energy." In such a philosophy all reality is " psychophysical." At the same time Fechner would not have us suppose that the two sides are equal ; according to him, the psychical, being the psychophysical as viewed from within, is real, the physical, being the psychophysical viewed from without, is apparent; so in oneself, though nervous process and psychical process are the same, it is the psychical which is the reality of which the nervous is mere appearance ; and so everywhere, spirit is the reality, body the appearance of spirit to spirit. Finally, he supposed that one spirit is in another, and all in the highest spirit, God. By this means also he explained unconsciousness. In point offact, many stimuli are beneath the " threshold " of a man's con- sciousness. Leibnitz, in the Nouveaux Essais, ii. 11, had also said that we have many " petites perceptions," of which we are un- conscious, and had further suggested that a perception of which we are, is composed of a quantity of " petites perceptions " of which we are not, conscious. Proceeding on this suggestion, and misled by the mathematical expression which he had given to Weber's law, Fechner held that a conscious sensation, like its stimulus, consists of units, or elements, by summation and increments of which conscious sensations and their differences are produced; so that consciousness, according to this unnecessary assumption, emerges from an integration of unconscious shocks or tremors. But by the hypothesis of the inclusion of spirit in spirit, he was further able to hold that what is unconscious in one spirit is conscious in a higher spirit, while everything whatever is in the consciousness of the highest spirit of God, who is the whole of reality of which the spirits are parts, while the so-called physical world is merely outer appear- ance of one spirit to another. Fechner first confused physics and metaphysics in psychophysics, and next proceeded to confuse them again in his work on evolution {Minige Ideen zur Schopfungs und Entwicklungs-geschichte der Organis- men, 1873). He perceived that Darwinism attributed too much to accident, and was also powerless to explain the origin of life and of consciousness. But his substitute was his own hypothesis of panpsychism, from which he deduced a " cosmorganic " evolution from a " cosmorganic " or original condition of the world as a living organism into the inorganic, by the principle of tendency to stability. The world, as he thought, on its physical side, always was a living body; and on its psychical side God always was its conscious spirit; and, so far from life arising from the lifeless, and consciousness from unconsciousness, the life and consciousness of the whole world are the origin of the lifeless and the unconscious in parts of it, by a kind of secondary automatism, while we ourselves are developed from our own mother-earth by differentiation. By thus supposing a psychical basis to evolution, Fechner, anticipating Wundt, substituted a psychical development of organs for Darwinian accidental variation. The difficulty of such speculations is to prove that things apparently dead and mindless are living souls. Their interest to the metaphysi- cian is their opposition to physics on the one hand and to theism on the other. Shall we resign our traditional belief that the greater part of the world is mere body, but that its general adaptability to conscious organisms proves its creation and government by God, and take to the new hypothesis, which, by a transfer of design from God to Nature, supposes that everything physical is alive, and con- ducts its life by psychical impulses of its own? Fechner himself went even further, and together with design transferred God Himself to Nature. This is the subject of his last metaphysical work, Die Tagesansicht gegeniiber der Nachtansicht (1879). The " day- view " (Fechner's) is the view that God is the psychophysical all-embracing being, the law and consciousness of the world. It resembles the views of Hegel and Lotze in its pantheistic tendency. But it does not, like theirs, sacrifice our personality; because, according to Fechner, the one divine consciousness includes us as a larger circle includes smaller circles. By this ingenious suggestion of the membership of one spirit in another, Fechner's " day- view " also puts Nature in a different position ; neither with Hegel sublimating it to the thought of God's mind, nor with Lotze degrading it to the phenomena of our human minds, but identifying it with the outer appearance of one spirit to another spirit in the highest of spirits. . We have dwelt on this curious metaphysics of Fechner because" it contains the master-key to the philosophy of the present moment. When the later reaction to Kant arose against both Hegelianism and materialism, the nearly contemporary appear- ance of Fechner's Psychophysics began to attract experimental psychologists by its real as well as its apparent exactness, and both psychologists and metaphysicians by its novel way of putting the relations between the physical and the psychical in man and in the world. Fechner saw psychology deriving advantage from the methods, as well as the results, of his experiments, and in 1879 the first psychological laboratory was erected by Wundt at Leipzig. But he had also to endure comn>*" less objections to his mathematical statement of Weber's law, to his unnecessary assumption of units of sensation, and to his unjustifiable transfer of the law from physical to physiological stimuli of sensations, involving in his opinion his parallelistic view of body and mind. Among psychologists Helmholtz, Mach, Brentano, Hering, Delboeuf, we're all more or less against him. Sigwart in his Logic has also opposed the parallelistic view itself; and James has criticized it from the point of view that the soul selects out of the possibilities of the brain means to its own ends. Nevertheless, largely under the influence of the exaggeration 236 METAPHYSICS [PHENOMENAL IDEALISM of the conservation of energy, many psychologists — Wundt, Paulsen, Riehl, Jodl, Ebbinghaus, Munsterberg, and in England Lewes, Clifford, Romanes, Stout — have accepted Fechner's psychophysical parallelism, as far at least as men and animals are concerned. Most stop here, but some go with Fechner to the full length of his metaphysical parallelism of the physical and psychical, as psychophysical, throughout the whole world. This influence extended from Germany to Denmark, where it was embraced by Hoff ding, and to England, where it was accepted by Romanes, and in a more qualified manner as " a working hypothesis " by Stout. But the most thorough and most eloquent of Fechner's metaphysical disciples was F. Paulsen (q.v.), who spread panpsychism far and wide in his Einleitung in die Philosophic Here reappear all the characteristic points of Fechner's " world- view " — the panpsychism, the universal parallelism with the identi- Paulsea fication of physical and psychical, the inclusion of spirit in spirit, the synechological view of spirit, and the final " day-view " that all reality is spirit, and body the appearance of spirit to spirit. But Paulsen tries to supply something wanting in Fechner. The originality of Paulsen consists in trying to supply an epistemological explanation of the metaphysics of Fechner, by recon- ciling him with Kant and Schopenhauer. He borrows from Kant's "rationalism " the hypothesis of a spontaneous activity of the subject with the deduction that knowledge begins from sense, but arises from understanding ; and he accepts from Kant's metaphysical idealism the consequence that everything we perceive, experience and know about physical nature, and the bodies of which it consists, is phenomena, and not bodily things in themselves. But he has a different theory of human nature and soul, and so does not accept the Kantian conclusion that things in themselves, in the sense of things beyond phenomena, are all unknowable. On the contrary, his contention is that of Fechner — that all knowable things are inner psychical realities beneath outer physical appearances — the invisible symbolized by the visible. Kant, however, had no epistemology for such a contention, because according to him both outer and inner senses give mere appearance, from which we could not know either body in itself, or soul in itself. Parting, then, from Kant, Paulsen resorts to a paradox which he shares with Fechner and Wundt. He admits, indeed, Kant's hypothesis that by inner sense we are conscious only of mental states, but he contends that this very consciousness is a knowledge of a thing in itself. He agrees with Fechner and Wundt that there is no substantial soul, and that soul is nothing but the mental states, or rather their unity — thus identifying it with Kant's synthetic unity. On this assumption he deduces that in being conscious of our mental states we are conscious of soul not merely as it appears, but as it is in itself, and therefore can infer similar souls, other psychical unities, which are also things in themselves. But what is the essence of this psychical reality which we thus immediately and mediately know? Here he appeals to Schopen- hauer's doctrine that will of some sort is the fundamental fact of mental life. Taking, then, will to be the essential thing in itself of which we are conscious, he deduces that we can infer that the psychical things in themselves beyond ourselves are also essentially " wills." Combining with this the central dogma of Fechner that spirit extends throughout the'world of bodily appearance, he con- cludes that the realities of the world are " wills," that bodies are mere appearances of " wills," and that there is one universal and all-embracing spirit which is " will." His ultimate metaphysics, then, is this: Everything is spirit, and spirit is " will." Lastly, by " will " he does not mean " rational desire," which is its proper meaning, but inapplicable to Nature ; nor unconscious irrational will, which is Schopenhauer's forced meaning ; nor unconscious intelligent will, which is Hartmann's more correct meaning, though inapplicable to Nature. His " will " is instinct, impulsive feeling, a " will to live," not indeed unconscious, but often subconscious, without idea, without reasoning about ends and means, yet pursuing ends — in short, what he calls, after K. E. von Baer, Zielstrebigkeit. How persistent is ancient animism! Empedocles, Plato and Aristotle; Telesio, Bruno and Campanella; Leibnitz; the idealists, Schopen- hauer and Hartmann, Fechner and Paulsen; and the materialist, Haeckel — all have agreed in according some sort of appetition to Nature. So prone are men to exaggerate adaptation into aim! So prone are they to transfer to Nature the part played by the providence of God! (see Bacon, De augmentis, iii. 4, sub fin.). Noumenal idealism is not dead in Germany. It died down for a time in the decline of Hegelianism and the rise of materialism. It has since revived. The pure idealism of Fichte is at the bottom of it all. The panlogism of Schelling and Hegel survives in its influence. So still, more does the pantheism of Schopen- hauer. The three most vital idealisms of this kind at the moment are the panpneumatism of Hartmann, combining Hegel with Schopenhauer; the panteleologism of Lotze, reviving Leibnitz; and the panpsychism of Paulsen, continuing Fechner, but with the addition of an epistemology combining Kant with Schopen- hauer. All these systems of metaphysics, differ as they may, agree that things are known to exist beyond sensible phenomena, but yet are mental realities of some kind. Meanwhile, the natural substances of Aristotelian realism are regarded with common aversion. 5. — Phenomenal Idealism in Germany Phenomenal idealism is the metaphysics which deduces that, as we begin by perceiving nothing but mental phenomena of sense, so all we know at last from these data is also phenomena of sense, actual or possible. So far it is in general agreement not only with Hume, but also with Kant in his first two positions. But it follows Fichte in his revolt against the unknown thing in itself. On the other hand, as the speculative systems of nou- menal idealism, starting from Fichte, succeeded one another, like ghosts who " come like shadows, so depart," without producing conviction, and often in flagrant opposition to the truths of natural science, and when, in consequence, a wave of materialism threatened to submerge mind altogether by reducing it to a function of matter, many philosophers began to despair of the ambitious attempts which had been made to prove that there is a whole world of mind beyond phenomena, as the noumenalists had supposed. Thus they were thrown back on the limits of human knowledge prescribed by Kant, but purged of the un- known thing in itself by Fichte. Phenomenal idealism is the Kantian contention that Nature, as known to science, is pheno- mena of experience. Unfortunately, the word " phenomenon " is equivocal (see Mind, xiv. 300). Sometimes it is used for any positive fact, as distinguished from its cause. But sometimes also it means what appears, or can appear, to the senses, as distinguished from what does not appear, but can be inferred to exist. Now, Kant and his followers start from this second and narrower meaning, and usually narrow it still more by assuming that what appears to the senses is as mental as the sensation, being undistinguishable from it or from the idea of it, and that an appearance is a mental idea( Vorstellung) of sense; and then they conclude that we can know by inference nothing but such mental appearances, actual and possible, and therefore nothing beyond sensory experience. When, on the other hand, the objects of science are properly described as phenomena, what is meant is not this pittance of sensible appearances, but positive facts of all kinds, whether perceptible or imperceptible, whether capable of being experienced or of being inferred from, but beyond, experience, e.g. the farther side of the moon, which is known to exist only by inference. Hence the doctrine of Kant, that Nature as known to science is phenomena, means one thing in Kantism and another thing in science. In the former it means that Nature is mental phenomena, actual and possible, of sensory experience; in the latter it means that Nature is positive facts, either experienced or inferred. It is most impor- tant also to notice that Kantism denies, but science asserts, the logical power of reason to infer actual things beyond experience. But the phenomenal idealists have not, any more than Kant, noticed the ambiguity of the term " phenomenon "; they fancy that, in saying that all we know is phenomena in the Kantian sense of mental appearances, they are describing all the positive facts that science knows; and they follow Kant in suppos- ing that there is no logical inference of actual things beyojid . experience. ""* 1. The Reaction to Kant. — The reaction to Kant(" Zuriick zu Kant!") was begun by O. Liebmann in Kant und die Epigonen (1865). Immediately afterwards, in 1866, appeared Lange's Geschichte des Materialismus. In 1870 J. B. Meyer published bis Kants Psychologie, and in 187 1 H. Cohen his more important Kants Theorie der Erfahrung, which led Lange to modify his interpretation of Kant in the second edition of his own book. Lange (q.v.) by his History of Materialism has exercised a pro- found influence, which is due partly to its apparent success in answering materialism by Kantian arguments, and partly to PHENOMENAL IDEALISM] METAPHYSICS 237 Laage. its ingenious attempt to give to Kantism itself a consistency, which, however, has only succeeded in producing a new philosophy of Neo-Kantism, differing from Kantism in modifying the a priori and rejecting the thing in itself. Lange to some extent modified the transcen- dentalism of Kant's theory of the origin of knowledge. A priori forms, according to Kant, are contributions of the mental powers of sense, understanding, and reason; but, accord- ing to Lange, they are rooted in " the physico-psychical organi- zation." This modification was the beginning of a gradual lessening of the antithesis of a priori to a posteriori, until at last the a priori forms of Kant have been transmuted into " auxiliary conceptions," or " postulates of experience." But this modification made no difference to the Kantian and Neo-Kantian deduction from the epistemological to the meta- physical. Lange entirely agreed with Kant that a priori forms can have no validity beyond experience when he says: " Kant is at any rate so far justified as the principle of intuition in space and time a priori is in us, and it was a service to all time that he should in this first great example, show that what we possess a priori, just because it arises out of the disposition of our mind, beyond our experience has no longer any claim to validity " {Hist, of Materialism, trans. E. C. Thomas, ii. 203). Hence he deduced that whatever we know from sensations arranged in such a priori forms are objects of our own experience and mental phenomena. Hence also his answer to materialism. Science, says the mate- rialist, proves that all known things are material phenomena. Yes, rejoins Lange, but Kant has proved that material are merely mental phenomena; so that the more the materialist proves his case the more surely he is playing into the hands of the idealist — an answer which would be complete if it did not turn on the equivocation of the word " phenomenon," which in science means any positive fact, and not a mere appearance, much less a mental appearance, to sense and sensory experience. Having, however, made a deduction, which is at all events consistent, that on Kantian assumptions all we know is mental phenomena, Lange proceeded to reduce the rest of Kantism to consistency. But his ardent love of consistency led him far away from Kant in the end; for he proceeded consistently from the assumption, that whatever we think beyond mental phenomena is ideal, to the logical conclusion that in practical matters our moral responsi- bility cannot prove the reality of a noumenal freedom, because, as on Kant's assumption we know ourselves from inner sense only as phenomena, we can prove only our phenomenal freedom. Lange thus transmuted inconsistent Kantism into a consistent Neo-Kantism, consisting of these reformed positions: (1) we start with sensations in a priori forms; (2) all things known from these data are mental phenomena of experience; (3) everything beyond is idea, without any corresponding reality being knowable. " The intelligible world," he concluded,. " is a world of poetry." Our reflection is that there is a great difference between the essence and the consistency of Kant's philosophy. Its essence, as stated by Kant, was to reduce the logical use of reason to mental phenomena of experience in speculation, in order to extend the practical use of reason to the real noumena, or things in themselves, required for morality. Its consistency, as deduced by Lange, was to reduce all use of reason, speculative and. practical, to its logical use of proceeding from the assumed mental data of outer and inner sense, arranged a priori, to mental phenomena of experience, beyond which we can conceive ideas but postulate nothing. As H. Vaihinger, himself a profound Kantian of the new school, says: " Critical scepticism is the proper result of the Kantian theory of knowledge." There is only one Neo-Kantian way out of this dilemma, but it is to alter the original assumptions of Kant's psychological idealism. This is the alternative of A. Riehl, who in Der philosophische Kriticis- _ mus (1876, &c.) proposes the non-Kantian hypothesis H/uu. that, though things in themselves are unknowable through reason alone, they are knowable by empirical intuition, and therefore also by empirical thought starting from intuition. Like all true followers of Kant, Riehl prefers epistemology to metaphysics; yet in reality he founds a metaphysics on epistemology, which he calls " critical realism," so far as it asserts a knowledge of things beyond phenomena, and " critical monism," so far as it holds that these things are unlike both physical and psychical phenomena, but are nevertheless the common basis of both. He accepts the Kantian positions that unity of consciousness combines sensations by a priori synthesis, and that therefore all that natural science knows about matter moving in space is merely phenomena of outer sense; and he agrees with Kant that from these data we could not infer things in themselves by reason. But his point is that the very sensation of phenomena or appearances implies the things which appear. " Sensory knowledge," he says, " is the knowledge of the relations of things through the relations of the sensations of things." Further, holding that, " like every other perception, the perception of a human body immediately involves the existence of that body," and, like Fichte, believing in a " common consciousness," he con- cludes that the evidence of sense is yerined by " common conscious- ness " of the external world as objective in the Kantian sense of universally valid. He interprets the external world to be the com- mon basis of physical and psychical phenomena. He rightly relies on the numerous passages, neglected by Lange, in which Kant regards things in themselves as neither phenomena nor ideas, but things existing beyond both. But his main reliance is on the passage in the Kritik, where Kant, speaking cf the Cartesian difficulty of communication between body and soul, suggests that, however body and soul appear to be different in the phenomena of outer and inner sense, what lies as thing in itself at the basis of the phenomena of both may perhaps be not so heterogeneous (ungleichartig) after all. Riehl elaborates this bare suggestion into the metaphysical theory that the single basis of physical and psychical phenomena is neither bodily nor mental, nor yet space and motion. In order to establish this paradox of " critical monism," he accepts to a certain extent the psychophysical philosophy of Fechner. He agrees with Fechner that physical process of nerve and psychical process of mind are really the same psychophysical process as appearing on the one hand to an observer and on the other hand to one's own consciousness; and that physical phenomena only produce physical phenomena, so that those materialists and realists are wrong who say that physical stimuli produce sensations. But whereas Fechner and Paulsen hold that all physical processes are universally accom- panied by psychical processes which are the real causes of psychical sensations, Riehl rejects this paradox of universal parallelism in order to fall into the equally paradoxical hypothesis that something or other, which is neither physical not psychical, causes both the physical phenomena of matter moving in space and the psychical phenomena of mind to arise in us as its common effects. In supposing a direct perception of such a nondescript thing, he shows to what straits idealists are driven in the endeavour to supplement Kant's limitation of knowledge to phenomena by some sort of knowledge of things. 2. The Reaction to Hume. — When the Neo-Kantians, led by Lange, had modified Kant's hypothesis of a priori forms, and retracted Kant's admission and postulation of things in them- selves beyond phenomena and ideas, and that too without proceeding further in the direction of Fichte and the noumenal idealists, there was not enough left of Kant to distinguish him essentially from Hume. For what does it matter to meta- physics whether by association sensations suggest ideas, and so give rise to ideas of substance and causation a posteriori, or synthetic unity of consciousness combines sensations by a priori notions of substance and causation into objects which are merely mental phenomena of experience, when it is at once allowed by the followers of Hume and Kant alike that reason in any logical use has no power of inferring things beyond the experience of the reasoner? In either case, the effective power of inference, which makes us rational beings, is gone. Naturally then the reaction to Kant was followed by a second reaction to Hume, partly under the name of " Positivism," which has attracted a number of adherents, such as C. Goring (1841-1879), author of an incomplete System der Kritischen Philosophie (1874-1875) and E. Laas (q.v.), and partly under the name of the "physical phenomenology " of E. Mach. Ernst Mach (q.v.) is a conspicuous instance of a confusion of physics and psychology ending in a scepticism like that of Hume. He tells us how from his youth he pursued physical and psychological studies, how at the age of fifteen he read Kant's Prolegomena, and later rejected the thing in itself, and came to the conclusion that the world with his ego is one mass of sensations. For a time, under the influence of Fechner's Psychophysics, he thought that Nature has two sides, a physical and a psychological, and added that all atoms have feeling. But in the progress of his physical work, which taught him, as he thought, to distinguish between what we see and what we Mach. 2 3 8 METAPHYSICS [PHENOMENAL IDEALISM mentally supply, he soon passed from this noumenalism to a " universal physical phenomenology." It retains some relics of Fechner's influence; first, the theory of identity, according to which the difference between the physical and psychical is not a dualism, but everything is at once both; and secondly, the substi- tution of mathematical dependence for physical causality, except that, whereas Fechner only denied causality between physical and psychical, Mach rejects the entire distinction between causality and dependence, on the ground that " the law of causality simply asserts that the phenomena of Nature are dependent on one another." He comes near to Hume's substi- tution of succession of phenomena for real causality. He holds, like Hume, that nothing is real except our sensations and com- plexes of sensory elements; that the ego is not a definite, unalter- able, sharply bounded unity, but its continuity alone is important ; and that we know no real causes at all, much less real causes of our sensations; or, as he expresses it, bodies do not produce sensations, but complexes of sensations form bodies. If he has any originality, it consists in substituting for the association of ideas the " economy of thinking," by which he means that all theoretical conceptions of physics, such as atoms, molecules, energy, &c, are mere helps to facilitate our consideration of things. But he limits this power of mind beyond sensations to mere ideas, and like Hume, and also like Lange,, holds at last that, though we may form ideas beyond sensations or pheno- mena, we cannot know things. If we ask how Mach arrived at this scepticism, which is contained in his well-known scientific work Die Mechanik in ihrer Entwickelung (1883; ed. 1908) as well as in his psychological work on the Analysis of Sensations (Beitr&ge zur Analyse der Empfindungen, 1886), we find two main causes, both psychological and epistemological; namely, his views on sense and on inference. In the first place, he displays in its most naked form the common but unproved idealistic paradox of a sense of sensations, according to which touch apprehends not pressure but a sensation of pressure, sight apprehends not colour but a sensation of colour, and there is no difference between the sensory operation and the sensible object apprehended by any sense, even within the sentient organism. Hence, according to him, sensations are not appre- hensions of sensible objects (e.g. pressures felt) from which we infer similar objects beyond sense (e.g. similar pressures of outside, things), but are the actual elements out of which everything known is made; as if sensations were like chemical elements. Within the limits of these supposed sensory elements he accords more than many psychologists do to sense; because, following the nativists, Johannes Miiller and Hering, he includes sensations of time and space, which, however, are not to be regarded as " pure intuitions " in the style of Kant. But here again he identifies time and space with the sensations of them (Zeit- empfindungen and Raumempfindtmgen) . On the assumption, then, that time and space are not objects, but systems, of sensa- tions, he concludes that a body in time and space is " a relatively constant sum of touch-and-light-sensations, joined to the same time-and-space-sensations," that each man's own body is included in his sensations, and that to explain sensations by motions would only be to explain one set of sensations from another. In short, sensations are elements and bodies complexes of these elements. Secondly, his theory of inference contains the admis- , sion that we infer beyond sensations: he remarks that the space of the geometer is beyond space-sensations, and the time of the physicist does not coincide with time-sensations, because it uses measurements such as the rotation of the earth and the vibrations of the pendulum. But by inference beyond sense he does not mean a process of concluding from sensible things to similar things, e.g. from tangible pressures to other similar pressures in the external world. Inference, according to him, is merely mental completion of sensations; and this mental completion has two characteristics: it only forms ideas, and it proceeds by an " economy of thought." In the course of his learned studies on the history of mechanics he became deeply impressed with Galileo's appeals to simplicity as a test of truth, and converted what is at best only one characteristic of thinking into its essence. According to him, whatever inferences we make, certain or uncertain, are mere economies of thought, adapting ideas to sensations, and filling out the gaps of experience by ideas; whatever we infer, whether bodies, or molecules, or atoms, or space of more than three dimensions, are all without distinction equally provisional conceptions, things of thought; and " bodies or things are compendious mental symbols for groups of sensations — symbols which do not exist outside thought." Moreover, he applies the same scepticism to cause and effect. " In Nature," says he, " there is no cause and no effect. " He thinks that repetitions of similar conjunctions occur in Nature, the connexion of cause and effect only in abstrac- tion. He refers to Hume as recognizing no causality but only a customary and habitual succession, but adds that Kant rightly recognizes that mere observation cannot teach the necessity, of the conjunction. But in reality his theory is neither Hume's theory of association nor Kant's of an a priori notion of under- standing under which a given case is subsumed. . He thinks that there is a notion of understanding (Verstandesbegriff), under which every new experience is subsumed, but that it has been developed by former experience, instinctively, and by the development of the race, as part of the economy of thinking. " Cause and effect are therefore," he concludes, " thought-things of economical function (Gedankendinge von okonomischer Function)." His philosophy, therefore, is that all known things are sensations and complexes of sensory elements, supplemented by an economy of thinking which cannot carry us beyond ideas to real things, or beyond relations of dependency to real causes. It is important to understand that Mach had developed this economical view of thought in 1872, more than ten years before the appearance of his work on the history of mechanics icirchhoft. as he tells us in the preface, where he adds that at a later date similar views were expressed by Kirchhoff in his Vorle- sungen iiber mathematische Physik (1874). Kirchhoff asserted that the whole object of mechanics is " to describe the motions occur- ring in Nature completely in the simplest manner." This view involves the denial of force as a cause, and the assertion that all we know about force is that the acceleration of one mass depends on that of another, as in mathematics a function depends on a variable; and that even Newton's third law of motion is merely a description of the fact that two material points determine in one another, without reciprocally causing, opposite accelerations. It is evident that Kirchhoff's descriptive is the same as Mach's economical view. " When I say," says Mach, " that a body A exerts a force on a body B, I mean that B, on coming into contra- position with A, is immediately affected by a certain acceleration with respect to A." In a word, Mach and Kirchhoff agree that force is not a cause, convert Newtonian reciprocal action into mere interdependency, and, in old terminology, reduce mechanics from a natural philosophy of causes to a natural history of mere facts. Now, Mach applies these preconceived opinions to " mechanics in its development," with the result that, though he shows much skill in mathematical mechanics, he misrepresents its development precisely at the critical point of the discovery of Newton's third law of motion. The true order of discovery, however, was as follows: — (a) Sir ChristoDher Wren made many experiments before the Royal Society, which were afterwards repeated in a corrected form by Sir Isaac Newton in the Principia, experimentally proving that bodies of ascertained comparative weights, when suspended and impelled against- one another, forced one another back by impressing on one another opposite changes of velocity inversely as their weights and therefore masses ; that is, by impressing on one anOtijer equal and opposite changes of momentum. (b) Wallis showed that such bodies reduce one another to a joint mass with a common velocity equal to their joint momentum divided by their joint weights or masses. This result is easily deducible also from Wren's discovery. If m and m' are the masses, v and v' their initial velocities, and V the common velocity, then m(v — V) = m'(V — v'), therefore mv + m'v' = (m + m')W, and hence (mv + m'v')/(m + m') = V. (c) Wren and Huygens further proved that the law of equal action and reaction, already experimentally established by the former, is deducible from the conservation of the velocity of the common centre of gravity, which is the same as the common velocity of the bodies, that is, deducible from the fact that their common centre PHENOMENAL IDEALISM] METAPHYSICS 239 of gravity does not change its state of motion or rest by the actions of the bodies between themselves; and they further extended the law to bodies, qua elastic. (d) Hence, first inductively and then deductively, the third law was originally discovered only as a law of collision or impact between bodies of ascertained weights and therefore masses, impressing on one another equal and opposite changes of momentum, and always reducing one another to a joint mass with a common velocity to begin with, apart from the subsequent effects of elasticity. (e) Newton in the Principia, repeating and correcting Wren's experiments on collision, and adding further instances from attrac- tive forces of magnetism and gravity, induced the third law of motion as a general law of all forces. This order of discovery shows that the third law was generalized from the experiments of Wren on bodies of ascertained comparative weights or masses, which are not material points or mass-points. It shows that the bodies impress on one another opposite changes of velocity inversely as their weights or masses; and that in doing so they always begin by reducing one another to a joint mass with a common velocity, whatever they may do afterwards in consequence of their elasticities. The two bodies therefore do not penetrate one another, but begin by acting on one another with a force precisely sufficient, instead of penetrating one another, to cause them to form a joint mass with a common velocity. Bodies then are triply extended substances, each occupying enough space to prevent mutual penetration, and by this force of mutual impenetrability or inter- resistance cause one another to form a joint mass with a common velocity whenever they collide. Withdraw this foundation of bodies as inter-resisting forces causing one another in collision to form a joint mass with a common velocity but without penetration, and the evidence of the third law disappears; for in the case of attrac- tive forces we know nothing of their modus operandi except by the analogy of the collision of inter-resisting bodies, which makes us believe that something similar, we know not what, takes place in gravity, magnetism, electricity, &c. Now, Mach, though he occasionally drops hints that the discovery of the law of collision comes first, yet never explains the process of development from it to the third law of motion. On the contrary, he treats the law of collision with other laws as an application of the third law of motion, because it is now unfortunately so taught in books of mechanics. He has therefore lost sight of the truths that bodies are triply extended, mutually impenetrable substances, and by this force causes which reduce one another to a joint mass with a common velocity on collision, as for instance in the ballistic pendulum; that these forces are the ones we best understand; and that they are reciprocal causes of the common velocity of their joint mass, what- ever happens afterwards. In the case of this one force we know far more than the interdependence supposed by Mach and Kirch- hoff ; we know bodies with impenetrable force causing one another to keep apart. It might have been expected that scepticism on this subject would not have had much effect. But the idealists are only too glad to get any excuse for denying bodily substances and causes ; and, while Leibnitz supplied them with the fancied analysis of material into immaterial elements, and Hume with the reduction of bodies to assemblages of sensations, Mach adds the additional argument that bodily forces are not causes at all. In Great Britain Mach's scepticism was welcomed by Karl Pearson to support an idealistic phenomenalism derived from Hume, and by Ward to sup- port a noumenal idealism derived from Lotze. No real advance in metaphysics can take place, and natural science itself is in some danger, until the true history of the evidences of the laws of mechani- cal force is restored ; and then it will soon appear that in the force of collision what we know is not material points determining one another's opposite accelerations, but bodies by force of impene- trable pressure causing one another to keep apart. Mechanics is a natural philosophy of causes. 3. Dualism within Experience. — Besides those philosophies which are reactions to Kant or to Hume, there are a number of other modern systems which start with the common hypothesis that knowledge is experience. The consequence is that whatever is true of experience they transfer to all knowledge. One of the characteristics of actual experience is that its object is, or has been, present to an experiencing subject; and of possible experi- ence that it can be present. As a matter of fact, this character- istic differentiates experience from inference. By inference we know that things, such as the farther side of the moon, which neither are, nor have been, nor can be, present to an experiencing subject on the earth, nevertheless exist. But, on the hypothesis that knowledge contains no inferences beyond experience, it follows that all the objects of knowledge, being objects of experience, are, or have been, or can be, present to an experiencing subject. Hence it is common nowadays to hold that there is indeed a difference between knower and known, ego and non-ego, subject and object, but that they are inseparable; or that all known things are objects and subjects inseparably connected in experience. This view, however, is held in different forms; and two opposite forms have arisen in Germany, " immanent philo- sophy " and " empirio-criticism," the former nearer to Kant, the latter to Hume. Immanent Philosophy is the hypothesis that the world is not transcendent, but immanent in consciousness. Among the up- holders of this view are Anton von Leclair, who expresses i mmageai it in the formula — " Denken eines Seins = gedachtes phii OSOO hy Sein," and R. von Schubert-Soldern, who says that *' every fragment of the pretended transcendent world belongs to the immanent. But the best known representative of Immanent Philosophy is W. Schuppe, who, in his Erkenntnistheoretische Logik (1878), and in his shorter Grundriss der Erkenntnistheorie und Logik (1894), gives the view a wider scope by the contention that the real world is the common content or object of common conscious- ness, which, according to him, as according to Fichte, is one and the same in all individual men. Different individual consciousnesses plainly differ in having each its own content, in which Schuppe includes each individual's body as well as the rest of the things which come within the consciousness of each ; but they also as plainly agree, e.g. in all admitting one sun. Now, the point of Schuppe is that, so far as they agree, individual consciousnesses are not merely similar, but the same in essence ; and this supposed one and the same essence of consciousness in different individuals is what he calls consciousness in general (Bewusstsein uberhaupt). While in this identification he follows Fichte, in other respects he is more like Kant. He supposes that the conscious content is partly a posteriori, or consisting of given data of sense, and partly a priori, or consisting of categories of understanding, which, being valid for all objects, are contributed by the common consciousness. He differs, however, from Kant, not only because he will not allow that the given data are received from things in themselves, but also because, like Mach, he agrees with the nativists that the data already contain a spatial determinacy and a temporal determinacy, which he regards as a posteriori elements of the given, not like Kant, as a priori forms of sense. He allows, in fact, no a priori forms except categories of the understanding, and these he reduces, considering that the most important are identity with difference and causality, which in his view are necessary to the judgments that the various data which make up a total impression {Gesammteindrtick, Totaleindruck) are each different from the others, together identical with the total impression, and causally connected in relations of necessary sequence and coexistence. At the same time, true to the hypothesis of " immanence," he rigidly confines these categories to the given data, and altogether avoids the inconsistent tendency of Kant to transfer causality from a necessary relation between phenomena to a neces- sary relation between phenomena and things in themselves as their causes. Hence he strictly confines true judgment and knowledge to the consciousness of the identity or difference, and the causal relations of the given content of the common consciousness. From this epistemology he derives the metaphysical conclusion that the things we know are indeed independent of my consciousness and of yours, taken individually, or, to use a new phrase, are " trans- subjective"; but, so far from being independent of the common consciousness, one and the same in all of us, they are simply its con- tents in the inseparable relation of subject and object. To the objection that there are objects, e.g. atoms, which are never given to any consciousness, he returns the familiar Kantian answer that, though unperceived, they are perceptible. The whole known world, then according to him, is the perceived and the perceptible content of common consciousness. The " empirio-criticism " of R. Avenarius (q.v.) is the hypothesis of the inseparability of subject and object, or, to use his own phraseo- logy, of ego and environment, in purely empirical, or a EmaM posteriori form. It is like " immanent philosophy," criticism in opposing experience to the transcendent; but it also opposes experience to the transcendental, or a priori. It opposes " pure experience " to " pure reason," while it agrees with Kant's limitation of knowledge to experience. Avenarius held a view of knowledge very like that of Mach's view of the economy of thinking. In his first philosophical treatise, Philosophie als Denken der Welt gemdss dem Princip des kleinsten Kraftmaasses, Prolegomena zu einer Kritik der reinen Erfahrung (1876), he based his views on the principle of least action, contending that, as in Nature the force which produces a change is the least that can be, so in mind belief tends in the easiest direction. In illustration of this tendency, he pointed out that mind tends to assimilate a new impression to a previous content, and by generalization to bring as many impressions under as few general conceptions as possible, and succeeds so far as it generalizes from pure experience of the given. Nor is there any objection to this economical view of thought, as long as we remember what Avenarius and Mach forget, that the essence of thought is the least action neither more nor less than necessary to the point, which is the reality of things. Afterwards, in his Kritik der reinen Erfahrung (1888-1890), Avenarius aimed at giving a description of pure experience which he identified with the natural view of the world held by all unprejudiced persons. What, then, is this pure experience? " Every human individual," says he, 24-0 METAPHYSICS [PHENOMENAL IDEALISM " originally accepts over against him an environment with manifold parts, other individuals making manifold statements, and what is stated in some way dependent upon the environment." Statements dependent upon the environment are what he means by pure experience. At first this starting-point looks like dualistic realism, but in reality the author only meant dualism within experience. By the environment he meant not a thing existing in itself; but only a counterpart (Gegenglied) of ourselves as central part (Centralglied). "We cannot," he adds, "think ourselves as central part away." He went so far as to assert that, where one assumes that at some time there was no living being in the world, all one means is that there was besides oneself no other central part to whom one's counterparts might also be counterparts. The consequence is that all the world admitted into his philosophy is what he called the " empirio-critical essential co-ordination " (empirio-kritische Prin- zipialkoordination) , an inseparable correlation of central part and counterpart, of ego and environment. Within this essential co-ordination he distinguished three values: R-values of the envi- ronment as stimulus ; C-values of the central nervous system ; and E-values of human statements — the latter being characterized by that which at the time of its existence for the individual admits of being named, and including what we call sensations, &c, which depend indirectly on the environment and directly on the central nervous system, but are not, as the materialist supposes, in any way reducible to possessions of the brain or any other part of that system. This division of values brings us to the second point in his philosophy, his theory of what he called " vital series," by which he assayed to explain all life, action and thought. A vital series he supposed to be always a reaction of C against disturbance by R, consisting in first a vital difference, or diminution by R of the maintenance-value of C, and then the recovery by C of its maintenance-value, in accor- dance with the principle of least action. He further supposed that, while this independent vital series of C is sometimes of this simple kind, at other times it is complicated by the addition of a dependent vital series in E, by which, in his fondness for too general and far- fetched explanations, he endeavoured to explain conscious action and thought. (Thus, if a pain is an E-value directly dependent on a disturbance in C, and a pleasure another E-value directly depen- dent on a recovery of C, it will follow that a transition from pain to pleasure will be a vital series in E directly dependent on an indepen- dent vital series in C, recovering from a vital difference to its main- tenance-maximum.) Lastly, supposing that all human processes can in this way be reduced to vital series in an essential co-ordination of oneself and environment, Avenarius held that this empirio-critical supposition, which according to him is also the natural view of pure experiences, contains no opposition of physical and psychical, of an outer physical and an inner psychical world — an opposition which seemed to him to be a division of the inseparable. He considered that the whole hypothesis that an outer physical thing causes a change in one's central nervous system, which again causes another change in one's inner psychical system or soul, is a departure from the natural view of the universe, and is due to what he called " intro- jection," or the hypothesis which encloses soul and its faculties in the body, and then, having created a false antithesis between outer and inner, gets into the difficulty of explaining how an outer physical stimulus can impart something into an inner psychical soul. He concluded therefore that, having disposed of this fallacy of intro- jection, we ought to return to the view of reality as an essential co-ordination of ego and environment, of central part and counter- part, with R-values, C-values and E-values. It is curious that Avenarius should have brought forward this artificial hypothesis as the natural view of the world, without reflecting that on the one hand the majority of mankind believes that the environment (R) exists, has existed, and will exist, without being a counterpart of any living being as central part (C) ; and that on the other hand it is so far from being natural to man to believe that sensation and thought (E) are different from, and merely depen- dent on, his body (C), that throughout the Homeric poems, though soul is required for other purposes, all thinking as well as sensation is regarded as a purely bodily operation. It is indeed difficult to assign any rational place to the empirio-criticism of Avenarius. It is materialistic without being materialism; it is realistic without being -realism. Its rejection of the whole relation of physical and psychical makes it almost too indefinite to classify among philo- sophical systems. But its main point is the essential co-ordination of ego and environment, as central part and counterpart, in experi- ence. It is therefore nearly connected with " immanent philosophy." Schuppe, indeed, wrote an article in the Vierteljahrsschrtfl of Avenarius to prove their essential agreement. At the same time Schuppe's hypothesis of one common consciousness uniting the given by a priori categories could hardly be accepted by Avenarius as pure experience, or as a natural view of the world. His " empirio- criticism " is idealistic dualism within experience in an a posteriori form, but with a tendency towards materialism. 4. V olnntaristic Phenomenalism of Wundt. — Wundt's meta- physics will form an appropriate conclusion of this sketch of German idealism, because his patient industry and eclectic spirit have fitted him to assimilate many of the views of his Wundt. predecessors. Wundt proves that all idealisms are in a way one. He starts as a phenomenalist from the hypothesis, which we have just described, that knowledge is ex- perience containing subject and object in inseparable connexion, and has something in common with the premature attempt of Avenarius to develop the hypbthesis of dualism in experience into a scientific philosophy comprehending the universe in the simplest possible manner. Again he agrees with the reaction both to Hume and to Kant in limiting knowledge to mental phenomena, and has affinities with Mach as well as with Lange. His main sympathies are with the Neo-Kantians, and especially with Lange in modifying the a priori, and in extending the power of reason beyond phenomena to an ideal world; and yet the cry of his phenomenalism is not " back to Kant," but " beyond Kant." Though no noumenalist, in many details he is with noumenalists; with Fechner in psycho- physics, in psychophysical parallelism, in the independence of the physical and the psychical chains of causality, in reducing physical and psychical to a difference of aspects, in substituting impulse for accident in organic evolution, and in wishing to recognize a gradation of individual spiritual beings; with Schopenhauer and Hartmann in voluntarism; and even with Schelling and Hegel in their endeavour, albeit on an artificial method, to bring experience under notions, and to unite subject and object in one concrete reality. He has a special relation to Fichte in developing the Kantian activity of Consciousness into will and substituting activity for substantiality as the essence of soul, as well as in breaking down the antithesis between phenomena and things in themselves. At the same time, in spite of his sympathy with the whole development of idealism since Kant, which leads him to reject the thi.cn; in itself, to modify a priorism, and to stop at transcendent " ideals," without postulates of practical reason, he nevertheless ^as so much sympathy with Kant's Kritik as on its theories ot sense and understanding to build up a system of phenomenalism, according to which knowledge begins and ends with ideas, and finally on its theory of pure reason to accord to reason a power of logically forming an " ideal " of God as ground of the moral " ideal " of humanity — though without any power of logically inferring any corresponding reality. He constructs his system on the Kantian order — sense, understanding, reason — and exhibits most clearly the necessary consequence from psychological to metaphysical idealism. His philosophy is the best exposition of the method and argument of modern idealism — that we perceive the mental and, therefore, all we know and conceive is the mental. Wundt founds his whole philosophy on four psychological positions: his phenomenalistic theory of unitary experience, his voluntarism, his actualistic theory of soul, and his psycho- logical theory of parallelism. They are positions also which deeply affect, not only the psychological, but also the meta- physical idealisms of our time, in Germany, and in the whole civilized world. i. His first position is his phenomenalistic theory of unitary experience. According to him, we begin with an experience of ideas, in which object and idea are originally identical (Vorstellungs- objecf) ; we divide this unitary experience into its subjective and objective factors; and especially in natural science we so far abstract the objects as to believe them at last to be independent things ; but it is the office of psychology to warn us against this popular dualism, and to teach us that there is only a duality of psychical and physical, which are divisible, not separable, factors of one and the game content of our immediate experience; and experience is our whele knowledge. His metaphysical deduction from this psychological view is that all we know is mental phenomena, " the whole outer world exists for us only in our ideas," and all that our reason can logically do beyond these phenomena is to frame transcendent " ideals." ii. His second position is his voluntarism. He agrees with Schopenhauer that will is the fundamental form of the spiritual. He does not mean that will is the only mental operation ; for he recognizes idea derived from sensation, and feeling, as well as will. Moreover, he contends that we can neither have idea without feeling and will, nor will without idea and feeling; that idea alone wants activity, and will alone wants content; that will is ideating and activity (vorstellende Thdtigkeil), which always includes motives PHBNOMENAL^aEHJSifl METAPHYSICS 241 and ends and consequently ideas. He is therefore a follower of Schopenhauer as corrected by Hartmann. Like these predecessors, and like his younger contemporary Paulsen, in calling will funda- mental he includes impulse (Trieb). Accordingly he divides will into two species: on the one hand, simple volition, or impulse, which in his view requires as motive a feeling directed to an end, and therefore an idea, e.g. the impulse of a beast arising from hunger and sight of prey; on the other hand, complex volition issuing in a voluntary act requiring decision (Entscheidung) or conscious adoption of a motive, with or without choice. Like other German voluntarists, he imputes " impulsive will " to the whole organic world. He follows Fechner closely in his answer to Darwin. If he is to be believed, at the bottom of all organic evolution organic impulses becoming habits produce structural changes, which are transmitted by heredity; and as an impulse thus gradually becomes secondarily automatic, the will passes to higher activities, which in their turn become secondarily automatic, and so on. As now he supposes feeling even in " impulsive will " to be directed to an end, he deduces the conclusion that in organic evolution the pursuit of final causes precedes and is the origin of mechanism. But at what a cost ! He has endowed all the plants in the world with motives, feelings directed to an end, and ideas, all of which, according to him, are required for impulse! He apparently forgets that mere feelings often produce actions, as when one writhes with pain. But even so, have plants even those lowest impulses from feelings of pain or pleasure? Wundt, however, having gone so far, there stops. It is not necessary for him to follow Schopenhauer, Hart- mann and Fechner in endowing the material universe with will or any other mental operation, because his phenomenalism already reduces inorganic nature to mere objects of experiencing subjects. Wundt's voluntarism takes a new departure, in which, however, he was anticipated by the paradox of Descartes: that will is required to give assent to anything perceived (Principia philosophiae, i. 34). Wundt supposes not only that all organisms have outer will, the will to act, but also that all thinking is inner will — the will to think. Now there is a will to think, and Aristotle pointed out that thinking is in our power whenever one pleases, whereas sense depends on an external stimulus (De anima, ii. 5). There is also an impulse to think, e.g. from toothache. But it does not follow that thought is will, or even that there is no thinking without either impulse or will proper. The real source of thinking is evidence. Wundt, however, having supposed that all thinking consists of ideas, next supposes that all thinking is willing. What is the source of this paradox ? It is a confusion of impulse with will, and activity with both. He supposes that all agency, and therefore the agency of thinking, is will. In detail, to express this supposed inner will of thinking, he borrows from Leibnitz and Kant the term " apper- ception," but in a sense of his own. Leibnitz, by way of distinction from unconscious perception, gave the name " apperception " to consciousness. Kant further insisted that this apperception, " I think," is an act of spontaneity, distinct from sense, necessary to regarding all my ideas as mine, and to combining them in a synthetic unity of apperception; which act Fichte afterwards developed into an active construction of all knowledge, requiring; will directed to the end of duty. Wundt, in consequence, thinking with Kant that apperception is a spontaneous activity, and with Fichte that this activity requires will, and indeed that all activity is will, infers that apperception is inner will. Further, on his own account, he identifies apperception with the process of attention, and regards it as an act necessary to the general formation of compound ideas, to all association of ideas, to all imagination and understanding. According to him, then, attention, even involuntary attention, requires inner will; and all the functions imputed by Hume to association, as well as those imputed to understanding by Kant, require apperception, and therefore inner will. At the same time he does not suppose that they all require the same kind of will. In accordance with his previous division of outer will into impulsive and decisive, he divides the inner will of apperception into passive apperception and active apperception. Apperception in general thus becomes activity of inner will, constituting the process of atten- tion, passive in the form of impulsive will required for association, and active in the form of decisive will required for understanding and judgment. Now, beneath these confusing phrases the point to be regarded is that, in Wundt's opinion, though we can receive sensations, we cannot think at all beyond sense, without some will. This exaggeration of the real fact of the will to think ignores through- out the position of little man in the great world and at the mercy of things which drive him perforce to sense and from sense to thought. Ft is a substitution of will for evidence as ground of assent, and a neglect of our consciousness that we often believe against our will (e.g. that we must die), often without even an impulse to believe, often without taking any interest, or when taking interest in something else of no importance. " The Dean is dead (Pray, what is trumps?)." Yet many psychologists accept the universality of this will to believe, and among them James, who says that " it is far too little recognized how entirely the intellect is built up of practical interests." We should rather say " far too much." Wundt, however, goes still farther. According to him, that which acts in all organisms, that which acts in all thinking, that which divides unitary experience into subject and object, the source of self-consciousness, the unity of our mental life, " the most proper being of the individual subject is will." In short, his whole voluntarism means that, while the inorganic world is mere' object, all organization is congealed will, and all thinking is apperceptive will. But it must be remembered that these con- clusions are arrived at by confusing action, reaction, life, excita- bility, impulse, and rational desire, all under the one word " will," as well as by omitting the involuntary action of intelligence under the pressure of evidence. It may well be that impulsive feeling is the beginning of minfl; but then the order of mind is feeling, sense, inference, will, which instead of first is last, and implies the others. To proceed, however, with voluntarism, Wundt, as we have seen, makes personality turn on will. He does not accept the universal voluntarism of Schopenhauer and Hartmann, but believes in individual wills, and a gradation of wills, in the organic world. Similarly, he supposes our personal individual will is a collective will containing simpler will-unities, and he thinks that this conclusion is proved by the continuance of actions in animals after parts of the brain have been removed. In a similar way he supposes our wills are included in the collective will of society. He does not, however, think with Schuppe that there is one common consciousness, but only that there is a collective consciousness and a collective will; not perceiving that then the sun — in his view a mere object in the experience of every member of the collection — would be only a collective sun. Lastly, he believes that reason forms the " ideal " of God as world- will, though without proof of existence. Gn the whole, his vol- untarism, though like that of Schopenhauer and Hartmann, is not the same; not Schopenhauer's, because the ideating will of Wundt's philosophy is not a universal irrational will; and not Hartmann's, because, although ideating will, according to Wundt's phenomenalism, is supposed to extend through the world of organisms, the whole inorganic world remains a mere object of unitary experience. iii. His third position is his actualistic theory of soul, which he shares with Fichte, Hegel, Fechner and Paulsen. When Fichte had rejected the Kantian soul in itself and developed the Kantian activity of apperception, he considered that soul consists in con- structive activity. Fechner added that the soul is the whole unitary spiritual process manifested in the whole unitary bodily process without being a substance. Wundt accepts Fichte's theory of the actuality, and Fechner's synechological view, of the soul. Taking substance entirely in the sense of substrate, he argues that there is no evidence of a substantial substrate beneath mental operations; that there is nothing except unitary experience consisting of ideas, feelings, volitions, and their unity of will; and that soul in short is not substantia, but actus. He does not see that this unity is only apparent, for men think not always, and will not always. Nor does he see that a man is conscious not of idea, feeling, will, experience, but of something conceiving, feeling, willing and experiencing, which he gradually learns to call himself, and that he is never conscious of doing all this " minding " without his body. If, then, these mental operations were merely actuality, they would be actuality of a man's bodily substance. In truth there is no sound answer to Materialism, except that, besides bodily substance, psychical substance is also necessary to explain how man performs mental actualities consciously (see case Physical Realism, ch. v.). Wundt, however, has satisfied himself, like Fechner, that there is no real opposition of body and soul, and concludes, in accordance with his own phenomenalism, that his body is only an object abstracted from his unitary experience, which is all that really is of him. iv. Hence his fourth point is his psychological theory of parallel- ism of physical and psychical reduced to identity in unitary experi- ence. Here his philosophy is Fechnerism phenomenalized. He accepts Fechner's extension of Weber's law of the external stimuli of sense, while judiciously remarking that "the physiological inter- pretation is entirely hypothetical." He accepts psychophysical parallelism in the sense that every psychical process has a physical accompaniment, every physiological function has a psychical meaning, but neither external stimulus nor physiological stimulus is cause of a psychical process, nor vice versa. Precisely like Fechner, he holds that there is a physical causality and energy and there is a psychical causality and energy, parallels which never meet. He uses this psychical causality to carry out his voluntarism into detail, regarding it as an agency of will directed to end*, causing association and understanding, and further acting on a"* principle which he calls the heterogony of ends; remarking very, truly that each particular will is directed to particular ends, but that beyond these ends effects follow as unexpected consequences, and that this heterogony produces social effects which we call custom. But while thus sharply distinguishing the physical and the psychical in appearance, he follows Fechner in identifying them in reality;- except that Fechner's identification is noumenal, Wundt's phenomenal. Wundt does not allow that we know beyond experience any souls of earth, or any other inorganic being. He does not, therefore, allow that there is a universal series of physical and psychical parallels. According to his phenomenalism, the external stimulus and the physiological stimulus are both parallels of the same psychical process; the external body, as well as 242 METAPHYSICS [PHENOMENAL IDEALISM my body, is merely an object abstracted from an idea of my experience; and what is really known in every case is a unitary experience ; divisible, but not separable, into body and soul, physical and psychical factors of one and the same unitary experience. Wundt is confined by his starting-point to his deduction that what we know is mental phenomena, ideas regarded as objects and subjects of experience. With these four positions in hand, Wundt's philosophy consecu- tively follows, beginning with his psychology. He begins with psychical elements, sensations and feelings, but he asserts that these always exist in a psychical compound, from which they can be discovered only by analysis and abstraction; and his paradox that a pure sensation is an abstraction is repeated by W. James. Further, Wundt declares that the psychical compound of sensations, with which, according to him, we actually start, is not a complex sensation, but a compound idea; so that I am expected to believe that, when I hear the chord of D, I am not conscious of single sensa- tions of D, F, A, and have only a compound idea of the chord — as if the hearing of music were merely a series of ideas! Wundt, how- ever, has a reason for substituting compound idea for sensation : he accepts Lotze's hypothesis of local signs, and adds a hypothesis of temporal signs. He supposes that we have no sensations of space and time, as the nativists suppose, but that, while local signs give us spatial ideas, feelings ot expectation are temporal signs giving us temporal ideas, and that these ideas enter into the psychical com- pound, which is our actual starting-point. It follows that every psychical compound into which temporal and spatial ideas enter must itself be an idea ; and, as time at any rate accompanies all our sensations, it follows that every psychical compound of sensations, containing as it does, always temporal, if not also spatial, ideas, must be a compound idea, and not, as nativists suppose, Schuppe for in- stance, a compound sensation. The next question is, how com- pounded? Wundt's answer is that inner impulsive will, in the form of passive apperception, forms compound ideas by association ; so that all these operations are necessary to the starting-point. He prefixes to the ordinary associations, which descend from Hume, an associa- tion which he calls fusion (Verschmelzung) , and supposes that it is a fundamental process of fusing sensations with spatial and temporal ideas into a compound idea. But he also recognizes association by similarity, or assimilation, or " apperception " in Herbart's more confined sense of the word, and association by contiguity, or complication. Recognizing, then, three kinds of association in all, he supposes that they are the first processes, by which inner will, in the form of passive apperception, generates ideas from sense. So far his psychology is a further development of Hume's. But he does not agree with Hume that mind is nothing but sensations, ideas, and associations, but with Kant, that there are higher combinations. According to him, inner decisive will, rising to active apperception, proceeds to what he calls "apperceptive combinations" {Apperceptionverbindungen) ; first to simple com- binations of relating and comparing, and then to complex combina- tions of synthesis and analysis in imagination and understanding ; in consequence of which synthesis issues in an aggregate idea {Gesammt- vorstettung), and then at last analysis, by dividing an aggregate idea into subject and predicate, forms a judgment (see further Logic). The main point of this theory is that, if it were true, we should be for ever confined to a jumble of ideas. Wundt, indeed, is aware of the consequences. If judgment is an analysis of an aggregate idea into subject and predicate, it follows, as he says, that " as judgment is an immediate, so is inference a mediate, reference of the members of any aggregate of ideas to one another " {System der Philosophie, 66, first ed.). He cannot allow any inference of things beyond ideas. His psychology poisons his logic. In his logic, and especially in his epistemology, Wundt appears as a mediator between Hume and Kant, but with more leaning to the latter. While he regards association as lying at the basis of all knowledge, he does not think it sufficient, and objects to Hume that he does not account for necessity, nor for substance and causation as known in the sciences. He accepts on the whole the system of synthetic understanding which Kant superimposed on mere association. Yet he will not proceed to the length of Kant's transcendentalism. Between Hume's a posteriori and Kant's a priori hypothesis he proposes a logical theory of the origin of notions beyond experience. He explains that the arrange- ment of facts requires " general supplementary notions {Hiilfs- oegriffe), which are not contained in experience itself, but are gained by a process of logical treatment of this experience." Of these supplementary notions he holds that the most general is that of causality, coming from the necessity of thought that all our experi- ences shall be arranged according to ground and consequent. That sense only gives to experience coexistences and sequences of appear- ances, as Hume said and Kant allowed, is also Wundt's starting- point. How then do we arrive at causality? Not, says Wundt, by association, as Hume said, but by thinking; not, however, by a priori thinking, as Kant said, but by logical thinking, by applying the logical principle of ground and consequent (which Leibnitz had called the principle of sufficient reason) as a causal law to empirical appearances. Now, Wundt is aware that this is not always possible, for he holds that the logical principle of ground belongs generally to the connexion of thoughts, the causal law to the combination of empirical appearances. Nevertheless he believes that, when we can apply measures to the combination of empirical appearances, then we can apply the logical principle as causal law to this cornbination, and say that one appearance is the cause of another, thus adding a notion of causality not contained in the actual observations, but specializing the general notion of causality. He quotes as an instance that Newton in this way added to the planetary appearances contained in Kepler's laws the gravitation of the planets to the sun, as a notion of causality not contained in the appearances, and thus discovered that gravitation is the cause of the appearances. But Newton had already discovered before- hand in the mechanics of terrestrial bodies that gravitation con- stantly causes similar facts on the earth, and did not derive that cause from any logical ground beyond experience, any more than he did the third law of motion. Wundt does not realize that, though we can often use a cause or real ground (principium essendi) as a logical ground {principium cognoscendi) for deducing effects, we can do so only when we have previously inferred from experience that that kind of cause does produce that kind of effect (see Logic). Otherwise, logical ground remains logical ground, as in any non- causal syllogism, such as the familiar one from " All men are mortal," which causes me to know that I shall die, without telling me the cause of death. Wundt, however, having satisfied himself of the power of mere logical thought beyond experience, goes on to further apply his hypothesis, and supposes that, in dealing with the physical world, logical thinking having added to experience the " supple- mentary notion " .of causality as the connexion of appearances which vary together, adds also the " supplementary notion " of substance as substratum of the connected appearances. But, using substance as he does always in the Kantian sense of permanent substratum beneath changi.ig phenomena, and never in the Aris- totelian sense of any distinct thing, he proceeds to make distinctions between the applications of causality and of substance. Even in the physical, he confines substance to matter, or what Aristotle would call material causes, thus makes its power to be merely passive, and limits substantial causality to potential energy, while he supposes that actual causality is a relation not of substances but of events. On this false abstraction Sigwart has made an excellent criticism in an appendix at the end of his Logic, where he remarks that we cannot isolate events from the substances of which they are attributes. Motions do not cause motions; one body moving causes, another body to move: what we know is causal substances. Secondly, when Wundt comes to the psychical, he naturally infers from his narrow Kantian definition of substance that there is no proof of a substrate over and above all mental operations, and falsely thinks that he has proved that there is no substance mentally operating in the Aristotelian sense. Thirdly, on the grounds that logical thinking adds the notion of substance, as substrate, to experience of the physical, but not of the psychical, and that the most proper being of mind is will, he concludes that wills are not active substances, but substancergenerating activities (" nicht thatige Substanzen sondern substanzerzeugende Thatigkeiten," System, 429). What kind of metaphysics, then, follows from this compound of psychology and epistemology? As with Kant against Hume, so with Wundt against Mach and Avenarius, the world we know will contain something more than mere complexes of sensations, more than pure experience: with Wundt it will be a world of real causes and some substances, constituted partly by experience and partly by logical thinking, or active inner will. But as with Kant, so with Wundt, this world will be only the richer, not the wider, for these notions of understanding; because they are only contributed to the original experience, and, being mentally contributed, only the more surely confine knowledge to experience of mental phenomena. Hence, according to Wundt, the world we know is still unitary experience, distin- guished, not separated, into subject and object, aggregates of ideas analysed by judgment and combined by inference, an object of idea elaborated into causes and substances by logical thinking, at most a world of our ideas composed out of our sensations, and arranged under our categories of our under- standing by our inner wills, or a world of our ideating willS"; but nothing else. It is Wundt's own statement of his solution of the epistemological problem " that on the one hand the whole outer world exists for us only in our ideas, and that on the other hand a consciousness without objects of idea is an empty abstrac- tion which possesses no actuality " {System, 212-213). There remains his theory of reason. His pupil, Oswald Kiilpe (1862- ), who bases his Grundriss der Psychologie on the hypothesis of unitary experience, says in his Einleitung in die Philosophie (1895; 4th ed. 1907) that Wundt in his System derives the right of metaphysics to transcend experience from similar procedure ENGLISH IDEALISM] METAPHYSICS 243 within the limits of the special sciences. This is Wundt's view, but only in the sense that reason passes from ideas to " ideals," whether in the special sciences or in metaphysics. Reason, as in most modern psychologies and idealisms, is intro- duced by Wundt, after all sorts of operations, too late; and, when at length introduced, it is described as going beyond ideas and notions to " ideals " (Ideen), as an ideal continuation of series of thoughts beyond given experience — nothing more. Reason, according to Wundt, is like pure reason according to Kant; except that Wundt, receiving Kantism through Neo- Kantism, thinks that reason arrives at " ideals " not a priori, but by the logical process of ground and consequent, and, having abolished the thing in itself, will not follow Kant in his inconsequent passage from pure to practical reason in order to postulate a reality corresponding to " ideals " beyond experience. Wundt, in fact, agrees with Lange: that reason transcends experience of phenomena only to conceive " ideals." This being so, he finds in mathematics two kinds of transcendence — real, where the transcendent, though not actual in experience, can become partly so, e.g. the divisibility of magnitudes; imaginary, where it cannot, e.g. w-dimensions. He supposes in metaphysics the same transcendence in forming cosmological, psychological, and ontological " ideals." He supposes real as well as imaginary transcendence in cosmological "ideals"; the former as to the forms of space and time, the latter as to content, e.g. atoms. But he limits psychological and ontological " ideals " entirely to imaginary transcendence. The result is that he confines metaphysical transcendence to " a process into the imaginary " as regards the substantial and causal content of cosmological " ideals," and altogether as regards psychological and ontological " ideals." Thus, according to him, in the first place reason forms a cosmological " ideal " of a multitude of simple units related; secondly, it forms a psycho- logical " ideal " of a multitude of wills, or substance-generating activities, which communicate with one another by ideas so that will causes ideas in will, while together they constitute a collective will, and it goes on to form the moral ideal of humanity (das sittliche Menschheitsideal); and, thirdly, it forms an ontologi- cal " ideal " of God as ground of this moral " ideal," and there- with of all being as means to this end, and an " ideal " of God as world-will, of which the world is development, and in which individual wills participate each in its sphere. " Herein," says Wundt, " consists the imperishable truth of the Kantian proposition that the moral order of the world is the single real proof of the existence of God " {System, 405; cf. 439). " Only," he adds, " the expression proof is here not admissible. Rational ' ideals ' are in general not provable." As the same limit is applied by him to all transcendent rational " ideals," and especially to those which refer to the content of the notion of the world, and, like all psychological and ontological "ideals," belong to the imaginary transcendent, his conclusion is that reason, in transcending experience, logically conceives " ideals," but never logically infers corresponding realities. The conclusion that reason in transcending experience can show no more than the necessity of " ideals " is the only con- clusion which could follow from Wundt's phenomenalism in psychology, logic, and epistemology. If knowledge is experience of ideas distinguished by inner will of apperception into subject and object in inseparable connexion, if the starting-point is ideas, if judgment is analysis of an aggregate idea, if inference is a mediate reference of the members of an aggregate of ideas to one another, then, as Wundt says, all we can know, and all reason can logically infer from such data, is in our ideas, and consciousness without an object of idea is an abstraction; so that reason, in transcending experience, can show the necessity of ideas and " ideals," but infer no corresponding reality beyond, whether in nature, or in Man, or in God. Wundt, starting from a psychology of unitary experience, deduces a consistent meta- physics of no inference of things transcending experience through- out — or rather until he came to the very last sentence of his System der PhUosophie (1889), where he suddenly passes from a necessity of " ideals " {Ideen), to a necessity of " faith " (Glauben), without " knowledge " (Wissen). He forgets appar- ently that faith is a belief in things beyond ideas and ideals, which is impossible in his psychology of judgment and logic of inference. The fact is that his System may easily seem to prove more than it does. He describes it as idealism in the form of ideal realism, because it recognizes an ideating will requiring substance as substratum or matter for outer relations of pheno- mena. But when we look for the evidence of any such will beyond ourselves and our experience, we find Wundt offering nothing but an ontological " ideal " of reason, and a moral " ideal " requiring a religious " ideal," but without any power of inferring a corresponding reality. The System then ends with the necessity of an " ideal " of God as wo rid- will, but provides no ground for the necessity of any belief whatever in the being of God, or indeed in any being at all beyond our own unitary experience. Wundt, however, afterwards wrote an Einleitung in die PhUosophie (1901; 4th ed., 1906), in which he speaks of realism in the form of ideal realism as the philosophy of the future. It is not to be idealism which resolves everything into spirit, but realism which gives the spiritual and the material each its own place in harmony with scientific consciousness. It is not to be dualistic but monistic realism, because matter is not separate from spirit. It is not to be materialistic but ideal realism, because the physical and the psychical are inseparable parallels inexplicable by one another. It is to be monistic ideal realism, like that of Fichte and Hegel; not, however, like theirs idealistic in method, a Phantaslisches Begriffsgebaude, but realistic in method, a Wissenschaftliche PhUosophie. It is to be ideal realism, as in the System. It is not to be a species of idealism, as in the System — but of realism. How are we to understand this change of front? We can only explain it by supposing that Wundt wishes to believe that, beyond the " ideal," there really is proof of a transcendent, ideating, sub- stance-generating will of God; and that he is approaching the noumenal voluntarism of his younger contemporary Paulsen. But to make such a conversion from phenomenalism plausible, it is necessary to be silent about his whole psychology, logic, and epistemology, and the consequent limitation of knowledge to experience, and of reason to ideas and " ideals," without any power of inferring corresponding things. What a pity it is that Wundt had committed himself by his psychology to phenomenalism, to unitary experience, and to the limitation of judgment and reason to ideas and ideals! For his phenomenalism prevents him from consistently saying the truth inferred by reason — that there is a world beyond experience, a world of Nature, and a will of God, real as well as ideal. To understand Wundt is to discover what a mess modern psychology has made to metaphysics. To understand pheno- menal idealism in Germany is to discover what a narrow world is to be known from the transcendental idealism of Kant shorn of Kant's inconsistencies. To understand noumenal idealism in Germany and the rise of metaphysical idealism in modern times is to discover that psychological is the origin of all meta- physical idealism. If we perceive only what is mental, all that we know is only mental. But who has proved that psychological starting-point? Who has proved that, when I scent an odour in my nostrils, I apprehend not odour but a sensation of odour; and so for the other senses? Sensation, as Aristotle said, is not of itself: it is the apprehension of a sensible object in the organism. I perceive pressure, heat, colour, sound, flavour, odour, in my five senses. Having felt reciprocal pressures ^h touch, I infer similar pressures between myself and the external world. 6. — English Idealism 1. The Followers of Hume's Phenomenalism. — Compared with the great systems of the Germans, English idealism in the 19th century shows but little originality. It has been largely borrowed either from previous English or from later German idealism, and what originality it has possessed has been mainly shown in that spirit of eclectic compromise which is so dear to the English mind. The predominant influence, on the whole, 244 METAPHYSICS {ENGLISH IDEALISM has been the phenomenalism of Hume, with its slender store of sensations, ideas and associations, and its conclusion that all we know is sensations without any known thinkers or any other known things. This phenomenalism was developed by James Mill (i 773-1836) and J. S. Mill (1806-1873), and has since been continued by A. Bain. It also became the basis of the philosophies of Huxley and of Spencer on their phenomenalistic side. It is true that Spencer's " transfigured realism " contains much that was not dreamt of by Hume. Spencer widens the empirical theory of the origin of knowledge by his brilliant hypothesis of inherited organized tendencies, which has influ- enced all later psychology and epistemology, and tends to a kind of compromise between Hume and Kant. He describes his belief in an unknowable absolute as " carrying a step farther the doctrine put into shape by Hamilton and Mansel." He develops this belief in an absolute in connexion with his own theory of evolution into something different both from the idealism of Hume and the realism of Hamilton, and rather falling under the head of materialism. Nevertheless, as he believes all the time that everything knowable throughout the whole world of evolution is phenomena in the sense of subjective affections of consciousness, and as he applies Hume's distinction of impressions and ideas as a distinction of vivid and faint states of consciousness to the distinction of ego and non-ego, spirit and matter, inner and outer phenomena, his philosophy of the world as knowable remains within the limits of phenomenal- ism. Nothing could be more like Hume than his final statement that what we are conscious of is subjective affections produced by objective agencies unknown and unknowable. The " anti- realism," which takes the lion's share in " transfigured realism," is simply a development of the phenomenalism of Hume. Hume was also at the bottom of the philosophies of G. H. Lewes, who held that there is nothing but feelings, and of W. K. Clifford. Nor is Hume yet dethroned, as we see from the works of Karl Pearson and of William James, who, though an American, has exercised a considerable influence on English thought. The most flourishing time of phenomenalism, however, was during the lifetime of J. • S. Mill. It was counteracted to some extent by the study at the universities of the deductive logic of Aristotle and the inductive logic of Bacon, by parts of Mill's own logic, and by the natural realism of Reid, Stewart, and Hamilton, which met Hume's scepticism by asserting a direct perception of the external world. But natural realism, as finally interpreted by . Hamilton, was too dogmatic, too unsystematic, and too confused with . elements derived from Kantian idealism to withstand the brilliant criticism of Mill's Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy (1865), a work which for a time almost persuaded us that Nature as we know it from sensations is nothing but per- manent possibilities of sensation, and oneself only a series of states of consciousness. a. The Influence of Kant and Hegel. — Nevertheless, there have never been wanting more soaring spirits who, shocked at the narrowness of the popular phenomenalism of Hume, have tried to find a wider idealism. They have, as a rule, sought it in Germany. Before the beginning of the 19th century, Kant had made his way to England in a translation of some of his works, and in an account of the Elements of the Critical Philosophy by A. F. M. Willich, both published in 1798. After a period of struggle, the influence of Kant gradually extended, and, as we see in the writings of Coleridge and Carlyle, of Hamil- ton and Mansel, of Green and Caird, of Laurie, Martineau and others, has secured an authority over English thought almost equal to that of Hume (see Idealism). Both philosophers appeal to the English love of experience, and Kant had these advantages over Hume: that within the narrow circle of sensible phenomena his theory of understanding gave to experience a fuller content, and that beyond phenomena, however incon- sistently, his theory of reason postulated the reality of God, freedom and immortality. Other and wtoer German philo- sophies gradually followed that of Kant to England. Coleridge (1772-1834) not only called attention to Kant's distinction between understanding and reason, but also introduced his countrymen to the noumenal idealism of Schelling. In the Biographia Literaria (181 7) he says that in Schilling's Natur- philosophie and System des transcendentalen Idealismus he first found a general coincidence with much that he had toiled out for himself, and he repeated some of the main tenets of Schelling. Carlyle (1 795-1881) laid more emphasis on Fichte. At the height of his career, when between 1840 and 1850 many of Fichte's works were being translated in the Catholic Series, he called attention to Fichte's later view that all earthly things are but as a vesture or appearance under which the Divine idea of the world is the reality. Extravagant as this noumenalism is, it was a healthy antidote to the phenomenalism of the day. Among other followers of German idealism were J. F. Ferrier (q.v.), who adopted the hypothesis of Schelling and Hegel that there is one absolute intelligence (see his Lectures and Philo- sophical Remains, 1866, i. 1-33; ii. 545-568), and J. Hutchison Stirling (q.v.). About the same time Benjamin Jowett (q.v.) had been studying the philosophy of Hegel; but, being a man endowed with much love of truth but with little belief in first principles, he was too wise to take for a principle Hegel's assump- tion that different things are the same. He had, however, sown seeds in the minds of two distinguished pupils, T. H. Green and E. Caird (q.v.). Both proceeded to take Hegelian- ism seriously, and between them spread a kind of Hegelian orthodoxy in metaphysics and in theology throughout Great Britain. Green (Prolegomena to Ethics, 1 ^ 8 3)t h Green tried to effect a harmony of Kant and Hegel by proceeding from the epistemology of the former to the metaphysics of the latter. Taken for granted the Kantian hypothesis of a sense of sensations requiring synthesis by under- standing, and the Kantian conclusion that Nature as known consists of phenomena united by categories as objects of experi- ence, Green argued, in accordance with Kant's first position, that knowledge, in order to unite the manifold of sensations by relations into related phenomena, requires unifying intelli- gence, or what Kant called synthetic unity of apperception, which cannot itself be sensation, because it arranges sensations; and he argued, in accordance with Kant's second position, that therefore Nature itself as known requires unifying intelligence to constitute the relations of its phenomena, and to make it a connected world of experience. When Green said that " Nature is the system of related appearances, and related appearances are impossible apart from the action of an intelligence," he was speaking as a pure Kantian, who could be answered only by the Aristotelian position that Nature consists of related bodies beyond appearances, and by the realistic supposition that there is a tactical sense of related bodies, of the inter-resisting members of the organism, from which reason infers similar related bodies beyond sense. But now, whatever opinion we may have about Nature, at all events, as Green saw, it does not come into exist- ence in the process by which this person or that begins to think. Nature is not my nature, nor your nature, but one. From this fact of unity of Nature and of everything in Nature, combined with the two previous positions accepted, not from Nature, but from Kant, Green proceeded to argue, altogether beyond Kant, that Nature, being one, and also requiring unifying intelligence, requires one intelligence, an eternal intelligence, a single spiritual principle, prior to, and the condition of, our individual knowledge. According to him, therefore, Nature is one system of phenomena united by relations as objects of experience, one system of relaxed appearances, one system of one eternal intelligence which reproduces itself in us. The " true account ". of the world in his own words is " that the concrete whole, which may be de- scribed indifferently as an eternal intelligence realized in the related facts of the world, or as a system of related facts rendered possible by such an intelligence, partially and gradually repro- duces itself in us, communicating piecemeal, but in inseparable correlation, understanding and the facts understood, experience and the experienced world." Nobody can mistake the Schellin- gian and Hegelian nature of this conclusion. It is the Hegelian view that the world is a system of absolute reason. But it is ENGLISH IDEALISM] METAPHYSICS 245 not a Kantian view; and it is necessary to correct two confusions of Kant and Hegel, which have been imported with Hegelianism by Green and Caird. Ferrier was aware that in Kant's system " there is no common nature in all intelligence " {Lectures, ii. 568). Green, on the other hand, in deducing his own conclusion that the world is, or is a system of, one eternal intelligence, incautiously put it forward as " what may be called broadly the Kantian view " {Prolegomena, § 36), and added that he follows Kant " in maintaining that a single active conscious principle, by whatever name it be called, is necessary to consti- tute such a world, as the condition under which alone phenomena, i.e. appearances to consciousness, can be related to each other in a single universe" (§ 38). He admitted, however, that Kant also asserted, beyond this single universe of a single principle, a world of unknowable things in themselves, which is a Kantian not a Hegelian world. But Caird endeavoured to break down even e. Caird *^ s secon d barrier between Kant and Hegel. Accord- ing to Caird, Kant " reduces the inaccessible thing in itself (which he at first speaks of as affecting our sensibility) to a noumenon which is projected by reason itself " {Essays, ii. 405); and in the Transcendental Dialectic, which forms the last part of Kant's Kritik, the noumenon becomes the object of an intuitive understanding " whose thought," says Caird, "is one with the existence of the objects it knows" (ibid. 412, 413). Kant, then, as interpreted by English Hegelians, already believed, before Hegel, that there is one intelligence common to all individuals, and that a noumenon is a thought of this common intelligence, " an ideal of reason "; so that Kant was trying to be a Hegelian, holding that the world has no being beyond the thoughts of one intelligence. But history repeats itself; and these same two interpretations of Kant had already been made in the lifetime of Kant by Fichte, in the two Intro- ductions to the " Wissenschaftslehre," which he published in his Philosophical Journal in 1797. Now, the curious fact is, that Kant himself wrote a most indignant letter, dated 7th August 1799 {Kant's Werke, ed. Hartenstein, viii. 600-601), on purpose to repudiate all connexion with Fichte. Fichte's " Wissen- schaftslehre," he said, is a completely untenable system, and a metaphysics of fruitless apices, in which he disclaimed any participation; his own Kritik he refused to regard as a pro- paedeutic to be construed by the Fichtian or any other stand- point, declaring that it is to be understood according to the letter; and he went so far as to assert that his own critical philosophy is so satisfactory to the reason, theoretical and practical, as to be incapable of improvement, and for all future ages indispensable for the highest ends of humanity. After this letter it cannot be doubted that Kant not only differed wholly from Fichte, both about the synthetic unity of appercep- tion and about the thing in itself, but also is to be construed literally throughout. When he said that the act of consciousness " I think," is in allem Bewusstsein ein und dasselbe, he meant, as the whole context shows, not that it is one in all thinkers, but only that it accompanies all my other ideas and is one and the same in all my consciousness, while it is different in different thinkers. Though again in the Transcendental Dialect he spoke of pure reason conceiving " ideals " of noumena, he did not mean that a noumenon is nothing but a thought arising only through thinking, or projected by reason, but meant that pure reason can only conceive the "ideal" while, over and above the " ideal " of pure reason, a noumenon is a real thing, a thing in itself, which is not indeed known, but whose existence is postu- lated by practical reason in the three instances of God, freedom, and immortality. Consequently, Kant's explanation of the unity of a thing is that there is always one thing in itself causing in us many phenomena, which as understood by us are objectively valid for all our consciousnesses. What Kant never said and what his whole philosophy prevented his saying, was that a single thing is a single thought of a single consciousness; either of men, as in Fichte's philosophy, or of God and man, as in Hegel's. The passage from Kant to Hegel attempted by Green, and the harmony of Kant and Hegel attempted by Green and Caird, are unhistorical, and have caused much confusion of thought. The success, therefore, of the works of Green and Caird must stand or fall by their Hegelianism, which has indeed secured many adherents, partly metaphysical and partly theo- logical. Among the former we may mention W. Wallace, the translator of most of Hegel's Encyklopadie, who had previously learnt Hegelianism from Ferrier; W. H. Fairbrother, who has written a faithful account of The Philosophy of Thomas Hill Green (1896); R. L. Nettleship, D. G. Ritchie, J. H. Muirhead, J. S. Mackenzie, and J. M. E. M'Taggart, who closes his acute Studies in Hegelian Cosmology (1901) with " the possibility of finding, above all knowledge and volition, one all-embracing unity, which is only not true, only not good, because all truth and all goodness are but distorted shadows of its absolute perfection — ' das Unbegreifliche, weil es der Begriff selbst ist.'" There are still to be mentioned two English Hegelians, who have not confused Kant and Hegel as Green did: namely, Simon Somerville Laurie (1829-1909) and F. H. Bradley (b. 1846), fellow of Merton College, Oxford. Laurie wrote Metaphysica, nova et vetusta, a Return to Dualism, by Scotus Novanticus (1884; 2nd ed., enlarged, 1889). His attitude to Green is expressed towards the end of his book, where Laurie he says: " The more recent argument for God which resolves itself into the necessity of a self-distinguishing one basis to which nature as a mere system of relations must be referred, is simply the old argument of the necessity for a First Cause dressed up in new clothes. Not by any means an argument to be despised, but stopping short of the truth through an inadequate analytic of knowledge." His aim is to remedy this defect by psychology, under the conviction that a true metaphysics is at bottom psychology, and a true psychology fundamentally metaphysics. His psychology is founded on a proposed distinction between " attuition " and reason. His theory of " attuition," by which he supposes that we become conscious of objects outside ourselves, is his " return to dualism," and is indeed so like natural realism as to suggest that, like Ferrier, he starts from Hamilton to end in Hegel. As, however, he does not suppose that we have a direct perception of something resisting the organism, such as Hamilton maintained, it becomes necessary to state exactly what he means by " attuition." It is, according to him, something more than sensation, but less than perception; it is common to us with lower animals such as dogs; its operation consists in co-ordinating sen- sations into an aggregate which the subject throws back into space, and thereby has a consciousness of a total object outside itself, e.g. a stone or a stick, a man or a moon. He carries its operation before reason still farther, supposing that " attuition " makes particular inferences about outside objects, and that a man, or a dog, through association " attuites " sequence and invariable- ness of succession, and, in fact, gets as far in the direction of causation as Hume thought it possible to go at all. Laurie's view is that a dog who has no higher faculty than " attuition," can go no farther; but that a man goes farther by reason. He thinks that " attuition " gives us consciousness of an object, but without knowledge, and that knowledge begins with reason. His theory of reason brings him into contact with the German idealists: he accepts from Kant the hypothesis of synthesis and a priori categories, from Fichte the hypothesis that will is necessary to reason, from Schelling and Hegel the hypothesis of universal reason, and of an identity between the cosmic reason and the reason of man, in which he agrees also with Green and Caird. But he has a peculiar view of the powers of reason; that (1) under the law of excluded middle it states alterna- tives, A or B or C or D ; (2) under the law of contradiction it negates B, C, D; (3) under the law of sufficient reason it says " therefore "; and (4) under the law of identity it concludes, A is A. In working out this process he supposes that reason throws into consciousness a priori categories, synthetic predicates a priori, or, as he also calls them, " dialectic percepts." Of these the most important is cause, of which his theory, in short, is that by this a priori category and the process of reason we go on from sequence to consequence; first stating that an effect may be caused by several alternatives, then negating all but one, next concluding that this one as sufficient reason is cause, and finally attaining the necessity of the causal nexus by.con- verting causality into identity, e.g. instead of " Fire burns wood," putting " Fire is comburent, wood is combustible." Lastly, while he agrees with Kant about a priori categories, he differs about the knowledge to be got out of them. Kant, applying them only to sensations, concluded that we can know nothing beyond by their means. But Laurie, applying them to " attuitions " of objects out- side, considers that, though they are " reason-born," yet they make us know the objects outside to which they are applied. This is the farthest point of his dualism, which suggests a realistic theory of knowledge, different in process from Hamilton's, but with the same result. Not so : Laurie is a Hegelian, using Kant's categories, as Hegel did, to argue that they are true not only of thoughts but of things; and for the same reason, that things and thoughts are the same. At first in his psychology he speaks of the " attuition" 246 METAPHYSICS [ENGLISH IDEALISM Bradley. and the rational perception of an outside object. But in his metaphysics founded thereon he interprets the outside object to mean an object outside you and me, but not self-subsistent ; not outside universal reason, but only " Be'ent reason." He quotes with approval Schelling's phrase, " Nature is visible Intelligence and Intelligence visible Nature." He agrees with Hegel that there are two fundamental identities, the identity of all reason, and the identity of all reason and all being. Hence he explains, what is a duality for us is only a " quasi-duality " from a universal standpoint. In fact, his dualism is not realism, but merely the distinction of subject and object within idealism. Laurie's meta- physics is an attempt to supply a psychological propaedeutic to Hegelian metaphysics. Bradley's Appearance and Reality (1893) is a more original performance. It proceeds on the opposite method of making metaphysics independent of psychology. " Meta- physics," says he, " has no direct interest in the origin of ideas " (254), and " we have nothing to do here with the psychological origin of the perception " (35). This metaphysical method, which we have already seen attempted by Lotze, is the true method, for we know more about things than about the beginnings of our knowledge. Bradley is right to go straight to reality, and right also to inquire for the absolute, in order to take care that his meta- physical view is comprehensive enough to be true of the world as a whole. He is unconsciously returning to the meta- physics of Aristotle in spirit; yet he differs from it Mo coelo in the letter. His starting-point is the view that things as ordinarily understood, and (we may add) as Aristotle understood them (though with important qualifications) are self-contradic- tory, and are therefore not reality but appearances. If they were really contradictory they would be non-existent. However, he illustrates their supposed contradictoriness by examples, such as one substance with many attributes, and motion from place to place in one time. But he fails to show that a substance is one and many in the same respect, and that motion requires a body to be in two places at the same moment of one time. There is no contradiction (as Aristotle said) between a man being determined by many attributes, as rational, six-foot-high, white, and a father, and yet being one whole substance distinct from any other, including his own son; nor is there any contradiction between his body being in bed at 8.15 and at breakfast at 8.45 within the same hour. Bradley's supposed contradictions are really mere differences. So far he reminds one of Herbart, who founded his " realistic " metaphysics on similar misunder- standings; except that, while Herbart concluded that the world consists of a number of simple " reals," each with a simple quality but unknown, Bradley concludes that reality is one absolute experience which hartnonizes the supposed contra- dictions in an unknown manner. If his starting-point recalls Herbart his method of arriving at the absolute recalls Spinoza. In his Table of Contents, ch. xiii., on the General Nature of Reality, he says, in true Spinozistic vein, "The Real is one substantially. Plurality of Reals is not possible." In the text he explains that, if there were a plurality of reals, they would have to be beings independent of each other, and yet, as a plurality related to each other — and this again seems to him to be a contra- diction. Throughout the rest of the work he often repeats that a thing which is related cannot be an independent thing. Now, if " independent " means " existing alone " and unrelated the same thing could not be at once related and independent; and, taking substance as independent in that sense, Spinoza concluded that there could only be one substance. But this is not the sense in which a plurality of things would have to be independent in order to exist, or to be substances in the Aristotelian sense. "Independent" (xupwrbv), or "self-subsistent" (ko9' ainb) means " existing apart," i.e. existing differently: it does not mean " existing alone," solitary, unrelated. This existing apart is the only sense in which a plurality of things need be indepen- dent in order to be real, or in order to be substances; and it is a sense in which they can all be related to each other, as I am not you, but I am addressing you. There is no contradiction, then, though Bradley supposes one, between a thing being an indivi- dual, independent, self-subsistent substance, existing apart as a distinct thing, and being also related to other things. Accord- ingly, the many things of this world are not self-discrepant, as Bradley says, but are distinct and relative substances, as Aristotle said. The argument, therefore, for one substance in Spinoza's Ethics, and for one absolute, the Real, which is one substantially, in Bradley's Appearance and Reality, breaks down, so far as it is designed to prove that there is only one substance, or only one Real. Bradley, however, having satisfied himself, like Spinoza, by an abuse of the word " independent," that " the finite is self -discrepant," goes on to ask what the one Real, the absolute, is; and, as he passed from Herbart to Spinoza, so now he passes from Spinoza to Kant. Spinoza answered realistically that the one substance is both extended and thinking. Bradley answers idealistically that the one Real is one absolute experience, because all we know is experience. "This absolute," says he, "is experience, because that is really what we mean when we predicate or speak of anything." But in order to identify the absolute with experience he is obliged, as he before abused the words " contradictory " and " indepen- dent," so now to abuse the word " experience." " Experience," says he, " may mean experience only direct, or indirect also. Direct experience I understand to be confined to the given simply, to the merely felt or presented. But indirect experience includes all fact that is constructed from the basis of the ' this ' and the ' mine.' It is all that is taken to exist beyond the bare moment " (248). This is to substitute " indirect experience " for all inference, and to maintain that when, starting from any " direct experience," I infer the back of the moon, which is always turned away from me, I nevertheless have experience of it; nay, that it is experience. Having thus confused contradiction and differ- ence, independence and solitariness, experience and inference, Bradley is able to deduce finally that reality is not different substances, experienced and inferred, as Aristotle thought it, but is one absolute super-personal experience, to which the so- called plurality of things, including all bodies, all souls, and even a personal God, is appearance — an appearance, as ordinarily understood, self-contradictory, but, as appearing to one spiritual reality, somehow reconciled. But how ? 3. Other German Influences. — Brief reference only can be made to four other English idealists who have quarried in the rich mines of German idealism: G. H. Lewes, W. K. Clifford, G. J. Romanes and Karl Pearson. Lewes (g.v.), starting from the phenomenalism of Hume, fell under the spell of Kant and his successors j and produced a compromise between QH r ewes- Hume and Kant which recalls some of the later German phenomenalisms which have been described (see his Problems of Life and Mind). Rejecting everything in the Kritik which savoured of the " metempirical," he yet sympathized so far with Hegel's noumenalism as to accept the identification of cause and effect, though he interpreted the hypothesis pheno- menalistically by saying that cause and effect are two aspects of the same phenomenon. But his main sympathy was with Fechner, the gist of whose " inner psychophysics " he adopted, without, however, the hypothesis that what is conscious in us is conscious in the all-embracing spirit of God. His phenomenal- ism also compelled him to give a more modified adhesion to Fechner's " outer psychophysics." It will be remembered that Fechner regarded every composite body as the appearance of a spirit; so that when, for example, molecular motion of air is said to cause a sensation of sound in me, it is really a spirit appearing as air which causes the sensation in m%. spirit. This noumenalism would not do for Lewes, who says that air is a group of qualities, and qualities are feelings, and motion is a mode of feeling. What, then, could he make of the external stimulus ? He was obliged by his phenomenalism to say that it is only one feeling causing another in me. He ingeniously suggested that the external agent is one feeling regarded objectively, and the internal effect another feeling regarded subjectively; " and therefore," to quote his own words, " to say that' it is a molecular movement which produces a sensation of sound, is equivalent to saying that a sensation of sight produces a sensation of hearing." Accordingly, ENGLISH IDEALISM] METAPHYSICS 247 his final conclusion is that " existence — the absolute — is known to us in feeling," and " the external changes are symbolized as motion, because that is the mode of feeling into which all others are translated when objectively considered: objective consider- ation being the attitude of looking at the phenomena, whereas subjective consideration is the attitude of any other sensible response." He does not say what happens when we use vision alone and still infer that an external stimulus causes the internal sensation. But his metaphysics is an interesting example of a phenomenalist, sympathizing with noumenalists so different as Hegel and Fechner, and yet maintaining his phenomenalism. In this feature the phenomenalism of Lewes is the English parallel to the German phenomenalism of Wundt. At the same time, and under the derivative influence of Wundt, rather than the more original inspiration of Fechner, W. K. Clifford (q.v.) was working out the hypothesis of psychophysical parallelism to a conclusion different from that of Lewes, and more allied to that of Leibnitz, the prime originator of all these hypotheses. Clifford W. K. advanced the hypothesis that the supposed un- cilfford. conscious units of feeling, or psychical atoms, are the " mind-stuff " out of which everything physical and psychical is composed, and are also things in themselves, such as Kant supposed when he threw out the hint that after all " the Ding-an- sich might be of the nature of mind " (see Mind, 1878, p. 67). As a matter of fact, this " mind-stuff " of Clifford is far more like the " petites perceptions " of Leibnitz, from which it is indirectly derived. This hypothesis Clifford connected with the hypothesis of psychophysical parallelism. He maintained that the physical and the psychical are two orders which are parallel without interference; that the physical or objective order is merely phenomena, or groups of feelings, or " objects," while the psychical or subjective order is both a stream of feelings of which we are conscious in ourselves, and similar streams which we infer beyond ourselves, or, as he came to call them, " ejects "; that, if we accept the doctrine of evolution at all, we must carry these ejective streams of feelings through the whole organic world and beyond it to the inorganic world, as a " quasimental fact "; that at bottom both orders, the physical phenomena and the psychical streams, are reducible to feelings; and that therefore there is no reason against supposing that they are made out of the same " mind-stuff," which is the thing-in-itself. The resem- blance of this noumenal idealism to that of Fechner is unmistak- able. The difference is that Clifford considers " mind-stuff " to be unconscious, and denies that there is any evidence of con- sciousness apart from a nervous system. He agrees with du Bois-Reymond in refusing to regard the universe as a vast brain animated by conscious mind. He disagrees with Fechner's hypothesis of a world-soul, the highest spirit, God, who embraces all psychophysical processes. Curiously enough, his follower G. J. Romanes (q.v.) took the one step needed to bring Cliffordism completely back to Fechnerism" In his Rede Lecture on Mind and Motion (1885), he said that Clifford's deduction, that the a. j. universe, although entirely composed of " mind-stuff," Romanes. j s itself mindless, did not follow from his premisses. Afterwards, when the lecture was published in Mind and Motion and Monism (1895), this work also contained a chapter on " The World as an Eject," in which Romanes again contended against Clifford that the world does admit of being regarded as an eject, that is, as a mind beyond one's own. At the same time, he refused to regard this " world-eject " as personal, because personality implies limitation. He concludes that the integrating principle of the whole — the Spirit, as it were, of the Universe — must be something akin to, but immeasurably superior to, the " psychism " of man. Nothing can be more curious than the way in which a school of English philosophers, which originally started from Hume, the most sceptical of phenomenalists, thus gradually passed over to Leibnitz and Fechner, the originators of panpsychistic noumenalism. The Spirit of the Universe contemplated by Romanes is identical with the World-soul contemplated by Fechner. Karl Pearson (The Grammar 0} Science, 1892, 2nd enlarged ed., 1900), starting from Hume's phenomenal idealism, has developed James Ward. Views closely allied to Mach's universal physical phenomenology. What Hume called repeated sequence Pearson calls " routine " of perceptions, and, like his master, holds that cause is an ante- cedent stage in a routine of perceptions; while he also acknow- ledges that his account of matter leads him very near to John Stuart Mill's definition of matter as " a permanent possibility of sensations." His views, in his chapter on the Laws of Motion, that the physicist forms a conceptional model of the universe by aid of corpuscles, that these corpuscles are only symbols for the component parts of perceptual bodies, and that force is a measure of motion, and not its cause, are the views of Mach. At the end of this chapter he says that the only published work from the perusal of which he received any help in working out his views in 1882 and 1884, was Mach's Die Mechanik in ihrer Entwicklung (1883). Mach had begun to put them forward in 1872, and Kirchhoff in 1874. But they may very well have been developed independently in Germany and in England from their common source in Hume. Their point is to stretch Hume's phenomenalism so as to embrace all science, by con- tending that mechanism is not at the bottom of phenomena, but is only the conceptual shorthand by aid of which men of science can briefly describe phenomena, and that all science is description and not explanation. These are the views of Mach and of Pearson, as we read them in the latter's Preface. Nor can we find any difference, except the minute shade that Pearson takes up a position of agnosticism between Clifford's assertion of " mind-stuff " and Mach's denial of things in themselves. James Ward (q.v.), in Naturalism and Agnosticism (1899), starts from the same phenomenalistic views of Mach and Kirch- hoff about mechanics; he proceeds to the hypothesis of duality within experience, which we have traced in the phenomenalisms of Schuppe, Avenarius and Wundt, and to the hypothesis of one consciousness, which appears variously in the German idealisms, not of Kant, as Ward thinks, but of Fichte, Hegel and Schuppe; and somehow he manages to end with the noumenalistic conclusion that Nature is God's Spirit. Though this work evinces a thoroughly English love of compromise, yet it is not merely eclectic, but is animated throughout by the inspiration of his " old teacher, Lotze." Lotze, as we saw, rejected bodily mechanism, reduced known bodies to phenomena, and concluded that reality is the life of God. Ward on the whole follows this triple scheme, but modifies it by new arguments founded on later German phenomenalism. Under the first head he attacks mechanics precisely as Mach had done (see above) ; if this attack had been consistently carried out it would have carried him no further than Mach. Under the second head, according to Ward, as according to Wundt, knowledge is experience; we must start with the duality of subject and object, or perpetual reality, phenomenon, in the unity of experience, and not believe, as realists do, that either subject or object is distinct from this unity; moreover, experience requires " conation," because it is to interesting objects that the subject attends; conation is required for all synthesis, associative and intellective; thinking is doing; presentation, feeling, conation are one inseparable whole; and the unity of the subject is due to activity and not to a sub- stratum. But, in opposition to Wundt and in common with Schuppe, he believes that experience is (1) experience of the in- dividual, and (2) experience of the race, which is but an extension of individual experience, and is variously called, in the course of the discussion, universal, collective, conceptual, rational experience, consciousness in general,' absolute consciousness, intelligence, and even, after Caird, " a perfect intelligence." He regards this uni- versal experience as the result entirely of intersubjective inter- course, and concludes that its subject is not numerically distinct from the subject of individual experience, but is one and continuous with it, and that its conceptions depend on the perceptions of individual experience. He infers the corollary that universal • experience contains the same duality of subjective and objective factors without dualism. He thinks that it is the origin of the categories of causality, which he refers to " conation," and sub- stance, which he attributes to the interaction of active subjects with their environment and to their intercourse with each other. He applies universal experience, as Schuppe does, to explain the unity of the object, and its independence of individual but not o! universal _ experience, holding that the one sun, and the whole world of intersubjective intercourse, or the " trans-subjective '' world, though " independent of the individual percipient as such,'' is " not independent of the universal experience, but the object of that experience " (ii. 196-197). He applies universal experience 248 METAPHYSICS [PERSONAL IDEALISM to explain how we come, falsely in his opinion, to believe that the object of experience is an independent thing; and he uses three arguments, which are respectively those of Schuppe, Avenarius and Wundt. He supposes first, that we falsely conclude from the sun being independent of each to being independent of all; secondly, that by " introjection " we falsely conclude that another's experience is in him and therefore one's own in one- self, while the sun remains outside; and thirdly, that by " reifi- cation " of abstractions, natural science having abstracted the object and psychology the subject, each falsely bejieves that its own abstract, the sun or the subject, is an independent thing. What, then, could we know from this "duality in experience"? He hardly has a formal theory of inference, but implies through- out that it only transcends perceptions, and perceptual reali- ties or phenomena, in order to conclude with ideas, not facts. When we combine his view of Nature under the first head that whatever is inferred in the natural sciences is ideas, with his view of knowledge under the second head that knowledge is experience, and experience, individual or universal, is of duality of subject and object in the unity of experience, it follows that all we could know from the data would be one experience of the race, one subject consisting of individual subjects, and in Nature single objects in the unity of this universal experience; and beyond we should be able to form conceptions dependent on the perceptions of individual experience in the unity of universal experience: that is all. There can be no doubt that Mach, Schuppe and Wundt drew the right phenomenalistic conclusions from such phenomenalistic data. Not so Ward, who proceeds to a Natural Theology, on the ground that " from a world of spirits to a Supreme Spirit is a possible step." He had definitely confined universal experience to the one experience of the race. But perhaps Caird's phrase " a perfect intelligence " has beguiled him into thinking that the one subject of universal experience is not mere mankind, but God Himself. Under the third head, however, his guide is Lotze. The argument may be shortly put as follows: As the Nature which is the object of mechanics and all natural sciences, is not natural substances, but phenomena and ideas ; as mass is not substance, and force is not cause ; as activity is not in the physical but in the psychical world ; as the laws of Nature are not facts but teleological conceptions, and Nature is teleological, as well as not mechanical but kine- matical ; as the categoiy of causality is to be referred to " conation " ; as, in short, " mind is active and matter inert," what then? One subject of universal experience, one with the subjects of individual experience, you would suppose, and that Nature as a whole is its one object. Not so, according to Ward; but " God as the living unity of all," and " no longer things, but the connecting conserving acts of the one Supreme." What, then, is the relation of God to the one universal experience, the experience of the race, which was under the second head the unity in duality of all know- ledge ? He does not say. But instead of any longer identifying the experience of the race and universal experience, he concludes his book by saying " our reason is confronted and determined by universal reason." This is his way of destroying Naturalism and Agnosticism. 4. Personal Idealism. — The various forms of idealism which have been described naturally led in England, even among idealists themselves, to a reaction against all systems which involve the denial of personality. English moral philosophy cannot long tolerate a metaphysics which by merging all minds in one would destroy personality, personal causation and moral responsibility, as James Martineau well said. A new school, therefore, arose of which the protagonist was Andrew Seth Pringle-Pattison (b. 1856; professor of logic and metaphysics at Edinburgh University from 1880) in his Scottish Philosophy (1885), and Hegelianism and Personality (1887). " Each of us is a self," he says, and in another passage, " The real self is one and indivisible, and is unique in each individual. This is the unequivocal testimony of consciousness." What makes his vindication of conscious personality all the more inter- esting is that he has so much in common with the Hegelians ; agree- ing as he does with Hegel that self-consciousness is the highest fact, the ultimate category of thought through which alone the universe is intelligible, and an adequate account of the great fact of exist- ence. He agrees also that there is no object without subject. It is difficult to see exactly where he begins to differ from Hegel ; but at any rate he believes in different self-conscious persons; he does not accept the dialectical method, but believes in beginning from the personal experience of one's own self -consciousness ; and, though he is not very clear on the subject, he would have to admit that a thing, such as_ the sun, is a different object in each person's con- sciousness. He is not a systematic thinker, but is too much affected by the eclectic notion of reconciling all philosophies. F. C. S. Schiller (b. 1864, fellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford), in Riddles of the Sphinx (1891), is a more systematic thinker. He rejects the difference between matter and spirit. He agrees with Leibnitz in the analysis of the material into the immaterial, but with Lotze in holding that the many immaterial elements coexist and interact. At the same time he differs from Lotze's conclusion that their union requires one absolute substance. Again, he thinks that substance is activity; differing from both Leibnitz and Lotze herein, and still more in not allowing the existence of the many beyond experience. Hence his personal or pluralistic idealism is the view that the world is a plurality of many coexisting and inter- acting centres of experience, while will is the most fundamental form of experience. 1 In connexion with these views reference should be made to a work entitled Personal Idealism, Philosophical Essays by Eight Members of the University of Oxford (1902), edited by H. Stmt, and numbering Schiller, as well as G. F. Stout, H. Rashdall and others among its contributors (cf. also H. Sturt, Idola theatri, 1908). They do not all agree with one another, or perhaps even with the title. Nevertheless, there is a common ten- dency in them, and in the university of Oxford, towards the belief that, to use the words of the editor, " We are free moral agents in a sense which cannot apply to what is merely natural." There is indeed much more activity of thought at Oxford than the world sus- pects. Mansel and Jowett, Green and Caird, Bradley and Bosanquet arose in quick succession, the predecessors of a generation which aims at a new metaphysics. The same sort of antithesis between the one and the many has appeared in the United States. Josiah Royce (b. 1855, professor of philosophy, Harvard) believes in the absolute like Green and Bradley, in " the unity of a single self-consciousness, which includes both our own and all finite conscious meanings in one final eternally present insight," as he says in The World and the Individual (1900; see also later works). G. T. Ladd (q.v.) also believes in " a larger all-inclusive self," and goes so far as the paradox that perfect personality is only recon- cilable with one infinite being. While Royce is Hegelian, Ladd prefers Lotze, but both believe in one mind. William James (q.v.), on the other hand, in his psychological works shows that the tendency of recent psychology is to personality, interpreted ideal- istically ; though without a very clear appreciation of what a person is, and personality means. By a curious coincidence, almost at the time of the appearance of the Essays on Personal Idealism, an American writer, G. H. Howison, published The Limits of Evolu- tion, and other Essays illustrating the Metaphysical Theory of Personal Idealism (1901). In fact there has been an increase of philosophical intercourse between English and American universities, which is a hopeful sign of progress. The advent of personal idealism is a welcome protest against the confusion of God and man in one mind, and against the confusion of one man's mind with another's. The school undoubtedly tends towards realism. I am conscious only of myself as a person, and of my bodily signs. I know the existence of other human persons and minds only through their giving similar bodily signs. If the personal idealist consistently denies other bodies, then the bodily signs become, according to him, only part of his experience, which can prove only the existence of himself. To infer another mind he must infer another body, and the bodily environment including his and other bodies. Again, in being conscious of myself, I am not conscious of my mind in the abstract without my body. I cannot separate touching from my tactile organs, seeing from my eyes, or hearing from my ears. I cannot think my body away. Moreover, I am not conscious of my whole personal life at all. How do I know that I was born, though I cannot remember it, and that I shall die, though I am not now conscious of death ? How do I know that I am the same person from birth to death ? Not by my consciousness, but by knowing the bodies of others — of babies on the one hand, and of old men on the other hand. It is usual to say that the body has not enough unity to be part of the person: the objection is much more true of conscious mind. The truth is that not the unity of consciousness but the fact of its existence is the important point. The existence of my consciousness is my evi- dence for my soul. But it does not prove that I am nothing but soul. As a human person, I am body and soul; and the idealisljic identification of the Ego with soul or mind, involving the corollar)?*' that my body belongs to the non-Ego and is no part of myself, is the reductio ad absurdum of idealism. Lastly, though the personal idealists are right in rejecting the hypothesis of one mind, they are too hasty in supposing that the hypothesis is useless for idealistic purposes. No idealism can explain how we all know one sun, except by supposing that we all have one mind. The difficulty of personal idealism, on the other hand, is to reconcile the unity of the thing with the plurality of thinkers. The unity of the sun can only be explained either idealistically 1 For Dr Schiller's views, see further Pragmatism. REALISM] METAPHYSICS 249 by supposing it to be one object of one mind, or realistically by supposing it to be one thing distinct from the many minds which think about it. The former alternative is false, the latter true. Personal idealism, therefore, must end in personal realism. 7. — Realism 1. Metaphysical and Psychological Realism. — Realism is the view that some known things are bodily, and some are mental. At its best, it is the Aristotelian view that both are substances. The modern misunderstanding of " substance " has been a main cause of the confusion of modern thought. Aristotle meant by it any distinct thing; e.g. I, you, an animal, a plant, the earth, the moon, the sun, God. He calls each of these, as existing apart, a thing per se (koB' abro). It is true that, having divided a natural substance into form and matter, he called each element " sub- stance." But these are not primary meanings; and matter, or supposed substratum, in particular, he says, is not actually substance (Met. Z 3) or is only potentially substance (Met. H 1-2). In modern times, Spinoza, by a mere mistake, changed the meaning of " substance " from " existing apart " to " existing alone," and consistently concluded that there is only one. Locke mistook it to mean " substratum," or support of qualities, and naturally concluded that it is unknown. Kant, taking it in the mistaken meaning of Locke, converted it into the a priori category of the permanent substrate beneath the changes of phenomena, and even went so far as to separate it from the thing in itself, as substantia phenomenon from noumenon. When it had thus lost every vestige of its true meaning, Kant's successors naturally began to speak of things as being distinct without being substances. Fichte began this by saying that ego is activity, and being is life. Hegel said that spirit is not substance but subject, which to Aristotle would have meant that it is not a distinct thing, yet is a distinct thing. Fechner, Wundt and Paulsen have fixed the conclusion in psychology that soul is not substance but unity of mental life; and Wundt concludes from the modern history of the term that substance or " substrate " is only a secondary conception to that of causality, and that, while there is a physical causality distinct from that of substance, psychical causality requires no sub- stance at all. The result of this confusion is that the moderns have no name at all for a distinct thing, and, being mere slaves of abstract terms, constantly speak of mere attributes, such as activity, life, will, actuality, unity of mental operations, as if they were distinct things. But an attribute, though real, is not a distinct reality, but only a determinant of a substance, and has no being of its own apart from the substance so determined; whereas a substance, determined by all its attributes, is different from everything else in the world. Though, for simplicity and universality of thought, even in science, we must use the abstraction of attri- butes, and, by the necessity and weakness of language, must signify what are not substances by nouns substantive, we must guard against the over-abstraction of believing that a thing exists as we abstract it. The point of true realism is Aristotle's point that the world consists of such distinct, though related, things, and therefore of substances, natural and supernatural. Again, the method of true realism is that of Aristotle, and consists in recognizing the independence of metaphysics. The contrary method is psychological metaphysics, which makes metaphysics dependent on psychology, on the ground that the origin of know- ledge determines its limits. This is the method which, as we have seen, has led from psychological to metaphysical idealism, by the argument that what we begin by perceiving is mental, and, therefore, what we end by knowing is mental. Now, there is no principle of method superior to that of Aristotle — we must begin with what is known to us. The things best known to man are the things which he now knows as a man. About these known things there is some agreement: about the beginnings of knowledge there is nothing but controversy. We do not know enough about the origin of knowledge to determine its limits. Hence, to proceed from psychology to metaphysics is to proceed from the less to the more known; and the paradoxes of psychological have caused those of metaphysical idealism. The realist, then, ought to begin with metaphysics without psychological prejudices. He must ask what are known things, and especially what has been discovered in the sciences; in mechanics, in order to find the essence of bodies which is neglected by idealism; in mental science, in order 'to understand con- sciousness which is neglected by materialism. With the con- viction that the only fair way of describing metaphysics has been to avoid putting forward one system, and even to pay most attention to the dominant idealism, we have nevertheless been driven occasionally to test opinions by this independent meta- physical method. The chief results we have found against idealism are that bodies have not been successfully analysed except into bodies, as real matter; and that bodies are known to exert reciprocal pressure in reducing one another to a joint mass with a common velocity by being mutually impenetrable, as real forces. The chief results we have found against materialism are that bodies evolving account neither for the origin of them- selves, their nature, and their fundamental order of resemblance and difference, nor for the nature and origin of consciousness, nor even as yet for their becoming good for conscious beings. Hence we come to the realistic conclusions that among known substances some are bodies, others are souls; that man is body and soul; and that God is a pure soul or spirit. At the same time, while the independence of metaphysics leads us to metaphysical realism, this is not to deny the value of psychology, still less of logic. Besides the duty of determining what we know, there is the duty of determining how we know it. But in order to discharge it, a reform of psychology as well as of metaphysics is required. Two psychological errors, among many others, constantly meet us in the history of idealism — the arbitrary hypothesis of a sense of sensations, or of ideas, and the intolerable neglect of logical inference. Logical inference from sense is a process from sensible to insensible existence. The former error needs something deeper than a Kantian critique of reason, or an Avenarian criticism of experience; it needs a criticism of the senses. We want an answer to this question — What must we know by the senses in order to enable us to know what we infer by reason in the sciences? Without here aiming at exhaustiveness, we may bring forward against the dominant idealism a psychological theory of sense and reason. By touch I perceive one bodily member reciprocally pressing another in myself, e.g. lip pressing lip; by touch again I perceive one bodily member similarly pressing but not another member in myself, e.g. only one lip pressing; by inference from touch I infer that it is reciprocally pressing another body similar to my other bodily member, i.e. another body similar to my other lip. On this theory, then, founded on the conscious facts of double and single pressure in touch, and on the logic of inference, we have at once a reason for our know- ledge of external bodies, and an explanation of the early appear- ance of that knowledge. The child has only to have its mother's nipple in its mouth in order to infer something very like the mutually pressing parts of its own mouth. Having thus begun by touch and tactile inference, we confirm and extend our inferences of bodies in Nature by using the rest of the senses. This is not to forget that the five senses are not our whole stock or to confine inference to body. We have also the inner sense of consciousness which is inexplicable by body alone. By combin- ing, moreover, our knowledge of Nature with our consciousness of our own works, we can infer that Nature is a work of God. Next, finding that He gives signs of bodily works, but no signs of bodily organs, we can infer that God is a Spirit. Finally, returning to ourselves, we can conclude that, while the conscious in God is Spirit without Body, in us it is spirit with body. This final distinction between bodily and spiritual substances we owe to Descartes. 2. The Undercurrent of Modem Realism. — Coming after the long domination of Aristotelian realism, Descartes and Locke, though psychological idealists, were metaphysical realists. Their position was so illogical that it was easily turned into metaphysical idealism. But their psychological method and 250 METAPHYSICS [REALISM idealism produced another mistake— the tendency to a modicum of realism, as much as seemed to this or that author to follow from psychological idealism. In Germany, since the victory of Kant over Wolff, realism has always been in difficulties, which we can appreciate when we reflect that the Germans by preference apply the term " realism " to the paradoxes of Herbart (1776- 1841), who, in order*to avoid supposed contradictions, supposed that bodies are not substances, but show (Schein), while " reals" are simple substances, each with a simple quality, and all preserv- ing themselves against disturbance by one another, whether physically or psychologically, but not known to be either material or spiritual because we do not know the simple quality in which the nature of the real consists. There have indeed been other realisms in Germany. Trendelenburg (1802-1872), a formidable opponent of Hegel, tried to surmount Kant's transcendental idealism by supposing that motion, and therefore time, space and the categories, though a priori, are common to thought and being. Duhring, with a similar object, makes matter a common basis. While these realisms come dangerously near to materialism, that of the Roman Catholic A. Gtinther (1783-1863), " Cartesius cor- rectus," erected too mystical an edifice on the psychological basis of Descartes to sustain a satisfactory realism. Yet Guntherism has produced a school, of which the most distinguished repre- sentative is the Old Catholic bishop in Bonn, Th. Weber, whose Melaphysik, completed in 1891, starting from the ego and the analysis of consciousness, aims at arriving at the distinction between spirit and nature, and at rising to the spirit of God the Creator. Other realistic systems are those of J. H. von Kirch- mann (1802-1884), author, among other works, of Die Philosophic des Wissens (1864) and Ueber die Principien des Realismus (1875) ; Goswin Uphues (b. 1841; professor of philosophy at Halle), directed against the scepticism of Shute's Discourse on Truth; and Hermann Schwarz (born 1864), who completes the psycho- logical view of Uphues that we can know objects as they are, by the metaphysical view that they can be as we know them. But German realism lacks critical power, and is little better than a weed overshadowed by the luxuriant forest of German idealism. In France, the home of Cartesian realism, after the vicissitudes of sensationalism and materialism, which became connected in French the French mind with the Revolution, the spirit of Realism. Descartes revived in the 19th century in the spiritual- istic realism of Victor Cousin. But Cousin's psychological method of proceeding from consciousness outwards, and the emphasis laid by him on spirit in comparison with body, pre- vented a real revival of realism. He essayed to answer Locke by Kant, and Kant by Reid, Maine de Biran and Schelling. From Reid he adopted the belief in an external world beyond sensation, from Biran the explanation of personality by will, from Schelling the identification of all reason in what he called " impersonal reason," which he supposed to be identical in God and man, to be subjective and objective, psychological and ontological. We start, according to him, from a psychological triplicity in consciousness, consisting of sensation, personal will and impersonal reason, which by a priori laws of causality and substance carries us to the ontological triplicity of oneself as ego willing, the non-ego as cause of sensation, and God as the abso- lute cause beneath these relative causes. So far this ontological triplicity is realism. But when we examine his theory of the non-ego, and find that it resolves matter into active force and this into animated activity, identifies law with reason, and calls God absolute substance, we see at once that this spiritual realism is not very far from idealism. About 1840, owing largely to the teaching of E. Saisset in the spiritualistic school, the influence of Descartes began to give way to that of Leibnitz. Leibnitz has been used both realistically and idealistically in France. He was taken literally by spiritual realists, e.g. by Paul Janet (q.v.). Janet accepted the traditional ontological triplicity — God, souls and bodies — and, in answer to Ravaisson, who called this realism " demi-spiritualisme," rejoined that he was content to accept the title. At the same time, like Cousin, his works show a tendency to underrate body, tending as they do to the Leibnitzian analysis of the material into the immaterial, and to the supposition that the unity of the body is only given by the soul. His emphasis is on spirit, and he goes so far as to admit that "no spiritualist is engaged to defend the existence of matter." The strength of Janet's position is his perception that the argument from final causes is in favour of an omnipresent rational will making matter a means to ends, and not in favour of an immanent mind of Nature working out her own ends. The psychological metaphysics of Cousin and of Janet was, how- ever, too flimsy a realism to withstand its passage into this very idealism of matter which has become the dominant French meta- physics. Etienne Vacherot (q.v.) deserted Descartes for Hegel. He accepted from Hegel " the real is rational " without the Hegelian method, for which he substituted conscious experience as a revelation of the divine. Matter he held to be mind at the minimum of its action, and evolution the " expansion de l'activite incessante de la cause finale." God, according to his latest view, is the absolute being as first cause and final end. " Let us leave," says he in defer- ence to Janet, " the category of the ideal, which applies to nothing real or living." But the most noticeable passage in Le Nouveau spiritualisme (1884) is its contrast between the old and the new; where he says that the old spiritualism opposed spirit to matter, God to Nature, the new spiritualism places matter in spirit, Nature in God (p. 377). F. Ravaisson (see Ravaisson-Mollien), by his Rapport (prepared for the Exhibition of 1867) on philosophy in France, gave a fresh impulse to the transition from spiritual realism to idealism, by developing the Aristotelian ? Meteoric observation has depended upon rough and hurried eye estimates in past years, but the importance of attaining greater accuracy by means of photography has been recognized. At several American observatories, and at Vienna, fairly suc- cessful attempts were made in November 1898 to photograph a sufficient number of meteor-trails to derive the Leonid radiant, and the mean position was at R.A. 151° 33' Dec. + 22 12'. But the materials obtained were few, the shower having proved inconspicuous. The photographic method appears to have practically failed during recent years, since there has 262 METEORA— METEORITE been no brilliant display upon which to test its capacity. Really large meteors can be satisfactorily photographed, but small ones leave no impression on the plates. Meteors look larger than they are, from the glare and naming effect due to their momentary combustion. The finer meteors on entering the air only weigh a few hundred or, at most, a few thousand pounds, while the smallest shooting stars visible to the eye may probably be equal in size to coarse grains of sand, and still be large enough to evolve all the light presented by them. (W- F. D.) METEORA, a group of monasteries in Thessaly, in the northern side of the Peneius valley, not quite 20 m. N.E. of Trikkala, and near the village of Kalabaka (the ancient Aeginium, medieval Stagus or Stagoi). From the Cambunian chain two masses of rock are thrust southward into the plain, surmounted by isolated columns from 85 to 300 ft. high, " some like gigantic tusks, some like sugar-loaves, and some like vast stalagmites," but all consisting of iron-grey or reddish- brown conglomerate of gneiss, mica-slate, syenite and green- stone. The monasteries stand on the summit of these pinnacles; they are accessible only by aid of rope and net worked by a windlass from the top, or by a series of almost perpendicular ladders climbing the cliff. In the case of St Stephen's, the peak on which it is built does nor rise higher than the ground behind, from which it is separated by a deep, narrow chasm, spanned by a drawbridge. Owing to the confined area, the buildings are closely packed- together; but each monastery contains beside the monks' cells and water-cisterns, at least one church and a refectory, and some also a library. At one time they were fourteen in number, but now not more than four (the Great Monastery, Holy Trinity, St Barlaam's and St Stephen's) are inhabited by more than two or three monks. The present church of the Great Monastery was erected, according to Leake's reading of the local inscription, in 1388 (Bjornstahl, the Swedish traveller, had given 1371), and it is one of the largest and hand- somest in Greece. A number of the manuscripts from these monasteries have now been brought to the National Library at Athens: Aeginium is described by Livy as a strong place, and is frequently mentioned during the Roman wars; and Stagus appears from time to time in Byzantine writers. See W. M. Leake, Northern Greece (4 vols., London, 1835) ; Professor Kriegk in Zeitschr. f. allg. Erdk. (Berlin, 1858); H. F. Tozer, Re- searches in the Highlands of Turkey (1869) ; L. Heuzey and H. Daumet, Mission archiologique de Macedoine (Paris, 1876), where there is a map of the monasteries and their surroundings; Guide- Joanne; Grece, vol. ii. (Paris, 1891). METEORITE, a mass of mineral matter which has reached the earth's surface from outer space. Observation teaches that the fall of a meteorite is often preceded by the flight of a fireball (see Meteor) through the sky, and by one or more loud detonations. It was inferred by Chladni (1794) that the fire- ball and the detonations result from the quick passage of the meteorite through the earth's atmosphere. The fall of stones from the sky, though not credited by scientific men till the end of the 18th century, had been again and again placed on record. One of the most famous of meteor- ites fell in Phrygia and was worshipped there for many genera^ tions under the name of Cybele, the mother of the gods. After an oracle had declared that possession of the stone would secure to the Romans a continual increase of prosperity, it was demanded by them . from King Attalus about the year 204 B.C., and taken with great ceremony to Rome. It is described by the historian as "a black stone, in the figure of a cone, circular below and ending in an apex above." Plutarch relates the fall of a stone in Thrace about 470 B.C., during the time of Pindar, and according to Pliny the stone was still preserved in his day, 500 years afterwards. Both Diana of the Ephesians " which fell down from Jupiter," and the image of Venus at Cyprus, appear to have been conical or pyramidal stones. One of the holiest relics of the Moslems is preserved at Mecca, built into a corner of the Kaaba; its history goes back far beyond the 7th century; the description of it given to Dr Partsch suggests that the stone had fallen from the sky. The oldest existing meteorite of which the fall is known to have been observed is that which fell at Ensisheim in Elsass on the 10th of November 1492. It was seen to strike the ground and was immediately dug out; it had penetrated to a depth of 5 ft. and was found to weigh 260 lb. It was long suspended by a chain from the roof of the parish church, and is now kept in the Rathhaus of the town. It was not till scientific men gave credence to the reports of the fall of heavy bodies from the sky that steps were taken for the formation of meteorite collections. The British Museum (Natural History) at South Kensington now contains specimens belonging to 566 distinct falls; of these falls 325 have been actually observed; the remaining specimens are inferred to have come from outer space, because their characters are similar to those of the masses which have been seen to fall. Of these meteorites the following twelve have fallen within the British Isles : — In England. Place. Date. Wold Cottage, Thwing, York- shire ..... Dec. 13, 1795. Launton, Oxfordshire Feb. 15, 1830. Aldsworth, Gloucestershire Aug. 4, 1835. Rowton, Shropshire April 20, 1876. Middlesbrough, Yorkshire March 4, 1881. In Scotland. High Possil, Glasgow April 5, 1804. Perth May 17, 1830. In Ireland. Mooresfort, Tipperary . Aug. 1810. Adare, Limerick . Sept. 10, 1813. Killeter, Tyrone April 29, 1844. Dundrum, Tipperary Aug. 12, 1865. Crumlin, Antrim . . ■ . 1 Sept. 13, 1902. Meteoritic falls are independent of thunderstorms and all other terrestrial circumstances; they occur at all hours of the day and night, and at all seasons of the year; they favour no particular latitudes. The number of stones which reach the ground from one fireball is very variable. In each of the two Yorkshire falls only one stone was found; the Guernsey County meteor yielded 30; at Toulouse, as many as 350 are estimated to have fallen; at Hessle, over 500; at Knyahinya, more than 1000; at L'Aigle, from 1000 to 2000; at both Pultusk and Mocs no fewer than 100,000 are estimated to have reached the earth's surface. The largest single mass seen to fall is one of those which came down at Knyahinya, Hungary, in 1866, and weighed 547 lb; but far larger masses, inferred from their char- acters to be meteorites, have been met with. The larger of the Cranbourne masses, now in the British Museum (Natural History), before rusting weighed 3I tons; the largest of the masses brought by Lieut. Peary from western Greenland weighs 36! tons. A mass found at Bacubirito in Mexico is 13 ft. long, 6 ft. wide and 5 ft. thick, and is estimated to weigh 50 tons. From observations of the path and time of flight of the lumi- nous meteor it is calculated that meteorites enter the earth's atmosphere with absolute velocities ranging from 10 to 45 m. a second; but the speed of a meteorite after the whole of the resisting atmosphere has been traversed is extremely small and ■comparable with that of an ordinary falling body. According to Professor A. S. HerscheTs experiments, the meteorite which fell at Middlesbrough must have struck the ground with a velocity of only 412 ft. a second. In the case of the Hessle fall, several stones fell on the ice, which was only a few inches thick, and rebounded without breaking the ice or being broken themselves. The depth to which a meteorite penetrates depends on the speed N form, weight and density of the meteorite and on the nature of the ground. At Stannern a meteoric stone weighing 2 lb entered to a depth of only 4 in.; the large Knyahinya stone already mentioned made a hole n ft. deep. The area of the earth's surface occupied by towns and villages being comparatively small, the probability of a shower of stones falling within a town is extremely minute; the likelihood of a living creature being struck is still more remote. The first Yorkshire stone, that of Wold Cottage, struck the ground only 10 yds. from a labourer; the second, that of Middlesbrough, fell on the railroad only 40 yds. away from some platelayers at METEORITE 263 work; a stone completely buried itself in the highway at Kaba; one fell between two carters on the road at Charsonville, throwing the ground up to a height of 6 ft.; the Tourinnes-la-Grosse meteorite broke the pavement and was broken itself; the Krahenberg stone fell within a few paces of a little girl; the Angers stone fell close to a lady standing in her garden; the Braunau mass went through the roof of a cottage; at Macao, in Brazil, where there was a shower of stones, some oxen are said to have been killed; at Nedagolla, in India, a man was so near that he was stunned by the shock; while at Mhow, also in India, a man was killed in 1827 by a stone which is a true meteorite, and is represented by fragments in museum collections. Though the surface of a meteoric stone becomes very hot during the early part of the flight through the air, it is cooled again during the later and slower part of the flight. Meteorites are generally found to be warm to the touch if immediately dug out; at the moment of their impact they are not hot enough to char woody fibre on which they chance to fall, nor is the surface then soft, for terrestrial matter with which the surface comes into contact makes no impression upon the meteorite. Where many stones fall at the same time they are generally distributed over a large area elongated in the direction of the flight of the luminous meteor, and the largest stones generally travel farthest. At Hessle, for instance, the stones were distributed over an area of 10 m. long and 3 m. broad. Meteorites are almost invariably found to be completely covered with a thin crust such as would be caused by intense heating of the material for a short time; its thinness shows the slight depth to which the heat has had time to penetrate. They are presumably cojd and invisible when they enter the earth's atmosphere, and become heated and visible during their passage through the air; doubtless the greater part of the superficial material flicks off as the result of the sudden heating and is left behind floating in the air as the trail of the meteor. The crust varies in aspect with the mineral composition of the meteorite; it is generally black; it is in most cases dull but is sometimes lustrous; more rarely it is dark-grey in colour. Each stone of a shower is in general completely covered with crust ; but occasion- ally, as in the case of the Butsura fall, stones found some miles apart fit each other closely and the fitting surfaces are uncrusted, showing that a meteorite may break up during a late and cool stage of the flight through the atmosphere. A meteorite is generally covered with pittings which have been compared in size and form to thumbmarks; the pittings are probably caused by the unequal conductivity, fusibility and frangibility of the superficial material. As picked up, complete and covered with crust, meteorites are always irregularly-shaped fragments, such as would be obtained on breaking up a rock presenting no regularity of structure. About one-third, and those the most common, of the chemical elements at present recognized as constituents of the earth's crust have been met with in meteorites; no new chemical element has been discovered. The most frequent or plentiful in their occurrence are: aluminium, calcium, carbon, iron, magnesium, nickel, oxygen, phosphorus, silicon and sulphur; while less frequently or in smaller quantities are found antimony, arsenic, chlorine, chromium, cobalt, copper, hydrogen, lithium, manganese, nitrogen, potassium, sodium, strontium, tin, titanium, vanadium. The existence of minute traces of several other elements has been announced; of these special mention may be made of gallium, gold, iridium, lead, platinum and silver. Iron occurs chiefly in combination with nickel, and phosphorus almost always in combination with both nickel and iron (schreibersite) ; carbon occurs both as indistinctly crystallized diamond and as graphitic carbon, the latter generally being amorphous, but occasionally having the forms of cubic crystals (clif tonite) ; free phosphorus has been found in one meteorite; free sulphur has also been observed, but may have resulted from the decomposition of a sulphide since the fall of the stone. Of the mineral constituents of meteorites, the following are by many mineralogists regarded as still unrepresented among native terrestrial products: clif tonite, a cubic form of graphitic carbon; phosphorus; various alloys of nickel and iron; moissanite, silicide of carbon; cohenile, carbide of iron and nickel (corresponding to cementite, carbide of iron, found in artificial iron); schreibersite, phosphide of iron and nickel ; troilite, protosulphide of iron ; oldhamite, sulphide of calcium : osbornite, oxysulphide of calcium and titanium or zirconium ; daubreelite, sulphide of iron and chromium ; lawrencite, protochloride of iron; asmanite, a species of silica; maskelynite, a singly refractive mineral with the chemical composition of labrador- ite; weinbergerite, a silicate intermediate in chemical composition to pyroxene and nepheline. Of these troilite is perhaps identical with some varieties of terrestrial pyrrhotite; asmanite has characters which approach very closely to those of terrestrial tridymite ; maskelynite, according to one view, is the result of fusion of labradorite, according to another view, is an independent species chemically related to leucite. Other compounds are present corresponding to the follow- ing terrestrial minerals: olivine and forsterite; enstatite and bronzite ; diopside and augite ; anorthite, labradorite and oligoclase ; magnetite and chromite; pyrites; pyrrhotite; breunnerite. Quartz (silica), the most common of terrestrial minerals, is absent from the stony meteorites; but from the Toluca meteoric iron microscopic crystals have been obtained of which some have certain resem- blances to quartz, and others to zircon. Free silica is present in the Breitenbach meteorite but as asmanite. In addition to the above there are several compounds or mixtures of which the nature has not yet been satisfactorily ascertained. Meteorites are conveniently distributed into three classes, which pass more or less gradually into each other: the first (siderites or meteoric irons) includes all those which consist mainly of metallic iron alloyed with nickel; only nine of them have been actually seen to fall; the second (siderolites) includes those in which metallic iron (alloyed with nickel) and stony matter are present in large proportion; few of them have been seen to fall; those of the third class (aerolites or meteoric stones) consist almost entirely of stony matter; nearly all have been seen to fall. In the meteoric irons the iron generally varies from 80 to 95% and the nickel from 6 to 10%; the latter is generally alloyed with the iron, and several alloys or mixtures have been distin- guished by special names (kamacite, taenite, plessite). Troilite is frequently present as plates, veins or large nodules, sometimes surrounded by graphite; schreibersite is almost always present, and occasionally also daubreelite. The compositeness and the structure of meteoric iron are well shown by the figures generally called into existence when a polished surface is etched by means of acids or bromine- water; they are due to the inequality of the etching action on thick and thin plates of various con- stituents, the plates being composed chiefly of two nickel-iron materials (kamacite and taenite). A third nickel-iron material (plessite) fills up the spaces formed by the intersection of the joint plates of kamacite and taenite; it is probably not an independent substance but an intimate intergrowth of kamacite and taenite. The figures were first observed in 1808 and are generally termed " Widmanstatten figures " in honour of their discoverer; the plates which give rise to them are parallel to the faces of the regular octahedron, and such masses have therefore an octahedral structure. A small number of the remaining masses have cubic cleavage; instead of Widmanstatten figures they yield fine linear furrows when etched; the furrows were found by Neumann in 1848 to have directions such as would result from twinning of the cube about an octahedral face; they are known as " Neumann lines." For meteoric irons of cubic structure the percentage of nickel is lower than 6 or 7; for those of octahedral structure it is higher than 6 or 7; the plates of kamacite are thinner, and the structure therefore finer the higher the percentage of that metal. A considerable number of meteoric irons, however, show no crystalline structure at all, and have percentages of nickel both below and above 7; it has been suggested that each of these masses may once have had crystalline structure and that it has disappeared as a result of prolonged heating throughout the mass while the meteorite has been passing near a star. An investigation of the changes of the magnetic permeability of the Sacramento meteoric iron with changing temperature led Dr S. W. J. Smith to infer that the magnetic behaviour can only be explained by imagining the meteorite to consist 264 METEOROLOGY largely of plates of nickel-iron containing about 7% of nickel (kamacite), separated from each other by thin plates of a nickel-iron constituent (taenite), containing about 27% of nickel and having different thermomagnetic characters from those of kamacite; he suggests, however, that taenite is not a definite chemical compound but a eutectic mixture of kamacite and a nickel-iron compound containing not less than 37% of nickel. About eleven out of every twelve of the known meteoric stones belong to a division to which Rose gave the name " chon- dritic " (x6v5pos, a grain) ; they present a very fine-grained but crystalline matrix or paste, consisting of olivine and enstatite or bronzite, with more or less nickel-iron, troilite, chromite, augite and triclinic feldspar; through this paste are disseminated round chondrules of various sizes and generally with the same mineral composition as the matrix; in some cases the chondrules consist wholly or in great part of glass. Some meteorites consist almost solely of chondrules; others contain only few; in some cases the chondrules are easily separable from the surrounding material. In mineral composition chondritic meteorites approximate more or less to terrestrial lherzolites. A few meteorites belonging to the chondritic division are remarkable as containing carbon in combination with hydro- gen and oxvgen; those of Alais and Cold Bokkeveld are good examples. The remaining meteoric stones are without chondrules and contain little or no nickel-iron; of these the following may be mentioned as illustrative of the varieties of mineral composition: Juvinas, consisting essentially of anorthite and augite; Petersburg, of anor- thite, augite and olivine, with a little chromite and nickel-iron (both Juvinas and Petersburg may be compared to terrestrial basalt) ; Sherghotty, chiefly of augite and maskelynite ; Angra dos Reis, almost wholly of augite, but olivine is present in small proportion; Bustee, of diopside, enstatite and a little triclinic feldspar, with some nickel- iron, oldhamite and osbornite ; Bishopville, of enstatite and triclinic feldspar, with occasional augite, nickel-iron, troilite and chromite; Roda, of olivine and bronzite; and Chassigny, consisting of olivine with enclosed chromite, and thus mineralogically identical with terrestrial dunite. Almost all meteoric stones appear to be made up of irregular angular fragments, and some of them bear a close resemblance to volcanic tuffs. In the large group of chondritic stones, chondrules or spherules, some of which can only be seen under the microscope while others reach the size of a walnut, are embedded in a matrix apparently made up of minute splinters such as might result from the fracture of the chondrules them- selves. In fact, until recently it was thought by some mineralo- gists that the chondrules owe their form, not to crystallization, but to friction, and that the matrix was actually produced by the wearing down of the chondrules through frequent collision with each other as oscillating components of a comet or during repeated ejection from a volcanic vent of some small celestial body. Chondrules have been observed, however, presenting forms and crystalline surfaces incompatible with such a mode of formation, and others have been described which exhibit features resulting from mutual interference during their growth. The chondritic structure is different from anything which has yet been observed in terrestrial rocks, and the chondrules are distinct in character from those observed in perlite and obsidian. It is now generally believed that the structural features of meteoric stones are the result of hurried crystallization. No organized matter has been found in meteorites and they have brought us, therefore, no evidence of the existence of living beings outside our own world. Authorities. — The literature consists chiefly of memoirs dis- persed through the journals of scientific societies. The following separate works may be consulted: A. Brezina, Die Meteoriten- Sammlung d. k-k. min. Hofkabinetes in Wien (Vienna, 1896); A. Brezina u. E. Cohen, Die Structur und die Zusammensetzung der Meteoriten (Stuttgart, 1886-1887) ; P. S. Bigot de Morogues, Memoire historique et physique sur les chutes des pierres (Orleans, 1812); Chladni, Ueber den Ursprung der von Pallas gefundenen und anderer ihr dhnlicher Eisenmassen (Riga, 1794), and Ueber Feuer-Meteore, und iiber die mil denselben herabgefallenen Massen (Vienna, 1819) ; E. Cohen, Meleoritenkunde (Stuttgart, 1894-1905); L. Fletcher, An Introduction to the Study of Meteorites, 10th ed. (London, 1908); E. King, Remarks concerning Stones said to have fallen from the Clouds both in these Days and in Ancient Times (London, 1796) ; S. Meunier, MSiiorites (Paris, 1884) ; C. Rammelsberg, Die chemiscte Natur der Meteoriten (Berlin, 1870-1879); G. Rose, Beschreibung und Ein- theilung der Meteoriten (Berlin, 1864) ; G. Tscherrnak, Die mikro- skopische Beschaffenheit der Meteoriten (Stuttgart, 1883-1885) ; E. A. Wulfing, Die Meteoriten in Sammlungen und thre Literalur (Tubingen, 1897)- (L. F.) METEOROLOGY (Gr. iterkupa, and X670S, i.e. the science of things in the air), the modern study of all the pheno- mena of the atmosphere of gases, vapours and dust that surrounds the earth and extends to that unknown outer surface which marks the beginning of the so-called interstellar space. These phenomena may be studied either individually or col- lectively. The collective study has to do with statistics and general average conditions, sometimes called normal values, and is generally known as Climatology (see Climate, where the whole subject of regional climatology is dealt with). The study of the individual items may be either descriptive, explanatory, physical or theoretical. Physical meteorology is again sub- divided according as we consider either the changes that depend upon the motions of masses of air or those that depend upon the motions of the gaseous molecules; the former belong to hydrodynamics, and the latter are mostly comprised under thermodynamics, optics and electricity. History. — The historical development of meteorology from the most ancient times is well presented by the quotations from classic authors compiled by Julius Ludwig Ideler (Meteoro- logia veterum graecorum et romanorum, Berlin, 1832). We owe to the Arabian philosophers some slight advance on the know- ledge of the Greeks and Romans; especially as to the optical phenomena of the atmosphere. The Meteorologia of Aristotle (see Zeller, Phil, der Griecheri) accords entirely with the Philosophica of Thomas Aquinas, the poetic songs of the troubadours, and the writings of Dante (see Kuhn's Treatment of Nature in Dante's Divina Commedia; London, 1897). Dante's work completed the passage from the ancient mythological treatment of nature to the more rational recognition of one creator and lawgiver that pervades modern science. The progress of meteorology has been coincident with the progress of physics and chemistry in general, as is shown by considering the works of Alhazen (1050) on twilight, Vitellio (1250) on the rainbow, Galileo (1607) on the thermometer and on the laws of inertia, on attractions and on the weight of the air, Toricelli (1642) on the barometer, Boyle (1659) on the elastic pressure of the air in all directions, Newton (1673) on optics; Cavendish (1760), elastic pressure of aqueous vapour; Black (1752), separa- tion of carbonic ac;d gas from ordinary air; Rutherford (1772), separation of nitrogen; Priestley and Scheele (1775) and Caven- dish (1777), separation of oxygen; Lavoisier (1783), general establishment of the character of the atmosphere as a simple mixture of gases and vapour; De Saussure's measurement of relative humidity by the accurate hair hygrometer (1780), Dalton's measurement of vapour tension at various temperatures (1800), Regnault's and Magnus's revision of Dalton's tension of water vapour (1840), Marvin's and Juhlins's measurements of tension of ice vapour (1891), and the isolation of argon by Rayleigh and Ramsay (1894). Theoretical meteorology has been, and always must be, wholly dependent on our knowledge of thermodynamics and on mathe- matical methods of dealing with the forces that produce the motions within the atmosphere. Progress has been due to, the most eminent mathematicians at the following approxi- mate dates: Sir Isaac Newton (1670), Leonhard Euler (1736), Pierre Simon Laplace (1780), Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier (1785), Simon Denis Poisson (1815), Sir George Gabriel Stokes (1851), Hermann von Helmholtz (18.57), Lord Kelvin (i860), C. A. Bjerknes (1868), V. Bjerknes (1906), and to their many distinguished followers. The earliest systematic daily record of local weather phenomena that has survived is that kept by William Merle, j rector of Driby, during seven years 1331-1338: the manuscript is preserved in the Digby MS., Merton College, Oxford, and HISTORY] METEOROLOGY 265 was published in facsimile by George G. Symonsin 1891. Doubt- less many similar monastic diaries have been lost to us. In 1653 Ferdinand II. of Tuscany organized a local system of stations and daily records which extended over and beyond northern Italy. This was the first fairly complete meteorological system in Europe. The records kept during the years 1655-1670 at the Cloister Angelus near Florence were reduced by Libri, professor of mathematics at Pisa, and published in 1830. The history of meteorology is marked by the production of comprehensive treatises embodying the current state of our knowledge. Such were Louis Cotte's Traile de metSorologie (Paris, r774) and his Mtmoires sur la meteorologie, supplement au trait6 (1788); Ludwig Kamtz's Lehrbuch der Meteor ologie (Halle, 1831-1836) and his Vorlcsungen (1840; French 1842, English 1845); Sir John Herschel's Meteorology (London, 1840); the splendid series of memoirs by H. W. Brandes in Gehleris Physikalisches Worterbuch (Leipzig, 1820-1840); E. E. F. W. Schmid's Grundriss • der Meteor ologie (Leipzig, 1862); FerreFs Recent Advances in Meteorology (Washington, 1885); the great works of Julius Hann, as summarized in his Handbuch der Klimatologie (1883; 2nd ed., Stuttgart, 1897; vol. i.. English 1903) and his Lehrbuch der Meteorologie (Leipzig, i90i,»2nd ed. 1906); the extensive studies of J. E. Woeikoff (Voeikof), as presented in his Klima der Erde (Russian 1883, German 1885) and his Meteorologie (Russian 1904). The development of this science has been greatly stimulated by the regular publication of special periodicals such as the Zeilschrift of the Austrian Meteorological Society, 1866-1885, vol. 21 appearing with vol. 3 of the Meteor ologische Zeitschrift of the German Meteorological Society in 1886, and since that date this journal has been jointly maintained by the two societies. The analogous journals of the Royal Meteorological Society, London, 1850 to date, the Scottish Meteorological Society, i860 to date, the Meteorological Society of France, 1838 to date, the Italian Meteorological Society, and the American Meteorological Journal, 1885-1895, have all played important parts in the history of meteorology. On the other hand, the Annals of the Central Meteorological Office at Paris, the Archiv of the Deutsche Seewarte at Hamburg, the Annals and the Repertorium of the Central Physical Observatory at St Peters- burg, the Annates of the Central Meteorological Office at Rome, Bulletin of International Simultaneous Met. Obs. and the Monthly Weather Review of the Weather Bureau at Washington, the Abhandlungen of the Royal Prussian Meteorological Institute at Berlin, the Meteorological Papers of the Meteorological Office, London, and the transactions of numerous scientific societies, have represented the important official contributions of the respective national governments to technical meteorology. The recent international union for aerial exploration by kites and balloons has given rise to two important publications, i.e. the Veroffenllichungen of the International Commission for Scientific Aerostatics (Strassburg, 1905, et seq.), devoted to records of observations, and the Beilrage zur Physik der freien Atmosphdre (Strassburg, 1904, et seq.), devoted to research. The necessity of studying the atmosphere as a unit and of securing uniform accuracy in the observations has led to the formation of a permanent International Meteorological Com- mittee ( of which in 1909 the secretary was Professor Dr G. Hell- mann of Berlin, and the president Dr W. N. Shaw of London). Under its directions conferences and general congresses have been held, beginning with that of 1872 at Leipzig. Its Inter- national Tables, Atlas of Clouds, Codex of Instructions, and Forms for Climatological Publications illustrate the activity and usefulness of this committee. Modern meteorology has been developed along two lines of study, based respectively on maps of monthly and annual averages and on daily weather maps. The latter study seems to have been begun by H. W. Brandes in Leipzig, who first, about 1820, compiled maps for 1783 from the data collected in the Ephemerides mannheimensis, and subsequently published maps of the European storms of 1820 and 1821. Simultane- ously with Brandes we find William C. Redfield in New York compiling a chart of the hurricane of 182 1, which was published in 1 83 1, and was the first of many memoirs by him on hurricanes that completely established their rotary and progressive motion. Soon after this Piddington and Sir William Reid began their great works on the storms of the Orient. About 1825 James Pollard Espy, in Philadelphia, began the publication of his views as to the motive power of thunderstorms and tornadoes, and in 1842 was appointed " meteorologist to the U.S. govern- ment " and assigned to work in the office of the surgeon-general of the army, where he prepared daily weather maps that were published in his four successive " Reports." In 1848 the three American leaders united in letters to Professor Joseph Henry, secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, urging that the telegraph be used for collecting data for daily maps and weather predictions. Favourable action was taken in 1849, the Smithsonian maps began to be compiled about 1851 and were displayed in public from 1853 onwards. Meanwhile in England James Glaisher, with the help of the daily press, carried out similar work, publishing his first map in 1851 as soon as daily weather maps of sufficient extent could be promptly prepared by the help of the telegraph. The destructive storm of the 14th of November 1854, in the Crimea gave U. J. J. Le Ver- rier, at Paris, an opportunity to propose the proper action, and his proposals were immediately adopted by the secretary of war, Marshal Vaillant. On the 17th of February 1855 the emperor ordered the director-general of government telegraph lines to co-operate completely with Le Verrier in the organization of a bureau of telegraphic meteorology. The international daily bulletin of the Paris Observatory began to be printed in regular form on the 1st of January 1858, and the daily map of isobars was added to the text in the autumn of 1863. The further development of this bulletin, the inclusion of British and ocean reports in 1861, the addition of special storm warnings in 1863, the publication of the Atlas des mouvements ginlraux covering the Atlantic in 1865, the study of local thunderstorms by Hippolyte Marie-Davy, Sonrel, Fron, Peslin, in France, and the work of Fitzroy, Buys-Ballot, Buchan, Glaisher and Thomson in Great Britain, parallel the analogous^ works of the American students of meteorology and form the beginnings of our modern dynamic meteorology. The details of the historical development of this subject are well given by Hugo Hildebrand-Hildebrandsson and Leon Teisserenc de Bort in their joint work, Les Bases de la meteorologie dynamique (Paris, 1898-1907). The technical material has been collected by Hann in his Lehrbuch. Many of the original memoirs have been reproduced by Brillouin in his Memoires originaux (Paris, 1900), and in Cleveland Abbe's -Mechanics 0/ the Earth's Atmosphere (vol. i., 1891 ; vol. ii., 1909). The publication of daily weather charts and forecasts is now carried on by all civilized nations. The list of government bureaux and their publications is given in Bartholomew's Atlas (vol. iii., London, 1899). Special establishments for the exploration of the upper atmospheric conditions are maintained at Paris, Berlin, Copenhagen, St Petersburg, Washington and Strassburg. The general problems of climatology (1900) are best presented in the Handbook of Dr Julius Hann (2nd ed., Stuttgart, 1897). The general distribution of temperature, winds and pressure over the whole globe was first given by Buchan in charts published by the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1868, and again greatly revised and improved in the volume of the Challenger reports devoted to meteoro* logy. The most complete atlas of meteorology is Buchan and Herbertson's vol. iii. of Bartholomew's A tlas (London, 1899). Exten- sive works of a more special character have been published by the London Meteorological Office, and the Deutsche Seewarte for the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Daily charts of atmospheric conditions of the whole northern hemisphere were published by the U.S. Weather Bureau from 1875 to 1883 inclusive, with monthly charts; the latter were continued through .1889. The physical problems of meteorology were discussed in Ferrel's Recent Advances in Meteorology (Washington, 1885). Mathematical papers on this subject will be found in the author's collection known as The Mechanics of the Earth's Atmosphere; the memoirs by Helmholtz and Von Bezold contained in this collection have been made the basis of a most important work by Brillouin (Paris, 1898), entitled Vents contigus et nuages. A general summary of our knowledge of the mechanics and physics of the atmosphere is contained in the Report on the International Cloud Work, by F. H. Bigelow (Washing- ton, 1900). The extensive Lehrbuch (Leipzig, 1901 ; 2nd ed., 1906) by Dr Julius Hann is an authoritative work. The optical 266 METEOROLOGY [PHYSICAL DATA phenomena of the atmosphere are well treated by E. Mascart in his Traite d'optique (Paris, 1891-1898), and by J. M. Penter, Meteoro- logische Optik (1904-1907). Of minor treatises especially adapted to collegiate courses of study we may mention those by Sprung (Berlin, 1885) ; W. Ferrel (New York, 1890) ; Angot (Paris, 1898) ; W. M.Davis, (Boston, 1893); Waldo (New York, 1898); Van Bebber (Stuttgart, 1890); Moore (London, 1893); T. Russell (New York), 1895. The brilliant volume by Svante Arrhenius, Kosmische Fhysik (Leipzig, 1900) contains a section by Sandstrom on meteorology, in which the new hydrodynamic methods of Bjerknes are developed. I. — Fundamental Physical Data There can be no proper study of meteorology without a consideration of the various physical properties of the atmo- spheric gases and vapours, each of which plays an independent part, and yet also reacts upon its neighbours. Atmospheric air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, aqueous vapour, carbonic acid gas (carbon dioxide), ammonia, argon, neon, helium, with slight traces of free hydrogen and hydro-carbons. The proportions in which these gases are present are quite constant, except that the percentage of aqueous vapour is subject to large variations. In an atmosphere that is saturated at the temperature of 90 F., as may occur in such a climate as that of Calcutta, the water may be 2%% of the whole weight of any given volume of air. When this aqueous vapour is entirely abstracted, the remaining dry gas is found to have a very uniform constitution in all regions and at all altitudes where examination has been carried out. In this so-called dry atmosphere the relative weights are about as follows: Oxygen, 23-16; nitrogen and argon, 76-77; carbonic acid, 0-04; ammonia and all other gases, less than o-oi in the lower half of the atmosphere but probably in larger percentages at great altitudes. Of still greater rarity are the highly volatile gases, argon (q.v.), neon, krypton and helium (q.v.). Outer Limit. — These exceedingly volatile components of the atmo- sphere cannot apparently be held down to the earth by the attraction of gravitation, but are continually diffusing through the atmosphere outwards into interstellar space, and possibly also from that region back into the atmosphere. There are doubtless other volatile gases filling interstellar space and occasionally entering into the atmosphere of the various planets as well as of the sun itself ; possibly the hydro- gen and hydro-carbons that escape from the earth into the lower atmosphere ascend to regions inaccessible to man and slowly diffuse into the outer space. The laws of diffusion show that for each gas there is an altitude at which as many molecules diffuse inwards as outwards in a unit of time. This condition defines the outer limit of each particular gaseous atmosphere, so that we must not imagine the atmosphere of the earth to have any general boundary. The only intimation we have as to the presence of gases far above the surface of the globe come from the phenomena of the Aurora, the refraction of light, the morning and evening twilight, and especially from the shooting stars which suddenly become luminous when they pass into what we call our atmosphere. (See C. C. Trowbridge, On Luminous Meteor Trains " and " On Movements of the Atmosphere at Very Great Heights," Monthly Weather Review, Sept. 1907.) Such observations are supposed to show that there is an appreci- able quantity of gas at the height of. 100 m., where it may have a density of a millionth part of that which prevails at the earth's surface. Such matter is not a gas in the ordinary use of that term, but is a collection of particles moving independently of each other under those influences that emanate from sun and earth, which we call radiant energy. According to Stormer this radiant energy is that of electrons from the sun, and their movements in the magnetic field surrounding the earth give rise to our auroral phenomena. According to Professor E. W. Morley, of Cleveland, Ohio, the rela- tive proportions of oxygen and nitrogen vary slightly at the surface of the earth according as the areas of high pressure and low pressure alternately pass over the point of observation ; his remarkably exact work seems to show a possible variation of a small fraction of 1 %, and he suggests that the air descending within the areas of high pressure is probably slightly poorer in oxygen. The proportion of carbonic acid gas varies appreciably with the exposure of the region to the wind, increasing in proportion to the amount of the shelter; it is greater over the land than over the sea, and it also slightly increases by night-time as compared with day, and in the summer and winter as compared with the spring and autumn months. During the year 1896 Professor S. Arrhenius in the Phil. Mag., and in 1899 Professor T. C. Chamberlin in the Amer. Geol. Jour. , published memoirs in which they argued that a variation of several per cent, in the proportion of carbonic acid gas is quite consistent with the existence of animal and vegetable life and may explain the variations of climate during geological periods. But the specific absorption of this gas for solar radiations is too small (C. G. Abbot, 1903) to support this argument. The question whether free ozone exists in the atmosphere is still debated, but there seems to be no satis- factory evidence of its presence, except possibly for a few minutes in the neighbourhood of, and immediately after, a discharge of lightning. The general proportions of the principal gases up to considerable altitudes can be calculated with close approximation by assuming a quiescent atmosphere and the ordinary laws of diffusion and elastic pressure ; on the other hand, actual observations show that the rapid convection going on in the atmosphere changes these proportions and brings about a fairly uniform percentage of oxygen, nitrogen and carbonic acid gas up to a height of 10 m. Aqueous Vapours.— The distribution of aqueous vapour is controlled by temperature quite as much as by convection and has very little to do With diffusion ; the law of its distribution in altitude has been well expressed by Hann by the simple formula: log e = log e — A/6517 where h is the height expressed in metres and e and eo are the vapour pressures at the upper station and sea-level respectively. Hann's formula applies especially to observations made on moun- tains, but R. J. Siiring, Wissenschaftliche Luftfahrten, III. (Berlin, 1900) has deduced from balloon observations the following formula for the free air over Europe — log e = log e — &(i +&/2000o)/6ooo. He has also computed the specific moisture of the atmosphere or the mixing ratio, or the number of grams of moisture mixed with 1 kilogram of dry air for which he finds the formula logw = log m — 7i(l +3^/40) /9000. The relative humidity varies with altitude so irregularly that it cannot be expressed by any simple formula. The computed values of e and m are as given in the following table : — Altitude Relative Relative Metres. Vapour Pressure. Specific Moisture. h. eje . m/mo. 1000 1000 1000 665 759 2000 431 555 3000 266 391 4000 158 264 5000 91 172 6000 50 108 7000 27 65 8000 14 38 In addition to the gases and vapours in the atmosphere, the motes of dust and the aqueous particles that constitute cloud, fog and haze are also important. As all these float in the air, slowly de- scending, but resisted by the viscosity of the atmosphere, their whole weight is added to the atmosphere and becomes a part of the baro- metric record. When the air is cooled to the dew-point and con- densation of the vapour begins, it takes place first upon the atoms of dust as nuclei ; consequently, air that is free from dust is scarcely to be found except within a mass of cloud or fog. Mass. — According to a calculation published in the U.S. Monthly Weather Review for February 1899, the total mass of the atmo- sphere is 1/1,125,000 of the mass of the earth itself but, according to Professor R. S. Woodward (see Science for Jan. 1900), celestial dynamics shows that there may possibly be a gaseous envelope whose weight is not felt at the earth's surface, since it is held in dynamic equilibrium above the atmosphere; the mass of this outer atmosphere cannot exceed i^uth f the mass of the earth, and is probably far less, if indeed it be at all appreciable. '■ Conductivity. — Dry air is a poor conductor of heat, its co- efficient of conduction being expressed by the formula: 0-0000568 (1+0-00190 t) where the temperature (t) is expressed in centigrade degrees. This formula states the fact that a plate of air 1 centimetre thick can conduct through its substance for every square centimetre of its area, in one second of time, when the difference of tempera- ture between two faces of the plate is 1° C, enough heat to warm 1 gram of water o-ooo 0568 C, or 1 gram of air o-ooo 239 C.,or a cubic centimetre of air 0-1850° C, if that air is at the standard density for 760 millimetres of pressure and o° C. The figure 0-1850° C. is the thermometric coefficient as distinguished from the first or calorimetric coefficient (o-ooo 0568° C), and shows what great effect on the air itself its poor conductivity may have. Diathermancy. — Dry air is extremely diathermanous or transparent- to the transmission of radiant heat. For the whole moist atmo- sphere the general coefficient of transmission increases as the waves become longer: and for a zenithal sun it is about 0-4 at the violet end of the spectrum and about o-8 at the red. By specific absorp- tion many specific wave-lengths are entirely cut off by the vapours and gases, so that in general the atmosphere may appearto be more transparent to the short wave-lengths or violet end of the spectrum, but this is not really so. When the zenithal sun's rays fall upon a station whose barometric pressure is 760 mm., then only from 50 to 80% of the total heat reaches the earth's surface, and thus the general coefficient of transmission for the thickness of one atmosphere is usually estimated at about 60%. Of course when the rays are more oblique, or when haze, dust or cloud interfere, the transmission PHYSICAL DATA] METEOROLOGY 267 is still further diminished. In general one half of the heat received from the sun by the illuminated terrestrial hemisphere is absorbed by the clearest atmosphere, leaving the other half to reach the surface of the ground, provided there be no intercepting clouds. The thermal conditions actually observed at the immediate surface of the globe during hazy and cloudy weather are therefore of minor importance in the mechanism of the whole atmosphere, as compared with the influence of the heat retained within its mass. The transmission of solar radiation through the earth's atmosphere is the fundamental problem of meteorology, and has been the subject of many studies, beginning with J. H. Lambert and P. Bouguer. The pyrheliometer of C. S. M. Pouillet gave us our first idea of the thermal equivalent of solar radiation outside of our atmosphere or the so-called " solar constant," the value of which has been variously placed at from 2 to 4 calories per sq. cm. per minute. At present the weight of the argument is in favour of 2-1, with a fair presumption that both the intensity and the quality of the solar radiation as it strikes the upper layers of our atmosphere are slightly variable. It is also likely that this " constant " does not represent the sun proper, but the remaining energy after the sunbeam has sifted through masses of matter between the sun and our upper atmosphere, so that it may thus come to have appreciable variations.' The coefficients of absorption for specific wave-lengths were first determined by L. E. Jewell, of Johns Hopkins University, for numer- ous vapour lines in 1892 (see W. B. Bulletin, No. 16). In 1904 C. G. Abbot published a table based on holograph work at Washington showing the coefficient of atmospheric transmission for solar rays passing through a unit mass of air — namely, from the zenith to the ground. He showed that this coefficient increased with the wave- length ; hence any change in the quality of the solar radiation will affect the general coefficient of transmission. The following table gives his averages for the respective wave-lengths, as deduced from ten clear days in 1901-1902 and nine clear days in 1903 : — Wave Length. Coefficient of Atmospheric Transmission (Abbot) . 1901-1902. 1903. Mean by Weights. microns. 040 violet — 0-484 — o-45 — o-557 — 0-50 0-765 0-627 0-700 o-6o 0-769 0-692 0-730 0-70 0-857 0-753 0-808 o-8o red 0-897 0-797 0-847 090 0-910 0-825 0-856 1-00 0-921 0-847 0-884 1-20 0-933 0-874 0-903 i-6o 0930 0-909 0-920 2-CO 0-950 0-912 0919 Any variation in the energy that the atmosphere receives from the sun will have a corresponding influence on meteorological phenomena. Such variations were simultaneously announced in 1903 by Charles Dufour in Switzerland and H. H. Kimball in Wash- ington (Monthly Weather Review, May 1903) ; the latter was then conducting a series of observations with Angstrom's electric com- pensation pyrheliometer, and his conclusions have been confirmed by the work of L. Gorczynski at Prague (1901-1906) and C. G. Abbot at Washington. Kimball's pyrheliometric work on this problem is still being continued ; but meanwhile Abbot and Fowle from their bolometric observations at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observa- tory have deduced preliminary values of the observed total energy, or the solar constant, for numerous dates when the sky was very clear, as follows (see Smithsonian Mis. Coll., xlv, 78 and xlvii. 403, 1905) : — Date. Abbot. Calories. Fowle, Calories. 1902 Oct. 9 2-19 2-19 „ 15 2-19 - — ,, ,, 22 2-16 — 1903 Feb. 19 2-28 2-27 „ 19 ,, March 3 2-25 2-26 „ 25 2-27 2-23 „ 26 2-10 — „ 26 ,, April 17 „ 28 2-07 199 2-27 2-09 2-i8 „ 29 „ July 7 Oct. 14 ,, Dec. 7 1-97 1-96 2-14 1-96 1-94 „ „ 23 — 1-99 1904 Jan. 27 — 2-02 „ Feb. 11 — 2-26 „ May 28 „ Oct. 5 2-09 2-32 ,, Nov. 16 — 1-98 If the relative accuracy of these figures is 1 %, as estimated by Abbot, then they demonstrate irregular fluctations of 5 %. But different observers and localities vary so much that Abbot estimates the reliability of the mean value, 2-12, to be about 10%. The causes of this variation apparently lie above our lower atmosphere and move slowly eastward from day to day, and as the variability is comparable with that of other atmospheric data, therefore con- servative meteorologists at present confine their attention to the explanation of terrestrial phenomena under the assumption of a constant solar radiation. The large local changes of weather and climate are not due to changes in the sun, but to the mechanical and thermodynamic interactions of earth and ocean and atmosphere. Excellent illustrations of this principle are found in the studies of Blanford, Eliot and Walker on the monsoons of India, of Sieger (1892) on the contrasts of temperature between Europe and North America, of Hann (1904) on the anomalies of weather in Iceland, of Meinardus (1906) on periodical variations of the icedrift near Iceland. The absorption of solar radiation by the atmosphere is apparently explained by the laws of diffuse reflection, selective diffusion and fluorescence in accordance with which each atom and molecule and particle becomes a new centre for the diffusion in all directions of the energy represented by some specific wave-length. The specific influences of carbon dioxide and water vapour are less than those of the liquid particles (and of cloud and rains) and of the great mass of oxygen and nitrogen that make up the atmosphere. Specific Heat. — The capacity of dry air for heat varies according as the heat increases the volume of the air expanding under constant pressure, or the pressure of the air confined in constant volume. The specific heat under constant pressure is about 1 -4025 times the specific heat under constant volume. The numerical value of the specific heat under constant pressure is about 0-2375 — that is to say, that number of gram-calories, or units of heat, is required to change the temperature of 1 gram of air by 1° C. This coefficient holds good, strictly speaking, between the temperatures — 30° and +io°C., and there is a very slight diminution for higher temperatures up to 200°. The specific heat of moist air is larger than that of dry air, and is given by the expression C p " = (0-2375 + 0-4805 x) where x is the number of kilograms of vapour associated with I kilogram of dry air. As x does not exceed 0-030 (or 30 grams) the value of C p ", may increase up to 0-2519. The latent heat evolved in the condensation of this moisture is a matter of great importance in the formation of cloud and rain. Radiating Power. — The radiating power of clean dry air is so small that it cannot be measured quantitatively, but the spectroscope and bolometer demonstrate its existence. The coefficient of radia- tion of the moisture diffused in the atmosphere is combined with that of the particles of dust and cloud, and is nearly equal to that of an equal surface of lamp-black. From the normal diurnal change in temperature at high and low stations, it should be possible to deter- mine the general coefficient of atmospheric radiation for the average condition of the air in so far as this is not obscured by the influence of the winds. This was first done by J. Maurer in 1885, who obtained a result in calories that may be expressed as follows: the total radiation in twenty-four hours of a unit mass of average dusty and moist air towards an enclosure whose temperature is 1° lower is sufficient to lower the temperature of the radiating air by 3-31° C. in twenty-four hours. This very small quantity was confirmed by the studies of Trabert, published in 1892, who found that I gram of air at 278° absolute temperature radiates 0-1655 calories per minute toward a black surface at the absolute zero. The direct observations of C. C. Hutchins on dry dusty air, as published in 1890, gave a much larger value — evidently too large. Slight changes in water, vapour and carbon dioxide affect the radiation greatly. The investigation of this subject prosecuted by Professor F. W. Very at the Allegheny Observatory, and published as " Bulletin G " of the U.S. Weather Bureau, shows the character and amount of the radiation of several gases, and especially the details of the process going on under normal conditions in the atmosphere. Density. — The absolute density or mass of a cubic centimetre of dry air at the standard pressure, 760 millimetres, and temperature 0° C. , is o-oo I 29305 grams ; that of a cubic metre is I -29305 kilograms ; that of a cubic foot is 0-08071 lb avoirdupois. The variations of this density with pressure, temperature, moisture and gravity are given in the Smithsonian meteorological tables, and give rise to all the movements of the atmosphere; they are, therefore^pf fundamental importance to dynamic meteorology. x * Expansion. — The air expands with heat, and the expansion of aqueous vapour is so nearly the same as that of dry air that the same coefficient may be used for the complex atmosphere itself. The change of volume may be expressed in centigrade degrees by the formula V = Vo (i+o-ooo 3665O, or in Fahrenheit degrees V = V (i+o-ooo 2370- Elasticity. — The air is compressed nearly in proportion to the pressure that confines it. The pressure, temperature and volume of the ideal gas are connected by the equation pv = KT, where T is the absolute temperature or 273° plus the centigrade temperature p is the barometric pressure in millimetres and v the volume of a unit mass of gas, or the reciprocal of the density of the gas. The constant R is 29-272 for dry atmospheric air when the centimetre, 268 METEOROLOGY [PHYSICAL DATA the gram, the second and the centigrade degrees are adopted as units of measure, and differs for each gas. For aqueous vapour in a gaseous state and not near the point of condensation R has the value 47-061. For ordinary air in which x is the mass of the aqueous vapour that is mixed with the unit mass of dry air, the above equation becomes pv = (29-272 +47-061*) T. This equation is sometimes known as the equation of condition peculiar to the gaseous state. It may also be properly called the equation of elasticity or the elastic equation tor gases, as expressing the fact that the elastic pressure p depends upon the temperature and the volume. The mose exact equations given by Van der Waals, Clausius, Thiesen, are not needed by us for the pressures that occur in meteorology. Diffusion. — In comparison with the convective actions of the winds, it may be said that it is difficult for aqueous vapour to diffuse in the air. In fact, the distribution of moisture is carried on principally by the horizontal convection due to the wind and the vertical convection due to ascending and descending currents. Diffusion proper, however, comes into play in the first moments of the process of evaporation. The coefficient of diffusion for aqueous vapour from a pure water surface into the atmosphere is 0-18 according to Stefan, or 0-1980 according to Winkelmann; that is to say, for a unit surface of 1 sq. centimetre, and a unit gradient of vapour pressure of one atmosphere per centimetre, as we proceed from the water surface into the still dry air, at the standard pressure and temperature, and quantity of moisture diffused is 0-1980 grams per second. This coefficient increases with the temperature, and is 0-2827 at 49'5° C. But the gradient, of vapour pressure, and therefore rate of diffusion, diminishes very rapidly at a small distance from the free surface of the water, so that the most important condition facilitating evaporation is the action of the wind. Viscosity. — When the atmosphere is in motion each layer is a drag upon the adjacent one that moves a little faster than it does. This drag is the so-called molecular or internal friction or viscosity. The coefficient of viscosity in gases increases with the absolute temperature, and its value is given by an equation like the follow- ing; o-ooo 248 (1+0-00^665/) ij, which is the formula given by Carl Barus {Ann. Phys., 1889, xxxvi.). This expression implies that for air whose temperature is the absolute zero there is no viscosity, but that at a temperature (t) of o° C, or 273 on the absolute scale, a force of o-ooo 248 grams is required in order to push or pull a layer of air 1 centimetre square past another layer distant from it by 1 centimetre at a uniform rate of 1 centimetre per second. Friction. — The general motions of the atmosphere are opposed by the viscosity of the air as a resisting force, but this is an exceed- ingly feeble resistance as compared with the obstacles encountered on the earth's surface and the inertia of the rising and falling masses of warm and cold air. The coefficient of friction used in meteoro- logy is deduced from the observations of the winds and results essentially not from viscosity, but from the resistances of all kinds to which the motion of the atmosphere is subjected. The greater part of these resistances consists essentially in a dissipation of the energy of the moving masses by their division into smaller masses which penetrate the quiet air in all directions. The loss of energy due to this process and the conversion of kinetic into potential energy or pressure, if it must be called friction, should perhaps be called convective friction, or, more properly, convective- resistance. The coefficient of resistance for the free air was determined by Mohn and Ferrel by the following considerations. When the winds, temperatures and barometric .pressures are steady for a considerable time, as in the trade winds, monsoons and stationary cyclones, it is the barometric gradient that overcomes the resist- ances, while the resulting wind is deflected to the right (in the northern hemisphere) by the influence of the centrifugal force of the diurnal rotation (a) of the earth. The wind, therefore, makes a constant angle (o) with the direction of the gradient (G). There is also a slight centrifugal force to be considered if the winds are circulating with velocity v and radius (r) about a storm centre, but neglecting this we have approximately for the latitude G sin o = 2uv sin , G cos a = kv, where (k) is the coefficient connecting the wind-velocity (n) with the component of the gradient pressure in the direction of the wind. These relations give sin <£/tan o. The values of o and v as read off from the map of winds and isotherms at sea level give us the data for computing the coefficients for oceanic and continental surfaces respectively, expressed in the same units as those used for G and v. The extreme values of this coefficient of friction were found by Guldberg and Mohn to be 0-00002 for the free ocean and o-oooi2 for the irregular surface of the land. For Norwegian land stations Mohn found = 61° o = 56-5° k = 0-0000845. For the interior of North America EliasLoomis founds = 37-5° o = 42-2° x = 0-0000803. Gravity. — The weight of the atmosphere depends primarily upon the action of gravity, which gives a downward pressure to every particle. Owing to the elastic compressibility of the air, this downward pressure is converted at once into an elastic pressure in all directions. The force of gravity varies with the latitude and the altitude, and in any exact work its variations must be taken into account. Its value is well represented by the formula due to Helmert, g = 980-6 (1 — 0-0026 cos 2) X (1 — fh), where 4> represents the latitude of the station and h the altitude. The coefficient /is small and has a different value according as the station is raised above the earth's surface by a continent, as, for instance, on a mountain top, or by the ocean, as on a ship sailing over the sea, or in the free air, as in a balloon. Its different values are sufficiently well known for meteorological needs, and are utilized most discreetly in the elaborate discussion of the hypsometric formula published by Angot in 1899 in the memoirs of the Central Meteorological Bureau of France. Temperature at Sea-Level. — The temperature of the air at the surfaces of the earth and ocean and throughout the atmosphere is the fundamental element of dynamic meteorology. It is best exhibited by means of isotherms or lines of equal temperature drawn on charts of the globe for a series of level surfaces at or above sea-level. It can also be expressed analytically by spherical harmonic functions, as was first done by Schoch. The normal distribution of atmospheric temperature for each month of the year over the whole globe was first given by Buchan in his charts of 1868 and of 1888 (see also the U.S. Weather Bureau " Bulletin A," of 1893, and Buchan's edition of Bartholomew's Physical Atlas, London, 1899). The temperatures, as thus charted, have been corrected so as to represent a uniform special set of years and the conditions at sea-level, in order to constitute a homogeneous system. The actual temperature near the ground at any altitude on a continent or island may be obtained from these charts by subtracting o-5°C. for each 100 metres of elevation of the ground above sea-level, or i" F. for 350 ft. This reduction, however, applies specifically to temperatures observed near the surface of the ground, and cannot be used with any confidence to determine the temperature of points in the free air at any distance above the land or ocean. On all such charts the reader will notice the high temperatures near the ground in the interior of each of the con- tinents in the summer season and the low temperatures in the winter season. In February the average temperatures in the northern hemisphere are not lowest near the North Pole, but in the interiors of Siberia and North America; in the southern hemi- sphere they are at the same time highest in Australia, and Africa and South America. In August the average temperatures are unexpectedly high in the interior of Asia and North America, but low in Australia and Africa. Temperature at. Upper Levels. — The vertical distribution of tem- perature and moisture in the free air must be studied in detail in order to understand both the general and the special systems of circulation that characterize the earth's atmosphere. Many observations on mountains and in balloons were made during the 19th century in order to ascertain the facts with regard to the decrease of temperature as we ascend in the atmosphere; but it is now recognized that these observations were largely affected by local influences due to the insufficient ventilation of the thermo- meters and the nearness of the ground and the balloon. Strenuous efforts are being directed to the elimination of these disturbing elements, and to the continuous recording of the temperature of the free air by means of delicate thermographs carried up to great heights by small free "sounding balloons," and to lesser heights by means of kites. Many international balloon ascents have been made since 1890, and a large amount of information has been secured. The development of kite-work in the United States began in October 1893, at the World's Columbian Congress at Chicago, when Professor M. W. Harrington ordered Professor C. F. Marvin of the Weather Bureau to take up the development of the Hargrave or box kite for meteorological work. At that time W. A. Eddy of Bayonne, New Jersey, was applying his " Malay " kite to raising and displaying heavy objects, and in August 1894 (at the suggestion of Professor Cleveland Abbe) he visited the private observatory of A. L. Rotch at Blue Hill and demonstrated the value of his Malay kite for aerial research. The first work done at this observatory with crude apparatus was rapidly improved upon, while at the same time Professor Marvin at Washington was developing the Hargrave kite and auxiliary apparatus, which he brought up to the point of maximum efficiency and trustworthiness. When he reported his apparatus as ready to be used by the Weather Bureau on a large scale, Professor Willis L. Moore, as the successor of Professor Har-" rington, ordered its actual use at seventeen kite stations in July 1898. This was the first attempt to prepare isotherms for a. special hour over a large area at some high level, such as I m., in the free air. Daily meteorological charts were prepared for the region covered by these observations; but it became necessary to discontinue them, and nothing more was done by the Weather Bureau in this line of work until the inauguration of kite work at Mount Weather in 1906. Meanwhile a special method for the reduction arid study of such observations was devised by Bjerknes and Sandstrom, and was published in the Trans. American Philosophical Society (Philadelphia, 1906). The general average results as to temperature gradients were compiled by Dr H. G. Frankenfield and published u> I the United States Weather Bureau " Bulletin F.". from tiKsv PHYSICAL DATA] were deduced the following tables, published in the Monthly Weather Review: — Mean Temperature Gradients in degrees Fahrenheit per iooo ft. from the ground up to the respective altitudes. METEOROLOGY 269 Stations. IOOO ft. 1500 ft. 2000 ft. 3000 ft. 4000 ft. 5000 ft. 6000 ft. O O O O O O Washington, D.C. . .V6 4.4 4-0 ,V5 3-2 3-o 3-1 Cairo, 111 9-7 6-6 6-o 4-9 4-7 4-3 Cincinnati, O. . . . r3-o 6-3 6-q ,V8 ,V6 4-7 4-2 Fort Smith, Ark. 7-2 7-0 67 5-8 3-8 Knoxville, Tenn. 8-4 6-2 6-6 5-4 S-o — — Memphis, Tenn. 7-8 6-8 5-0 3-8 3-7 3-5 — Springfield, 111. . 7-6 5-7 5-1 4-4 4-0 3-7 3-6 Cleveland, O. . . . 5-7 4-1 ,V6 3\S 4-1 4-1 4-3 Duluth, Minn. . 5-2 4-8 4-6 4-6 4-3 3-8 4-6 Lansing, Mich. . 7-5 6-0 47 4-1 3-9 3-8 Sault Ste Marie, Mich. . 6-6 6-2 5-2 4-5 3-9 3-0 — Dodge, Kans. 6-3 5-2 4-8 37 3-1 3-2 3-2 Dubuque, Iowa 6-9 5-9 4-6 ,V5 3-2 3-3 — North Platte, Neb. . . 6-8 6-5 ,S-9 5-2 4.4 47 5-4 Omaha, Neb. — 5-4 4-9 3-6 3-2 3-.S 3-8 Pierre, S. Dak. . 5-o 5-1 4-8 4-3 3-7 4-4 4-0 Topeka, Kans. . 7-4 6-2 4.9 4-0 3-8 3-9 4-5 Average 7-4 5'8 5-2 4.4 4-0 3-8 4-1 Stations Washington Cairo . Cincinnati Fort Smith Knoxville Memphis Springfield Cleveland Duluth . . Lansing Sault Ste Marie Dodge Dubuque North Platte Omaha Pierre Topeka Altitude. Feet. 210 315 940 527 990 319 684 705 1197 869 722 2473 894 281 1 1241 1595 972 Temperature. Gradient. Reduction. °F. —3-00 —4-30 -5-15 —5-00 —3-50 -3-85 — 4-10 —4-30 -3-85 —3-45 — 4-10 —3-30 —5-40 —3-20 —3-90 —3-83 °F. —15-2 —25-6 —27-5 —21-5 —17-3 —17-7 — 18-8 —17-6 — 17-0 —15-7 — n-6 —H-5 —13-3 — 12-9 —14.4 —i6-5 11 and 14 km.; this is the " thermal zone " as discovered and so called by him. Altitude. Km. Ground o-5 i-o i-5 2-0 2-5 3-0 3-5 4-0 4'5 5-0 6-0 7-0 8-0 9-0 10-0 II-O 12-0 13-0 I4-0 Winter. Dec, Jan., Feb. °C. + 1-9 + i-4 — 0-2 — 0-2 - 1-4 - 3-7 - 6-o - 8-7 — 10-9 — 14-2 — 17-0 -237 -31-5 -39-0 -46-9 -54-6 -57-9 -57-9 -56-9 -55-5 Spring. Mar.,Apl., May. °C. + 5-1 + 4-7 + 2-4 + 01 - 2-1 - 4-3 - 6-4 - 9-3 - 12-2 -1.5-2 -18-5 -25-2 -32-0 -39-0 -46-7 -52-7 -53-6 -53-i -52-2 -52-5 Summer. June, July, Aug. + 13-0 + 13-6 + II-8 97 7-3 5-0 2-1 + 0-2 - 2-7 - 5-3 - 8-3 -14-8 -217 -29-3 -38-0 45-3 50-3 52-7 51-5 -51-3 Autumn. Sept., Oct., Nov. + + + + + >C. 7-5 7-7 6-1 4-0 2-2 + 0-4 - 1-7 - 4-2 - 6-5 - 9-3 - 12-4 -18-7 -25-8 -33-5 -41.4 -48-3 -54-4 -57-i -57-1 -57-1 In this table the second column gives the altitude of the ground at the reel on which the kite wire was wound. The third column shows the average gradient in degrees Fahrenheit, per 1000 ft. between the reel at the respective stations, and a uniform altitude 5280 ft. above sea-level. The fourth column shows the total reduction to be applied to the temperature at the reel in order to obtain the temperature at the 1 m. level above sea. These gradients and reductions are based upon observations made only during the six warm months from May to October 1898. The kite-work at the Blue Hill, Observatory has been published in full in the successive Annals of the Harvard College Observatory, beginning with 1897, vol. xlii. It has been discussed especially by H. H. Clayton with reference to special meteorological phenomena, such as areas of high and low pressure, fair and cloudy weather, the winds and their velocities at different elevations, insolation, radi- ation, &c, and has served as a stimulus and model for European meteorologists. Kite-work has also been successfully prosecuted at Trappes, Hamburg, Berlin, St Petersburg, and many other European stations. The highest flights that have been attained have been about 8000 metres. The great work of L. Teisserenc de Bort began with 1897, when he founded his private observatory at Trappes near Paris devoted to the problems of dynamic meteorology. His results are pub- lished in full in the Memoirs of the Central Meteorological Bureau of France for 1897 and subsequent years. Beginning with the sounding balloons devised by Hermite, he subsequently added kite work as supplementary to these. In the Comptes rendus (1904), he gives the mean temperatures as they result from five years of work, 1 899-1903, at Trappes. Out of 581 ascensions of sounding balloons there were 141 that attained 14 km. or more, and the following table gives the average temperatures recorded in these ascensions. It will be seen that there is a slow decrease in temperate up to 2 km.; a rapid decrease thence up to 10 km., and a slow decrease, almost a stationary temperature, between It is evident that the annual average vertical gradient of tempera- ture over Paris is between 4 and 6° C. per 1000 metres of ascent in the free air, agreeing closely with the value 5° per 1000 metres, which has come into extensive use since the year 1890, on the recommendation and authority of Hann, for the reduction of land observations to sea-level. The winter gradients are less than those for summer, possibly owing to the influence of the condensa- tion into cloud and rain during the winter season in France; the same value may not result from observations in the United States, where the clouds and precipitation of winter do not so greatly exceed those of summer. The work at Trappes is therefore not necessarily representative of the general average of the northern hemisphere, but belongs to a coastal region in which during the summer time, at great heights, the air is cooler than in the winter time, since during the latter season there is an extensive flow of warm south winds from the ocean over the cold east winds from the land. Sounding balloons have also been used elsewhere with great success. The greatest heights attained by them have been 25,989 metres at Uccle, Belgium, on the 5th of September 1907, and 25,800 metres at Strassburg, August 1905. The most extensive meteorological explorations of the free atmosphere have been those accomplished in Germany by Richard Assmann and Arthur Berson, beginning (1887) in co-operation with the German Verein for the Promotion of Aeronautics and the Aero- nautic Section of the German Army, afterwards under the auspices of the Prussian Meteorological Office, but later as a wholly inde- pendent institution at Lindenberg. All the details of the work during 1887-1889 and the scientific results of seventy balloon voyages were published in three large volumes, Wissenschaftliche Luftschiffahrten (Berlin, 1900). The work done at Tegel at the Aeronautical Observatory of the Berlin Meteorological Office, the 1st of October 1899 to April 1905, was published in three volumes of Ergebnisse. But the location at Tegel had to be given up and Annual Temperatures and Wind. Tegel, 1903. Tegel, 1904. Lindenberg, 1905. Lindenberg, 1905. •Altitude. Days. °C. Days. °C. Days. °C. Days, Metres per sec. Ground 3 6 5 9-2 366 9-1 365 8-5 36.5 4-65 500 m. 363 6-7 364 6-5 365 6-2 362 8-6 5 1,000 „ 344 4-3 361 4-2 352 4-0 35b 8-85 i>500„ 252 2-0 279 2-2 294 2-6 306 8-55 2,000 ,, 170 0-0 186 — 0-2 242 o-5 257 9-5 2,500 „ 98 -1-8 132 -1-7 179 — i-i 195 IO-O 3,000 ,, 55 -3-9 79 -3-b 119 -2-8 I27 j 10-7 a new independent establishment, the " Royal Prussian Aeronautic Observatory," was founded at Lindenberg, under the direction erf Dr Assmann, who has published the results of his work in annual volumes of the Ergebnisse of that institution, considering it as a continuation of the work done at Berlin and Tegel. In addition to these elaborate official publications various summaries have been published, the most instructive of which is the chart embodying daily observations ; with corresponding isotherms at all attainable altitudes, published monthly since January 1903 in Das Wetter. The growth of this aerial work and the reliability of the results may be inferred from a statement of the number of ascensions madeeachyear: 1899,6; 1900,39; 1901,169; 1902,261; 1903,481; I 9°5> 5 X 3- This large number, combined with 581 voyages of Teisserenc de Bort at Trappes and many others made in England, 270 METEOROLOGY [PHYSICAL DATA Holland and Russia, amounting in all to over 2000, enabled Assmann to compute the monthly and annual means of temperature and wind velocity for each altitude; the German results are given in table at foot of page 269. The results of these numerous ascents, during these six years, have also been grouped into monthly means that have a reliability proportionate to the number of days on which observations were obtained at a given level, and we are now able to speak of the annual and even of the diurnal periodicity of temperature at different altitudes in the free air with considerable confidence. Some of the most important conclusions to be drawn from the best recent work were published by Hann either in special memoirs or in his Lehrbuch, from which we take the following table. The actual temperatures given in this table have only local importance, but the differences or the vertical gradients doubtless hold good over a large portion of Europe if not of the world. Temperature in Free Air over Europe 1899-1904. Annual Averages. Altitude. International. All countries Inter- Manned Trappes. 581 Ascents. 15 Ascents. national. 130 Ascents. balloons. 36 Ascents. Feb. Aug. combined. Km. °C. °C. °C. °C. °C. °c. •c. O — 8-3 — — + 0-3 + 18-2 — I + 5-4 6-0 + 5-5 + 5-3 - 1-4 + 15-1 50 2 + 0-5 i-7 + 0-3 + 0-7 - 3.6 + 10-2 o-5 3 - 5-0 - 3-3 - 4-4 - 4-0 - 8-7 + 4-8 - 4-0 4 -10-3 - 9-0 -10-3 - 9-4 -14.7 — I-O - 9-2 5 -16-6 -15-3 -165 -15-4 —21-9 - 7'i -15-4 6 — 24-2 — 22-1 -23-0 — 21-9 -28-9 -13-3 — 22-0 7 -30-2 — 29-1 -30-2 —29-0 -36-1 -19-5 — 29-0 8 -37-4 -36-2 -37-0 -36-2 -43-7 —27-1 -36-2 9 -46-4 -43-2 — -43-5 -50-1 -33-8 -43-2 10 1 - -49-0 — -49-3 -55-4 -39-5 -49-2 The differences of temperature between any layer and those above it and below it, or the vertical gradients at each level go through annual periodical changes quite analogous to those derived from mountain observations; the most rapid falls of temperature, or the largest vertical gradients in the free air occur on the following dates over Europe : — Altitude. Over Germany. Over Trappes. 1, 2, 3 km. 3. 4, 5 5. 6, 7 7, 8, 9 9, 10, 11 May, June March April July May 15 Feb. 15 Jan. 27 July 28 Sept. 14 the highest cirrus, from which Cleveland Abbe inferred that it had something to do with the absorption of the solar and terrestrial heat by dissolving cirri. But the most plausible explanation is that published simultaneously in September 1908 by W. J. Humphreys of Washington, and Ernest Gold of London. The daily diagrams in Das Wetter show that both the irregular and the periodic and the geographic variations of temperature in the upper strata are unexpectedly large, almost as large as at the earth's surface, so that the uniform temperature of space that was formerly supposed to prevail in the upper air must be looked for, if at all, far above the level to which sounding balloons have as yet attained. It is evident that both horizontal and vertical convection currents of great importance really occur at these great altitudes. These upper currents cannot be due to any very . local influence at the earth's surface, but only to the interchange of the air over the oceans and continents or between the polar and equa- torial regions. They constitute the important feature ol the so-called general circulation of the atmo- sphere, which we have hitherto mistakenly thought of as confined to lower levels; their general direc- tion is from west to east over all parts of the globe as far as yet known, showing that they are con- trolled by the rotation of the earth. It is likely that masses of air having special temperature conditions or clouds of vapour dust such as came from Krakatoa, may be carried in these high currents around the globe perhaps several times before being dissipated. The average eastward movement or the west wind at 3 km. above Germany is 10-7 m. per sec. or 1° of longitude (at 45° latitude) in 42-4 minutes, or such as to describe the whole circumference of this small circle in 10-5 days. At the equator above the calm belt the velocity westward or the east wind as given by Krakatoa volcanic-dust phenomena was 34-5 m per sec, on 30 of a great circle daily, or around the equator in 12-5 days, while its poleward movement was only i" per day or 1-3 metre per second. The average motion of the storm centres moving westward in northern tropical and equatorial regions but eastward in the north temperate zone is at the rate of one circum- ference or a small circle at latitude 45 ° in 19 days. Observations of the cloud movements gave Professor Bigelow the following results for the United States: — The values above given as deduced from I41.high ascensions at Trappes show that between 1 1 and 14 km. there was no appreciable diminution of temperature, in other words, the air is warmer than could be expected and therefore has a higher potential temperature. This fact was first confirmed by the Berlin ascensions, and is now recognized as wellnigh universal. The altitude of the base of this warm stratum is about 12 km. in areas of high pressure and 10 km. in areas of low pressure. It is higher as we approach the tropics and above ordinary balloon work near the equator if indeed it exists there. At first this unexpected warmth was considered as possibly a matter of error in the meteorographs, but this idea is now abandoned. Assmann suggested that the altitude is that of Altitude. io-o km. 7-5 5-0 3-0 i-o o Moving eastward. 36 m. p.s. 35 26 20 Moving westward. 2-0 m. p.s. 2-0 i-5 i-o o-5 Evidently, therefore, the great west wind (that James H. Coffin deduced from' his work on the winds of the northern hemisphere and that William Ferrel deduced from his theoretical studies) repre- sents with its gentle movement poleward a factor of fundamental importance. We must consider all our meteorological phenomena except at the equator as existing beneath and controlled, if not Month. Average temperature gradient per 100 metres. Altitudes. From o to 1000 metres. From 1000 to 2000 metres. Altitude (metres). Total Fall of Temperature from Ground upward. October to March. Cloudiness 0-7. Cloudiness 8-10. April to September. Cloudiness 0-7. Cloudiness 8-10. January. February March . April May June July . > August . 1 September October November December Year . °C. o-u o-39 o-33 o-73 0-90 0-99 0-96 0-86 0-77 o-57 0-36 0-30 o-6i °C. 0-58 0-30 0-40 0-48 o-66 0-72 0-67 0-62 0-58 o-43 o-53 o-53 o-53 2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 o °C. 8-24 7-22 6-28 5-35 4-48 3-62 2-20 i-54 0-65 o-35 O-OO °C. 7-63 6-6o 6-04 5-15 4-35 3-52 2-82 2-33 1-85 1-05 o-oo °C. 15-33 14-20 13-01 n-66 10-32 9-13 7-55 5-77 3-88 i-88 o-oo °C. 14-18 12-97 n-75 10-59 9.32 7-96 6-65 5-23 3-63 1-76 o-oo PHYSICAL DATA] METEOROLOGY 271 caused, by this general deep swift upper current of air that began as an ascending east wind above the calm equatorial air but speedily over- flowed as west wind settling down to the sea-level in the temperate and polar regions as great areas of high pressure and dry clear cool weather containing air on its return passage to the equator. The upper air is thrown easily into great billows, and wherever it rises the warm equatorial wind flows in beneath it, but when it descends we have blizzards and dry clear weather. It is a covering for the lower strata of air, it flows over them in standing waves and sometimes mixes with them at the • surface of contact. It receives daily accessions from below and gives out corresponding accessions to the lower strata, by a process of overturning such as has been studied theoretically by Margules and Bigelow. At the fifth conference of the International Committee on Scientific Aeronautics (Milan, October 1906) Rykatchef presented the results of kite-work during 1904 and 1905 at Pavlosk, near St Petersburg, from which we select the results for these two years given in table at foot of page 270. Many inversions occur during January below 1000 metres. The decrease is more rapid in summer than in winter and in clear weather than in cloudy, but of course these observations did not extend above the upper ievel of the cumulus cloud layer. A general survey of the existing state of knowledge of the upper atmosphere is given in the Report of the British Association for 1910. Distribution of Aqueous Vapour. — The distribution of aqueous vapour is best shown by lines of equal dew-point or vapour tension, though for some purposes lines of equal relative humidity are con- venient. The dew-point lines are not usually shown on charts, partly because the lines of vapour pressure are approximately parallel to the lines of mean temperature of the air, and partly because the observations are of very unequal accuracy in different portions of the globe. In general we may consider any isotherm as agreeing with the dew-point line for dew-points a few degrees, lower than the temperature of the air. The distribution of moisture is quite irregular both in a horizontal and in a vertical direction. On charts of the world we may draw lines based on actual observa- tions to represent equal degrees of relative humidity, or equal dew- points and vapour pressures; but as regards the distribution of moisture in a vertical direction we are, in the absence of specific obser- vations, generally forced to assume that the vapour pressure at any altitude h follows the average law first deduced from a limited num- ber of observations by Hann, and expressed by the logarithmic equation, log e = log e — A/6517, which is quite analogous to the elementary hypsometric formula, log p = log p — A/18400. Therefore, in general, the ratio between the pressure of the vapour and the pressure of the atmosphere at any altitude is represented by the approximate formula, log [e/p = log et>/p<,— ft/10091. Of course these relations can only represent average or normal conditions, which may- be departed from very widely at any moment; they have, however, been found to agree remarkably with all observations which have as yet been published. The average results are given in the following table, which is abbreviated from one published by Hann, but with the addition of the work done by the U.S. Weather Bureau, as reduced by Dr Frankenfield in 1899. The vapour constituent of the atmosphere is not distributed accord- ing to the law of gaseous diffusion, but, like temperature and the ratio between oxygen and nitrogen, is controlled by other laws prescribed by the winds and currents, namely — convection. Diminution of the Relative Vapour Pressure with Altitude. the first line of the table at foot of this page (see Wissenschaftliche Luftffahrten, Bd. III. , and Hann, Lehrbuch, 1906, p. 169). The obser- vations on mountains gave Hann the pressures in the second line. Siiring's figures result from the use of Assmann's ventilated psychrometer and are therefore very reliable. The vapour pressure in mm. in free air over Europe is best given by Siiring's formula loge A = loge -|(i+4) where the altitude is to be expressed in kilometres. From this formula we derive the " specific moisture " or the mass of vapour contained in a kilogram of moist air as given in the following table whose numbers do not appreciably differ from " the mixing ratio " or quantity of moisture associated with a kilogram of dry air. The relative humidities vary irregularly depending on convection currents, but in clear weather when descending currents prevail they have been observed in America and over Berlin as shown in the third and fourth columns of the following table : — Observed Specific Moisture and Relative Humidity. Authority. Kites. (U.S.W.B.) Balloons. (Hammon.) Balloons. (Hazen.) Balloons. (Hann.) Mountains (Hann.) Computed by Hann. I5°0 ft. 0-82 0-97 089 0-84 083 0-85 2000 ft. 0-78 0-96 0-83 o-8o o-8i o-8i 3000 . ft. 0-70 0-87 o-8o o-66 o-8o 0-72 4000 ft. o-6i 0-68 0-78 o-6i o-66 5000 ft. 0-52 0-44 0-67 0-50 0-6l 6000 ft. 0-49 o-59 0-46 o-54 0-58 7000 ft. o-39 0-44 0-41 o-55 8000 ft. 0-65 0-58 0-52 b-47 0-44 o-37 0-47 0-42 No. Obs. 1 123 15 Note. — The vapour pressure at any altitude is supposed to be expressed as a fraction of that observed at the ground. When the altitudes are given in ft. Hann's formula becomes log e/e = A/29539. From 78 high balloon voyages in Germany, 1 887-1 899, Siiring deduced the average vapour pressure in millimetres as found in Alt. Specific moisture. Relative Humidity. U.S.A. Berlin. Km. % % 0-0 I -00 — 77 0'5 — 65 71 1-0 0-76 65 71 i-5 065 59 62 2-0 o-55 59 57 2-5 0-47 45 58 3-0 o-39 — 55 3-5 — — 49 4-0 0-26 — 53 4-5 — — 54 5-0 0-17 — — 5-6 O-II — — 5-7 0-07 — — 5-8 0-04 — — The total amount of vapour in the atmosphere, according to Hann's formula, is between one-fourth and one-fifth of the amount re- quired by Dalton's hypothesis, as is illustrated by the following table taken from an article by Cleveland Abbe in the Smithsonian Report for 1888, p. 410: — Total Vapour in a Vertical Column that is saturated at its base. Altitude. Relative Total Vapour in the Feet. Tension Columns expressed as = e/eo. Inches of Rain. I-0OO ( 80° F. 1 io-95 70°F. 7-99 6o° F. 5-76 50° F. 4-09 80° F. 0-0 70° F. 0-0 6o°F. 0-0 5°°F. O-O 6000 0-524 575 4-19 3-02 2-14 i-3 1-0 o-7 o-5 12,000 0-275 3-01 2-20 i-5« I-I2 2-1 1-5 i-i o-8 18,000 0-144 1-58 1 -15 0-83 0-59 2-5 1-8 i-3 0-9 24,000 0-075 0-82 0-62 o-43 0-31 2-7 2-0 1-4 1-0 30,000 0-040 o-43 0-32 0-23 0-16 2-8 2-1 1-5 l-i Diminution of Pressure of A queous Vapour in the Free Air. Alt. . km. o-5 km. 1-0 km. i-5 km. 2-0 km. 2-5 km. 3-0 km. 3-5 km. 4-0 km. 4-5 km. 5-0 km. 6-o km. 7-0 km. 8-0 Siiring . Hann . c — — mm. 0-83 0-83 mm. o-68 0-70 mm. 051 0-58 mm. 0-41 0-48 mm. 0-34 0-40 mm. 0-26 o-34 mm. 0-20 0-28 mm. 0-17 0-23 mm. 0-14 0-19 mm. O-II 0-16 mm. 0-054 mm. 0-028 mm. 0-013 A heavy rainfall results from the precipitation of only a small percentage of the water contained in the fresh supplies of air brought by the wind; if all moisture were abstracted from the atmosphere it could only affect the barometer throughout the equatorial regions by 2-8/13-6 inches, or about two-tenths of an inch, while at the polar regions the diminution would be much less than one-tenth. Evidently, therefore, it is idle to argue that the fall of pressure in an extensive storm is to be considered as the simple result of the condensation of the vapour into rain. Barometric Pressure. — The horizontal distribution of barometric pressure over the earth's surface is shown by the isobars, or lines of equal pressure at sea-level; it can also be expressed by a system of complex spherical harmonics. As the indications of the mercurial barometer must vary with the variation of apparent gravity, whereas those of the aneroid barometer do not, it has been agreed^ by the International Meteorological Conventions that for scientific* purposes all atmospheric pressures, when expressed as barometric readings, must be reduced to one standard value of gravity, namely, its value at sea-level and at 45 of latitude. In this locality its value is such as to give in one second an acceleration of 980-8 centimetres, or 32-2 English ft. per second. The effect of the variation of apparent gravity with latitude is therefore to make the mercurial barometer read too high, between 45 and the equator, and too low, between 45 and the pole. The gravity-correction to be applied to any mer- curial barometric-reading at or near sea-level, in order to get the atmospheric pressure in 272 METEOROLOGY [PHYSICAL DATA Btandard units, should be given on the edge of a meteorological chart, unless the isobars shown thereon already contain this correc- tion. On such charts it will be perceived that the barometric pressure at sea-level is by no meansjuniform over the earth's surface, and daily weather charts show very great fluctuations in this respect, the lowest .pressures being storm centres and the highest pressures areas of clear cool dry weather. But even the normal average charts show high pressures over the continents in the winter and low pressures over the oceans, these conditions being reversed in the summer time; moreover, Schouff (Pogg. Ann., 1832) first demon- strated that the average pressure in the neighbourhood of the equator is slightly less than under either tropic, and that' there is a still more remarkable diminution of pressure from either tropic towards its pole. The exact statement of these variations of pressure with latitude was subsequently worked out very precisely by Ferrel, and forms the basis of his explanation of the general circulation of the earth's atmosphere and its influence on the barometer. The series of monthly charts for the whole globe, compiled by Buchan and published by the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1868, as well as Buchan's later and more perfect charts in the meteorology of the " Challenger " Expedition, Edinburgh, 1889, and in Bartholomew's Atlas, first revealed clearly the fact that the distinct areas of high and low pressure which are located over the continents and the oceans vary during the year in a fairly regular manner, so that the pressure is higher over the continents in the winter season and lower in the summer season, the amount of the change depending principally upon the size of the continent. A part of this annual variation in pressure is undoubtedly introduced by the methods of reduction to sea-level; indeed, if the data of the lower stations are reduced up to the level of 10,000 or 15,000 ft., we sometimes find the barometric conditions quite reversed. These annual changes are intimately connected as cause and effect with the annual changes of temperature, moisture and wind ; it is quite errcneous to say that the observed charted pressures control the winds; there is a reaction going on between the wind and the barometric gradient, the resistance and rotation of the earth's surface, such that the true relation between these factors is a complex but funda- mental problem in the mechanics of the atmosphere. The vertical distribution of pressure as deduced from observation shows a rate of diminution with increasing altitude very closely but not entirely accordant with the laws of static equilibrium, as first elaborated by Laplace in his hypsometric formula. The departures from this law of static equilibrium are sufficient to show that, if our atmosphere is really in a state of equilibrium, it must be a matter of dynamics and not of statics. The general average relation of the density of the air to the altitude and temperature, and the total pressure of the superincumbent atmosphere, are shown in the accompanying diagram (fig. 1), which is taken from a memoir on the equations of motion by Joseph Cottier, published in the U.S. Monthly Weather Review for July 1897. The diminu- tion of pressure with altitude, as shown in this diagram for average conditions, but not for the temporary conditions that continually occur, follows a logarithmic law, and can undoubtedly be extended upwards for the normal atmosphere only to a height of 20 or 30 m., owing to our uncertainty as to the actual conditions in the upper portions of the atmosphere. This diagram is based upon the assumption that the atmosphere is in a state of convective equilibrium such that the ascending and descending masses expand and cool as they ascend, or contract and warm up as they descend, nearly but not quite in accordance with the adiabatic law of the change of temperature in pure gases. The departure of atmospheric temperatures from the strictly adiabatic law, as shown bv Cottier, is- undoubtedly due largely to the heat absorbed by and radiated from moist or hazy or dusty air. In 1890, Abbe showed that a very moderate rate of radiation from the atmosphere suffices to explain the coolness of slowly descending air. The absorption by the atmosphere of radiations from the earth and sun, or the balance between warming by absorption and cooling by radiation, is the basis of the arguments of W. J. Humphreys {Astrophysics, Jan. 1909), and E. Gold (Proc. Roy. Soc, 1908, lxxxii., 45 A.), explaining the existence of the " thermal layer." The direct evaluation of this radiation and absorption has been attempted by many. The genuine law a(q-p) is adopted by Gold as closely representing nature, whence it follows that (1) the adiabatic rate of cooling in convection currents must cease at a height corre- sponding to one-half of the barometric pressure at sea-level; (2) an isothermal layer must exist at the level where the absorption of solar radiation equals that of the terrestrial and atmospheric radia- tion ; (3) within this thermal layer convection is difficult or impossible ; (4) above this region the vertical temperature gradient must depend essentially on radiation and is less than that needed for convective equilibrium ; (5) below this level the atmospheric radiation exceeds the atmospheric absorption and vertical currents can only be kept up by the convection of heat or aqueous vapour from the earth's surface to the adjacent layer of air. Limit of the Atmosphere. — The limiting height of the atmosphere must be at some unknown elevation above 20 m. where the tempera- ture falls to absolute zero. But the uncertainty of the various hypotheses as to the physical properties of the upper atmosphere KU to 16 14 13 212 > e ^ 8 7 6 5 Aa — Va % \% t£& 2t ^ ~v ^ 3 3 pS ^ >^ r 1^ Fractional Parts of Normal Prttsur* aid Qen&tty at Saa-ltvil Fig. 1. forbids us to entertain any positive ideas on this subject at the present time. If we define the outer limit of the atmosphere as that point at which the diffusion of gases inwards just balances the diffusion outwards, then this limit must be determined not by the hypsometric formula, but by the properties of gases at low temperatures and pressures under conditions as yet uninvestigated by physicists. Cloudiness. — It is evident that the clouds (q.v.) are formed from clear transparent air by the condensation of the invisible moisture therein into numerous mi-nute par- ticles of water, ice or snow. Not- withstanding their transparency, these individual globules and crystals, when collected in large masses, disperse the solar rays by reflection to such an extent that direct light from the sun is unable to penetrate fog or cloud, and partial darkness results. In a general survey of the atmosphere the geographical distribution of the amount of cloudy sky is im- portant. When the solar heat falls upon the surface of the cloud it is so absorbed and. reflected that, on the one hand, scarcely any penetrates to the ground beneath, while on the other hand the upper surface of the cloud becomes unduly heated. Even if this upper surface is completely evaporated, it may continually be renewed from below, and, more- over, the evaporated moisture mixing with the air renders it very much lighter specifically than it would otherwise be. Hence the upper surface of the cloud replaces the surface of the ground and of the ocean; the air. in contact with it acquires a higher temperature and greater buoyancy, while the ground and air beneath it remain colder than they would be in sunshine. The average cloudiness over the globe is therefore intimately related to the density and circulation of the atmosphere ; it was first charted in general terms by L. Teisserenc de Bort of Paris, about 1886. The manifold modifications of the clouds impress one with the conviction that, when properly understood and interpreted, they will reveal to us the most important features of the processes going on in the atmo- sphere. If the farmer and sailor can correctly judge of the weather several hours in advance by a casual glance at the clouds, what may not the professional meteorologist hope to do by a more careful study? Acting on this idea, in 1868 Abbe asked from all of his correspondent observers full details as to the quantity, kind and direction of motion of each layer of clouds; these were telegraphed daily for publication in the Weather Bulletin of the Cincinnati Observatory, and for use in the weather predictions made at that time. Since January 1872 similar data have been regularly tele- graphed for the use of the U.S. Weather Bureau in preparing fore- casts, although the special cloud maps that were compiled thrice daily have not been published, owing to the expense. These data were also published in full in the Bulletin of the International Simul- taneous Meteorological Observations for the whole northern hemi- sphere during the years 1 875-1 884. Abbe's work on the U.S. Eclipse Expedition to the West Coast of Africa in 1889-1890 was wholly devoted to the determination of the height and motions of the clouds by the use of his special form of the marine nephoscope. The use of such a nephoscope is to be strongly recommended, as it gives the navigator a means of determining the bearing of a storm centre at sea by studying the lower clouds, better than he can possibly do by the observation of the winds alone. The im- portance of cloud study has been especially emphasized by the International Meteorological Committee, which arranged for a complete year of systematic cloud-work by national weather bureaus and individual observatories throughout the world from May 1896 to June 1897. In this connexion H. H. Clayton of Blue Hill Observatory published a very comprehensive report on. cloud forms in 1906. The complete report by Professor F. H. Bigelow on the work done by the U.S. Weather Bureau forms a part of the annual report for 1899, and constitutes a remarkable addition to our knowledge of the subject. Some preliminary account of this work was published in the American Journal of Science for December 1899. Although all the international cloud- work of 1 896-1 897 has now been published in full by the individual institutions, as in the case of the International Polar Research Work of 1883, yet a compre- hensive study of the results still remains to be made. Some of these have, however, been brought together in Mohn's discussion of the observations by Nansen during the voyage of the ' ' Fram ' ' and also in Hann's Lehrbuch and in Bigelow's Report on Cloud-work. The mean altitudes of cirrus and strato-cumulus clouds resulted as follows. APPARATUS AND METHODS] METEOROLOGY 273 Place. Cape Thordsen. Bossekop, 1 838-1 842 Storlien. Upsala, 1 884-1 885. „ I 896-1 897. Pavlosk. Dantzig. Irkutsk .... Blue Hill, 1890-1891 Potsdam, summer. „ winter Blue Hill, summer. „ „ winter . Toronto, summer . ,, winter Washington, summer „ winter Allahabad . Manila .... Lati- tude. 78-5 79 63-5 60 60 60 54-5 52-3 42-5 52 52 42-5 42-5 43-6 39 25-5 15 Cirrus. kil. 7-3 8-3 8-3 8-9 8-2 8-8 io-o 10-9 90 9-1 8-1 9-5 8-6 10-9 10-0 10-4 9'5 12-4 10-9 St. cu. kil. 2-5 i-3 1-8 2-3 i 1-8 1-9 2-2 2-3 32 2-2 1-4 1-2 1-6 2-0 i-5 2-9 2-4 3-5 2-0 Highest Cirrus. kil. n-8 13-4 II-7 150 165 180 Lowest Cirrus. kil. '5^5 3-6 4-7 5-4 5-0 4-0 The annual average velocity of hourly movement in metres per second without regard to direction may be summarized as follows : — 500—2000. 2-4000. 4-6000. 5—8000. 3-10,000. 10-12,000. 12-14,000. ■ m. m. m. m. m. m. Bossekop . 6-5 7-3 12-5 15-4 19-0 24-4 — Upsala 91 8-7 16-0 20-4 26-6 - — — Potsdam . 9-3 10-3 16-9 20-8 25-4 — — Blue Hill . . 9-8 14-2 17-1 34-3 34-2 (33) — Toronto . 9.4 17-1 18-4 32-0 30-8 28-8 — Washington ' (8-6) 14-6 17-3 20-3 25-8 (28-9) 26-8 Allahabad 3-4 6-4 130 17-6 22-3 20-7 34-o Manila 5-5 7-1 6-5 8-0 13-6 13-0 13-4 The movements of the upper clouds are more rapid in winter than in summer at these northern stations, but among the median and lower clouds a retardation takes place apparently due to the ascending currents that form rain and snow. Above 8000 metres at Upsala the average velocity in winter exceeds 30 metres per second, whereas in summer it is 20; at Toronto and Blue Hill the absolute velocities are larger but in the same ratio. In the United States the maximum velocities from the west attain 100 metres per second and over 80 or 70 metres per second are not rare, but in Europe the corresponding figures are 70, 60, 50. (See also Cloud.) II. — Meteorological Apparatus and Methods The observational basis of meteorology is the frequent and, if possible, continuous record of the temperature, moisture and barometric pressure at different altitudes in the free atmosphere, the direction and velocity of the wind, the rain and snow-fall, and the kind, amount and motion of the clouds. For Europe these data have been furnished with more or less accuracy and continuity by thousands of observers ever since 1653, when Ferdinand II., grand .duke of Tuscany, organized a system of daily observations in Italy under the general super- vision of Luigi Antinori. During the 19th century great efforts were made to obtain equally full records from all parts of the land and ocean, and thousands of navigators were added to the great corps of observers. Other matters have also been investi- gated, the most important being the intensity of radiation from the earth at night-time and from the sun by day-time, the optical phenomena of the sky, the amount of dust in the air, the electrical condition and the chemical constitution of the atmosphere. Although all the instruments used belong to the category of physical apparatus, yet certain points must be considered as peculiar to their use in connexion with meteorology. Thermometer. — In using the thermometer to determine ,the temperature of the free air it is necessary to consider not merely its intrinsic accuracy as compared with the standard gas thermometer of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Paris, but especially its sluggishness, the influence of noxious radiations, the gradual change of its zero point with time, and the influence of atmospheric pressure. [* We have here inserted the Washington data as interpolated from the figures given by Hann, Lehrbuch, 1906, p. 282.] Sensitiveness. — The thermometer indicates the temperature of the outside surface of its own bulb only when the whole mass of the instrument has a uniform temperature. Assuming that by appropriate convection we can keep the surface of the thermometer at the temperature of the air, we have still to remember that ordin- arily this itself is perpetually changing both in rapid oscillations of several degrees and in diurnal periods of many degrees, while the thermometer, on account of its own mass or thermal inertia, always lags behind the changes in the temperature of its own surface. On the other hand, radiant heat passes easily through the air, strikes the thermometer, and raises its temperature quite independently of the influence of the air whose temperature we wish to measure. The internal sluggishness or the sensitiveness of the thermometer is usually different for rising and for falling temperatures, and is measured by a coefficient which must be deter- mined experimentally for each instrument by observing the rate at which its indications change when it is plunged into a well-stirred bath of water whose temperature is either higher or lower than its own. This coefficient indicates the rate per minute at which the readings change when the temperature of the surface of the bulb is one degree warmer or colder than the temperature of the bath. Such coefficients usually vary between 5*5 th of a degree centigrade for sluggish thermometers, and one or two degrees for very sensitive thermometers. Suppose, for instance, that the coefficient is one- half degree, then when the rate of change in the temperature of the air is one degree per minute this is exactly the same as the rate of change which the thermometer itself undergoes when its own temperature is two degrees different from that of the air; conse- quently, the thermometer will lag behind the air temperature to that extent and by the corresponding amount of time, assuming that the air itself flows fast enough to keep the surface of the bulb at the air temperature. When the air temperature ceases to rise or fall, and begins to change at the same rate in the opposite direc- tion, the thermometer will fail to record the true maximum or minimum temperature by an appreciable error depending upon the rapidity of the change, and will follow the new temperature changes with the same lag. For example, in the case just quoted, if a rising temperature suddenly changes to a falling temperature, the error of the thermometer at the maximum temperature will be two degrees, and yet the thermometer may be absolutely correct as compared with the standard when it is allowed five -or ten minutes' time to overcome the sluggishness. It is very difficult to obtain the temperature of the free air at any moment within -j^th of a degree Centigrade, owing to the sluggishness of all ordinary thermo- meters and the perpetual variations in the temperatures of the atmospheric currents. Radiation. — When a thermometer bulb is immersed in a bath of liquid all radiant heat is cut off, but when hung in the open air it is subject to a perpetual interchange of radiations between itself and all its surroundings ; consequently its own temperature has only an indirect connexion with that of the air adjacent to it. One of the most difficult problems of meteorology is so to expose a thermometer as to cut off noxious radiations and get the true temperature of the atmosphere at a specific place and time. The following are a few of the many methods that have been adopted to secure this end : Melloni put the naked glass bulbs within open sheltering caps of perforated silver paper. Flaugergues used a protection consisting of a simple vertical cylinder of two sheets of silver paper enclosing a thin layer of non-conducting substance, like cotton or wool. The influence of radiation upon a thermometer depends upon the radiating and absorbing powers of its own surface ; a roughened surface of lamp-black radiates and absorbs perfectly; one of chalk powder does nearly as well; glass much more im- perfectly; white a polished silver surface reflects with ease, but radiates and absorbs with the greatest difficulty. Fourier pro- posed to use two thermometers side by side, one of plain glass and the other of blackened glass; the difference of these would indicate the effect of radiation at any moment; but instead of plain glass he should have used polished silver. His method was quite independently devised and used by Abbe in 1865 and 1866 at Poulkova, where the thermometers were placed within a very light shelter of oiled paper. In order to use this method successfully, both the black and the silvered thermometers should be whirled side by side inside the thermometer shelters (see Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of Washington for 1883). Various forms of open lattice-work and louvre screens have been devised and usfd by Glaisher, Kupffer, Stevenson, Stowe, Dove, Renou, Joseph^ Henry and others, in all of which the wind is supposed to blow freely through the screens, while the latter cut off' the greater part of the direct sunshine and other obnoxious radiations by day, and also prevent obnoxious radiation from the thermometer to the sky by night. The Italian physicist Belli first proposed a_ special artificial ventilation drawing the fresh air from the outside and making it flow rapidly over the thermometer. Even before his day de Saussure, Espy, Arago and Bravais whirled the thermometer rapidly either by a small whirling machine, or by attaching it to a string and swivel and whirling it like a sling. When this whirling is done in a shady place excellent results are obtained. Renou and Craig placed the thermometer in a thin metallic enclosure or shelter, and whirled the latter. Wild established the thermometer 274 METEOROLOGY [APPARATUS AND METHODS in a fixed louvre shelter, but by means of a ventilating apparatus drew currents of fresh air from below into the shelter, where they circulated rapidly and passed out. In Germany, since 1885, Dr Assmann has developed the apparatus known as the ventilated psychrometer, in which the dry-bulb thermometer is placed within a double shelter of thin metallic tubing, and the air is drawn in rapidly by means of a small ventilating fan. In the observations made by Abbe on the cruise of the " Pensacola " to the West Coast of Africa, the dry- and wet-bulb thermometers were enclosed within bamboo tubes and rapidly whirled. The inside of the wet-bulb tube was kept wet, so that its surface, being cooled by evaporation, could not radiate injuriously to the thermometer. In the system of exposure adopted by the U.S. Weather Bureau the dry and wet bulbs are whirled by a special apparatus fixed within the louvred shelter, which is about 3I ft. cube, and is placed far enough above the ground or building to ensure free exposure to the wind. In using the whirling and ventilating methods it is customary to take a reading after whirling one minute, and a second reading at the end of the second minute, and so on until no appreciable changes are shown in the thermometer. Of course in perfectly calm weather these methods can only give the tempera- ture of the air for the exact locality of the thermometer. On the other hand, when a strong wind is blowing the indicated tempera- ture is an average that represents the long narrow stream of air that has blown past the thermometer during the few minutes that are necessary in order that its bulb may obtain approximately the temperature of the air. Change of Zero.— AW thermometers having glass bulbs, especially those of cylindrical shape, are sensitive to changes of atmospheric pressure. The freezing-point, determined under a barometric pressure of 30 in., or at sea-level, stands higher on the glass tube than if it had been determined under a lower pressure on a mountain top. Therefore delicate thermometers, when transported to great heights, or even during the very low pressure of a storm centre, read too low and need a correction for pressure. The zero- point also changes with time and with the method of treatment that the bulb has received as to temperature. Owing to the slow ad- justment of the molecules of the glass bulb to the state of stable equilibrium, their relations among themselves are disturbed when- ever the bulb is freshly heated. At this time the freezing-point is temporarily depressed to an amount nearly proportional to the heating. The normal method of treatment consists in first deter- mining the boiling-point of the thermometer, and, after a few minutes, the freezing-point. If this method is uniformly followed the two fiducial points will stay in permanent relation to each other. A thermometer that has been used for many years by a faithful meteorological observer has almost inevitably been going through a steady series of changes; in the course of ten years its freezing- point may have risen by 2° or 3 F., and, moreover, it changes by fully a tenth of a degree between summer and winter. The only way completely to eliminate this source of error from meteorological work is to discard the mercurial thermometer altogether; but instead of adopting that course, the use is generally recommended of thermometers whose bulbs are made of a special glass, upon which heating and cooling have comparatively very little influence. Any argument as to secular changes in the temperature of the atmosphere is likely to be greatly weakened by the unknown influ- ence of this source of error, as well as by changes in the methods of exposure and in the hours of observation. Barometer. — The barometer (q.v.) indicates the elastic pressure prevailing in gas or liquid at the surface of the mercury in the open tube or cistern, provided that the fluid at that point is in a state of quiet relative to the mercury. Any motion of the air will have an influence upon the reading quite independently of the prevailing elastic pressure. The pressure within a mass of gas at any point is the summation of the effects due to the motions of the myriad molecules of the gas at that point ; it is the kinetic energy of the molecules striking against each other and the sides of the enclosure, which in this case is the surface of the mercury in the cistern of the instrument. If the barometer moves with respect to the general mass of the gas there is a change in the pressure on the mercurial surface, although there may be none in the general mass of the free gas, and a barometer giving correctly the pressure of the air at rest within a room will give a different indication if the instrument or the air is set in rapid motion so that the air strikes violently against it. If the barometer moves with the air it will indicate the elastic pressure within the air. When the wind blows against an obstacle the air pressure is increased slightly on the windward side and diminished on the leeward side. It is thus obvious that in determining the pressure within the free atmosphere the exposure of the barometer must be carefully con- sidered. The influence of a gale of wind is to raise the elastic pressure within a room whose window faces to the windward, but to lower the pressure if the window faces to the leeward. The influence of the draught up chimney, produced by the wind blowing over its summit, is to lower the pressure within the room. The maximum effect of the wind in raising the pressure is given by the formula. P — Po =o-ooo 038 3 X V 2 , where the pressure is given in inches and the velocity in miles per hour. This amounts to about one-tenth of an inch in a 50-m. wind, and to nearly four- tenths in a 100-m. wind. The diminution by a leeward window or a draught up chimney is usually less than this amount. This alteration in pressure, due to the local effect of wind, does not belong to the free atmosphere but to the method of exposure of the barometer, and can be eliminated only by methods first de- scribed by Abbe in 1882: it is a very different matter from the general diminution of pressure in the atmosphere produced by the movement of the wind over a rotating earth and by the centrifugal force within a vortex. The latter is an atmospheric phenomenon, independent of instruments and locality, which in hurricanes and tornadoes may amount to several inches of the mercurial column. It is, however, quite common to find in the continuous records of pressure during a hurricane evidence of the fact that the low pressure due to the hurricane and the special diminution due to the exposure of the barometer are combined together, so that when the calm centre of a hurricane passes over a station the pressure temporarily rises by the amount due to the sudden stoppage of the wind and the local exposure effect. The other sources of error that give rise to discrepancies in meteorological work relate to the temperature of the instrument, the sluggishness of the movement of the mercury, and the inevitable large secular changes in the correction for capillarity, due principally to the changes in the condition of the surfaces of the glass and the mercury, especially those that are exposed to the open air. The international comparisons of barometers show that discrepancies exist between the best normals or standards, and that ordinary barometers must always be compared with such standards at the temperatures and pressures for which they are to be used. Anemometer. — The wind is measured either by means of its pressure against any obstacle or by revolving apparatus that gives some idea of the velocity of its movement. The pressure is supposed to interest the engineer and navigator, but the velocity is the fundamental meteorological datum; in fact, the pressure of the wind varies with the nature of the obstacle, the method of exposure, the density of the air, and even the mass of rain carried along with it. Pressure anemometers date from the pendulous tablet devised by Sir Christopher Wren about 1667, and such pressure plates continue to be used in an improved form by Russian observers. Normal pressure plates are used at a few English and Continental stations. The windmill anemometers devised by Schober and Woltmann were modified by Combes and Casella so as to make an exceedingly delicate instrument for laboratory use ; another modifi- cation by Richard is extensively used by French observers. In the early part of the 19th century Edgeworth devised and Robinson perfected a windmill system in which hemispherical cups revolved around a vertical axis, and these have come into general use in both Europe and America. Many studies have been made of the exact ratio between the velocity of the wind and the rotations of the Robinson anemometer. The factor 3 is usually adopted and in- corporated into the mechanism of the apparatus, but in ordinary circumstances this factor is entirely too large, and the recorded velocities are therefore too large. The whirling cups do not revolve with any simple relation to the velocity of the wind, even when this is perfectly steady. The relation varies with the dimensions of the cups and arms and the speed of the wind, but especially with the steadiness or gustiness of the wind. The exact ratio must always be determined experimentally for each specific type of instrument ; in most instruments in actual use the factor for steady wind varies between 2 ; 4 and 2-6. When the wind is gusty the moment of inertia of the moving parts of the instrument necessitates an appreciable correction; thus, when the gust is at its height the re- volving parts receive an impetus that lasts after the gust has gone down, so that the actual velocity of the cups is too high. For this reason, also, comparisons and studies of anemometers made in the irregular natural winds of a free air are unsatisfactory. For the average natural and gusty winds at Washington, D.C., and on Mount Washington, N.H., and the small type of Robinson's anemometer used in the U.S. Weather Bureau Service, Professor C. F. Marvin deduced the table (see p. 275) for reduction from recorded to true velocity. This table involves the moment of inertia of the revolving parts of the instrument and the gustiness of the wind^ at Washington, and will therefore, of course, not apply strictly to other types of instruments or winds, for which special studies must be made. About 1842 a committee of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences experimentally determined, for a large variety of chimney caps, or cowls, or hoods, the amount of suction that produces the draught up a chimney, and shortly afterwards a similar committee made a similar investigation at Philadelphia (see Proc. Amer. Acad. i. 307, and Journal of Franklin Institute, iv. 101). These investi- gations showed that the open end of the chimney, acting as an obstacle in the wind, is covered by a layer of air moving more rapidly than the free air at a little distance, and that therefore between this layer and the aperture of the chimney there is a space APPARATUS AND METHODS] METEOROLOGY 275 within which barometric pressure is less than in the neighbouring free air. The draught up the chimney is due to the pressure of the air at the lower end or fireplace pushing up the flue into this region of low pressure, quite as much as it is due to the buoyancy of the heated air within the flue. From such experiments as these there has been developed the vertical suction-tube anemometer, as devised by Fletcher in 1867, re-invented by Hagemann in 1876, and intro- duced into England by Dines. In his Meteorological Apparatus Marvin's Table for the Reduction of Velocities, given by the small- sized Robinson's Anemometer in gusty winds. Indicated Velocity. True Velocity. Miles. 1 2 3 4 s 6 7 ■8 9 O — — — — 5-1 6-0 6-9 7-8 87 10 9-6 10-4 "\3 I2'I I2'9 13-8 14-6 15-4 l6'2 17-0 20 17-8 18-6 19-4 20-22 21-0 21-8 22-6 23-4 24-2 24-9 30 2.V7 20-5 27-5 28-0 28-8 29-6 30-3 3i-i 31-8 32-6 40 3.V3 54- 1 34-8 35-0 3 its edge. This line of motion shows the azimuth of the horizontal component of the cloud's motion. The course of the vessel is shown by the compass card and lubber line AF seen below the mirror. The apparent angular velocity of the cloud, as it would be if the cloud started from the zenith, is obtained by counting the seconds that elapse between its passage from the centre to the edge, or to a small circle inscribed within the edge. With Marvin's nephoscope two observers a short distance apart may easily determine the apparent altitude, and azimuth, and motion of any cloud, whence its true altitude and velocity may be computed. But when the observer uses Abbe's marine nephoscope on a vessel which is itself in motion he observes the resultant of his own motion and that of the cloud. If his vessel is under his control, so that he may change its velocity or direction at will, he easily determines this resultant for two different courses, and obtains data by which he is enabled to calculate the real altitude and velocity of the cloud in terms of his own velocity. As the marine nephoscope can be used on a wagon moving rapidly over a smooth road, or in a small boat on a smooth pond, almost as well as on a larger sea-going vessel, it becomes an instrument of universal application for cloud study. It is also equally convenient for observing the positions of auroras, halos, meteors, and other special phenomena. For the international work undertaken during the year 1898 the photographic camera established upon an alt-azimuth mounting, or the so-called photo- gram-meter, was especially developed. In this apparatus photo- graphs of the clouds are taken simultaneously at two or more stations, and in each case the centre of the photographic plate has its altitude and azimuth determined. From this centre one can measure on the plate the additional angles required in order to fix the altitude and azimuth of any point that is photographed, and thus the dimensions of the whole visible cloud and its internal or differential motions can be determined, as well as its general motion. During the years 1 896-1 898 about twenty stations were occupied throughout the world for the purpose of determining accurately the altitudes and motions of every layer of cloud. Sunshine Recorder. — The ordinary meteorological record specifies the proportion of sky that appears to be covered with cloud, or the so-called cloudiness, usually expressed in tenths. The observer generally confines his attention to that portion of the sky within sixty degrees of the zenith, and ignores the lower zone, since the clouds that are found therein are often at so great a distance from him that their record is not supposed to belong to his locality. As the cloudiness — or its reciprocal, the sunshine — is supposed to be the most important item in agricultural climatology, and is certainly very important for dynamic meteorology, it is usually considered desirable to obtain more complete records than are given by only one or two specified hours of observation. To this end apparatus for recording sunshine, or, rather, the effect of cloudiness, is widely adopted. At least three forms are worth describing as being extensively used. The Jordan photographic sunshine recorder consists of a cylinder enclosing a sheet of sensitive paper; the sun's rays penetrate through a small aperture, and describe a path from sunrise to sunset, which appears on this sheet after it has been properly washed with the fixing solution. Any interruption in this path, due to cloudiness or haze, is of course clearly shown, and gives at once the means of estimating what percentage of the day was clear and what cloudy. The modified form of the instrument devised by Professor Marvin has been used for many years at about forty Weather Bureau stations, but the original construction is still employed by other observers throughout the world. The Stokes-Campbell recorder consists of a globe of glass acting as a burning-glass. A sheet of pasteboard or a block of wood at the rear receives the record, and the extent of the Charring gives a crude measure of the percentage of full or strong sunshine. Many of these instruments are used at stations in Great Britain and the British colonies. The Marvin thermometric sunshine recorder consists of a thermometer tube, having a black bulb at the lower end and a bright bulb at the other. The excess of temperature in the black bulb causes a thread of mercury to move upwards, and for a certain standard difference of temperature of about 5° F., such as would be produced by the sun shining through a very thin cloud or haze, a record is made by an electric current on a revolving drum, and simply shows when during the day sunshine of a certain inten- sity prevailed, or was prevented by cloudiness. D. T. Maring, in the U.S. Monthly Weather Review for 1897, described an ingenious combination of the thermometer and the photographic register of cloudiness which is worthy of further development. It gives both the quantity of cloudiness and intensity of the sunshine on some arbitrary relative scale. The intensity of the sunshine, as sometimes employed in general agricultural studies, is crudely shown by Violle's conjugate bulbs, which are thin copper balls about 3 in. in diameter, one of them being blackened on the outside and the other gilded. When exposed to the sunshine the difference in temperature of the two bulbs in- creases with the intensity of the sunshine, but as the difference is dependent to a considerable extent on the wind, the Violle bulbs have not found wide application. The Arago-Davy actinometer, or bright and black bulbs in vacuo, constitutes a decided improve- ment upon the Violle bulbs, in that the vacuous space surrounding the thermometers diminishes the effect of the wind. The physical theory involved in the use of the Arago-Davy actinometer was fully developed by Ferrel, and he was able to determine the coefficient of absorption of the earth's atmosphere and other data, thereby showing that this apparatus has considerable pretensions to accuracy. In using it as contemplated by Arago and Davy and by Professor Ferrel, we read simply the stationary temperature attained by the bright and black thermometers at any moment, whereas the best method in actinometry consists in alternately shading and exposing any appropriate apparatus so as to determine the total effect of the solar radiation in one minute, or some shorter unit of time; this method of using the Arago-Davy actinometer was earnestly recom- mended by Abbe in 1883, and in fact tried at that time; but the apparatus and records were unfortunately burned up. This so-called dynamic, as distinguished from the static, method was first applied by Pouillet in 1838 in using his pyrheliometer, which was the first apparatus and method that gave approximate measures of the radiant heat received from the sun. In order to improve upon Pouillet's work more delicate apparatus has been constructed, but the fundamental methods remain the same. Thus Angstrom has applied both Langley's bolometer and his own still more sensitive thermoelectric couple and balance method ; Violle uses his absolute actinometer, consisting of a most delicate thermometer within a polished metal sphere, whose temperature is kept uniform by the 1 flow of water; while Crova, with a thermometer within an enclosure! of uniform temperature, claims to have attained an accuracy of one ( part in a thousand. Chwolson has reviewed the whole subject' of actinometry, and has shown the greater delicacy of his own ap- •paratus, consisting of two thin plates alternately exposed to and shielded from sunshine, whose differences of temperature are measured by electric methods. As none of the absolute methods for determining the solar radia- tion in units of heat lend themselves to continuous registration, it is important to call attention to the possibility of accomplishing this by chemical methods. The best of these appears to be that devised by Marchand, by the use of a device which he calls the Phot-antitupimeter. In this the action of the sunlight upon a solution of ferric-oxalate and chloride of iron liberates carbonic acid 278 METEOROLOGY [APPARATUS AND METHODS gas, the amount of which can be measured either continuously or every hour; but in its present form the apparatus is affected by several serious sources of error. Fig. 3.- -Abbe's Marine Nephoscope. Mirror. Horizontal Projection of The electric compensation pyrheliometer, as invented by Knut Angstrom (Ann. Phys., 1899), offers a simple method of determin- ing accurately the quantity of radiant energy. He employs two blackened platinum surfaces, one of which receives the radiations to Fig. 4. — Abbe's Marine Nephoscope, Horizontal Projection of Compass, be measured, while the other is heated by an electric current. The difference of temperature between the two disks is determined by a thermocouple, and they are supposed to receive and lose the same amount of energy when their temperatures are the same. A Hefner Fig Abbe's Marine Nephoscope. Vertical Section. lamp is used as an intermediate standard source of radiation, and alternate observations on any other source of radiant heat give the means of determining their relation to each other. By means of two such instruments Angstrom secured simultaneous observations on the intensity of the solar radiation at two points, respectively, 360 and 3352 metres above sea-level, and determined the amount of heat absorbed by the intermediate atmosphere. An accuracy of 1-1000 appears to be attainable, and this apparatus is now being widely used. The records of 1901-1905 have already given rise to the belief that there is a variation in our insolation that may eventually be traced back to the sun's atmosphere. Meteorograph. — The numerous forms of apparatus designed to keep frequent or continuous register of the prevailing pressure, temperature, moisture, wind, rainfall, sunshine, evaporation, and other phenomena are instruments that belong peculiarly to meteorology as distinguished from laboratory physics. Such apparatus may be broadly divided into several classes according as the records are obtained by the help of photography, or electricity, or by direct mechanical action. The prevailing tendency at present is in favour of apparatus in which the work of the recording pen is done by a falling weight, whose action is timed and limited by the making and breaking of electric currents by the meteorological apparatus proper. The most serious defect in such instruments, even when kept in good working order, is a want of sensitiveness commensurate with the desired openness of scale. It is very important that a fraction of a minute of time should be as recognizable as one-tenth of a degree of temperature; one thousandth of an inch of barometric pressure, and velocities of one hundred miles per hour, as well as rapid changes in all these elements, must be measurable. But instruments whose scales are large enough- to record all these quantities are usually so sluggish as regards time that the comparison of the records is very unsatisfactory. In order to study the relationships between temporary and fleeting phenomena, it js necessary that all instruments should record upon the same sheet of paper, so that the same time-scale will answer for all. The instruments that respond most nearly to the general needs of meteorology are the various forms of meteorographs devised by Wild for use at St Petersburg, by Sprung and Fuess for use at Hamburg and Berlin, and by Marvin for Washington. The photo- graphic systems for pressure and temperature introduced many years ago at stations in Great Britain and the British colonies are not quite adequate to present needs. The portable apparatus manufactured by Richard Freres at Paris is in use at a very large number of land stations and on the ocean, and by giving special care to regular control-observations of time, pressure and tempera- ture, important results may be obtained; but in general the time- scales are too small, and the unknown sources of error too uncertain, to warrant implicit reliance upon the records. Polarimeter. — The brightness and blueness of the sky light, and especially its polarization, have been observed with increasing interest, as it seems possible from these elements to ascertain something with regard to the condition and amount of the moisture of the air. With 'a simple Nicol's prism held in the hand and turned slowly about the axis of vision one can quickly recognize the fact that the sky light is polarized, and that the polarization is largely due to the air or dust lying between us and the clouds in the distant horizon. Arago, with a more delicate form of polariscope, determined the existence of a so- called neutral region near the sun. Babinet located a neutral point or zone about as far from the anti-sun as was Arago's from the sun itself. Brewster discovered a neutral point near the sun and horizon, disappearing when the sun is more than 1 5° above the horizon. Finally, Brewster explored the sky sufficiently to draw lines of equal polarization, which he published in Johnston's Physical Atlas, and which were confirmed by Zantedeschi in 1849. Since those days far more delicate work has been done — first by Bosanquet of Oxford, afterwards by*- Prof. E. C. Pickering of Harvard University and Prof. A. W. Wright of Yale University. A later contribution to the subject is by Jensen (see Met. Zeit. for Oct.-Dec. 1899), who has observed the brightness as well as the polarization, and thus completed the data necessary for testing the various physical theories that have been proposed for the explanation of this phenomenon. We owe to Tyndall the discovery that when a beam of white light penetrates a mass of fine aqueous mist the latter sends off at right angles a delicate blue light, which is almost wholly polarized in a plane at right angles to the plane APPARATUS AND METHODS] METEOROLOGY 279 of reflection. As the particles of mist grow larger, the blue light becomes whiter and the polarization disappears. The original vapour particles are undoubtedly so small as to be comparable in size with a fraction of the wave-length of ordinary- light, and Rayleigh was able to show that molecular as well as minute particles must have a power of selection, and that the diffused sky light comes to us by selective reflection. On this basis we should expect that in the driest air at great heights, where the temperature is low and condensation has but just begun, and the dust particles are rare, there would occur the smallest aqueous particles reflecting light of the feeblest intensity but the largest percentage of polarization. Rayleigh has shown that it is quite possible that the molecules of oxygen and nitrogen constituting the atmosphere may also exercise a diffuse selective reflection, and contribute to the brightness and polarization that are mainly due to aqueous vapours. (See Sky.) We thus see the theoretical importance of adding photometry and polarimetry to the work of a meteorological observatory. The apparatus to be used in this connexion will vary somewhat with the exact character of the observations to be made. The most extensive researches that have yet been carried out in this line with a meteorological application in view are those of Jensen, Crova, Cornu, Pickering, Kimball, Nichols, and especially Rubenson, who in fact recommended that polarimetry and photometry should go hand in hand. In order to measure the position of the plane of polarization the Arago polariscope may be used, but, in order to measure the percentage of polarized light, Mascart's modification of the Savart is better. In order to measure the general brightness of a spot in the sky, Jensen has used a slight modification of the Weber photometer, and in fact Weber himself has applied the same method to the measurement of the daylight. The complete work of Jensen was published in the Schriften of the Scientific Association of Schleswig-Holstein in 1890, and, like the memoir published by Rubenson in 1863, it gives the meteorological conditions in full as a basis for the investigation of the connexion between sky light and the moisture in the atmosphere. In his work during 1906-1909 with Angstrom's pyrheliometer Mr A. H. Kimball of Washington has advantageously used the Pickering polarimeter, and has shown that the transparency of the air and the polarization of light go hand in hand. Cyanometer. — The cyanometer devised by Arago to measure the blueness of the sky consisted of an arbitrary scale of blues on a strip of porcelain, with which one could compare the blue of the sky. This comparison, however, is open to many sub- jective errors. A more satisfactory apparatus is Zollner's photometer, or some equivalent, in which a patch of white surface is illuminated by any particular tint or combination that may be desired. In fact, Maxwell's colour-box admits of ready application to the analysis of sky light, and reveals at once the proportions of red, yellow, and blue that may be contained therein. Dust-counter. — The importance of observing the dustiness of the atmosphere has been especially realized since the invention and use of various forms of apparatus for counting the number of particles of dust in a small volume of air. These inventions are due to Mr John Aitken, of Edinburgh. The latest form of his apparatus is the very convenient " pocket dust-counter." In this the air contained in a small receiver is rendered dustless by repeated expansions; the cooling due to expan- sion forces the vapour to condense upon the dust, which, becoming heavy, falls to the bottom, so that in a short time all is removed. A small stop-cock is now turned, so as to allow a definite small quantity of air to enter and mix with the dustless air in the receiver. The dusty and the dustless airs are now thoroughly mixed, and again the whole quantity within the receiver is expanded, and the dust nuclei fall down by the condensation of vapour upon them. Assuming that every particle of dust is represented by a minute droplet of water, we have but to count the latter; this is easily done by causing all the drops to fall upon a polished plate of black glass, which is divided into small squares by fine lines ruled with a diamond point. Usually each of these squares represents a small fraction of a cubic centimetre of air; thus in one case the number of fog particles averaged 2-6 per square millimetre of the glass plate, and, as the multiplying factor was 100, this corresponded to 260 particles of dust in a cubic centimetre of air. The cleanest air has been found in the West Highlands of Scotland, where 16 particles per cubic centimetre was once recorded as the minimum, while 7600 was the maximum. On the Rigi Kulm, in Switzerland, the cleanest air gave 210, and the dustiest 16,500. On comparing the records of the dust-counter with the record of the apparent state of the air, Mr Aitken found that 500 particles per cubic centimetre corresponded to clear air, and 1900 to a thick haze in which distant mountain tops were hidden. In the cities the particles of soot and effluvia of all kinds act as dust, and both in London and Paris the numbers ran as high as 80, 1 16, 150 and 210 thousand per cubic centimetre. Electrical Apparatus. — The electrical phenomena of the atmo- sphere undoubtedly belong to meteorology, and yet the methods of observation have been so unsatisfactory and the difficulty of interpreting the results has been so baffling that regular observations in electricity are only carried out at a very few meteorological institutions. A general summary of our know- ledge of the subject was prepared by J. Elster and H. Geitel for the International Congress held at Chicago in 1893, but since that date the methods and apparatus of observation have received important modifications. In general the water-dropping collector of Lord Kelvin, arranged for continuous record by Mascart, continues to be the best apparatus for continuous observation at any locality, and a portable form of this same apparatus is used by explorers and in special series of local observations. In order to explore the upper air the kite continues to be used, as was done by A. J. McAdie for the Weather Bureau in 1885 and by Weber at Kiel in 1889. The difference of potential between the upper and lower end of a long vertical wire hanging from a balloon has been measured up to considerable altitudes by Elster and Tuma. In general it is known that negative electricity must be present in the upper strata just as it is in the earth, while the intervening layer of air is positively electrified. The explanation of the origin of this condition of affairs is given in the recent researches of Sir J. J. Thomson (Phil. Mag., Dec. 1899), an d his interpretation 1 ■HMH BHHBBBI P ■Hi 1 i- r'lll ;lilT* > htJ*" f/ -l : -''"-''ftif4^fe-- dffi^. '^fOs^'i i^^. \„.iitf'iV^I BOMM E : ~JHfl s B H JS=*r* - ' , -^«?-== fi^=^^ Fig. 6. — Marvin-Hargrave Kite, with Meteorograph in position. is almost identical with that now recognized by Elster (see Terrestrial Magnetism, Jan. 1900, iv. 213). According to these results, if positive and negative ions exist in the upper strata and are carried up with the ascending masses of moist air, then the condensation of the moisture must begin first on the negative ions, which are brought down eventually to the earth's surface; thus the earth receives its negative charge from the atmosphere, leaving a positive charge or an excess of positive ions in the middle air. (See G. C. Simpson, " Atmospheric Electricity," Monthly Weather Review, Jan. 1906, p. 16.) The observations of atmospheric electricity consist essentially in determining the amount and character of the difference of potential between two points not very far distant from each other, as, for instance, the end of the pipe from which the water-drops are dis- charged, and the nearest point of the earth or buildings resting on the earth. The record may have only an extremely local value, thus the investigations of Professor John Trowbridge of Harvard University, made in conjunction with the U.S. Weather Bureau in 1882-1885, show that the differences vary so much with the winds, the time of day, and the situation of the water-dropper that the mere comparison of records gives no correct idea of the general electrical relationships. It has been suggested that possibly daily telegrams of electric conditions and daily maps of equipotential curves over the North American continent would be of help in the forecasting of storms, but it is shown to be useless to attempt any such system until some uniform normal exposure can be devised. Indeed itfias not yet been shown that atmospheric electricity is of importance*in dynamic meteorology. (See Atmospheric Electricity.) Aerial Research. — The exploration of the upper atmosphere is to be regarded as the most important field of research at the present time; the kite and the balloon enable ob- servers and apparatus to be carried to considerable heights, though by no means so far as is desirable. The kite was first used in meteorological work by Alexander Wilson at or near Glasgow in 1749, and has since then been frequently used by English observers. It was used in 1867 by Abbe in studying the winds under a thundercloud, and in 1877 in Kites. 280 METEOROLGY [APPARATUS AND METHODS studying the depth of the ocean breeze on the coast of New Jersey, but the later revival of interest in the subject dates from the work done in England in 1882 by E. D. Archibald, who used the kite to carry up anemo- meters to very considerable heights, and thereby deter- mined the relative move- ment of the air in the free atmosphere. In 1883 Alex- ander McAdie used the kite in his studies of atmospheric electricity, Professor Cleve- land Abbe proposed to use it for a complete explora- tion as to temperature, moisture and wind, but W. A. Eddy of New York first forced its varied capa- bilities upon public atten- tion, and accepted the suggestion of Professor Cleveland Abbe to employ it for meteorological work. Having flown his kites at the Blue Hill Observatory, and having carried up with them the self-registering apparatus devised by Mr Ferguson, Eddy left the further prosecution of this work to Mr Rotch, who has made this a prominent feature of the work at his observatory, having carried up meteorographs to the height of 15,000 feet by means of a series of kites flying in tandem. The officials of the U.S. Weather Bureau have developed the admirable cellular kite, invented by Hargrave of Australia, and Professor Marvin's works on the theory and construction of this form are well known. The general appearance of the Marvin or Weather Bureau kite, his reel and other apparatus that go with it, and his meteorograph, are shown in Figs. 6, 7, 8. The size ordinarily used carries about 68 sq. ft. ot supporting surface of muslin tightly stretched on a light wooden frame. The line, made ot the best steel piano-wire, is wound and unwound from a reel which keeps an automatic record Fig. 7.- -Marvin Kite Reel for hand power. Fig. 8. — Marvin Kite Meteorograph. of the intensity and direction of the pull. The reeling in and out may be done by hand, but ordinarily demands a small gas-engine. The observer at the reel makes frequent records of the temperature, pressure and wind, the apparent angular elevation of the kite, and the length of wire that is played out. At the kite itself the Marvin meteorograph keeps a continuous record of the pressure, tempera- ture, humidity and velocity of the wind. The meteorograph, with its aluminium case, weighs about two pounds, and is so securely lashed behind the front cell of the kite that no accident has ever happened to one, although the kites sometimes break loose and settle to the ground in a broken country many miles away from the reel. On four occasions the line has been completely destroyed by slight discharges of lightning; but in no case has the kite, the observer, or the reel been injured thereby. Of course, such lightning is preceded by numerous rapidly increasing sparks of electricity from the lower end of the wire, which warn the observer of danger. During the six months from May to October 1898, seventeen kite stations were maintained by the U.S. Weather Bureau in the region of the lakes, the Upper Mississippi and the Lower Missouri valleys, in order to obtain data for the more thorough study of atmospheric conditions over this particular part of the country. During these months 1217 ascents were made, and as no great height was attempted they were mostly under 7000 or 8000 feet. There was thus obtained a large amount of information relating to the air within a mile of the earth's surface. The general gradients of temperature, which were promptly deduced and published by H. C. Frankenfield in 1899 in a bulletin of the Weather Bureau, gave for the first time in the history of meteorology trustworthy observations of air temperatures in the free atmosphere in numbers sufficient to indicate the normal condition of the air. The kite and meteorograph have now been adopted for use by all meteorologists. The highest flight seems to be that of the 3rd of October 1907, at Mt Weather in Virginia, when 23,110 ft. above sea-level or 21,385 ft. above the reel was attained by the use of 37,300 ft. of wire and 8 kites tandem. The balloon was used for the scientific exploration of the atmosphere quite freely during the 19th century. The first important voyages were those of Gay-Lussac and Biot at Paris in August and September of 1804. The next important ascent was that of Bixio and Barral in 1850 at Paris. The most remarkable high ascents have been those of James Glaisher, 2nd of September 1862, and Berson at Berlin in 1889; on both of these occasions the aeronauts attained altitudes of from 30,000 to 35,000 feet. Systematic ascents at many points in Europe simultaneously on pre-arranged dates were made during the years 1895-1899, and led to the development of a general international system of ascension on pre-arranged days of the year that is now a very important feature in the study of the atmosphere. Balloon. ■s 5 . .' "*■'■ .* r " „ A .•■ „'"'* 1 * »" « .*'.. v* ji » • ' 1 1 .»* /"["*** ' - +!~"\ *»\ '' ° /V\'' -.' a \/\ 7 v v f^y\ • tf V- ^r=3f \r - ***- A^ t-it it '«- -ft T II- -jC'v 3 k W-A 5 -j,— A <\ 4 2 ^^j\Lv jmitA/i/^ uftlZO ^ AA ^ A * * * + ♦** + t«444+* TV? jt i a j j < * »■ «.- * «s e t "£ b a s Ittxit i J « « t s * 2 2 Si Hi ^(Sa&SSfcfcfcDO c"4 1A££££± — 22 3 S <<<« < ■?< < ES * Z K^^ •S ■^•5«; S = S£S2SS'-SS" = & = = ***■■ 2 sasa * x £355 ciS CS83 Fig. 9. — Chart of Isotherms in Free Air above Trappes. This diagram shows the height at which the isotherms of 0°, — 25 , — 40 , — 50 ° C. were encountered on the respective dates. Below the ground-line are given both the dates and the tempera- tures of the air observed at the ground when the balloon started on each ascent. The isotherms of — 40 ° and —50° are not given for certain ascents, because in these the balloon did not rise high^ enough to encounter those temperatures. Owing to the great risk of human life in these high ascents and especially to the fact that we desire records from still greater heights, efforts have been made to devise self-recording apparatus that may be sent up alone to the greatest heights attainable by free hydrogen balloons carrying the least possible amount of ballast. The pioneer in this new field of work was L&>n Teisserenc de Boit of Paris. As these ascensions are made with great velocity, and therefore as nearly vertical as possible, he called them "soundings," because of their analogy to the mariner's usage at sea, and his balloon is called a " sounding balloon." The balloons of silk collapse, those of india-rubber explode, and descend about as rapidly as thpy ascended, PHYSICAL AND THEORETICAL] METEOROLOGY 281 Such balloon soundings have been made not only individually, but, by pre-arranged system, simultaneously in combination with the ascent of free-manned balloons above referred to ; and at some places kites have been simultaneously used in order to obtain records for the lower atmosphere. The first experiments in simultaneous work were made in 1896 and 1897, when ascents were made at eight or more points in France, Germany and Russia. These experiments and the discussions to which they gave rise have emphasized the importance of increasing the sensitiveness of the self-recording apparatus, and as far as practicable the rapidity of the ventilation of the thermometers, and of providing more perfect protection against radiation from the sun or to the sky. It is believed that accurate records may be attained up to at least 30,000 metres, but as yet only 26,000 has been attained, and the records brought back are still under considerable criticism on account of instrumental defects. In general the wind that supports a kite also furnishes sufficient ventilation for the thermometer; but in the case of the sounding balloon, which as soon as its rapid rate of ascent diminishes floats along horizontally in the full sunshine, a strong artificial ventilation must be provided. Moreover, the sluggishness of the best thermometers is such that during the rapid rise the records of temperature that are being made at any moment really belong to some altitude considerably below the balloon, and a most critical interpretation of the records is required. Notwithstanding all criticisms, however, the balloon work in all localities agrees in showing the existence of a region above the 10,000- metre level, where tempera- tures cease to diminish rapidly, and may even become stationary. III. — Physical and Theoretical Meteorology The ultimate aim of those who are devoted to any branch of science is to penetrate beyond the phenomena observed on the surface to their ultimate causes, and to reduce the whole complex of observations and empirical rules based upon limited experiences to a simple deductive system of mechanics in which the phenomena observed shall be shown to flow naturally from the few simple laws that underlie the structure of the universe. A correct " theoria " or physical and logical argumentation deducing from primary laws all the phenomena constitutes the noblest achievement of man in science. It is by such works that Newton and Laplace distinguished themselves in astronomy. The development of the true physical and mechanical theories of atmospheric phenomena has made great progress, but is still inferior in completeness to astronomical work, owing to the great complexity of the meteorological problems. The optical and the thermal phenomena have been very satisfactorily elucidated, the electrical phenomena promise to become clear, but the phenomena of motion or aerodynamics have only been elucidated to a limited extent. We must, however, introduce the reader to some of the works that have been published on the subject, in the hope that thereby he will himself be persuaded to further study and stimulated to contribute to our knowledge. Between the years 1 853 and 1861 Professor William Ferrel pub- lished in Gould's Astronomical Journal, Runkle's Mathematical Monthly, and the American Journal of Science several treatises on the motions of solids and fluids relative to the earth's surface. His work resulted in the elucidation of the problems of the atmosphere, and in ingenious ways, applicable approximately to such complex cases, and analytically equivalent to the arithmetical method of quadratures or the graphic methods of geometry, he deduced im- portant relations between the density of the air, the barometric pressure, and the attending winds. His essays seemed to show that it might be possible to treat the complex problems of meteorology logically and deductively by analytical, numerical and graphic processes, and his memoirs were the first in which observed average meteorological conditions were properly co-ordinated with the fundamental formulae of mechanics. A beautiful memoir on the steady motions of the atmosphere was published in 1868 in the Astronomische Nachrichten by Professor Adolph Erman, and is now reprinted in vol. ii. of Abbe's Mechanics of the Earth's Atmosphere. Espy's, Coffin's, Henry's and Ferrel's ideas were made the basis of the system of daily weather predictions published by the present writer in 1869 in the Daily Weather Bulletin of the Cincinnati Observatory. Subsequently this work was taken up by the govern- ment, and greatly enlarged during 1871-1891 by the chief signal officers of the army, and after 189 1 by the chiefs of the U.S. Weather Bureau. Ferrel's writings first attracted the attention of European meteorologists in consequence of reviews published by Hann in the Zeitschrift of the Austrian Meteorological Society in January 1875, but especially after they had been reprinted in a convenient form by the U.S. Signal Office as " Bulletin No. VIII." In 1881 Ferrel, after finishing his works on the tides for the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, began a new and extensive series of meteorological con- tributions, three of which were published by the U.S. Coast Survey and the rest by the Signal Office. Stimulated by the urgent needs of the modern weather bureaus throughout the world, and by the beauty of the mathematical problems presented, numerous mathe- maticians have lately taken up the study of the earth's atmosphere, so that the literature of the subject is now far more extensive than is generally supposed, including memoirs by Helmholtz, Kelvin, Bjerkneg and other famous men. In addition to the purely mechanical problems, the numerous physical problems have also been carefully treated, both experi- mentally and mathematically. The problems of radiation have been elucidated by Langley, Hutchins, Angstrom, Paschen, Violle, Maurer, Crova, Chwolson, Very, Homin, Tamura, Trabort and Coblendz. The thermodynamic problems have been especially developed by Kelvin, Hertz, von Bezold, Ferrel, Brillouin, Neuhoff, Bigelow and Margules. The physical problems involved in the formation of rain-drops have been studied by an optical method by Carl Barus, and with brilliant success, from an electrical point of view, by C. T. R. Wilson and Sir J. J. Thomson at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, England. In a complete study of the mechanics of the earth's atmosphere we naturally begin by expressing in simple analytic formulae all the various conditions and laws according to which every particle of the air must move. Some of these conditions are local, depending Upon the resistances at various points of the earth's surface; others are of the nature of discontinuous functions, as, for instance, when the ascent of moist air above a certain level suddenly gives rise to condensation and clouds, to the evolution of latent heat, to the precipitation of rain, to the shading of the air and the ground below the clouds, and to the sudden interception of all the solar heat at the upper surface of the cloud. It seems, therefore, incredible that the problems of the atmosphere can ever be resolved by purely analytical methods ; there must be devised combinations of numerical and graphical, and possibly even mechanical methods to reproduce the conditions and give us special solutions adapted to particular cases. But even these special methods can only be perfected in proportion as we attain approximate solutions of the simpler problems, and it is in this preliminary work that a good beginning has already been made. The present state of theoretical physical and mechanical meteorology cannot be fully presented in non-technical English text. It is necessary to employ algebraic formulae, or numerical tables, or graphic diagrams, the former being certainly the least cumbersome and the most generally available. The uniform system of notation devised by Professor F. H. Bigelow, and a very complete summary of the formulae of physical meteorology expressing the results of many recent students will be found in chapters x. and xi. of his Report on the International Cloud Observations, published as vol. ii. of the annual report of the chief of the U.S. Weather Bureau for 1898-1899. The fundamental laws to which the atmosphere is subject are as follows: — A. The Equation of Elastic Pressure. — The pressure shown and measured by the barometer is an elastic pressure acting in all direc- tions equally at the point where it is measured. By virtue of this elastic pressure a unit volume of air will expand in all directions if not rigidly enclosed, but will cool in so doing. On the other hand, if forcibly compressed within smaller dimensions, it will become warmer. For a given temperature and pressure a unit volume of air of a prescribed chemical constitution will have a prescribed definite weight. The general relations between absolute temper- ature, pressure and volume are expressed by the formula pv = RT (1) where T expresses the absolute temperature, p the elastic pressure, i> the volume, and R is a constant which differs for each gas, being 29-2713 for ordinary pure dry air and 47-060 for pure aqueous vapour, if we use as fundamental units the kilogram, metre and centigrade degree. This equation is sometimes called the law of Boyle and Charles, or of Gay-Lussac and Marriotte, and it is also known as the equation of condition for true gases, meaning thereby that it expresses the fact that the ideal gas would change its volume directly in proportion .to its absolute temperature and inversely in proportion to its elastic pressure. All gases depart from this law^ in proportion as they approach the vaporous condition on the one v ' hand, which is brought about by great pressure and low temperature, or the ultra-gaseous condition on the other hand, which obtains under high temperatures and low pressures. The more accurate law of Van der Waals would complicate our problems too much. In place of the absolute temperature -T we may substitute the expression 273° C. X (i + a t), where o is the coefficient of volu- metric expansion of the gas for a unit degree of temperature = 0-00367 and t is the temperature expressed on the centigrade scale. B. Hypsometric Conditions. — The pressure of the atmosphere at any place depends primarily on the weight of the superincumbent mass of air, and therefore diminishes as we ascend to greater heights. If the air is in motion, that and other considerations come in to affect the pressure; but if the air is quiet relative to the earth's 282 METEOROLOGY [PHYSICAL AND THEORETICAL surface, then the pressure at any altitude is expressed by the so-called barometric or hypsometric formula where a is the density and g the apparent gravity for each layer of air whose vertical thickness is dh. The integral of this formula depends upon the vertical distribution of temperature, and moisture, and gravity; but under the simplest possible assumptions as to these vertical gradients, the following formula was deduced by Laplace and is generally known as his hypsometric formula: — h — fc„ = 18400(1 +0-00367/) (1 +0-378 |j (1 + 0-0026 cos 2) ( I +63Wi)( I +°- OOI 57)l°g (2a) In this formula / is the average temperature, e the average vapour tension of the layer of air, p the barometric pressure at the top of the layer, p„ the pressure at the bottom, the latitude of the station, h the elevation above sea-level of the lower limit of the stratum, and ho that of the upper limit. The modifications which this formula needs in order to adapt it to other hypotheses representing more nearly the actual distribution of temperature, moisture and gravity, have been elaborately investigated by Angot in a memoir published in 1899 in Part I. of the Memoirs of the Central Meteorological Bureau of France for the year 1896. Angot, Hergesell and Rykat- cheff have also shown that for hypsometric work of any pretensions to accuracy it is simplest and best to use Laplace's formula for successive thin strata of air, and add together the individual results, rather than attempt a more complex single formula for the whole stratum; yet the latter seems to be essential for work in aero- dynamics. C. Thermodynamic Relations. — The temperature of the air is due to the quantity of molecular energy that is present in the form of heat, but usually there is also present a quantity of molecular energy that is spoken of as latent heat. This latent heat is said to do internal work, such as melting ice or boiling water, while the sensible heat does external work, such as expanding and pushing in all directions. These molecular energies can be transformed into each other over and over again without appreciable loss, and this power of transformation is expressed by the various equations of thermo- dynamics, of which the fundamental one for our purpose is dQ = C v dt + Apdv = C v dt + ART dv/v. (3) This equation expresses the fact that when a quantity of heat measured in calories, dQ, is added to or taken from a mass of dry air, there may result both a change of temperature, dt, corresponding to one portion of the heat, Cvdt, and a quantity of external work corresponding to the remaining portion of the heat (Apdv). It usually happens that the quantity of heat in a given mass of air does not remain the same for any length of time; it is diminished by radiation or is increased by absorption, and a certain quantity is lost when rain, snow or hail drops down from the air, while a quantity is added to the atmosphere when moisture evaporates and mixes with the dry air as invisible vapour, even the passage of rain-drops down through a lower layer alters the thermal con- ditions appreciably. The changes due to increase and diminution of moisture are usually small as compared with the great gain due to absorption and convection of solar heat or with the loss by radiation. If these losses and gains are to be taken account of, then the quantity dQ in the above equation is finite and important. On the other hand, in some cases atmospheric processes go on so rapidly or under such peculiar circumstances — for instance, in the interior of a cloud — that the change in the quantity of heat may be considered as temporarily negligible. In these cases dQ is zero; the changes in temperature balance the changes in external work, and the thermal process is said to be adiabatic. D. The Condition of Continuity. — When a mass of liquid or gas goes through several motions and changes without being disrupted or otherwise broken into smaller portions, and without the formation of either local condensations into solid or liquid masses or of bubbles and vacuous spaces in its interior, and when all the changes that go on proceed by gradual continuous processes as to time, then the mass of the fluid is subject to the law of continuity as to mass, and the motion of the fluid is continuous as to velocity. These condi- tions are assumed in elementary hydrodynamics, and are implied in the process of integration, and in the equation of continuity dt dx dy dz v ^ where p is the density, / is the time and d the ordinary symbol for partial differentiation. But the fact is that meteorologists have - to deal entirely with discontinuous external forces such as insolation ceasing at sunset and renewed daily; radiations of heat changing abruptly with land and ocean and cloudiness and snow covering; discontinuous boundary conditions and resistances at the earth's surface altering at every change from mountains to plains; dis- continuous masses changing with additions and abstractions of moisture, rain and snow — all which lead to discontinuous vortex motions and overturnings and rearrangements of the atmospheric strata. The only factors that are continuous for any length of time or extent of area are the rotation of the earth and the attraction of gravitation. In the presence of such difficulties as these we must at present confine ourselves to the solution of very special local definite problems or to the general statistical problems of our atmosphere. E. Conditions as to Energy and Motion. — When the total quantity of heat, both latent and sensible, remains constant or changes in a continuous manner, and when the motions are continuous, the mechanical and thermal processes are expressible by ordinary differentials and integrals. Motions of fluids involve both energy and inertia, and are subject to conditions expressed by the following equations of hydrodynamics: — a. Equations of energy. Let the kinetic energy be T, the potential energy V, the intrinsic energy W: /, m, n, be cosines of the angle between the pressure p, and S the inwardly directed normal to the boundary surface. Then will diT+ J t +W) =ffP(l« + ™+nv)dS., (5) 6. Equations of acceleration and inertia. Let P be the potential of the external forces acting on a unit mass of the atmosphere; ju, be the coefficient of viscosity or internal friction. Then will du , + v. _dP_ I dp = du , dx pdx dt dx du . du dy dz _3P_ I a^ = 3w , dy p dy dt dv 1 dv 1 dw ■ V + V.-^ + W.-r- dx dy dz rshi , a% , dha "Uk 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 J dw "•-3- dz _ ra 2 D , dh . dH~\ ■ M Ld* 2 dy 2 dz 2 ] dw dw dw r- (6) dP I dp dw , «/«, , 17U, . — 5 T?- = -^r+U. -^ \-V. -r \-W.-r- dz p dz dt dx dy dz [ d 2 w , d 2 w , d 2 w l dx 2 + dy 2 ~ t ~ dz 2 ] Approximate Assumptions and Solutions. — After introducing into the preceding system of fundamental equations (1-6) the actual conditions as accurately as they are known relative to gravity, solar radiation, the rotation of the earth, the viscosity of the air, its mass or inertia, its absorption and radiation of heat, its variable content of moisture, the precipitation of rain and cloud, the mutual inter- conversions of latent and sensible heat, a special difficulty occurs when we attempt to integrate these equations, because we have still to express analytically the initial conditions of the atmosphere as to pressure and temperature, and its boundary conditions as between the rough earth surface on its lower side and the unknown outward surface on its upper side. As the true earth's surface cannot be represented by any simple algebraic formula, it is customary to assume that it is a uniform sphere, neglecting at least partially, if not wholly, the spheroidal shape. We may first assume that there is no friction between the earth and the air, but must afterwards make allowance for its influence. Thirdly, we assume that the action of the earth's surface to heat the air and to throw moisture by evaporation into the atmosphere is perfectly uniform. Finally, in many cases we go so far as to assume that the atmosphere is an incompressible rare liquid having a uniform density and a uniform depth of about 8000 metres, corresponding to the average standard density of dry air under a pressure of 760 millimetres and a temper- ature of 0° C. Even under these simplifications the analytic diffi- culties have been too great to admit of rigorous solutions, except in a few of the simplest cases. The treatment of atmospheric problems by Ferrel was followed by an equally ingenious mathematical treatment by Professors Guldberg and Mohn, of Christiana, in two papers published by them in 1876 and 1880 respectively. These authors, like Ferrel, treat isolated portions of the atmosphere and obtain special solutions, which, however, have not the generality that must eventually be demanded in a rigorous and general discussion of the atmosphere movements. Elegant mathematical solutions of our problems were first given in 1882 by Oberbeck, of the university of Halle, in the Ann. Phys. xvii. 128. But even Oberbeck's solutions are obtained under various simplifying assumptions that restrict their satisfactory application to the daily weather conditions. Oberbeck's first memoir treats of the mechanics of stationary cyclonic movements. Assuming that the isobars are concentric circles, and that in the outer portion of a cyclone the air has only horizontal movements, while in th(* inner portion it has only vertical movements, he solves his system of equations for the inner and outer regions of the cyclone separately. He shows that in general the pressure increases on all sides out- wards from the centre; the gradient also increases from the centre outwards to the limit of the inner region, whence it diminishes in the outer region and at a great distance becomes inappreciable. In both regions the paths of the wind are curved lines, logarithmic spirals, which cut the isobars or the radial gradient everywhere at the same angle; therefore the movement of the air can be considered as a spiral inflow from all sides towards the centre. But the angle between the wind and the gradient follows different laws in the outer and inner regions, depending in the former on the rotation of the PHYSICAL AND THEORETICAL] METEOROLOGY 283 earth and the friction, but in the latter also on the intensity of the ascending current of air. In passing from the outer to the inner surface the wind experiences a sudden change of angle, so that the directions of the winds are not continuous, although the movement and the barometric pressures are assumed to be continuous. This latter peculiarity does not occur in nature, and is undoubtedly an analytical result peculiar to Oberbeck's method of treating the fundamental equations. An improvement in the mathematical analysis was introduced by Dr F. Pockels of Gottingen in a memoir published in the Met. Zeit., 1893, pp. 9-19. He deduces equations showing the continuous changes of temperature, pressure, gradient, wind direction, and velocity from the centre of the cyclone to the outer edge of the anti- cyclone, or, more properly, the peri-cyclone; these, therefore, may reasonably be supposed to have their counterparts in nature. Such mathematical solutions, however, are based upon the assumption that we are dealing with a comparatively small portion of the earth's surface, which may be considered as a plane having a uniform diurnal rbtation and a uniform coefficient of friction. Moreover, the move- ments in the cyclones and anti-cyclones are assumed to be steady and permanent by reason of the perfect balance of all the forces involved therein. Of course these conditions are not exactly fulfilled, but in general Pockels shows that his theoretical results agree fairly well with the observed conditions as to wind and pressure. He computes the actual distribution of these elements under the assumption that the centre of the anti-cyclone is at latitude 55-5, and that the coefficient of friction is 0-00008, whereas viscosity proper would require only 0-0002. An elegant mathematical pre- sentation of these studies in cyclonic motion is given by W. Wien, Lehrbuch der Hydrodynamik (Leipzig, 1900). Notwithstanding the fact that these difficult mathematical investigations still lead us to unsatisfactory results, they are yet eminently instructive as showing the methods of interaction of the various forces involved in the motions of the atmosphere. We must therefore mention the interesting attack made by Oberbeck upon the problem of the general circulation of the atmosphere. His memoir on this subject was published in the Sitzungsberichte of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin in 1888. The fundamental assumption in this memoir implies that there is a general and simple system of circulation between the equatorial and the polar regions, but the eventual solution of the problem leads Oberbeck to two independent systems of winds, an upper and a lower, without any well-defined connexion at the polar and equatorial ends of these two currents, so that after all they are not rigorously re-entrant. Among the hypotheses introduced in the course of his mathematical work, the most important, and perhaps the one most open to objec- tion, is that the distribution of temperature throughout the atmo- sphere in both the upper and lower strata can be represented by the equation T = A+B (1—3 cos* 0). Undoubtedly this equa- tion represents observations in the lower strata near the surface of the earth, but the constants that enter into it, if not the form itself, must be changed for the upper strata. The solution arrived at by Oberbeck gives the following equations representing the components of the movement of the atmosphere toward the zenith V, toward the north N, and toward the east O: — V = C (1-3 cos 2 ?) f a O = D [sin 0(1—3 cos 2 0) g, while the curvature of the path of the wind is measured by its radius of curvature, which is vJ2n sin 4>> where v is the velocity of the wind, n is th« equatorial velocity of the earth's rotation, and is the latitude. It will be seen from this that there is no deflection at the equator; therefore, as Ferrel stated, there is no tendency to the formation of great whirlwinds at the equator, hence hurricanes and typhoons are rarely found within Ip° of the equator. Ferrel frequently speaks of an anti-cyclone, whereby he means the area of high pressure just outside of a strong cyclonic whirl; the expression pen-cyclone would have been more appropriate and is sometimes substituted. The term anti-cyclone, as first introduced by Galton in 1863, is applied to a system of winds blowing out frorn a central area of high pressure, and this is the common usage of tBe term in modern meteorology. The term cyclone among meteoro- logists and throughout English literature, except only a few cases in the United States, is equivalent to the older usage of whirlwind, and it is unfortunate that misunderstandings often arise because local usages in America apply the word cyclone to what has fof centuries been called a tornado. The mechanical principles discussed by Ferrel led him to an algebraic relation between the barometric gradient G, the wind velocity v, the radius of curvature of the isobar r, and the inclination i between the wind and the isobar, which is 1 Recherche sur le mouvement des projectiles dans I'air en ayant igard a I' influence du mouvement diurne de la terre ; dated 1837, printed Paris, 1839. PHYSICAL AND THEORETICAL] METEOROLOGY 285 expressed by the following formula for the pressures that prevail at sea-level : — G = [(2n sin<£+cosM)/r)i> sec t]/ [83 ,000,000]. A popular exposition of this and other results of Ferrel's work is given by Archibald in Nature (May 4, 1882), and still better in Ferrel's Treatise on the Winds (New York, 1889, and later editions). The charts of mean annual pressure, temperature and wind above referred to show certain broad features that embrace the whole system of atmospheric circulation, viz. the low pressures at the equator and the poles, the high pressures under the tropics, the trade winds below and the anti-trades above, with comparative calms under the belts of equatorial low pressure and tropical high pressure. The first effort of the mathematician was to explain how these mean average conditions depend upon each other, and to devise a system of general circulation of the wind consistent with the pressures, resistances and densities. But, as we have already said, such a system may be very far from that presented by the real atmosphere, and little by little we are being led to a different view of the question of the general circulation. The earlier students of storms generally accepted one of two views as to the cause of whirlwinds. They were either (1) formed mechanically between two principal currents of air flowing past each other, the so-called polar and equatorial currents ; or (2) they were due to the ascent of buoyant air while the heavier air flowed in beneath, the whirling motion being communicated by. the influence of the rotation of the earth, or by the greater resistances on one side than on the other. In order to explain why hurricanes and typhoons exist continuously for many days, or even weeks, it is necessary that there should be a source of energy to maintain a continued buoyancy and rising current at the centre, and this was supposed to be fully provided for by Espy's proof of the liberation of latent heat consequent on the formation of cloud and rain. To this latter consideration Abbe in 1 87 1 added the important influence of the sun's heat intercepted at the upper surface of the cloud. At this stage of the investigation the whirlwind is but an incident in the general circulation of the atmosphere, but further consideration shows that it ought rather to be regarded as an essential portion of that circulation, and that when temperature gradients and density gradients exceed a certain limit the formation of great whirlwinds is inevitable. Therefore an atmosphere containing several whirlwinds is just as truly a system of general circulation in the one case as an atmosphere without a whirlwind is in the other. The formation of rain, the evolution of latent heat, and even the absorption of heat at the upper surface of the cloud really constitute a normal general circulation in this special case. We may therefore consider a system of vortices, which is a system of discontinuous motions, as the most natural solution of the equations of motion — but the mathematical treatment of this form of motion has not yet been sufficiently well developed, for the discontinuity relates not only to the motion but to the thermal conditions and the interchange of vapour and water. In 1890 Professor Hann published a careful analysis of the actual temperature conditions prevailing over an extensive area of high pressure in Europe, and showed that the temperatures of the upper strata in both high and low areas, namely, in anti-cyclones and cyclones are often directly contrary to those supposed to prevail by Espy and Ferrel. This study necessitated a more careful ex- amination into the radiation of heat from the dust and moisture of the atmosphere, and Professor Abbe seems to have shown that in areas of high pressure and clear weather a very slow descending movement throughout each horizontal layer gives time for a radia- tion of heat that explains the anomalies of temperature, but the dynamic phenomena still remained - unexplained. On the other hand, von Helmholtz in several memoirs of 1888-1891 showed that waves or billows may be formed in the atmosphere of great extent at the dividing surface between upper and lower strata moving in different directions and with different velocities. Under specific conditions these billows may become like the breakers and caps of waves of the ocean when driven by the wind. The hypothesis that these aerial breakers correspond to cmr troughs of low pressure and the storms experienced in the lower atmosphere seemed very plausible. As these billows are formed between upper and lower air currents of great extent, which themselves represent a large portion of the horizontal circulation between the poles and the equator, it results that if von Helmholtz's suggestion and Hann's hypothesis are correct then all general storms must be considered as essentially a part of the general circulation rather than as caused by the vertical circulation over any locality. It must occur to everyone to adopt the intermediate view that, on the one hand, the local vertical circulation, with its clouds, rain, hail and snow, and evolution of latent heat, and, on the other hand the waves and whirls in the general circulation, mutually contribute toward our storms and fair weather. It only remains to allot to each its proper importance in any special case. Undoubtedly aerial billows, and the clouds that must frequently accompany them, exist everywhere in the earth's atmosphere. Perhaps their extent and importance are not properly appreciated. A voyage around the Atlantic Ocean in 1889-1890, made by Professor Abbe, specifically to study cloud phenomena, revealed many re- markable cases, such as the cumulus rolls that extend in a remarkably symmetrical series from the island of Ascension west- wards for 100 m. in the south-easterly trades, or the delicate fields of cirro-cumuli that extend from the islands of Santa Lucia and Barbados for 200 m. eastwards under favourable conditions. The mixtures and vorticose motions going on within aerial billows to form these clouds have been interpreted by Brillouin. In the further elucidation of the mechanism of storms Hann showed that every study of observational material confirms the conclusion that the descent of denser cool dry air is as important as the ascent of warm moist air, and that although the evolution of latent heat within the clouds of a storm may explain the local cloud phenomena, yet it will not explain the storm as a whole. The first " norther or blizzard " that was charted at Washington in November 1871 was at once seen to be a case of the underflow of a thin layer of cold dry air descending from high altitudes above Canada on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, but driven southward by an excess of centrifugal energy added to a moderate barometric gradient. It was seen that in such grand overturnings the descent of masses implies energy communicated by the action of gravity, but the whole mechanics of this process was not clear until the publication by Margules of his memoir tJber die Energie der Stilrme (Vienna, 1905), which will be referred to hereafter. Mathematics have, almost without exception, assumed a so-called steady condition in the motion of the atmosphere in order to achieve a successful integration of the general equations of motion. The restrictions within which Helmholtz and others have worked, and the limits within which their results are to be accepted, have been analysed by Dr E. Herrmann in a memoir of which a translation is published in the bulletin of the American Mathematical Society for June 1896. Of course Herrmann's own investigation is also based upon certain simplifying hypotheses, such as the absence of outside disturbing forces and of viscosity and friction, a homogeneous ellipsoidal surface, and a uniform initial temperature and rate of revolution corresponding to an initial state of equilibrium. If now the initial static equilibrium be disturbed by introducing a different distribution of temperature, viz. one that varies with altitude and latitude, but is uniform in longitude along any circle of latitude, then the first question is whether the atmosphere can settle down to a new state of static equilibrium. Herrmann shows that in general it cannot do so, but that the new state and the future states can only be those of motion and dynamic equilibrium. If, however, there be no external forces acting on the atmosphere, then in one case static equilibrium relative to the earth can occur, namely, when the new temperatures are so distributed in the atmosphere as to satisfy the equation / pr 2 wdV = M, in addition to the ordinary equations of elasticity, inertia and continuity previously given, and to those. representing the boundary conditions, M being the total amount of inertia of the atmosphere relative to the axis of rotation. In general, the movements in the atmosphere must consist not only of an interchange between the poles and the equator, but also of east and west motions, and there must therefore be a different rate of diurnal rotation for each stratum. The second step in this inquiry is, Can these movements become perfectly steady with this unvarying or steady distribution of temperature? In other words, Can the temperature and the movements be so adjusted to each other that each shall remain invariable within any given zone of latitude ? The reply to this is, that if they are to become thus adjusted they must satisfy a certain differential equation, which itself shows that steady motions and stationary temperatures cannot exist if there be any north or south component. Apart from the fact that Herrmann assumes no friction, it would seem that he has proved that steady motions and stationary pressures cannot exist in the atmosphere over a homo- geneous spherical surface, and presumably the same result would follow of a rotating globe for the irregular surface of the actual globe. The motions of the real atmosphere must therefore consist of irregular and periodic oscillations and discontinuous whirls and rolls super- imposed upon more uniform, regular progressions, but never repeat- ing themselves. Consequently, the conclusions deduced by those who have assumed that steady conditions are possible must depart more or less from meteorological observations. There is a general impression that the belt of low pressure at the equator and the low areas at the poles and the high pressures under the tropics ate pseudo-stationary, and really represent what would be steady-* conditions if we had an ideal smooth globe ; but Herrmann's researches show that the unsteadiness observed to attach to these areas under existing conditions would also attach to them under ideal conditions. They really have and must have irregular motions, and we, by taking annual averages, obtain an ideal annual distribution of pressure, temperature and wind that does not represent any specific dynamic problem. The averages represent what is considered proper in climatology, but are quite improper and misleading from a dynamic point of view, and have no logical mechanical connexion with each other. Closely connected with this study of steady motions under a constant supply and steady distribution of solar heat comes the further question as to what regular variations in atmospheric pressure and wind can be produced by regular seasonal variations 286 METEOROLOGY [PHYSICAL AND THEORETICAL in the heat received from the sun; for instance, what varia- tion in the earth's atmosphere corresponds to the periodic variations of the solar spots. The general current of Helmholtz's investigations shows that no periodic change in the earth's atmo- sphere can be maintained for any length of time by a given periodic influence outside of the atmosphere. On the other hand, it is barely possible that wave and vortex phenomena on the sun's surface may have the same periodicities as regular phenomena in the earth's atmosphere, so that there may be a parallelism without any direct connexion between the two. An important paper on the application of hydrodynamics to the atmosphere is that by Professor V. Bjerknes, of Stockholm, Sweden, which was read in September 1899 at Munich, and is now published in an English translation in the U.S. Monthly Weather Review, Oct. 1900 (" On the Dynamic Principle of Circulatory Movements in the Atmosphere "). In this memoir Bjerknes applies certain fundamental theorems in fluid motion by Helmholtz, Kelvin and Silberstein, and others of his own discovery to the atmospheric circulation. He simplifies the hydrodynamic concep- tions by dealing with density directly instead of temperature and pressure, and uses charts of " isosteres," or lines of equal density, very much as was proposed by Abbe in 1889 in his Preparatory Studies, where he utilized lines of equal buoyancy or " isostaths," and such as Elkholm published in 1891 as " isodenses " and which were called " isopyks " by Miiller-Hauenfels. Bjerknes has thus made it practicable to apply hydrodynamic principles in a simple manner without the necessity of analytically integrating the equa- tions, at least for many ordinary cases. He also gives an important criterion by which we may judge in any given case between the physi- cal theory, according to which cyclones are perpetually renewed, and the mechanical theory, according to which they are simply carried along in the general atmospheric current. Bjerknes's paper is illustrated by another one due to Mr Sandstrom, of Stockholm, who has applied these methods to a storm of September 1898 in the United States. 1 The further development of Bjerknes's methods promises a decided advance in theoretical and practical meteorology. His profound lectures at Columbia University in New York and in Washington in December 1905 aroused such an interest that the Carnegie Institution at once assigned the funds needed to enable him to complete and publish the applications to meteorology of the methods of analysis given in detail in Bjerknes's Vorlesungen (Leipzig, i. 1900, ii. 1902), and in his Recherche sur les champs de force hydrodynamiques (Stockholm), Acta Matematica (Oct. 1905). In his lectures of 1905 at Columbia University Bjerknes treated the atmosphere as a continuous hydrodynamic field of aerial sole- noids and forces acting on them, to which vector analysis can be applied, as was done by Heaviside for electric and magnetic problems. Every material point is a small spherical mass of air free to extend or contract with pressure, temperature or moisture; free to rotate about each of three movable axes passing through its centre and to move along and revolve about three fixed axes through the centre of the earth. These numerous degrees of freedom are easily ex- pressed in Bjerknes's notation and by his typical equations of motion. The density at any point is recognized as the fundamental "dimen- sion " controlling inertia and movement. The observed atmospheric condition at any moment is shown by a series of isodense surfaces intersecting potential surfaces of equal gravity and thus forming a continuous mass of unit solenoids. This field becomes either an electric, magnetic or hydrodynamic field according to the interpreta- tion assigned to the notations — in either case the analytical pro- cesses are identical. The analogies or homologies of these tnree sets of phenomena are complete. throughout, and those of one field elucidate or illustrate those of the two other fields. This is the out- come of the study of such analogies begun by Euler, Helmholtz, Hoppe.and extensively furthered by Maxwell and Kelvin, but espe- cially by C. A. Bjerknes. The homologies or analogies by V. Bjerknes are given at p. 122 of his Recherche (1905), and include the following six triads : — C Hydrodynamics . velocity of unit mass I. < Magnetics . . . magnetic induction ^ Electrics . . . electric induction f Hydrodynamics . intensity of the field II. -j Magnetics ... ,, ,, ,, |^ Electrics ... ,, ,, ,, f Hydrodynamics . velocity of energy III. -j Magnetics . . . intrinsic magnetic polarization [ Electrics ... ,, electric ,, f Hydrodynamics . velocity of expansion per unit volume IV. < Magnetics . . . density of the true magnetic mass ^Electrics ... „ ,, electric ,, {Hydrodynamics . density of the dynamic vortex Magnetics ... „ „ steady magnetic current Electrics ... ,-, „ ,, magnetic ,, (" Hydrodynamics . specific volume VI. -j Magnetics . . . magnetic permeability L Electrics . . dielectric constant 1 " On the Construction of Isobaric Charts for High Levels in the Earth's Atmosphere and their Dynamic Significance," Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. (1906). which have been slightly rectified by Dr G. H. Ling, Am. Jour. Math. (1908). In the application of Bjerknes's methods of study to the daily weather map Sandstrom draws special maps to represent the solenoids and the forces. Barometric pressures are reduced from the observing stations not only down to sea-level but up to other level surfaces of gravity. The differences between these level surfaces represent the work done in raising a unit mass from one level to the next (see Bjerknes and Sandstrom, A Treatise on Dynamic Meteorology and Hydrography, Washington, 1908). The Diurnal and Semi-diurnal Periodicities in Barometic Pressure. — For a long time attempts were made to explain the periodic variations of the barometer by a consideration of static conditions, but it is now evident that this problem, like that of the circulation of the atmosphere, is a question of aerodynamics. A most extensive series of researches into the character of the phenomena from an observational point of view has been made by Hann, who gave a summary of our knowledge of the subject in the Met. Zeit. for 1898, translated by R. H. Scott in the Quart. Jour. Roy. Met. Soc. (Jan. 1899) (see also an important addition by Hann and Trabert in the Met. Zeit., Nov. 1899, and the summary of his results as given in his Lehrbuch, 1906). Hann has shown that at the earth's surface three regular periodic variations are established by observation, viz. the diurnal, semi-diurnal and ter-diurnal. On the higher moun- tains these variations change their character with altitude. (1) At the equator the diurnal variation is represented by the formula 0-30 mm. sin (5°+3c), where x is the local hour angle of the sun. In higher latitudes either north or south the coefficient Ai =0-30 mm. diminishes, but the phase angle, 5°, varies greatly, generally growing larger. It is therefore evident that this diurnal oscillation depends directly on the hour angle of the sun, and probably, therefore, principally on the amount of heat and vapour received by the atmo- sphere from the ocean and the ground at any locality and season of the year. It is apparently but little affected by the wind, but some- what by altitude above sea; the amplitude diminishes to zero at a certain elevation, and then reappears and increases with the opposite sign; the phase angle does not change. (2) Superimposed upon this diurnal oscillation is a larger semi-diurnal one, which goes through its maximum and minimum phases twice in the course of a civil day. The amplitude of this variation is largest in equatorial regions, and is expressed by the formula Ai = (0-988 mm. — 0-573 mm. sin 2 ) cos 2 as given by Hann, or A2 = ( (V92 mm. — C495 sin 2 <£ ) cos V as revised by Trabert. This amplitude also may be considered as • variable along each zone of latitude having a maximum value on certain central local meridians. The times at which the semi-diurnal phases of maximum and minimum occur are subject to laws different from those for the diurnal period. Within the tropics the phase angle is 160° and at 50 N. it is 147 , and between these limits it seems to be the same over the whole globe, so that the phase does not depend clearly "upon the hour angle of the sun or on the local time. The amplitudes appear to depend on the excess of land in the northern hemisphere as compared with the water and cloud of the southern hemisphere. The amplitude also varies during the year, being greatest at perihelion and least at aphelion. Hann suggests that this is an indirect effect of the sun's heat on the earth, as the northern hemisphere is hotter when the earth is in aphelion than is the southern hemisphere when the earth is in perihelion, owing to the preponderance of land in the north and water in the south. (3) The ter-diurnal oscillation has the approximate value shown by the formula 0-04 mm. sin (355°+3*). The phase angle is sensibly the same everywhere, and the amplitude varies slightly with the latitude. Both phase and amplitude have a pronounced annual period which is as remarkable as that of the semi-diurnal oscillation ; the maximum amplitude occurs in January in the northern hemi- sphere, and in July in the southern. The physics of the atmosphere has not yet been explored so exhaustively as to explain fully these three systematic barometric variations, but neither have we as yet any necessity for appealing to some unknown cosmic action as a possible cause of their existence. The action of the solar heat upon the illuminated hemisphere, and the many consequences that result therefrom, may be expected to explain the barometric periods. The variations of sunshine and cloud must inevitably produce periodic variations of temperature, moisture, pressure and motion, whose exact laws we have not as yet fathomed. Among the many methods of action that have been studied or sug- gested in connexion with the barometric variations the most impor- tant of all is the so-called tidal wave of pressure due to temperature. Laplace applied his investigations on the tides to the gravitational tide of the ocean, and when he passed to the corresponding solar and lunar gravitational tides of the atmosphere he was able to show that they must be inappreciable, unless, indeed, certain remarkable relations existed between the circumference of the earth and the depth of the atmosphere. As these relations do not exist, if is generally conceded as certain that the gravitational tides, both diurnal and semi-diurnal, cannot exceed a few thousandths of an inch of barometric pressure. On the other hand, the same process of mathematical reasoning enables us to investigate the action of the sun's heat in producing a wave of pressure that has been called a pressural tide, due to the expansion of the lower layer of air on the illuminated half of the globe. The laws that must govern these pressural tides have been investigated by Kelvin, Rayleigh (Phil. PHYSICAL AND THEORETICAL] METEOROLOGY 287 Mag., Feb. 1890), and especially by Margules {Vienna Sitz. Ber. 1890-1893). The two latter have shown the truth of a proposition enunciated by Kelvin in 1882, without demonstration, to the effect that the free oscillation produced by a relatively small amount of tide-producing force will have an amplitude that is larger for the half-day term than for the whole-day term. They therefore explain the diurnal and semi-diurnal variations of the barometric pressure as simple pressural tides or waves of expansion, originally produced by solar heat, but magnified by the resonance between forced and free waves in an atmosphere and on a globe having the specific dimensions of our own. The analytical processes by which Laplace and Kelvin arrived at this special solution of the tidal equation were, objected to by Airy and Ferrel, but the matter has been, as we think, most fully cleared up by Dr G. H. Ling, in a memoir published in the Annals of Mathematics in 1896. He seems to have shown that, although a literally correct result was attained by Laplace in his first investigation, yet his methods as presented in the Mecanique cileste were at fault from a rigorous analytical point of view. The process by which a diurnal temperature wave produces a semi- diurnal pressure oscillation, as explained by Rayleigh and Margules, may be stated as follows: The diurnal temperature wave having a twenty-four hours period is the generating force of a diurnal pressure tide, which is essentially a forced and small oscillation. The natural period of the free waves in the atmosphere agrees much more nearly with twelve than with twenty-four hours. In so far as the forced and the free waves reinforce each other, the semi-diurnal waves are reinforced far more than the other, so that a very small semi-diurnal term in the temperature oscillations will produce a pressure oscilla- tion two or three times as large as the same term would in the diurnal period. These reinforcements, however, depend upon the elastic pressure within the atmosphere, just as does the velocity of sound. If the prevailing barometric pressures were slightly increased, the adjustment of the twelve-hours free wave of pressure to the forced wave of temperature could be so perfect that the barometric wave would increase to an indefinite extent. For the actual temperatures the periodicity of the free wave is about thirteen hours, or somewhat longer than the forced wave of temperature, so that the barometric oscillation does not become excessive. It would seem that we have here a suggestion to the effect that if in past geological ages the aver- age temperature at any time has been about 268° C. on the absolute scale, then the pressure waves could have been so large as to produce remarkable and perhaps disastrous consequences, involving the loss of a portion of the atmosphere. A modification of this idea of resonance has been developed by Dr Jaerisch, of Hamburg (Met. Zeit., 1907), but the general truth of the Kelvin-Margules-Rayleigh theorem still abides. The Thermodynamics of a Moist Atmosphere. — The preceding section deals with an incompressible gas, and therefore with simple, pure hydrodynamics. If now we introduce the conception ol an atmosphere of compressible gas, whose density increases with alti- tude, so that rising and falling currents change their temperatures by reason of the expansion and compression of the masses of air, we take the first step in the combination of thermodynamic and hydrodynamic conditions. If we next introduce moisture, and take precipitation into consideration, we pass to the difficult prob- lems of cloud and rain that correspond more nearly to those which actually occur in meteorology. This combination has been eluci- dated by the works of Espy and Ferrel in America, Kelvin in England, Hann and Margules in Austria, but especially by Hertz, Helmholtz, and von Bezold in Germany, and by Brillouin in France. A general review of the subject will be found in Professor Bigelow's report on the cloud work of the U.S. Weather Bureau and his subsequent memoirs " On the Thermodynamics ol the Atmosphere " (Monthly Weather Review, 1906-1909). The proper treatment of this subject began with the memoir of Kelvin on convective equilibrium (see Trans. Manchester Phil. Soc, 1861). The most convenient method of dealing approximately with the problems is graphic and numerical rather than analytical, and in this field the pioneer work was done by Hertz, who published his diagram for adiabatic changes in the atmosphere in the Met. Zeit. in 1884. He considers the adiabatic changes of a kilogram of mixed air and aqueous vapour, the proportional weights of each being X and n respectively. In a subsequent elaborate treatment of the same subject by von Bezold in four memoirs published during 1889 and 1899, the formulae and methods are arranged so as to deal easily with the ordinary cases of nature which are not adiabatic ; he there- fore prepares diagrams and tables to illustrate the changes going on in a unit mass of dry air to which has been added a small quantity of aqueous vapour, which, of course, may vary to any extent. Both Hertz and von Bezold consider separately four stages or conditions of atmosphere: (A) The dry stage, where aqueous vapour to a limited extent only is mixed with the dry air. (B) The rain stage, where both saturated vapour and liquid particles are simultaneously present. (C) The hail stage, where saturated aqueous vapour, and water, and ice are all three present. (D) The snow stage, where ice vapour and snow itself, or crystals of ice, are present. The expressions aqueous vapour and ice vapour do not occur in Hertz's article, but are now necessary, since Marvin, Fischer and Juhlin have been able to show that vapour from water and vapour from ice exert different elastic pressures, and must therefore represent different modifications of of Alter Hertz. Fig. io. — ^Diagram for Graphic Method of following Adiabatic Changes. liquid water. According to Hertz, we may easily follow this mass of moist air as it rises in the atmosphere, if by expansion it cools adiabatically so as to go successively through the four preceding stages. For a few thousand feet it remains dry air. It then becomes cloudy and enters the second stage. Next it rises higher until the cloudy particles begin to freeze into snow, sleet or hail, which charac- terizes the third stage. When the water has frozen and the cloud has ascended higher, it contains only ice particles and the vapour of ice, a condition which characterizes the fourth or snow stage. If in this condition we give it plenty of time the precipitated ice or snow may settle down, and the cloudy air, becoming clear, return to the first stage; but the ordinary process in nature is a circulation by which both the cloud and the air descend together slowly, warming up as they descend, so that eventually the mixture returns to the first stage at some level lower than the clouds, though higher than the starting-point. The exact study of the ordinary non-adiabatic process can be carried out by the help of Professor Bigelow's tables, and especially by the very ingenious tables published by Neuhoff (Berlin, 1900), but the approximate adiabatic study is so helpful that in fig. 10 we have traced a few lines from Hertz's diagram sufficient to illustrate its use and convenience. The reader will perceive a horizontal line at the base representing sea-level; near the middle of this line is zero centigrade; as we ascend above this base into the upper regions of the air we come under lower pressures, which are shown by the figures on the left-hand side. The scale of pressures is logar- ithmic, so that the corresponding altitudes would be a scale of equal parts. The temperature and pressure at any height in the atmosphere are shown by this diagram. If the air be satur- ated at a given temperature, then the unit volume can contain only a definite number of grams of water, and this condition is repre- sented by a set of moisture lines, indicated by short dashes, show- ing the temperature and pres- sure under which 5, 10 or 20 grams of water may be contained ia the saturated air. Let us now suppose that we are following the behaviour of a kilogram mass of air rising from near sea-level, where it has a pressure of 750 millimetres, a temperature of 27° C., and a relative humidity of 50 %. A pointer pressing down upon the diagram at 750 millimetres and 27 C. will represent this initial con- dition. A line drawn through that point parallel to the moisture lines will show that if this air were saturated it would contain about 22 grams of water; but inasmuch as the relative humidity is only 50 %, therefore it actually contains only 1 1 grams of water,, and an auxiliary moisture line may be drawn for this amount. If how the mass rises and cools by expansion, the relation between pressure and temperature will be shown by the line a a. When this line inter- sects the inclined moisture line for 1 1 grams of water we know that the rising mass has cooled to saturation, and this occurs when the pressure is about 640 millimetres and the temperature l3-2° C. By further rise and expansion a steady condensation continues* but by reason of the latent heat evolved the rate of cooling is dimin- ished and follows the line (S 0. The condensed vapour or cloud particles are here supposed to be carried up with the cooling air,, but the temperature of freezing or zero degrees centigrade is soon attained — as the diagram shows — when the pressure is about 472 millimetres. At this point the special evolution of latent heat of freezing comes into play; and although the air rises higher and more moisture is condensed, the temperature does not fall because the water already converted into vapour and now becoming ice is giving out latent heat sufficient to counteract the cooling due to expansion. This illustration from Hertz's diagram therefore shows that the curve for cooling temperature coincides with the vertical line for freezing, and is represented on the diagram by the short piece y.. By this expansion due to ascent the volume is increased while the^ 1 temperature is not changed; therefore, the quantity of aqueous vapour has increased. When the ascending mass has reached the level where the pressure is 463 millimetres it has also reached the moisture line that represents this increase in aqueous vapour. As this shows that the aqueous particles have now all been frozen, and as the air is now continuously rising, while its temperature is always below freezing-point, therefore at levels above this point the vapour that condenses from the air is supposed to pass directly over into the condition^ solid ice. Therefore from this point onwards the falling temperatures follow along the line y 7, and continue along it in- definitely. From these considerations it follows that the clouds above the altitude of freezing temperatures are essentially snow crystals, and if the air rises slowly there may be time for the water and ice to settle down towards the ground ; in this case the quantity 288 METEOROLOGY [PHYSICAL AND THEORETICAL of snow left within the clouds must be Very small, and the cloud has the delicate appearance peculiar to cirrus. Hertz's original diagram is quite covered by these systems of a, fi, y and S lines, and the moisture lines. The lines show the density of the moist air at any stage of the process. The improved diagram by Neuhoff , pub- lished in 1900, is reprinted in the second volume of Abbe's Mechanics of the Earth's Atmosphere, and its arrangements help to' solve many problems suggested by the recent progress of aerial research. In von Bezold's treatment of this subject only illustrative diagrams are published, because the accurate figures, drawn to scale,' are necessarily too large and detailed. He presents graphically the exact explanation of the cooling by expansion, the loss of both mass and neat by the rainfall and snowfall, and the warmth of the remaining air when it descends as foehn winds in Switzerland and chinook winds in Montana. Even in the neighbourhood of a storm over low lands and the ocean, the warm moist air in front, after being carried up to the rain or snow stage, flows away on the upper west wind until a corresponding portion of the latter descends drier and warmer on the opposite side of the central low pressure. In order to have a convenient term expressive of* the fact that two masses of air in different portions of the atmosphere having different pressures, temperatures and moistures, would, if brought to the same pressure, also necessarily attain the same temperature, von Bezold introduced the expression " potential temperature," and devised a simple dia- gram by which the potential temperature may be determined for any mass of air whose present temperature, pressure and moisture are known. In an ascending mass of air, from the beginning of the condensation onwards, the potential temperature steadily increases by reason of the loss of moisture, but in a descending mass of air it re- mains constant at the maximum value attained by it at the highest point of its previous path. In general the potential temperatures of the upper strata of the atmosphere are higher than those of the lower. In general the so-called vertical temperature gradient is smaller than would correspond to the adiabatic rate for the dry stage. This latter gradient is 0-993° C. per hundred metres for the dry stage, but the actual atmospheric observations give about o-6°. Apparently this difference represents primarily the latent heat evolved by the condensation of vapour as it is carried into the upper layers, but it also denotes in part the effect of the radiant heat directly retained in the atmosphere by the action of the dust and the surfaces of the clouds. Passing from simple changes due to ascent and descent, von Bezold next investigated the results of the mixture of different masses of air, having different temperatures and humidities, or different potential temperatures. The importance of such mixtures was exaggerated by Hutton, while that of thermo- dynamic processes was maintained by Espy, but the relative significance of the two was first clearly shown by Hann as far as it relates to the formation of rain, and further details have been con- sidered by von Bezold. The practical tables contained in Professor Bigelow's report on clouds, and those of Neuhoff as arranged for the use of those who follow up von Bezold's train of thought, complete our methods of studying this subject. A most important application of the views of von Bezold, Hertz and Helmholtz was published by Brillouin in his memoir of 1898. Just as we have learned that the motions of the atmosphere are not due either to the general distribution of heat or to local influences exclusively, but in part to each, and just as we have learned that the temperature of the air is not due either to radiation and absorption or to dynamic processes exclusively, but to both combined, so in the phenomena of rain and cloud the precipitation is not always due to the cooling by mixture, 01 to the cooling by expansion, or to radia- tion, but is in general a complex result of all. The effect of the evaporation of cloudy particles in the production of descending cold currents has always been understood in a general way, but was first brought to prominence by Espy in 1838, and perhaps equally forcibly by Faye in 1875. Helmholtz, in his memoirs on billows in the atmosphere, showed how contiguous currents may interact on each other and mix together at their boundary surface; but Brillouin explains how these mixtures produce cloud and rain — not heavy rains, of course, but light showers, and spits of snow and possibly hail. He says: " When the layers of clear or cloudy air are contiguous, but moving with very different velocities, their motion, relative to the earth because of the rotation of our globe, assumes a- much more complicated character than that which obtains when the air has no horizontal but only a vertical motion. We know in a general manner what apparent auxiliary forces must be introduced in order to take into account this rotation, and numerous meteorolbgists have published important works on the subject since the first memoirs by Ferrel. But their points of view have been very different from mine. The subjects that I desire to study are the surfaces of discontinuity as to velocity, temperature and cloudiness in one special case only. Analytical methods permit us to resblve complex questions only for limited areas in longitude and for contiguous zones within which the movements are steady, but not necessarily uniform nor parallel. But it is evident that one can learn much as to the condition of permanence or destruction of annular zones having uniform and parallel movements. Thus simplified, the questions can be treated by elementary geometric methods, by means of which we at once rediscover and complete the results given by Helmholtz for zones of clear air and discover a whole series of new results for zones of cloudy air." Among Brillouin's results are the following theorems :— A. If the atmosphere be divided into narrow zonal rings, each extending completely around the globe, thus covering a narrow zone of latitude, and if each is within itself in convective equilibrium so that the surfaces of equal pressure shall be surfaces of revolution around the axis of rotation, then within any such complete ring in convective equilibrium the angular velocity of any particle of the air will vary in inverse ratio of the square of its distance from the axis of rotation, or or 2 is constant ; that is to say, the air will not move like a rotating solid, but will have a variable angular velocity, smaller far from the axis and greater near to it. B. The surfaces of equal pressure are more concave towards the centre than is the surface of the globe itself, and they are tangent to the latter only along the parallel where calms prevail. C. A heavy gaseous atmosphere resting upon a rotating friction- less globe divides itself into concentric rings whose angular move- ments increase as we pass from the polar region towards the equa- torial ring; the central globe rotates more rapidly than the equatorial atmospheric ring. D. The surface of separation between two contiguous concentric rings must be such that the atmospheric pressure shall have the same value as one approaches this surface from either direction, and the surface of separation is stable if the differences of pressure in different parts of this surface are directed towards the surface of equilibrium. As the distribution of pressure along a line parallel to the axis of rotation is independent of the velocity of rotation, the ordinary condition of stability, viz. that the gas of which the lower ring is composed shall be denser than that above, will hold good for this line. In general, any inclination of the surface of separation to the horizon amounting to io° must be associated with very small differences of density and large differences of velocity; in practice the inclinations are far less than io°. E. If the surfaces of equal pressure or isobars are nearly horizontal, as in ordinary cases, the calculations are comparatively easy to make. Let the inclination of the isobaric surface ascending towards the pole be ; let hi be a distance counted along the axis of the earth, and Hi the distance measured in the direction of the attraction of gravity ; then the angle of inclination of the isobaric surface is given by the equation Hi — hi sin X tail = — — , ,. «i cos A where X is the complement of the angle between the direction of gravity and the line drawn to the poles, or the axis oi rotation of the earth. The surface of separation is that over which the pressure is the same in two contiguous masses or zones, and is identical with a vertical plane only when the densities and velocities in the two layers have certain specific relations to each other. It can never lie between the isobaric surfaces that Brillouin designates as 1 and 2. In order that the equilibrium may be stable, it is necessary that when ascending in the atmosphere along a line parallel to the polar axis one should traverse layers of diminishing density. In the midst of any zone there cannot exist another zone of limited altitude; it must extend upwards indefinitely. Whenever there is any zone ( of limited altitude it must necessarily have, near its highest or lbwest point, an edge by which it is attached to the surface of separation of two other neighbouring zones. In other words, the surfaces of separation of the three zones, of which one is limited and the other two are indefinite, must all run together at a common point or edge, very much as in the problem of the equilibrium of thin films. F. When the contiguous zones are cloudless the mixtures take place under the following conditions: Starting from the stable conditions, the cloudless mixture ascends on the polar side when the west wind which prevails on the equatorial side of the surface of separation is warmer* but descends between the pole and the equa- torial side of the horizon when the west wind which prevails on the equatorial side of the surface of separation is colder. The mixture's of cloudless air rapidly occupy the whole height of the two layers that are mixing. When they form along a surface that becomes unstable the whirlwind that is thus engendered is sensibly cylindrical at first, but finally becomes extremely conical. This whirlwind may be limited as to height when the two contiguous masses that are mixing are surmounted by a third clear or cloudy layer which intersects the other two and whose lower surface is stable. (Brillouin suggests that possibly this corresponds to the formation of water-spouts and\ tornadoes.) G. When the contiguous zones are cloudy and the mixtures produce decided condensations, and sometimes even precipitation, the study of these must follow closely in the train of thought followed out by von Bezold. When the contiguous winds are feeble, but the temperatures are very different and the zones are near the equator, then the position of the mixture can be inverted by condensation, since the influence of difference of pressure becomes predominant. At the equator, whatever may be the difference of temperature, a mixture that is accompanied by condensation always rises if the surface of separation is stable. The condensation increases by the expansion, each zone of mixture being an outburst of ascend-' ing cumuli. At the equator, whatever may be the difference of PHYSICAL AND THEORETICAL] METEOROLOGY 289 temperature, a mixture accompanied by condensation always | descends when the surface of separation is unstable; moreover, the adiabatic compression rapidly evaporates the mixture. In the last three chapters of his memoir, Brillouin applies these principles and other details to almost every observed variety of mixtures due to the pressure of one current of air against another. Fig. 11, prepared for the U.S. Monthly Weather Review (Oct. Light fia/n . Very co/d. Gust-y Very tvarm Wirfe C/ear Co/cf Ware. After Brillouin. Fig. 11. — Diagram illustrating Clouds due to Mixture. '897), gives five of the cases elucidated by Brillouin. In each of these the left-hand side of the diagram is the polar side, the air being cold above and the wind from the east, while the right-hand side is the equatorial side, the air being warm above and the wind from the west. The reader will see that in each case, depending on the relative temperatures and winds, layers of cloud are formed of marked in- dividuality. As none of these clouds appear in the International Cloud Atlas or the various systems of notation for clouds, one is all the more impressed with the importance of their study and the success with which Brillouin has opened up the way for future investigators. " We have no longer to do with perl sonal and local experience, but with an analytical description of a small number of characteristics easy to comprehend and applicable at every locality throughout the globe." From a thermodynamic point of view the most important study is that published by Margules, Ueber die Energie der Stilrme (Vienna, 1905). This work considers only the total energy and its adiabatic trans- formations within a mass of air constituting a closed system. Truly adiabatic changes in closed systems do not occur within any special portion of the earth's atmosphere, neither can our entire atmosphere be considered as one such system— but Margules' results are approxi- mately applicable to many observed cases and complete the demon- stration of the general truth that we must not confine our studies to the simpler cases treated by Espy, Reye, Sohncke, Peslin, Ferrel, Mohn. All imaginable combinations of conditions exist in our atmosphere, and a method must be found to treat the whole subject 1 comprehensively and rigorously. The three equations of energy on which Margules bases his work are: — R+5(K+P)+«A=o Sl-aA=Q R-r-8(K+P)+«I=Q where R= energy lost by friction or converted into heat; K = kinetic energy due to velocity of moving masses ; P = potential energy due to location and gravity and pressure heat; A = work done by internal forces when air is expanding or contracting; I=internal energy due to the existing pressure and temperature; Q = quantity of heat or thermal energy added or lost during any operation and which is zero during adiabatic processes only. These equations are applied to cases in which masses of air of different temperatures and moistures are superposed and then left free to assume stable equilibrium. It results in every case that there is no free energy developed. Any condensation of moisture by expan- xvrn. 10. sion is counterbalanced by redistribution of potential energy and by the work done in the interchange of locations. The idea that baro- metric pressure gradients make the storm-winds is seen to be erron- eous and the primary importance of gravity gradients is brought to light. " The source, of a storm is to be sought only in the poten- tial energy of position and in the velocity of ascent and descent, although these are generally lost sight of owing to the great horizon- tal and small vertical dimensions of the storm areas The horizontal distribution of pressure seems to be a forced transformation within the storm areas at the boundary surface of the earth, by reason of which a small part of the mass of air acquires a greater velocity than it could by ascending in the coldest or sinking in the warmest part of the storm areas. But here we come to problems that cannot be solved by considering the energy only." This latter quotation emphasizes the necessity of returning to the equations of motion. The thermodynamics and hydrodynamics of the atmosphere must be studied in intimate connexion— they can no longer be studied separately. Apparently we may expect this next step to be taken in the above-mentioned work promised by V. Bjerknes, but meanwhile Professor F. H. Bigelow has success- fully attacked some features of the problem in his " Studies on the Thermodynamics of the Atmosphere " (Monthly Weather Review, Jan.-Dec. 1906). In ch. iii- of his studies (Monthly Weather Review, March 1906) Bigelow establishes a thermodynamic formula applic- able to non-adiabatic processes by introducing a factor n so that the pressure (P) and absolute temperature (T) are connected by the formula P 2 _/T_\ »"(«-i) p~\rj In our fig. 1 above given, Cottier has assumed n = i-2, but as the values have now been computed for all altitudes from the observa- tions given by balloons and kites, and have a very general importance and interest, we copy them from Bigelow's Table 16 as below: — The existence of such large values of n shows the great extent to which non-adiabatic processes enter into atmospheric physics. Heat is being radiated, absorbed, transferred and transformed on all occasions and at all altitudes. Knowing thus the thermodynamic structure of areas of high and low pressure we find the modifications needed in the energy formula for non-adiabatic processes — and Bigelow applies the resulting formula most satisfactorily to a famous waterspout of the 19th of August 1896 over Nantucket Sound, for which many photographs and measurements are available. The thermodynamic study of this waterspout being thus accomplished, it was followed by a combined thermohydrodynamic study of all Altitudes. Values of n between successive levels. All. America. Europe. Both A. and E. Winter. Summer. Winter. Summer. Winter. Summer. kil. 16-14 3-04 2-82 3'04 3-59 3-04 3-20 3-12 14-12 4-39 2-82 4-39 3-°4 4-39 2-93 3-66 12-10 2-08 1-72 2-08 1-64 2-08 1-68 1-88 10- 9 1-52 1-47 1-52 1-41 1-52 1-44 1-48 9- 8 1-39 1 -41 1 -41 1-32 1-40 1-36 1-38 8- 7 1 -41 1-52 1-41 1-41 1 -41 1-46 1-44 7-6 1-45 1-67 1-41 1-52 1-43 i-6o 1-52 6- 5 1-52 1-52 1-41 1-62 1-46 1-57 1-52 5- 4 1-79 1 41 1-67 1-70 1-73 1-56 1-64 4- 3 1-97 1-32 1-79 1-94 1-88 1-63 1-76 3- 2 2-10 1-65 2-01 2-30 2 "06 1-98 2-02 2- 1 3-52 1-83 2-24 1-67 2-88 1-75 2-32 1- 2-30 1-83 2-47 1-64 2-38 1-74 2-06 storms (Monthly Weather Review, November 1907-March 1909) with considerable success. We have thus passed in review the steady progress of mathe- matical physicists in their efforts to unravel the complex dynamics of our atmosphere. The profound importance of this subject to governmental weather bureaus, and through them to the whole civilized world, stimulates diligent effort to overcome the inherent difficulties of the problems. An elaborate system of study and laboratory experimentation leading up to research in meteorcjogy has been devised by Cleveland Abbe, culminating in experiments on models of the atmosphere as a whole by which to elucidate both the local and the general circulations on globes whose oro- graphy and distribution of land and water is as irregular as that of the earth. The Formation of Rain.— Not only has dynamic meteorology made the progress delineated -in the previous sections, but one of the most important questions in molecular physics is in process of being cleared up. The study of atmospheric nuclei and con- densation and the formation of clouds in their relation to daily meteorological work began with the appointment of Dr Carl Barus in 1891 as physicist to the U.S. Weather Bureau, and his work has been laboriously continued and extended in his laboratory at Providence, Rhode Island. The formation of rain, from a physical point of view, 11 2go METEOROLOGY [COSMICAL is the ultimate step in the formation of cloud. The cloud consists, like fog, of extremely small particles, so light that they float in- definitely in the air; rain and snow represent those particles that have grown to be too large and heavy to be any longer sustained by the air — that is to say, their rate of fall through the air is greater than the ascending component of the air in which they float. The process by which larger drops are formed out of the lighter particles that constitute a cloud has not yet been satisfactorily explained. It is probable that either one of several processes contributes to bring about this result, and that in some cases all of these conspire together. The following paragraphs represent the hypotheses that have marked the gradual progress of our knowledge : — A. Cloud particles may be driven together by the motions imparted to them by the wind, and may thus mechanically unite into larger ones, which, as they descend more rapidly, overtake the smaller ones and grow into rain-drops. B. The particles on the upper boundary of a cloud may at night- time, or in the shade, cool more decidedly than their neighbours below them, either by radiation or by mixture ; then the air in their immediate vicinity becomes correspondingly cold, the particles and their envelopes of cold air sink more rapidly, overtaking, and there- fore uniting, with other particles until the larg^e rain-drops are formed. C. Some cloud particles may be supposed to be electrified posi- tively and others negatively, causing them to attract each other and run together into larger ones, or, again, some may be neutral and others charged, which may also bring about attraction and union. D. When any violent agitation of the air, such as the sound waves due to thunder, or cannonading, or other explosions, sets the particles in motion, they may be driven together until brought into contact, and united into larger drops. E. The air — or, properly speaking, the vapour — between cloudy particles — that is to say, within fog or cloud, is generally in a state of supersaturation ; but if it is steadily rising to higher altitudes, thereby expanding and cooling, the supersaturation must increase steadily until it reaches a degree at which the molecular strain gives way, and a sudden violent condensation takes place, in which process both the vapour and the cloud particles within a compara- tively large sphere are instantaneously gathered into a large drop. The electricity that may be developed in this process may give rise to the lightning flash, instead of the reverse process described in the preceding paragraphs (C and D). F. However plausible the preceding five hypotheses have seemed to be, it must be confessed that no one has ever yet observed pre- cipitation actually formed by these processes. The laborious observations of C. T. R. Wilson of Cambridge,' England, probably give us our first correct idea as to the molecular processes involved in the formation of rain. After having followed up the methods inaugurated by Aitken showing that the" particles of dust floating in the air, no matter of what they may be composed, become by pre- ference the nuclei upon which the moisture begins to condense when air is cooled by expansion, Wilson then showed that in absolutely dustless air, having therefore no nuclei to facilitate condensation, the latter could only occur when the air is cooled to a much greater extent than in the case of the presence of dust ; in fact, dustless air requires to be expanded more than dusty air in the ratio of 4 to 3, or 1 J times more. The amount of this larger expansion may vary somewhat with the temperature, the moisture and the gases. More remarkable still, he showed that dustless air, having no visible or pro- bable nuclei, acquired such nuclei when a beam of ultra-violet light, or of the rontgen rays, or the uranium radiation, or of ordinary sunlight (which possibly contains all of these radiations), was allowed to pass through the moist air in his experimental tube. In other words, these rays produce a change -in the mixed gas and vapour similar to the formation of nuclei, and condensation of aqueous vapour takes place upon these invisible nuclei as readily as upon the visible dust nuclei. Further, the presence of certain metals within the experimental tube also produces nuclei; but the amount of expansion, and therefore of cooling, required to produce condensa- tion upon these metallic nuclei is rather larger than in the case of dust nuclei. The nuclei thrown into the experimental tube by the discharge of electricity from a pointed metal wire produced very dense fogs by means of expansions slightly exceeding those required for ordinary dust. Finally, Wilson has been able to show that when dust particles are electrified negatively their tendency to condense vapour upon themselves as nuclei is much greater than when they are electrified positively, and he suggests that the descent of the rain-drops to the ground, carrying negative electricity from the atmosphere to the earth, may perhaps explain the negative charge of the earth and the positive electricity of the atmosphere. At this point we come into contact with the views developed by J. J. Thomson as to the nature of electricity and the presence of negative and positive nuclei in the atmosphere. According to him, " The molecules made up of what chemists call atoms must be still further subdivided, and the atoms must be conceived as made up of corpuscles ; the mass of a corpuscle is the same as the mass of the negative ion in a gas at low pressure. In the normal atom this assemblage of corpuscles forms a system which is electrical and neutral. Though the individual corpuscles behave like negative the corpuscles are spread to act as if it had a charge of positive electricity equal in amount to the sum of the negative charges on the corpuscles. I regard electrification of a gas as due to the splitting up of some of the atoms of the gas, resulting in the detachment of a corpuscle from such atoms. The detached corpuscles behave like negative ions, each carrying a constant negative charge which we shall call the unit charge, while the part of the atom left behind behaves like a positive ion with the units positively charged but with a mass that is large compared with that of the negative ion. In a case of the ionization of the gas by rontgen or uranium rays, the evidence seems to be in favour of the view that not more than one corpuscle can be detached from any one atom. Now the ions by virtue of their negative charges act as nuclei around which drops of water condense when moist dust-free gas is suddenly expanded. . . . C. T. R. Wilson has shown that it requires a con- siderably greater expansion to produce a cloud in dust-free air on positive ions than on negative ones, when the ions are produced by rontgen rays." It would therefore appear that the moist atmo- sphere above us may, through the action of sunlight or the lightning flash as well as by other means, become ionized. The negative ions attract moisture to themselves more readily than the positive ; they grow to be larger drops, and descending to the earth with their negative charges give it negative electricity, while the atmosphere is left essentially either positive or neutral. (See also Atmospheric Electricity.) IV.^-Qosmical Meteorology Under this title have been included all possible, plausible or imaginary relations between the earth's atmosphere and interplanetary space or the heavenly bodies. The diffusion to and fro at the outer limit of the atmosphere, the bombard- ment by ions from the sun, the explanation of auroral lights and of magnetic storms, the influence of shooting stars and comet tails, the relation of the zodiacal light and the Gegen- schein to the atmosphere, the parallelisms between terrestrial phenomena and the variations of the solar spots and protuber- ances, the origin of long or short climatic periods, the cause of special widespread cold days, the existence of lunar or solar gravitation tides analogous to oceanic tides, the influence of slow changes in the earth's orbit or the earth's axis of rotation — all are grouped under cosmical meteorology. But, in the writer's judgment these matters, while curious and interesting, have no appreciable bearing on the current important questions of atmospheric mechanics. There seem to be many widespread delusions and mistakes in regard to these problems, analogous to the popular errors in regard to astrology, and it is hardly necessary to do more than allude to them here. - The leading meteorologists have relegated such questions to the care of theoretical astronomers and physicists until our knowledge is more firmly established. Undoubtedly the earth does come under other influences than that of the radiation from the sun; but in the present stage of dynamic meteorology we consider only this latter, and, assuming it to be constant as regards quantity and quality, we find the variable selective absorptions and reflections within our own atmosphere, and its complex internal mechanism afford us a bewildering maze of problems such that so long as these are unsolved it would be folly to spend time on those. V. — Meteorological Organizations During the latter half of the 19th century the prosecution of work in meteorology gradually passed out of the hands of individuals into the control of large national organizations. This was the natural result of the discovery that, by the spread of the electric telegraph and ocean cables, it had become possible to compile daily weather-maps for large portions of the globe and make predictions of the weather and the storms for a day^ or two in advance, of sufficient accuracy to be of the greatest importance to the material interests of civilized nations. The development of wireless telegraphy since 1900 has even made it possible for isolated ships at sea to exchange weather telegrams, compile daily maps and study surrounding storms. One by one every civilized nation has established either a weather bureau or a meteorological office, or a bureau of hydrography and marine meteorology, or an elaborate establishment for aerial explorations according as its special interests demanded. These governmental bureaus usually pursue both climatology ions yet when they are assembled in a neutral atom the negative^ ^ese government uuicaus u=u^ t"»°™- —"" .,""' — "»' effect is balanced by something which causes the space through which and theoretical meteorology in addition to their daily practical METER, ELECTRIC 291 work of telegraphy, forecasting, and publication of charts. Although, of course, in most cases, the so-called practical work absorbs the greater part of the labour and the funds, yet every- where it is recognized that research and the development of a correct theory of the motions of the atmosphere are essential to any important progress in the art of forecasting. Among other important general works in which the official weather bureaus have united, we may enumerate the International Meteorological Congresses, of which the first was held in 1853 at Brussels, the second in 1873 at Vienna, and others more frequently since that date; the establishment of an International Com- mittee, to which questions of general interest are referred; the organization of a systematic exploration of the polar regions in the years 1882 and 1883; the general extension of the meteoro- logical services to include terrestrial magnetism as an essential part of the physics of the globe; the systematic exploration of the upper atmosphere by means of kites and balloons; and the universal co-operation with the U.S. Weather Bureau in the contribution of simultaneous data for its international bulletin and its daily map of the whole northern hemisphere. The hydrographic offices and marine bureaus of the principal commercial nations have united so far as practicable in the daily charting of the weather, but have especially developed the study of the climatology of the ocean, not only along the lines laid down by Maury and the Brussels Conference of 1853, but also with particular reference to the tracks of storm centres and the laws of storms on the ocean. The condition of these governmental organizations was discussed in the annual address of the Hon. F. Campbell Bayard, delivered before the Royal Meteorological Society of London in January 1899, and in tne text accompanying Bartholomew's Physical Atlas, vol. iii. The development of meteorology, in both its scientific and its practical aspects, is intimately dependent upon the progress of our knowledge of physics, and its study offers innumerable problems that can be solved only by proper combinations of mathematical theory and laboratory experimentation. The professors in colleges and universities who have hitherto lectured on this subject have not failed to develop some features of dynamic meteorology, although most of their attention has been given to climatology. In fact, many of them have been engrossed in the study of general problems in molecular physics, and could give meteorology only a small part of their attention. The early textbooks on meteorology were frequently mere chapters or sections of general treatises on physics or chemistry.' The few prominent early cases of university professorships devoted to meteorology are those of the eminent Professor Heinrich Wilhelm Dove at Berlin, Professor Adolphe Quetelet at Brussels and Professor Ludwig Friedrich Kaemtz at Halle and Dorpat. In modern times we may point to Professor Wilhelm von Bezold and George Hellmann at Berlin, Professor Juttus Hann at Vienna and Gratz, Professor Josef Maria "Pernter at Linz and Vienna, Professor Alexander Woeikof at St Petersburg, Professors Hugo Hildebrand-Hildebrandsson at Upsala, Henrik Mohn at Chris- tiania, Elias Loomis at New Haven, Connecticut, W. M. Davis and R. de C. Ward at Cambridge, Massachusetts, Alfred Angot and Marcel Brillouin at Paris, Hugo Hergesell at Strassburg, Arthur Schuster at Manchester, Peter Polis at Bonn, and Richard Bornstein at the School of Agriculture in Berlin. With these exceptions the great universities of the world have as yet given but little special encouragement to meteorology; it has even been stated that there is no great demand for higher education on the subject. On the other hand, the existence of thousands of voluntary observers, the profound interest in the weather actually taken by every individual, and the numer- ous schemes for utilizing our very limited knowledge of the subject through the activities of the large weather bureaus of the world demonstrate that there is a demand for knowledge perhaps even higher than the universities can offer It would be very creditable to a nation or to a wealthy patron of science if there should be established meteorological laboratories in connexion with important universities, at which not only in- struction but especially investigation might be pursued, as is done at the magnificent astronomical observatories that are so numerous throughout the world. Every atmospheric pheno- menon can be materially elucidated by exact laboratory experiments and measurements, theory can be confronted with facts; and the student can become an original investigator in meteorology. The great difficulties inherent to meteorology should stimulate the devotion of the highest talent to the progress of this branch of science. The practical value of weather predictions justifies the expenditure of money and labour in order to improve them in every detail. Bibliography. — Those who desire recent additions to our know- ledge should consult first Hann's Lehrbuch der Meteorologie (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1906) as being a systematic encyclopaedia. Of equal impor- tance is the Meteorologische Zeitschrift (Berlin and Vienna, 1866 to date). The Atlas of Meteorology (Bartholomew, 1900), the Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society (London) and the Monthly Weather Review (Washington) are the works most con- venient to English readers and abound with references to current literature The Physical Review Science Abstracts and the Fort- schritte der Physik contain short notices of all important memoirs and will serve to direct the student's attention toward any special topic that may interest him. (C. A.) METER, ELECTRIC. In the public supply of electric energy for lighting and power it is necessary to provide for the measure- ment of the electric energy or quantity by devices which are called electric meters. Those in use may be classified in several ways: (i) according to the kind of electric supply they are fitted to measure, e.g. whether continuous current or alternating current, and if the latter, whether monophase or polyphase; (ii) according to whether they record intermittently or con- tinuously; (iii) according to the principle of their action, whether mechanical or electrolytic; (iv) according to the nature of the measurement, whether quantity or energy meters. The last subdivision is fundamental. Meters intended to measure electric energy (which is really the subject of the sale and purchase) are called joule meters, or generally watt-hour meters. Meters intended to measure electric quantity are called coulomb meters and also ampere-hour meters; they are employed for the measurement of public electric supply on the assumption that the electromotive force or pressure is constant. Most of the practical meters in use at the present time may be classified under the following five heads: electrolytic meters, motor meters, clock meters, intermittent registering meters and induction meters. Electrolytic Meters are exclusively ampere-hour meters, measuring electric quantity directly and electric energy only indirectly, on the assumption that the pressure of the supply is constant. The first electrolytic house meter in connexion with public electric supply was described by St. George Lane-Fox. He was followed by F. J. Sprague and T. A. Edison, the last-named inventor elaborating a type of meter which he employed in connexion with his system of electric lighting in its early days. The Edison electric meter, like those of Sprague and Lane-Fox, was based upon the principle that when an electric current flows through an electrolyte, such as sul- phate of copper or sulphate of zinc, the electrodes being plates of copper or zinc, metal is dissolved off one plate (the anode) and deposited on the other plate (the cathode). It consisted of a glass vessel, containing a solution of sulphate of zinc, in which were placed two plates of pure amalgamated zinc. These plates were connected by means of a german-silver shunt, their size and the distance be- tween them being so adjusted that about tsW P^t ot the current passing through the meter travelled through the electrolytic cell and ^jftf of the current passed through the shunt. Before being placed in the cells the zinc plates were weighed. The shunted voltameter was then inserted in series with the electric supply mains leading to the house or building taking electric energy, and the cur- rent which passed dissolved the zinc from one plate and deposited it upon the other, so that after a certain interval of time had elapsea the altered weight of the plates enabled the quantity of electricity to be determined from the known fact that an electric current of ■one ampere, flowing for one hour, removes 1-2133 grammes of zinc from a solution ot sulphate of zinc. Hence the quantity in ampere- hours passing through the electrolytic cell being known and the fraction of the whole quantity taken by the cell being known, the quantity supplied to the house was determined. To prevent tem- perature from affecting the shunt ratio, Edison joined in series with the electrolytic cell a copper coil the resistance of which increased with a lise of temperature by the same amount that the electrolyte decreased. Owing to the cost and trouble of weighing a large number of zinc plates, this type of meter fell into disuse. 292 METER, ELECTRIC A more modern type of electrolytic meter is that due to C. O. Bastian. 1 The whole current supplied to the house flows through an electrolytic cell consisting of a glass tube containing two platinum electrodes; the electrolyte is dilute sulphuric acid covered with a thin layer of oil to prevent evaporation. As the current flows it decomposes the liquid and liberates oxygen and hydrogen gases, which escape. The quantity of electricity which is passed is esti- mated by the diminution in the volume of the liquid. A third electrolytic meter of the shunted voltameter type is that of A. Wright. In this meter the electrolyte is a solution of mercurous nitrate which is completely enclosed in a glass tube of a particular form, having a mercury anode and a platinum or, carbon cathode. The current is determined by measuring the volume of the mercury delivered at the cathode. In the Long-Schattner electrolytic meter a solution of sulphate of copper is electrolyzed. Motor Meters.— Amongst motor meters one well-known type be- longing to the ampere-hour species is that of S. Z. Ferranti, who introduced it in 1883. It consists of an electromagnet within the iron core of which is a flat disk-like cavity containing mercury, the sides of the cavity being stamped with grooves. The thin disk of mercury is therefore traversed perpendicularly by lines of magnetic force when the magnet is excited. The current to be measured is passed through the coils of the electromagnet, then enters the mercury disk at the centre, flows through it radially in all direc- tions, and emerges at the periphery. The mass of mercury is thus set in motion owing to the tendency of a conductor conveying an electric current to move transversely across lines of magnetic force; it becomes in fact the armature of a simple form of dynamo, and rotates with a speed which increases with the strength of the current. The roughness of the surface of the cavity serves to retard it. The rotation of the mercury is detected and measured by means of a small vane of platinum wire immersed in it, the shaft of this vane being connected by an endless screw with a counting mechanism. The core of th^e electromagnet is worked at a point far below magnetic saturation (see Magnetism) ; hence the field is nearly proportional to the square of the current, and the resistance offered to the rotating mercury by the friction against the sides of the cavity is nearly pro- portional to the square of the speed. It follows that the number of the revolutions the mercury makes in a given time is proportional to the quantity of electricity which is passed through the meter. In order to overcome the friction of the counting train, Ferranti ingeniously gave to the core of the electromagnet a certain amount of permanent magnetism. Another well-known motor meter, working on a somewhat similar principle, is that pf Chamberlain and Hookham. In its improved form this meter consists of a single horseshoe permanent magnet formed of tungsten-steel having a strong and constant field. Two air-gaps are made in this field parallel to each other. In one of these a copper disk, called the brake disk, revolves, and in the other a copper armature disk. The latter is slit radially, and the magnetic field is so arranged that it perforates each half of the disk in opposite directions. The armature is im- mersed in a shallow vessel filled with mercury, which is insulated from the vessel and the armature, except at the ends of the copper strips. The current to be measured passes transversely across the disk and causes it to revolve in the magnetic field ; at the same time the copper brake, geared on the same shaft, revolves in the field and has local or eddy currents produced in it which retard its action. The principle, of the meter is to make the breaking and driving action so strong that the friction of the train becomes immaterial in comparison. This meter is an ampere-hour meter and applicable only to continuous current circu'ts. Another form of motor meter which is much used is that of Elihu Thomson. It takes the form of a small dynamo having an armature and field magnets without any iron core. The armature carries on its shaft a commutator made of silver slips, and the current is fed into the armature by means of brushes of silver wire. The current to be measured passes through the fixed field-coils, whilst through the armature passes a shunt current obtained by connecting the brushes across the supply mains through a constant resistance. The driving force is balanced against a retarding force produced by the rotation of a copper disk fixed on the armature shaft, which rotates between the poles of a permanent magnet. Induced or eddy currents are thus created in the copperdisk, and the reaction of these against the magnetic field offers a resistance to the rotation of the disk. Hence when a current is passed through the meter, the armature rotates and increases its speed until the driving force is balanced against the retarding force due to the eddy currents in the copper brake disk. In these cir- cumstances the number of rotations made by the armature in a given time is proportional to the product of the strength of the ' current flowing through the armature and that flowing through the field-coils, the former being the current to be measured. Hence the meter is a watt-hour meter and measures electric energy. In order to overcome the friction of the train the field-coils are wound With an auxiliary shunt coil which supplies a driving force sufficient to over- come the friction of the counting train. This last is geared to the shaft of the armature by an endless screw, and the number of revolu- tions of the armature is reckoned by the Counting-dials, which are 'See Electrician, 41, 112, and Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng. [London, 1898), 27, 547. so arranged as to indicate the consumption in Board-of-Trade units (1 Board-of-Trade unit = 1000 watt-hours). A modification of the above meter with some mechanical improvements has been devised by S. Evershed. 2 Clock Meters. — Among clock meters the best known is that of H. Aron, which is based upon a principle described by W. E. Ayrton and J. Perry in 1882. It can be constructed to be either an ampere- hour meter or a watt-hour meter, but is usually the latter. Its principle is as follows: Suppose there are two pendulum clocks, one having an ordinary pendulum and the other having a pendulum consisting of a fine coil of wire through which a current is passed, proportional to the potential difference of the supply mains— in other words, a shunt current. Below this pendulum let there be placed another coil through which passes the current to be measured ; then when currents pass through these coils the pendulum of the second clock will be either accelerated or retarded relatively to the other clock, since the action of gravity is supplemented by that of an electric attraction or repulsion between the coils. Hence the second clock will gain or lose on the other. The two clock motions may be geared to a single counting mechanism which records the difference in the rates of going of the two clocks. If the difference of the number of oscillations made by the two pendulums in a given time is small compared to the number made by either of them separ- ately, then it is easy to show that the power given to the circuit is measured by the gain or loss of one clock over the other in a given time, and can therefore be indicated on a counting mechanism or registering dials. By the use of a permanent magnet instead of a shunt coil as the bob of one pendulum, the meter can be made up as an ampere-hour meter. In this form it has the advantage that it can be used for either continuous or alternating currents. In Intermittent Registering Meters some form of ampere-meter or watt-meter registers the current or power passing into the house ; and a clock motion electrically driven is made to take readings of the ampere-meter or watt-meter at definite intervals — say, every five minutes — and to add up these readings upon a set of registered dials. The arrangement therefore integrates the ampere-hours or watt- hours. These meters, of which one well-known form is that of Johnson and Phillips, have the disadvantage of being unsuited for the measurement of electric supply in those cases in which it is irregular or intermittent — as in a theatre or hotel. Induction Meters are applicable only in the case of alternating current supply. One of the most widely used forms is the Westing- house-Shallenberger. It consists of a disk of aluminjum, the axis of which is geared to a counting mechanism and which runs between the poles of permanent magnets that create eddy currents in it and therefore exert a retarding force. In proximity to the upper side of the disk is placed a coil of wire having an iron core, which is a shunt coil, the ends of the coil being connected to the terminals of the supply mains. Under the disk are two other coils which are placed in series with the supply. When these last coils are traversed by an alternating current they induce local or eddy currents in the disk. The current in the shunt coil lags 90 degrees behind the impressed electromotive force of the circuit to be measured; hence if the main current is in step with the potential difference of the terminals of the supply mains, which is the case when the supply is given wholly to electric lamps,- then the field due to the main coil differs from that due to the shunt coil by 90 degrees. Since the eddy currents induced in the disk are 90 degrees in phase behind the inducing field, the eddy currents pro- duced by the main coil are in step with the magnetic field due to the shunt coil, and h»nce the disk is driven round by the revolution due to the action oj the shunt coil upon the induced currents in the disk. Hence the disk will be accelerated until the driving force is balanced by the retarding force due to the induced currents created in the disk by the permanent magnets. When this is the case, the number of revolutions of the meter in a given time is a measure of the watt-hours or energy which is passed through, the meter. The counting mechanism and dials may be so arranged as to indicate this energy directly in watt-hours. The meter is made up also in a form suitable for use with two or three fixed electric currents. (See Electrokinetics.) Requirements of a good House Meter. — A gas meter which has an error of more than 2 % in favour of the seller or 3 % in favour of the customer is not passed for use. An electricity meter should therefore have approximately the same accuracy. As a matter of fact, it is difficult to rely upon most electric meters to register correctly to less than 4 % even between quarter-load and fWi load. Out of nearly 700 current motor meters of various makes tested at Munich in 1902, only 319 had an error of less than 4%, whilst 259 had errors varying from 4J to 10%. If possible, how- ever, the departures from absolute accuracy should not be more than 2 % at quarter-load, nor more than 3 % at a full load. The accuracy of a meter is tested by drawing calibration curves showing the percentage departure from absolute accuracy in its reading for various decimal fractions of full load. Such a test is made by determining with an accurate ammeter or watt-meter the current or power supplied to a circuit for a period measured by a good clock and comparing with this the actual rea ding of the meter a See Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng. Lond. (1899), 29, 743. METHODISM 293 during the same time. A common source of trouble is the short circuiting of the shunt coils owing to the shellaced cotton covering of the wire becoming moist. A good meter should start with a current which is not more than 2% of its full load current. With a supply pressure of 200 volts a 5 c.p. carbon filament lamp takes only o-i ampere; hence unless a meter will begin to register with xV ampere it will fail to record the current consumed by a single small incandescent lamp. In a large supply system such failure would mean a serious loss of revenue. The resistance of the meter coils causes a fall in voltage down the series coil which reduces the supply pressure to the con- sumer. On the other hand the resistance of the shunt coil absorbs energy which generally varies from 1 to 3 watts and is a loss either to the consumer or to the supply company, according to the manner in which the shunt coil is connected. In those meters which are compounded — that is, have a shunt coil wound on the field magnets to compensate for the friction of the train— it is important to notice whether the meter will operate or continue operating when there is no current in the series coil, since a meter which " runs on the shunt " runs up a debt against the consumer for which it gives no corresponding advantage. Generally speaking, the price of the meter is a subordinate consideration. Since the revenue-earning power of a supply station depends entirely upon its meters, inaccuracy in meter record is a serious matter. The cost of measuring current by the aid of a meter is made up of three parts: (1) the prime cost of the meter, which varies from £2 to £6 for an ordinary 25-light house electric meter; (2) the capital value of the energy absorbed in it, which if the cost of the energy is taken at 2d. per Board-of- Trade unit, with interest and depreciation at 6 %, may amount to £10 per customer; and (3) the annual working costs for repairs and also the wages of the staff of meter men, who take the required monthly or quarterly readings. In the case of small and irregular consumers, such as the inhabitants of model dwellings and flats inhabited chiefly by working-class tenants, coin-in-the-slot meters are much employed. The customer cannot obtain current for electric lighting until he has placed in a slit a certain coin — say, a shilling — -entitling him to a certain number of Board-of -Trade units — say, to 2 or 4, as the case may be. In the Long-Schattner electrolytic meter, the insertion of the coin depresses a copper plate or plates into an electrolytic cell containing a solution of sulphate of copper; the passage of the current dissolves the copper off one of the plates, the loss in weight being determined by the quantity of the electricity passed. As soon as the plate has lost a certain amount of weight corresponding to the value of the electric energy represented by the coin, the plate rises out of the liquid and cuts off the current. Authorities. — H. G. Solomon, Electricity Meters (London, 1906) ; C. H. W. Gerhardi, Electricity Meters: their Construction and Management (London, 1906) ; L. C. Reed, American Meter Practice (New York, 1904); J. A. Fleming, A Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room (London, 1904) ; T. P. Wilmshurst, '' Electricity Meters," Electrician (1897), 39, 409; G. W. D. Ricks, " On the Variation of the Constants of Electricity Supply Meters, with Temperature and Current," Electrician (1897), 39, 573. G- A. F.) METHODISM, a term 1 denoting the religious organizations which trace their origin to the evangelistic teaching of John Wesley. The name " Methodist " was given in derision to those Oxford students who in company with the Wesleys used to meet together for spiritual fellowship ; and later on when John Wesley had organized his followers into " societies " the name was applied to them in the same spirit. ' It was however accepted by him, and in official documents he usually styles them " the people called Methodists." The fact that standards of Methodist doctrine are laid down as consisting of " Mr Wesley's Notes on the New Testament and the 1st Series of his Sermons " (fifty- three in number), might seem to indicate a departure from existing systems, but it was not so. He fully accepted the recognized teaching of the Church of England, and publicly appealed to the Prayer Book and the Thirty-nine Articles in justification of the doctrines he preached. Methodism began in a revival of personal religion, and it professed to have but one aim, viz. " to spread Scriptural holiness over the land." Its doctrines were in no sense new. It was the zeal with which they were taught, the clear distinction which they drew between the profession of godliness and the enjoyment of its power — added to the emphasis they laid upon the immediate influence of the Holy Spirit on the consciousness 1 " Methodism " is derived from "method" (Gr. pWo&os), a rule. A " methodist " is one who follows a " method," the term being applied not only to the Wesleyan body, but earlier to the Amvraldists, and in the 17th century to certain Roman Catholic apologists. of the Christian — which attracted attention, gave them dis- tinction, and even aroused ridicule and opposition. Wesley and his helpers, finding the Anglican churches closed against them, took to preaching in the open air; and this method is still followed, more or less, in the aggressive evangelistic work of all the Methodist Churches. As followers rapidly increased they were compelled to hold their own Sunday services, and this naturally led them to appoint as preachers godly laymen possessing the gift of exhortation. These followed their ordinary avocations on week-days, but on Sundays preached to congregations in their own immediate neighbourhood, and hence were called local preachers as distinguished from travelling preachers. The extent to which the employment of the local preacher is characteristic of Methodism may be seen from the fact that in the United Kingdom while there are only about 5000 Methodist ministers, there are more than 18,000 congregations; some 13,000 con- gregations, chiefly in the villages, are dependent on local preachers. In the organization adopted to foster spiritual life the very characteristic " Class-meetings for Christian fellowship " take a prominent place. Membership in the church depends solely upon being enrolled as a member of one of these meetings for Christian fellowship, and thus placing oneself under pastoral oversight. The Wesleyan Methodists now represent the original body as founded by John Wesley in Great Britain and Ireland; but in America those who looked upon him as their founder adopted the episcopal mode of Church government after the War of Independence, and have since that time been known as Episcopal Methodists (see below). It should be noted that the Welsh Caivinistic Methodists are only slightly connected with the original body. They were indirectly the outcome of the evangelistic efforts of Howell Harris and Rowlands. Their work received the sympathy of Wesley and liberal financial help from the Countess of Huntingdon (see Calvinistic Methodists). For a time Whitefield was leader, and we find a reference to the " Whitefieldian and Wesleyan Methodists " in the Supplement to the Gentleman's Magazine for 1747, p. 619. The theological views of these teachers proved quite incompatible with the Arminianism of Wesley, and a definite breach between them and him took place in 1770. The Welsh Calvinistic Methodists are now a branch of the Presbyterian Church. Other divisions have been formed at various times by secessions from the Wesleyan Methodists (see separate articles). They are: Methodist New Connexion (founded 1 797-1 798); Bible Christians (181 5); United Methodist Free Churches 2 (about 1836); Primitive Methodists (founded 1807-1810); Independent Methodist Churches (about 1806); Wesleyan Reform Union (1850, reorganized 1859). These bodies have separated solely on matters of Church govern- ment and not on points of doctrine. The Primitive Methodists in Ireland were a small body who in 181 7 seceded because they wished to maintain that close connexion with the Church of England which existed at the time of Wesley's death, but in 1878 they rejoined the parent body. Methodism has always been aggressive, and her children on emigrating have taken with them their evangelistic methods. (For the American branches see below.) The statistics given in the following table (not including Junior Society Classes) are from the Minutes of the Conference of the Wesleyan Methodist Church for 1909. At the death of Wesley the figures were: 313 preachers, 119 circuits and mission stations, and 76,968 members. In the United States : 97 circuits, 198 preachers and 43,265 members. "n. In 1837 the membership in Great Britain and Ireland was 318,716; in foreign mission stations, 66,007; in Upper Canada, 14,000; while the American Conferences had charge of 650,678 members. Total for the world: 1,049,401, with 4478 ministers. Three Oecumenical Conferences have been held — two at City Road, London, in 1881 and 1901, and one at Washington in 1891. The statistics presented at the last showed that the Church during the preceding decade had gained about a million members and three million adherents. At the same time there has been a steadily ■ 2 These first three were joined in 1907 under the name of the United Methodist Church. 294 METHODISM growing feeling in favour of union. Canada and Australasia led the way, for in these countries the Methodist Church was undivided, and the sentiment was greatly strengthened by the formation in the United Kingdom of the United Methodist Church in 1907. See A New History of Methodism, ed. W. J. Townsend, H. B. Workman, George Eayrs (2 vols., London, 1909). (J. A. V.) local and travelling preachers, and the organization of local societies with class leaders, stewards and trustees. The intention ■was to make American Methodism a facsimile of that in England, subject to Wesley and the British Conference — a society and not a Church. Pilmoor and others objected to Asbury's strict Denomination. Ministers. Lay Preachers. Church Members and Probationers. Sunday Schools. Officers and Teachers. Sunday Scholars. Churches, &c. Wesleyan Methodists: — South African Conference . United Methodist Church Wesleyan Reform Union .... Independent Methodist Churches . Australasian Methodist Church . United States: — Methodist Episcopal 4 .... Union American Methodist Episcopal African Methodist Episcopal . African Union Methodist Protestant African Methodist Episcopal Zion. Methodist Protestant .... Wesleyan Methodist .... Methodist Episcopal (South) . < Congregational Methodist . ( Congregational Methodist(coloured) New Congregational Methodist . Zion Union Apostolic .... Coloured Methodist Episcopal Primitive Methodist .... Independent Methodist Evangelistic Missionary Canadian Methodist Church. Japan Methodist Church 6 Totals .... 2,454 246 617 35 253 1,178 891 21 424 975 19,421 138 6,070 200 3,912 1, 55t 524 6,978 415 5 238 2,673 72 1,126 8 92 2,384 47 19,826 621 4.965 89 5-797 16,158 6,183 527 4,576 14,743 15,885 75° 1,520 i,i35 4,800 2,786 138 1,299 27 3,809 35 520,868 29,531 143,467 1,675 117,146 212,168 186,905 8,489 9,442 I5<>,75i 3,376,888 18,500 850,000 4,000 578,310 183,894 19,064 1,673,892 24,000 319 4,022 2,346 219,739 7,013 31-435 2,569 5,014 329,904 4-083 7,589 353 1.754 70 s 788 4,155 2,404 181 153 3,973 34,619 350 2,034 2,034 465 14,892 4,007 108 I.I75 3,556 121 132,186 2,557 7,65i 142 2.893 59.557 43,i69 2,762 3,041 24,322 361,667 900 14,404 16,680 "1,137 7,098 7.376 35,323 544 987.953 25.969 9I.II3 1,996 39.329 465,531 323.675 22,312 27,219 231,553 3,068,248 2,770 122,467 126,031 18,344 1,084,238 79,876 ",754 40,660 1,200 305,649 11,136 8,606 l 4H S 3,502 127 3,930 5.H8 3,188 196 156 6,418 29,765 255 6,815 125 3,241 2,242 598 15,496 425 5 417 a 32 2,619 104 1,117 15 47 3,789 28 52,978 105,669 8,715,434 84,781 833.409 7,089,023 98,820 Methodism in the United States There are in the United States sixteen distinct Methodist denominations, all agreeing essentially in doctrine. John Wesley had been conducting his United Societies for more than twenty years before the movement took root in North America. A. — Episcopal Methodist Churches. Philip Embury (1729-1775), a Wesleyan local preacher, emigrated in 1760 from Limerick to New York. Robert Straw- bridge (?-i78i), a local preacher and native of Ireland, settled in Maryland. In 1766 Embury was stimulated by his relative, Mrs Barbara Heck, to begin Methodist preaching, and a society was soon formed, which grew rapidly. Embury was reinforced by the arrival of Thomas Webb (1724-1796), an English local preacher and a captain in the British army. Webb and Thomas Taylor, a layman of superior ability, appealed to Wesley to send over missionaries, and the 26th annual British Conference, held in 1768, sent to the society in New York £50 and furnished passage money for two missionaries, Richard Boardman and Joseph Pilmoor (1730-1825). Three years later Francis Asbury was sent over, and was made assistant superintendent. Mean- while Strawbridge had been preaching with success in Maryland and in Virginia. These " advance agents " of this spiritual propaganda brought with them Wesley's Arminian Theology. They brought also " the means of grace " on which Wesley placed the greatest stress; such as personal testimony in private and public, class and prayer meetings, watch-nights, love-feasts, the direct and fervent preaching of the Gospel and the singing of Wesleyan hymns, carried on by means of circuits and stations, exhorters, 1 Seating accommodation, 2,374,425. 2 Other preaching-places, 1561. 3 Sunday and Thursday Schools. * Methodism is also represented in several European countries by Conferences and Missions affiliated to the Methodist Episcopal Church of America, and their membership is included in the figures given discipline, and Wesley, hearing of the disagreement, in 1773 appointed Thomas Rankin (c. 1 738-1810) superintendent of the entire work of Methodism in America. The First American Conference. — The first American Confer- ence was held in 1773, and consisted of ten preachers, all of whom were bom in England or Ireland. Asbury came to America to remain permanently; but Rankin, unable to identify himself with its people, to take the test oaths required in the Revolution, or to sympathize with the colonies, returned to England, as did all the English preachers except Asbury. By May 1776 there were 24 preachers and 4921 members; but in the first year of the Revolution there was a loss of 7 preachers and nearly 1000 members. The next year saw extensive revivals, in sections removed from the seat of war, which added more than 2600 to the number of members. The preachers in the South determined upon administration of the sacraments, an7 ' "^ mmistMS ' II06 church «. and 3 i,376 Minor Methodist Churches.— The Primitive Methodist Church as it exists in the United States, came from England. In 1007 it reported 7013 communicants. The Independent Methodists are composed of congregations in Maryland, Tennessee and the District of Columbia They had fewer than 3000 members in 1907. The Evangelist Missionary Church comprises ministers and members in Ohio whom 1886 withdrew from the African Methodist Episcopal £ion Church They had in 1907 about 5000 members. The New Congregational Methodists in 1881 withdrew from the Methodist foof P rij ^f- h ^ • ' m »P e , 0r f- ia - The y had 4022 members in 8?!' Th / African Union Methodist Protestant Church dates from .1816, and differed from the African Methodist Episcopal Church 1™^?°.?'^ ^^ancy, "paid ministers," and episcopacy. In 1907 it had 3867 members m eight states. The Zion Union Apos- r,«i"; u™ S organized in 1869, in Virginia. It was reported in 1890 to have 2346 communicants, and shows no gain at the present time. s pj!, B nW G M PH r^ r ? t SS / . T AleXa , nder ' Histor y °f the Methodist £%n P %Jru h ' u°^ (New , X or k; 1894), being vol. xi. of the American Church History Series"; John Atkinson, Centennial 297 History of American Methodism (New York, 1884); Francis Asburv, lZ? a J- 3 ^°- S - J^X ^' I 852) ; Nathan B a n gs, A History of the Methodist Episcopal Church from its Origin in 1776 to the General Coherence of 1840(4 vols New York, 1 839-1 842) ; Henry B. Bascom, Methodism and Slavery (Nashville) ; A. H. Bassett, History of the Methodist Protestant Church (Pittsburg, 1878, revised, 1882, 1887) • t nomas E Bond, Economy of Methodism, Illustrated and Defended; J. M. Buckley, History of Methodism in the United States (1897)- b *i Q ^ r ^\'Sf l T 01 i s Forces °f the United Stales (New York, 2nd ed. a I ' Vf • 1 " Clark > Lt f e and Times of Elijah Hedding (New York 1 »55); Daniel Dorchester, Christianity in the United States (New York, 1895); Edward J. Drinkhouse, History of Methodist Reform V,? ' J , Ba , !tl J n0re ,; I - 8 " ) ; Robert Emory, History of the Discipline of the Methodist Episcopal Church (New York, 1843); William L t w S u c °n sMuH <>nal Powers of the General Conference (1860)- I"- W -/? ood ,' ?Z e Hundred Years of the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church (New York, 1895); Jesse Lee, A Short History of the Methodists in the United States of America (Baltimore, 1810)- John Lednum History of the Rise Ond Progress of Methodism in America (1859) ^Alexander McCaine, History and Mystery of Metho- /J'^ SC f paC ^ B i ltl ^ ore ' l82 9); Holland N. McTyeire, A History of Methodism (Nashville, 1884); Joel Martin, The Wesleyan Manual, or History of Wesleyan Methodism (Syracuse, N.Y., 1889); Lucius C Matlack Anti-Slavery Struggle and Triumph in the Methodist fl S , C ° l £ a i- C J 1 T lrch $ ew , YoTk - l8Sl ): Stephen M. Merrill, A Digest of Methodist Law (New York, revised ed., 1888); Thomas D. Neelv • \\ ,PJ* th f Origin and Development of the Governing Conference in Methodism _ (New York, 1892); id. The Evolution of Episcopacy and Organic Methodism (New York, 1888); Robert Paine, Life and Times of William McKendree (2 vols., Nashville, 1869; revised ™ 74) L / <" -> t Pay 11 ?; History of the African Methodist Episcopal Church (1891); James Porter Comprehensive History of Methodism { M e % y°, rk ^ l876) ; jM 1 ' Redford - History of the Organization of the Methodist Episcopal Church South (Nashville, 1871)- J M Reid Missions and Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal' Church wf, W Y 7& 'l 95 ^ revi f d fe y J" T - Grace y: David Sherman, History of the Revisions of the Discipline of the Methodist Episcopal Church (New York, 3rd ed., 1890); Abel Stevens, History of Metho- FwlVrl 8 -' w W Y ° rk < T l858); , id - Hist °ry of the Methodist A P 2/r%J; fcV 4 V ?L S f N %f y° rk > l86 4): id - The Centenary of American Methodism (New York, 1866) ; John J. Tigert A Con- ditional History of American Episcopal Methodism (Nashville, 1S94) , J . H. Wakeley, Lost Chapters Recovered from the Early History % ilTX™ T™f h ° dt /% ( N ? w Y°ric. 1858); Thomas Ware, Sketches of His Own Life and Travels (New York, 1839); and the Discipline and Journals of the various American Methodist Churches. And the Proceedings of the Centennial Methodist Conference (1884); of the First Ecumenical Conference (1881); of the second Ecumenical Conference (1891); and of the third Ecumenical Conference (1901). METHODIST NEW CONNEXION, a Protestant Nolcctformist Church, formed m 1797 by secession from the Wesleyan Metho- dists and merged in 1907 into the United Methodist Church (?.».). The secession was led by Alexander Kilham (q.v.), and resulted from a dispute regarding the position and rights of the laity, Kilham and his party desiring more power for the members of the Church and less for the ministers. In its conferences ministers and laymen were of equal number, the laymen being chosen by the circuits and in some cases by " guardian repre- sentatives " elected for life by conference. Otherwise the doctrines and order of the Connexion were the same as those of the Wesleyans. At the time of the union with the Bible Chris- tians and the United Methodist Free Church in 1907 the Methodist New Connexion had some 250 ministers and 45 000 members. METHODIUS (c. 825-885), the apostle of the Slavs, was a native of fhessalomca, probably by nationality a Graecized Slav. His father's name was Leo, and his family was socially distinguished- Methodius himself had already attained high official rank in the government of Macedonia before he determined to become a monk. His younger brother Constantine (better known as Cyril the name he adopted at Rome shortly before his death) was- a" friend of Photius, and had earned the surname " the Philosopher " in Constantinople before he withdrew to monastic ljfe. Con- stantine about 860 had been sent by the emperor Michael III. to the Khazars, a Tatar people living north-east of the Black Sea, in response to their request for a Christian teacher, but had not remained long among them; after his return to within the limits of the empire, his brother and he worked among the Bulgarians of Thrace and Moesia, baptizing their king Bogoris in 861. About 863, at the invitation of Rastislav, king of "Great Moravia," who desired the Christianization of his subjects, but 298 METHUEN— METHYL ALCOHOL at the same time that they should be independent of the Germans, the two brothers went to his capital (its site is unknown), and, besides establishing a seminary for the education of priests, suc- cessfully occupied themselves in preaching in the vernacular and in diffusing their translations of Scripture lessons and liturgical offices. Some conflict with the German priests, who used the Latin liturgy, led to their visiting Pope Nicholas I., who had just been engaged in his still extant correspondence with the newly converted Bulgarian king; his death (in 867) occurred before their arrival, but they were kindly received by his successor Hadrian II. Constantine died in Rome (in 869), but Methodius, after satisfying the pope of his orthodoxy and obedience, went back to his labours in " Moravia " as archbishop of Syrmia (Sirmium) in Pannonia. His province appears to have been, roughly speaking, co-extensive with the basins of the Raab, Drave and Save, and thus to have included parts of what had previously belonged to the provinces of Salzburg and Passau. In 871 complaints on this account were made at Rome, nominally on behalf of the archbishop of Salzburg, but really in the interests of the German king and his Germanizing ally Swatopluk, Rasti- slav's successor; they were not, however, immediately successful. In 879, however, Methodius was again summoned to Rome by Pope John VIII., after having declined to give up the practice of celebrating mass in the Slavonic tongue; but, owing to the peculiar delicacy of the relations of Rome with Constantinople, and with the young church of Bulgaria, the pope, contrary to all expectation, ultimately decided in favour of a Slavonic liturgy, and sent Methodius (880) back to his diocese with a suffragan bishop of Neitra, and with a letter of recommendation to Swatopluk. This suffragan, a German named Wiching, unfor- tunately proved the reverse of helpful to his metropolitan, and through his agency, especially after the death of John VIII. in 882, the closing years of the life of Methodius were embittered by continual ecclesiastical disputes, in the course of which he is said to have laid Swatopluk and his supporters under the ban, and the realm under interdict. The most trustworthy tradition says that Methodius died at Hardisch on the March, on the 6th of April 885. He was buried at Welehrad (probably Stuhlweissenburg). The Greek Church commemorates St Cyril on February 14 and St Methodius on May n; in the Roman Church both are com- memorated on March 9. Their canonization (by Leo XIII. in 1 881) is noteworthy, in view of the fact that Gregory VII. and several other popes condemned them as Arians. After the death of Methodius much of his work was undone; his successor Gosrad, a Slav, was expelled, with all the Slav priests, and the Latin language and liturgy supplanted the vernacular. On the 5th of July 1863 a millennial celebration of the two brother apostles was held by the people of Bohemia and Moravia. See Schafarik's Slawische Alterthumer; L. K. G6tz, Geschichie der Slavenapostel Konstantinus und Methodius (Gotha, 1897); N. Bonwetsch, Cyrill und Methodius , 'die Lehrer der Slaven (Erlangen, 1885), and art. in Hauck-Herzog's Realencyk. fiir prot. Theol. iv. 384, where the literature is cited; G. F. Maclear, Conversion of the Slavs (London, 1879). METHUEN, BARONY OF. The English title of Baron Methuen of Corsham (Wilts) was created in 1838 for Paul Methuen (1779-1849), who had been a Tory member of parlia- ment for Wilts from 1812 to 1819, and then sat as a Whig for North Wilts from 1833 to 1838. His father, Paul Methuen, was the cousin and heir of the wealthy Sir Paul Methuen (1672-1757), a well-known politician, courtier, diplomatist and patron of art and literature, who was the son of John Methuen (c. 1650-1706), Lord Chancellor of Ireland (1697-1703) and ambassador to Portugal. It was the last-named who in 1703 negotiated the famous " Methuen Treaty," which, in return for the admission of English woollens into Portugal, granted differential duties favouring the importation of Portuguese wines into England to the disadvantage of French, and thus displaced the drinking of Burgundy by that of port. He and his son were both buried in Westminster Abbey. The 1st baron was succeeded in the title by his son Frederick Henry Paul Methuen (1818-1891), and the latter by his son Paul, 3rd baron (b. 1845), a distinguished soldier, who became a major-general in 1890, and general officer commanding-in-chief in South Africa in 1907. The 3rd baron joined the Scots Guards in 1864, served in the Ashanti War of 1874 and the Egyptian War of 1882, and commanded Methuen's Horse in Bechuanaland in 1884-85, and the first division of the 1st Army Corps in the South African War of 1899-1902. (See Transvaal.) METHUSELAH, in the Old Testament, the seventh in descent from Adam, and father of Lamech. According to Genesis v. 2 1 he lived 969 years (see Bible: Old Testament, § 5, " Chronology "). The name itself has been much discussed. Holzinger interprets it as " man of the javelin ": Hommel prefers " man of Selah," Selah being the Hebraized form of the Babylonian Sarrahu (i.e. the god Sin), and identifies it with the 'A/jeju^-iPos of Berossus. The form Methushael, used by the author of Gen. iv. 18 and by some commentators preferred for Gen. v. 21, is variously ex- plained as meaning " man of El " (Ball), or as a transcription (Sayce) of the Babylonian Mutu-sa-ili (possibly, " man of the goddess"). METHVEN, a village and parish of Perthshire, Scotland, i\ m. W. by N. of Perth by the Caledonian Railway. Pop. of parish (1901), 1699. Only an aisle remains of the collegiate church founded in 1433 by Walter Stewart, earl of Atholl (d. 1437). One mile east of the village, Methven Castle, dating partly from 1680, occupies a fine situation in a park in which stands the Pepperwell oak, 18 ft. in circumference. At Dronach Haugh near the banks of the Almond, which bounds the parish on the N., the earl of Pembroke defeated Robert Bruce in 1306. At Lynedoch, his estate on the Almond, Thomas Graham (1748- 1843), the Peninsular general, afterwards Lord Lynedoch, carried on many experiments in farming and stock-breeding. He formerly owned Balgowan House, about 3 m. south-west of Methven, where many years after his death the proprietor discovered, during certain alterations, the portrait of Lord Lynedoch's wife, the Hon. Mrs Graham (a daughter of the 9th Lord Cathcart), one of Gainsborough's masterpieces, now in the National Gallery in Edinburgh; 4^ m. north-west of Methven, occupying a beautiful position in Glenalmond, is Trinity College, a public school on the English model, the first of its kind in Scotland, founded in 1841 through the efforts of W. E. Gladstone, J. R. Hope-Scott, Dean Ramsay and others, and opened in 1847. In 1851 Charles Wordsworth, the first warden, afterwards bishop of St Andrews, added the chapel. At Tibbermore, or Tippermuir, about 3 m. south-east of Methven, Montrose won the first of a series of battles over the Covenanters on the 1 st of September 1644. METHYL ALCOHOL (CH 3 OH), the simplest aliphatic alcohol; an impure form is known in commerce as wood-spirit, being produced in the destructive distillation of wood. The name methyl, from Gr. p,k6v, wine, uXtj, wood, explains its origin. Discovered by Boyle in 1661, it was first carefully studied by Dumas and Peligot in 1831; its synthesis from its elements (through methane and methyl chloride) was effected by Berthelot in 1858. It is manufactured by distilling wood in iron retorts at about 500 C, when an aqueous distillate, containing methyl alcohol, acetone, acetic acid and methyl acetic ester, is obtained. This is neutralized with lime and redistilled in order to remove the acetic acid. The distillate is treated with anhydrous calcium chloride, the crystalline compound formed with the alcohol being separated and decomposed by redistilling with water. The aqueous product is then dehydrated with potash or lime. To obtain it perfectly pure the crude alcohol is combined wA oxalic, benzoic or acetic acid, and the resulting ester separated 1 , purified, and finally decomposed with potash. Methyl alcohol is also obtained in the dry distillation of molasses. The amount of methyl alcohol present in wood spirit is determined by con- verting it into methyl iodide by acting with phosphorus iodide; and the acetone by converting it into iodoform by boiling with an alkaline solution of iodine in potassium iodide; ethyl alcohol is detected by giving acetylene on heating with concentrated sulphuric acid, methyl alcohol, under the same circumstances, giving methyl ether. Pure methyl alcohol is a colourless mobile liquid, boiling at METICULOUS— METROCLES 299 66°-67 , and having a specific gravity of 6-8142 at o° C. It has a burning taste, and generally a spirituous odour, but when absolutely pure it is said to be odourless. It mixes in all pro- portions with water, alcohol and ether. Its compound with calcium chloride has the formula CaCl 2 -4CH3-OH, and with barium oxide BaO-2CH 3 OH. Oxidation gives formaldehyde, formic acid and carbonic acid; chlorine and bromine react, but less readily than with ethyl alcohol. The chief industrial applications are for making denatured alcohol (q.v.), and as a solvent, e.g. in varnish manufacture; it is also used for a fuel; a purer product is extensively used in the colour and fine chemical industries. Methyl chloride CH3CI, is a gas, boiling at -23 , obtained by chlorinating methane, or better, from methyl alcohol; wood spirit is treated with salt and sulphuric acid, or hydrochloric acid gas conducted into the boiling spirit in the presence of zinc chloride, the evolved gas being washed with potash and dried by sulphuric acid. It is also prepared by heating trimethylamine hydrochloride. Alcohol dissolves 35 volumes and water 4. Methyl bromide is a liquid, specific gravity 1-73, boiling point 13 ; methyl iodide has a specific gravity of 2-19, and boils at 43°. METICULOUS (through Fr. mSHculeux, from Lat. meticulosus, timid, cautious; -metus, fear), a term meaning pedantically or excessively careful' of details, over-scrupulous, laying too much stress on minutiae. METOCHITA, THEODORE [Theodoros Metochites], a Byzantine author, man of learning and statesman, who flourished during the reign of Andronicus II. Palaeologus (1282-1328). After the deposition of his patron by Andronicus III., Metochita was deprived of his office of great logothete (chancellor) and sent into exile. He was soon recalled, but retired from political life to a convent, where he died in 1332. He was a man of very great learning, only surpassed by Photius and Michael Psellus. His pupil Nicephorus Gregoras, who delivered his funeral oration, calls him a " living library." Only a few of his numerous works have been preserved. The best known is 'TvonvT))iaTi.), especially as collected under the title Oesterreichs Theilnahme an den Befreiungskriegen; Wilhelm Oncken, Osterreich und Preussen im Befreiungskriege (1876-1879); A. Beer, Zehn Jahre bsterreichischer Politik, 1801-1810 (1877); Die Finanzen Osterreichs (1883); Die orientalische Politik Osterreichs seit 1774 (1883) ; T. T. de Martens, Recueil des traites, &c, vols. iii. and iv. ; Thiers, Hist, du consulat el de {'empire, which was frequently commended by Metternich himself as giving an accurate account of his policy, a statement, however, contro- verted by Albert Sorel, whose I'Europe et la revolution frangaise, gives a detailed and masterly account of Metternich's share in the overthrow of Napoleon. Fedor von Demelitsch's Fursl Metternich und seine auswdrtige Politik, vol. i., to 1812 (Munich, 1898), is an elaborate and useful analysis of Metternich's foreign policy, based on a large mass of unpublished archives. The best short biography of Metternich is that by A. Beer in Der neue Plutarch (1877), vol. v. ; but both this and Colonel G. B. Malleson's Life of Metternich (London, 1888) were written before the publication of the important works of Demelitsch and Sorel. (W. A. P.) METZ, a town, first-class fortress and episcopal see of Germany, in the imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine, capital of (German) Lorraine, on the Moselle, 99 m. N.W. of Strassburg by rail, and at the radiation of lines to Luxemburg, Coblenz and Noveant, on the French frontier (io| m. W.). Pop. (1905), 60,396. The general appearance of the town is quaint and irregular, but there are several handsome modern streets. The Moselle, which is here joined by the Seille, flows through it in several arms, and is crossed by fourteen bridges. In the south- west corner of the town is the esplanade, with an equestrian statue of the emperor William I., and monuments to Prince Frederick Charles and Marshal Ney, commanding a fine view of the " pays messin," a fertile plain lying to the south. Of the ten city gates the most interesting are the Porte d'Allemagne, or Deutsche Tor, on the east, a castellated structure erected in 1445 and still bearing traces of the siege by Charles V.; the Porte Serpenoise, or Rbmer Tor, on the south, and the Porte Francaise, or Franzosische Tor, on the west. Among its ecclesiastical edifices (nine Roman Catholic and four Protestant churches) the most noteworthy is the Roman Catholic cathedral, with huge pointed windows, slender columns and numerous flying but- tresses, which, begun in the 13th century and consecrated in 1 546, belongs to the period of the decadence of the Gothic style. The Gothic churches of St Vincent and St Eucharius, and the handsome Protestant garrison church, completed in 1881, also deserve mention. Among secular buildings the most important are the town-hall, the palace of justice, the theatre, the governor's house, and the various buildings for military purposes. The public library contains 40,000 volumes, including an extensive collection of works relating to the history of Lorraine. In the same building is the museum, which contains a picture gallery, a numismatic cabinet, and a collection of specimens of natural history. Metz also possesses several learned societies, charitable institutions and schools, and a military academy. The cemetery of Chambiere contains the graves of 7200 French soldiers who died here in 1870. The chief industries are tanning and the manufacture of weapons, shoes, cloth, hats and artificial flowers. There is a trade in wine, beer, wood and minerals. As a fortress, Metz has always been of the highest importance, and throughout history down to 1870 it had never succumbed to an enemy, thus earning for itself the name of La pucelle. It now ranks with Strassburg as one of the two great bulwarks of the west frontier of Germany. The original town walls were replaced by ramparts in 1550, and the citadel was built a few years later. By 1674 the works had been reconstructed by Vauban. Under Napoleon III. the fortress was strengthened by a circle of detached forts, which, after 1870, were modified and completed by the Germans, who treated the fortress as the principal pivot of offensive operations against France. The plans in Fortification and Siegecraft (fig. 43) show Metz as it was about 1900: in the years following a new outer chain of defences was constructed, which extends as far as Thionville on the north side and has its centre in front of Metz on the Gravelotte battleground. The old enceinte (which includes Cormontaingne's forts — Moselle and Bellevroix) is doomed to demolition, and has in part been already removed. The garrison, chiefly composed of the XVI. Army Corps, numbers about 25,000. (See Germany: Army.) History. — Metz, the Roman Divodurum, was the chief town of the Mediomatrici, and was also called by the Romans 3 o8 METZ Mediomatrica, a name from which the present form has been derived by contraction. Caesar describes it as one of the oldest and most important towns in Gaul- The Romans, recognizing its strategical importance, fortified it, and supplied it with water by an imposing aqueduct, the remains of which still exist. Under the Roman emperors Metz was connected by military roads with Toul, Langres, Lyons, Strassburg, Verdun, Reims and Trier. Christianity was introduced in the 3rd century of our era. In the middle of the 5th century the town was plundered by the Huns under Attila; subsequently it came into possession of the Franks, and was made the capital of Austrasia. On the parti- tion of the Carolingian realms in 843 Metz fell to the share of the emperor Lothair I. as the capital of Lorraine. Its bishops, whose creation reaches back to the 4th century, now began to be very powerful. Metz acquired the privileges of a free imperial town in the 13th century, and soon attained great commercial prosperity. Having adopted the reformed doctrines in 1552 and 1553, it fell into the hands of the French through treachery, and was heroically and successfully defended against Charles V. by Francis duke of Guise. It now sank to the level of a French provincial town, and its population dwindled from 60,000 to about 22,000. At the peace of Westphalia in 1648 Metz, with Toul and Verdun, was formally ceded to France, in whose pos- session it remained for upwards of two centuries. The battles of August 1870, and the investment and capture of the army of Metz which followed, are described below. By the peace of Frankfort on the 10th of May 187 1 Metz was again united to the German Empire. See Westphal, Geschichte der Stadt Metz (1875-1877); Georg Lang, Metz und seine Vmgebungen (1883), the Statistisch-topograph- isches Handbuch fur Lothringen; Albers, Geschichte der Stadt Metz (Metz, 1902); G. A. Prost, Etudes sur Vhistoire de Metz (1897); and Tauber, Die Schlachtfelder von Metz (Berlin, 1902). (See also Franco- GermanWar: Bibliography.) Battles around Metz, in the Franco-German War, 1870 1. Colombey-Borny {August 14). — The French army under Marshal Bazaine was in and about Metz. The German I. and II. armies, on the march from the Saar, were heading for the Moselle between Metz and Pont-a-Mousson, and on the morning of the 14th of August the German I. Army (I., VII. and VIII. Corps, under General v. Steinmetz) lay on and east of the French, with outposts well to the front, watching the French camps east of Metz, which were little more than 1 m. to the front. Stein- metz had received from headquarters overnight instructions that on the 14th of August the I. Army Would maintain the positions occupied during the 13th, and merely passed on these orders to his corps commanders. In Metz, meanwhile, Bazaine had decided to retreat, and during the morning orders to that effect reached his corps commanders, who commenced preparations for their execution. The 2nd Corps (Frossard) and 6th (Canrobert) began to retire about midday, the 3rd (Lebceuf), 4th (Ladmirault) and Imperial Guard (Bourbaki) were to follow. These preparations being observed, the German outposts got under arms. General von der Goltz, in command of the VII. Corps (7 battalions, 4 squadrons, 2 batteries) hearing from a passing officer that the I. Corps on his right was preparing to attack, and noting personally signs of retreat in the enemy's lines, determined at 3 p.m. to advance his whole command to the ridge between Colombey and Borny (which was still occupied by French outposts), in order to clear up the situation. The ridge was captured with little resistance, but the sound of the firing at once set all the neighbouring troops in motion, and fortunately so, for the French had immediately retaliated on von der Goltz's audacious attack. Between 4 and 6 p.m. there was continuous heavy fighting on the front from Borny to Mey, as both sides brought fresh troops into the field. The convex slopes falling from the Prussian position towards Metz gave plenty of cover to the French, and the setting sun shone full in the faces of the Prussian artillerymen. Thus the Prussian infantry encountered unusually obstinate resistance and the troops engaged rapidly slipped from all superior control. The above front was held by the French 3rd Corps. Shortly before 6.30 the 4th Corps (Ladmi- rault) suddenly began to deploy on the high ground to the north- west beyond M6y, thus threatening the right flank of the Prussian I. Corps (General v. Manteuff el) , To meet this danger Manteuff el was compelled to direct his corps artillery and reserves, which were now rapidly coming up, away from the hard-pressed centre towards the oncoming infantry masses of Ladmirault. These, with the sun now almost at their backs, were shooting better than usual, and Manteuffel was compelled to call on the VIII. Corps for assistance, which its commander, under positive orders from Steinmetz, refused to give. Meanwhile Steinmetz had been sending peremptory orders to the battlefield to stop the battle, but neither of the corps commanders was able to enforce them. Fortunately for the Prussians, Bazaine had issued similar orders to his subordinates, who, having their men better in hand, were able to obey; and as night began to close in the French broke off the action and retired under the guns of the Metz forts, convinced that at last they had " broken the spell " of German success. Finding that, in spite of his orders, the firing at the front continued increasing in intensity, Steinmetz at length rode to the front himself. Meeting Manteuffel near the Brasserie of Noisseville, he overwhelmed him with reproaches, and at the crisis of this scene the bands struck up " Heil dir im Siegeskranz " ! In this action the Germans brought 30,500 rifles and 150 guns on to the battlefield only out of more than 100,000 with 300 guns which could have been engaged before darkness. Bazaine actually deployed 50,700 rifles and 206 guns to oppose them. He might, however, had he been so minded, have struck with his whole army — nearly three times this force, and, judging from the course events actually took, we can have little doubt as to the result of such 1 a blow. The losses on either side were in killed and wounded — French about 3600, Germans about 4800. The chain of causation in this action is particularly worthy of attention: A young reserve officer, seeing some troops of the I. Corps standing to arms, reported to von der Goltz that the corps was standing to arms and about to attack. Von der Goltz thereupon decided to go forward and discover what was actually going on, and this action unchained the whole battle power of all the troops within call. When, on the following morning, Steinmetz reported von der Goltz and the commander of the I. Corps for disobedience, the king thanked Manteuffel warmly for the part he had played, and then turned to the young brigadier who had disobeyed orders and congratulated him on having twice distinguished himself in the first fortnight of the war. 2. The Battle of Vionville— Mars-la- Tour {August 16). — On the following day (15th) the II. German Army approached the Moselle above and below Pont-a-Mousson, with a view to overtaking and heading off Bazaine in his presumed retreat to the Meuse (see Franco-German War). So far, however, from being ahead of the Germans on the road to Verdun, the French were actually, late in the afternoon of the 15th of August, bivouacked on the plateau of Rezonville, and there their outposts were placed, not where they could see the surrounding country, but at the regulation distances of 600 to 1000 paces. from the bivouacs. Friendly inhabitants kept Bazaine well informed as to the magnitude of the danger threatening him from the south, and a special telegram from Paris, the true origin of which has never been traced, led him to believe that the I. German Army was crossing the Moselle near Thionville and about to descend on him from the north. This telegram might have exercised the most prejudicial influence on the course of the battle had not Ladmirault (4th Corps), nearer to the seat of the imaginary danger, taken upon himself to disregard the warning transmitted to him by headquarters. At daybreak on the 16th, no Prussians being reported in sight by the outposts, the troops began non- chalantly to prepare for the resumption of the march. On the Prussian side, von Alvensleben's Corps (III.) shortly after daybreak was moving north-westward from the Moselle in two columns, on the right the 5th division, via Gorze and Fla- vigny on Vionville, on the left the 6th division with corps artillery by Arnaville on Mars-la-Tour, von Alvensleben himself riding METZ 309 a little in advance between the two. The 6th cavalry division was ordered to precede the right column and scout towards Rezonville. No one was aware of the dangerous proximity of the French army. About 9 a.m. the 5th cavalry division, reinforced by two horse artillery batteries (flank guard of the X. Corps from Thiancourt), and accompanied by von Caprivi (chief of staff, X. Corps, and afterwards chancellor of the German Empire), were trotting up the western slopes of the ridge which runs between Tronville and Vionville. Reaching its summit they from Gorze towards Vionville, whence he could overlook the whole country to the north and west, had met von Rheinbaben (commanding the 5th cavalry division) and had seen the surprise of the French camps. The sound of the heavy firing coming from the eastward convinced him of what had been gradually dawning on him — that with barely 30,000 men he was in the presence of the whole French army, whose attitude at this moment suffi- ciently indicated their determination to fight. In a few moments his decision was taken. Calling on the X. Corps, away to the south-westward, for support, he determined Emcrv Walker SCa suddenly found themselves in face of at least 40,000 French troops, which were not under arms, but busied with miscella- neous camp duties. The temptation proved too great for the artillery, who promptly fired into the midst of the cavalry camp (Forton's division) which lay nearest to them. The momentary result was a wild panic, especially among the horses; but this panic gave the alarm to the infantry all along the road, and these (Frossard's 2nd Corps) at once stood to arms and moved forward, deployed for attack — one division to the west, another division, from Rezonville, to the south. The latter almost at once en- countered the heads of the 6th cavalry division, at that moment just clearing the defile leading up to the Rezonville plateau from Gorze. The Prussian cavalry promptly bore away to cover to the westward, and reported what they had seen to superior authority, but not to the advanced guard of the 5th infantry division, which, emerging in its turn from the defile, ran right against the deployed French infantry moving to meet them. So sudden was the collision that the Prussian advanced guard battery had to fire case to clear its own front. Meanwhile von Alvensleben himself, riding on the field track to screen his own weakness by a vigorous attack. By universal consent this is approved as the boldest resolution arrived at by an independent commander throughout the war. Orders were forthwith despatched to the 6th infantry division, at that moment between Puxieux and Tronville, to wheel in to their right and attack, and, their movement being still hidden from the enemy, these troops were formally drawn up for action and sent forward as a whole. The French meanwhile had occupied Vionville and Flavigny, and other troops were moving down the slopes from Rezonville to their support, but the united onset of this whole German division overbore all resistance, and the French began to retire eastward, suffering terribly from the shell fire of the Prussian batteries. Marshal Bazaine had meanwhile arrived on the scene, and ordering forward fresh troops to relieve (not to reinforce) those already engaged, he rode forward with a horse artillery battery to watch the operations. The retreating French troops belonged to Frossard's command, and as they were in considerable con- fusion Frossard called on du Preuil's brigade of the imperial guard cavalry to charge. He gave no objective, and when the 3io METZ brigadier pointed out that the enemy was still beyond the striking radius of his horses, Frossard reiterated the order, which was obeyed to the letter. The result was disastrous. The Prussians, having .seen the cavalry whilst yet at a distance, ceased firing, formed their skirmishers into groups, and the closed supports standing in deployed lines, two deep, shattered the cavalry with volleys and file-firing, as with blown and exhausted horses they endeavoured to close with their adversaries. When in addition two hussar regiments struck them in flank they were driven back in wild disorder upon Rezonville. In the dust and confusion of the charge a group of the hussars approached Bazaine and his horse artillery battery, and almost carried off the marshal. Alvensleben, mistaking the withdrawal of the French for the beginning of a retreat, had meanwhile sent orders to the 6th cavalry division to charge in pursuit towards Rezonville; but before it could reach the field the French relieving troops had forced their way through the stragglers and showed such a bold front to the Prussian horsemen that an attack held no promise of success, more especially since they had lost their intervals in EmcrrWMlccrsa their advance and had no room for a proper deployment. To steady the young soldiers, the cavalry commander (Carl von Schmidt) halted his men, made them correct their intervals and dressing as in peace, though under a heavy fire from the French infantry, and then withdrew them behind the cover of the nearest hill at a walk. The threat of the charge had, however, induced caution on the French side, and for about two hours there was a lull in the fighting, which the Prussians utilized on their right in bringing up reinforcements through the Bois des Ognons. On their left, however, no fresh troops were as yet available, and on being informed, about 2-30 p.m., that French cavalry seemed to be about to charge the exhausted 6th division, Alvensleben ordered Bredow's cavalry brigade to charge,.and if necessary to sacrifice itself, to save the infantry. Bredow's command (six squadrons of the 16th Ulans and 7th Cuirassiers) was at that moment drawn up under cover about half a mile west of Vionville, and from its position could see nothing of the events in progress on the battle- field. Nettled by the form in which the order was conveyed to him, Bredow drew his sword and ordered his trumpeter to sound the " trot," the brigade moving off in line of squadron columns at close interval in the direction in which they happened at the moment to be facing. Near Vionville they took ground to their left, opening to full intervals as they did so, and then ascended the gentle incline which still hid them from their enemy. Arrived at the summit, Bredow sounded " Sine to the front," but at that moment a storm of French bullets swept down on them, and the men, no longer to be restrained, dashed forward, before the line could be completed, almost due east against long lines of infantry and artillery which they now saw for the first time about 1200 yards in front of them. This distance was covered at the fullest extended speed of the horses, and reaching the infantry they swept over them " like hounds over a fence " — in the words of an eyewitness. So sudden had been their onset that very few were hit until the infantry had been passed; then the latter, recovering from the shock, turned and fired into the cavalry from behind, whilst a whole fresh division of French horsemen charged them in flank. After a desperate melee of some minutes, the rally was sounded, and the survivors of the charge, breaking their way a second time through the French infantry, eventually reached the shelter of their own lines, having lost rather more than half their numbers, but having saved the situation momentarily for their own army. Again there was a lull in the operations. Meanwhile, unknown to Alvensleben, a fresh storm was brewing on his left rear. Ladmirault, commanding the French 4th Corps had seen, during the afternoon of the 15 th, the terrible crowd and confu- sion prevailing in the defiles leading to Gravelotte, and resolved to disobey his orders and to move direct from his bivouacs by the road from Woippy to St Privat, disregarding altogether the alleged danger from the Prussians supposed to be advancing from Thionville. Thus, about noon on the 16th he reached the high ground between St Privat and Amanvillers, and still without instructions he determined to direct his corps on Bruville and Doncourt, whence he could judge from the drift of the smoke- clouds whether he could fall on the Prussian left. Much time was lost owing to the heat of the day and the fatigue of the troops, but shortly after 3 p.m. he reached a position north of the Tronville copses whence his guns could fire into the left rear of the long line of Prussian guns (6th division and corps artillery) on the heights above Vionville and Flavigny. Their fire threw the latter into serious confusion and he had already decided to attack with his nearest division (de Cissey) in the direction of the steeple of Vionville, when his attention was caught by the outbreak of heavy firing in the copses below him, and the entry of fresh Prussian guns into action. This diversion was brought about by the arrival of the corps artillery of the X. Corps and of the 40th brigade, which latter had been at once ordered into the Tronville copses to check portions of Tixier's division of the French 3rd Corps, which under cover of these copses had gradually worked round the Prussian flank. Seeing then that the troops before him could hold their own, Ladmirault continued his preparations for his counter- stroke, and Cissey's division had begun to move into its prescribed alignment, facing towards Vionville, when the sudden apparition of a closed mass of Prussian troops detaching itself from the low dust-cloud of a slow-moving infantry column, and forming to the south of Mars-la-Tour, again arrested his attention. Unanimously he and his staff agreed that this fresh enemy could only be the advanced guard of a large Prussian force, possibly, it was suggested., of the crown prince's army, from Alsace and Nancy, and a fresh delay arose while the situation was investigated. Actually this body consisted only of the 38th brigade (von Wedell), forming part of the X. Corps. It had no knowledge of the state of affairs on the battlefield, or in the direction of Bruville, though Prussian cavalry had been observing the approach of Ladmirault's corps for some hours. It was now ordered to deploy and to co-operate with the 40th brigade in an attack on the Tronville copses. This meanwhile had been delivered, and had more or less failed. The deployment completed, about 4 p.m. the 38th brigade began its advance on the north-west corner of the Tronville copses, this direction taking them diagonally across the front; METZ 3ii of Cissey's division, still out of their sight but moving due south. Hardly had they stepped off when Cissey's first line, catching sight of them, opened a devastating fire upon their left flank, and to meet this fresh danger the Prussians endeavoured to change front half-left whilst still on the move. Without pausing to fire, the men raced onward, but the French striking their outer wing rolled up the whole line in succession, the actual collision occurring in and near the Bruville ravine, a deep-cut natural trench which, starting from the Tronville copses, here intersects the plateau from west to east. Against the weight of French numbers, nearly three to one, the Prussians were unable to stand, and presently they broke and drifted backwards, completely routed. Then the 1st Guard Dragoons (since known as Queen Victoria's regiment), after a brilliant manoeuvre under heavy fire, to get into the best position for delivering a charge, rode down the whole French line of pursuers from left to right, and by their heroic self-sacrifice relieved the remnants of the infantry from further pursuit. This was the scene which for the moment held the attention of Prince Frederick Charles when at length he reached the battlefield from Pont-a-Mousson. All along the rest of the line the Prussians were still holding their own, and on the extreme right fresh troops from the IX. Corps were streaming up through the woods against the French left wing. But on the left there was every sign of incipient disaster, and to avert this only the cavalry were at hand. Sending, therefore, hasty orders to the 5th and 6th cavalry divisions to concentrate to the west of Mars- la-Tour, the prince ordered them from there to sweep round on the right rear of the French army. The same idea had, however, occurred to Ladmirault, and he had called on the two nearest French cavalry divisions to put it into execution, and as the Prussians began to reach the plateau west of Mars-la-Tour and the Yron brook from the south, the French were deploying across it some two thousand yards to the north. Then followed a duel — the one great cavalry duel of the war — between upwards of two thousand horsemen a side. But it was delivered by both sides in a series of regimental charges, and in result was singularly indecisive. For about half an hour great crowds of riders, hidden by dense clouds of dust, drifted aimlessly about the plain, till at length the charge of a single squadron of the Oldenburg Dragoons (who had joined in on their own initiative) delivered on the outer French flank, brought the whole mass into motion north-eastward, and, both sides sounding the rally, the engagement gradually ceased. It was now about 7 p.m. and night was coming on. Seeing the dust-clouds drifting away northward, and noting the lethargy which seemed to have settled over the whole French line, Prince Frederick Charles decided to assert his own independent will to conquer by a final assault along his whole front. Guns, cavalry, infantry, everything that could still stand were to take part in it. Weary as they all were, his indomitable will put fresh life into the whole army. With drums beating and colours flying, every unit within call went forward for the final effort. It was almost dark when the Prussians approached the French position between Rezonville and the woods to the northward, and the troops soon lost direction in the smoke and became involved in the direst confusion; the firing again blazed out for a few moments, only to die away as utter exhaustion at length put an end to the Prussian advance. Then the wearied troops, for the most part, lay down and slept in the positions they had reached. Thus closed the hardest fought battle of the Franco-German War. From 9 a.m. to 3 p.m. only 23,700 rifles, 8100 sabres and 126 guns had been brought into action by the Germans against 59,100 rifles, 6700 sabres, and 300 guns on the French side, and even at the close of the day the former had only deployed 47,100 rifles, 8300 sabres and 222 guns against 83,000 rifles, 8000 sabres and 432 guns including 24 mitrailleuses. The chief characteristic of the day's fighting was the terrible effective- ness of the Prussian artillery, which was handled in masses and not, as on the French side, by batteries. The manoeuvring power of the latter attracted the admiration of the Germans, but arriving singly on the field they were generally reduced to silence in a few minutes. Deprived of their support, not all the gallantry of the French infantry could avail anything. Again and again, particularly on their left wing, they chased the German infantry before them, but the moment the retreat of the latter downhill uncovered the pursuing French to the Prussian guns, a tornado of shells shattered their order and compelled them to retreat. Though the cavalry were freely engaged, the training of both was so far beneath the standard of the present day that the most that can be credited to them in respect of results is that they from time to time averted imminent disaster, but failed altogether to achieve such a decision as was well within their potential capacities. 3. Gravelotte — St Privat {August 18). — The position on to which the French army fell back from the field of Vionville is formed by a ridge some six miles long running from Rozerieulles almost due north to Roncourt, a little village overhanging the steep and wooded banks of the Orne, and connected with the general plateau between the Meuse and Moselle by a gentle saddle running from about Amanvillers nearly due west through the Bois de la Cusse towards Doncourt. North of this saddle the slopes show a slight concavity, but are passable by troops of all arms in close order. To the south the rivulet of the Mance soon forms a formidable obstacle as its bed cuts its way through the sandstone. Scrub and woods with dense undergrowth line both its banks, and, except by the great chaussee from Metz to Verdun, access to the French side becomes impossible to troops in ordered bodies. It does not appear that the position had been systematically examined, or apportioned to the several corps in accordance with any predetermined plan. The army merely swung back- wards, pivoting on its left wing, the corps preserving their relative order as it had been on the 16th, with the .exception that the Imperial Guard was withdrawn to the spur on which Fort Plappeville stands, and the 6th Corps (Marshal Canrobert) crossed the line of march of the 3rd and 4th Corps in order to gain St Privat la Montagne. No lines of march were assigned to the several units, consequently the confusion became so great that though the distance to be traversed in no case exceeded six miles, only the right wing and centre reached their destinations as night was falling. Many of them had so little idea of the general situation that they actually placed outposts to the north and east, whilst the whole of the enemy's army lay to the south and west. No attempt was made to entrench the position syste- matically, but on the left the 2nd and 3rd Corps made some disconnected shelter trenches and gun-pits, while the 4th Corps in the centre began to improve available cover about an hour before the battle began, and the 6th corps on the right, not yet having received any entrenching tools, could do no more' than improvise a few loopholes in the walls of the villages of St Privat and Roncourt with such tools as the sappers could obtain from the inhabitants. Fortunately for the French the Germans were too exhausted by the battle of the 16th to attempt to interfere with these movements. At daybreak on the morning of the 18th the royal headquarters (which now for the first time arrived at the front) still had no certain knowledge as to whether the French main army was in retreat — covered by the force which they could see on the high ground north of the Metz road — or whether they had taken up a position in order to fight. Hence the orders issued overnight on the presumption that the main force of the French was retreating to the north and west were allowed to stand, and the whole II. Army (Prince Frederick Charles) moved off in echelon from left to right, the I. army under Steinmetz, consisting for the day of the I., II. and VII. Corps, being left in observation of the troops visible on their front and of the garrison of Metz itself. The I. Corps was kept back beyond the Moselle on the east side of Metz, the II. was not due to arrive at Rezonville before 4 p.m., hence the VII. only was immediately available if the enemy counter-attacked. But Steinmetz had not ordered, nor had von Zastrow, the corps commander, undertaken, any preparations to meet an emergency. About 10 a.m. the corps had reached the following positions: 312 METZ VIII. Corps, Rezonville; XI. near St Marcel; Guard approaching Doncourt; XII. towards Jarny; the III. and X., which had been so heavily engaged on the i6th, still in their bivouacs preparing to move. The cavalry of the Saxons had established the fact that the French had not retreated northward, but though scouts from the Guard had already seen the enemy on the heights of St Privat, this information had not yet reached headquarters, nor had it been transmitted to the IX. Corps, which it most closely concerned. Shortly after 10 a.m. Moltke, still under the impression that the French right extended no farther than La Folie (2 m. north of the Metz road), determined to attack with the IX. and VIII. Corps whilst the Guard executed a turning movement via Habonville against the French right. The IX. Corps was to engage, but not to push its attack home until the Guard could co-operate. The XII. Corps was left to its own devices, but for- tunately the crown prince of Saxony, who commanded it, had ridden forward and, seeing the French in force towards Roncourt, had issued orders which in the event proved decisive. In pursuance of .his instructions von Manstein, commanding the IX. Corps, set his two divisions in motion towards La Folie and the Bois de la Cusse, and advanced to reconnoitre the French position. From the eastern edge of the above-named copses he suddenly descried the camp of a whole French Corps (the 4th), evidently ignorant of their danger, on the slopes trending west- ward from Amanvillers. Unmindful of the experience of the 16th, he decided to execute an artillery surprise on a grand scale, and sent orders to his corps artillery to come into action on the long spur ' overlooking the French camps from the westward. At noon, just as the French infantry were falling in for midday roll-call, sufficient guns were in position, and suddenly opened fire. But the effect was disappointing. The French infantry ran to their arms, piled along the front of their positions, and moved forward to attack, covering their advance by a hail of bullets. Simultaneously the French artillery also took up the challenge, and from the heights near St Privat the 6th Corps, whose presence had been unsuspected by the Prussians, joined in the fight. In a few minutes the batteries on the extreme Prussian left were completely overwhelmed, and suddenly dense ' lines of French skirmishers emerged from a fold in the ground upon their flank and front, and the gunners were compelled to resort to case-shot, so imminent was their danger. But at this critical moment the leading companies of the Hessian infantry arrived, re-established the equilibrium (though not before four Prussian batteries had been temporarily overrun by the enemy), and a most obstinate fight ensued. Prince Frederick Charles now rode forward to a point north- east of Verneville, whence the southern boundary of St Privat could be seen. But the northern side of the village and the country towards Roncourt was hidden from his view by the high poplars bordering the Metz-Briey road. Seeing the Hessians hard pressed, he now brought forward the 2nd division of the Guard to their assistance, sending in the 3rd brigade immediately, and holding the 4th brigade in reserve. The 1st division, warned by their own scouts that French troops were in Ste Marie, deployed to attack this village, and were assisted in their endeavour by a brigade of Saxons detached by the crown prince of Saxony, who from his position could see behind the poplar screen that limited the view of the commander-in-chief. Hence he was already aware that the French position extended to Ron- court at least, and had despatched a whole division down the valley of the Orne to outflank them. No news of this movement, however, appears to have reached Prince Frederick Charles. The French troops in Ste Marie were only an outpost of the 6th corps, and seeing themselves outnumbered, they withdrew about 2.30, the Prussians rushing, the village immediately after- wards. Considerable confusion arose from the convergence of these three brigades upon one village, and more than an hour passed before the troops could be disentangled and massed for further operations. The leaders of the two Guard brigades, still ignorant of the extent of the French position, rallied their men on the main bodies of their commands (which had not been engaged) and then lay down facing exactly as they had done when brought forward to the attack. Thus the 1st brigade lay, facing about east-south-east, south of the chaussee and some five hundred yards west of the village. The 2nd brigade lay south-west of the village about three hundred yards away from it and facing nearly north-east. The Saxons were on the left rear of the 1st brigade, but took longer to recover themselves than the Guards. With the Hessians and the IX. Corps the action still dragged; the 3rd brigade of the Guards had become involved in the fight, and notwithstanding the arrival of the corps artillery of the III. Corps in the centre the situation was still critical. From the south also came the thunder of guns and no encouraging news from that quarter had as yet reached the prince's headquarters. About 4.30 p.m. the prince therefore had to consider how long it would take to obtain a decision. To postpone it till the morrow seemed undesirable: to achieve it before nightfall was only possible at the cost of immediate effort. He therefore decided to assault St Privat with all the Guards available, and called up the III., X. and Saxons to assist them. The 4th brigade of the Guards now received their orders to attack Jerusalem (a hamlet a little south of St Privat), and the 1 st division was ordered to assault St Privat itself. Von Pape, commanding the latter division, pointed out that no artillery force adequate to prepare the way for him was as yet on the ground, and that the Saxons were still a long way to the rear. But his orders were imperative, and the 4th brigade was already moving off and had to be supported at any cost. Actually all available batteries had already been sent for and were trotting forward from every quarter towards the objective. He accordingly transmitted his orders, and the 2nd brigade was the first to attempt their execution. It had to wheel half-right in mass to bring it in the required direction, and then to advance till its rear was clear of the obstruction formed by the gardens of St Marie. By the time (5.30) it had sufficiently cleared this village it became apparent that the 4th brigade in its extension for attack would overlap the front assigned to the 2nd, hence a further (half-left) wheel, still in mass, had to be undertaken before room for deployment could be obtained. Almost as the commands were given, the French suddenly opened an overwhelming long-range fire and their bullets swept like hail through the crowded mass of the German troops. Nevertheless the wheel was effected, the fresh direction taken, the troops extended for attack, and then the whole brigade dashed towards the houses assigned them as their objective. Meanwhile the 1st brigade had moved round the north of the village and carried out its extension without serious hindrance. But emerging from the hollow running north from St Marie, they came under a heavy fire not only from St Privat but also from Roncourt, which latter village they now saw for the first time. Instinctively a portion of their line worked to the left to face this new menace, and the front thus became dangerously extended. They were, however, now abreast of the 2nd brigade, and the whole line raced forward to reach the effective range of their very inferior weapons, which were about equal at 200 yds. to the French rifle at 600. But the losses of the 2nd brigade, partic- ularly in officers, had been too heavy, and the rush died out whilst still 500 yds. from the two villages. It was now about 6 p.m. and a long pause ensued, while the 220 guns, which jby degrees had unlimbered behind them, brought St Privat and Roncourt under fire. About 7 p.m. the Saxon turning-movement took effect; their infantry from the Orne valley attacked Roncourt from the north, and about 7.15 the village was carried. Neither Prince Frederick Charles nor the troops in the fighting- line could see what had taken place; but the former seeing other Saxons moving towards Montois and the masses of the III. and X. Corps approaching, whilst the rain of shells into St Privat exceeded anything hitherto seen on any battlefield, decided to call on the whole of his force to attack. He was in METZ 3i3 the act of issuing his orders when a psychological wave swept through the fighting-line, and the men rose and rushed the village at the point of the bayonet. It was now about eight o'clock, and the light was rapidly failing. The French artillery had already evaded the coming blow, and had changed position, " right back," to cover the flank of the rest of the army, and the Prussian and Saxon artillery trotting forward conformed to this new front, their shells sweeping the ground for 2000 yds. to the south of Aman- villers. The confusion in and around St Privat, where troops from four several corps were all intermingled, became so extreme that no further infantry-advance could be attempted; so under cover of the fierce artillery duel the remnants of the unfortunate 6th corps drifted away towards Metz down the many ravines leading into the river valley. The " annihilation " of the Guard at St Privat has become historic. Yet, heavy as were the losses of the 1st Guard division they were not excessive compared to those previously endured. In round numbers one-third of their effectives had fallen— most of them in the first great rush forward at 5.30 p.m.; but actually they had been more or less under fire since about 2 p.m., and many were hit by French shells plunging into the turmoil about St Privat from 8 to 10 p.m. But the legend cannot be justified when the facts are compared with the slaughter of the Seven Years' War, of Napoleon's battles, the Crimea, and the American Civil War, or with the horrible punishment of von Wedell's brigade (38th) only two days before. It is now time to return to the southern theatre of the battle- field, where an entirely independent engagement had been raging all the afternoon. Von Goeben with the VIII. Corps was standing massed about Rezonville when von Manstein's guns opposite Amanvillers suddenly made themselves heard. Wheeling his corps to face the French to the eastward he imme- diately sent forward his artillery and prepared to support his comrade. Von Zastrow with the VII. Corps followed his example. ' Both corps took as their primary objective the farms of St Hubert and Point du Jour, standing just above the defile made by the Verdun-Metz road where it climbs out of the Mance ravine towards the French position. About 3-30 p.m. St Hubert was carried by a confused mass of some 49 companies, and von Steinmetz, believing the main French position to have been pierced, ordered the 4th cavalry division to cross the ravine by the chaussee and pursue. Simultaneously von Zastrow, under the same impression, had ordered his corps artillery to advance by the same road, and von Goeben, thinking his troops in front required support, had sent forward an infantry brigade by the same line of road. Presently all these columns converged upon the defile and a hopeless entanglement ensued. Three batteries succeeded in struggling through the mass, and, in coming into action, their left resting on St Hubert. But the remainder of the troops had to be withdrawn, and confusion breaking out in their rear, exposed to all the random bullets and shells of the French, a panic ensued, thousands of men breaking away and flying in wildest confusion through Gravelotte towards the west. Hardly had they melted away when the French made a most brilliant counter-attack from their main position between the farms of Leipzig and Moscow. This was stopped almost entirely by the Prussian artillery fire; but the news of its coming spread through the stragglers in the ravine south of the great road, and a wave of panic again swept through the mass, many thousands bolting right upon the front of their own batteries, thus masking their fire at the most critical moment, and some- thing like a crisis in the battle arose. Fortunately the II. Corps was now rapidly approaching (about 6 p.m.), and the king, against Moltke's advice, now ordered von Steinmetz (to whom the II. Corps had been allotted for the day) to attack again with all his forces. Meanwhile a third panic broke out which delayed the preliminary movements and it was now growing dark in the ravine. At length the II. Corps, together with all of the VII. that could be collected, moved down into the valley. Just as the leading German troops were approaching St Hubert the French again began to fire, their bullets plunging down among the fresh arrivals, who knowing nothing of what had taken place about St Hubert (where the remnant of their own infantry were still offering a desperate resistance) opened fire into the backs of their own men, and a fourth panic began which soon spread to the stragglers crowding the Mance ra'vine. Fortunately, by the superb gallantry of some of the company officers and men, the new arrivals were induced to recognize their mistake, and by degrees about 10 p.m. the whole of the II. Corps succeeded in reaching the plateau between St Hubert and Point du Jour, where the debris of the VII. and VIII. Corps had gathered. But in the darkness and confusion no forward movement against the French (only 400 yds. to their front) could be initiated, therefore the whole mass passed the night where they stood until daylight disclosed that the French had retreated. Meanwhile the king, Moltke, and Bismarck, had ridden back behind Gravelotte where they passed two hours of intense anxiety. From the flash of the rifles, it was clear that the French main position was still intact, and as every body of troops within thirty-six hours' call had been engaged there seemed little prospect of renewing the struggle next morning. No news too had come in from Prince Frederick Charles. Ulti- mately about midnight the welcome tidings of the capture of St Privat arrived, and all anxiety was at an end. 4. The Investment of Metz {Aug. ig-Oct. 14). — During the night following the battle of Gravelotte the French army withdrew within the line of the forts round Metz. The 6th Corps only was severely shaken, the 4th (the best in the whole army), though it had fought hard twice within forty- eight hours, losing nearly 30% of its strength, was still well in hand, and the 3rd, 2nd and Imperial Guards were almost intact. A fresh issue of ammunition and food was all the men needed to make them a thoroughly efficient fighting force comprising some 100,000 troops capable, with a resolute leader and an efficient staff, of crossing over to the right bank of the Moselle, overrunning the I. German Corps, the only one in their direct path, and then fighting their way across the communications of the II. and III. German Armies until they regained touch with the French railways to the south-west about Troyes. The mere fact of the effort being made would have given the battle of Gravelotte the moral effect of a victory, and the reaction in the German ranks from the feeling of over-confidence, which had mastered them after the early successes of Spicheren and Woerth, must have had most far-reaching consequences. Bazaine, however, withdrew entirely under cover of the forts, and set about the reorganization of his troops in the most leisurely manner. The Metz forts, though neither sufficiently armed nor even completely finished in some cases, were never- theless, with their deep ditches and self-protecting bastion trace, far too formidable for any field army to attempt without the aid of a siege train of some 200 guns, which for the moment were not available. Of this fact the Germans were well aware, and hence they decided from the first to reduce the place by hunger, calculating that with the extra 150,000 men thrown back upon the fortress, its food supplies could not last very long. On the morning of the 19th the German army was far too exhausted for further efforts. Except the I. Corps, which had been summoned overnight from its position about Cour- celles towards the battlefield of Gravelotte and had almost reached the Moselle before this move could be counterordered, the remainder kept their places of the previous night, only following the French retreat with a screen of outposts. They were sufficiently occupied in collecting the wounded and clearing up the confusion resulting from an accumulation of trains and transport in the defiles of Gorze and about Noveaut. No eastward movement could have taken place that day. In the course of the afternoon of the 19th the royal headquarters, creating a new army under the crown prince of Saxony (Guard, IV. and XII. (Saxons) Corps) for field operations towards the Meuse, assigned the remainder of the II. Army, and the whole 3H MEUDON— MEULEN of the I., to Prince Frederick Charles as commander-in-chief of the army of investment; 1 This brought the strength of his command up to eight corps, numbering some 220,000 men; an enormous mass to feed in a district swept bare of supplies by the operations of the preceding week, and with only one railway line, terminating at Courcelles, to depend upon. For the moment the chief care of the Prince was to guard against an attempt of the French army to break out to the westward. The I. Army Corps with Kummer's Landwehr division (which arrived during the night of the ic)th-2oth of August) were to occupy a position to cover the rail head at Courcelles-Remilly, and the remainder were disposed in the following order: The X. Corps was on the north, with a bridge head at Hauconcourt-sur-Moselle, the II., VIII. and VII. along the eastern slopes overlooking the Moselle valley, the latter having also a fortified bridge head at Ars-sur-Moselle. The III. and IX. were cantoned almost on the battlefield of the 1 8th, between Caulre Farm and Roncourt, ready to move off to the left and support the X. Corps in the event of an attempt on the part of the French to break out towards Thionville. The positions were fortified with a light outpost line, behind which was drawn a main position on which every art of the engineer was expended. Ample arrangements were made for obtaining and circulating intelligence, and all lateral com- munications were improved and supplemented to the utmost. A light field-railway from Remilly to Pont a Mousson (14 m.) was also put in hand, but progress on this was very slow. The water-supply of the town was promptly interrupted, but the river water Was quite drinkable. Meanwhile, the French in Metz had been diligently at work. There was no real deficiency of ammunition and stores in the fortress, and provisions for forty days were reported in hand. Bazaine was still in communication with the outside world, though return messages came in sparingly. On the afternoon of the 25th he decided to break out to the northward by the right bank of the river, and orders to this effect were duly issued. Many delays arose in their execution, and it was not till 2 p.m. on the 26th that the troops were formed up ready for action. But at the last moment the marshal wavered. Calling a council of war on the heights of Fort St Julien, he asked the opinion of his subordinates, who were unanimously against the proposed sortie, principally because the artillery " had only ammunition enough for a single battle!" Besides, the Germans had long since become aware of the movement in progress, and all chance of surprise was past. It was also raining very heavily. Accord- ingly the scheme was abandoned. On the 29th of August Bazaine received a despatch, dated the 27th, from MacMahon, according to which his army should have been at Stenay on the Meuse and farther to the south by the 30th. The marshal accordingly determined to renew the attempt of the 26th, and orders — almost a repetition of those of the previous occasion — were issued. At this moment (Aug. 31) the positions of von Manteuffel's command (I. Corps and 3rd Landwehr division) were most dangerously extended, and a surprise at daybreak might have had far-reaching results. But the habit of excessive bugling and band-playing betrayed the French design even before daybreak. Not until 1.30 p.m. was the concentration completed, and Bazaine again assembled his commanding officers to give them their final instructions. This time he adhered to his decision, and about 4 p.m. the attack opened (battle of Servigny or Noisseville) ; but his opportunity had been allowed to slip, and though his first onset overwhelmed the German outposts, their main line held good, and masses of guns unlimbering over a front of some 4 m. rendered all further attempts to break the German cordon abortive. Firing only ceased as darkness fell, and next morning the fighting was again renewed. But the whole French army was disheartened. It was obvious that what they had failed to do by surprise was hopeless now that twenty-four hours had been given in which the Germans JSteinmetz was shortly afterwards relieved of his command and returned to Germany. could make counter-preparations. Therefore about noon a general retirement under the guns of the forts took place, and the last serious hope of the French army had vanished. Some 120,000 men with 528 guns had been engaged against 60,000 Germans with 222 guns, and had been beaten off with a loss of 3500 men. The Germans had lost about 3000. The investment now resumed its regular course. The Ger- mans, secure in the strength of their position on the left bank of the Moselle, drew more troops over to the right, and added to their defences and communications. The idea was even mooted of damming up the river near Hauconcourt, and thus flooding out the whole of the civil population of Metz; but expert civil engineers, who were sent for from. Germany, reported against the proposal. As time wore on the conditions in Metz and the surrounding camps became deplorable. The hospitals and private houses had been crowded with wounded from the first, and now, owing to the persistent wet weather, smallpox and dysentery became epidemic. Towards the close of September rations had to be reduced, and the troops began slaughtering the cavalry horses for food. Probably to cheer the men by a semblance of activity, Marshal Bazaine attempted a sortie on a large scale on the 1st of October in the direction of Ladorchamps, and fighting continued into the 2nd, but without prospect of success, and the profound depression following on defeat sent up the sick list rapidly. One other sortie towards Noisse- ville followed on the 7th, the alleged reason for which was the hope of obtaining provisions in the neighbouring villages. But it was beaten off with the utmost ease by the investing troops, who were well fed and cared for; and as by this time even the gun-teams had followed the cavalry horses to the slaughter-house, the French army as an army — i.e. a combination of the three arms — had ceased to exist. On the recognition of this fact negotiations for the capitulation of Metz were begun on the 13th of October, and on the 14th the Army of the Rhine sur- rendered. Had it held out even forty-eight hours longer events before Paris and Orleans might have taken a different turn. The investment of Metz had lasted 54 days, and the death- roll of the civil population had risen to 3587 against 1200 in the corresponding period of a normal year. The army itself had only lost from sickness 2600 men, or barely 2% of its full effective. (F. N. M.) MEUDON, a town of northern France, in the department of Seine-et-Oise, 6 m. E. of Versailles by rail and about 25 m. S.W. of Paris. Pop. (1906), 9597. The remains of a castle (17th century) burned during the siege of Paris in 1871 have since been adapted as an observatory. Its terrace commands a fine view of Paris. The handsome Galliera Institutions, on the hill of Fleury, were founded by the duchess of Galliera for the reception of aged persons and orphans. The buildings were completed in 1885, at a cost of £560,000. The town has a monument of Rabelais, who was cure there in 1553, and manu- factures munitions of war for the artillery, and in the neighbour- ing park of Chalais is the Government military ballooning establishment. In the 16th century the cardinal, Charles of Lorraine, built at Meudon a magnificent chateau, which was destroyed in 1803. The present remains belong to a building erected by the dauphin, son of Louis XIV. The wood of Meudon lies for the most part to the west of the town. MEULEN, ANTONY FRANCIS VAN DER (1634-1690), Flemish painter, born in Brussels, was called to Paris about 1666 by Colbert, at the instance of Le Brun, to fill the post of battle painter to Louis XIV. His paintings during the campaigns of Flanders (1667) so delighted Louis that from that date Van der Meulen was ordered to accompany him in all his expeditions. In 1673 he was received into the French Academy, attained the grade of councillor in 1681, and died full of honours in Paris in 1690. He is best represented by the series of twenty-three paintings, mostly executed for Louis XIV., now in the Louvre. The show that he always retained his Flemish predilections in point of colour, although his style was modified by that of the French school. MEUNIER— ME USE 3*5 MEUNIER, CONSTANTIN (1 831-1905), Belgian painter and sculptor, was born at Etterbeek, Brussels. His first exhibit was a plaster sketch, " The Garland," at the Brussels Salon in 1851. Soon afterwards, on the advice of the painter Charles de Groux, he abandoned the chisel for the brush. His first important painting, " The Salle St Roch " (1857), was followed by a series of paintings including " A Trappist Funeral " (i860), " Trappists Ploughing " (1863), in collaboration with Alfred Verwee, " Divine Service at the Monastery of La Trappe " (1871) and episodes of the Peasants' War (1878). About 1880 he was commissioned to illustrate those parts of Camille Lemonnier's description of Belgium in Le Tour du monde which referred to miners and factory-workers, and produced " In the Factory," " Smithery at Cockerill's," " Melting Steel at the Factory at Seraing " (1882), " Returning from the Pit," and " The Broken Crucible " (1884). In 1882 he was employed by the government to copy Pedro Campana's " Descent from the Cross " at Seville, and in Spain he painted such characteristic pictures as " The Cafe Concert," " Procession on Good Friday," and " The Tobacco Factory at Seville " (Brussels Gallery). On his return to Belgium he was appointed professor at the Louvain Academy of Fine Arts. In 1885 he returned to statuary and produced " The Puddler," " The Hammerer " (1886), " Firedamp " (1889, Brussels Gallery), " Ecce Homo " (1891), " The Old Mine-Horse " (1891), " The Mower " (1892), " The Glebe " (1892), the monument to Father Damien at Louvain (1893), " Puddler at the Furnace " (1893), the scheme of decora- tion for the Botanic Garden at Brussels in collaboration with the sculptor Charles van der Stappen (1893), " The Horse at the Pond," in the square in the north-east quarter of Brussels, and two unfinished works, the " Monument to Labour " and the Zola monument, in collaboration with the French sculptor Charpentier. The " Monument to Labour," which was acquired by the State for the Brussels Gallery, comprises four stone bas-reliefs, " In- dustry," "The Mine," "Harvest," and the "Harbour"; four bronze statues, " The Sower," " The Smith," " The Miner," and the " Ancestor "; and a bronze group, " Maternity," Meunier died at Brussels on the 4th of April 1905. MEURICE, FRANQOIS PAUL (1818-1905), French dramatist, was born in Paris on the 7th of February 1818. In 1848 he became the editor of the Evenement, founded by Victor Hugo, and in 1869 he was one of the promoters of the Rappel, a journal on similar lines. He was the literary executor of Victor Hugo, and edited his works (1880-1885). In collaboration with Auguste Vacquerie and Theophile Gautier, he produced Falstaff (1842), a play in imitation of Shakespeare, and in 1843 an imita- tion of the Antigone; and with Alexandre Dumas a Hamlet (1847). He also wrote Benvenuto Cellini (1852), Schamyl (1854), Struensee (1893), and dramatic versions of Les Miserables (1878), Notre Dame de Paris (1876), Quatre-vingt-treize (1881). He died on the 12th of December 1905. MEURSIUS [Johannes van Meurs] (1579-1639), Dutch classical scholar and antiquary, was born at Loosduinen, near the Hague. He was extremely precocious, and at the age of sixteen produced a commentary on the Cassandra of Lyco- phron. In 16 10 he was appointed professor of Greek and history at Leiden, and in the following year historiographer to the states-general. In consequence of the disturbed state of his country he welcomed the offer (1625) of Christian IV. of Denmark to become professor of history and politics at Soro, in Zealand, combined with the office of historiographer royal. He died at Soro on the 20th of September 1639. Meur- sius was the author of classical editions and treatises, many of which are printed in J. F. Gronovius's Thesaurus antiqui- tatum graecarum. Their lack of arrangement detracts from their value, but they are a storehouse of information, and Meursius does not deserve the epithets of " pedant " and " ignoramus " •which Scaliger applied to him. Meursius also wrote on the troubles in the Netherlands and the history of Denmark. Complete edition of his works by J. Lami (1741-1763). See Van der Aa's Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden (1869), and J E. Sandys, Hist, of Class. Scholarship (1908), ii. 311. MEURTHE-ET-MOSELLE, a department of north-eastern France, formed in 1871 out of those parts of the old departments of Meurthe and Moselle which continued French. Before 1790 it belonged to Lorraine, or to one or other of the bishoprics of Toul, Metz and Verdun. Pop. (1906), 517,508. Area 2038 sq. m. It is bounded E. by Lorraine, N. by Belgium and the grand-duchy of Luxemburg, W. by the department of Meuse, and S. by that of Vosges. Meurthe-et-Moselle is of a hilly character, the highest elevation, the Grand Rougimont (2041 ft.), being in the Vosges. The valley of the Moselle runs through it from south to north. Extensive forests, the chief of which is the Forest of Haye, are found in the south-western region. Only a small part of the drainage of Meurthe-et-Moselle flows into the Meuse, by far the greater part reaching the Rhine by way of the Moselle. The principal affluents of the Moselle are the Madon and the Orne on the left, and on the right, besides the Meurthe, the Seille, which in one part of its course forms the boundary of Alsace-Lorraine. The principal tributary of the Meuse within the department is the Chiers. Climatologi- cally Meurthe-et-Moselle belongs to the Vosgian region, and has hot summers and severe winters. Its mean annual tempera- ture is between 48° and 49 F., being 2° lower than that of Paris (which has the same latitude). The annual rainfall averages between 28 and 32 in. The department possesses much fertile land, the chief crops being cereals and potatoes, together with clover, mangel-wurzels, tobacco, hops and beet- root. The vine is also cultivated, its best products being those of the Toul district. The most common fruit trees are the pear, the apple, the walnut, the cherry and the plum. Of forest trees the oak and the wych-elm are most frequent in the west of the department, the beech and the fir in the Vosges. The French school of forestry has its seat at Nancy. The salt- workings (the chief of which lie between Nancy and St Nicolas,) and the iron-mines (round Nancy and Longwy) of Meurthe-et- Moselle are the most productive in France. Other important industries are the manufacture of boots and shoes, straw and felt hats, pottery, and tanning and brewing (at Tantonville). Cotton and wool spinning, and the manufacture of cotton goods, hosiery, embroidery, chemicals (at Dombasle, close to Nancy), soap, tobacco, matches, crystal (at Baccarat, which has a popula- tion of 5617), mirrors (Cirey), glass, -army clothing and paper may also be mentioned. The department is served by the Eastern railway, the chief line being that from Paris to Strass- burg through Nancy. The main waterway is formed by the canal between the Marne and the Rhine. This canal communi- cates with the Moselle, which is navigable from Frouard down- wards, and with the Eastern canal, which unites the Meuse and the Moselle with the Saone and the Rhone. The depart- ment constitutes the diocese of Nancy, has its court of appeal at Nancy, and forms a part of the district of the VI. army corps (Chalons-sur-Marne), and of the academie (educational division) of Nancy. There are 4 arrondissements (Nancy, Briey, Lune- ville and Toul), 29 cantons and 598 communes. The principal towns of the department are Nancy, the capital, Luneville, Toul, Longwy, Pont-a-Mousson and St Nicolas. Other places of interest are Preny, with ruins of an important stronghold (12th and 13th centuries) of the dukes of Lorraine; and Vaud6- mont, seat of a famous countship, with ruins of a stronghold of the 12th and 14th centuries. MEUSE (Flem. Maes, Du. Maas), a river rising at Pouilly, in the department of Haute Marne, France. After passing through a great part of Belgium and Holland it flows into the Waal channel of the Rhine at Fort Loevenstein. A few miles below Gorinchem the Meuse, or Waal as it is then called, divides into two branches. The northern flows almost due west, and joins the Lek (Rhine) above Rotterdam, and enters the North Sea at the Hook of Holland. Ocean-going steamers for Rotterdam use, however, the New Waterway {Nieuwe Waterweg), a little north of the Meuse. The southern branch turns south, crosses the marsh of Biesbosch by the canalized channel of New Merwede, enters the Hollandsch Diep, and reaches the sea by the arms called Haringvliet and Krammer. 316 MEUSE— MEWS, P. The length of the Meuse is nearly 560 m., of which 360 are navigable, and probably its traffic is only exceeded by that of the Rhine. Near Bazeilles it disappears under ground for a distance of over 3 m. The Chiers, the Semois, the Lesse, the Sambre, the Ourthe and the Roer are its most important tributaries. In Belgium it is canalized between Liege and Vise, and the Dutch are engaged on the same operation below Maestricht. The principal towns on the Meuse are: in France, Verdun, Sedan, Mezieres and Givet; in Belgium, Dinant, Namur, Huy, Liege and Maeseyck; in Holland, Maestricht, Roermond, Venlo, Dordrecht and Rotterdam. MEUSE, a department of north-eastern France, formed out of a part of Lorraine (portions of the Three Bishoprics, and the Barrois and Clermontais) and Champagne. Pop. (1906), 280,220. Area, 2409 sq. m. It is bounded N. by Belgium and the depart- ment of Ardennes, E. by that of Meurthe-et-Moselle, S. by those of Vosges and Haute-Marne, and W. by those of Marne and Ardennes. About one-half belongs to the basin of the river Meuse, which is enclosed oh the west by the wooded region of Argonne, on the east by the hills known as the Cotes de Meuse. On the north-east it is watered by the Orne, a tributary of the Moselle, and the Chiers, which runs by Montmedy to join the Meuse. The other, half sends its waters to the Seine by the Aire, a tributary of the Aisne, both of which take their rise here, and by the Ornain, an affluent of the Saulx, the two last being tributary to the Marne. The highest elevation (1388 ft.) occurs to the south-west, on the line of the ridge which separates the basin of the Meuse from that of the Seine. The heights gradually sink from south to north, but seldom fall below 1000 ft. The hills of the Argonne similarly sink rapidly down to the valley of the Saulx, where the lowest level of the department (377 ft.) is reached. Its winters are less severe than those of the Vosges, but it is not so temperate as the Seine region. The average annual rainfall is about 30 in. The chief crops of the department are wheat, oats, rye, barley, clover, potatoes and mangel-wurzels. The vine is cultivated to some extent, the best growths being those of Bar. The forests, occupying more than a quarter of the area, are principally of oak, and are rich in game, as are the rivers in fish. Basket- making is prosecuted in the Argonne. The mineral wealth of the department includes good freestone (Euville, Lerouville). It has iron and steel works, wire-works, and manufactories of files, hardware and edge tools. Ligny-en-Barrois (pop. 4879) manufactures scientific instruments. There are cotton-spinning, wool-weaving, and hemp, flax and jute factories, saw-mills, carriage works, leather manufactures, glassworks, paper- mills, distilleries and flour-mills. The department is served by the Eastern railway, the principal lines being that from Paris to Strassburg through Bar-le-Duc and Commercy, that from Paris to Metz through Verdun, and the branch line of the Meuse valley. The chief waterways are the canal connecting the Marne with the Rhine and the Eastern canal along the Meuse valley; the two together have a length of 145 miles. Ecclesiastically the department forms the diocese of Verdun; it has its court of appeal at Nancy, and constitutes part of the district of the army corps of Chalons-sur-Marne, and of the educational division of Nancy. There are 4 arrondissements — Bar-le-Duc, Commercy, Montmedy and Verdun — 28 cantons and 586 communes. The principal places in the department are Bar-le-Duc, the capital, Commercy, Verdun and St Mihiel, which receive separate treatment. Other places of interest are Avioth, which has a church of the 14th and 15th centuries with a beautiful chapel of the 15th century adjoining it, and Rembercourt-aux-Pots with a fine church of the 15th century. MEUSE-LINE, the chain of French forts closing the passages of the Meuse between Verdun and Toul. The total length of the line is 31 m., and the forts d'arrtt are disposed along the right bank. The forts are: between Verdun and St Mihiel, Genicourt and Troyon; near St Mihiel, Les Paroches (left bank) and Camp des Romains; and near Commercy — Liouville St Agnant, Gironville and Jouy-sous-les-C6tes. Above the circle of the Toul defences there are barrier forts on the Upper Meuse at Pagny (la-Blanche-Cote) and near Neufchateau; but these last are practically in second line, and between Toul and Epinal the frontier districts are designedly left open. At Epinal the " Moselle-Line " begins. These lines form part of the defensive scheme adopted by France in 1873-1875. Their general design is that of the French fort illustrated in Forti- fication and Siegecraft, fig. 43, though they are varied in accordance with the site. MEVANIA (mod. Bevagna), an ancient town of Umbria, on the river Clitumnus and on the Via Flaminia, 8 m. W.S.W. of Forum Flaminii, and 5 m. W. of Fulginium (Foligno), 738 ft. above sea-level. There are remains of a temple near the north gate, and of an amphitheatre built into the modern houses. The wails, which have disappeared, were, according to Pliny {Hist. Nat. xxxv. 173), built of unbaked bricks. In 310 B.C. the consul Fabius broke the Umbrian forces here; but other- wise it is not mentioned until the 1st century a.d. In 69 the army of Vitellius awaited here the advance of Vespasian. Its pastures near the river and its white oxen are mentioned by Propertius, whose family belonged to Asisium (mod. Assisi) and after him by Silius Italicus, Lucan and Statius. The town was a municipium. The churches of S. Michele Arcangelo and S. Nicolo are Romanesque buildings of the 12th century. MEW. (1) An imitative word, also spelled miaou, repre- senting the cry of a cat or of sea-birds. The name mew, usually sea-mew, as applied to the Larus canus, or common sea-gull, is, according to Skeat, also imitative. As the name of the sea-bird it appears in Du. meeuw, Ger. Mowe, and other lan- guages. (2) (Through Fr. muer, from Lat. mutare, to change), a term originally applied in French to the moulting of a hawk or falcon, and then to the caging of the bird during that period; thus " to mew up " has come to mean to confine. The English word chiefly survives in the plural form mews, applied to a stable-yard, coach-houses, stalls for horses, and living accommo- dation, found in narrow streets in large towns. This use was due to the Royal Mews at Charing Cross, where the royal hawks were kept from 1377 to 1537, when the building became the royal stables. MEWS, PETER (16 19-1706), English royalist and divine, was born at Caundle Purse in Dorset on the 25th of March 1619, and was educated at the Merchant Taylors' school, and at St John's College, Oxford, of which he was scholar and fellow. When the Civil War broke out in 1642 he joined the Royalist army, and, having been made a captain, was taken prisoner at Naseby; but he was soon released and in 1648 sought refuge in Holland. He became friendly with Charles I.'s secretary, Sir Edward Nicholas, and being skilful at disguising himself was very useful to the Royalists during the rule of Oliver Cromwell, undertaking two. journeys to Scotland in 1653. Before this Mews had been ordained. Taking the degree of D.C.L. and regaining his fellowship at Oxford after the Restoration, he became archdeacon of Huntingdon, vicar of St Mary's, Reading, and chaplain to the king; then, having obtained two other livings, he was made canon of Windsor, canon of St David's, and archdeacon of Berkshire. In 1667, when at Breda arranging peace between England and Holland, he was chosen president of St John's College, Oxford, in succession to his father-in-law, Dr Richard Baylie, afterwards becoming vice-chancellor of the university and dean of Rochester. Appointed bishop of Bath and Wells in 1672, Mews resigned his presidency in 1673, and in 1684 he was elected bishop of Winchester, a position which this " old, honest cavalier," as Thomas Hearne calls him, filled until his death on the 9th of November 1706. The bishop is buried in Winchester cathedral. Mews lent his carriage horses to pull the cannon at a critical moment during the battle of Sedgemoor, where he was wounded whilst accom- panying the royal army. He was, however, in sympathy with the seven bishops, and was only prevented by illness from attending their meeting; and as visitor of Magdalen College, Oxford, he supported the fellows in their resistance to James II., admitted their nominee, John Hough, to the presidency, and restored the ejected fellows in October 1688. PHYSIOGRAPHY] MEXBOROUGH— MEXICO 3*7 He took the oaths to William and Mary in 1689. In the absence of Compton, bishop of London, Mews took the chief part at the consecration of Tillotson as archbishop of Canterbury in 169 1. See S. H. Cassan, Lives of the Bishops of Winchester (1827) ; and the Nicholas Papers, edited by G. F. Warner (1886-1897). MEXBOROUGH, an urban district in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on the Don, 1 1 m. N.E. of Sheffield on the Great Central and Midland railways. Pop. (1891), 7734; (1901), 10,430. The Don affords water communication with the Humber. The church of St John the Baptist has Early English portions. The large industrial population is mainly employed in glass, pottery and iron works, and in the neigh- bouring stone-quarries. The Castle Hill is crowned with some fine earthworks of uncertain date. MEXICO (Span. Mcjico, or Mexico,) officially styled Estados Unidos Mexicanos and Republica Mexicana, a federal republic of North America extending from the United States of America southward to Guatemala and British Honduras, and lying between the Pacific Ocean on the west and the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea on the east. Its northern boundary line was fixed by the Guadalupe-Hidalgo treaty of 1848 and the Gadsden treaty of 1853; it follows the Rio Grande del Norte from its mouth north-westward to lat. 31° 47' N., thence on that parallel W. 100 m., thence S. to lat. 31 20' N., thence due W. to the inth meridian, thence in a straight line (nearly W.N.W.) to a point on the Colorado river 20 m. below the mouth of the Gila river, thence northward to the mouth of the Gila, and thence, nearly due W., along the old line between Upper and Lower California to a point on the Pacific coast one marine league S. of the southernmost point of San Diego Bay; this line has a total length of 1810 m., of which the Rio Grande comprises 1136 and the land route 674 m. The boundary line with Guatemala, for a long time in dispute, was fixed by the treaties of 1882 and 1895. It i s an arbitrary line and follows only two natural lines of demarcation — the Suchiate river from the Pacific coast to its source, and the Chixoy and Usuma- cinta rivers from near the 16th parallel N.W. to a point on the latter 25 kilometres, S. of Tenosique (Tabasco). Between these rivers the boundary line is determined by the peaks of Tacana, Buenavista and Ixbul, and from the Usumacinta eastward it follows two parallels of latitude, one on the point of departure from that river, and the other, the longer, on that of 17° 49' to the British Honduras frontier. The boundary with British Honduras was determined by a treaty of 1893 and is formed in great part by the Hondo river down to the head of Chetumal Bay, and thence through that bay to the Boca Bacalar Chica — the channel separating Yucatan from Ambergris Cay. Geo- graphically, Mexico extends from 14 30' 42" (the mouth of the Suchiate) to 32° 42' N. lat., and from 86° 46' 08" to 117 07' 31" W. long. Approximately its greatest length from N.W. to S.E. is 1900 m., its greatest width 750 m., and its least width a little short of 140 m. In outline it is sometimes compared to a huge cornucopia with its small end curving S.E. and N. The interior curve formed by the Gulf of Mexico is comparatively regular and has a coast-line of about 1400 m. The Caribbean coast-line is about 327 m. long, exclusive of indentations. The outer curve facing the Pacific is less regular, is deeply broken by the Gulf of California, and has a coast-line of 4574 m., including that of the Gulf. The peninsula of Lower California (q.v.) lies parallel with the mainland coast and extends southward to about 22 52'N. lat., a distance of nearly 760 m. The area of Mexico is commonly given by English authorities as 767,005 sq. m., by German statisticians as 1,987,201 sq. kiloms. (767,290 sq. m.), and by H. H. Bancroft, who quotes official figures, as 1,962,899 sq. kiloms. (757,907 sq. m.). Physiography. — The surface features consist of an immense elevated plateau with a chain of mountains on its eastern and western margins, which extends from the United States frontier southward to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec ; a fringe of lowlands (tierras calientes) between the plateau and coast on either side; a detached, roughly mountainous section in the south-east, which belongs to the Central American Plateau, and a low sandy plain covering the greater part of the Isthmus of Yucatan. The peninsula of Lower California is traversed from north to south by a chain of barren mountains which covers the greater part of its surface. The slopes are precipitous on the east coast, but on the west they break down in hills and terraces to the Pacific. This range may be considered a southward continuation of the Californian Sierra Nevada. The great plateau of Mexico is very largely of volcanic origin. Its superstructure consists of igneous rocks of all descrip- tions with which the original valleys between its marginal ranges have been filled by volcanic action. The remains of transverse and other ranges are to be seen in the isolated ridges and peaks which rise above the level of the table-land, in some cases forminp- well-defined basins; otherwise the surface is singularly uniform ir, character and level. The two noteworthy depressions in its sur- face, the Valley of Mexico and Bolson de Mapiml, once contained large bodies of water, of which only small lakes and marshy lagoons now remain. The highest part of this great plateau is to be found in the states of Mexico and Puebla, where the general elevation is about 8000 ft. Southward the slope is broken into small basins and terraces by transverse ranges, and is comparatively abrupt. Northward the slope is gentle, and is broken by several transverse ridges. At Ciudad Juarez (adjoining El Paso, Texas), on the north- ern frontier, the elevation is 3600 ft., which shows a slope of only 4} ft. to the mile. Less is definitely known of the elevated regions of Chiapas, on the border of Guatemala, which are separated from the great Mexican Plateau by the low Isthmus of Tehuantepec (718 ft. at the highest point of the transisthmian railway), but their general elevation is much lower, and they are broken by wooded sierras and eroded by water-courses. The mountain ranges which form part of the great Mexican Plateau consist of two marginal chains known as the Sierra Mddre Occidental, on the west, the Sierra Madre Oriental, on the east, and a broken, weakly-defined chain of transverse ranges and ridges between the 18th and 20th parallels known as the Cordillera de Anahuac. All these chains are known locally under diverse names. The Sierra Madre Occidental consists of several parallel ranges in the north, where a broad belt of country is covered with a labyrinth of ridges and valleys. The most eastern of these are known as the Sierra Tarahumare and Sierra del Durango, and the most western as the Sierra del Nazareno, Sierra Yaqui and Sierra Fuerte. These converge in southern Sinaloa and Durango to form the Sierra de Nayarit. Near the 20th parallel the great chain again divides, the eastern part crossing the southern end of the plateau, and the western, or Sierra Madre del Sur, following the shore line closely to Tehuantepec. The Sierra Madre Occidental has but few note- worthy elevations, its culminating points being the Nevado de Colima (14,363 ft.) and Volcan de Colima (12,750 ft.) in the state of Jalisco. In the Sierra de Nayarit the Cerro Pimal rises to an eleva- tion of 11,319 ft., and in the extreme south the Cerro del Leone to 10,302 ft. These sierras lying near the coast have an imposing appearance from the lowlands, but when seen from the plateau their general elevation is so dwarfed as to render them compara- tively inconspicuous. The Sierra Madre Oriental consists of a broken chain of ranges extending along the eastern margin of the plateau from the great bend in the Rio Grande south-eastward to about the 19th parallel. In the north these ranges are low and offer no great impediment to railroad building. South of Tampico, however, they are concentrated in a single lofty range. This range extends south-eastward along the western frontier of Vera Cruz (state) and includes the snow-capped cone of Orizaba or Citlaltepetl (18,209 ft.), and the Cofre de Perote, or Nanchampapetl (13,419 ft.). The eastern slopes are abrupt and difficult, and are a serious impedi- ment to communication with the coast. Rising from the open plateau half way between this range and the city of Mexico is the isolated cone of Malinche, or Malintzin (14,636 ft.). Crossing the highest part of the Mexican Plateau is a broken series of ranges, which form the water-parting between its northern and southern slopes. To a part of these ranges has been given the name cf Cordillera de Anahuac, but there is no true cordillera across this part of Mexico. In a general sense these ranges may be considered part of the eastern branch of the Sierra Madre Occidental, which turns eastward on the 20th parallel and crosses the plateau in a south by east direction. Southward the plateau is traversed by many low ranges and breaks down in terraces, forming one of the most fertile and attractive parts of the republic. Close to the capital are the Sierra de Ajusco, whose highest point is 13,078 ft. above sea-level, the Nevado de Toluca (15,168 ft.), in a range which separates the valleys of Mexico and Toluca; the Montes de las Cruces, and that volcanic, spur-like range, running northward at right angles to the axis of the other ranges;, whose culminating points, some 20 m. south-east of the city, are the gigantic, snow- clad volcanoes of Popocatepetl (Smoking Mountain) and Ixtacci- huatl (White Woman). Both of them are extinct and Popocatepetl no longer smokes. Their elevations, according to the Comision Geografica Exploradora, are 17,888 and 17,343 ft- respectively, that of Ixtaccihuatl being the highest of its three crests. This part of Mexico is highly volcanic in character, the transverse ridge just described having a large number of extinct volcanoes and at least three (Colima, Jorullo and Ceboruco) that are either active or semi-active. Colima was in a state of eruption as late as 1909, 3i8 MEXICO [PHYSIOGRAPHY Jorullo (4262 ft.) is said to date from 1759, when its cone was formed, and Ceboruco (7100 ft.) in the territory of Tepic, shows occasional signs of activity. Near the coast in the state of Vera Cruz is San Martin, or Tuxtla (9708 ft.), which has been quiescent since its violent eruption of the 2nd of March 1793. Orizaba is sometimes included among the semi-active volcanoes, but this is a mistake. It has been quiescent since 1566, and is now completely extinct. Earthquakes are common throughout the greater part of the republic, especially on the western coast. They are most violent from San Bias southward to the Guatemala frontier, and some of the Spanish towns on or near this coast have suffered severely. Chilpancingo, in Guerrero, was badly shattered in 1902, and in 1907, and in 1909 was reduced to a mass of ruins. The earthquake shocks of the 30th and 31st of July 1909 were unusually severe throughout southern Mexico, reducing Acapulco and Chilpancingo to ruins and shaking the city of Mexico severely. In Acapulco a tidal wave followed the shock. Slight shocks, or temblores, are of almost daily occurrence. According to Humboldt's theory there is a deep rent in the earth's crust about the 19th parallel through which at different periods the underground fires have broken at various points between the largest of this class, and has the town and port of Carmen at its western extremity. On the northern coast of Yucatan is the small, inhabited island of Holbox or Holboy, and on the eastern coast the islands of Mujeres, Cancum and Cozumel, of which the first and last have a considerable population and good ports. On the Pacific coast there are a number of islands off the rocky shores of Lower California and in the Gulf of California — most of them barren and uninhabitable like the adjacent coast. The largest of these, some of them inhabited, are: Guadalupe — about 75 m. west of the coast on the 29th parallel, which is fertile and stocked with cattle ; Cerros, off Viscaino Bay, and Santa Margarita, which partly shelters Magdalena Bay, on the Pacific side ; and Angel de la Guarda, Tiburon, San Marcos, Carmen, Monserrate, Santa Catalina, Santa Cruz, San Jose, Espiritu Santo and Cerralvo in the Gulf. Lying off San Bias in the broad entrance to the Gulf are the Tres Marias, and directly west of Colima, to which it belongs, is the scattered volcanic group of Revillagigedo. The peculiar surface formation of Mexico — a high plateau shut in by mountain barriers, and a narrow lowland region between it and the coast — does not permit the development of large river the Gulf of Mexico and the Revillagigedo Islands. " Only on the supposition that these volcanoes, which are on the surface connected by a skeleton of volcanic rocks, are also united under the surface by a chain of volcanic elements in continual activity, may we account for the earthquakes which in the direction mentioned cause the American continent, from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean, to oscillate at the same time " (Egloffstein, p. 37). The lowland or tierra caliente region, which lies between the sierras and coast on both sides of Mexico, consists of a sandy zone of varying width along the shore-line, which is practically a tide- water plain broken by inland channels and lagoons, and a higher belt of land rising to an elevation of about 3000 ft. and formed in great part by the dSbris of the neighbouring mountain slopes. On the Pacific side there are places where the mountain spurs extend down to the coast, but in general this lowland region ranges from 30 to 40 m. in width, except in southern Vera Cruz, Tabasco, Campeche and Yucatan, where it extends farther into the interior. The talus zone of this region, especially at elevationsof 1000 to 3000 ft., is noted for its great fertility and the luxuriance of its vegetation. There are no large islands on the coast of Mexico, and most of the smaller ones are unimportant. Many of those that fringe the Gulf coast are sand-keys, or parts of a new coast formation. They are commonly barren and uninhabitable. The Isla del Carmen, which partly shuts in the Laguna de Terminos (Campeche) , is one of Emery Walktr.Eci basins. Add to this the light rainfall on the plateau and a lack of forests, and we have conditions which make large rivers impossible. The hydrography of Mexico, therefore, is of the simplest description —a number of small streams flowing from the plateau or mountain slopes eastward to the Gulf of Mexico and westward to the Pacific. Most of these are little more than mountain torrents, but one has a course exceeding 500 m., and few have navigable channels. The principal watershed is formed by the sierras of the state of Mexico, from which streams flow north-east to the Gulf of Mexico, north- west to the Pacific and south-west to the same coast below its great eastward curve. The Rio Grande del Norte, or Rio Bravo, on the northern frontier, is practically an American river, as it rises in American territory and receives very little water from the Mexican side. Its larger Mexican tributaries are the Rio de los Conchos, Salado and Pesqueria. Of the Suchiate and Hondo, which form part of Mexico's southern boundary, the first is a short, impetuous mountain torrent flowing into the Pacific, and the other a sluggish lowland stream rising in north-eastern Guatemala and flowing north-east through a heavily forested region to Chetumal Bay. The peninsula of Yucatan has no rivers, and that of Lower California only a few insignificant streams in the north. This is due to the porosity of the soil in the former, and the very limited rainfall in the latter. The largest rivers of Mexico are: the Rio Grande de Santiago, called the Lerma above Lake Chapala, rising in the state of Mexico and flowing westward across Guanajuato, Jalisco and GEOLOGY : CLIMATE] MEXICO 3*9 Tepic to the Pacific coast, with a total length of 540 m., celebrated for its deep canyons and waterfalls ; the Rio de las Balsas, or Mescala, which rises in TIaxcala and flows south and west to the Pacific with a course of 426 m. ; the Yaqui, which rises in western Chihuahua and, after breaking through the northern ranges of the Sierra Madre Occidental, flows south-westerly across Sonora to the Gulf of California, with a length of 390 ra. ; the Grijalva, also called the Chiapas on its upper course, which has its sources in the state of Chiapas and flows north-west and north across Tabasco to the Gulf of Mexico, with a total length of 350 m. ; the Fuerte, which rises in southern Chihuahua and, after breaking through the sierras, flows south-west across Sinaloa to the Gulf of California, with a course of 340 ra. ; the Usumacinta, which is formed by the confluence of the Chixoy and Pasion on the east frontier of Chiapas, and flows north-west across Tabasco to the Grijalva, with a course of 330 m. ; and the Panuco, which has its source in the north-west of the state of Mexico and flows north-eastward to the Gulf of Mexico. The rivers of the Pacific coast have no navigable channels worth mention- ing, but many on the Gulf coast are navigable for considerable distances. The more important of these are in Tabasco — the Grijalva, navigable for about 93 m., and the Usumacinta, for about 270 m. The country about the Laguna de Terminos is low and fiat, and is traversed in all directions by deep, sluggish streams. Many of the rivers crossing the lowlands bordering the Gulf have short navigable channels, the most important of which is the Panuco and its tributaries. The Rio Grande is navigable for small vessels up to Matamoros (31 m.), and for smaller craft 65 ra. farther. Nearly all the Gulf coast rivers, however, are obstructed by bars owing to the quantity of silt brought down from the sierras and the prevailing winds and currents on the coast. The lakes of Mexico are small and few in number. They may be divided into two classes;. those of the plateau region which occupy lacustrine depressions and receive the drainage of the surrounding country; and the tide-water lagoons of the coast formed by the building up of new sand beaches across the indentations in the coast-line. Of the former, the best known are the lakes of the Valley of Mexico — Texcoco, Chalco, Xochimilco, Zumpango, Xaltocan and San Cristobal — which are probably the remains of a lake once occupying the whole valley. They receive considerable surface drainage, but are slowly diminishing in area. Some of them, like Xochimilco, will eventually disappear. The largest, Texcoco, has an area of about 11 j sq. m. (30 sq. kiloms.), but it covered a much larger area at the time of the Spanish conquest. Its surroundings are bleak and sterile and its waters brackish and polluted with the drainage of the neighbouring city for nearly four centuries. The other lakes are wholly different in character and surroundings, especially Chalco and Xochimilco. Texcoco is now connected with the new drainage works of the capital and is no longer a menace to its population through inundations and pesti- lential fevers. Another group of lakes is to be found in the Laguna district of south-western Coahuila, where the Tlahualila, Mairan, Parras and others occupy a large lacustrine depression and receive the waters of the Nazas and Aguanaval rivers from the south-west (Durango). The size of this isolated drainage basin is very large, the Nazas River alone having a length of about 370 m. The great Mapimi desert of western Coahuila is another lacustrine depression, but only marshy lagoons remain. In eastern Coahuila, near Monclova, are the Agua Verde and Santa Maria lakes, and in eastern Chihuahua there is a similar group. The largest and most attractive of the plateau lakes is Chapala, in the state of Jalisco, about 80 m. long by 10-35 m - wide, which receives the waters of the Lerma and discharges into the Pacific through the Santiago. On the lower terraces of Michoacan are Patzcuaro and Cuitzeo lakes, and elsewhere among the sierras are numerous other small bodies of water. Among the tide-water lagoons, of which there are many along the Gulf coast, the best known are the Laguna de Terminos in Campeche, Tamiahua in Vera Cruz, Madre (130 m. long), Pes- querias (21 m. long) and Chairel (near Tampico) in Tamaujipas. All these lagoons are navigable, and those of northern Vera Cruz and Tamaulipas, when connected and improved, will afford a safe inland route for some hundreds of miles along the coast. The north coast of Yucatan is remarkable for the extensive banks built up by the Gulf current from 5 to 7 m. from the shore-line. Inside the present sandy coast is a peculiar tide- water channel called the Rio Lagartos, which follows almost the whole northern shore, with occasional openings or bocas, connecting with the open sea. It is apparently of the same character as the lagoons of Tamaulipas. There are a number of these lagoons on the Pacific coast — such as Superior and Inferior near Salina Cruz, Papacayo, near Acapulco, Cayutlan, near Manzanillo, and Tecapan in Tepic — ■ but they are usually shallow, sometimes swampy, and have no value for commerce. There is a marked difference between the Gulf and Pacific coast- lines of Mexico in regard to their minor indentations and harbours. The south-west part of the Gulf of Mexico is called the Gulf of Campeche (Campeachy), but no distinction is necessary. This coast has no bays of importance, its rivers are obstructed by sand- bars, and it has only one natural harbour— that of Carmen and the Laguna de Terminos, which has sufficient depth for the larger classes of vessels and is sheltered by the islands of Carmen and Puerto Real. Of the principal ports on this coast, Matamoros, Tampico, Tuxpan, Coatzacoalcos and Frontera are on rivers, which are obstructed by bars. Tampico and Coatzacoalcos, how- ever, have been improved by breakwaters or jetties, and the deep- ening of the Channels across the bars, into safe and commodious harbours. Vera Cruz is an open anchorage inside a series of reefs which afford no protection to vessels from the " northers." A breakwater has remedied this defect and Vera Cruz is no longer considered a dangerous port. Campeche has a small artificial harbour, which is so silted up that vessels drawing 9 ft. must anchor I m. outside and larger vessels still farther away. Progreso, Yucatan, has only an open roadstead, and large vessels cannot approach its landing-place nearer than 6 m. On the east coast of Yucatan there are two deep, well-sheltered bays, Ascension and Espiritu Santo, which afford good anchorages, and at the north end of the island of Cozumel the bay of Santa Maria offers an ex- cellent harbour. The Pacific coast has several deep and well- sheltered bays ; but they are separated from the interior by the rough and difficult ranges of the Sierra Madre Occidental. There are two large indentations of the coast — the Gulfs of Tehuantepec and California. The former is opposite the Gulf of Campeche, and possesses no distinguishing characteristic. The Gulf of California, on the other hand, penetrates the continent for a distance of 739 m., from south-east to north-west, with a maximum breadth of 190 m. Its area is usually restricted to the waters north of the latitude of Cape San Lucas, but it should be extended to the outer waters enclosed by a line from Cape San Lucas to Cape Corrientes. Its upper waters are not much navigated because of the aridity of its coasts, but there are two or three important ports towards the south. The Gulf has a considerable number of islands, most of them near the peninsular coast, and several deep, well-protected bays — those of La Paz and Santa Ines in Lower California, Guaymas in Sonora, Agiobampo, Topolobampo and Altata Salinas in Sinaloa. On the Pacific coast of Lower California are the Ensenada de Todos Santos and the bays of San Quentin, Viscaino and Magdalena. The principal bays on the mainland coast are Olas Atlas, which is the harbour of Mazatlan, San Bias, Banderas, Manzanillo, Acapulco, Salina Cruz and Tonala. Several of these are being improved. [Geology. — By far the greater part of Mexico is covered by deposits of Cretaceous and later date, the pre-Cretaceous rocks occurring only in comparatively small and isolated patches. At the southern extremity of the great table-land, however, in the state of Puebla, there is a considerable mass of crystalline rocks which is believed to be of Archaean age. Similar rocks occur also in Chiapas, Oaxaca, Guerrero and elsewhere; but owing to the absence of any early fossiliferous deposits, the age of these rocks is very uncertain. Silurian and Devonian fossils have been reported at one or two localities, but for the present the observations are open to doubt. The earliest fossiliferous beds which have been proved to exist in Mexico belong to the Carboniferous system. They are found on the borders of Guatemala and consist of limestones and dolomites with Productus. The Mesozoic beds are of greater importance. The Triassic and Jurassic systems are met with only in scattered patches. The former consists of sandstones and clays, and the fossils found in them are chiefly plants, including Gangamopteris and Macrotaeni- opteris, two characteristic genera of the Indian Gondwana system. The Jurassic beds are marls, sandstones and limestones, which contain marine fossils. The Cretaceous rocks take a far larger share in the formation of the country. They form the greater part of the Sierra Madre Oriental and also cover most of the central plateau. They contain many fossils, including Hippurites and Ammonites. The sedimentary deposits of the Tertiary era do not occupy a very wide area. They occur, however, along the coasts, where they are marine, and also on the central plateau, where they are of lacustrine origin. But by far the most important of the Tertiary rocks are the volcanic lavas, agglomerates and ashes, which cover so much of the country. It is in the western half of Mexico that they are most fully developed, but towards the southern extremity of the plateau they spread nearly to the eastern coast. The eruptions are said to have begun with the ejection of syenites, diorites and diabases, which probably took place at the close of the Cretaceous or the beginning of the Eocene period. In the Miocene period andesites of various kinds were erupted, while at the close of the Pliocene began the great eruptions of basalt which reached their maximum in Quaternary times and continue to the present day. 1 (P. La.)] Climate. — Mexico stretches across 17 parallels of latitude, with the Tropic of Cancer crossing her territory about midway. This implies tropical and sub-tropical conditions. The relief of the land and varying degrees of rainfall and vegetation, however, serve to modify these conditions in many important particulars. The elevation and extent of the great central plateau, which penetrates 1 See J. G. Aguilera, Sinopsis de geologia mexicana; " Bosquejo geologico de Mexico," segunda parte, Bol. inst. geol., Mexico, Nos. 4-6 (1897), pp. 189-270, with map — a summary of this paper will be found in Science Progress, new series (1897), vol. i. pp. 609-615. See also the Livret-guide of the Tenth Cong. Geol. Internat. (1906). 320 MEXICO [FLORA AND FAUNA deeply into the tropical half of the country, carry with them'temper- ate and sub-tropical conditions over much the greater part of the republic. Above the plateau rise the marginal sierras, while a few isolated peaks in the region of perpetual snow give to Mexico a considerable area of cold temperate and a trace of arctic conditions. Descending to the lowlands on either side of the plateau, the tempera- ture rises steadily until the upper limit of the tropical region, called tierras calientes, is reached, where the climate is hot, humid and unhealthy, as elsewhere in the forested coastal plains of tropical America. The tierras calientes (hot lands) of Mexico include the two coastal zones, the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, the states of Tabasco, Campeche, and part of Chiapas, the peninsula of Yucatan and a part of eastern Oaxaca. The mean temperature ranges from 77° to 82° F., seldom falling below 6o°, but often rising to 105°, and in the sultry districts of Vera Cruz, Guaymas and Acapulco to and even above 110°. The rainfall is heavy in the south, except Yucatan, but diminishes gradually toward the north, until on the Pacific and Gulf of California coasts it almost disappears. These lowland districts are densely forested in the south, except Yucatan, and large areas are covered with streams, swamps and lagoons, the abode of noxious insects, pestilential fevers and dysentery. On both coasts yellow fever epidemics appear at frequent intervals. The great fertility of these regions and the marvellous wealth of their forests are irresistible attractions to industrial and com- mercial enterprise, but their unhealthiness restricts development and is a bar to any satisfactory increase in population. The heavy rainfall on the Gulf coast, however, which reaches a maximum of 90 to 100 in. in the Huatusco district of Vera Cruz, causes the flooding of large areas of lowlands, and will make improvement very difficult. The peninsula of Yucatan, whose general level does not rise above 130 to 200 ft. above the sea, consists almost wholly of an open, dry, calcareous plain. The temperature ranges from 66° to 89°, but the heat is tempered by the cool sea-breezes which sweep unobstructed across its plains. The rainfall is abundant in the rainy season, but in the long dry season it is extremely rare. In the wet season the rain is quickly absorbed by the dry, porous soil; consequently there are no rivers and no lakes except near the forested region of the south-east. These exceptional conditions give to Yucatan a moderately hot, dry, and comparatively healthful climate. Another hot, dry climate is that of the tierras calientes of Sonora. The coast is low and extremely arid, and would be uninhabitable were it not for the proximity of the Sierra Madre, where a light rainfall is experienced, and for the numerous rivers that cross the arid belt between the mountains and the sea. The maximum temperatures in this region are 98° at Hermosillo and 119° at Guaymas. To a large extent the climate of Mexico is determined by vertical zones. According to H. H. Bancroft {Resources of Mexico, pp. 3-4), the tierras calientes, which include a coastal zone 30 to 40 m. wide and the low-lying states already mentioned, rise from sea-level to an elevation of 3280 ft. The tierra templada, or sub-tropical zone, rises to an elevation of 5577 ft., and comprises " the greater portions of Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, San Luis Potosi, nearly half of Tamaulipas, a small part of Vera Cruz, nearly the whole of Chiapas, nearly all of Oaxaca, a large portion of Guerrero, Jalisco, Sinaloa and Sonora," together with small parts of the inland states of Puebla, Mexico, Morelos and Michoacan. The mean annual temperature is about 75°. Above this is the tierra fria, which ranges from 5577 to 8200 ft., and includes all the higher portions of the Mexican plateau, and which corresponds to the temperate regions of Central United States where frosts are very rarely experienced. Even here the high sun temperatures give a sub-tropical character to the country. In the sierras, above the tierras frias, which are not " cold lands " at all, are the colder climates of the temperate zone, suitable for cereals, grazing and forest industries, and, farther up, the isolated peaks which rise into the regions of snow and ice. Speaking generally, the four seasons are clearly marked north of lat. 28 N. only. South of that parallel they merge in the esta- cion de las aguas, or rainy season, from May to October, and the estacion seca, or dry season, which prevails for the rest of the year. The rains generally begin on the east coast and gradually move northwards. The windward slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental receive the greater part of the rainfall, and the winds, deprived of their moisture, pass over the northern plateau without further precipitation. On the Pacific coast the belt of calms, known as the northern horse latitudes, crosses the northern parts of Lower California and Sonora, which accounts for their extreme aridity. The southern terraces of the plateau have no high mountain barriers between them and the moist winds of the Caribbean, and they too receive an abundant rainfall in the wet season, especially during the prevalence of heavy " northers " on the Gulf coast. The precipita- tion varies widely, that of the western side of the northern plateau (Chihuahua and Durango) being about 39 in., that of the Valley of Mexico about 25 in., and that of the whole republic 59 in. Long droughts are common in many parts of the country, and on the barren surfaces of the plateau the rains drain away rapidly, leaving but slight beneficial results. Flora and Fauna. — The types of animal and vegetable life found in Mexico belong, in a general sense, to those of the northern temper- ate region, and those of the tropical regions of Central and South America. The great central plateau and its bordering lowlands form an intermediate territory in which these dissimilar types are found side by side, the tropical species extending northward along the coast to the United States, while the northern species have found their way to the southern limits of the plateau. The jaguar and puma have found their way into the United States, while the wolf, coyote, bear and beaver have gone far southward on the plateau, and the buffalo was once found in large numbers on its more favoured northern plains. This intermingling of types does not apply to south-eastern Mexico, where animal life is represented by many of the genera and species found in the forested lowlands of the great Amazon basin. Aside from its origin, the fauna of Mexico includes at least five species of monkey, the jaguar, puma, ocelot (Felis pardalis), wolf, coyote, lynx, badger, otter (Lutra felina), beaver, muskrat, bear, raccoon (Procyon), coati {Nasua), tapir, two species of peccary {Dicotyles torquatus and D. labialus), skunk {Mephitis , Spilogale and Conepatus), marten, several species of opossum (including a pigmy species of the Tres Marias islands), sloth, two species of ant-bear {Myrmecophaga tetradactylus and Cycloihurus didactylus), armadillo [Dasypus novemcinctus) , a small arboreal porcupine (Synetheres mexicanus), the kinkajou (Cercoleptes caudivolvulus) , three species of deer — the white-tailed Cariacus toltecus, the little black-faced brocket, Coassus rufinus, which is also found in Brazil, and the Sonora deer (Odocoileus couesi) — the Mexican bighorn (Ovis mexi- canus) of Chihuahua, at least two species of hare (Lepus calotis and L. palustris), rabbits, black, gray, red and ground squirrels, gophers, and many small rodents. Alligators and crocodiles are numerous in the lagoons and rivers of the coast and the iguana is to be found everywhere throughout the tropical lowlands, the large black Ctenosura acantMnurus being partly arboreal in habit when full grown. Mexico is a paradise of lizards, which are noted for their diversity in form as well as for their remarkable colouration. Frogs and toads are represented by scores of species, some of which, e.g. the tree-frogs {Hylidae), are extremely interesting. The ophidians are also very numerous, ranging from the comparatively harmless boa-constrictor to the deadly " palanca " or " fer de lance " (Lachesis lanceolatus) and rattlesnake {Crotalus), of which there are several species. In southern Mexico in 1902 and 1904 Hans Gadow collected specimens of 44 different kinds of snakes, which he esti- mated to be only about 45 % of the species in the states visited. The arboreal life of the tropical forests has developed the tree- climbing habit among snakes as well as among frogs and toads, and also the habit of mimicry, their colour oeing in harmony with the foliage or bark of the trees which form their " hunting-grounds." Bats are numerous, both in species and individuals. The sanguinary vampire (Desmodus rufus) has an extensive range through the tierras calientes and tierras templadas of the southern states. The coasts of Mexico, together with their accessible lagoons and rivers, afford innumerable breeding-places for turtles, which include the large green and tortoise-shell species. In some places the capture of the latter is the source of a considerable export trade in tortoise- shell. The coast of Lower California is a favourite resort for the fur-bearing seal, and pearl oysters find a congenial habitat in the south waters of the Gulf. There are some good fishing-grounds on the coasts, but fishing as an organized industry does not exist. The inland waters, with the exception of Lake Chapala, have com- paratively few species, but the government has introduced carp, brook-trout and salmon-trout. The avifauna of Mexico includes most of the species of the tropical and temperate regions of America — such as parrots (chiefly the yellow-headed Chrysotis), parakeets {Conurus canicula), macaws {Arc, macao and A. inilitaris), toucans, trogons, herons, egrets, ibis, spoonbills, boat-bills {Cancroma), ducks, pelicans, cormorants, bitterns, stilts, sandpipers, curlews, grackles, kingfishers, motmots, " Chachalacas " (Ortalida poliocephala) , woodpeckers, jays, cuckoos, " garrapateroc " (Crotophaga sulcirostris), the ingenious weaver-bird {Icterus), and another species {Cassicus), whose curiously woven, sack-like nests are suspended from the slender limbs of trees, and sometimes even from telegraph-wires, scarlet-crested fly-catchers {Muscivora mexicana), tanagers, mocking-birds (called " zenzontl "), turkeys, partridge, quail {Colinus, Lophortyx, Callipepla and Cyr- tonyx), doves, pigeons, eagles, caracara hawks {Polyborus), fish- hawks, falcons, crows, and turkey-buzzards (both the red-faced " aura " of North America and the black-faced " zopilote " of the tropics), which are the scavengers of the country. The most numer- ous, perhaps, are the humming-birds, of which there are many genera and species, each one distinct in form and colour. They are called " huitzilin " (spikelet) by the Aztecs, and " colibri," " chupa- flor " and " chupa-miel " (flower- or honey-sucker), and " pajaro- mosca " (fly-bird) by the Spanish-speaking Mexicans. These descriptive names are highly poetic, as also that of the Portuguese, " beija-flor " (flower-kisser); but the humming-bird is insectivorous, and thrusts his long bill into flowers in search of insects instead of honey. Mexico is credited with a great variety of song-birds, but these are to be found chiefly in the partly-forested country of the tierras templadas and tierras frias. Her chief distinction, however, is in birds of varied and gorgeous feathering. The wonderful plu- mage of the " quetzal " {Trogon resplendens) was, it is said, reserved FLORA AND FAUNA] MEXICO 321 by the Aztec rulers for their own exclusive use. Of the indigenous birds, the turkey has been fully domesticated, and the musk-duck and " chachalaca " are easily reared. Sea-fowl are most numerous on the coasts of Lower California, where certain islands in the arid belt are frequented at night by countless numbers of them. It should be added that many of the migrating birds of North America pass the winter 1 in Mexico. The insect fauna of Mexico covers a very wide range of genera and species which, like the other forms of animal life, is largely made up of migratory types. No complete study has ever been made of this fauna, but much has been, and is being done by the U.S. Biological Survey and Plant Industry Bureau. To the traveller, the most conspicuous among the Mexican insects, perhaps, are the butterflies, beetles, ants and the myriads of mosquitoes, midges, fleas and chinches. Among the mosquitoes, which are extra- ordinarily numerous in some of the hot lowland districts, are the species credited with the spread of malarial and yellow fevers. The midges are even more numerous than the mosquitoes. In pleasing contrast to such pests are the butterflies of all sizes and colours, beetles of an inconceivable variety of size, shape and colouration, and ants of widely dissimilar appearance and habits. An interesting species of the last is the leaf-cutting ant (Eciton) which lives in large underground colonies and feeds upon a fungus produced by leaf-cuttings stored in subterranean passages to pro- mote fermentation. These ants will strip a tree in a few hours and are very destructive to fruit plantations. Some of the native trees have developed ingenious methods of defence, one of which is that of attracting small colonies of another species to drive away the marauders. Most destructive, also, are the termites or white ants, whose ravages are to be seen in the crumbling woodwork and furni- ture of all habitations in the hot zones. Some species build their nests in trees — great globular masses sometimes three feet in diameter, supported on the larger branches, and connected with the ground by covered passages on the outside of the tree. These insects are blind and avoid the light. Bees find a highly congenial habitat in Mexico, and some honey is exported. Spiders are also represented by a large number of genera and species, the most dreaded being the venomous " tarantula " and the savage " mygale." Few countries, if any, can present so great a diversity in plant life as Mexico. This is due not only to its geographical position and its vertical climatic zones, which give it a range from tropical to arctic types, but also to its peculiar combination of humid and arid conditions in which we find an extensive barren table-land interposed between two tropical forested coastal zones. These widely divergent conditions give to Mexico a flora that includes the genera and species characteristic of nearly all the zones of plant life on the western continents — the tropical jungle of the humid coastal plains with its rare cabinet-woods, dye-woods, lianas and palms; the semi-tropical and temperate mountain slopes where oak forests are to be found and wheat supplants cotton and sugar-cane ; and above these the region of pine forests and pasture lands. Then, there are the mangrove-fringed coasts and the dripping wooded slopes where rare orchids thrive, and above these, on the inland side of the sierra, a treeless, sun-scorched table-land where only the cactus, yucca, and other coarse vegetation of the desert can thrive without irrigation. For convenience of description, the flora of Mexico may be divided into four great divisions: that of the comparatively barren plateau and the arid coast regions, the humid lierras calientes, the intermediate tierras templadas and tierras frias, and the higher regions of the sierras. The line of demarcation cannot be very sharply drawn, as the zones everywhere overlap each other and local climatic conditions greatly modify plant types. In general, the aspect of the great central plateau north of the Anahuac sierras is that of a dusty, treeless plain. There is but little natural vegeta- tion to be seen — ragged yucca trees, many species of agave and cactus, scrubby mesquite bushes, sage bushes and occasional clumps of coarse grasses. The rainy season completely changes the appearance of these plains, new grass appears, and wheat and Indian corn are cultivated. The rains do not last long, however, and some- times fail altogether. The most common plants of the Mexican plateau are the agaves, yuccas and cacti, each of which is repre- sented by a number of species. The first is chiefly known in the south by the " magueys," from which the national drinks " pulque " and " mescal " are extracted. There is some confusion in the specific names of these agaves; the " pulque "-producing plant is usually described as the Agave americana, though A. atrovirens and several others are also credited with the product. The mescal- producing magueys have a thinner leaf and are not cultivated, with the exception of the species producing the " tequila " mescal. The chief value of the agaves, however, is in their fibres, of which a great variety is produced. The principal plateau agaves producing fibre are the A. lechuguilla and A. lophantha and A. univittata of the Jaumave Valley, Tamaulipas, which furnish what may be termed the genuine ixtle fibre. The " tapemete " fibre of western Mexico is credited by Mr E. W. Nelson to the A. vivipara, which is found chiefly in the warmer and lower elevations of the Pacific slope. There are many other fibre-producing agaves, including some of those from which pulque is derived. The cactus is un- questionably the characteristic plant of Mexico. About one thousand species have been described, a very large percentage of which are to be found on the Mexican plateau. Explorations by botanists of the United States Department of Agriculture have been made in many localities, in Jalisco, Zacatecas, Michpacan and Tamaulipas, but many years must elapse before the whole ground can be covered. In central and southern Mexico the mountain slopes are forested up to 12,500 to 13,500 ft., juniper bushes continuing up to 14,000 ft. The forests consist of several species of evergreen and deciduous oaks, " oyamel " {Abies religiosa), the arbutus or strawberry tree, the long-leaved Pinus liophytta and the short-leaved " ocote " or Pinus montezumae and the alder, with an undergrowth of elder (Sambucus mexicana), broom and shrubby heath. In the Southern Sierra Madre, the " oyamel " and " ocote " pine are the giants of the forest, sometimes rising to a height of 100 ft. Oaks are to be found over a wide area and at lower eleva- tions of the sub-tropical zone as well. They are represented by a number of species, and are called " roble " and " encina " by the natives. In the intermediate zones between the higher sierras and the tierras calientes the flora is very largely composed of species characteristic of the bordering hot and cold regions. Oaks are everywhere common and the " ocote " pine on the Gulf coast is found as far down as 6300 ft. In southern Mexico the pine is found at even lower elevations where the tropical growth has been destroyed by cultivation and fire. The lower slopes of the sierras, especially those of southern Mexico, are well forested and include an immense number of species. The most common families on the eastern slopes, where the precipitation is heavy, are the magnolias, crotons, mimosas, acacias, myrtles, oaks, plane-trees and bamboos. Palms are common, the chestnut abounds in many places, the cacti are almost as numerous as on the open plateau. On the southern slopes of the Ajusco and other sierras considerable forests of the " ahuehuete " or cypress (Taxodium dislichum) are to be found. The " higuerilla "' or castor-oil plant (Ricinus communis) is widely distributed throughput the plateau and the open plains of the lower zones. In some localities the characteristic types of the two climatic extremes, the palm and the pine, are to be found growing side by side. No brief description can adequately portray the marvellous variety and magnificence of the flora of the tierras calientes. Its forests are not composed of one or a few dominating species, as in the cold temperate zone, but of countless genera and species closely interwoven together — a confused mass of giant trees, lianas and epiphytes struggling to reach the sunlight. This struggle for existence has completely changed the habits of some plants, turning the palm and^ the cactus into climbers, and even some normal species into epiphytes. Among the more important and conspicuous trees of these tropical fprests are mahogany, rosewood, Spanish cedar (Cedrela), cassias, ceibas (Bombax), rubber (Castilloa), palms of many species including the oil-producing Attalea of Manzanillo and Acrocomia of Acapulco, guayacan (Guaiacum), logwood (Haema- toxylon campechianum) , brazilwood (H. boreale) which should not be confounded with the Brazilian Caesalpinia, palo bianco (Lysiloma Candida), the cascalote and divi-divi trees (Caesalpinia Cacalaco and C. coriaria), the " zapote chico " (Achras sapota) from which chicle is extracted, " zapote prieto " (Diospyros ebenaster), wild fig, myrtles, bamboos and many of the types already mentioned in connexion with the sub-tropical zone. Of the 114 species of trees and cabinet-woods, 17 of oil-bearing plants, and over 60 of medicinal plants and dyewoods indigenous to Mexico, by far the larger part are represented in the tierras calientes. Among the well-known forest products of this zone are arnotto, jalap, ipecacuanha, sarsaparilla, rubber, orchids and a great variety of gums. Of the economic plants and products of Mexico, the list is sur- prisingly long and interesting. The cereals, fruits and vegetables of Europe have been introduced and some of them have done well. Wheat is widely cultivated and a considerable part of the population depend upon it for their bread, Indian corn, which is believed to have had its origin in Mexico, also provides food for a large part of the population. " Tunas " or cactus fruit, red peppers, " zapotes " (the fruit of various trees), " arrayan " {Myrtus arayan), " ciruelas " or Mexican plums (Spondias), guavas, " huamuchil " (Pithecolobium duke), tamarinds, aguacates (Persea gratissima), bananas, plantains, pineapples, grapes, oranges, lemons, limes, granadillas, chirimoyas, mammees (Mammea americana), coco-nuts, cacao, mangoes, olives, gourds and melons, are among the fruits of the country, and rice, wheat, Indian corn, beans, yams, sweet potatoes, onions and " tomatoes " {Phy sails) are among its better-known food products. The food of the common people is chiefly made up of Indian corn, beans, red peppers and " tomatoes," There are about 50 known species of beans (Phaseolus) in Mexico and Central America, and probably a dozen species of red peppers (Capsicum) which are used both in seasoning and in making chili sauce. The " tomato " or " tomatillo " mentioned, is the fruit of the Physalis ixocarpa, some- times called the " strawberry tomato " and the " Mexican ground- cherry," which is used with red peppers to make chili sauce. The common potato (Solanum tuberosum), of which wild varieties are found, is not commonly used as a vegetable, but as a flavouring for soups and other dishes. Among pther economic plants are the fibre-producing agaves, the best known of which is the A. rigida 322 MEXICO [POPULATION var. elongata which produces the "henequen" fibre, or sisal hemp, of Yucatan, silk or tree-cotton (Ceiba casearia), sugar-cane, cotton {Gossypium), indigo and " canaigre " (Rumex hymenosepalus) whose root contains a large percentage of tannin. Mexico has suffered much from the reckless destruction of her forests, not only for industrial purposes but through the careless burning of grassy areas. The denuded mountain slopes and plateaus of southern Mexico are due to the prehistoric inhabitants who cleared away the tropical forest for their Indian corn fields, and then left them to the erosive action of the tropical rains and subsequent occupation by coarse grasses. Fire was generally used in clearing these lands, with the result that their arboreal vegetation was ultimately killed and their fertility destroyed. In the valleys of some of these denuded slopes oak and pine are succeeding the tropical species where fires have given them a chance to get a good foothold. Population. — According to the census of 1900 the population of Mexico numbered 13,607,259, of which less than one-fifth (19%) were classed as whites, 38% as Indians, and 43% as mixed bloods. There were 57,507 foreign residents, including a few Chinese and Filipinos. Since then the Japanese have acquired an industrial footing in Mexico. Under the constitu- tion of 1824 all race distinctions are abolished, and these diverse ethnic elements are nominally free and equal. For many years, however, the Indians remained in subjection and took no part in the political activities of their native country. Since about 1866, spurred on by the consciousness that one of their own race, Benito Juarez, had risen to the highest positions in the gift of the country, they have taken greater interest in public affairs and are already making their influence felt. In southern Mexico the Zapotecas furnish schoolmasters for the village schools. Peonage, however, is still prevalent on many of the larger estates, and serious cruelties are sometimes reported. The government itself must be held partly responsible, as for the transportation of the mountain-bred Yaquis to the low, tropical plains of Yucatan (see Herman Whitaker's The Planter, 1909), but the influence of three and a half centuries of slavery and peonage cannot be shaken off in a generation. According to Humboldt, the census of 1810 gave a total population of 6,122,354, of which the whites had 18%, the mestizos 22% and the Indians 60%. The census of 1895 increased the whites to 22%, which was apparently an error, the mixed bloods to 47%, and reduced the Indians to 31%. It is probable that the returns have never been accurate in regard to the mixed bloods and Indians, but it is the general conclusion that the Indians have been decreasing in number, while the mixed bloods have been increasing. Neglect of their children, unsanitary habits and surroundings, tribal intermarriage and peonage are the principal causes of the decreasing Indian popula- tion. Recent observers, however, deny the assertion that the Indians are now decreasing in number except where local conditions are exceptionally unfavourable. The death rate among their children is estimated at an average of not less than 50%, which in families of five and six children, on an average, permits only a very small natural increase. The larger part of the population is to be found in the southern half of the republic, owing to the arid conditions prevailing in the north. The unhealthfulness of the coastal plains prevents their being thickly populated, although Vera Cruz and some other states return a large population. The most favourable regions are those of the tierras templadas, especially on the southern slopes of the great central plateau which were thickly populated in prehistoric times. The dissimilar races that compose the population of Mexico have not been sufficiently fused to give a representative type, which, it may be assumed, will ultimately be that of the mestizos. Mexico was conquered by a small body of Spanish adventurers, whose success in despoiling the natives attracted thither a large number of their own people. The discovery of rich deposits of gold and silver, together with the coveted commercial products of the country, created an urgent demand for labourers and led to the enslavement of the natives. To protect these adventurers and to secure for itself the largest possible share in these new sources of wealth, the Spanish crown forbade the admission of foreigners into these colonies, and then harassed them with commercial and industrial restrictions, burdened them with taxes, strangled them with monopolies and even refused to permit the free emigration thither of Spaniards. Out of such adverse conditions has developed the present population of Mexico. It was not till after the. middle of the 19th century that a long and desperate resistance to foreign intervention under the leadership of Benito Juarez infused new life into the masses and initiated the creation of a new nationality. Then came the long, firm rule of Porfirio Diaz, who first broke up the organizations of bandits that infested the country, and then sought to raise Mexico from the state of discredit and disorganization into which it had fallen. Sus- picion and jealousy of the foreigner is disappearing, and habits of industry are displacing the indolence and lawlessness that were once universally prevalent. The white race is of Spanish descent and has the charac- teristics common to other Spanish-American Creoles. Their political record previous to the presidency of Porfirio Diaz was one of incessant revolutionary strife, in which the idle, unsettled half-breeds took no unwilling part. The Indian element in the population is made up of several distinct races — the Aztec or Mexican, Misteca-Zapoteca, Maya or Yucateco, Otomi or Othomi, and in smaller number the Totonac, Tarasco, Apache, Matlanzingo, Chontal, Mixe, Zoque, Guaicuro, Opata- Pima, Tapijulapa, Seri and Huavi. As the tendency among separated tribes of the same race is to develop dialects and as habitat and customs tend still further to differentiate them, it may be that some of these smaller families are branches of the others. In 1864 Don Manuel Orozco y Berra found no fewer than 51 distinct languages and 69 dialects among the Indian inhabitants of Mexico, to which he added 62 extinct idioms — making a total of 182 idioms, each representing a distinct tribe. Thirty-five of these languages, with 69 dialects, he succeeded in classifying under 1 1 linguistic families. A later investigator, Don Francisco Belmar (Lenguas indigenas de Mexico, Mexico, 1905), has been able to reduce these numerous idioms to a very few groups. None of them were written except through the use of ideographs, in the making of which the Aztecs used colours with much skill, while the Mayas used an abbreviated form, or symbols. The Aztecs, who called themselves Mejica or Mexicans after they had established themselves on the high table-land of Mexico, belong to a very large family or group of tribes speaking a common idiom called Nahua or Nah6a. These Nahua-speaking tribes were called the Nahuatlaca, and compose a little more than one-fourth of the present Indian population. They inhabit the western Sierra Madre region from Sinaloa southward to Chiapas, the higher plateau states, which region was the centre of their empire when Cortes conquered them, and parts of Vera Cruz, Tabasco, Oaxaca, Morelos, Aguascalientes and San Luis Potosi. They were energetic and warlike and evidently had not reached the zenith of their power when Cortes came. They had been preceded on the same plateau by the Chichimecs, possibly of the same race, who were conquered by the Aztecs sometime in the 15th century after a supposed occupation of the territory about 400 years. The characteristic civilization of prehistoric Mexico, however, antedates both of these periods. An Aboriginal race called the Toltecs is said to have occupied Vera Cruz and Tabasco and to have extended its empire west- ward on the plateau to and perhaps beyond the present capital. They were the builders of the pyramids of Cholula and Teotihu- acan, near the city of Mexico, and of Papantla, Huatusco and Tuzapan, in Vera Cruz. One of their towns was Tollan (now Tula) 50 m. north of the national capital, and it is not improb- able that the people of Cholula, Texcoco and Tlaxcala at the time of the Spanish invasion were occupying the sites of older Toltec towns. There has been much discussion in regard to the origin of the Toltecs, some assuming that they were a distinct race, and others that they belonged to the Nahuatlaca. Another and perhaps a better supposition is that they belonged to the Maya group, and represented a much earlier civilization than that of the builders of Palenque, Quirigua and Copan. Confirmatory POLITICAL DIVISIONS] MEXICO 323 evidence of this is to be found, not only in the character of their constructions, but in the circumstance that a tribe closely akin to the Mayas (the Huastecos) still occupies a retired mountain valley of Vera Cruz, entirely separated from their kinsmen of the south, and that a dialect of the Maya language is still spoken in northern Vera Cruz. There is evidence to show that the Aztecs adopted the civilization of the Toltecs, including their religion (Quetzalcoatl being a god of the Toltecs and Mayas), calendar and architecture. Perhaps the most remarkable of the Mexican races are the Mayas, or Maya- Quiche group, which inhabit the Yucatan peninsula, Campeche and parts of Tabasco, Chiapas, and the neighbouring states of Central America (q.v.). The remarkable ruins of Palenque, Uxmal, Chichenitza, Lorillard, Ixinche, Tikal, Copan and .Quirigua, with their carved stonework and astonishing archi- tectural conceptions, show that they had attained a high degree of civilization. They were agriculturists, lived in large, well- built towns, cultivated the mountain sides by means of terraces, and had developed what must have been an efficient form of government. The Mistecas, or Mixtecas, and Zapotecas, who occupy the southern slopes of the central plateau, especially Puebla, Morelos, Oaxaca and Guerrero, form another distinct race, whose traditional history goes back to the period when the structures now known as Mitla, Monte Alban, Xochicalco and Zaachila were built. Their prehistoric civilization appears to have been not inferior to that of the Mayas. They were an energetic people, were never subdued by the Aztecs, and are now recov- ering from their long subjection to Spanish enslavement more rapidly than any other indigenous race. The Otomis comprise a large number of tribes occupying the plateau north of the Anahuac sierras. They are a hardy people, and are the least civilized of the four principal native races. The Totonacs inhabit northern Vera Cruz and speak a language related to that of the Mayas; the Tarascos form a small group living in Michoacan; the Matlanzingos, or Matlaltzincas, live near the Tarascos, the savage Apaches, a nomadic group of tribes ranging from Durango northward into the United States; the Opata-Pima group, inhabiting the western plateau region from Sonora and Chihuahua south to Guadalajara, is sometimes classed as a branch of the Nahuatlaca; the Seris, a very small family of savages, occupy Tiburon Island and the adjacent mainland of Sonora; and the Guaicuros, or Yumas, are to be found in the northern part of the peninsula of Lower California. In southern Mexico, the Chontales, Tapijulapas, Mixes and Zoques inhabit small districts among and near the Zapotecas, the first being considered by Belmar a branch of that family. The Huavis inhabit four small villages among the lagoons on the southern shore of Tehuantepec and have been classed by Belmar as belonging to the Maya stock. The census of 1895 gave these Indian races an aggregate population of nearly 4 000,000, of which nearly 3,4So,ooo belonged to the first four groups Three of these four had made important progress toward civilization. Some of the others had likewise made notable progress, among which were the Tarascos, Totonacs and Zoques. The builders of Casas Grandes (q.v.), in Chihuahua, evidently belonged to the Pueblo tribes of Arizona and New Mexico. As for the builders of Quemada, in Zacatecas, nothing positive is known. The ruins apparently are of an earlier period than those of Mitla and Xochicalco, and have no inscriptions and architectural decorations, but the use of dressed stone in the walls, rather than adobe, warrants the conclusion that they belonged to the civilization of southern Mexico. From the records made at the time of the Spanish conquest, and from the antiquities found in the abandoned cities of prehistoric Mexico, it is certain that the Indians lived in substantial houses, sometimes using dressed stone, inscriptions and ornamental carvings on the more pretentious edifices; they cultivated the soil, rudely perhaps, and produced enough to make it possible to live in large towns- they made woven fabrics for dress and hangings, using colours in their manufacture; they were skilful in making and orna- menting pottery, in making gold and silver ornaments, and in featherwoVk; they used the fibres that Nature lavishly provided in weaving baskets, hangings, mats, screens and various household utensils. Copper was known to them, and it is possible that they knew how to make cutting instruments from it, but they generally used stone axes, hammers and picks, and their most dangerous weapon was a war-club into which chips of volcanic glass were set. Many of these primitive arts are still to be found in the more secluded districts, and perhaps the best work in pottery moulding in Mexico to-day is that of uneducated Indian artists. Of the half-oreed element which has become so important a part of the Mexican population, no safe estimate can be made. Education, industrial occupation, commercial training and political responsibility are apparently working a transformation in a class that was once known chiefly for indolence and criminal instincts, and many of the leaders of mcSdern Mexico have sprung from this race. Settled government, settled habits, remunerative employment and opportunities for the improve- ment of their condition are developing in them the virtues of the two parent races. Brigandage was formerly so common that travel without an armed escort was extremely dangerous; under President Diaz, however, not only has such lawlessness been repressed but the brigands themselves have been given regular employment as rural guards under the government. This class is also furnishing the small traders of the towns, overseers on the plantations and public works, petty officials, and to some extent the teachers and professional men of the provincial towns. Political Divisions. — The republic of Mexico is politically divided into 27 states, one federal district, and three territories. The states are generally subdivided into distritos (districts) or partidos, and these into municipios (municipalities) which correspond to the townships of the American system. The state of Nuevo Leon, however, is divided into municipios only, while some other states use entirely different titles for the divisions, the larger being described as departamentos, cantons and municipios, and the smaller as partidos, directorias and vecindarios rurales. The Federal District consists of thirteen municipalities. The territory of Lower California is divided into two large districts, northern and southern, and the latter into partidos and municipios — the larger divisions practically forming two distinct territories. The states and territories, with their areas, capitals and popula- tions, are as follows :- Name. Area, sq. m. Pop. 1900. Capital. Pop. 1900. Aguascalientes . 2,950 102,416 Aguascalientes . 35.052 Campeche . 18,087 86,542 Campeche . 17,109 Chiapas . 27,222 360,799 Tuxtla Gutierrez 9.395 Chihuahua . 87,802 327.784 Chihuahua . 30,405 Coahuila 63.569 296,938 Saltillo ... . 23.996 Colima . 2,272 65."5 Colima . 20,698 Durango 38,009 370,294 Durango 31,092 Guanajuato. n,370 1,061,724 Guanajuato. 41,486 Guerrero 24,996 479.205 Chilpancingo 7.497 Hidalgo . 8,917 605,051 Pachuca . 37.487 Jalisco . 31.846 1,153.891 Guadalajara. . 101,208 Mexico . 9.247 934.463 Toluca . 25.940 Michoacan . 22,874 935.8o8 Morelia . 37.278 Morelos . 2,773 160,115 Cuernavaca. 9.584 Nuevo Leon 23.592 327.937 Monterrey . 62,266 Oaxaca . 35.382 948,633 Oaxaca . 35.049 Puebla . 12,204 1,021,133 Puebla . 93.152 Queretaro 3.556 232,389 Queretaro 33.152 San Luis Potosi . 25.316 575.432 San Luis Potosi . 61,019 Sinaloa . 33.671 296,701 Culiacan . 10,380 Sonora . 76,900 221,682 Hermosillo . 10,613 Tabasco . 10,072 159.834 San Juan Bau- tista . io,543 Tamaulipas . 32,128 218,948 Ciudad Victoria . 10,086 Tlaxcala . 1.595 172,315 Tlaxcala . 2,715 Vera Cruz . 29,201 981,030 Jalapa . . . 20,388 Yucatan 35.203 309.652 Menda . 43-630 Zacatecas 24.757 462,190 Zacatecas' . 32,866 Distrito Federal 463 54L5I6 Mexico . 344.721 Territories: — Baja California 58,328 47.624 150,098 La Paz . 5.046 Tepic . . • 11,275 Tepic 15,488 Quintana Roo . _. Santa Cruz de Bravo . 276 Islands . 1 1 1,420 ~ 3*4 MEXICO [COMMUNICATIONS The area and population of Yucatan include those of the territory of Quintana Roo, which formed part of that state at the time of the census. Baja, or Lower California, is divided into two districts for administrative convenience. The Distrito del Norte is credited with a population of 7583 and has its capital at Ensenada (pop. 1026); the Distrito del Sur has a population of 40,041 and has its capital at La Paz. Tepic was detached from the north-west part of Jalisco and organized as a territory in 1889. Quintana Roo was detached from the state of Yucatan in 1902 and received a territorial government. The principal cities of Mexico, other than the capitals above mentioned, are as follows, the populations being those of 1900 except when otherwise stated: Acapulco (pop. 4932), a famous port on the Pacific coast in Guerrero, which was wrecked by the earthquake of 1909; Carmen, or Laguna de Terminos (about 6000), a thriving commercial town and port on the Gulf coast in Campeche; Celaya (25,565), a railway centre and manufacturing town of Guanajuato; Ciudad Guzman, or Zapotlan (about 17,500), an interesting old town of Jalisco; Cholula (about 9000), an ancient native town of Puebla, widely known for its great pyramid ; Comitan (9316), the commercial centre of Chiapas; Cordoba (7974 in 1895), a picturesque Spanish town in the sierras of Vera Cruz; Cuautla (6269), the centre of a rich sugar-producing district of Morelos; Guaymas (8648), a flourish- ing port of Sonora on the Gulf of California ; Leon (62,623), the largest city in Guanajuato and distinguished for its commercial activity, manufactures and wealth; Linares (20,690), the second city of Nuevo Leon in size and importance; Matamoros (8347), a prominent commercial centre and river port of Tamaulipas ; Mazatlan (17,852), the foremost Mexican port on the Pacific coast; Orizaba (32,894), a city of Vera Cruz famous for its delightful climate and picturesque surroundings; Parral (14,748), a well-known mining centre of south- ern Chihuahua; San Cristobal (about 16,000), once capital of Chiapas and rich in historical associations; Tampico (16,313), a Gulf port and railway terminus of Tamaulipas; Tehuantepec (10,386), the largest town on the Tehuantepec railway in Oaxaca; Vera Cruz (29,164), the oldest and best known Gulf port of Mexico. Communications. — Railways began in Mexico with a line of four kilometres between the capital and Guadalupe, which was finished in 1854 and afterwards became a part of the Ferrocarril Mexicano. The latter dates from 1857, when a concession was granted for the construction of a railway from the city of Mexico to Vera Cruz. The French invasion of 1862 found only 10 m. in operation outside of Vera Cruz and military needs led to its immediate extension to Paso del Macho, at the foot of the sierras, about 35 m. At the same time the English company holding the concession extended the Guadalupe line to Puebla. Nothing more was accomplished until after the downfall of Maximilian, and with a liberal subsidy from the Mexican government the Ferrocarril Mexicano was pushed to its completion in 1873. It is celebrated because of the difficulties overcome on the precipitous eastern slopes of the Sierra Madre, the beauties of the mountain scenery through which it passes, and the rapid transition from the hot, humid coastal plain to the cool, arid plateau, 7924 ft. above the sea at Boca del Monte. The railway extends 263 m. between Vera Cruz and Mexico City, to which 58 m. were added in branches from Apizaco to Puebla, and from Ometusco to Pachuca. The line was capitalized at $46,000,000 and has paid a good profit on the investment. The period of active railway con- struction, however, did not begin until 1878, during the first term of President Porfirio Diaz. In 1874 a concession was granted for a line from the port of Progreso to Merida (22 1 m.), and in 1878 four concessions were added under which 806 m. were constructed. The principal of these four concessions v/as the Ferrocarril Inter- oceanico running from Vera Cruz to Mexico City and across the republic toward Acapulco. In 1880 concessions were granted to the F.C. Occidental, F.C. Central Mexicano, F.C. Nacional Mexicano and three others of less importance, aggregating nearly 3500 m. The first three of these have become important factors in the develop- ment of Mexico. The first runs southv/ard from the capital to Oaxaca through the rich sub-tropical states of Puebla and Oaxaca, and the other two run northward from the same point to the American frontier. These two lines, popularly called the Mexican Central and Mexican National, have their northern termini at Ciudad Juarez and Laredo on the Rio Grande and connect with American trunk lines at El Paso and Laredo. These two great lines were merged in 1908, with an aggregate capital of 8460,000,000 Mexi- can money, of which the Mexican government holds $230,004,580, or a controlling interest. Important branches of these lines extend to Tampico on the Gulf coast, to Manzanillo on the Pacific coast, and westward and southward into Michoacan and Guerrero, with a coast terminus at or near Acapulco. The next important line is the F.C. Internacional Mexicano, running from Ciudad Porfirio Diaz, on the Rio Grande, south-westward across the plateau to Durango, and is to be extended to Mazatlan, on the Pacific coast. This line was built with American capital and without a subsidy. Another line built with American capital and in connexion with American railway interests extends southward from Nogales, on the northern frontier, to Hermosillo, Guaymas and Mazatlan ; it is to be extended to Guadalajara and possibly to other points in southern Mexico. Monterrey is connected with Tampico by a Belgian line known as the F.C. de Monterrey al Golfo Mexicano, and the capita! is to have direct connexion with the Pacific, other than the F.C. Interoceanico, by a line through Cuernavaca and Iguala to the coast. Indirectly the capital has a Pacific coast connexion by way of Cor- doba and the F.C. Vera Cruz al Pacifico to a junction with the Tehuantepec line. One of the most important railways in Mexico is the F.C. Nacional Interoceanico de Tehuantepec, also called the Tehuantepec National, and the Mexican Isthmus railway, which is 192 m. long and was formally opened in 1907. This line crosses the Isthmus of Tehuantepec from Coatzacoalcos (officially Puerto Mexico) on the Gulf coast to Salina Cruz on the Pacific coast, and has been under construction many years. The railway was first completed in 1894, but light and defective construction, together with lack of shipping facilities at its terminal points, rendered it useless. To correct these defects the line was completely rebuilt and terminal ports constructed. In 1909 the ports were ready to receive large ocean steamships, and regular traffic was begun, including cargoes of Hawaiian sugar for New York. The highest point on the line' (Chivela Pass) is 735 ft. above sea-level. The railway has been buiit by the Mexican government as a transcontinental route for inter- national commerce. Its final construction together with that of its two ports were executed by S. Pearson & Sons, Ltd., of London, who also undertook the working of the line when open. It was estimated in 1907 that the total cost of the railway and ports when completed would be about £13,000,000. The line is connected at the station of Santa Lucrecia (109 m. from Salina Cruz) with the Vera Cruz and Pacific railway which gives an all-rail connexion with Vera Cruz and Mexico City, the distance between the latter and Salina Cruz being 520 m. According to the President's Message of April 1909, there were 14,857 m. of railway in operation, of which 11,851 m. belonged to or were controlled by the government. It is the evident policy of the Mexican government to prevent the absorption of its railways by private monopolies, and this is effected by state owner- ship of a controlling share in most of the trunk lines. Mexico is well provided with tramway lines in its larger cities. A British consular report for 1904 stated that Mexico City and Torreon only were using electric traction, but that Guadalajara, Monterrey, Aguascalientes, Lagos, Colima, Vera Cruz and San Luis Potosi would soon be using it. No official reports are available. The telegraph lines had an aggregate length of 35,980 m. at the end of 1907, of which 33,000 m. belonged to the national government. The President reports an addition of 1626 m. in 1908. Wireless tele- graphy was represented in 1908 by a connexion between Mazatlan and Lower California, which was in successful operation. Telephone lines were in use in all the large cities and in connexion with the large industrial enterprises and estates, beside which the government had 500 m. of its own in 1908. Commerce. — In 1905 the mercantile marine of Mexico comprised only 32 steamers, of 13,199 tons, and 29 sailing vessels, of 8451 tons. The ocean-carrying trade was almost wholly in the hands of foreigners, the government wisely refraining from an attempt to develop an occupation for which its citizens had no natural aptitude. The coastwise trade is principally under the Mexican flag, but the steamers are owned abroad. An official publication entitled " Mexico: Yesterday and To-day, 1876-1904," states that while the number of steamers engaged in the foreign trade increased from 841 to 969 in the 17 years from 1886 to 1903, the number of Mexican steamers decreased from 55 to 4. For the year 1906-1907 the entries of vessels from foreign ports numbered 1697, of 3,282,125 tons, and the clearances were 1669, of 3,257,932 tons. Subventions are paid for regular steamship service at the principal ports, the total expen- diture in 1907-1908 being £42,876. These ports are well served by a large number of foreign steamship companies, which give direct com- munication with the principal ports of the United States, Europe, and the west coast of South America, and the initiation of a Japanese line in 1908 also brings Mexico into direct communication with the far East. The larger ports for foreign trade are Vera Cruz, Tampico, Progreso, Carmen and Coatzacoalcos on the Gulf coast, and Guaymas, La Paz, Mazatlan, Manzanillo, San Bias, Acapulco and Salina Cruz on the Pacific coast. Some of these — Vera Cruz, Tampico, Coatzacoalcos, Salina Cruz, Manzanillo and Mazatlan — have been greatly improved with costly port works. Among the smaller ports, some of which are open to foreign trade, are Matamoros, Tuxpan, Alvarado, Tlacotalpan, Frontera, Cam- peche and the island of Mujeres (coast of Yucatan) on the Gulf side, and Ensenada, Altata, Santa Rosalia and Soconusco on the Pacific. The foreign trade has shown a steady increase during the period of industrial development, to which better means of transport have been an invaluable aid. In 1906-1907 the imports were valued at $111,234,968 U.S. gold, and the exports at $123,512,969, of which very nearly one half consisted of precious metals. According to an official report issued early in 1909 there had been a heavy decrease in both imports and exports, the former being returned at $36,195,469 and the latter at $54,300,896 for the six months ending the 31st of December 1908. Too rapid development and overtrading were given as reasons for this decline. Import and export duties are levied, the former in many cases for the protection of national industries. The imports largely consist of railway material, industrial machinery,. AGRICULTURE] MEXICO 325 cotton, woollen and linen textiles and yarns for national factories, hardware, furniture, building material, mining supplies, drugs and chemicals, wines and spirits, wheat, Indian corn, paper and military supplies and equipment. The exports include gold, silver, copper, coffee, henequen or sisal, ixtle and other fibres, cabinet woods, chicle, rubber and other forest products, hides and skins, chickpeas, tobacco and sugar. Agriculture. — The agricultural resources of Mexico are large and unusually varied, as they comprise some of the cereals and other food products of the temperate zone, and most of the leading pro- ducts of the tropics. Agriculture, however, received slight atten- tion, owing to the early development of the mining industries. An indirect result of the industrial development of Mexico, which began during the last quarter of the 19th century, has been an increased interest in agriculture, and especially in undertakings requiring large investments of capital, such as coffee, sugar and rubber planta- tions. A large part of the country is too arid for agriculture, and even with irrigation the water supply is sufficient for only a small part of the dry area. This region has, for the most part, a temperate climate, and produces wheat, barley, Indian corn and forage crops. Long droughts often destroy the wheat and Indian corn and compel their importation in large quantities to supply the people with food. This uncertainty in the wheat crop extends to the southern limits of the higher plateau, and is a serious obstacle to the increased pro- duction of this cereal. Indian corn, also, is a comparatively uncer- tain product on the plateau, and for the same reason. As it is a staple food with the poorer classes, the deficiency is made up through importation. These drawbacks tend to restrict agriculture on the plateau to comparatively limited areas, and the country people are, in general, extremely poor and badly nourished. A comparatively new product in this region is that of canaigre, which is grown for the tannin found in its root. It is a native of the arid regions and is now cultivated with success. The district about Parras, in southern Coahuila, produces grapes, which are principally used in the manu- facture of wine and brandy. An important product of the plateau and of the open districts of the tierras calientes, growing in the most arid places, is the " nopal " or prickly pear cactus (Opuntia ficus indica). Its fruit, called "tuna" by the natives, is refreshing and wholesome and is a staple food in spite of its spiny covering. In the tierras calientes of Mexico, however, better conditions prevail. A fertile soil, abundant rainfall and high temperatures have covered these mountain slopes and lowland plains with a wealth of vegetation. The problem for the agriculturist here is not irrigation, but drainage and keeping down spontaneous growths. In these regions, sugar, tobacco, indigo, cacao, rice, sweet potatoes, alfalfa, beans and cassava are produced, and Indian corn yields two and three crops a year. Fruits also are plentiful, both wild and cultivated. Among them are the banana, plantain, tuna, chili pepper, olive, coco-nut, orange, lemon, lime, mango, pomegranate, " pifia " or pineapple (wild and cultivated), fig, ahuacatl (Persea gratissima), chirimoya (Anona ckirimolia), papaya, gourd, melon, guava, ciruela (plum), and the several " zapote " fruits, including " chico zapote " from the Achras sapota, which produces the " chicla " or chicle-gum of commerce, " zapote bianco " from the Casimiroa edulis, " zapote- barracho " (or " amarillo ") from the Lucuma salicifolia, " zapote- prieto " (or " negro ") from the Diospyros obtusifolia, and " zapote- mamey." The production of rubber is becoming an important industry, large plantations having been set with both Hevea and Castilloa rubber trees. Lying between these two regions is the subtropical belt where coffee of an excellent quality is produced, and where cotton is cultivated. Coffee has become an important article of export, but cotton does not yield enough for the domestic factories. Better cultivation would probably increase the output and make it an article of export. A peculiar and highly profitable branch of Mexican agriculture is the cultivation of the Agave for two widely different purposes — one for its fibre, which is exported, and the other for its sap, which is manufactured into intoxicating liquors called '.' pulque " and " mescal." In Yucatan immense plantations of the Agave rigida var. elon-gata are cultivated, from which large quantities of " henequen " or " sisal," as the fibre is called, are exported. It is produced on light shallow soils overlying calcareous rock. It is also cultivated in Campeche and Chiapas. The pulque industry is located on the plateau surrounding the city of Mexico, the most productive district being the high, sandy, arid plain of Apam, in the state of Hidalgo, where the " maguey " (Agave americana) finds favourable conditions for its growth — a dry cal- careous surface with moisture sufficiently near to be reached by its roots. Its cultivation is the chief industry of the states of Mexico, Hidalgo, Puebla and Tlaxcala. Of the 208 plantations ifr the state of Hidalgo in 1897, 129 were devoted to maguey. The plant is propagated from suckers and requires very little attention after transplanting to the field where it is to remain, but it takes six to eight years to mature and then yields an average of ten gallons of sap during a period of four or five months, after which it dies. " Pulque " is the fermented drink made from this sap: " mescal " is the distilled spirit made from the leaves and roots of the plant. There are other agaves used both in the production of drinks and fibres, but they are not cultivated. The " ixtle " fibres shipped from Tampico and Chiapas are all obtained from the agaves and yuccas found growing wild. The natural and forest products of Mexico include the agave and yucca (ixtle) fibres already mentioned; the " ceibon " fibre derived from the silk-cotton tree (Bombax pentandria) ; rubber and vanilla in addition to the cultivated products; palm oil; castor beans; ginger; chicle, the gum extracted from the " chico-zapote " tree (Achras sapota); logwood and other dye-woods; mahogany, rose- wood, ebony, cedar and other valuable woods; " cascalote " or divi-divi ; jalap root (Ipomaea) ; sarsaparilla (Smilax) ; nuts and fruits. Stock-raising dates from the earliest Spanish settlements in Mexico and received no slight encouragement from the mother country. For this reason much importance has always been attached to the industry, and stock-raising of some sort is to be found in every state of the republic, though not always to a great extent. The Spaniards found no indigenous domestic animals in the country, and introduced their own horses, cattle, sheep and swine. From these are descended the herds and flocks of to-day, with no admix- ture of new blood until toward the end of the 19th century. The horses and cattle are of a degenerate type, small, ungainly and inured to neglect and hard usage. The horse is chiefly used for saddle purposes and is not reared in large numbers. The mule is more generally used in every part of the country, being hardier, more intelligent and better adapted for service as a draft and pack animal. The transport of merchandise and produce was wholly by means of pack animals before the advent of railways, and is still the common means of transport away from the railway lines. For this purpose the sure-footed mule is invaluable. In some dis- tricts, however, oxen and ox-carts are employed, especially in the southern states, and always in the open, level country. The varying climatic conditions of Mexico have produced breeds of cattle that have not only departed from the original Spanish type, but likewise present strikingly different characteristics among .themselves. Those of the northern plateau are small, hardy and long-lived, being bred on extensive ranges in a cooler atmosphere, and accus- tomed to long journeys in search of water and pasture. In the south they are larger and better nourished, owing to the permanent character of the pasturage, but are less vigorous because of the heat and insect plagues. In Yucatan the open plains, rich pasture, and comparative freedom from moist heat, insects and vampire bats, have been particularly favourable to cattle-raising, and the animals are generally rated among the best in Mexico. Notwithstanding the frequency of long, destructive droughts, cattle-raising is a pre- ferred industry among the landowners of the northern states, and especially near the American frontier. Almost total losses are frequently experienced, but the profits of a favourable year are so great that losses seldom deter ranchers from trying again. In the sierra regions of western Chihuahua and Durango, Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, Aguascalientes, San Luis Potosi, and the plateau states farther south, the rainfall is more abundant and the conditions more favourable. The largest herds are to be found in Chihuahua and Durango. Above 5000 ft. the wild pasturage is short, tender and reproduces itself annually. It is exceptionally nutritious, but it disappears altogether in the dry season because of its short roots. The lowland pasture, from 2000 to 5000 ft., is composed of more vigorous grasses, with an undergrowth of an exceptionally succulent character. The stock-raiser on the border pastures his herds on the uplands during the rainy season, and on the lower pastures during the remainder of the year. Next in importance is the breeding of sheep, which is largely confined to the cooler sierra districts. They are commonly of the Spanish merino breed, and suffer in many localities on account of insufficient pasturage. Some attention is given to the breeding of goats because of the local demand for their skins, but the industry is apparently stationary. The raising of swine, however, is increasing. In the last decade of the 19th cen- tury the capital invested in these live-stock industries was estimated (by Bancroft) to exceed $700,000,000, but an official return of the 30th of June 1902 gave an aggregate valuation of only $120,523,158 (Mexican), or about £12,052,316. According to this report, which is not strictly trustworthy, there were in the republic 5,142,457 cattle, 859,217 horses, 334,435 mules, 287,991 asses, 3,424,430 sheep, 4,206,01 1 goats and 616,139 swine. Two years later home consump- tion returns noted the slaughter of 958,058 cattle (129,938 in the Federal District), 561,982 sheep, 992,263 goats and 887,130 hogs — the last item being larger than the census return of 1902. The greater part is consumed in the country, but there is a considerable export of cattle to the United States, Cuba and Central America, and of hides and skins to the United States and Europe. A few mules are sent to Central America, but the homedemand usually exceeds the supply. Other Industries. — There are no fisheries of importance except the pearl fisheries on the eastern coast of Lower California, and the tortoise fisheries on the coasts of Campeche, Yucatan, and some of the states facing the Pacific. The pearl fisheries have been worked since the arrival of the Spaniards, and were once very productive notwithstanding the primitive methods employed. Since the closing years of the last century pearl fishing in the Gulf of California ha; been carried on with modern appliances and better results by an English company under a concession from the government. Mother- of-pearl or abalone and other shells are also found, and, with sponges, are exported. Fishing for the tortoiseshell turtle gives employment 326 MEXICO [CONSTITUTION to a large number of natives in the season, and considerable quan- tities of the shell are exported. Other industries of a desultory oharacter include the collection of archil, or Spanish moss, on the western side of the Californian peninsula, hunting herons for their plumes and alligators for their skins, honey extraction (commonly wild honey), and the gathering of cochineal and ni-in insects. The cochineal insect was once an important commercial product, but the industry has fallen into decay. The " ni-in " (also known as " axe ") is a small scale insect belonging to the genus Coccus, found in Yucatan, Oaxaca, Vera Cruz, Michoacan and other southern states, where it inhabits the spondia trees and produces a greasy substance called " ni-inea," which is much used by the natives as a varnish, especially for domestic utensils, as it resists fire as well as water. Mining. — The best-known and most productive of the industries of Mexico is that of mining. It was the chief object of Spanish ex- ploration, and the principal occupation of European residents and capital during three centuries of Spanish rule. Agricultural and pastoral industries gradually gained footholds here and there, and in time became important, but mining continued far in advance until near the end of the 19th century. Mines of some description are to be found in 26 of the 31 states and territories, and of these the great majority yield silver. According to the official records, there were registered in September 1906, 23,191 mining properties, of which very nearly five-sixths were described as producing si!ver, either by itself or in combination with other metals. The properties were classed as 1572 gold, 5461 silver, 970 copper, 383 iron, >5I mercury, 94 lead, 86 sulphur, 52 antimony, 49 zinc, 40 tin, 21 opals, 9 man- ganese, 6 " sal gema," 5 tourmalines, I bismuth and I turquoise — ■ the remainder being various combinations of these minerals. The absence of coal from this list is due to the circumstance that coal mines were at that time considered as private property and were not registered under the general mining laws. A comparison with 1888-1889, when 8970 properties were registered, will show how rapidly the mining industries have been developed during that period. Besides the above, the mineral resources of Mexico include coal, petroleum, asphalt, platinum, graphite, soda and marble. In 1906 the productive mines numbered 1786, of which 491 were in Sonora, 282 in Chihuahua, 211 in Durango, 113 in Oaxaca and 105 in Nuevo Leon. Gold is found in Chihuahua, Durango, Guana- juato, Guerrero, Jalisco, Mexico, Morelos, Oaxaca, Puebla, Sinaloa, Sonora, Vera Cruz, Zacatecas, and to a limited extent in other states; silver in every state and territory except Campeche, Chiapas, Tabasco, Tlaxcala and the Yucatan peninsula; copper in Lower ' California, Guanajuato, Guerrero, Jalisco, Michoacan, Sonora, Tamaulipas and some other states; mercury chiefly in Guanajuato, Guerrero, San Luis Potosi, Vera Cruz and Zacatecas; tin in Guana- juato; coal, petroleum and asphalt in 20 states, but chiefly in Coahuila, Hidalgo, Michoacan, Oaxaca, Puebla, Sonora, Tabasco, Tamaulipas and Vera Cruz; iron in Durango, Hidalgo, Oaxaca and other states; and lead in Hidalgo, Queretaro and in many of the silver-producing districts. The most celebrated iron deposit is that of the Cerro del Mercado, in the outskirts of the city of Durango — a mountain 640 ft. in height, 1100 in breadth, and 4800 in length, reputed to be almost a solid mass of iron. Large masses of the metal are also said to exist in the sierras of Lower California. The prin- cipal coalfields that have been developed are in the vicinity of Sabinas, Coahuila. They have been opened up by American capi- talists and the coal is used on the railways passing through that region. Mexican coal is of a low grade — similar to that found in Texas, but as an official geological report of 1908 estimates the supply in sight at 300,000,000 tons its industrial value to the country cannot be considered inferior to that of the precious metals. The same is true of the petroleum deposits in Tamaulipas, near Tampico, and in southern Vera Cruz. An investigation by the U.S. Geological Survey in 1909 finds that the crude Mexican oils are of low grade, but that while not equal to those found in the upper Mississippi basin for refining purposes, they furnish an excellent fuel for railway engines and other industrial purposes. Many of the Mexican railways are using these fuel oils, which are superseding imported coal. In 1909 a well was opened in the southern oilfields whose yield was equal to the best American product. Manufactures. — Although Mexico is usually described as a non- manufacturing country, its industrial development under President Porfirio Diaz will warrant some modification of this characterization. Manufacturing for international trade has not been and may never be reached, but the industry certainly has reached the stage of meet- ing a great part of the home demand for manufactured goods, where the raw material can be produced in the country. There were of course some crude industries in existence before the arrival of the Spaniards, such as weaving and dyeing of fabrics made from various fibres, and making earthenware utensils, images, &c. The Spaniards introduced their own industries, including sugar-making, weaving, tanning, and leather- and metal-working, some of which still exist. The early methods of making cane sugar, clarified with clay and dried in conical moulds, are to be found all over Mexico, and the annual output of this brown or muscovado sugar (called " panela " by the natives) is still very large. The sugar crop of 1907- 1908 was reported.as 123,285 metric tons, in addition to which the molasses output was estimated at 70,947-5 metric tons, and " panela " at 50,000 tons. Other estimates make the " panela " output much larger, the product being largely consumed in the rural districts and never appearing in the larger markets. The estimated number of sugar mills in 1904 was about 2000, of which only about 300 were important for size and equipment. Merino sheep were intro- duced in 1 541 and woollen manufactures date from that time. Large factories are now to be found in all parts of Mexico, and good and serviceable grades of broadcloths, cassimeres, blankets and other fabrics are turned out. There is also a considerable quantity of carpeting, underwear and hosiery manufactured. An important branch of this industry is the manufacture of " zarapes " (called " ponchos " in other parts of Spanish America) — a blanket slit in the centre for the head to pass through, and worn in place of a coat by men of the lower classes. The most important textile industry is cotton manufacture, which has become a highly successful feature in the industrial life of the republic. There were 146 factories in 1905, of which 19 were idle, and these were distributed over a very large part of the country. About one-half the raw cotton con- sumed was produced in Mexico, and the balance imported in fibre or as yarn. The industry is protected by a high tariff, as is also the production of raw cotton, and further encouragement is offered through a remission of internal revenue taxes where Mexican fabrics are exported for foreign consumption. The cotton factories of 1905 were equipped with 22,021 looms having 678,058 spindles, and with 38 stamping machines, employed 30,162 operatives, and turned out 13,731,638 pieces of cloth. Statistical returns, however, are some- what incomplete and conflicting, and cannot be used with confidence. Coarse fabrics chiefly are manufactured, but the product also com- prises percales, fine calicoes, ginghams, shirtings, towelings, sheetings and other kinds of goods. Considerable attention is given to the manufacture of " rebozos," the long shawls worn by women. Another very important manufacturing industry is that of tobacco, the consumption of its various products being large among all classes of the population. There were 467 tobacco factories reported in 1905 to be engaged in the manufacture of cigars, cheroots, cigarettes, snuff and cut tobaccos for the pipe. The number of factories reported for 1899 was 743, but as the consumption of leaf tobacco increased from 5,546,677 to 8,587,356 kilogrammes, it may be assumed that the decrease in factories is due to the absorption or disappearance of the small shops using old-fashioned methods. Other important manufactories are flour mills, of which there were over 500 in 1904; iron and steel works, of which there are 7 large establishments, including the immense plant at Monterey; 90 smelters for the reduction of precious metals; tanneries, potteries, and factories for the manufacture of hats, paper, linen, hammocks, harness and saddles, matches, explosives, aerated waters, soap, furniture, chocolate and sweetmeats. There are also a large number of distilleries, breweries, and establishments for the manufacture of " pulque," " mescal," and imitation or counterfeited liquors. In addition to these are the many small domestic industries, such as the making of straw hats, mats, baskets, pottery, ropes and rough textiles. The policy of the Mexican government is to encourage national manufactures, and protective duties are levied for that purpose. Other favours include exemption from taxation and exemption from import duties on machinery and raw materials. These inducements have attracted large sums of foreign capital and have brought into the country large numbers of skilled operatives, especially in the cotton, iron and steel, and smelting industries. Constitution. — Under the Constitution of the 5th of February 1857, subsequently modified in many important particulars, the government of Mexico is described as a federation of free and sovereign states invested with representative and democratic institutions. Practically it is a Federal Republic with central- ized executive powers. Its political divisions consist of 27 states (originally 19) having independent local governments, 3 terri- tQries and 1 federal district in which the national capital stands. The central government consists of three co-ordinate branches — executive, legislative and judicial — each nominally independent of the other. The executive branch consists of a president and vice-president, assisted by a cabinet of 8 secretaries of state: (1) foreign affairs; (2) interior; (3) justice; (4) public instruction and fine arts; (5) fomento, colonization and industry; (6) com- munications and public works; (7) finance and public credit; (8) -war and marine. The president and vice-president are elected indirectly through an electoral college chosen by popular vote, and serve for a period of six years (the term was four years previous to 1904), the vice-president succeeding to the office in case of the death or permanent disability of the president. The office of vice-president was created on the 6th of May, 1904, and that official serves as president of the senate. A constitu- tional amendment of 1890 permits the re-election of the president without limit, the original clause prohibiting such a re-election. A candidate for the presidency must be a native-born Mexican ARMY: EDUCATION] MEXICO 327 citizen in the full exercise of his political rights, 35 years of age, not an ecclesiastic, and a resident of the republic at the time of the election. Although the authority of the president is care- fully defined and limited by the Constitution, the exercise of dictatorial powers has been so common that the executive may be considered practically supreme and irresponsible. Previous to the presidency of General Porfirio Diaz in 1877 political disorders and changes in government were frequent. The legislative branch of government consists of a Congress of two chambers — a senate and a chamber of deputies. Two ordinary congressional sessions are held each year — April 1 to May 31 and September 16 to December 15 — and a perma- nent committee of 29 members (14 senators and 15 deputies) sits during recess, with the power to confirm executive appoint- ments, to give assent to a mobilization of the national guard, to convene extra legislative sessions, to administer oaths, and to report at the next session on matters requiring congressional action. The senate is composed of 56 members — or two from each state and from the federal district — who are elected by popular vote for a term of four years, one-half the number retiring every two years. A senator must be not under 30 years of age, a Mexican citizen in the full enjoyment of his rights, a resident of the state he represents, and not an ecclesiastic. The chamber of deputies is composed of popular representatives, in the proportion of one deputy for each 40,000 inhabitants or fraction over 20,000, who are elected for a term of two years. A deputy must be not less than 25 years of age, other qualifica- tions being the same as those for a senator. The salary for either senator or deputy is $3000 and that of the president $50,000. Federal officials and ecclesiastics are ineligible for election to either chamber. Mexican citizenship includes all persons born of Mexican parents, all naturalized aliens, and all foreigners owning real estate in the republic or having children by Mexican mothers unless formal declaration is made of an intention to retain the citizenship of another country. In some cases exemptions are granted from specified taxes and military duties, otherwise naturalized citizens are treated the same as native-born. Aliens are granted the civil rights enjoyed by Mexicans, but the government reserves the right to expel those guilty of pernicious conduct. Suffrage is extended to all Mexican citizens who possess honest means of livelihood, the age limit being 18 for the married and 21 for the unmarried. The judicial branch of the government consists of a supreme court of justice, three circuit courts, and 32 district courts. The supreme court is composed of 11 " ministros " or justices, four alternates, a " fiscal " or public prosecutor and the attorney- general — all elected by popular vote for a term of six years. It has jurisdiction in cases arising from the enforcement of the federal laws, except cases involving private interests, in admiralty cases, in cases where the republic is a party, in those between two or more states, or between a state and the citizens of another state, in those originating in treaties with foreign states, and in those affecting diplomatic and consular officials. There are likewise supreme and inferior courts in most of the states, governed by the civil and criminal codes in force in the federal district. The territories are governed by federal laws. The department of justice has oversight in matters relating to the enforcement of the federal laws and the administration of justice through minor courts. The police service is both muni- cipal and federal in character. In some states a local police service is maintained, but in most states the federal government maintains a very efficient force of mounted " rurales." The states are organized very much like the federal govern- ment, each with its own governor, legislature, laws and judiciary. Elections are generally indirect, like those for the national executive, and official terms correspond closely to those of similar offices in the national organization. The state is nomi- nally sovereign within its own boundaries, and the authority of its officers and courts in local questions is supreme except in cases where federal intervention or supervision is provided for by the federal constitution. The larger political divisions of the state (partidos, distritos, &c.) are governed by ajefe politico, or prefect, and the smaller by a municipal council called an ayuntamiento-. Defence. — The Mexican army consisted in 1908 of 2474 officers and 24,132 men, organized on modern lines, and commanded by a general staff at the capital. There were 30 battalions of infantry and 4 battalions cadres with an effective strength of 730 officers and 14,898 men; 14 regiments of cavalry and 4 regimental cadres with 493 officers and 6058 men ; 2 regiments and 3 cadres of field artillery; one regiment and one cadre each of horse and mountain artillery, 4 sections of garrison artillery, and one mitrailleuse com- pany, in all 147 officers and 1647 men; and the remainder divided among other services. Administration and headquarters staffs comprised 885 officers and 531 men. This force represented the peace footing of the army, which is recruited in part by voluntary enlistments and in part by a form of conscription that might be called impressment. Mauser rifles (1901 model) and carbines are used by the infantry and cavalry, and Schneider Canet quick-firing guns by the field and horse artillery. The nominal war strength of the army is rated at 2510 officers and 81,984 men. Factories for arms and ammunition have been established with modern machinery, and uniforms and other equipment are made in the country. The military school in the capital occupies a part of the historic castle of Chapultepec and has been thoroughly reorganized on modern lines. There is also an artillery school at Vera Cruz and subordinate schools in other parts of the republic. The national guard, to which reference is sometimes made, has no effective organization. Mexico may be said to have no navy, the ten small vessels in com- mission in 1908 hardly meriting such a designation. There were 2 old despatch boats and 2 old unarmoured gunboats, a steel training cruiser, the " Zaragoza," and 5 small modern gunboats. The per- sonnel consisted of 198 officers and 965 men. Six new cruisers were projected, but the republic has no pressing need of a navy. Small naval schools are maintained at Campeche and Mazatlan. Education, — Education in Mexico may be said to have entered upon a progressive phase. The institutions founded by the Span- iards were wholly under ecclesiastical control. The first college in Mexico was founded during the administration of Viceroy Mendoza (IS35-I550). but it taught very little beyond Latin, rhetoric, gram- mar and theology. The university of Mexico, planned by Mendoza and founded on the 21st of September 1551, was formally opened on the 25th of January 1553, with faculties of law, philosophy and theology. Practically nothing was done for the natives beyond oral instruction in the catechism. The university of Mexico received much support from both church and state, but it never gained a position comparable to the universities of South America — Cor- doba, Lima (San Marcos) and Bogota. The overthrow of Spanish rule in Mexico was the beginning of a new period, and efforts were made to introduce educational reforms, but the colonists and ecclesi- astics were still governed by their fears and prejudices, and little was accomplished. In 1833 the university of Mexico suspended work, and in 1865 passed out of existence altogether. In 1857 the adop- tion of a more liberal and democratic constitution paved the way for a new period in the educational history of the country. Its realiza- tion was delayed by the wars that devastated the country down to the overthrow of Maximilian, but the leaven was at work, and with the return of peace a marked increase in the number of primary and secondary schools was noted. Colleges of law, medi- cine and engineering were created in Mexico City in 1865 in place of the old university and were successful from the beginning. Professional schools were_ also established in several of the more important provincial capitals, and everywhere increasing interest in educational matters was apparent. The best proof of this was to be found in the development of the primary schools, of which there were 8226 in 1874, with an attendance of 360,000 pupils. Of these, 603 were supported by the national government, 5240 by municipali- ties, 2260 by private enterprise, 117 by the Catholic church, andthe remainder by Protestant denominations. Handsome schools were built in the cities and larger towns, and schools were opened in all the villages and hamlets. In some parts the natives made most creditable progress in all branches of learning. This was especially true of the Mixtecos and Zapotecas of Oaxaca, from whom have come some of the leading men of the republic. The national school laws now in force had their origin in the recommendations made by a national congress of public education convened on the 1st of December 1889, and again on the 1st of December 1890. The first result was a law regulating free and compulsory education in the federal district and national territories, which came into effect on the 17th of January 1892. From 1822 to this time the government primary schools had been under the supervision of the Compania Lancasteriana, but they were now placed under charge of the Department of Public Education. On the 19th of May 1896 a general public education law was promulgated, which provided further regulations for the public schools, and outlined a com- prehensive system. Compulsory attendance had been adopted in 1888, but did not come into effect until after the enactment of the law of 1896. It provides for uniform, free and non-sectarian primary instruction, and compulsory attendance for children of 6 to 12 years of age. Preparatory courses for professional training in the government schools were also made free and secular. As the T28 MEXICO [RELIGION: FINANCE states have control of the schools within their own boundaries there was at first a great lack of uniformity, bub the national system is being generally adopted. In the official report for 1904 the num- ber of public schools, exclusive of infant schools, was returned at 9194 (against 5843 in 1874), with an enrolment of 620,476. Of these 6488 were supported by the national and state governments and 2706 by the municipalities. The private, religious and associa- tion schools numbered 2281, with 135,838 pupils. For secondary instruction the national and state schools numbered 36 with 4642 pupils, and for professional instruction 65 with 9018 students, of whom 3790 were women. Normal schools for the training of teachers are also maintained at public expense and are giving good results. Besides these, the government maintains schools of law, medicine, agriculture and veterinary practice, engineering, mining, commerce and administration, music and fine arts. There is also a mechanics' training school (artes y oficios) for men and a similar school for women, schools for the blind and for deaf-mutes, reform schools, and garrison schools for soldiers. Early estimates were that 90% of the population were illiterate. In 1895 this percentage was reduced to about 84 %, and the work of the schools is slowly cutting it down. Mention must be made of the National Library in Mexico City with about 225,000 volumes, and 138 public libraries (in 1904) in other parts of the republic, 34 museums for scientific, educational and art purposes, and 11 meteorological observatories. Newspapers and periodicals, whose educational value varies widely, numbered 459 in 1904, of which 439 were in Spanish and 12 in English. Religion. — The people of Mexico are almost wholly of the Roman Catholic faith, the census of 1900 returning 13,533,013 communicants of that church, 51,795 Protestants (in great part foreigners), 381 1 of other faiths, and 18,640 of no faith. The constitution of 1857 grants toleration to all religions, and since 1868 several Protestant denomi- nations have established missions in the towns, but their numbers are still comparatively small. The Roman Catholic religion was enforced at the time of the conquest, but a large percentage of the natives may still be considered semi-pagan, the gods of. their ances- tors being worshipped in secret, and the forms and tenets of the dominant faith, which they but faintly comprehend, being largely adulterated with superstitions and practices of pagan origin. The church hierarchy consists of 3 archbishops and 23 suffragan bishops. It dates from the creation of the bishopric of Mexico in 1530, with Fray Juan de Zumarraga as bishop, although two previous creations had been proclaimed at Rome, that of Yucatan in 151 8 and Puebla in 1525. In 1545 the bishopric of Mexico was elevated to anarch- bishopric, which in 1 863 was divided into three archdioceses — Mexico, Michoacan and Guadalajara. An Inquisition tribunal was estab- lished in the capital in 1571, and in 1574 its first auto-da-fi was celebrated with the burning of " twenty-one pestilent Lutherans." The Inquisition was active in Mexico during two and a half centuries, and was finally suppressed on the 3 1 st of May 1 820. The great power exercised by the Roman Catholic church during the colonial period enabled it not only to mould the spiritual belief of the whole people, but also to control their education, tax their industries, and shape the political policies governing their daily life. In this way it ac- quired great wealth, becoming the owner of extensive estates in every part of the country and of highly productive properties in the towns. It was said in 1859 that the church owned one-third of the real and personal property of the republic. The reform laws of that year nationalized its property, abolished its numerous orders and institutions and deprived it of state support and of all participa- tion in political affairs. Subsequent legislation removed clerical influence from public instruction, made marriage a civil ceremony and closed all conventual establishments. The church still exercises a boundless influence over the Mexican lower classes, and is still the most influential organization in the republic. Finance. — The national revenues are derived from import and export duties, port dues and other taxes levied on foreign commerce; from excise and stamp taxes and other charges upon internal business transactions; from direct taxes levied in the federal district and national territories, covering a land tax in rural districts, a house tax in the city, commercial and professional licences, water rates, and sundry taxes on bread, pulque, vehicles, saloons, theatres, &c. ; from probate dues and registry fees; from a surcharge on all taxes levied by the states, called the " federal contribution," which is paid in federal revenue stamps; from post and telegraph receipts; and from some minor sources of income. The most fruitful revenue is the duty on imports, which is sometimes used for the protection of national industries, and which yields from 40 to 45 % of the total receipts. The excise taxes in 1905 were levied on tobacco, alcohol and alcoholic beverages, and on cotton goods. Mining taxes, which are subject to periodic changes, consist of an initial or registry tax on the claim Cpertenencia) , an annual or rental tax on each claim, and a tax of 33 % (1905) on the export of unrefined gold and silver, 2|% on partially refined ores, and l| % on pure silver. The expen- ditures are chiefly for the services of the public debt, military expenses, public works and internal affairs (Department of the Interior). The public debt service alone required $26,201,873 (£2,620,187) in 1908. For the fiscal year 1906-1907 the revenue produced a total of 114,286,122 pesos (dollars), or, approximately, £11,428,612, and the expenditure was 85,076,641 pesos, or £8,507,664. The estimates for I 908-1909 show a marked decline owing to the commercial depres- sion, the revenue being computed at 103,385,000 pesos, and the ex- penditure at 103,203,830 pesos. Of the former 46,500,000 pesos are credited to import duties, 31,930,000 pesos to stamps, excise taxes, &c, 10,930,000 pesos to direct taxes, and the balance to various sources. Owing to the circumstance that the great majority of the Mexican people own no property, carry on no industry, and are not even to be considered regular productive labourers, the revenues are small in relation to the population and are comparatively inelastic. _ The revenues and expenditures of the states and municipalities in 1904, the latest date available, aggregated as follows: — Revenue. Expenditure. States .... 24,519,926 pesos 23,557,968 pesos Municipalities . . 14,605,022 „ 14,160,132 „ The taxes cover a great variety of occupations and property, often to a minute and vexatious degree, and the expenditure includes the expenses of local administration, schools, police, streets and other objects of purely local interest. The public indebtedness of Mexico includes a foreign debt payable in gold, an internal debt payable in silver, and a floating debt covering unpaid balances on appropriations, unpaid interest, and other credits and obligations. The paper money issues are by banks and not by the government, and the national treasury keeps no cash in its vaults and has no sinking funds to offset this indebtedness. The foreign debt dates from 1825, when £10,000,000 were borrowed in London through two loans. Interest defaults led to a conversion of the debt in 1851, the interest rate being reduced from 5% to 3%. Further defaults followed and in 1888 another adjustment was made by the issue of 6% gold-bearing bonds. From this time the Mexican government has met its obligations promptly, in conse- quence of which its credit is rated high and its bonds have even been quoted at a premium. In 1899 the government placed a loan of £22,700,000 in Europe at 5% for the conversion of its 6% bonds, securing it by the hypothecation of 62 % of its import and export duties. Further loans have considerably increased the debt since then, but it is still within the normal resources of the country. According to Marias Romero (Mexico and the United States, 1898)! a new type of indebtedness was inaugurated in 1850 in the shape of an internal debt payable in silver. Other loans and obligations con- tracted during periods of disorder were afterwards consolidated under this type, and later on unpaid railway subsidies were also included. The rate of interest is from 3 % to 5 % and both prin- cipal and interest are payable in silver. The rapid development of railway construction has largely increased this part of the public debt, the revenues of the country being insufficient to meet the sub- sidy obligations, but as the railways are built for the development of valuable resources and the opening of needed trade communica- tions, the increase has occasioned no loss of credit. At the end of 1908 the total public indebtedness of the republic was: — Foreign, or gold debt, including City of Mexico loan ... £30,927-348 Internal, or silver debt . . . $130,892,100 Floating debt 860,495 Ii3i.752,595 or£i 3 , 175,259 Total £44,102,607 The fiscal or tax valuation of property throughout the republic in 1904 was computed to be — the fiscal value being two-thirds of the real value : — Urban $312,950,983 * u ™ 1 , • : 488,182,009 federal District 252,716,454 Total $1,053,849,446 Previous to 1905 all monetary transactions in Mexico were based in practice on a fluctuating silver standard and free coinage. By a law of the 9th of December 1904, promulgated by an executive decree of the 25th of March 1905, the gold standard was adopted, and the silver .peso, -9027 fine and containing 24-438 grammes of pure silver, was made the monetary unit with a valuation of 75 grammes of gold. At the same time the free coinage of silver was suspended, the government reserving to itself the sole privilege of coining money. The coinage of Mexico, now concentrated at the mint in the capital (all others having been closed) is based (since November 28, 1867) on the decimal system — the peso being divided into 100 centavos — and consists of gold, silver, nickel and bronze coins, whose weight and fineness are determined by the monetary law of 1904. The coins minted under this law are: — Gold: 10 pesos, -900 fine, weighing 8-333! grammes. 5 pesos, „ „ „ 4-n6f (the first called a " hidalgo " and the second a " medio hidalgo "). ANCIENT HISTORY] MEXICO Silver i peso, '9027 fine, containing 24-438 grammes of pure silver, 50 centavos, -8oo fine, 329 10 ,, ,. ,, Nickel: 5 „ Bronze: i and 2 centavos, 95 parts copper , 4 tin, 1 zinc. Provisions are also made for continuing the coinage of " trade dollars " for export, which have a wide circulation in the Orient but are not current at home. Fractional silver coin is not legal tender above 20 pesos, and bronze and nickel coins not above 1 peso, but the government maintains conversion offices where such coins can be converted into silver pesos without loss. The amount of gold in circulation is small, the bank notes convertible into gold taking its place. Foreign coins are permitted to circulate in the republic. There were 34 chartered banks in Mexico in 1908, of which 29 enjoyed the privilege of issuing bank notes; the total note circulation on the 31st of December 1906 was 97,787,878 pesos. These note issues are everywhere current at full nominal value, being secured under the provisions of the national banking law of 1896 by metallic reserves. The notes are not legal tender, and it is forbidden to count them as " cash on hand " in bank returns, but ample safe- guards both as to issue and redemption inspire full confidence in their employment as a substitute for gold. Restrictions on specula- tive operations in real estate and on the use of hypothecated and discounted paper as security for other transactions, together with the publication of detailed monthly balance sheets, have kept these banks free from unsound methods, and their record thus far (1909) has been conspicuously good. Mortgage and loan banks have also been estab- lished in accordance with the law of 1896, and are subject to official supervision. Private banks are numerous, but foreign banks are not encouraged to open agencies. The use of cheques is very limited because of the stamp tax. Weights and Measures. — Mexico adopted the metric system in 1862, and it is used in all official transactions, land measurements, railway calculations and public school work. The old Spanish weights and measures, modified in many particulars, continued in private use, however, and in T895 it became necessary to declare the metric system the only legal system and to make its use compulsory after the 1 6th of September 1896. Bibliography. — The historical student will find valuable material in Bernal Diaz del Castillo, Cronica de la conquista de Nueva Espana (Madrid, 1632, and other dates) ; Antonio Herrera Historia general de los hechos de los Castelldnos en las islas y tierra firma del mar ocedno (4 vols., Madrid, 1601) ; F. C. Mac Nutt, Letters of Cortes to Charles V. (London, 1908) ; W. H. Prescott, Conquest of Mexico (3 vols., London, 1845); and the works of Gomara, Helps, Kingsborough, Las Casas, Sahagun and Justin Winsor. Among the more popular works on Mexico are Baedeker's The United States, with Excursions to Mexico, &c. (Leipzig, 1909) ; H. H. Bancroft, Resources and Development of Mexico (San Francisco, 1893); M. Chevalier, Le Mexique ancien et moderne (Paris, 1886); A. Garcia Cubas, Htude geographique, slatistique, descriptive et historique des &ats- Unis Mexicains (Mexico, 1889 ; in English, 1893) ; C. B. Dahlgreen, Minas historicas de la Republica Mexicana (tr. from Eng., 1887) ; J. Domenech, Guia general descriptiva de la Repub- lica Mexicana (vol. i., Mexico, 1899); F. W. Egloff stein, Contribu- tions to the Geology and Physical Geography of Mexico (New York, 1864) ; C. Reginald Enock, Mexico, its Ancient and Modern Civiliza- tion, &c. (London, 1909) ; Hans Gadow, Travels in Southern Mexico (London, 1908) ; Ernst von Hesse-Wartegg, Mexico, Land und Leute (Vienna, 1890); W. T. Hornaday, Camp Fires on Desert and Lava (London, 1908) ; Alex, von Humboldt, Voyage aux regions equinoxi- ales du nouveau continent (Paris, 1807 sqq.) ; A. H. Kcane, " Mexico " in Stanford's Compendium of Geography and Travel (London, 1904); H. Kessler, Notizen iiber Mexico (Berlin, 1898); Carl Lumholtz, Unknown Mexico (New York, 1902) ; C. F. Lummis, The Awakening of a Nation (New York, 1898); P. F. Martin, Mexico of the Twentieth Century (London, 1907) ; A. H. Noll, A Short History of Mexico (Chicago, 1903) ; Santiago Ramirez, Noticia historica de la riqueza mineira de Mexico (Mexico, 1884); Friedrich Ratzel, Aus Mexico: Reiseskizzen aus den Jahren 1874-1876 (Breslau, 1878); Matias Romero, Geographical and Statistical Notes on Mexico (New York, 1898); idem, Mexico and the United States (New York, 1898); E. Seler, Mexico und Guatemala (Berlin, 1896) ; Justo Serra (editor), Mexico: Its Social Evolution, afc. (2 vols., Mexico, 1904) ; J. R. South- worth, Mines of Mexico (9 vols., Mexico, 1905) ; Frederick Starr, Indians of Southern Mexico (Chicago, 1899); Sara V. Stevenson, Maximilian in Mexico (New York, 1899) ;T. Philip Terry, Mexico (Boston, 1909; an excellent guide) ; David A. Wells, A Study of Mexico (New York, 1887); W. E. Weyl, Labor Conditions in Mexico (Washington, 1902), Bull. No 38, Bureau of Labor; Nevin O. Winter, Mexico and her People of To-day (Boston, 1907) ; Marie R. Wright, Picturesque Mexico (Philadelphia, 1898); and Rafael de Zayas Enriquez, Les £tats-unis mexicains (Mexico, 1899). Important works of reference are: Anuario estadistico de la Republica Mexicana (Mexico) ; Mexican Year-book (London, 1908) ; Biological and botanical publications of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (Washington) ; Statesman's Year-book (London) ; Hand- book of Mexico (Washington), published by the Bureau of American Republics; Monthly Bulletin of the Bureau of American Republics (Washington) ; British Foreign Office Diplomatic and Consular Reports (London); and the U.S. Consular Reports (Washington) . (A. J. L.) History I. — Ancient Mexico. The name Mexico is connected with the name of the group of American tribes calling themselves Mexica (sing. Mexicall) or Azteca. The word is related to or derived from the name of the Mexican national war-god, Mexitl, better known as Huitzilo- pochtli. The Aztecs from the 12th century appear to have migrated from place to place over the mountain-walled plateau of Anahuac, the country " by the water," so called from its salt lagoons, which is now known as the Valley of Mexico. About 1325 they founded on the lake of Tezcuco the permanent settlement of Mexico Tenochtitlan, which is still represented by the capital city, Mexico. The name Mexico l was given by the Spanish conquerors to the group of countries over which the Aztec power more or less prevailed at the time of the European invasion. Clavigero (Storia antica del Messico, vol. i.) gives a map of the so-called " Mexican empire," which may be roughly described as reaching from the present Zacatecas to beyond Guatemala; it is noticeable that both these names are of Mexican origin, derived respectively from words for " straw " and " wood." Eventually Mexico and New Mexico came to desig- nate the still vaster region of Spanish North America, which (till cut down by changes which have limited the modern republic of Mexico) reached as far as the Isthmus of Panama on the south and took in California and Texas on the north. Mexico in this wide sense is of high interest to the anthropologist from the several native American civilizations which appear within its limits, and which conveniently if loosely group themselves round two centres, the Mexican proper and the Central American. When early in the 16th century the Spaniards found their way from the West India Islands to this part of the mainland of America, they discovered not rude and simple tribes like the islanders of the Antilles, but nations with armies, official adminis- trators, courts of justice, high agriculture and mechanical arts, and, what struck the white men especially, stone buildings whose architecture and sculpture were often of dimensions and elaborateness to astonish the builders and sculptors of Europe. Here was a problem which excited the liveliest curiosity and gave rise to a whole literature. Hernandez and Acosta shared the opinion of their time that the great fossil bones found in Mexico were remains of giants, and that, as before the deluge there were giants on the earth, therefore Mexico was peopled from the Old World in antediluvian times. On the other hand the multitude of native American languages suggested that the migration to America took place after the building of the tower of Babel, and fiiguenza arrived at the curiously definite result that the Mexicans were descended from Naphtuhim, son of Mizraim and grandson of Noah, who left Egypt for Mexico shortly after the confusion of tongues. Although such specula- tions have fallen out of date, they induced the collection of native traditions and invaluable records of races, languages and customs, which otherwise would have been lost for ever. Even in the 19th century Lord Kingsborough spent a fortune in printing a magnificent compilation of Mexican picture-writings and documents in his Antiquities of Mexico to prove the theory advocated by Garcia a century earlier, that the Mexicans were the lost tribes of Israel. Modern archaeologists approach the question from a different standpoint, but the origin of the American aborigines and of Mexican civilization remains extremely obscure (see America, where the primitive Mexican cultures are fully illustrated, and Central America). Real information as to the nations of Mexico before Spanish 1 In this, as in all other Aztec names, the x (or j) represents the English sound sh; hence Mexitli and Mexico should be properly pronounced Meshitli, Meshico. But they do not appear to have ever been so pronounced by the Spaniards, who naturally gave to the * its ordinary Spanish sound of the German ch. 33° MEXICO [ANCIENT HISTORY times is very imperfect, but not altogether wanting. The accurate and experienced Alexander von Humboldt considered the native Americans of both continents to be substantially similar in race-characters. Such a generalization will become sounder, if, as is now generally done by anthropologists, the Eskimo with their pyramidal skulls, dull complexion and flat noses are removed into a division by themselves. Apart from these polar nomads, the American indigenes group roughly into a single division of mankind, of course with local variations. If our attention is turned to the natives of Mexico especially, the unity of type will be found particularly close. The native population of the plateau of Mexico, mainly Aztecs, may still be seen by thousands without any trace of mixture of European blood. Their stature is estimated to be about 5 ft. 3 in., but they are of muscular and sturdy build. Measurements of their skulls show them mesocephalic (index about 78), or intermediate between the dolichocephalic and brachycephalic types of man- kind. The face is oval, with low forehead, high cheek-bones, long eyes sloping outward towards the temples, fleshy lips, nose wide and in some cases flattish but in others aquiline, coarsely moulded features, with a stolid and gloomy expression. Thick- ness of skin, masking the muscles, has been thought the cause of a peculiar heaviness in the outlines of body and face ; the com- plexion varies from yellow-brown to chocolate (about 40 to 43 in the anthropological scale); eyes black; straight coarse glossy black hair; beard and moustache scanty. Among variations from this type may be mentioned higher stature in some districts, and lighter complexion in Tehuantepec and elsewhere. If now the native Americans be compared with the races of the regions across the oceans to their east and west, it will be seen that their unlikeness is extreme to the races eastward of them, whether white Europeans or black Africans. On the other hand they are considerably like the Mongoloid peoples of north and east Asia (less so to the Polynesians); so that the general tendency among anthropologists has been to admit a common origin, however remote, between the tribes of Tartary and of America. This original connexion, if it may be accepted, would seem to belong to a long-past period, to judge from the failure of all attempts to discover an affinity between the languages of Ame- rica and Asia. At whatever date the Americans began to people America, they must have had time to import or develop the numerous families of languages actually found there, in none of which has community of origin been satisfactorily proved with any other language-group at home or abroad. In Mexico itself the languages of the Nahua nations, of which the Aztec is the best-known dialect, show no connexion of origin with the language of the Otomi tribes, nor either of these with the languages of the regions of the ruined cities of Central America, the Quiche of Guatemala and the Maya of Yucatan. The remarkable phenomenon of nations so similar in bodily make but so distinct in language can hardly be met except by supposing a long period to have elapsed since the country was first inhabited by the ancestors of peoples whose language has since passed into so different forms. The original peopling of America might then well date from the time when there was continuous land between it and Asia. It would not follow, however, that between these remote ages and the time of Columbus no fresh immigrants can have reached America. We may put out of the question the Scandinavian sea-rovers who sailed to Greenland about the 10th century. But at all times communication has been open from east Asia, and even the South Sea Islands, to the west coast of America. The importance of this is evident when we consider that late in the 19th century Japanese junks still drifted over by the ocean current to California at the rate of about one a year, often with some of the crew still alive. Further north, the Aleutian islands offer a line of easy sea passage, while in north-east Asia, near Bering's Strait, live Chukchi tribes who carry on intercourse with the American side. Moreover there are details of Mexican civilization which are most easily accounted for on the suppo- sition that they were borrowed from Asia. They do not seem ancient enough to have to do with a remote Asiatic origin of the nations of America, but rather to be results of comparatively modern intercourse between Asia and America. Humboldt ( Vues des Cordilleres, PI. xxiii.) compared the Mexican calendar with that in use in eastern Asia. The Mongols, Tibetans, Chinese and other neighbouring nations have a cycle or series of twelve animals, viz. rat, bull, tiger, hare, dragon, serpent, horse, goat, ape, cock, dog, pig, which may possibly be an imita- tion of the ordinary Babylonian-Greek zodiac familiar to our- selves. The Mongolian peoples not only count their lunar months by these signs, but they reckon the successive days by them, rat-day, bull-day, tiger-day, &c, and also, by combining the twelve signs in rotation with the elements, they obtain a means of marking each year in the sixty-year cycle, as the wood- rat year, the fire-tiger year, &c. This method is highly artificial, and the reappearance of its principle in the Mexican and Central American calendar is suggestive of importation from Asia. Humboldt also discussed the Mexican doctrine of four ages of the world belonging to water, earth, air and fire, and ending respectively by -deluge, earthquake, tempest and conflagration. The resemblance of this to some versions of the Hindu doctrine of the four ages or yuga is hardly to be accounted for except on the hypothesis that the Mexican theology contains ideas learnt from Asiatics. Among Asiatic points of resemblance to which attention has since, been called is the Mexican belief in the nine stages of heaven and hell, an idea which nothing in nature would suggest directly to a barbaric people, but which corresponds to the idea of successive heavens and hells among Brahmans and Buddhists, who apparently learnt it (in common with our own ancestors) from the Babylonian-Greek astronomical theory of successive stages or concentric planetary spheres belonging to the planets, &c. The Spanish chronicles also give accounts of a Mexican game called patolli, played at the time of the conquest with coloured stones moved on the squares of a cross-shaped figure, according to the throws of beans marked on one side; the descriptions of this rather complicated game correspond closely with the Hindu backgammon called pachisi (see Tylor in Jour. Anlhrop. Inst., viii. 116). The native history of Mexico and Central America is entitled to more respect than the mere recollections of savage tribes. The Mexican pictures so far approached writing proper as to set down legibly the names of persons and places and the dates of events, and at least helped the professional historians to remem- ber the traditions repeated orally from generation to generation. Thus actual documents of native Aztec history, or copies of them, are still open to the study of scholars, while after the conquest interpretations of these were drawn up in writing by Spanish-educated Mexicans, and histories founded on them with the aid of traditional memory were written by Ixtilxochitl and Tezozomoc. In Central America the rows of complex hieroglyphs to be seen sculptured on the ruined temples probably served a similar purpose. The documents written by natives in later times thus more or less represent real records of the past, but the task of separating myth from history is of the utmost difficulty. Among the most curious documents of early America is the Popol-Vuh or national book of the Quiche kingdom of Guatemala, a compilation of traditions written down by native scribes, found and translated by Father Ximenez about 1700, and published by Scherzer (Vienna, 1857) and Brasseur de Bour- bourg (Paris, 1861). This book begins with the time when there was only the heaven with its boundaries towards the four winds, but as yet there was no body, nothing that clung to any- thing else, nothing that balanced itself or rubbed together or made a sound; there was nought below but the calm sea alone in the silent darkness. Alone were the Creator, the Former, the Ruler, the Feathered Serpent, they who give being and whose name is Gucumatz. Then follows the creation, when the crea- tors said " Earth," and the earth was formed like a cloud or a fog, and the mountains appeared like lobsters from the water, cypress and pine covered the hills and valleys, and their forests were peopled with beasts and birds, but these could not speak the name of their creators, but could only chatter and croak. So man was made first of clay, but he was strengthless and senseless ANCIENT HISTORY] MEXICO 33i and melted in the water; then they made a race of wooden mannikins, but these were useless creatures without heart or mind, and they were destroyed by a great flood and pitch poured down on them from heaven, those who were left of them being turned into the apes still to be seen in the woods. After this comes the creation of the four men and their wives who are the ancestors of the Quiches, and the tradition records the migrations of the nation to Tulan, otherwise called the Seven Caves, and thence across the sea, whose waters were divided for their passage. It is worth while to mention these few early incidents of the national legend of Guatemala, because their Biblical incidents show how native tradition incorporated matter learnt from the white men. Moreover, this Central American document, mythical as it is, has an historical importance from its bringing in names belonging also to the traditions of Mexico proper. Thus Gucumatz, " Feathered Serpent " corresponds in name to the Mexican deity Quetzalcoatl; Tulan and the Seven Caves are familiar words in the Aztec migration traditions, and there is even mention of a chief of Toltecat, a name plainly referring to the famed Toltecs. Thus the legends of the Popol-Vuh confirm what is learnt from comparing the culture of Central America and Mexico proper, that, though these districts were not connected by language, the intercourse between them had been sufficient to justify the anthropologist in including both districts in one region. Historical value of the ordinary kind may be found in the latter part of the Popol-Vuh, which gives names of chiefs down to the time when they began to bear Spanish names and the great city of Quiche became the deserted ruin of Santa Cruz. The Maya district of Yucatan has also some vestiges of native traditions in the manuscript translated by D. Pio Perez (in Stephens, Incidents of Travel in Yucatan) and in the remark- able 16th century Relacion de las cosas de Yucatan by Diego de Landa, published by Brasseur de Bourbourg (Paris, 1864). As in the Guatemala traditions, we hear of ancient migration from the Mexican legendary region of Tula; and here the leaders are four famous chiefs or ancestors who bear the Aztec name of the Tutul-Xiu, which means " Bird-Tree." Unfortunately for the historical standing of these four ancestors, there are in the Aztec picture-writings representations of four trees, each with a bird perched on it, and placed facing the four quarters, which make it probable that the four Tutul-Xiu of tradition may be only mythic personifications of the four cardinal points (see Schultz- Sellack in Zeitschr.f. Ethn., 1879, p. 209). Nevertheless, part of the later Maya records may be genuine — for instance, when they relate the war about three centuries before the Spanish conquest, when the king of Chichen-Itza destroyed the great city of Maya- pan. Though the Central American native kings have too little interest for traditions of them to be dwelt on here, they bring into view one important historical point — that the ruined cities of this region are not monuments of a forgotten past, but that at least some of them belong to history, having been inhabited up to the conquest, apparently by the very nations who built them. Turning now to the native chronicles of the Mexican nations, these are records going back to the 12th or 13th century, with some vague but not worthless recollections of national events from times some centuries earlier. These traditions, in some measure borne out by linguistic evidence of names, point to the immigration of detachments of a widespread race speaking a common language, which is represented by the Aztec, still a spoken language in Mexico. This language was called nahuatl, and one who spoke it as his native tongue was called nahuatlacatl, so that modern anthropologists are following native precedent when they use the term Nahua for the whole series of peoples now under consideration. Earliest of the Nahua nations, the Toltecs are traditionally related to have left their northern home of Huehuetlapallan in the 6th century; and there is other evidence of the real existence of the nation. Their name Toltecatl signifies an inhabitant of Tollan (land of reeds), a place which has a definite geographical site in the present Tulan or Tula, north of the valley of Anahuac, where a Toltec kingdom seems to have had its centre. To this nation was due the introduction of maize and cotton into Mexico, the skilful workmanship in gold and silver, the art of building on a scale of vastness still witnessed to by the mound of Cholula, said to be Toltec work, and the Mexican hieroglyphic writing and calendar. With the Toltecs is associated the tradition of Quetzalcoatl, a name which presents itself in Mexican religion as that of a great deity, god of the air, and in legend as that of a saintly ruler and civilizer. His brown and beardless worshippers describe him as of another race, a white man with noble features, long black hair and full beard, dressed in flowing robes. He came from Tulan or from Yucatan (for the stories differ widely), and dwelt twenty years among them, teaching men to follow his austere and virtuous life, to hate all violence and war, to sacrifice no men or beasts on the altars, but to give mild offerings of bread and flowers and perfumes, and to do penance by the votaries drawing blood with thorns from their own bodies. Legend tells stories of his teaching men picture-writing and the calendar, and also the artistic work of the silversmith, for which Cholula was long famed; but at last he departed, some say towards the unknown land of Tlapallan, but others to Coatzacoalcos on the Atlantic coast on the confines of Central America, where native tradition still keeps up the divine names of Gucumatz among the Quiches and Cukulcan among the Mayas, these names have the 'same meaning as Quetzalcoatl in Aztec, viz. " Feathered Serpent." Native tradition held that when Quetzalcoatl reached the Atlantic he sent back his com- panions to tell the Cholulans that in a future age his brethren, white men and bearded like himself, should land there from the sea where the sun rises and come to rule the country. That there is a basis of reality in the Toltec traditions is shown by the word toltecatl having become among the later Aztecs a substan- tive signifying an artist or skilled craftsman. It is further related by the Mexican historians that the Toltec nation all but perished in the nth century by years of drought, famine and pestilence, a few only of the survivors remaining in the land, while the rest migrated into Yucatan and Guatemala. After the Toltecs came the Chichimecs, whose name, derived from chici, dog, is applied to many rude tribes; they are said to have come from Amaquemecan under a king named Xolotl, names which being Aztec imply that the nation was Nahua; at any rate they appear afterwards as fusing with more cultured Nahua nations in the neighbourhood of Tezcuco. Lastly is recorded the Mexican immigration of the seven nations, Xochi- milca, Chalca, Tepaneca, Acolhua, Tlahuica, Tlascalteca, Azteca. This classification of the Nahuatlac tribes has a meaning and value. It is true that Aztlan, the land whence the Aztecs traced their name and source, cannot be identified, but the later stages of the long Aztec migration seem historical, and the map of Mexico still shows the names of several settlements recorded in the curious migration map, published by Gemelli Careri {Giro del mondo, Venice, 1728) and commented on by Humboldt; among these local names are Tzompanco, " place of skulls," now Zum- pango in the north of the Mexican valley, and Chapultepec, " grasshopper hill," now a suburb of the city of Mexico itself, where the Aztecs are recorded to have celebrated in 1195 the festival of tying up the " bundle of years " and beginning a new cycle. The Aztecs moving from place to place in Anahuac found little welcome from the Nahua peoples already settled there. One of the first clear events of the Aztec arrival is their being made tributary by the Tepanecs, in whose service they showed their warlike prowess in the fight near Tepeyacac, where now stands the famous shrine of Our Lady of Guadalupe. Thus they over- came the Acolhuas, who had made Tezcuco a centre of prosperity. By the 13th century the Aztecs by their ferocity had banded their neighbours together against them; some were driven to take refuge on the reedy lake shore at Acoculco, while others were taken as captives into Culhuacan. The king of this district was Coxcoxtli, whose name has gained an undeserved reputation even in Europe as " Coxcox, the Mexican Noah," from a scene in the native picture-writing where his name appears together with the figure of a man floating in a dug-out tree, which has been mistaken even by Humboldt for a representation of the 332 MEXICO [ANCIENT CIVILIZATION Mexican deluge-myth. Coxcoxtli used the help of the Aztecs against the Xochimilco people; 'but his own nation, horrified at their bloodthirsty sacrifice of prisoners, drove them out to the islands and swamps of the great salt lagoon, where they are said to have taken to making their chinampas or floating gardens of mud heaped on rafts of reeds and brush, which in later times were so remarkable a feature of Mexico. As one of the Aztec chiefs at the time of the founding of their city was called Tenoch, it is likely that from him was derived the name Tenochtitlan or " Stone-cactus place." Written as this name is in pictures or rebus, it probably suggested the invention of the well-known legend of a prophecy that the war-god's temple should be built where a prickly pear was found growing on a rock, and perched on it an eagle holding a serpent; this legend is still commemorated on the coins of Mexico. Mexico-Tenochtitlan, founded about 1325, for many years afterwards probably remained a cluster of huts, and the higher civilization of the country was still to be found, especially among the Acolhuas in Tezcuco. The wars of this nation with the Tepanecs, which went on into the 15th century, were merely destructive, but larger effects arose from the expeditions under the Culhua king Acamapichtli, where the Aztec warriors were prominent, and which extended far outside the valley of Anahuac. Especially a foray southward to Quauh- nahuac, now Cuernavaca, on the watershed between the Atlantic and Pacific, brought goldsmiths and other craftsmen to Tenoch- titlan, which now began to rise in arts, the Aztecs laying aside their rude garments of aloe-fibre for more costly clothing, and going out as traders for foreign merchandise. In the' 14th cen- tury the last great national struggle took place. The Acolhuas had at first the advantage, but Ixtlilxochitl did not follow up the beaten Aztecs but allowed them to make peace, whereupon, under professions of submission, they fell upon and sacked the city of Tezcuco. The next king of Tezcuco, Nezahualcoyotl, turned the course of war, when Azcapuzalco, the Tepanec stronghold, was taken and the inhabitants sold as slaves by the conquering Acolhuas and Aztecs; the place thus degraded became afterwards the great slave-market of Mexico. In this war we first meet with the Aztec name Moteuczoma, afterwards so famous in its Spanish form Montezuma. About 1430 took place the triple alliance of the Acolhua, Aztec and Tepanec kings, whose capitals were Tezcuco, Mexico and Tlacopan, the latter standing much below the other two. In fact the rest of native history may be fairly called the Aztec period, notwith- standing the magnificence and culture which make Tezcuco celebrated under Nezahualcoyotl and his son Nezahualpilli. When the first Moteuczoma was crowned king of the Aztecs, the Mexican sway extended far beyond the valley plateau of its origin, and the gods of conquered nations around had their shrines set up in Tenochtitlan in manifest inferiority to the temple of Huitzilopochtli, the war-god of the Aztec conquerors. The rich region of Quauhnahuac became tributary; the Miztec country was invaded southward to the Pacific, and the Xicalanca region to what is now Vera Cruz. It was not merely for conquest and tribute that the fierce Mexicans ravaged the neighbour- lands, but they had a stronger motive than either in the desire to obtain multitudes of prisoners whose hearts were to be torn out by the sacrificing priests to propitiate a pantheon of gods who well personified their bloodthirsty worshippers. (E. B. T.) Ancient Civilization. While the prairie tribes of America lived under the loose sway of chiefs and councils of old men, the settled nations of Mexico had _ attained to a highly organized government. This may m g„t ' be seen by the elaborate balance of power maintained in the federation of Mexico, Tezcuco and Tlacopan, where each king was absolute in his own country, but in war or other public interests they acted jointly, with powers in something like the proportion in which they divided conquered lands and spoil, which was two-fifths each to Mexico and Tezcuco and one-fifth to Tlacopan. The successor of the Aztec king was customarily a chosen brother or nephew, the eldest having the first claim unless set aside as incompetent; this mode of succession, which has been looked on as an elaborate device for securing practical advantages, seems rather to have arisen out of the law of choice among the descendants of the female line, found in American tribes of much lower culture. Something like this appears in the succession of kings of Tezcuco and Tlacopan, which went to sons by the principal wife, who was usually of the Aztec royal family. The Mexican chronicles, however, show instances of the king's son succeeding or of powerful chiefs being elected to the kingship. The term republic is sometimes used to describe the little state of Tlascala, but this was in fact a federation of four chiefs, with an assembly of nobles. In the Zapotec district the Wiyatao or high-priest of Zopaa was a divine ruler before whom all prostrated themselves with faces to the ground; he was even too sacred to allow his foot to touch the earth, and was only seen carried in a litter. The accounts of the palaces of the native kings must be taken with some reserve, from the tendency to use descriptive terms not actually untrue, but which convey erroneous ideas taken . . from European architecture; thus what are called ces ' columns of porphyry and jasper supporting marble balconies might perhaps be better described as piers carrying slabs, while the apartments and terraces must have been more remarkable for number and extent than architectural grandeur, being but low one-storied .buildings. The principal palace of Mexico consisted of hundreds of rooms ranged round three open squares, of such extent that one of the companions of Cortes records having four times wandered about till he was tired, without seeing the whole. Not less remarkable was the palace of Tezcuco, surrounded with its groves and pleasure-gardens; and, though now hardly anything remains of the buildings above ground, the neighbouring hill of Tezcotzinco still has its stone steps and terraces; and the immense embankment carrying the aqueduct-channel of hewn stone which supplied water to basins cut in. the solid jock still remains to prove that the chroniclers' descriptions, if highly coloured, were at any rate genuine. Till the 1 8th century the gigantic figures of Axayacatl and his son Montezuma were to be seen carved in the porphyry hill of Chapultepec, but these as well as the hanging gardens have been destroyed, and only the groves of ahuehuete (cypress) remain of the ancient beauties of the place. That in the palace gardens flowers from the tierra caliente were transplanted, and water-fowl bred near fresh and salt pools fit for each kind, that all kinds of birds and beasts were kept in well-appointed zoological gardens, where there were homes even for alligators and snakes — all this testifies to a cultivation of natural history which was really beyond the European level of the time. From the palaces and retinues of thousands of servants attached to the royal service may be inferred at once the despotic power of the Mexican rulers and the heavy taxation of the people; in fact some of the most remarkable of the picture-writings are tribute-rolls enumerating by hundreds and thousands the mantles, ocelot-skins, bags of gold-dust, bronze hatchets, loads of chocolate, &c, furnished periodically by the towns. Below the king was a numerous and powerful' class of nobles, the highest of whom {tlatoani) were great vassals owing little more than homage and tribute to their feudal lord, while the natural result of the unruliness of the noble class was that the king to keep them in check increased their numbers, brought them to the capital as councillors, and balanced their influence by military and household officers, and by a rich and powerful merchant class. The nobles not only had privileges of rank and dignity, but substantial power over the plebeian or peasant class {maeehualli) . The greatest estates be- longed to the king, or had been granted to military chiefs whose sons succeeded them, or were the endowments of temples, but the calpulli or village community still survived, and each freeman of the tribe held and tilled his portion of the common lands. Below the freemen were the slaves, who were war-captives, persons enslaved for punish- ment, or children sold by their parents. Prisoners of war were mostly doomed to sacrifice, but other classes of slaves were mildly treated, retaining civil rights, and their children were born free. The superior courts of law formed part of the palace, and there were tribunals in the principal cities, over each of which presided a supreme judge or cihuacoatl, who was irremovable, and , .. whose criminal decisions not even the king might reverse ; ce ' he appointed the lower judges and heard appeals from them; it is doubtful whether he judged in civil cases, but both kinds of suits were heard in the court below, by the tlacatecatl and his two associ- ates, below whom were the ward-magistrates. Lands were set apart for the maintenance of the judges, and indeed nothing gives a higher idea of the elaborate civilization of Mexico than this judicial system, which culminated in a general court and council of state presided oyer by the king. The laws and records of suits were set down in picture-writings, of which some are still to be seen ; sentence of death was recorded by drawing a line with an arrow across the portrait of the condemned, and the chronicles describe the barbaric solemnity with which the king passed sentence sitting on a golden and jewelled throne in the divine tribunal, with one hand on an ornamented skull and the golden arrow in the other. Among the resemblances to old-world law was the use of a judicial oath, the witness touching the ground with his finger and putting it to his lips, thus swearing by Mother Earth. The criminal laws were of extreme severity, even petty theft being punished by the thief being enslaved to the person he had robbed, while to steal a tobacco pouch or twenty ears of corn was death ; he who pilfered in the market was then and there beaten to death, and he who insulted Xipe, the god of the gold- and silver- smiths, by stealing his precious metal, was skinned alive and sacrificed to the offended deity. Though aloe-beer or " pulque " was allowed ANG ENT CIVILIZATION] MEXICO 333 for feasts and to invalids in moderation, and old people over seventy seem to be represented in one of the picture-writings as having liberty of drunkenness, young men found drunk were clubbed to death and young women stoned. For such offences as witchcraft, fraud, removing landmarks, and adultery the criminal had his heart cut out on the altar, or his head crushed between two stones, while even lesser punishments were harsh, such as that of slanderers, whose hair was singed with a pine-torch to the scalp. Based on conquest as the Aztec kingdom was, and with the most bloodthirsty religion the world ever saw, the nation was, above all, „, a fighting community. To be a tried soldier was the road ar ' to honour and office, and the king could not be enthroned till he had with his own hand taken captives to be butchered on the war-god's altar at his coronation. The common soldiers were promoted for acts of daring, and the children of chiefs were regularly trained to war, and initiated by being sent into battle with veterans, with whose aid the youth took his first prisoner, but his future rise depended on how many captives he took unaided in fight with warlike enemies; by such feats he gained the dignity of wearing coloured blankets, tassels and lip-jewels, and reached such military titles as that of " guiding eagle." The Mexican military costumes are to be seen in the picture-writings, where the military orders of princes, eagles and tigers are known by their braided hair, eagles' beaks and spotted armour. The common soldiers went into battle brilliant in savage war-paint, but those of higher rank had helmets like birds and beasts of prey, armour of gold and silver, wooden greaves, and especially the ichcapilli, the quilted cotton tunic two fingers thick, so serviceable as a protection from arrows that the Spanish invaders were glad to adopt it. The archers shot well and with strong bows, though their arrows were generally tipped only with stone or bone; their shields or targets, mostly round, were of ordinary barbaric forms ; the spears or javelins had heads of obsidian or bronze, and were sometimes hurled with a spear-thrower or atlatl, of which pictures and specimens still exist, showing it to be similar in principle to those used by the Australians and Eskimo. The most characteristic weapon of the Mexicans was the maquahuitl or " hand- wood," a club set with two rows of large sharp obsidian flakes, a well-directed blow with which would cut. down man or horse. These two last-mentioned weapons have the look of highly developed savage forms, while on the other hand the military organization was in some respects equal to that of an Asiatic nation, with its regular companies commanded each by its captain and provided with its standard. The armies were very large, an expedition often consist- ing of several divisions, each numbering eight thousand men; but the tactics of the commanders were quite rudimentary, consisting merely of attack by arrows and javelins at a distance, gradually closing into a hand-to-hand fight with clubs and spears, with an occasional feigned retreat to draw the enemy into an ambuscade. Fortification was well understood, as may still be seen in the remains of walled and escarped strongholds on hills and in steep ravines, while lagoon-cities like Mexico had the water approaches defended by fleets of boats and the causeways protected by towers and ditches; even after the town was entered, the pyramid-temples with their surrounding walls were forts capable of stubborn resistance. It was held unrighteous to invade another nation without a solemn embassy to warn their chiefs of the miseries to which they exposed themselves by refusing the submission demanded, and this again was followed by a declaration of war, but in Mexico this degenerated into a cere- monial farce, where tribute was claimed or an Aztec god was offered to be worshipped in order to pick a quarrel as a pretext for an invasion already planned to satisfy the soldiers with lands and plunder, and to meet the priests' incessant demands for more human sacrifices. Among the accounts of the Mexican religion are some passages referring to the belief in a supreme deity. The word teotl, god, has R Ikrl a been thought in some cases to bear this signification, Keugo . j jut j ts meanm g ; s t jj at - f d e ity in general, and it is applied not only to the sun-god but to very inferior gods. It is related that Nezahualcoyotl, the poet-king of Tezcuco, built a nine- storied temple with a starry roof above, in honour of the invisible deity called Tloquenahuaque, " he who is all in himself," or Ipal- nemoani, " he by whom we live," who had no image, and was pro- pitiated, not by bloody sacrifices, but by incense and flowers. These divinities, however, seem to have had little or no place in the popular faith, which was occupied by polytheistic gods of the ordinary barbaric type. Tezcatlipoca was held to be the highest of these, and at the festival of all the gods his footsteps were expected to appear in the flour strewn to receive this sign of their coming. He was plainly an ancient deity of the race, for attributes of many kinds are crowded together in him. Between him and Quetzalcoatl, the ancient deity of Cholula, there had been old rivalry. As is related in the legends, Quetzalcoatl came into the land to teach men to till the soil, to work metals and to rule a well-ordered state ; the two gods played their famous match at the ball-game, and Tezcatlipoca per- suaded the weary Quetzalcoatl to drink the magic pulque that sent him roaming to the distant ocean, where he embarked in his boat and disappeared from among men. 1 These deities are not easily 1 One of the most important sources for the ancient Mexican traditions and myths is the so-called " Codex Chimalpopoca," a manuscript in the Mexican language discovered by the Abbe analysed, but on the other hand Tonatiuh and Metztli, the sun and moon, stand out distinctly as nature gods, and the traveller still sees in the huge adobe pyramids of Teotihuacan, with their sides oriented to the four quarters, an evidence of the importance of their worship. The war-god Huitzilopochtli was the real head of the Aztec pantheon ; his idol remains in Mexico, a huge block of basalt on which is sculp- tured on the one side his hideous personage, adorned with the humming-bird feathers on the left hand which signify his name, while the not less frightful war-goddess Teoyaomiqui, or " divine war- death, " occupies the other side. Centeotl, the goddess of the all- nourishing maize, was patroness of the earth and mother of the gods, while_ Mictlanteuctli, lord of dead-land, ruled over the departed in the dim under-world. There were numbers of lesser deities, such as Tlazolteotl, goddess of pleasure, worshipped by courtesans, Tezcat- zoncatl, god of strong drink, whose garment in grim irony clothed the drunkard's corpse, and Xipe, patron of the goldsmiths. Below these were the nature-spirits of hills and groves, whose shrines were built by the roadside. The temples were called teocalli or " god's house," and rivalled in size as they resembled in form the temples of ancient Babylon. They were pyramids on a square or oblong base, rising in successive terraces to a small summit-platform. The great teocalli of Huitzilopochtli in the city of Mexico stood in an immense square, whence radiated the four principal thoroughfares, its courtyard being enclosed by a square, of which the stone wall, called the coatepantli or serpent-wall from its sculptured serpents, measured nearly a quarter of a mile on each side. In the centre, the oblong pyramid of rubble cased with hewn stone and cemented 375 X 300 ft. at the base, and rising steeply in five terraces to the height of 86 ft., showed conspicuously to the city the long proces- sions of priests and victims winding along the terraces and up to corner flights of steps. On the paved platform were three-storey tower temples in whose ground-floor stood the stone images and altars, and before that of the war-god the green stone of sacrifice, humped so as to bend upward the body of the victim that the priest might more easily slash open the breast with his obsidian knife, tear out the heart and hold it up before the god, while the captor and his friends were waiting below for the carcase to be tumbled down the steps for them to carry home to be cooked for the feast of victory. Before the shrines reeking with the stench of slaughter the eternal fires were kept burning, and on the platform stood the huge drum, covered with snakes' skin, whose fearful sound was heard for miles. From the terrace could be seen seventy or more other temples within the enclosure, with their images and blazing fires, and the tzompantli or " skull-place," where the skulls of victims by tens of thousands were skewered on cross-sticks or built into towers. There also might be seen the flat circular temalacatl or " spindle-stone," where captives armed with wooden weapons were allowed the mockery of a gladia- torial fight against well-armed champions. The great pyramid of Cholula with its hemispherical temple of Quetzalcoatl at the top, now an almost shapeless hill surmounted by a church, was about thrice as long and twice as high as the teocalli of Mexico. A large fraction of the Mexican population were set apart as priests or attendants to the services of the gods. The rites performed were such as are found elsewhere — prayer, sacrifice, processions, dances, Brasseur de Bourbourg. It is the interpretation of different mytho- logical and historical Mexican picture-writings, composed by an anonymous author some time after the conquest and copied by Fernando de Alva (Ixtlilxochitl, 1568-1648). It belonged to the priceless collection of Mexican documents brought together in the 18th century by Lorenzo Boturini (see his " Catalogo del Museo historicoindiano," appendix of his Idea de una nueva historia general de la America septentrional, Madrid, 1746, § viii., No. 13). It is ' named there Historia de los reynos de Colhuacan y de Mexico. Other copies of the same manuscript, made by Leon y Gama, Jose Pichardo, Aubin and Brasseur, exist in the Paris National Library in the Aubin- Goupil collection. Brasseur died before he could realize his plan to publish the whole MS. in Nahuatl with a translation. Some extracts are to be found in his Hisloire des nations civilisees du Mexique, and in Leon y Gama, Dos Piedras . . . , ed. Bustamente (Mexico, 1832). Larger fragments of the Ixtlilxochitl copy were published in the Anales del museo nacional de Mexico, torn, iii., appx. pp. 7-70; but in this edition the Mexican text is very corrupt, and the two Spanish translations are by no means exact. The Paris MSS. and the Ixtlilxochitl copy were carefully collated by Dr Walter Lehmann (see Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie, 1906, pp. 752-760; Journal de la Societe des Americanisms de Paris, now), ser. vol. iii. No. 2; Dr E. Seler, Verhandiungen des XVI. Internationalen Amerikanisten-Kongresses, Vienna, 1909, II., pp. 129-150). The precious Ixtlilxochitl copy was found by Lehmann in the library of the National Museum of Mexico, and arrangements were made for the publication of the whole MS. by him in conjunction with Professor E. Seler. Another very important MS. was discovered by Dr Lehmann, in Guatemala. It is the MS. of Father Francisco Ximenez, Historia de la Provincia de San Vicente de Chiapa y de Guatemala, in three big volumes in folio, which contain the famous Spanish translation of the Quiche myths or the " Popol-Vuh." The MS. was bought at the expense of the duke of Loubat, who decided to present it, after the death of Dr Lehmann, to the Royal Library at Berlin. 334 MEXICO [ANCIENT CIVILIZATION chants, fasting and other austerities, but there are some peculiarities of detail. Prayers and other formulas have been copied down by Sahagun and other chroniclers, of endless prolixity, but not without occasional touches of pathos. These prayers seem essentially genuine; indeed there was no European model from which they could have been imitated; but at the same time it must be remem- bered that they come down in Spanish writing, and not untouched by Spanish influence, as in one passage where there is a mention of sheep, an animal unknown to the Mexicans. As to sacrifice, maize and other vegetables were offered, and occasionally rabbits, quails, &c, but, in the absence of cattle, human sacrifice was the chief rite, and cannibalism prevailed at the feasts. Incense was constantly used, especially the copalli (copal) well known to us for varnish; little terra-cotta censers are among the commonest of Mexican antiquities. Long and severe religious fasts were customary at special seasons, and drawing blood from the arms, legs and body, by thrusting in aloe-thorns, and passing sharp sticks through the tongue, was an habitual act of devotion recalling the similar practices of devotees in India. The calendar of religious festivals for the Mexican year has been preserved. Each 20-day period had one or more such celebrations. In the month of the " diminishing of waters " the rain gods or Tlalocs were propitiated by a procession of priests with music of flutes and trumpets carrying on plumed litters infants with painted faces, in gay clothing with coloured paper wings, to be sacrificed on the mountains or in a whirlpool in the lake. It is said that the people wept as they passed by; but if so this may have been a customary formality, for the religion of these nations must have quenched all human sympathy. In the next month the god Xipe-totec, already mentioned, had his festival called the " flaying of men " from the human victims being flayed, after their hearts were torn out, for young men to dress in their skins and perform dances and sham fights. The succeeding festival of Camaxtli was marked by a severe fast of the priests, after which stone knives were prepared with which a hole was cut through the tongue of each, and numbers of sticks passed through. For the great festival of Tezcatlipoca, the handsomest and noblest of the captives of the year had been chosen as the incarnate representative of the god, and paraded the streets for public adoration dressed in an embroidered mantle with feathers and garlands on his head and a retinue like a king; for the last month they married him to four girls representing four goddesses; on the last day wives and pages escorted him to the little temple of Tlacochcalco, where he mounted the stairs, breaking an earthenware flute against each step ; this was a symbolic farewell to the joys of the world, for as he reached the top he was seized by the priests, his heart torn out and held up to the sun, his head spitted on the tzompantli, and his body eaten as sacred food, the people drawing from his fate the moral lesson that riches and pleasure may turn into poverty and sorrow. The manner of the victim's death in these festivals afforded scope for variety; they dressed them and made them dance in character, threw them into the fire for the fire-god, or crushed them between two balanced stones at the harvest-festival. The ordinary pleasures of festivals were mingled with all this, such as dances in beast-masks, sham fights and children's games, but the type of a religious function was a sickening butchery followed by a cannibal feast. The Mexican priesthood were much concerned with the art of picture-writing, which they used systematically as a means of record- ing religious festivals and legends, as well as keeping f?" re " calendars of years and recording the historical events writing. w hich occurred in them. Facsimiles of several of these interesting documents, with their translations, may be seen in . Kingsborough ; splendid reproductions of the beautiful Mexican and Mixteco-Zapotecan codices have also been published at the expense of the duke of Loubat and by the " Junta Colombina " (Mexico, 1892). Gods are represented with their appropriate attributes — the fire-god hurling his spear, the moon-goddess with a shell, &c. ; the scenes of human life are pictures of warriors fighting with club and spear, men paddling in canoes, women spinning and weaving, &c. An important step towards phonetic writing appears in the picture-names of places and persons. The simplest forms of these depict the objects signified by the name, as where Chapul- tepec or " grasshopper-hill " is represented by a grasshopper on a hill, or a stone with a cactus on it stands for Tenoch or " stone- cactus," the founder of Tenocktitlan. The system had, however, risen a stage beyond this when objects were drawn to represent, not themselves, but the syllables forming their names, as where a trap, an eagle, a pricker, and a hand are put together not to represent these objects, but in order that the syllables of their names mo-quauh- zo-ma should spell the word Moquauhzoma (see Aubin's intro- duction to Brasseur, Hist, du Mexique, i. 68.). The analogy of this to the manner in which the Egyptian hieroglyphs passed into phonetic signs is remarkable, and writing might have been invented anew in Mexico had it not been for the Spanish conquest. The Aztec numerals, which were vigesimal or reckoned by scores, were depicted by dots or circles up to 20, which was represented by a flag, 400 (a score of scores) by a feather, and 8000 (a score of scores of scores) by a purse ; but for convenience these symbols might be halved and quartered, so that 534 might be shown by one feather, one quarter of a feather, one flag, one-half of a flag, and four dots. The Mexican calendar depended on the combination of numbers with picture-signs, of which the four principal were the rabbit, reed, flint, house — tochtli, acatl, tecpatl, calli. The cycle of 52 years was reckoned by combining these signs in rotation with numbers up to 13, thus: 1 rabbit, 2 reed, 3 flint, 4 house, 5 rabbit, 6 reed, &c. By accident this calendar may be exactly illustrated with a modern pack of cards laid out in rotation of the four suits, as, ace of hearts, 2 of spades, 3 of diamonds, 4 of clubs, 5 of hearts, 6 of spades, &c. In the Mexican ritual calendar of the days of the year, the same method is carried further, the series of twenty day-signs being combined in rotation with numbers up to 13 ; as this cycle of days only reaches 260, a series of nine other signs are affixed in addition, to make up the 365-day year. It is plain that this rotation of signs served no useful purpose whatever, being less convenient than ordinary count- ing such as the Mexicans employed in their other calendar already mentioned, where the 20-day periods had each a name like our months, and their days had signs in regular order. Its historical interest depends on its resemblance to the calendar-system of centra! and eastern Asia, where among Mongols, Tibetans, Chinese, &c, series of signs are thus combined to reckon years, months and days ; for instance, the Mongol cycle of 60 years is recorded by the zodiac or series of 12 signs— mouse, bull, tiger, &c, combined in rotation with the five male and female elements — fire, earth, iron, water, wood; as " male-fire-bull" year, &c. This comparison is worked out in Humboldt's Vues des Cordilleres, as evidence of Mexican civilization being borrowed from Asia. Naturally the Mexican calendar-system lent itself to magic in the same way as the similar zodiac-signs of the Old World, each person's fate being affected by the qualities of the signs he was born under, and the astrologer- priests being called in to advise on every event of life. Of all Mexican festivals the most solemn was that of the xiuhmolpilli, or " year-binding," when the 52-year cycle or bundle of years came to an end. It was- believed that the destruction of the world, which after the Hindu manner the Mexicans held to have already taken place three or four times, would happen again at the end of a cycle. As the time drew near, the anxious population cleansed their houses and put out all fire, and on the last day after sunset the priests, dressed in the garb of gods, set out in procession for the hill of Huixachtla, there to watch for the approach of the Pleiades to the zenith, which gave the auspicious signal for the lighting of the new fire. The finest of the captives was thrown down and fire kindled on his breast by the wooden drill of the priest; then the victim's heart was torn out, and his body flung on the pile kindled with the new flame. The people watching from their flat housetops all the country round saw with joy the flame on the sacred hill, and hailed it with a thank-offering of drops of blood drawn from their ears with sharp stone-flakes. Swift runners carried burning brands to re-kindle the fires of the land, the sacred fire on the teocalli of the war-god blazed up again, and the people began with feasting and rejoicing the new cycle. Mexican education, at any rate that of the upper class, was a systematic discipline much under the control of religion, which here presents itself under a more favourable light. After the birth of a child, the tonalpouhqui or "isun-calculator " Education. drew its horoscope from the signs it was born under, and fixed the time for its solemn lustration or baptism, performed by the nurse with appropriate prayers to the gods, when a toy shield and bow were provided if it was a boy, or a toy spindle and distaff if it was a girl, and the child received its name. An interesting picture-writing, to be seen in Kingsborough, shows the details of the boy's and girl's education, from the early time when three small circles over the child show it to be three years old, and a drawing of half a tortilla or corn-cake shows its allowance for each meal ; as they grow older the lads are seen beginning to carry burdens, paddle the canoe and fish, while the girls learn to spin and weave, grind maize, and cook — good conduct being enforced by punish- ments of increasing seventy, up to pricking their bodies with aloe- thorns and holding their faces over burning chillies. The schools were extensive buildings attached to the temples, where from an early age boys and girls were taught by the priests to sweep the sanctuaries and keep up the sacred fires, to fast at proper seasons and draw blood for penance, and where they received moral teaching in long and verbose formulas. Those fit for a soldier's life were trained to the use of weapons and sent early to learn the hardships of war; children of craftsmen were usually taught by their fathers to follow their trade; and for the children of nobles there was elaborate instruction in history, picture-writing, astrology, religious doctrines and laws. Marriages depended much, as they do still in the East, on comparison of the horoscopes of the lnarTia S es - pair to ascertain if their birth-signs were compatible. Old women were employed as go-betweens, and the marriage ceremony was conducted by a priest who after moral exhortations united the young couple by tying their garments together in a knot, after which they walked seven times round the fire, casting incense into it; after the performance of the marriage ceremony, the pair entered together on a four days' fast and penance before the marriage was completed. The funeral rites of the Mexicans are best seen in the _ ceremonies at the death of a king. The corpse laid out " uxera s - in state was provided by the priest with a jug of water for his journey, and with bunches of cut papers to pass him safely through each danger of the road — the place where the two mountains strike ANCIENT CIVILIZATION MEXICO 335 together, the road guarded by. the great snake and the great alligator, the eight deserts and the eight hills; they gave him garments to protect him from the cutting wind, and buried a little dog by his side to carry him across the nine waters. Then the royal body was invested in the mantles of his patron-gods, especially that of the war-god, for Mexican kings were warriors; on his face was placed a mask of turquoise mosaic, and a green chalchihuite-stone as a heart between his lips. In older times the dead king was buried on a throne with his property and dead attendants round him. But after cremation came in a mourning procession of servants and chiefs carrying the body to the funeral pyre to be burnt by the demon- dressed priests, after which the crowd of wives and slaves were exhorted to serve their lord faithfully in the next world, were sacrificed and their bodies burnt. Common people would not thus be provided with a ghostly retinue, but their simpler funeral cere- monies were as far as they went similar to those of their monarch. The staple food of the Mexicans before the conquest has continued with comparatively little change among the native race, and has Agriculture even been adopted by those of European blood. Maize and food or Indian corn was cultivated on patches of ground * where, as in the Hindu j4m, the trees and bushes were burnt and the seed planted in the soil manured by the ashes. A sharp-pointed planting stick, a wooden shovel, and a bronze-bladed hoe called a coatl were the simple implements. The Mexicans understood digging channels for irrigation, especially for the cultiva- tion of the cacahuatl, from which they taught the Europeans to prepare the beverage chocollatl; these native names passed into English as the words cacao, or coco and chocolate. Other veget- ables adopted from Mexico are the tomato (tomatl) and the chilli, used as flavouring to native dishes. The maize was ground with a stone roller on the grinding stone or metlatl, still known over Spanish America as the metate, and the meal baked into thin oval cakes called by Aztecs tlaxcalli, and by Spaniards tortilla, which resemble the chapati of India and the oatcake of Scotland. The Mexicans were also skilful makers of earthen pots, in which were cooked the native beans called by the Spanish frijoles, and the various savoury stews still in vogue. .The juice extracted by tapping the great aloe before flowering was fermented into an intoxicating drink about the strength of beer, octli, by the Spaniards called pulque. Tobacco, smoked in leaves or cane-pipes or taken as snuff, was in use, Clothlns and es P ec ' a "y at feasts. In old times Mexican clothing _ * , was of skins of woven aloe and palm fibre, but at the time of the conquest cotton was largely cultivated in the hot lands, spun with a spindle, and woven in a rudimentary loom without a shuttle into the mantles and breech-cloths of the men and the chemises and skirts of the women, garments often of fine texture and embroidered in colours. Ornaments of gold and silver, and jewels of polished quartz and green chalchihuite were worn — not only the ears and nose but the lips being pierced for Metal-work ornaments - The artificers in gold and silver melted ' the metals by means of a reed-blowpipe and cast them solid or hollow, and were also skilled in hammered work and chasing, as some fine specimens remain to show, though the famous animals modelled with gold and silver, fur, feathers and scales have disappeared. Iron was not known, but copper and tin ores were mined, and the metals combined into bronze of much the same alloy as in the Old World, of which hatchet blades and other instru- ments were made, though their use had not superseded that of obsidian and other sharp stone flakes for cutting, shaving, &c. Metals had passed into a currency for trading purposes, especially quills of gold-dust and T-shaped pieces of copper, while coco-beans furnished small change. The vast size of the market-squares with their surrounding porticos, and the importance of the caravans of merchants who traded with other nations, show that mercantile had risen into some proportion to military interests. Nor was the wealth and luxury of Mexico and surrounding regions without a corre- sponding development of art. The stone sculptures such as that remaining of Xochicalco, which is figured by Humboldt, as well as the ornamented woodwork, feather-mats, and vases, are not without artistic merit. The often- cited poems attributed to Nezahualcoyotl may not be quite genuine, but at any rate poetry had risen above the barbaric level, while the mention of ballads among the people, court odes, and the chants of temple choirs would indicate a vocal cultivation above that of the instrumental music of drums and horns, pipes and whistles, the latter often of pottery. Solemn and gay dances were frequent, and a sport called the bird-dance excited the admiration of foreigners for the skill and daring with which groups of performers dressed as birds let themselves down by ropes wound round the top of a high mast, so as to fly whirled in circles far above the ground. The ball- game of the Mexicans, called Uachtli, was, like tennis, the pastime of princes and nobles; special courts were built for it, and the ball of india-rubber (perhaps the first object in which Europeans became acquainted with this valuable material) might not be touched by the hands, but was driven against the walls by blows of the knee or elbow, shoulder or buttock. The favourite game of patolli has been already mentioned for its similarity to the pachisi of modern India. The accounts given by Spanish writers of the Central Americans in their state after the Spanish conquest are very scanty in com- Artand Pastime. American Culture. parison with the voluminous descriptions of Aztec life. They bring out perfectly, however, the fact of close connexion between the two civilizations. Some Central-American peoples Central- were actually Mexican in their language and culture, especially the Pipils and a large part of the population of Nicaragua. The investigations made by Dr Walter Lehmann in Central America (1907-1909), prove that these Mexican elements were extended through Guatemala, Salvador, a small part of Nicaragua (the territory of the Nicaraos) and on several places in the peninsula of Nicoya (Costa Rica) amongst the autochthonous Choro- tega or Mangue. It is an error of the Spanish authorities to pretend that the Pipil civilization in Guatemala and Salvador is not older than the time of King Ahuitzotl (c. 1482-IA86). The language spoken by the Pipils of Salvador (Balsam Coast) is a very old dialect of the Mexican language of the highland of Mexico. It has preserved in the conjugation and in the formation of the plural older forma than the classical Nahuatl itself. The separation of the Pipils from the chief tribes of the Nahuatl branch happened centuries before the conquest, and they developed a singular and characteristic civilization, which can be seen in the wonderful stone-reliefs and sculptures of Sta Lucia de Cozumalhuapa on the Pacific coast of Guatemala. Dr Lehmann's archaeological and linguistic researches, especially in Salvador and Nicaragua, also enabled him to prove another very important fact, viz. that these Pipils, who may be descendants from the peoples of the Mexican Plateau, migrated into territories pre- viously occupied by an older race of Mayan origin. The archaeo- logical and linguistic evidence proves also that a great part of Salvador and Honduras was once occupied by peoples of the Maya race — Pokomam, Chorti and perhaps other unknown tribes. They left typical Mayan ruins in Honduras (Tenampua) and in Salvador (Opico near Tehuacan, Quelepa near' San Miguel), which seem, however, to be destitute of Mayan hieroglyphic inscriptions. The easternmost limit of prehistoric Mayan civilization, on the Pacific coast of Central America, is Fonseca Bay, with the island of Zacate Grande. It is noteworthy that archaeological objects of the type character- istic of northern Honduras (Ulloa Valley) have been found on the Pacific coast of Salvador. A strange stone sculpture of the so-called Chac-Mol type, known before only from the country of the Tarascs, from Tlaxcala and Chichen Itza, was discovered in Salvador (Ahuachapan). In the nearly unexplored central part of Nicaragua Dr Lehmann found fragments of painted polychrome clay pottery similar to objects known from the Ulloa Valley (Honduras) amongst other ceramic pieces which seem to have been left by the ancestors of the Sumo Indians, now extinct in that territory. It is possible that these remains of Mayan pottery came into central Nicaragua as articles of commerce. It is significant that Mayan civilization cannot be traced in any Other part of Nicaragua or Costa Rica. The above-mentioned prehistoric Mayan peoples lived in contact with " barbarous " nations and with another little-known civilized race. The barbarians belonged to the great family of the Sumo- Misquito Indians, the civilized race was that of the Chorotega or Mangue (Dirian, Orotinan, &c). The Sumo-Misquito Indians occupied the Atlantic coast and the interior of Nicaragua and Honduras, where they still live in small tribes ; a dialect of the hitherto unknown Sumo languages is the Matagalpan, now extinct in Nicar- agua, and nearly identical with the Matagalpan is the language spoken by the Indians of Cacaopera in Salvador (Ultra-Lempa territory). There is no doubt that, at the time of the Pipil invasion, tribes of the Sumo-Misquito family were the immediate neighbours of the Pipils towards the east and north. This fact is proved by the names of some places in Salvador, e.g. Santiago Nonohualco, San Juan Nonohualco and San Pedro Nonohualco. The word Nonohualco signifies in the Mexican language a place where a language changes, where another idiom begins. To the east of the three places whose names are compounded with ." Nonohualco," must have dwelt, in the time of the Pipil Indians, the Nonoualca, called also by Mexican tribes Chontales or Popoloca. The western neighbours of the Sumo Indians were and are (though few still survive) the Lenca Indians, who formerly occupied large parts of Honduras. A linguistic rela- tionship can be established between all the Indian languages spoken on the Atlantic coast and in the interior of Nicaragua and Honduras. Several tribes, such as the Paya (or Poya) and the Jicaques, form together with the Lenca, Sumo (Matagalpa, Tauakhca and Ulua) and Misquito one great family. The position of the isolated Xinca (or Sinca) Indians, regarded from this point of view, becomes very interesting. There are scientific reasons to believe that the Xinca also belong to the same great family as the Lenca, Jicaques, Paya, Misquito-Sumo. It may be possible either that these tribes are the autochthonous inhab- itants who dwelt in Guatemala, Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua before the immigration of the prehistoric Maya peoples ; or else that they invaded this region after it had been deserted by a prehistoric oriental branch of the Maya family. The Chorotega race had its centre in Nicaragua (Pacific coast) and at one time extended thence as far as Guanacaste (Costa Rica) ; at 336 MEXICO [ANCIENT CIVILIZATION another time it extended as far as Honduras (actual department of Choluteca) and into eastern Salvador as far as the state of Chiapas in Mexico, where the Chorotega penetrated amongst the Mixe. The Chorotega or Mangue language, so closely affiliated to the Chiapanec, is now extinct, but its former extension is to be recog- nized by many Indian local names. It seems that there was formerly a mutual interpenetration between Lenca, Sumo and Chorotega tribes. The territories of all these tribes can be, more or less exactly, calculated by the existence of Indian local names. The Misquito country is characterized by names terminating in laya, water, or auala, river; the Sumo and Ulua country by names in uas, water; the Matagalpan by names in It, water; the Lenca by names in tique, lique, isque and (ai) quin. Such Lenca names occur on the north- eastern boundary of the Ultra-Lempa country of Salvador. It is strange that there is not a single place-name in Salvador either of Mayan origin, or, as it seems, of Chorotegan origin. Probably the Mexican elements superseded the Maya so completely that there remained no trace of the Maya except archaeological objects; it is to be supposed that the Lenca and Sumo tribes superseded the Chorotega in Salvador. If we can be sure — and the linguistic evidence admits of no doubt — that the Chorotega had their centre in Nicaragua and thence extended north-westwards, it may be hoped that Chorotegan remains will be found in the vast territory occupied for many centuries by the Maya peoples in the Pacific part of Guatemala. These remains would, of course, be archaeological or place-names. How closely related some of the Central-American nations were in institutions to the Mexicans appears, not only in their using the same peculiar weapons, but in the similarity of their religious rites; the connexion is evident in such points as the ceremony of marriage by tying together the garments of the couple, or in holding an offender's face over burning chillies as a punishment; the native legends of Central America make mention of the royal ball-play, which was the same as the Mexican game of tlachtli already men- tioned. At the same time many of the Central-American customs differed from the Mexican; thus in Yucatan we find the custom of the youths sleeping in a great bachelor's house, an arrangement common in various parts of the world, but not in Mexico; the same remark applies to the Maya exogamous law of a man not taking a wife of his own family name (see Diego de Landa, Relation de Yucatan, ed. Brasseur de Bourbourg, p. 140), which does not correspond with Mexican custom. We have the means of comparing the personal appearance of the Mexicans and Central Americans by their portraits on early sculptures, vases, &c. ; and, though there does not appear any clear distinction of race-type, the extraordinary back-sloping foreheads of such figures as those of the bas-reliefs of Palenque prove that the custom of flattening the skull in infancy prevailed in Central America to an extent quite beyond any such habit in Mexico. The notion that the ruined cities now buried in the Central-American forests were of great antiquity and the work of extinct nations has no solid evidence; some of them may have been already abandoned before the conquest, but others were inhabited by the ancestors of the Indians who now build their mean huts and till their patches of maize round the relics of the grander life of their ancestors. In comparing these ruins in Yucatan, Chiapas, Guatemala and Hon- duras, it is evident that, though they are the work of two or more nations highly distinct in language, yet these nations had a common system of pictorial or written characters. One specimen of a Central- American inscription may give a general idea of them all, whether it be from the sculptured facade of a temple sketched by Catherwood, or from the painted deerskin called the Dresden Codex (reproduced in Kingsborough), or from the chapter of Diego de Landa where he professes to explain and translate the characters themselves. These consist of combinations of faces, circles, lines, &c, arranged in compartments in so complex a manner that hardly two are found alike. How they conveyed their meaning, how far they pictorially represented ideas or spelt words in the different languages of the country, is a question not yet answered in a complete way; Landa's description (p. 320) gives a table of a number of their elements as phonetically representing letters or syllables, but, though there may be a partial truth in his rules, they are insufficient or too erroneous to serve for any general decipherment. One point as to the Central- American characters is clear, that part of them are calendar-signs recording dates. From the accounts given by Landa and other writers it is plain that the Central-American calendar, reckoning the year in twenty-eight periods of thirteen days, was the same in its principle of combining signs as that of Mexico. The four leading Maya signs called kan, muluc, ix, cauac corresponded in their position to the four Aztec signs rabbit, reed, flint, house, but the meanings of the Maya signs are, unlike the Aztec, very obscure. A remarkable feature of the Central-American ruins is the frequency of truncated pyramids built of hewn stone, with flights of steps up to the temple built on the platform at top. The resemblance of these structures to the old descriptions and pictures of the Mexican teocallis is so striking that this name is habitually given to them. The teocallis built by the Nahua or Mexican nations have been mostly destroyed, but two remain at Huatusco and Tusapan (figured in Bancroft, iv. 443, 456), which bear a strong resemblance to those of Palenque. On the whole it is not too much to say that, in spite of differences in style, the best means of judging what the temples and palaces of Mexico were like is to be gained from the actual ruins in Central America. On the other hand, there are features in Central-American architecture which scarcely appear in Mexican. Thus at Uxmal there stands on a terraced mound the long narrow building known as the governor's house (Casa del Gobernador), 322 ft. long, 39 ft. wide, 26 ft. high, built of rubble stone and mortar faced with square • blocks of stone, the interior of the chambers rising into a sloping roof formed by courses of stonework gradually overlapping in a " false arch." The same construction is seen in the buildings form- ing the sides of a quadrangle and bearing the equally imaginary name of the nunnery (Casa de Monjas) ; the resemblance of the interior of one of its apartments to an Etruscan tomb has often been noticed (see Fergusson, History of Architecture, vol. i; Viollet-le-Duc, in Charnay). The explorations made by Dr Lehmann in 1909 in the famous ruins of Teotihuacan, near Mexico city throw new light upon certain chronological problems. Like the excavations made by Dr Max Uhle ,in Peru, they tend to determine the relative antiquity of the different periods of the ancient civilization. They also show that these various culture-periods followed one another among the Mexicans in much the same sequence as among the Peruvians. At a considerable depth below the foundations of a temple-palace at Teotihuacan, Dr Lehmann discovered certain ceramic fragments of a type quite different from any hitherto classed as Mexican. These are painted on a fine stucco in beautiful colours (notably a kind of turquoise-green) and represent archaic forms of flowers and butter^ flies. The relation between the wall paintings of Teotihuacan and ornaments at Chichen Itza, as also the existence of sculptured stone yokes in Teotihuacan, in the country of the Totonacs, in Guatemala and in Salvador, furnish important material for the investigation of the obscure problems of the Toltecs and Olmecs, and of the exten- sion of Maya peoples on the Atlantic coast of the Mexican Gulf from Campeche as far as Tabasco and Vera Cruz. Attempts to trace the architecture of Central America directly from Old- World types have not been successful, while on the other hand its decoration shows proof of original invention, especially in the imitations of woodwork which passed into sculptured orna- ment when the material became stone instead of wood. Thus the architectural remains, though they fail to solve the problem of the culture of the nations round the Gulf of Mexico, throw much light on it when their evidence is added to that of religion and customs. At any rate two things seem probable — first, that the civilizations of Mexico and Central America were pervaded by a common influence in religion, art, and custom; second, that this common element shows traces of the importation of Asiatic ideas into America. Bibliography. — The most illuminating and fundamental work on Mexican archaeology is the Gesammelte Abhandlungen, of Eduard Seler (vol. i. Berlin, 1902; vol. ii., 1904). For the earliest descriptions of the ancient cities of Mexico the writings of Cogolludo, Landa, Antonio del Rio, Sahagun, Torquemada and others are of the greatest value. The account by Antonio de Leon y Gama, Description historica y cronologica de las dos piedras que . . . se liallaron en la plaza principal de Mexico el ano de 1790 (Mexico, 1792 ; 2nd ed. by C. M. de Mustamentel), may be specially mentioned. Much of this material is to be found in Lord Kingsborough 's monumental work in 9 vols., seq., on the Antiquities of Mexico (London, 1831- 1848). Alexander von Humboldt's Vues des Corditthres et monu- ments des peuples indigenes de V Amerique was published in Paris in 1816. At the beginning of the 19th century the colonial government undertook a comprehensive exploration of the best known groups of ruins and three expeditions were made in 1 805-1 808 under the direction of Captain Guillaume Dupaix, accompanied by Luciano Castaneda as artist. The reports were not published, however, until Kingsborough included them in his work, though some of the draw- ings appeared in other works. In many respects these reports are the best of the early accounts. Another early explorer was the French artist Frederic de Waldeck, who published Voyage pittoresque et archeologique dans la province d' Yucatan (Paris, 1838), and whose collection of drawings appeared in 1866, with the descriptive text by Brasseur de Bourbourg, under the title Monuments anciens du Mexique. Among other and later works, including some who have devoted themselves more especially to Maya inscriptions, are: Arnold and Frost, The American Egypt (London, 1909) ; H. H. Bancroft, The Native Races of the Pacific States (5 vols., New York, 1874-1876, vol. iv. is devoted to " Antiquities ") ; A. F. Bandelier, Report on an Archaeological Tour in Mexico, 1881 (Archaeol. Inst, of America, papers, Am. Ser. II.); Leopoldo Batres, Cuadro arqueo- logico y etnogrdfico de la Republica Mexicana (Mexico, n.d.) ; W. W. Blake, Catalogue of the Historical and Archaeological Collections of the National Museum of Mexico (Mexico, 1884); Eug. Boban, Cuadro arqueolbgico y etnogrdfico de la Republica Mexicana (Paris, 1885) ; Daniel G. Brinton, The American Race (New York, 1891) and Ancient Phonetic Alphabets of Yucatan; Desire Charnay, The Ancient Cities of the New World (Transl. New York, 1887) ;" Charnay and Viollet-le-Duc, Cites et ruines americaines (Paris, 1863) ; Alfredo Chavero (ed.) Antiguedades mexicanas (Mexico, 1892); Dupaix, Antiquites mexicaines (Paris, 1834-1836); E. Forstemann (Numerous articles in Globus and other German publications, 1893-1897, on Maya inscriptions); E. T. Hamy, Decades americanae (Paris, 1888, 1898, 1902) ; Wm. H. Holmes, Archaeological Studies among the COLONIAL PERIOD] MEXICO 337 Ancient Cities of Mexico (Parts I. and II. Field Columbian Museum, Chicago, 1895-1897); W. Lehmann, Ergebnisse und Aufgaben der mexikanischen Forschung (Archiv. fur Anthropologic, neue Folge, iii., 2; 1907), Eng. trans.: Methods and Results in Mexican Research, by Seymour de Ricci (Paris, 1909) ; Theobert Maler, Neue Entdeckung von Ruinen-Stddten in Mittel-Amerika (Globus, lxx. 149-150, Braun- schweig, 1896), and also contributions to American archaeological publications; A. P. Maudslay, Biologia Centrali-Americana-Archae- ology (London, 1897); J. F. A. Nadaillac, Prehistoric America (New York, 1895); Zelia Nuttall, The Fundamental Principles of the Old and New World Civilizations (Arch, and Ethn. Papers, Peabody Museum, Cambridge, 1901); Antonio Penafiel, Monumentos del arte mexicano antiguo (1 vol. text, 2 vols, plates; Berlin, 1890); Carl Sapper, Das nordliche Mittel-Amerika (Braunschweig, 1897) ; Caecilie Saler, Auf alien Wegen in Mexico und Guatemala (Berlin, 1900); Eduard K. Seler, " Der Charakter der aztekischen und Maya-Hand- schriften " [Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic, Berlin, 1888), and other papers in various German publications; John L. Stephens (F. Catherwood, artist), Travels in Central America (2 vols., New York, 1841), and .Incidents of Travel in Yucatan (2 vols., New York, 1843). (E. B. T.; W. L.*) II. — Colonial Period. 1520-1821. The conquest of Mexico by the Spanish forces under Hernando Cortes (q.v.) in 1520, and the death of the last Aztec emperor, , Guatemozin, introduced what is known as the colonial period of Mexican history, which lasted down to the enforced resigna- tion of the last viceroy, O'Donoju, in 1821. During these three centuries, after a brief but most unsatisfactory experience of government by audiencias (1521-1535), sixty-four viceroys ruled over New Spain. Of these a few were ecclesiastics: two had two terms of office; only two or three were of native birth, and their previous official life had always been passed in other parts of the Spanish dominions. New Spain was one of four great viceroyalties, the other three being New Granada, Buenos Aires and Peru. Its viceroy _ ruled over districts differing in status and with over- Bxtent. 3 "' l a PP m g an d conflicting authorities, some of these being appointed directly by the king of Spain, and responsible to him. New Spain in its widest meaning includes the audiencias or judicial districts of Manila, San Domingo and Guatemala, and the viceroy had some sort of authority over them: but in its narrower meaning it comprised the audiencia district of Mexico and the subordinate audiencia district of Guadalajara, which together extended from Chiapas and Guate- mala to beyond the eastern boundary of the modern state of Texas and northwards, eventually, to Vancouver's Island. In the course of the 18th century this came to consist of the follow- ing divisions: (1) the kingdom of Mexico, which included the peninsula of Yucatan but not the present state of Chiapas or a part of Tabasco, these belonging to Guatemala. Approximately its south border ran from a point slightly east of Tehuantepec to the bay of Honduras, and its north limit was that of the modern states of Michoacan and Guanajuato, then cutting across San Luis Potosi to a point just above Tampico. (2) The kingdom of New Galicia, including the present states of Zacatecas, Jalisco and part of San Luis Potosi. (3) The Nuevo Regno de Leon (the present state of that name). (4) The Provincias Internas, i.e. " interior " regarded from the capital, viz. Nuevo Santander (Tamaulipas, and Texas to the bay of Corpus Christi, founded 1749), the several provinces of Nuevo Biscaya or Chihuahua, Durango, Sonora with Sinaloa, Coahuila, Texas (from Corpus Christi Bay to the mouth of the Mermenton in the present state of Louisiana), and the two Californias. The audiencia councils' also advised the viceroy in matters of administration; and, as with other officials, his career was Government subject at its close to a formal examination by a and Organi- commission — a process known as " taking his zatlon. residencia." Local government till 1786 was largely in the hands of alcaldes majores and corregidores, the latter established in 1531 to look after the Indians, and both appointed by purchase. Towns, which were to some extent founded after the conquest as centres of civilization for the Indians, were governed by civic officials appointed in the first instance by the governor of the province, but subsequently as a rule purchasing their posts. The church rapidly supplemented the work of the conquerors. The first Franciscan mission arrived in 1524; other orders followed. The announcement of the apparition of The Church the Virgin to an Indian netir Mexico City provided a and the place of pilgrimage and a patroness in Our Lady of People. Guadalupe; and the friars ingeniously used the hieroglyphic writing for instruction in Christian doctrine, and taught the natives trades, for which they showed much aptitude. The university of Mexico was founded in 1553. The Jesuits estab- lished themselves in 1572, devoting themselves actively to the education both of whites and of natives, and were a powerful factor in the exploring and civilizing of the northern districts. The Inquisition was introduced in 1571. With the natives south of the latitude of Tampico there was little trouble after the Mixton War (in Guadalajara) in 1 540-1 562, save for occa- sional risings in Yucatan, Tehuantepec, and in 171 1 in the Nayarit mountain region west of Zacatecas, and Tamaulipas was con- quered in 1748; but the wild Indians of Sonora and New Mexico gave constant trouble to the missions and outlying settlers. There were occasionally riots due to scarcity of corn (notably in Mexico itself in 1692). As in other Spanish possessions, Indian labour was replaced or supplemented by that of negro slaves, but these were almost wholly confined to the coast regions of Vera Cruz and Acapulco, and early in the 19th century there were only some 10,000 in all. As the Spanish conquerors brought few women, there was much mixture of races. Among the pure whites— who were practically all of Spanish extraction — there were two well-defined classes, the Gachupines or chapetones, castes^" Spaniards born in Europe, said to be so named in allusion to their spurs, from Aztec words meaning " prickers with the foot," and the native-born or Creoles: the former, though a small minority, had almost all the higher positions both in the public services and in commerce. Besides these there were five well-defined castas: mestizoes (Indian and white); mulattoes (negro and white); Zambos (negro and Indian), who were regarded as specially vicious and dangerous; native Indians and negroes. But there were about a dozen inter- mediate " named varieties," of which the salto-alras (tending away from white) and tente en I'aire (tending towards white) may be mentioned; and many of the last named eventually passed into the Creole class, sometimes by the decree of a court. The fact that the trade route to Manila passed through Vera Cruz, Mexico City and Acapulco entailed the settlement also of a few Chinese and Malays, chiefly on the Pacific coast. The natives were subject to tribute and kept in perpetual tutelage: divided at the conquest, with the land, as serfs of the conquerors, in repartimienlos or encomiendas, they were gradually freed at an early date from their ^Natives. serfage, and allowed to sell their labour as they pleased; they were, however, to a great extent kept in villages or settlements, compelled to cultivate land which they held for their life only, and strictly controlled by the friars or the priests. Their numbers were several times seriously reduced by the matlazhuatl, apparently analogous to yellow fever, but not attacking the whites, and unknown before the conquest. The negroes were allowed to buy their freedom gradually at rates fixed by the judicial authorities, and slavery seems never to have taken much hold except in the coast region. Of the events of this period only a bare outline can here be given. The term of office of the first viceroy, Antonio de Mendoza, was marked by the Mixton War, by an Leading attempt to suppress the encomienda system, and by Events: a violent epidemic among the natives. Under his 1S3S ' 1822 - successor, Velasco, the measures taken for the relief of the natives provoked the landowners to a conspiracy (repressed with great severity) to set up Cortes' son as king of New Spain. In 1568 the island of Sacrificios, near Vera Cruz, was seized by John Hawkins (q.v.), who was surprised by the Spanish fleet accompanying the new viceroy, de Almansa, and escaped with Sir Francis Drake (q.v.), but without the remaining ships of his squadron. In 1572 and 1578, however, Drake took abundant 338 MEXICO [COLONIAL PERIOD vengeance, and in 1587 Cavendish captured the Manila galleon — a success repeated in the next century. For the next sixty years an urgent question was the prevention of floods in the capital. Situated oh the lowest of four lakes, The Drain- whose waters had only one small outlet from the age of the valley, it was only 4 ft. above the level of the Capital. lowest, and was flooded on an average once in every twenty-five years. It had been protected under the native kings by a system of dikes, which were added to under the earlier viceroys, but serious inundations in 1553 and 1580 flooded the city, and the latter suggested the relief of the highest lake, that of Zumpango, by a tunnel carrying its chief affluent into a tributary of the Panuco, and so to the Atlantic. This, however, was not then undertaken, and when mooted again in 1603 was opposed as certain to involve a heavy sacrifice of Indian life. Another inundation, in 1604, suggested the transfer of the city to Tacubaya, but the landowners opposing and the city being again inundated in 1607, the Nochistongo tunnel was begun under the auspices of a Jesuit, Enrico Martinez, and roughly completed in eleven months. It passed under a depression in the mountains of the extreme north of the valley. Humboldt states that it was 6600 metres long, 35 wide and 4 high. But it did nothing for the southern lakes, so that a further system of dikes was recommended in preference, in 16 14, by the Dutch engineer Adrian Boot; it was inadequate for its work and, not being lined with masonry, it was liable to be choked by falls. Repairs were suspended in 1623, and a further inundation, with great losses of life, occurred from 1629 to 1634. The removal of the city was again mooted and ; though sanctioned by the king of Spain, successfully opposed by the landowners. Another flood occurred in 1645. After a disastrous attempt to enlarge the tunnel in 1675, it was eventually converted into an open cutting, but the work was not finished till 1789, and the bottom was then 29 ft. 6 in. above the level of the lowest lake. The drainage was only satisfactorily accomplished at the end of the 19th century (see below). A negro revolt in the Vera Cruz region (1609) and an Indian rebellion in Sinaloa and Durango may be mentioned among the events of the earlier part of the 17th century. The < ^ a "^ haad regular and secular clergy had early come into con- flict, particularly over the tithe and the control of the Indians; and in 162 1, the marquis de delves, an energetic reformer, who as viceroy favoured the appointment of the regulars to deal with the natives, came into conflict with Arch- bishop Serna of Mexico, who placed the city under interdict, excommunicated the viceroy and constrained him to hide from the mob. Some years later the bishop of Puebla, Juan de Palafox y Mendoza, transferred many native congregations from the friars to secular priests, and subsequently, in r647, came into conflict with the Jesuits, whom he excommunicated, but who eventually triumphed with the aid of the Dominicans and the archbishop. The power of the church may be judged from the petition of the Ayuntamiento of Mexico to Philip IV. (1644) to stop the foundation of religious houses, which held half the property in the country, to suspend ordinations because there were 6000 unemployed priests, and to suppress feast days because there were at least two per week. To check the Dutch and British corsairs the Barlovento ("windward") squadron had been set up in 1635; but the British capture of Jamaica (1655) aggravated the /tews" 6 "" d an g er to tne Spanish convoys. During the rest of the century the ports of Yucatan and Central America were frequently raided, and in 1682 Tampico suffered a like disaster; in May r683 Vera Cruz itself was captured through stratagem by two buccaneers, Van Horn and Laurent, who plundered the town for ten days, committed shocking outrages, and escaped as the Spanish fleet arrived. In 1685-86 the Pacific coast was ravaged by Dampier and Swan, and in r709 Woodes Rogers, with Dampier as pilot, captured the Manila treasure galleon, a feat repeated by Anson in 1743. But the European wars of the 18th century had little effect on Mexico, save that the privileges of trade given to Great Britain by the treaty of Utrecht facilitated smuggling. In the first half of the 18th century we may note the appearance, intermit- tently at first, of the first Mexican periodical — the Gaceta de Mexico — in 1 722, a severe epidemic of yellow fever in 1 736, and the establishment about r 7 50 of a standing army with a nucleus of Walloons and Swiss, negroes and Indians being excluded and the half-breeds admitted under restrictions. But the great event of the 18th century was the expulsion of the Jesuits from Mexico, as from the other Spanish dominions, in 1767, under orders from Charles III. They were arrested en masse on the night of the 26th of June; their goods were sequestrated, and they themselves deported to Havana, then to Cadiz, Genoa, and even- tually Corsica. They had done much to civilize the natives and to educate the whites, and their expulsion, which was greatly resented by the Creoles, probably tended to increase the popular discontent and prepare for the overthrow of Spanish rule. # In 1769 Don Jose de Galvez was sent out as special commis- sioner to devise reforms, with powers independent of the then viceroy, but without much immediate result. It . was, however, a consequence of his work that in Government. 1786 the provinces and kingdoms were replaced by twelve intendencias (Guadalajara, Zacatecas, Durango, Sonora, Puebla, Vera Cruz, Merida, Oaxaca, Valladolid, Guanajato, San Luis Potosi, Mexico), whose governors and minor officials were directly dependent on the viceroy, the former alcaldes, mayores and corregidores, who were very corrupt, being abolished. Possibly it is from this reform that we may date the antithesis of Federals and Centralists, which is so conspicuous in the history of republican Mexico. Among the later viceroys the Conde de Revillagigedo (1789-1794) deserves mention as a progressive ruler who developed commerce and improved administration, and took the first, but very imperfect, census, on which Hum- boldt based his estimate of the population in 1803 at 5,840,000. The European wars of the French revolutionary period interfered with the traffic with Spain, and so relaxed the bonds of a commercial system which hampered the manu- Beginnings factures of Mexico and drained away its wealth, of Sever- Already in 1783 the Conde de Aranda had suggested aace ' to the Spanish king the scheme of setting up three Spanish- American kingdoms bound to Spain by perpetual treaties of alliance and reciprocity and by frequent royal intermarriages, and with the king of Spain as overlord. The plan was devised as a means of rivalling Anglo-Saxon supremacy, but was rejected through fear of the mixed races predominating over the whites. A similar fear helped to keep down the tendencies inspired by French revolutionary literature, though plots occurred against the viceroy Branciforte in 1798 and 1799. But the real causes of the revolution were local. The chief was the Creole jealousy of the Spanish immigrants. There was oppressive taxation, restriction on commerce and manufacture in the interest of Spain, even vineyards having been prohibited; and the courts were very corrupt. But to these grievances was added in 1804 the sequestration, to provide for Spain's needs, of the benevolent funds (obras pias) in Mexico, amounting to about $45,000,000, and nearly all invested on mortgage. The mortgages were called in: forced sales were necessary, the mortgagers were frequently ruined, and less than a fourth of the total was realized. Other confiscations and exactions followed; and when the rule of Fernando VII. was succeeded by that of Joseph Bonaparte, the municipality of Mexico invited Iturrigaray, the viceroy, to declare the country independent. He proposed the convocation of a national congress, but was overthrown by a conspiracy of Spaniards under one Yermo, who feared that they would lose their privileged position through severance from Spain. The two next viceroys were incompetent; further demands from the Spanish authorities in revolt against Joseph Bonaparte increased the disaffection, which was not allayed by the grant of represen- tation in the Spanish Cortes to the colonies; and, on the demands being repeated by a third viceroy, Venegas, Creole conspiracies arose in Queretaro and Guanajato. Their discovery in i8ro was followed by the outbreak of the revolution. Hidalgo, a parish priest, and Allende, a captain of cavalry, with forces INDEPENDENT MEXICO] MEXICO 339 consisting largely of Indians, captured a stronghold at Guanajato and even threatened the capital; but the revolutionists were defeated in 1811 at Calderon, and the leaders executed. Another priest, however, named Morelos, continued the movement, and, despite defeat in the terrible siege of Cuatla (now Morelos) on the 2nd of May 181 2, raised the south, so that in the next year his forces overran most of the kingdom of Mexico and held its southern parts, and he was able to convoke a congress and issue a constitution. But he also was captured, and executed at Mexico City in 1815. Though revolutionary movements still continued, by 181 7 only one leader, Vincente Guerrero, was left in the field. But in March 1820 the Spanish constitution, repudiated by King Fernando VII. soon after his restoration, was restored after a military rising in Spain. It was promul- gated in Mexico, and the ecclesiastics and Spaniards, fearing that a Liberal Spanish government would force on them disen- dowment, toleration and other changes, induced Augustin de Iturbide, who had already been conspicuous in suppressing the risings, to take the field in order to effect what may be called a reactionary revolution. III. — Independent Mexico. Thenceforward, till the second election of Porfirio Diaz to the presidency in 1884, the history of Mexico is one of almost General continuous warfare, in which Maximilian's empire Character- is a mere episode. The conflicts, which may at Istics. £ rst s ight seem to be merely between rival generals, are seen upon closer examination to be mainly (1) between the privileged classes, i.e. the church and (at times) the army, and the mass of the other civilized population; (2) between Central- ists and Federalists, the former being identical with the army, the church and the supporters of despotism, while the latter represent the desire for republicanism and local self-government. Similar conflicts are exhibited, though less continuously, by most of the other Spanish-American states. On both sides in Mexico there was an element consisting of honest doctrinaires; but rival military leaders exploited the struggles in their own interest, sometimes taking each side successively; and the instability was intensified by the extreme poverty of the peasantry, which made the soldiery reluctant to return to civil life, by the absence of a regular middle class, and by the concentration of wealth in a few hands, so that a revolutionary chief was generally sure both of money and of men. But after 1884 under the rule of Diaz, the Federal system continued in name, but it concealed in fact, with great benefit to the nation, a highly centralized administra- tion, very intelligent, and on the whole both popular and successful — a modern form of rational despotism. Iturbide eventually combined with Guerrero, and proclaimed the " Plan of Iguala," which laid down, as the bases of the new _ . state, the maintenance of the Roman Catholic iturbide religion and the privileges of the clergy, the establish- becomes ment of a limited monarchy, and equality of rights Emperor, f or Spaniards and native-born Mexicans. Iturbide sought the co-operation of the viceroy Apodaca, who, however, refused; but he was presently superseded by General O'Donoju, who, being unable to get beyond Vera Cruz, recog- nized the independence of Mexico. O'Donoju shortly after- wards died; the Spanish government repudiated his act; and Spanish troops held the fortress of San Juan de Ulua, off Vera Cruz, till 1827. A provisional Junta, nominated by Iturbide, issued a declaration of independence (Oct. 1821), and nominated a regency of five, with Iturbide as its president. The first Mexican Congress met on the 24th of February 1822. A section of it favoured a republic; another, monarchy under Iturbide; another, which was broken up by the refusal of Spain (continued until 1836) to recognize Mexican independence, monarchy under a Bourbon prince. A conflict now arose between the republican majority and Iturbide, which was settled by a military pronuncia- miento in his favour, and the Congress elected him emperor. He was crowned on the 21st of July 1822. Fresh conflicts broke out between him and the Congress, and Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, captain-general of Vera Cruz, proclaimed a republic, promising to support the Plan of Iguala. He was defeated at Jalapa and driven to Vera Cruz; but the army deserted Iturbide, who was compelled to abdicate (April 19, 1823). The Con- gress deported him to Italy, and granted him a pension. He returned almost immediately, on the pretext that Spain was intriguing against Mexican independence, and on landing (having been previously outlawed) was arrested and executed (July 1, 1824). The Congress had meanwhile undone much of his work, and had divided into Federalists and Centralists, the latter largely Monarchists and Freemasons. The Federalists were strong enough to secure the adoption of a constitution (Oct. 4, 1824) modelled on that of the United States, with additional clauses, notably one declaring the Roman Catholic religion to be alone recognized. A source of abundant discord was opened by the provision that each state should contribute its quota to the Federal revenues. No proper statistical basis for estimating the quotas existed, and the device gave each state a plausible reason for attempting secession on occasion. Moreover, the capital and some territory round it was made into a " Federal district " — another grievance intensi- fying the antagonism of the state to the central power. The Freemasons had been largely instrumental in overthrowing Iturbide; they now divided into the Escoceses (lodges of the Scottish ritual), who were Monarchist and Centralist, and the Yorkinos, who took their ritual from New York, and their cue, it was alleged, from the American minister, Joel Poinsett. An attempt at revolt, headed by Nicolas Bravo, vice-president, the Grand Master of the Escoceses, was suppressed, but dissensions ensued in the Yorkino party between the followers of President Guerrero (a man largely of native blood, and the last of the revolutionary leaders) and of Gomez Pedraza, the president war minister. A conflict broke out, the Guerrerists Guerrero, were victorious, and the pillage of foreign shops in t82S-i83i. Mexico City (1828), among them that of a French baker, gave a basis for the foreign claims which, ten years later, caused the " Pastry War " with France. Meanwhile, attacks on Spanish ships off Cuba by a Mexican squadron, com- manded by an American, David Porter, had induced Spain to send an expedition to reconquer Mexico (1829) which was checked at Tampico by Santa Anna. During the invasion Vice-President Antonio Bustamante declared against President Guerrero; the bulk of the army supported him. Guerrero was deposed, and his partisans in the south were defeated at Chilpan- cingo (Jan. 2, 183 1); and Guerrero, retiring to Acapulco, was enticed on board an Italian merchant-ship, and treacherously seized, tried and executed (Jan.-Feb. 1831). Next year, how- ever, a revolt broke out against Bustamante, which was joined by Santa Anna, and eventually resulted in a pronunciamiento in favour of Gomez Pedraza. He, and his successor, Vice-President Gomez Farias (1833), assailed the exemption of the clergy and of military officers from the jurisdiction of the civil courts, and the latter attempted to laicize higher education and to relax monastic bonds. Santa Anna took advantage of the situation to assume the presidency. He eventually became Santa Anna, dictator, dissolved Congress (May 31, 1834) and the Dictator, state legislatures, and substituted creatures of his 1834 ' own for the governors of the states and mayors of towns, then retiring into private life. A new Congress, having resolved itself into a constituent assembly, followed up this Centralist policy (Dec. 30, 1836) by framing a new constitution, the Siete Leyes or Seven Laws, which converted the states into depart- ments, ruled by governors appointed by the central authority, and considerably reduced popular representation. Antonio Bustamante became the first president under it. Bustamante, The French claims set up by the pillage of loreign President, shops in Mexico had, however, remained unsatisfied, 1837, and in 1838 a French fleet blockaded the coast, bombarded the fortress of San Juan de Ulua, off Vera Cruz, and occupied the town. The Mexican government gave way, threatened by Federalist risings and secessions of states, which culminated in 1841. Santa Anna appeared, nominally as a 34Q MEXICO [INDEPENDENT MEXICO mediator, and put forward the bases of Tacubaya (Sept. 28, 1841), abolishing all the Siete Leyes except the part re- Santa Anna lating to the judicial system, arranging for a new Restored, constituent assembly, and reserving for the presi- ,84U dent (himself) full power of re-organizing the administration. The Centralist government, after a vain at- tempt to defeat him by professing a more thorough Federalism, gave way to force, and Bustamante was allowed to leave the country. But the new Congress was too Federalist for Santa Anna, and he retired, leaving the reins to Nicolas Bravo, under whom a new Centralist constitution was established (1843). This expressly retained the privileges of the clergy and army, and was in some respects more anti-Liberal than that of 1836. But new complications were now introduced by the question of Texas. Though a state of the Mexican Union, it had been settled from the United States in consequence of a Question. l an d 8 ran t given by the Spanish viceroy to Stephen Austin in 1820, and had been estranged from Mexico partly by the abolition of slavery under a decree of President Guerrero, and partLy by the prospect of the Centralist constitu- tion of 1836. It then seceded. Santa Anna attempted to reduce it, showing great severity, but was eventually defeated and captured by Houston at the battle of San Jacinto, and compelled to sign a treaty recognizing Texan independence, which was disavowed on his return to Mexico. A state of war thus con- tinued nominally between Mexico and its seceded member, whose independence was recognized by England, France and the United States. The slaveholders in the United States favoured annexation of Texas, and pressed the claims due from Mexico to American citizens, partly perhaps with the aim of forcing war. Most of these claims were settled by a mixed commission, with the king of Prussia as umpire, in 1840-1841, and a forced loan was raised to pay them in 1843, which stimu- lated the revolt of Paredes against Sahta Anna, who had returned to power in 1 844. It resulted in Santa Anna's downfall, imprison- ment at Perote and eventual exile (Dec. 1844 to Jan. 1845), and the election of General Jose Joaquin Herrera as president. But Herrera was displaced in the last days of 1845 by a pronun- ciamiento in favour of Paredes, who undertook to uphold the national rights against the United States, and who was elected president on the 3rd of January 1846. Texas had meanwhile applied for admission into the American Union. The annexa- tion, rejected in 1844 by the United States Senate, was sanctioned on the 1st of March 1845, and carried out on the 22nd of December 1845. The Mexican minister withdrew from Washington, and both sides made active preparations for war. The United States forces were ordered by President Polk to advance to the Rio Grande in January 1846. They established a War with depot at Point Ysabel (behind the opening of Brazos United Santiago), and erected a fort in Texan territory, com- ststes, manding Matamoros, on the Mexican side of the Rio Grande. This provoked the Mexican forces into a defensive invasion of Texas, to cut the American communications with Point Ysabel. They were, however, defeated at Palo Alto (May 8) and Resaca de la Palrna (May 9). There was an out- burst of warlike feeling in the United States (with a counter- movement in the North), and an invasion of Mexico was planned by three routes — from Matamoros towards Monterey in New Leon, from San Antonio de Bexar to Chihuahua, and from Fort Leavenworth to New Mexico. Importance attaches chiefly to the movements of the first force under General Zachary Taylor. During the war preparations President Paredes, suspected of intriguing to overthrow the Republic and set up a Spanish prince, had to give place to his vice-president Bravo, who in his turn gave way before Santa Anna, who was hastily recalled from his exile at Havana to assume the presidency and the conduct of the war (Aug. 1846). He was allowed by the American squadron blockading Vera Cruz to pass in without hindrance. Probably it was thought his presence would divide the Mexicans. The preparations of the United States took some months. It was not till the 5th of September 1846 that General Zachary Taylor could leave his depot at Camargo on the Rio Grande, and march on Monterey. It was taken by assault on the 23rd of September; Santa Anna was defeated at Buena Vista (near Saltillo) on the 23rd of February 1847, and .forced back on San Luis Potosi. New Mexico was occupied without opposition; Chihuahua was occupied, but not held, owing to the difficulties in maintaining communications; and Upper California was seized in the autumn of 1846 by John C. Fremont, who had been exploring a route across the continent, and by the United States Pacific squadron, and made secure by the aid of the New Mexico expedition. But as Mexico still con- tinued to fight, it was determined to reach the capital via Vera Cruz. That city was taken by General Scott after a siege and bombardment (March 7 to 29, 1847) ; and after winning the battle of Cerrogordo (April 18), and a long delay at Puebla, Scott marched on Mexico City, stormed its defences against greatly superior forces, and effected an entrance after severe fighting on the 13th of September 1847. This virtually ended the war; Santa Anna was deprived of his command, and the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, concluded on the 2nd of February 1848, ceded to the United States Texas, New Mexico and Upper California, in return for a payment of p£a"a>° $15,000,000 by the United States to Mexico, and the assumption of liability by it for the claims of its subjects which it had hitherto been pressing against Mexico. This pay- ment was doubtless intended to strengthen the United States' title to the conquered territory. It is generally admitted that Mexico was provoked into aggression in order that additional territory might be available for the extension of slavery. The American forces were withdrawn in May and June 1848 after the ratification of the treaty by Mexico. Under the presi- dency of Herrera (1848-1851) attempts were made to Herrera, restore order and the public credit. An arrangement President, was effected with English holders of Mexican stock; t848 'iSSl. an attempt was made to carry out- a consolidation of the internal debt, which failed; the army was reduced and reorganized, and the northern frontier was defended by military colonies, formed partly of civilized Seminole Indians from the United States. But the financial situation was desperate; the federal revenue, mostly from customs — which were evaded by extensive smug- gling — was not half the expenditure; and Indian revolts in Yucatan (1847-1850) and in the Sierra Gorda had added to the strain. Arista succeeded Herrera as president (Jan. 185 1), but resigned (Jan. 1853). After a sort of interregnum (Jan.-March 1853) Santa Anna was recalled (by a vote of the majority of the states under the Plan of Arroyozarco, on the 4th of February 1853, the result SantaAnna of a pronunciamiento), and made dictator in the in Power, interests of federation. His measures, partly in- 1 SS3 -1854. spired by an able Conservative leader, Lucas Alaman, proved strongly Centralist: one is especially noteworthy, the establish- ment of the ministry of " fomento," or encouragement to public works, education, and intellectual and economic development, which is a conspicuous aid to Mexican welfare to-day. He also negotiated (at the end of 1853) the sale of the Mesilla valley (now Arizona) to the United States, but the purchase money- was soon dissipated. On the 16th of December 1853 Santa Anna issued a decree making himself dictator, with the title of serene highness. On the 1st of March 1854, at Ayutla in Guerrero, a section of the army under Colonel Villareal proclaimed the Plan of Ayutla, demanding Santa Anna's depo- sition and the establishment of a provisional government to secure a new constitution. Among the leaders in the movement were Generals Alvarez and Comonfort, and it is said that Porfirio Diaz, subsequently president, then a young soldier, made his way to Benito Juarez, then in prison, and arranged with him the preliminaries of the revolt. It spread, and Santa Anna left the country (Aug. 1854). 1 Two filibustering expeditions at this time — one by William Walker, afterwards notorious in Nicaragua, in Lower California 1 Santa Anna tried to get back to politics in Mexico afw Maximilian's fall, without success. He was amnestied with other exiles in 1874, and died in obscurity in 1876. INDEPENDENT MEXICO] MEXICO 34i Benito Juarez. (Dec. 1853), the other by Count Raousset de Boulbon in Sonora (July 1854) — added to the general disorder. The provisional president, General Carrera, proving too Cen- tralist, was replaced by Alvarez (Sept. 24, 1855), two of whose ministers are conspicuous in later history — Ignacio Comonfort, minister of war, and Benito Juarez, minister of finance. Juarez (b. 1806) was of unmixed Indian blood. The son of a Zapotec peasant in a mountain village of Oaxaca, he was employed as a lad by a bookbinder in Oaxaca city, and aided by him to study for the priesthood. He soon turned to the law, though for a time he was teacher of physics in a small local college; eventually went into politics, and did excellent work in 1847 as governor of his native state. Juarez almost immediately secured the enactment of a law (Ley Juarez, Nov. 23, 1855) subjecting the clergy and the army to the jurisdiction of the ordinary courts. " Benefit of clergy " was the curse of Mexico. Officers and soldiers could be tried only by courts-martial, the clergy (including numbers of persons in minor orders, who were practically- laymen) only by ecclesiastical courts. The proposed reform roused the Clericals to resistance. Alvarez gave place (Dec. 8, 1855) to his war minister Comonfort, who represented the less anti-Clerical Liberals. He appointed a commission to consider the question of draining the valley of Mexico, which adopted the plan ultimately carried out in 1800- 1900; suppressed a Clerical rising in Puebla (March 1856), which was punished by a considerable confiscation of church property; sanctioned a law releasing church land from mortmain, by pro- viding for its sale, for the benefit, however, of the ecclesiastical owners (called after its author Miguel Lerdo de Tejada, brother of the subsequent president), and a new draft constitution, largely modelled on that of the United States (Feb. 5, 1857). The clergy protested violently, and the Plan of Tacubaya (Dec. 17, 1857), which made Comonfort dictator, provided for the construction of a new constitution under his auspices. He was presently displaced by a thorough reactionary, General Zuloaga, and expelled from Mexico early in 1858; and for three years Mexico was a prey to civil war between two rival governments — the Republicans at Vera Cruz under Juarez, who, as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, succeeded Comonfort; and the reactionaries at the capital. The latter were at first presided over by Zuloaga, who, proving incompetent, was replaced at the end of 1858 by Pezuela, who early in 1859 gave place to Miguel Miramon, a young, able and unscrupulous soldier who was shortly afterwards accepted as " constitutional " president by his party. The Juarists were defeated outside the city of Mexico twice, in October 1858 and on the nth of April 1859, On the second occasion the whole body of officers, who had surrendered, were shot with Miramon's authority, if not by his express orders, together with several surgeons (including one Englishman, Dr Duval) (the fifty-three " martyrs of Tacubaya ")• This atrocity caused great indig- nation in Mexico and abroad: the reactionists were divided; their financial straits were extreme, as the Juarists held all the chief ports. Juarez was recognized by the United States, and allowed to draw supplies of arms and volunteers thence; and in July 1859 he published laws suppressing the religious orders, nationalizing ecclesiastical property (of the estimated value of $45,000,000), establishing civil marriage and registration, trans- ferring the cemeteries to civil control, and, in short, disestablish- ing the church. But the apparent hopelessness of any ending to the conflict, together with the frequent outrages of both parties on foreigners, afforded strong reasons for foreign inter- vention. Early in 1859 President Buchanan had recommended the step to Congress, which did not respond. On the 12th of December 1859 the M'Lean- Juarez treaty was concluded, which gave the United States a sort of disguised protectorate over Mexico, with certain rights of way for railroads over the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and between the Rio Grande and Pacific. The American Senate, however, did not ratify the treaty, and a motion for its reconsideration late in i860 came to nothing, owing to the approach of the War of Secession. When Napoleon III. was in captivity at Ham he dreamed of Miramon. a Central America civilized and opened up to modern enterprise by a transoceanic canal: and the clerical refugees in Paris, among them Labastida, archbishop of Mexico, easily influenced the Empress Eugenie, herself a Spaniard, to interest her hus- band in the cause of centralized monarchy and the church: it is said that even in 1859 they had thoughts of setting up the Archduke Maximilian as ruler of Mexico. The question of a joint intervention of Great Britain, France, Spain and Prussia was mooted between those powers in i860. Early in 1859 the outrages on British subjects had overthrow caused the British minister to break off diplomatic of Miramon, relations. Forced contributions had been levied by 186 °- both sides on goods or bullion, being European property, the reactionaries being the worst offenders; and there were numerous cases of murder and robbery of Europeans. At last, on the 17th of November i860, Miramon, under the plea of necessity, seized $630,000 in specie which had been left under seal at the British Legation and was intended for the bondholders. On the 22nd of December i860 his forces were routed by the Juarist general Ortega at Arroyozarco, and his government was over- thrown. Juarez entered Mexico City on the nth of January 1861. He soon found that his government was held responsible to Europe for the excesses of its rival as well as its own. Miramon's govern- ment had violated the British Legation; the Spanish minister, the papal legate and the representatives of Guatemala and Ecuador were expelled from the country for undue interference on behalf of the reactionaries; the payments of the European British loan were suspended by Juarez's Congress in Jnterven- July 1 86 1 ; and various outrages had been committed tion ' t86i% on the persons and property of Europeans for which no redress could be obtained. The French charge d'affaires, Dubois de Saligny, who had been sent out in November i860, urged French intervention, and took up the Jecker claims. Jecker, a Swiss banker settled in Mexico, had lent Miramon's government in 1859 $750,000 (subject, however, to various deductions): in return, Miramon gave him 6 % bonds of the nominal value of $1 5,000,000 which were ingeniously disguised as a conversion scheme. Jecker had failed early in i860, Miramon was overthrown a few months later. Jecker's creditors were mostly French, but he still held most of the bonds, and there is reason to believe that he won over Dubois de Saligny by corrupt means to support his claims. Intercepted correspondence (since confirmed from the archives of the Tuileries) showed that the Due de Morny promised Jecker his patronage in return for 30% of the] profits (De la Gorce, Hist, du Second Empire, IV. c. 1). An imperial decree natural- ized Jecker in France, and Napoleon III. took up his claim. A convention between Great Britain, France and Spain for joint interference in Mexico was signed in London on the 31st of October 1861. A separate arrangement of the British claims was negotiated by Juarez, but rejected by the Mexican Congress, November 1861; and the assistance of the United States with a small loan was declined, Mexican territory being demanded as security. On the 14th of December Vera Cruz was occupied by Spanish troops under General Prim; the French fleet and troops arrived soon after, with instructions to seize and hold the Gulf ports and collect the customs for the three Powers till a settlement was effected; Great Britain sent ships, and landed only 700 marines. In view of the unhealthiness of Vera Cruz, the convention of Soledad was concluded with the Mexican government, permitting the foreign troops to advance to Orizaba and incidentally recognizing Mexican independence. But as the French harboured leaders of the Mexican reactionaries, pressed the Jecker claims and showed a disposition to interfere in Mexican domestic politics, which lay beyond the terms of the joint convention, Great Britain and Spain withdrew their forces in March 1862. More troops were sent from France. Their advance was checked by Zaragoza and Porfirio Diaz in the battle of Cinco de Mayo, on the 5th of May 1862; and in September of that year 30,000 more French troops arrived under General Forey. Wintering at Orizaba, they recommenced their advance 342 MEXICO [INDEPENDENT MEXICO (Feb. 17, 1863), besieged and reduced Puebla, and entered Mexico City on the 7th of June. A provisional government of Mexicans, Preach nominated directly or indirectly by Dubois de Expedition, Saligny, adopted monarchy, offered the crown to 1862-63. Maximilian of Austria, brother of the Emperor Francis Joseph, and should he refuse, left its disposal to Napoleon III. Maximilian, after some difficulty as to renouncing his right of succession to the throne of Austria, accepted the crown Maximilian subject to the approval of the Mexican people, and Emperor, reached Mexico city on the 12th of June 1864. Juarez * • meanwhile had set up his capital, first in San Luis Potosi, then in Chihuahua. The new empire was unstable from the first. Before Maximilian arrived the provisional government had refused to cancel the sales of confiscated Church lands, as the clericals demanded. When he came, a host of new difficulties arose. A new loan, nominally of about eight millions sterling, but yielding little more than four, owing to discount and com- mission, was raised in Europe, but no funds were really available for its service. Maximilian carried the elaborate etiquette of the court of Vienna to Mexico, but favouring toleration of Protestantism, and the supremacy of the Crown over the Church, he was too liberal for the clericals who had set him up. As a foreigner he was unpopular, and the regiments of Austrians and Belgians which were to serve as the nucleus of his own army were more so. His reforms, excellent on paper, could not be carried out, for the trained bureaucracy necessary did not exist. For a time he nominally held sway over about two-thirds of the country — roughly, from lat. 18° to 23 , thus excluding the extreme north and south. Oaxaca city, under Porfirio Diaz, 1 capitulated to Bazaine — who had superseded the too pro-clerical Forey in October 1864 — in February 1865, an d by the autumn of that year the condition of the Juarists in the north seemed desperate. But the towns asked for permanent French garrisons, which were refused, as weakening their own power of self-defense. Instead, the country was traversed by flying columns, and the guerillas dealt with by a French service of " contre-guerilla," who fought with much the same savagery as their foes. Directly the French troops had passed, Republican bands sprang up, and the non-combatant Mexicans, to save themselves, could only profess neutrality. Yet on the 3rd of October 1865, Maximilian, misled by a false report that Juarez had left the country, issued a decree declaring the Juarists guerillas, who, whenever captured, were to be tried by court- martial and shot. Mexican generals on both sides had done as much. But Maximilian's decree prepared his own fate. The American Civil War ended in the spring of 1865, and a strong popular feeling was at once manifested in favour of asserting the Monroe doctrine against Maximilian's government. In the summer there were threatening movements of United Maximilian States troops towards the Rio Grande; early in 1866 deserted by Napoleon III. announced his intention of withdrawing France. jjj s f orces . in response to a note of Seward, the United States secretary of state, of the 12th of February 1866, he was induced to promise their return by three instalments — in November 1866, March and November 1867. Maximilian now turned for support to the Mexican clericals; meditated abdication, but was dissuaded by his wife Charlotte, the daughter of Leopold I. of Belgium (and " the better man of the two," as he had once jestingly said), who went to intercede for him with the emperor of the French. Finding him obdurate, she went on to appeal to the pope; while at Rome she went mad (end of September 1866). Maximilian had meanwhile drawn nearer to the clericals and farther from the French, and, to protect French interests, Napoleon III. had decided to send out General Castelnau to supersede Bazaine, arrange for the withdrawal of the French forces in one body, and restore the Republic under Ortega, who had quarrelled with Juarez, and was therefore, of all republicans, least unacceptable to the clericals. But fearing the prospect, they induced Maximilian, who had retired to Orizaba for his 1 Diaz refused parole, and was confined at Puebla for some months, but made his escape, and was soon in the field again. health, to remain. He yielded on condition that a congress of all parties should be summoned to decide the fate of the empire. Hereupon he returned to the capital; the Juarist dominion extended rapidly; the French troops left (in one body) on the 5th of February 1867, and shortly after Maximilian took com- mand of the army at Queretaro. Here, with Miramon, he was besieged by the Juarists under Escobedo, and the garrison, when about to make a last attempt to break out, was betrayed 2 by Colonel Lopez to the besiegers (May 15, 1867). Execution of Maximilian, with the Mexican generals Miramon and Maximilian, Mejia, was tried by court-martial, and, refusing (or ,867 - neglecting) to avail himself of various opportunities of escape, was convicted on charges which may be summarized as rebellion, murder and brigandage, on the 14th of June, and shot, with Miramon and Mejia, on the 19th of June 1867, despite many protests from European governments and prominent individuals, including Garibaldi and Victor Hugo. (An effort to save him made by the U.S. Government was frustrated by the dilatoriness of the U.S. Minister accredited to Juarez's Government.) After considerable difficulty with the Republican Government, his body was brought to Europe. Meanwhile Porfirio Diaz had captured Puebla (April 2) and besieged Mexico City, which fell on the 21st of June. The last anti- Juarist stronghold (Inayarit) submitted on the 20th of July 1867. A good deal of discontent existed p^"a eat among the republican rank and file, and Juarez's election in October to the presidency was opposed by Diaz's friends, but without success. But so soon as Juarez was elected, insurrections broke out, and brigandage prevailed throughout the following year. There were unsuccessful insurrections also in 1869 (clerical) and 1870 (republican), but an amnesty, passed on the 13th of October 1870, helped to restore peace; trouble again arose, however, at the 1871 election, at which the candidates were Juarez, Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada and Diaz. Juarez's continued re-election was regarded as unconstitutional, and no party obtaining a clear majority, the matter was thrown into Congress, which elected him. Diaz's supporters refused to recognize him, and a revolution broke out, which went on sporadically till Juarez's death on the 1 8th. of July Death of 1872. Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada, as president of Juarez, the Supreme Court, succeeded him, and amnestied ,872 - the rebels, but made no further concessions. In the next year, however, laws were passed repeating in a stronger form the attacks of 1857 on the supremacy of the Church, and prohibiting monastic life. The first day of 1873 was marked by the opening of the Vera Cruz & Mexico railway. Protestant A dmlnls- missions established themselves (with some opposi- tration of tion) in the country, and diplomatic relations were Lerdo de renewed with France and Spain (1874). But towards Te}ada - the close of Lerdo de Tejada's term he was suspected of aiming at a dictatorship, and Diaz, whom he had proscribed, made prepara- tions for a rising, then retiring to Texas. At the beginning of 1876 the revolution broke out in Oaxaca with the plan of Tuxtepec, which was adopted by Diaz, and proclaimed as the plan of Palo Blanco (March 21). Diaz's attempt to raise the north, however, failed, and, trying to reach Vera Cruz by sea, he was recognized on the steamer, and recaptured while attempt- ing a four-mile swim ashore. The purser, however, made it appear that he had again jumped overboard, concealed him for some days — generally inside one of the saloon sofas — and helped him to get ashore in disguise at Vera Cruz. He then escaped to Oaxaca and raised a force. Lerdo was declared re-elected, but was overthrown by Diaz after the battle of Tecoac (Nov. 16, 1876) and forced into exile (Jan. 1877), and Diaz was declared president on the 2nd of May PorfMo 1877. A law forbidding the re-election of a presi- Diaz dent till four years had elapsed from his retirement President, from office was passed in the autumn of that year. 1S77 ' 2 Lopez said he acted as Maximilian's agent, but his story rested on an alleged letter from Maximilian which was discredited as a forgery. The evidence of his treason was published in El National of Mexico, Sept. 11, 1887. INDEPENDENT MEXICO] MEXICO 343 Diaz's first presidency (1870-1880) was marked by some unsuccessful attempts at revolution notably by Escobedo from Texas in 1878, and by a more serious conspiracy in 1879. Diplomatic relations were resumed with Spain, Germany, Italy and some South American states (1877), and France (1880). There were some frontier difficulties with the United States, and with Guatemala, which revived a claim dropped since 1858 to a portion of the state of Chiapas; and there was considerable internal progress, aided by a too liberal policy of subsidies to railways and even to lines of steamships. The boundary questions were settled under President Gonzalez (1880-1884); relations with Great Britain were renewed in 1884. The claims of the railways, however, necessitated retrenchment on official salaries, and the president's plan for conversion of the debt roused unexpected and successful opposition in an ordinarily sub- servient Congress. At the end of 1884 Porfirio Diaz was again elected president, and was continually re-elected, the constitution being modified expressly to allow him to continue in office. The history of Mexico from 1884 to 1910 was almost void of political strife. President Diaz's policy was to keep down disorder with a strong hand; to enforce the law; to under Diaz. f° ster railway development and economic progress; to develop native manufactures by protective tariffs; to introduce new industries, e.g. the production of silk and wine, of coca and quinine; to promote forestry; to improve elementary and higher education — for all which purposes the Ministerio del Fomento is a potent engine; to encourage coloniza- tion; and, above all, to place the national credit on a sound basis. The first step in this process was a settlement of the Financial British debt by direct arrangement with the bond- reorganiza- holders. In 1 890 the Spanish bondholders' claims tion. were satisfactorily arranged also. In 1891 the tariff was made more protectionist. In 1893 the depreciation of silver necessitated stringent retrenchment; but the budget balanced for the first time during many years, the floating debt was converted, and a loan raised for the completion of the Tehuan tepee Railway. After 1896 substantial annual surpluses were spent in reducing taxation and in the extinction of debt. In 1895 the 6% external debt was converted into a 5% debt, the bonds of which remained at a premium for 1902; in 1896 the alcabalas or interstate customs and municipal octrois were abolished, and replaced in part by direct taxation and increased stamp duties. The institution by Diaz of the guardias rurales, a mounted gendarmerie composed of the class who in former days drifted Pacification into revolution and brigandage, was a potent means ofthe of maintaining order, and the extension of railways Country. anc j t e i e g ra phs enabled the government to cope at once with any disturbance. The old local revolutions practi- cally disappeared. In 1886-1887 there were some disturbances in Coahuila, New Leon, Sinaloa and Tamaulipas; subsequently hardly anything was heard of such disorders except on the Texan frontier, where in 1890 Francisco Ruiz Sandoval and in 1891 Catarino Garza made incursions into Mexico. Occasionally the Church gave trouble — the presence of foreign priests was complained of; attempts to evade the law prohibiting conventual life were detected and foiled (1891, 1894); and there were Indian risings, repressed sometimes with great severity, among the Mayas of Yucatan, whose last stronghold was taken in 1891, and the Yaquis of Sonora (1899-1900). Under federal and democratic forms, Diaz exercised a strictly centralized and personal rule. He was invited to approve the candidates proposed for state governorships; in all law cases affecting the Government or political matters the judges asked his opinion; he drafted bills, and discussed their text with individual members and committees of congress. Similarly, the state legislatures, as well as the judges and municipal officers, were actually or virtually selected by the state governors, who were practically agents of the president. Now and then the old passions broke out: in September 1898 an absurd attempt to assassinate President Diaz was made by a countryman named Arroyo, but discontent with Diaz's rule was apparently confined to a small minority. 1 In 1909 indeed there were some disquieting symptoms. Owing to Diaz's age the vice-presidency had been revived in 1904, and Don Ramon Corral elected to it; but at the elections of 1909 a movement arose in favour of replacing him by General Bernardo Reyes, Governor of Nuevo Leon, but he was disposed of by an official commission to study the military systems of Europe. It was, therefore, regarded as certain that, should President Diaz die in office, Senor Corral would succeed him without serious difficulty. In foreign affairs the rule of Diaz was uneventful. There were transient disputes with the United States (1886, 1888). In 1888-1890 and 1894-1895 a boundary dispute with Guatemala became serious. But Guatemala Affair" gave way at the threat of war (Jan. 1895) and a new treaty was made (April 1, 1895). Again in 1907 there was some friction owing to the murder of a Guatemalan ex-president by a compatriot in Mexico: later in the year, however, the Mexican government was active in stopping a war between its Central American neighbours. In the difficulty between England and the United States over the Venezuelan boundary (Dec. 1895) Mexico expressed strong adherence to the Monroe doctrine in the abstract, and suggested that its maintenance should not be left wholly to the United States, but should be undertaken by all American Powers. The first Pan-American congress met in Mexico City in 1901, and the country was represented at the second, held in Rio Janeiro in 1906. Mexico also took part in establishing the permanent Central American Court of Arbitra- tion, inaugurated on the 25th of May 1908 at Cartago, Costa Rica, under the Washington treaties of December 1907, and showed readiness to associate herself with the Government of her great northern neighbour in preserving peace among the Central American States. On the 17th of October 1909 President Taft and President Diaz exchanged visits at the frontier at El Paso, Texas. In brief, under President Diaz's rule the history of Mexico is mainly economic. In the six financial years 1 893-1 894 to 1899-1900 inclusive the yield of the import duties increased by upwards of 80%; the revenue from j^^fj" stamps over 60%, though the duties were reduced; the postal revenue from 1895-1896 to 1899-1900 rose 60%; the telegraph revenue over 75%. Again, in 1 898-1 899 the total ordinary revenue of the state was £6,013,921; in 1906- 1907 it had increased to £11,428,612, or by more than 90%, and though 1907-1908 was a year of depression its total revenue (£h, i 77j i 86) exceeded that of any year save its immediate predecessor. The great drainage scheme which completed the works of the 17th century by taking out the surplus waters of the southern lakes of the valley of Mexico was devised in 1856, begun under Maximilian, proceeded with intermittently till 1885, then taken up with improved plans, practically completed by 1896, and inaugurated in 1900; 2 the harbour of Vera Cruz was finished in 1902; the Tehuantepec railway, likely to prove a formidable rival to any interoceanic canal, was opened on the 24th of January 1906. All three were the work of an English firm of contractors, the head of which was Sir Weetman Pearson. American, and later Canadian, capital and enterprise have also been very largely concerned in the development of the country; and its progress was not permanently interfered with by the great earthquakes of April 1907 and July 1909 at Acapulco, and the floods in August 1909 at Monterey. In 1891 elementary education was reorganized, and made compulsory, secular and gratuitous. Great attention has been paid to higher education, and — at least in the hospitals — to modern sanitation and hygiene. Authorities. — For English readers the standard work is H. H. Bancroft, Collected Works (Histories of the Pacific States, Centra! America, &c, vols, x.-xiv. (Mexico, 1521-1887) with vols, xv., xvi. 1 Don Augustin Iturbide, grandson of the emperor, godson and (perhaps) at one time the destined heir of Maximilian, was turned out of the army and imprisoned in 1890 for abusing President Diaz. 2 For a full account of the works see J. B. Body in Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, cxliii. 286, sqq. 344 MEXICO— MEXICO CITY (Texas), and vol. xvii. (New Mexico, &c.)- Mention may also be made of Gaston Routier's Histoire de Mexique (1895). Standard Mexican authorities are: C. M. de Bustamante, Quad.ro historico de la revolution mexicana, 6 vols. (Mexico, 1832-1846); Lucas Alaman, Historia de Mexico (Mexico, 1849-1852); N. de Zamacois, Historia de Mexico desde sus tiempos mas remotos hasta nostras dias, 19 vols. (Barcelona, 1876-1882); J. E. Hernandez y Davalos, Colec- cion de documentos para la historia de la Independencia (Mexico, 6 vols). A huge and informative illustrated work, edited by Justo Sierra (3 vols, large 4to), sumptuously produced and badly translated, is Mexico, its Social Evolution (Barcelona, 1900-1904) ; a useful and handy chronicle is Nicolas Leon's Compendio dela historia general de Mexico hasta el ano de 1900 (Mexico and Madrid, 1902). For the colonial period, Alexander . v. Humboldt, Essai politique sur la royaume de la Nouvelle Espagne (Paris, 181 1, 2 vols., and atlas; also an English translation). For the war with the United States see R. S. Ripley, The War with Mexico (New York, 1849) ; E. D. Mans- field, The Mexican War (New York, 1849); and Winfield Scott's Memoirs. For Maximilian, the Blue-books on Mexican affairs contained in Accounts and Papers (presented to parliament), vol. lxv. 1862, and vol. lxiv. 1863, are valuable; E. de Keratry, La Creance Jecker; I'empereur Maximilien, son elevation et sa chute (translated into English by Venables) ; La Contre-guerilla francaise au Mexique, are specially noteworthy; Prince Felix Salm-Salm's Diary gives valuable information as to Maximilian's decline and fall. Also Dela Gorce, His- toire du second empire, vols. iv. v.; J. F. Domenech, L'Empire mexi- cain (Mexico, 1866), and Le Mexique tel qu'il est (Paris, 1867) ; Daran, El General Miguel Miramon (in French) (Rome, 1886) ; Schmidt von Tavera, Gesch. d. Regierung d. Kaisers Maximilian I. (Vienna, 1903). Ulick Ralph Burke's Life of Benito Juarez (London, 1894) is of con- siderable value and interest. For the period since 1887 information in English must be sought chiefly in magazine articles: Matias Romero, " The Garza Raid and its Lessons," North American Review (Sept. 1892); Don Agustin Iturbide, "Mexico under Diaz, " ibid. (June 1894); Romero, "The Philosophy of Mexican Revolutions," ibid. (Jan. 1896) ; and C. F. Lummis, " The Awakening of a Nation " (New York, 1898, previously in Harper's Magazine), are valuable as giving information (especially the last named) and points of view. Van Dyke, " Politics in Mexico," Harper's Magazine (1885), vol. Ixxi., gives particulars of the opposition to Gonzalez's debt conver- sion scheme of 1884. President Diaz's message of November 1896, giving an account of his stewardship from 1884 to that year, has been translated into French {Rapport du General Porfirio Diaz . . . d, ses compatriotes sur les actes de son administration, &c), edited by Auguste Genin (Paris, 1897). The early constitutions of the Republic have been published (in Spanish) in three volumes; a study of that of 1857 by B. Moses (of the University of California) is in the Annals of the American Academy of Political Science, II. i. 1891. Various books, chiefly American, have been written on Mexico of late years from a tourist's standpoint. Mrs Alec Tweedie's Mexico as I saw it (London, 1901) and Life of Porfirio Diaz (1906) contain valuable information personally obtained from good authorities in Mexico. See also Percy F. Martin, Mexico of the Twentieth Century, 2 vols. (London, 1907) ; and C. R. Enock, Mexico (1909). (J. S. Ma.) MEXICO, a state of the republic of Mexico, bounded N. by Hidalgo, E. by Tlaxcala and Puebla, S. by Morelos and Guerrero, and W. by Michoacan. Pop. (1900), 934,468, largely Indian. Area, 9247 sq. m., a large part of which lies within that great depression of the Mexican plateau known as the Valley of Mexico. Enclosed within its boundaries, except on the south, is the Federal District and capital city of Mexico with an area of 463 sq. m., which is not included in that of the state. The state is divided into two unequal parts by the Sierra de Ajusco and Montes de las duces, which form a wooded ridge across it from east to west, with a general elevation of about 10,000 ft. above sea-level, or about 2500 above the plateau level. These ranges are part of a broken irregular chain which sometimes bears the name of Anahuac. A considerable part of the northern plateau consists of a broad plain, once the bed of a great lake but now coveted with swamps, sodden meadows and lakes. The surrounding country drains into this depression, but an arti- ficial outlet has been created by the opening of the Tequixquiac tunnel. Beyond its margin the plateau drains westward to the Pacific through the Lerma, aVid north-east to the Gulf through the San Juan and Panuco. South of the Sierra de Ajusco the country is roughly mountainous and drains to the Pacific through tributaries of the Balsas. Within the lacustrine de- pression of the north are the lakes of Zumpango, San Cristobal, Xaltocan, Chalco, Xochimilco, and Texcoco, the latter three lying partly or wholly in the Federal District. Texcoco has the lowest level and its water is brackish and undrinkable, though that of the streams flowing into it and of the other lakes is sweet. Lake Xochimilco is celebrated for its " floating gardens " or chinampas (see Mexico, Federal District of). The principal industries of the state are agricultural, and the principal pro- ducts are cereals, sugar, maguey (from which " pulque " is made), coffee, and fruit. Stock-raising has also had a profitable development, owing to the proximity of the national capital. The manufacturing industries are important; among the manufactures are cotton and woollen fabrics, flour, dairy pro- ducts, glass-ware, pottery, bricks, wines and spirits. The making of " pulque " from the sap of the maguey plant {Agave americana) is the chief industry of the state, and the product is exported in large quantities to the national capital. The state is traversed by the Central, National, Mexican International and Interoceanic railways, and by short lines from the national capital to neighbouring towns. The capital is Toluca, and other important towns are Zumpango (pop. 5942 in 1900), 30 m. N. of the national capital, Tenango del Valle (5881 in 1900), 15 m. S.E. of Toluca, and Lerma (estimated, 7200), near the western frontier of the state. MEXICO, a city and the county-seat of Audrain county, Missouri, U.S.A., N.E. of the centre of the state, and about no m. N.W. of St Louis. Pop. (1890), 4789; (1900), 5099, including 948 negroes and rn foreign-born; (1910), 5939. It is served by the Chicago & Alton, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the Wabash railway systems. Mexico is the seat of Hardin College and Conservatory of Music (Baptist, 1873), for young women, an institution founded and endowed by Charles H. Hardin (1820-1892), governor of the state in 1872- 1874, and of the Missouri Military Academy (1889). The city is situated in the blue grass region of Missouri, and is a ohipping- point for horses and mules. Among the manufactures are flour, shoes and fire-clay products. Mexico was laid out as " New Mexico " in 1836, and became the county-seat under its present name in 1837. It was incorporated as a town in 1855, was entered by the Wabash road in 1858 and by the Alton in 1872, and was first chartered as a city in 1874. MEXICO CITY, capital of the Republic of Mexico and chief town of the Federal District, near the southern margin of the great central plateau of Mexico, in lat. 19 25' 45" N., long. 99 7' W. It is about 200 m. in a direct line W. by N. of Vera Cruz, its nearest port on the Gulf of Mexico, with which it is connected by two railway lines, one of which is 264 m. long; and about 181 m. in a direct line N.N.E. of Acapulco, its nearest port on the Pacific, with which it is connected partly by rail and partly by a rough mountain trail (the camino real) to the coast. Pop. (1900), 344,721. The city stands on a small plain occupying the south-western part of a large lacustrine depression known as the Valley of Mexico {El Valle de Mixico), about 3 m. from the western shore of Lake Texcoco, whose waters once covered a considerable part of the ground now occupied by the city. The Valley, including the drainage basin of Lake Zumpango, has an area of 2219 sq. m. (1627 sq. m. without that basin). The elevation of the city above sea-level is 7415 ft., only a few feet above the level of Lake Texcoco. The general elevation of the Valley is about 7500 ft., that of Lake Zumpango being 7493 ft., and of Lake Chalco 7480 ft. The rim of the Valley is formed by spurs of the transverse cordillera on the north and south sides — the Sierra de Guadalupe (650 to 750 ft. above the city) on the north, and the Sierra Nevada with its snow-clad peaks of Popocatapetl and Ixtaccihuatl farther away to the south-east— and by a part of the Sierra de Ajusco, known as the Montes de las Cruces, from which the greater part of the city's water supply is derived. Lake Texcoco {Tezcoco or Tezcuco) is a compara- tively shallow body of brackish water, with an area of about 11J sq. m., and is fed by a number of small streams from the neighbouring mountains, and by the overflow of the other lakes. Its shores are swampy and desolate and show considerable belts of saline incrustations with the fall in its level. The Aztecs settled there because of the security afforded by its islands and shallow waters — their city, Tenochtitlan, being so completely surrounded by water that a handful of warriors could easily MEXICO CITY 345 defend its approaches against a greatly superior force. The Chako and Xochimilco lakes, 8 or 9 m. to the southward, which are separated by a narrow ridge of land, are connected with the lower part of the city by an artificial canal, called " La Viga," 16 m. long and 30 ft. wide, which serves as an outlet for the overflow of those lakes and as a waterway for the natives who bring in flowers and vegetables for sale. Lake Xochimilco, celebrated for its chinampas, or " floating gardens" (see Mexico, Federal District of), is supplied very largely by fresh- water springs opening within the lake itself, which the city has partially diverted for its own water supply. Lake Chalco is also greatly reduced in size by railway fillings and irrigation works, to the great distress of the natives who have gained their living by fishing in its waters since long before the Spanish conquest. The climate of the city is temperate, dry and healthful. The temperature ranges from a minimum of 35° F. in winter to a maximum of 79° in summer. The winter range is 35 to 68°, and the summer 50° to 79°. The nights are always cool. The year is divided into a wet and dry season, the former from April to September, the latter from October to March. The rainfall, however, is light, about 20 to 25 in., but, with the assistance of irrigation, it serves to sustain a considerable degree of cultivation in the neighbourhood of the city. The health of the city, unfortunately, does not correspond with its favourable climatic conditions. With a wet, undrained subsoil and a large population of Indians and half-breeds living in crowded quarters, the death-rate has been notoriously high, though the completion of the Valley drainage works in 1900, supplemented by under- ground sewers in the better parts of the city, and by better sanitation, have recently improved matters. The annual death- rate per 1000 was 54 per 1000 for the Federal District in 1901, 50 in 1902, 48 in 1903, 46 in 1904, and 56 in 1905; the increase for the last-mentioned year being due to an epidemic of typhus fever. The city is laid out with almost unbroken regularity and is compactly built — the streets running nearly with the cardinal points of the compass. The new and better residence sections are on the western side; the poorer districts are on the eastern side nearer the swampy shores of Lake Texcoco. As the name of a street changes with almost every block, according to the old Spanish custom, a list of street names is sometimes mistakenly accepted as the number of continuous thoroughfares in the city, so that it has been said that Mexico has 600 to 900 streets and alleys. An attempt was made in 1889 to rename the streets — all running east and west to be called avenidas, all running north and south calles, and all continuous thoroughfares to have but one name — but the people clung so tenaciously to the old names that the government was compelled to restore them in 1907. Outside the Indian districts of the eastern and southern out- skirts, the streets are paved with asphalt and stone, lighted with electricity and gas, and served with an efficient street railway service. The political and commercial centre of the city is the Plaza Mayor, or Plaza de la Constitution, on which face the cathedral, national palace, and municipal palace. Grouped about the Plaza de Santo Domingo are the old convent and church of Santo Domingo, the court of the Inquisition now occupied by the School of Medicine, the offices of the Department of Communicaciones, and the old custom-house (aduana). Close by are the old church of the Jesuits and the mechanics' school (artes y oficios) wath its large and well-equipped shops. Among other well-known plazas are: Loreto, on which faces the great enclosed market of the city; Guardiola, in the midst of hand- some private residences; San Fernando, with its statue of Vicente Guerrero; and Morelos, with its marble statue of the national hero of that name. The Paseo de la Reforma, the finest avenue of the city, is a broad boulevard extending from the Avenida Juarez south-west to Chapultepec, a distance of nearly three miles. At intervals are circular spaces, called "glorietas," with statues (the famous bronze equestrian statue of Charles IV., and monuments to Columbus, Cuauhtemoc the last of the Aztec emperors, and Juarez). Other notable avenues are Bucareli and Juarez,, and the Avenida de la Viga, which skirts the canal of that name. The principal business streets runs westward from the Plaza Mayor toward the Alameda, and is known as the Calls de los Plateros (Silversmiths' Street) for two squares, Calle de San Francisco for three squares, and Avenida Juarez along the south side of the Alameda to its junction with the Paseo. The Alameda, or public garden, \ m. west of the Plaza Mayor, covers an area of 40 acres, and occupies the site of the old Indian market and place of execution, where occurred the first auto-da- fe in Mexico in 1574. The great cathedral stands on or near the site of the Aztec temple _ (teocalli) destroyed by Cortes in 1 52 1. The foundations were laid in 1573, the walls were completed in 1615, the roof was finished in 1623, its consecration took place in 1645 and its dedica- tion in 1667, the towers were completed in 1791, and the great church was finished about 181 1. It is 426 ft. in length by 197 ft. in width, and its towers rise to a height of 204 ft. Its general plan is that of a Greek cross, with two great naves and three aisles, twenty side-chapels and a magnificent high altar supported by marble columns and surrounded by a tumbago balustrade with sixty-two tumbago statues carrying elaborate candelabra made from a rich alloy of gold, silver and copper. The elaborately carved choir is also enclosed by tumbago railings made in Macao, weighing 26 tons. The vaulted roof is supported by twenty Doric columns, 180 ft. in height, and the whole interior is richly carved and gilded. The walls are covered with rare paintings. Standing close beside the cathedral is the highly ornamented facade of a smaller church called El Sagrario Metropolitano. The city has about sixty church edifices, including La Profesa, Loreto, Santa Teresa, Santo Domingo and San Hipolito. At the time of the secularization of Church properties there were about 120 religious edifices in the city- churches, convents, monasteries, &c. — many of which were turned over to secular uses. The national palace, also on the Plaza Mayor, has a frontage of 675 ft. on the east of the Plaza, and covers a square of 47, 840 sq. yds., or nearly 10 acres. It contains the executive offices of the government and those of five cabinet ministers (interior, foreign affairs, treasury, war and justice), the senate chamber, the general archives, national museum, observatory and meteorological bureau. The palace occupies the site of the residence of Moctezuma, which was destroyed by the Spaniards, and that of Hernando Cortes, which was also destroyed in 1692. It has three entrances on the Plaza, and over its main gateway hangs the " liberty bell " of Mexico, first rung by the humble parish priest Hidalgo, on the night of the 1 6th of September 1810, to call the people of Dolores to arms, and now rung at midnight on each recurring anniversary by the president himself. The national museum, which occupies the east side of the national palace, is rich in Mexican antiquities, among which are the famous " calendar stone," 1 supposed to be of Toltec origin, and the " sacrificial stone " found in the ruins of the great teocalli destroyed by Cortes. Near the cathedral is the monte de piedad, or government pawnshop, endowed in 1775 by Pedro Romero de Terreros (conde de Regla) with £75,000, and at one time carrying on a regular banking business including the issue of bank- notes. Its business is now limited to the issue of small loans on personal property — the aggregate sometimes reaching nearly £50,000 a month. The national library, which has upwards of 225,000 volumes, occupies the old St Augustine Church, dedicated in 1692 and devoted to its present use by Juarez in 1867. It contains an interesting collectiun of the busts of Mexican celebrities. The academy of San Carlos and school of fine arts (founded in 1778) likewise contains good collections of paintings and statuary. Among other institutions are the new post office, begun in 1902 and finished in 1907; the Mineria, occupied by the schools of mining and engineering; the military school, occupying a part of the castle of Chapultepec ; the Iturbide palace, now occupied as a hotel ; the Iturbide theatre, occupied by the chamber of deputies, for which a new legislative palace to cost 2,500,000 pesos was under con- struction in 1909; the new palace of justice; the old mint, dating from 1537; the new penitentiary, completed in 1900; the PanfaSon, with its monuments to the most celebrated Mexicans; the new general hospital ; the jockey club on Plaza Guardiola, a new university (1910) and new school edifices of modern design. The city is likewise generously provided with hospitals and asylums. The old Spanish edifices were very solidly constructed of stone, and private residences were provided with iron gates and window guards strong enough to withstand an ordinary assault. Private nouses were also provided with flat roofs {azoteas) and battlements, which gave them great defensive strength, as well as a cool, secluded retreat for their inmates in the evening. The old Moorish style of building about an open court, or patio, prevails, and the living- rooms of the family are on the second floor. The better residences of the old style were commonly of two storeys — the ground-floor being occupied by shops, offices, stables and servants' quarters. The more modern constructions of the Colonia Juarez and other new residence districts are more attractive and pretentious in appearance, but are less solidly built. ' Bandelier thinks it should be called the " Stone of the Sun." 346 MEXICO CITY Mexico was formerly one of the worst drained large cities of the New World, its subsoil being permanently saturated and its artificial drainage being through open ditches into the San Lazaro Canal which nominally discharged into Lake Texcoco. The difference in level between the city and the lake being less than six feet and the lake having no natural outlet, typhus fever became a common epi- demic in its lower and poorer sections. The earliest effort to correct this evil was by the Dutch engineer Maartens (Span., Martinez), who planned a deep cutting through Nochistongo Hill, north of the city, to carry away the overflow of Lake Zumpango (7493 ft. elevation) to the river Tula, a tributary of the Panuco. The cutting was 13 m. long and is known as the Tajo de Nochistongo. It was begun in 1607 — a year when the city was completely flooded— but was not completed until 1789, and then it was found that the city was still subject to partial inundations, although an enormous sum of money and 70,000 lives of Indian labourers had been expended upon it. The worst inundation in the history of the city occurred in 1629, when its streets were covered to a depth of 3 ft. and remained flooded until 1634. In 1856 President Ignacio Comonfort invited tenders for drainage works conditional on the use of waste waters for irrigation purposes, and the plan executed consists of a canal and tunnel 43 m. long, starting from the east side and 4J ft. below the mean level of the city and running north to Zumpango and thence eastward into a tunnel over 6 m. long, which discharges into a small tributary of the Panuco river near the village of Tequixquiac. The greatest depth of the tunnel is 308 ft. below the surface. The works were inaugurated in 1900. For the water supply the Aztecs used the main causeway through their city as a dam to separate the fresh water from the hills from the brackish water of Texcoco, and obtained drinking water from a spring at the base of the hill of Chapultepec. The Spaniards added three other springs to the supply and constructed two long aqueducts to bring it into the city. Three other sources were added during the 19th century, and in 1899-1900 steps were taken to secure a further supply from the Rio Hondo. Besides these there are 1 1 public and 1375 private artesian wells in the city. All these sources are estimated to yield about 220 to 230 litres per head. Considerable attention has always been given to education in Mexico, but in colonial times it was limited in scope, and to the dominant classes. The old university of Mexico, with its faculties of theology, law and medicine (founded 1 55 1 and inaugurated 1553), ceased to exist in 1865 and was succeeded by schools of engineering, law and medicine, which have been signally successful. The government also maintains schools of agriculture, commerce, fine arts, music, pharmacy, technology, and an admirable preparatory or high school, besides a large number of primary and secondary schools for which modern school buildings have been erected. Normal and industrial schools for both sexes are maintained, the latter (artes y oficios) performing a very important service for the poorer classes. In 1908 there were 353 government schools in the city, including 13 professional and technical schools, and nearly 200 private schools. There are also several scientific organizations and societies. The Mexican Geographical Society (Sociedad mexi- cana de geografia y estadistica), founded in 1833, has rendered invaluable services in the work of exploration and publication; there are also the Geological Society, the Association of Engineers and Architects, and the Society of Natural History. Through lack of water-power and cheap fuel Mexico has never been rated as a manufacturing city. However, the development of electric power, and the possibility of transmitting it for long dis- tances, have worked a noteworthy change in this respect, and a large number of industries have been added in recent years. The largest of these electric-power plants is on the Necaxa and Tenango rivers, in the state of Puebla, 92 m. from the city, which is designed to furnish 40,000 horse-power for industrial and lighting purposes, and a duplicate plant was decided upon in 1904. Another plant is in the suburb of San Lazaro, the current being distributed by over 100 m. of underground mains in the city and many miles of overhead wires in its outskirts and suburbs. Other plants are at San Iidefonso, 12 m. distant, and on the Churubusco river, 16 m. south. According to a British consular report for 1904 there were 153 manufacturing establishments in the city producing cotton, linen and silk textiles, leather, boots and shoes, alcohol and alcoholic beverages, beer, flour, conserves and candied fruits, cigars and cigarettes, Italian pastes, chocolate, starch, hats, oils, ice, furniture, pianos and other musical instruments, matches, beds, ca'hdles, chemicals, iron and steel, printing-type, paint and varnish, glass, looking-glass, cement and artificial stone, earthenware, bricks and tiles, soap, cardboard, papier mache, cartridges and explosives, white lead, perfumery, carriages and wagons, and corks. To these should be added the foundries and iron-working shops which add so much to the prosperity of modern Mexico. Perhaps the most important of these manufactories are the cotton mills, of which there are 13, and the cigar and cigarette factories, of which there are 10. In the suburbs, oils, chemicals, cigarettes and bricks are made at Tacuba; cotton textiles at Contreras, San Angel and Tlalpam; paper and boots at Tacubaya, and bricks at Mixcoac and Coyoacan. A little farther away are the woollen mills of San Iidefonso, the paper-mills of San Rafael, and important •works for the manufacture of railway rolling stock. The railway connexfons include direct communication with one port on the Gulf coast and with two on the Pacific — lines were under construction in 1909 to two other Pacific ports — and indirect communication with two on the Gulf. The Mexican and Inter- oceanic lines connect with Vera Cruz, the Mexican Central with Manzanillo, via Guadalajara and Colima, and the Vera Cruz & Pacific (from Cordoba) with the Tehuantepec line and the port of Salina Cruz. The last-mentioned line also gives indirect connexion with the port of Coatzacoalcos, and the Mexican Central, via San Luis Potosi, with Tampico. A southern extension of the Mexican Central, via Cuernavaca, has reached the Balsas river and will be extended to Acapulco, once the chief Pacific port of Mexico and the dep6t for the rich Philippine trade. A Mexican extension of the (American) Southern Pacific which has been completed from Nogales to Mazatlan is to be extended to Guadalajara, which will give the national capital direct communication with the thriving ports of Mazatlan and Guaymas. In addition to these, the Mexican Central and Mexican National, now consolidated, give communicaton with the northern capitals and the United States, and the Mexican Southern runs southward, via Puebla, to the city of Oaxaca. These railways, with the shorter lines radiating from the city, connect it with nearly all the state capitals and principal ports. The population by the census of 1900 was 344,721 — an increase of 14,947 over the returns of 1895. The great majority of the inhabitants is composed of Indians and half-breeds, from whom come the factory workers, labourers, servants, porters and other menial wage-earners. In former times Mexico was overrun with mendicants (pordioseros), vagrants and criminals (rateros), and the " Portales de las Flores " on the east of the Plaza Mayor was a favourite " hunting-ground " for them because of its proximity to the cathedral; but modern conditions have largely reduced this evil. The foreign population includes many capitalists and in- dustrial managers who are doing much to develop the country, the American colony being concentrated in a fine modern residential district on the south-western side of the city. History. — The City of Mexico dates, traditionally, from the year 1325 or 1327, when the Aztecs settled on an island in Lake Texcoco. The Aztec name of the city was Tenochtitlan, derived either from Tenoch, one of their priests and leaders, or from tenuch, the Indian name for the " nopal," which is associated with its foundation. The modern name is derived from Mexitli, one of the names of the Aztec god of war Huitzilopochtli, which name was later on applied also to the Aztecs themselves. The island settlement, which was practi- cally a lake-village built on islets — some of them undoubtedly artificial, and perched on stakes — grew rapidly with the in- creasing power and civilization of its inhabitants, who had the remains of an earlier civilization (Tula, Teotihuacan, Cholula, and other older towns) to assist in their development. About the middle of the 15th century their mud-and-rush dwellings were partly replaced by stone structures, grouped around the central enclosure of the great teocalli, and bordering the cause- ways leading to the mainland. The town had reached its highest development when the Spaniards appeared in 1519, when it is said to have had, including suburban towns, a total of 60,000 dwellings, representing about 300,000 inhabitants. It was at that time about 12 m. in circumference, everywhere intersected by canals, and connected with the mainland by six long and solidly constructed causeways, as shown in the plan given in the edition of Cortes's letters published at Nuremberg in 1524 (reproduced in vol. i. of H. H. Bancroft's History of Mexico, San Francisco, 1883, p. 280). Allowance should be made for the habit of exaggeration among the Spanish adventurers of that time, and also for the diplomacy of Cortes in magnifying his exploits to win the favour of his king. The truth is, without doubt, that the dwellings of the lower classes were still built of reeds and mud, and covered the greater part of the city's area, otherwise it is impossible to understand how a mere handful of Spanish soldiers, without tools and explosives, could so easily have levelled it to the ground. After its almost total destruction in November 1521, Cortes employed some 400,000 natives in rebuilding the city on its former site. Since then the lake has decreased greatly in extent, its area being reduced to n| sq. m. and its shore-line being more than 3 m. distant from the city it once surrounded. During Spanish rule the only break in the ordinary course of events was the revolt of 1692, which resulted in the destruction of the municipal buildings. The city was not much disturbed by the struggle for independence, MEXICO, FEDERAL DISTRICT OF 347 but it was afterwards the scene of many a revolution until the dictatorial authority of Porfirio Diaz put an end to petty pronunciamentos and partisan intrigues. In the war between Mexico and the United States the most decisive campaign was that of General Winfield Scott directed against the Mexican capital. With the advanced guard of an army of about 10,000 men he arrived on the 10th of August 1847 at Ayolta, on the national road 16 m. south-east of the city; but as the approaches from this direction were very strongly fortified he cut a new road southward along the eastern shore of Lake Chalco and westward along the southern shore of lakes Chalco and Xochimilco to San Augustin, where his army arrived on the 17th and 18th of August. The city was now 10 m. distant by a direct road to the northward, but as the village of San Antonio, only 3 m. ahead, was strongly fortified, another short detour was made to the westward by cutting a road through a field of broken lava. This movement brought the Americans to the hill of Contreras, which was held by General Valencia with a force of some 7000 and 22 pieces of artillery, while President Santa Anna was in the neighbourhood with reinforce- ments numbering 12,000 or more. The Mexicans were routed on the morning of the 20th of August after suffering heavy losses. San Antonio was easily taken about noon of the same day, and in the afternoon the main division of the Mexican' army was driven from the stone church and intrenchments at Churubusco. Three days later General Scott agreed to an armistice, but Mexico rejected the terms of peace, and hostilities were resumed on the 7th of September. During the armistice the American troops were quartered in and about the village of Tacubaya, about 2J m. west by south of the city. Near Tacubaya, on the north by west, were some massive stone build- ings known as El Molino del Rey, or the King's Mill, When attacked by the Americans under the immediate command of General W. J. Worth in the early morning of the 8th of September these buildings were defended by more than 10,000 Mexicans under Generals Leon, Alvarez and Perez, and they were captured only after a most desperate fight, which cost the Americans 787 killed and wounded and the Mexicans at least 2000 killed, wounded, and prisoners. To enter the city by way of the Tacubaya causeway it was still necessary for the Americans to capture Chapultepec. This hill, defended by about 4000 Mexicans under General Nicolas Bravo, was bombarded on the 1 2th of September, and was carried by assault on the 13th. On the following day the City of Mexico surrendered. It was then occupied by the American army under General Winfield Scott, and held by them until the signing of the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo (May 1848). The French intervention of 1861 led to a second occupation by a foreign power — a French military force under General Forey taking possession in June 1863. Maximilian, archduke of Austria, was crowned emperor of Mexico in the cathedral in June 1864, and held possession of the capital until the 21st of June 1867, when it was captured by General Porfirio Diaz. Earthquake shocks are of frequent occurrence, but the city rarely suffers any material damage. The great earthquake shocks of the 30th and 31st of July 1909, however, caused considerable damage in the city, and a few lives were lost. For further description see H. H. Bancroft, History of Mexico (6 vols., San Francisco, 1883); Robert S. Barrett, Standard Guide to the City of Mexico and Vicinity (Mexico, 1900) ; Thomas A. Janvier, The Mexican Guide (5th ed., New York, r| i8go) ; D. Charnay, Ancient Cities of the New World (Eng. ver., New York, 1887); and the Piano de la ciudad de Mexico, in the Diccionario enciclopedico hispano-americano (Barcelona, 1893), xii. 740. MEXICO, FEDERAL DISTRICT OF, a territory set apart for the independent and exclusive use of the Mexican Federal Government, occupying the south-eastern part of the Valley of Mexico, and taken from and lying within the State of Mexico, which forms its boundaries on all sides except the south where it touches the state of Morelos. Pop. (1900), 540,478, largely Indian and half-breeds; area, 463 sq. m., or accordingly to later com- putation 1498! sq. kilom. (578! sq. m.). The district is very irregular in outline, its greatest length (N.W. to S.E.) being 30 m., and its greatest breadth 25 m. It was formerly divided into one urban municipality and four rural prefectures, but under the law of the 26th of March 1903 it is divided into 13 municipalities, Mexico, Guadalupe-Hidalgo, Atzcapotzalco, Tacuba, Tacubaya, Mixcoac, Cuajimalpa, San Angel, Coyoacan, Tlalpam, Xochimilco, Milpa Alta and Ixtapalapa; the first of these comprises the national capital and its immediate suburbs, and the other 12 the unequal divisions of the district with a considerable number of towns and villages. Indians and half-breeds form more than one- half of the rural population engaged in agriculture and gardening, beside which there is a large percentage employed in manufac- turing industries. The government of the district is exercised by the national executive in accordance with the organic law of 1903, though some measure of popular government is vested in municipal councils (ayuntamientos) elected by popular vote for terms of four years. These councils have lost much of their original legislative character, but they must be consulted in matters of local importance, such as water supply, sanitary works, and the exploitation or sale of municipal property, and in regard to all contracts affecting the municipality. They can veto by a two-thirds vote the execution of any contract 'or administrative project, which then, at the end of four months, if again vetoed must be taken before the President of the Republic for adjudication. The administrative officers, who are appointed by the national executive, consist of a governor of the federal district, the director -general of public works, and the president of the superior board of health. The three form a superior council of district government which exercises a supervisory and advisory power, " revising, confirming, reforming or revoking the acts of each one of the members of the council, whenever these acts are called in question." The council also exercises a general supervision of the making of contracts. The governor represents the national government, and has special charge of the fire and police departments, prisons, imposition of penalties for violation of ordinances, public diver- sions and festivities, civil registry, street traffic, inspection of weights and measures, and the sale of intoxicating liquors. The director-general of public works has special charge of the water supply, streets and roads, parks, monuments, public lighting, drainage, street cleaning, public buildings not under federal control, cemeteries, slaughter-houses and markets, building operations, and all municipal or communal property. The president of the superior board of health has charge of all sanitary works, general sanitary inspection, the sanitary adminis- tration of markets, slaughter-houses and cemeteries, and the introduction of meats from other localities. The government of the district is copied, in part, from that of the District of Columbia in the United States, but its citizens are not dis- franchised. They elect the ayuntamientos, which exercise no slight influence in local affairs, and, like any state, elect senators and deputies to the National Congress. The principal towns of the district, some of which are merely suburbs of the capital, are Guadalupe, Tacubaya, Tlalpam and Xochimilco. Within the municipal limits of Mexico City are Chapultepec, Santa Anita and the hot springs of El Pefion, which are popular suburban resorts easily reached by the ordinary urban tramway service. Chapultepec (Grasshopper Hill) is an isolated rock nearly 200 ft. high surrounded by a beautiful park and sur- mounted by a fortified structure called the " Castle," containing the summer residence of the president and the national military school. A finely graded road leads to the summit. The park contains a grove of old cypress trees (Taxodium distichum, called " ahuehuetes " by the natives), one of which is 45 ft. in circum- ference and nearly 200 ft. high. The hill is nearly 3 m. south-west of the city and once commanded one of its principal causeway approaches. It was assaulted and captured by the American forces under General Winfield Scott on the 13th of September 1847, after a stubborn resistance. A monument to the cadets of the military school who died in this battle stands in the park. The castle, which was built by the viceroys, was greatly embellished by the emperor Maximilian, who planned for it the drive known as the Paseo de la Reforma. Of the neighbouring towns Guadalupe or Guadalupe-Hidalgo (pop. 5834 in 1900), i\ m. north by east from Mexico City, near the shore of Lake Texcoco, is chiefly known for its shrine to Our Lady of Guadalupe, who is said to have appeared there to the Indian Juan Diego in 1531. The shrine stands on the 348 MEXICO, GULF OF— MEYER, J. L. principal plaza and is visited by many thousands of pilgrims during the year, whose pious contributions have so enriched the church that its sacred vessels, altar-rails, candelabra and other accessories are estimated to contain fifty tons of silver. The treaty of peace between Mexico and the United States was signed here on the 2nd of February 1848. Tacubaya (pop. 18,342 in 1900), on the lower slopes of the Montes de las Cruces, about 5 m. west-south-west of the city, with which it is connected by rail, is noted for its fine old residences and beautiful gardens. The National Astronomical Observatory occupies a fine modern edifice. At Popotla is an aged tree under which, according to tradition, Cortes sat and wept after his terrible retreat from the Aztec capital on the noche trisie. Farther south on the lowest slopes of the mountain range are San Angel and Tlalpam, the latter (pop. 4732 in 1900) standing partly on the plain 12 m. south by west of the capital. In both much attention is given to floriculture, and both are favourite country residences of the richer citizens. Xochimilco (field of flowers), (pop. 10,712 in 1900) on the west shore of the lake of that name and 10 m. south by east of the city, is an Indian town dating long before the discovery of America. It lies in the midst of a fertile plain devoted to the production of fruit, vegetables and flowers for the city markets. Its gardens are carried out on the shallow lake by floating masses of water-plants covered with soil and secured by poplar stakes, which, taking root, soon surround them with living boundaries. These remarkable and productive gardens, called chinampas, have so increased in number and extent that the lake is practically covered by them, with the exception of the waterways, which are kept open by scooping up mud from the bottom. From the lake a broad canal runs northward to the eastern suburbs of the city. It is known as the Viga, and is believed to have been opened by the Aztecs for the transportation of garden produce to their island capital. MEXICO, GULF OF, a mediterranean gulf almost surrounded by the coasts of the United States and Mexico, and forming the northern division of the extension westward of the west Atlantic trench (see Atlantic Ocean) . Its southern boundary is defined by the partly submerged ridge which extends eastwards from the peninsula of Yucatan, and on which the island of Cuba is situated: to the east it communicates directly with the Atlantic by the Strait of Florida. On the western side of Yucatan a southerly embayment is formed by the Gulf of Campeachy. The United States coast closely follows the parallel of 30° N., while the parallel of 20 N. cuts across the Gulf of Campeachy: the greatest length — Vera Cruz to. Florida — is 11 20 m., and greatest width — Galveston to Campeachy — 680 m. The total area is approximately 716,000 sq. m. The deepest part of the Gulf of Mexico, the so-called " Sigsbee " deep, lies below the line of 2000 fathoms, between 23° and 255° N., and 845° to 95° W. It is widest to the west, where the breadth is about 120 m., and narrows to 25 m. at its greatest depth (2 1 19 fathoms) between 86° and 88° W., widening again to some 80 m. farther eastward. The continental shelf is for the most part narrow: its breadth is 6 m. at Cape Florida, 120 m. along the west coast of Florida, 10 m. at the south pass of the Mississippi, 130 m. near the boundary of Texas and Louisiana, and 15 m. off Vera Cruz. The shores are low, sandy and marshy, the coast-line being frequently doubled by lagoons. There are no islands except the " Keys " of Florida and Yucatan, and Cuba. The tides in the Gulf of Mexico are of comparatively small range (springs rarely exceed 4 ft. and neaps 25 ft.), but a remarkable feature is the exaggeration of the diurnal inequality to such an extent as almost to extinguish the semi-diurnal tide in the inner parts of the gulf, giving high and low water only once daily. The mean level of the water in the Gulf of Mexico was formerly given as about 40 in. above that of mean sea-level at New York, but later reports on precise levellings from New York to Biloxi through St Louis describe it vaguely as " some- what higher." The current movement in the Gulf of Mexico consists of a rotational movement in the direction of the hands of a watch, the branch of the equatorial current which enters the Caribbean Sea passing into the Gulf by the Strait of Yucatan and issuing from it by the Strait of Florida as the Gulf Stream, which unites with the remainder of the northward moving water, forming the Antilles current. From March to September the prevailing winds are the north- east trades; these undergo considerable modification on account of the configuration of the surrounding land, and the rains ' which accompany them are interrupted by spells of calm thick weather, and rarely by northerly winds known as Norte's del hueso Colorado and Chocolateros. In the colder dry season, from October to April, the climatic situation is dominated by the relatively high temperature of the surface of the gulf, causing a cyclonic inflow of air which is associated with the strong northerly winds or " northers " prevailing on the western side, more particularly along the Mexican coast. The northers sometimes blow with terrific force and are at times accompanied by rain. The form and position of the Gulf of Mexico exercise a profound influence on the climate of the whole of the southern and south-eastern states of the Union, and indeed of the greater part of North America. (H. N. D.) MEYER, CHRISTIAN ERICH HERMANN VON (1801-1869), German palaeontologist, was bom at Frankfort-on-the-Main, on the 3rd of September 1801. In 1832 he issued a work entitled Palaeologica, and in course of time he published a series of memoirs on various fossil organic remains: mollusca, Crustacea, fishes and higher vertebrata. His more elaborate researches were those on the Carboniferous amphibia, the Permian reptiles, the Triassic amphibia and reptiles, and the reptiles of the Lithographic slates; and the results were embodied in his great work Zur Fauna der Vorwelt (1845-1860), profusely illustrated with plates drawn on stone by the author. He was associated with W. Dunker and K. A. Zittel in the publication of the Palaeontographica, which began in 1851. He was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society of London in 1858. He died on the 2nd of April 1869. MEYER, HEINRICH AUGUST WILHELM (1800-1873), German Protestant divine, was born at Gotha on the 10th of January 1800. He studied theology at Jena, and eventually became (1841) pastor, member of the consistory, and super- intendent at Hanover. He died on the 2 1st of June 1873. He is chiefly noted for his valuable Kritischexegetischer Komptentar zum Neuen Testament (16 vols.), which began to appear in 1832, was completed in 1859 with the assistance of J. E. Huther, Friedrich Dtisterdieck and G. K. G. Liinemann, and has been translated into English. New editions have been undertaken by such scholars as A. B. Ritschl, B. Weiss, H. Wendt, K. F. G. Heinrici, W. Beyschlag and F. A. E. Sieffert. Meyer also published an edition of the New Testament, with a translation (1829) and a Latin version of the symbolical books of the Lutheran Church (1830). He is not to be confounded with Johann Friedrich von Meyer (1772-1849), the senator of Frankfort, who published a translation of the Bible in 1819 (Die heilige Schrift in berichtigter Ubersetzung mit kurzen Anmerkungen; 2nd ed., 1823 ; 3rd ed., 1855). MEYER, JULIUS LOTHAR (1830-1895), German chemist, was born on. the 19th of August 1830, at Varel in Oldenburg. He was the son of a physician, and went to study medicine first at Zurich University in 1851, and then, two years later, at Wiirzburg, where he had R. Virchow as his teacher in pathology. The influence of C. F. W. Ludwig, under whom he studied at Zurich, decided him to devote his attention to physiological chemistry, and therefore he went, after his graduation (1854), to Heidelberg, where R. Bunsen held the chair of chemistry. There he was so influenced by G. R. Kirchhoff's mathematical teaching that he took up the study of mathematical physics at Konigsberg under F. E. Neumann. In 1859 he became privat-docent in physics and chemistry at Breslau, where in the preceding year he had graduated as Ph. D. with a thesis on the action of carbon monoxide on the blood. In 1866 he accepted a post in the School of Forestiy at Neustadt-Eberswalde, but soon moved to Carlsruhe Polytechnic. During the Franco-German campaign the Poly- technic was used as a hospital, and he took an active part in the care of the wounded. Finally, in 1876, he became professor of chemistry at Tubingen, where he died on the nth of April 1895. His name is best known for the share he had in the periodic classification of the elements. He noted, as did J. A. R. New- lands in England, that if they are arranged in the order of their atomic weights they fall into groups in which similar chemical and physical properties are repeated at periodic intervals; and in particular he showed that if the atomic weights are plotted MEYER, K. F.— MEYERBEER 349 as ordinates and the atomic volumes as abscissae, the. curve obtained presents a series of maxima and minima, the most electro-positive elements appearing at the peaks of the curve in the order of their atomic weights. His book on Die modernen Theorien der Chemie, which was first published in Breslau in 1864, contains a discussion of relations between the atomic weights and the properties of the elements. In 1882 he received from the Royal Society, at the same time as D. J. Mendeleeff, the Davy medal in recognition of his work on the Periodic Law. A younger brother, O. E. Meyer, became professor of physics at Breslau in 1864. MEYER, KONRAD FERDINAND (1825-1898), Swiss poet and novelist, was born at Zurich on the nth of October 1825. After studying law at the university, he went for considerable periods to Lausanne, Geneva and Paris, and in Italy interested himself in historical research. In 1875 he settled at Kilchberg near Zurich, was created in 1880 a doctor philosophiae honoris causa by that university, and died at Kilchberg on the 28th of Novem- ber 1898. After Gottfried Keller, Konrad Meyer is the most important Swiss poet of modern times, though as a novelist he was perhaps more successful. His poetical works include Balladen (1867); Romanzen und Bilder (1870); the epic poem, Huttens letzte Tage (1871); and Gedichte (1882; 20th ed., 1901). Among his novels must be specially mentioned Jiirg Jenatsch (1876; 20th ed., 1894); Der Schuss von der Kanzel (1878); Der Heilige (1880; 12th ed., 1894; English by M. von Wendheim, Thomas a Becket, the Saint, 1885); Die Richterin (1885); Die Versuchung des Pescara (1887); Angela Borgia (1891). His shorter stories were collected in two volumes in 1885 (5th ed., 1892). See A. Reitler, Konrad Ferdinand Meyer (1885); Lina Frey, K. F. Meyer's Gedichte und Novellen (1892) ; K. E. Kranzos, K. F. Meyer (1899) ; A. Frey, K. F. Meyer (1900) ; H. Kraeger, K. F. Meyer: Quellen und Wandlungen seiner Gedichte (1901); B. Meyer, K. F. Meyer in der Erinnerung seiner Schwester (1904) ; Briefwechsel zwischen Luise von Francois und K. F. Meyer, herausg. von A. Bettelheim (1905); A. Langmesser, K. F. Meyer (1905). MEYER, [MARIE] PAUL HYACINTHE (1840- ), French philologist, was born in Paris on the 17th of January 1840. He was educated at the Ecole des Chartes, and in 1863 was attached to the manuscript department of the Bibliotheque Nationale. In 1876 he became professor of the languages and literatures of southern Europe at the College de France. In 1882 he was made director of the Eco'le des Chartes, and a year later was nominated' a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. He was one of the founders of the Revue critique, and a founder and the chief con- tributor to Romania (1872). Paul Meyer began with the study of old Provengal literature, but subsequently did valuable work in many different departments of romance literature, and ranks as the chief modern authority on the French language. He is the author of Rapports sur les documents manuscrits de I'ancienne litterature de la France conserves dans les bibliotheques de la Grande Bretagne (1871); Recueil d'anciens textes bas-latins, provencaux et franqais (2 parts, 1874-1876); Alexandre le Grand dans la litera- ture francaise du moyen dge (2 vols., 1886). He edited a great number of old French texts for the Societi des anciens textes jrancais, the SociUi de Vhistoire de France and independently. Among these may be mentioned Aye d' Avignon (1861), with Guessard; Flamenca (1865) ; the Histoire of Guillaume le Marechal (3 vols., 1892-1902); Raoul de Cambrai (1882), with A. Longnon; Fragments d'une vie da Saint Thomas de Cantorbery (1885); Guillaume de la Barre (1894). MEYER, VICTOR (1848-1897), German chemist, was born at Berlin on the 8th of September 1848, and studied at Heidelberg University under R. W. Bunsen, H. F. M. Kopp, G. R. Kirchhoff and H. L. F. Helmholtz. At the age of twenty he entered J. F. W. A. Baeyer's laboratory at Berlin, attacking among other problems that of the composition of camphor. In 1871, on Baeyer's recommendation, he was engaged by H. von Fehling as his assistant at Stuttgart Polytechnic, but within a year he left to succeed J. Wislicenus at Zurich. There he remained for thirteen years, and it was during this period that he devised his well-known method for determining vapour densities, and carried out his experiments on the dissociation of the halogens. In 1882, on the death of W. Weith (1844-1881), professor of chemistry at Zurich University, he undertook to continue the lectures on benzene derivatives, and this led him to the discovery of thiophen. In 1885 he was chosen to succeed Hans Hiibner (1837-1884) in the professorship of chemistry at Gottingen, where stereo- chemical questions especially engaged his attention; and in 1889, on the resignation of his old master, Bunsen, he was appointed to the chair of chemistry in Heidelberg. He died on the 8th of August 1897. In recognition of his brilliant experimental powers, and his numerous contributions to chemical science, he was awarded the Davy medal by the Royal Society in 1891. MEYERBEER, GIACOMO (1791-1863), German composer, first known as Jakob Meyer Beer, was born at Berlin on the 5th of September 1791, 1 of a wealthy and talented Jewish family. His father, Herz Beer, was a banker; his mother, Amalie (nie Wulf), was a woman of high intellectual culture; and two of his brothers distinguished themselves in astronomy and literature. He studied the pianoforte, first under Lauska, and afterwards under Lauska's master, Clementi. When seven years old he played Mozart's Concerto in D Minor in public, and at nine he was pronounced the best pianist in Berlin. For composition he was placed under Zelter, and then under Bernard Weber, director of the Berlin opera, by whom he was introduced to the Abbe Vogler. Vogler invited him to Darmstadt, and in 1810 received him into his house, where he formed an intimate friendship with Karl Maria von Weber, who also took daily lessons in counterpoint, fugue and extempore organ-playing. At the end of two years the grand duke appointed Meyerbeer composer to the court. His first opera, Jephtha's Gelubde, failed lamentably at Darmstadt in 1811, and his second, Wirth und Gast (Alimelek), at Vienna in 1814. These checks discouraged him so cruelly that he feared he had mistaken his vocation. Nevertheless, by advice of Salieri he determined to study vocalization in Italy, and then to form a new style. But at Venice he was so captivated by Rossini that, renouncing all thought of originality, he produced a succession of seven Italian operas — Romilda e Costanza, Semiramide ricono- sciuta, Eduardo e Cristina, Emma di Resburgo, Margherita d'Anjou, L'Esule di Granata and // Crociato in Egitto — which all achieved a success as brilliant as it was unexpected. Against this act of treason to German art Weber protested most earnestly; and before long Meyerbeer himself grew tired of his defection. An invitation to Paris in 1826 led him to review his position dispassionately, and he came to the conclusion that he was wasting his powers. For several years he produced nothing in public; but, in concert with Scribe, he planned his first French opera, Robert le Diable. This gorgeous spectacle was produced at the Grand Opera in 183 1. It was the first of its race, a grand romantic opera, with situations more theatrically effective than any that had been attempted either by Cherubini or Rossini, and with ballet music such as had never yet been heard, even in Paris. Its popularity exceeded all expectations; yet for five years Meyerbeer appeared before the public no more. His next opera, Les Huguenots, was first performed in 1836. In gorgeous colouring, rhetorical force, consistency of dramatic treatment, and careful accentuation of individual types, it is at least the equal of Robert le Diable. In two points only did its interest fall short of that inspired by the earlier work. Meyerbeer had shown himself so eminently successful in his treatment of the supernatural that one regretted the omission of that element; and, more important still, the fifth act proved to be an anti-climax. The true interest of the drama culminates at the close of the fourth act, when Raoul, leaping from the window to his death, leaves Valentine fainting upon the ground. The opera now usually ends at the fourth act. After the production of Les Huguenots Meyerbeer spent many years in the preparation of his next greatest works — L'Africaine and Le Prophete. The libretti of both these operas were furnished 1 Or, according to some accounts, 1794. 35° MEYNELL— MEZIERES, P. DE by Scribe; and both were subjected to countless changes; in fact, the story of L'Africaine was more than once entirely rewritten. Meanwhile Meyerbeer accepted the appointment of kapell- meister to the king of Prussia, and spent some years at Berlin, where he produced Ein Feldlager in Schlesien, a German opera, in which Jenny Lind made her first appearance in Prussia. Here also he composed, in 1846, the overture to his brother Michael's drama, Struensee. But his chief care at this period was bestowed upon the worthy presentation of the works of others. He began by producing his dead friend Weber's Euryanthe, with scrupulous attention to the composer's original idea. With equal unselfishness he procured the acceptance of Rienzi and Der fliegende Hollander, the first two operas of Richard Wagner, who, then languishing in poverty and exile, would, but for him, have found it impossible to obtain a hearing in Berlin. With Jenny Lind as prima donna and Meyerbeer as conductor, the opera flourished brilliantly in the Prussian capital; but the anxieties materially shortened the composer's life. Meyerbeer produced Le Prophete at Paris in 1849. I n 1854 he brought out L'Eloile du nord at the Opera Comique, and in 1859 Le Pardon de Ploermel (Dinorah). His last great work, L'Ajri- caine, was in active preparation at the Academie when, on the 23rd of April 1863, he was seized with a sudden illness, and died on the 2nd of May. L'Africaine was produced with pious attention to the composer's minutest wishes, on the 28th of April 1865. Meyerbeer's genius was criticized by contemporaries with widely different results. Mendelssohn thought his style exagger- ated; Fetis thought him one of the most original geniuses of the age; Wagner ungratefully calls him " a miserable music-maker," and " a Jewish banker to whom it occurred to compose operas." The reality of his talent has been recognized throughout all Europe; and his name will live so long as intensity of passion and power of dramatic treatment are regarded as indispensable characteristics of dramatic music. But his work shows that these qualities, with the aid of an experienced stage-writer, may be entirely independent of genuine musical insight. MEYNELL, ALICE CHRISTIANA (1850- ), English poet and essayist, was the daughter of T. J. Thompson. Her early life was spent chiefly in Italy, and she was educated by her father. Her first volume of verse, Preludes (1875), illustrated by her sister Elizabeth, afterwards Lady Butler, attracted little public notice, but the delicacy and beauty of the poems and especially of the sonnet " Renunciation," were warmly praised by Ruskin. She married in 1877 the well-known Roman Catholic journalist and author Wilfrid Meynell, who became proprietor and editor of the Weekly Register. Under W. E. Henley's editorship she wrote regularly in prose for the National Observer, and also later for the Pall Mall Gazette, the Saturday Review, &c. Her Poems (1893), including much of the earlier volume of Preludes, brought her at last more definitely before the public; and this was followed in 1901 by another slender book of delicate verse, Later Poems. Mrs Meynell also showed herself a fine critic of poetry by her admirable selection, The Flower of the Mind (1897), an anthology of English verse. She edited the Selected Poems (1894) of T. G. Hake, the Poetry of Pathos and Delight (1896) of her intimate friend Coventry Patmore, and the selections from Patmore in the " Muses' Library." Her prose essays, remarkable for fineness of culture and peculiar restraint of style, appeared in successive volumes as The Rhythm of Life (1893), The Colour of Life and other Essays (1896), The Children (1897), and The Spirit of Place (1898). Later books are London Impressions (1898) and The Work of John S. Sargent (1903). See W. Archer, Poets of the Younger Generation (1902). MEYR, MELCHOIR (1810-1871), German poet, novelist and philosopher, was born at Ehringen on the 28th of June 1810, and died at Munich on the 22nd of April 1871. He read law and philosophy at Heidelberg and Munich. His greatest success was the Erzdhlungen aus dem Ries (4th ed. Leipzig, 1892), remarkable as an accurate and sympathetic picture of rural life and character. He wrote also tragedies (Herzog Albrecht, 1851; Karl der Kuhne, 1862), novels ( Vier Deutsche, 1861 ; Ewige Liebe, 1864): and, in later life, philosophical works with a strong religious tendency. Among these were Emilie (philosophical dialogues, 1863), Die Religion des Geistes (187 1), Die Fortdauer nach dem Tode (1869), Die Religion und ihre jetzt gebotene Fortbildung (187 1), and Gedanken Uber Kunst, Religion und Philosophie (1874). In these works he attempted to develop a Deistic system of philosophy. He was the author of an anonymous work entitled Gesprachs mil einem Grobian (1866). See Melchior Meyr. Biographisches, Brief e und Gedichte, edited by Graf Bothmer and M. Carriere (Leipzig, 1874). MEYRIFAB, a small semi-nomad tribe of Africans of Semitic stock, settled on the east bank of the Nile near Berber. Con- trary to Arab custom, it is said they never marry slaves. MEZERAY, FRANCOIS EUDES DE (1610-1683), French historian, was born at Rye near Argentan, where his father was a surgeon. He had two brothers, one of whom, Jean Eudes, was the founder of the order of the Eudists. Francois studied at the university of Caen, and completed his education at the college of Ste Barbe at Paris. His Histoire de France depuis Faramond jusqu' A Louis le Juste (3 vols., 1643-1651), is a fairly accurate summary of French and Latin chronicles. Mezeray was ap- pointed historiographer of France, and in 1649, on the death of Vincent Voiture, was admitted to the Academie Francaise. His AbregS chronologique (3 vols., 1667-1668) went through fifteen editions between 1668 and 1717; but he did not hesitate in this work to attack the financiers, with the result that his salary as historiographer was diminished by Colbert. Mezeray succeeded Conrart as permanent secretary to the Academie Francaise (1675), and died at Paris on the 10th of July 1683. He trans- lated Grotius's Traite de la religion chretienne (1640), and a Histoire des Turcs depuis 1612 jusqu 1 en 164Q (1650), which is an addition to a continuation of Chalcondyles. See Daniel de Larroque, Vie de Francois Eudes de Mezeray (1720) ; vol. xiii. of Causeries du lundi by Sainte-Beuve, and Levavasseur's Notice sur les trois freres: Jean Eudes, Francois Eudes, et Charles Eudes (1855). MEZIERES, PHILIPPE DE (c. 1327-1405), French soldier and author, was born at the chateau of Mezieres in Picardy. He belonged to the poorer nobility, and first served under Lucchino Visconti in Lombardy, but within a year he entered the service of Andrew, king of Naples, who was assassinated in September 1345. In the autumn of that year he set out for the East in the French army. After the battle of Smyrna in 1346 he was made a knight, and when the French army was disbanded he made his way to Jerusalem. He realized the advantage which the dis- cipline of the Saracens gave them over the disorderly armies of the West, and conceived the idea of a new order cf knighthood, but his efforts proved fruitless. The first sketch of the order was drawn up by him in his Nova religio passionis (1367-1368; revised and enlarged in 1386 and 1396). From Jerusalem he found his way in 1347 to Cyprus to the court of Hugo IV., where he found a kindred enthusiast in the king's son, Peter of Lusignan, then count of Tripoli; bat he soon left Cyprus, and had resumed his career as a soldier of fortune when the accession of Peter to the throne of Cyprus (Nov. 1358) and his recognition as king of Jerusalem induced Mezieres to return to the island, probably in 1360, when he became chancellor. He came under the influence of the pious legate Peter Thomas (d. T366), whose friend and biographer he was to be, and Thomas, who became patriarch, of Constantinople in 1364, was one of the chief promoters of the crusade of 1365. In 1362 Peter of Cyprus, with the legate and Mezieres, visited the princes of western Europe in quest of support for a new crusade, and when the king returned to the east he left Mezieres and Thomas to represent his case at Avignon and in the cities of northern Italy. They preached the crusade throughout Germany, and later Mezieres accompanied Peter to Alexandria. After the capture of this city he received the government of a third part of it and a promise for the creation of his order, but the Crusaders, satisfied by the immense booty, refused to continue the campaign. In June 1366 Mezieres was MEZIERES— MEZZOTINT 35 1 sent to Venice, to Avignon and to the princes of western Europe, to obtain help against the Saracens, who now threatened the kingdom of Cyprus. His efforts were in vain ; even Pope Urban V. advised peace with the sultan. Mezieres remained for some time at Avignon,* seeking recruits for his order, and writing his Vita S. Petri Thomasii (Antwerp, 1659), which is invaluable for the history of the Alexandrian expedition. The Prefacio and Epistola, which form the first draft of his work on the projected order of the Passion, were written at this time. Mezieres returned to Cyprus in 1368, but was still at Venice when Peter was assassinated at Nicosia at the beginning of 1369, and he remained there until 1372, when he went to the court of the new pope Gregory XI. at Avignon. He occupied himself with trying to establish in the west of Europe the feast of the Presen- tation of the Virgin, the office of which he translated from Greek into Latin. In 1373 he was in Paris, and he was thenceforward one of the trusted counsellors of Charles V., although this king had refused to be dragged into a crusade. He was tutor to his son, the future Charles VI., but after the death of Charles V. he was compelled, with the other counsellors of the late king, to go into retirement. He lived thenceforward in the convent of the Celestines in Paris, but nevertheless continued to exert an influ- ence on public affairs, and to his close alliance with Louis of Orleans may be put down the calumnies with which the Burgun- dian historians covered his name. When Charles VI. freed himself from the domination of his uncles the power of Mezieres increased. To this period of his life belong most of his writings. Two devotional treatises, the Contemplalio horae mortis and the Soliloquium peccatoris, belong to 1386-1387. In 1389 he wrote his Songe du vieil pelerin, an elaborate allegorical voyage in which he described the customs of Europe arid the near East, and advocated peace with England and the pursuit of the Crusade. His Oratio tragedica, largely autobiographical, was written with similar aims. In 1395 he addressed to Richard II. of England an Epistre pressing his marriage with Isabella of France. The Crusade of 1396 inspired Mezieres with no enthusiasm. The disaster of Nicopolis on the 28th of September 1396 justified his fears and was the occasion of his last work, the Epistre lamentable et consolaioire, in which he put forward once more the principles of his order as a remedy against future disasters. Mezieres died in Paris on the 29th of May 1405. Some of his letters were printed in the Revue historique (vol. xlix.) ; the two epistres just mentioned in Kervyn de Lettenhove's edition of Froissart's Chroniques (vols. xv. and xvi.). The Songe du vergier or Somnium viridarii, written about 1376, is sometimes attributed to him, but without definite proofs. See Antoine Becquet, Gallicae coelestinorum congregationis monasteria, fundationes .... (1719); the Abbe Jean Lebeuf's Memoires in the Memoires of the Academy of Inscriptions, vols. xvi. and xvii. (1752 and 1753) ; J. Delaville le Roulx, La France en Orient au xiv. Steele (1886-1890) ; A. Molinier, Manuel de bibliographie historique vol. iv. (1904) ; and especially the researches of N. Jorga, published in the Bibliothbque de I kcole des haules etudes vol. no (Paris 1896); and the same writer's Philippe de Mezieres, et la croisade au xiv. siecle (1896). Jorga gives a list of his works and of the MSS. in which they are preserved, and analyses many of them. On the Songe du vergier, see P. Paris, in Memoires vol. xv. (1843) of the Academy of Inscriptions. MEZIERES, a town of northern France, capital of the department of Ardennes, 55 m. N.E. of Reims by the Eastern railway. Pop. (1906), town, 7007; commune, 9393. The town itself, the streets of which are narrow and irregular, is situated on the neck of a peninsula formed by a loop of the Meuse. The river separates it from its suburb of Arches and the town of Charleville on the north and from the suburb of Pierre on the south. Adjoining Pierre is Mohon (pop. 5874), with metallurgical works. The fortifi- cations of Mezieres, as well as the citadel still dominating the town on the east, were built under Vauban's direction, but were dismantled in 1885 and 1886. Immediately to the east of the citadel runs a canal, which provides river-traffic with a short cut across the isthmus. The parish church (16th cent.) contains inscriptions commemorating the raising of the siege of Mezieres in 1521 and the marriage of Charles IX. with the daughter of the emperor Maximilian II. (1570). The north and south portals, the Renaissance tower at the west end, and the lofty vaultings, are worthy of remark. The church, which suffered severely in 1870-71, has since been restored. The prefecture and the hotel de ville, which contains several interesting pictures relating to the history of the town, belong to the 18th century. Mezieres is the seat of a prefect and of a court of assizes, and there are manufactures of bicycles, and iron and steel castings for motors, railway- carriages, &c. Founded in the 9th century, Mezieres was at first only a stiong- hold belonging to the bishops of Reims, which afterwards became the property of the counts of Rethel. The town was increased by successive immigrations of the people of Liege, flying first from the emperor Otto, and afterwards from Charles the Bold; and also by concessions from the counts of Rethel. Walls were built in the 13th century, and in 1521 it was defended against the Imperialists by the Chevalier Bayard, to whom a statue was erected in 1893. The anniversary of the deliverance is still observed yearly on the 27th of September. In 181 5 the Germans were kept at bay for six weeks, and in 1871 the town only capitulated after a bombardment during which the greater part of it was destroyed. MEZOTCfR, a town of Hungary, in the county of Jasz- Nagykun-Szolnok, 88 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 25,367. It possesses important potteries. Large herds of cattle are reared on the communal lands, which are productive also of wheat, rapeseed and maize. Several well-attended fairs are held here annually. MEZZANINE (It. mezzano; Fr. entresol; Ger. Zwischengeschoss) , in architecture, a storey of small height introduced between two lofty storeys, or sometimes employed to allow of the introduction of two storeys equal together in height to lofty rooms on the same floor. MEZZOFANTI, GIUSEPPE CASPAR (1 774-1849), Italian cardinal and linguist, was born on the 17th of September 1774, at Bologna, and educated there. He was ordained priest in 1797, and in the same year became professor of Arabic in the university, but shortly afterwards was deprived for refusing to take the oath of allegiance to the Cisalpine Republic. In 1803 he was ap- pointed assistant librarian of the institute of Bologna, and soon afterwards was reinstated as professor of oriental languages and of Greek. The chair was suppressed by the viceroy in 1808, but again rehabilitated on the restoration of Pius VII. in 1814, and continued to be held by Mezzofanti until his removal from Bologna to Rome in 1831, as a member of the congregation de propaganda fide. In 1833 he succeeded Angelo Mai as chief keeper of the Vatican library, and in 1838 was made cardinal and director of studies in the Congregation. He died at Rome on the 1 5th of March 1849. His peculiar talent, comparable in many respects to that of the so-called " calculating boys," was not combined with any exceptional measure of intellectual power, and pro- duced nothing of permanent value. It seems certain, however, that he spoke with considerable fluency, and in some cases even with attention to dialectic peculiarities, some fifty or sixty languages of the most widely separated families, besides having a less perfect acquaintance with many others. See Russell, Life of the Cardinal Mezzofanti (London, 1857); A. Bellesheim, Giuseppe Cardinal Mezzofanti (Wiirzburg, 1880). MEZZOTINT. During the 19th century two revolutions occurred in the British art of mezzotinto engraving—" la maniere anglaise." The original defect of the method was the incapacity of the mezzotint " burr " on copper to yield as many fine impressions as other forms of engraving. To this defect was attributable the introduction, in 1823, of steel instead of the soft copper previously used — a change which, with the endeavour to avoid technical difficulties, led to the " mixed style," or com- bination of mezzotint with etching, and a general departure from the traditional form of the art, " pure mezzotint " on copper. The affinity of the method to painting in black and white which differentiates it from other kinds of engraving, and was the dis- tinguishing charm of the mezzotints of the 17th and 18th cen- turies, was for a time lost, but a revival of pure mezzotint on 352 MEZZOTINT copper, beginning in 1880 — a return, in fact, to the mode in which the classics of the art were engraved in the time of Sir Joshua Reynolds— was made possible by the invention of steel-facing. By this process engraved copper plates are electroplated with a film of steel, renewable when worn in course of printing; and a mezzotint on copper, so protected, yields more fine impressions than if it had been engraved on steel, whilst the painter-like quality remains unimpaired. In " pure mezzotint " the design is evolved from dark to light entirely by scraping away more or less of the previously laid " ground," the original " burr " of which is left untouched in the extreme darks, and no acid, etching or line-work is used in it at all. The usual short descriptions of the method are misleading, because they fail to explain that it is the " ground," and not the " burr " of it only, which is scraped away in greater or smaller degree to produce the varying tones of the design. The necessity of realizing that there are two constituents of the " ground," the " burr " and the indentations out of which the " burr " is raised, will be appre- ciated later. The " rocking-tool," with which the " ground " is laid, somewhat resembles a carpenter's chisel, but the blade is 3 in. wide and only about 2| in. long, whilst the cutting edge, instead of being straight, is curved in the segment of a circle. One side of the blade is deeply engraved with lines from edge to handle, and the ridges which remain between these lines form teeth at the cutting edge when the unengraved side of the tool is bevelled as an ordinary chisel is sharpened. The tools contain from 35 to 120 teeth to each inch of their width, those with the most teeth producing grounds of the finest texture. The operator rocks the curved edge of the tool from side to side on the bare copper plate, causing the tool to travel forward, whilst each tooth makes an indentation in the copper and throws up a corresponding particle of metal, which is called the "burr." When the whole plate has been so rocked across in 45 to 60 different directions, so that no visible speck of the original bright copper surface remains unfretted by the teeth of the " rocking-tool," the "ground" is termed "full" and is ready for scraping the design. The innumerable particles of copper forming the raised " burr " give to a " full ground " much the appearance of copper-coloured plush, and a print from it, taken before any scraping has been done on it, looks not unlike a piece of black velvet. The lights and semi-tones of the design are produced by subsequent scraping and burnishing. Assuming that a mezzotint is to be scraped from a lady s portrait by Sir Joshua Reynolds in which a piece of black drapery crosses a white dress — the engraver begins to work on a previously laid " ground " which would print uniformly black before scraping commences. In the extreme darks of the black drapery the raised " burr " is left untouched by the " scraper " — a two-edged steel instrument resembling an ancient Roman sword-blade in miniature, but having a longer point. Working from dark to light, the engraver produces the varying tones of the folds of the black drapery by scraping the raised " burr " down more or less, lower- ing it in fact so that it will not hold so much ink as where it is left untouched in the extreme darks. In the highest lights of the black drapery all the raised " burr " will have been removed and the original surface of the plate reached, but as yet the engraver has not produced any tone lighter than middle tint (although he has completely modelled up the black drapery), because the in- dentations out of which the " burr " was raised still remain in the plate and hold ink in printing. In order to produce the infinite gradation of delicate tones in the white dress, or in a sky, the scraping is continued, the indentations being thus made shallower in the passages scraped, and therefore less capable of holding ink, whilst they are obliterated almost entirely in the highest lights. When the mezzotint is finished the black drapery will stand higher than the surface of the plate modelled in a relief composed of the raised " burr," whilst all the tones of the white dress, from middle tint to pure white, will be so many actual depressions in the plate, the highest lights being the deepest. The speck of light in the eye, for instance, is a pit in the plate, surrounded by a tract of more or less raised " burr," which provides the intense black of the pupil and the half-tints of the iris. The difference of surface levels is very appreciable where high-lights impinge on strong darks, but it exists in varying degree all over the plate, and the greatest technical difficulty in pure mezzotint is to obtain adequate " edge " and definition, because the tendency is to remove too much " ground " from the edges of adjacent darks in the course of the constant scrapings necessary to smooth and polish the depressed lights. In printing a mezzotint a non-fluid ink is thoroughly worked into every part of the plate, and the superfluities wiped off again, leaving as much ink as possible in the darks, the raised " burr." If the bottom of the small lights is not quite smooth, the ink sticks in the roughness and they print dark instead of light, or the printer has to wipe so hard to get the ink out of the depressed lights that he removes too much from the raised darks. In either case loss of definition and contrast of effect results. This inherent difficulty of scraping to a sharp edge caused the use of the " mixed " methods. in which the details were sharpened by outlining them with stipple or line etching. Mezzotint ss the best form of engraving for completeness of repre- sentation, but etching is better adapted for sketching from nature or for the expression of any fleeting idea. The two arts have distinct uses and limitations. The art function pf true etching as practised by Rembrandt lies in economy of expressive line to suggest the artist's meaning, and that of mezzotint in completion of tonality to explain it. Artistic suggestion, which is not inherent in the solid tones of mezzotint, has to be imparted to the work entirely by the free play of the " scraper " on the " ground," much as the painter attains it on canvas with the brush. The first reputed mezzotint was produced at Amsterdam in 1643 by Ludwig von Siegen, an officer in the service of the Land- grave of Hesse, and an amateur artist; but the work History. was a direct drawing on copper with an instrument of comparative precision resembling the roulette rather than a mezzo- tint, ground laid with the rocking-tool and scraped from dark to light in the present manner of the art. Siegen's innovation was led up to by the previous stipple work of Giulio Campagnola and Janus Lutma; the roulette appears to have been used before his time; and though he shared in the evolution of the rocking-tool, he was not the sole inventor of it. The earliest works referable to the method at the print room of the British Museum afford evi- dence,' though inconclusive, that Prince Rupert, to whom Siegen showed his mode of work in 1654, and possibly also their common friend, Th. Caspar von Fiirstenberger, and Rupert's assistant, Vallerant Vaillant, were more or less concerned in the gradual development of mezzotint engraving. The rocking-tool was appa- rently improved by Abraham Blooteling, a Dutch painter and engraver of 'fine portrait mezzotints, who worked in Holland and in England about the year 1680. Rupert brought the new art over to England at the Restoration, and the portrait of Charles II., dated 1669, by William Sherwin, the first English mezzotinter, bears the engraver's acknowledgment of his indebtedness to Rupert for the secrets of the method. Mezzo- tint continued to be practised for a while on the Continent, but the successors of Sherwin in England so excelled in it that it early acquired abroad the title of " la maniere Anglaise," and has since become an exclusively British art. Though used for transcribing the subject-pictures of the great Italian masters, and of Rembrandt, Vandyck and Rubens, almost every kind of subject being later engraved in it, the staple production in mezzotint has always been the portrait. Until the middle of the 1 8th century the tools con- tinued somewhat archaic, causing in the prints an appearance of warp and woof, like that of ill-woven material, which detracted from reality of representation. The coarseness and unequal depth of the " grounds " offered so much resistance to freedom of execu- tion with the " scraper " that, though the early engravers were quite as good artists as their successors, painter-like touch was not conspicuous in the work until M'Ardell and the interpreters of Sir Joshua Reynolds had improved the tools and technique. Except for the collector, therefore, the chief attraction in the prints of F. Place and Luttrell, Beckett and Williams, and later those of John Simon, John Smith and John Faber, jun., who were the principal exponents of mezzotint in the last years of the seven- teenth and first half of the eighteenth centuries, lies in their long series of portraits after Vandyck, Lely, Kneller and the Dutch painters then practising in England, representing such interesting personages as Charles II. and Nell Gwynn, Addison and Pope, Congreve and Wycherley, Locke and the great duke of Marlborough. The classics of mezzotint engraving are to be found amongst the best plates after Sir Joshua Reynolds by James M'Ardell, J. R. Smith and Valentine Green, the Watsons, Dickinson, Fisher, Dixon and some others, who worked during the last half of the 1 8th century. The brush work of Reynolds was more in harmony with the mezzotint method than the slighter painting technique of Gainsborough and Romney, who were much less frequently en- graved, perhaps because it is the highest technical difficulty in mezzotint to render the sharp edges of a sketch. For this reason a typical Gainsborough was never successfully engraved in the method. Though professional publishers and printers existed _ at this time and earlier, the word " excudit " on an old print, implying " published," not " engraved," the authors of the " Sir Joshua " mezzotints in most cases printed, published and sold their own works, and pure mezzotint, unmixed with etching, was almost exclusively the method they employed. Mezzotints were occasion- ally printed in colours, notably those engraved later after George Morland, the primary object being to conceal the worn-out condition of the plates. The departure from pure mezzotint and temporary decay of the art began when, towards the end of the 1 8th century, Richard Earlom, otherwise a fine artist in the traditional method, notably in translations of Vandyck and Wright of Derby, began to outline the details of his plates with stipple etching in order to avoid the labour and difficulty of scraping them to a sharp edge, using the " ground " alone. Earlom, however, did not destroy the mystery of the rich velvety darks by etching into them. A demand then arose for larger editions than the soft copper plates would yield, and I the engravers attempted to meet it by combining mezzotint with MFUMBIRO— MIALL 353 positive line-etching throughout the work, thus shortening the labour of scraping the details, and fortifying the darks with lines sunk below the surface of the plate. The harmony of line and tone in some of the prints in this style by S. W. Reynolds and Charles Turner, after Sir Joshua, Hoppner and their contemporaries, was more convincing than the later " mixed style " of Samuel Cousins, because there was a certain artistic significance in the etched line itself apart from the mezzotint tone, but every touch of line in a mezzotint does something to destroy the painter-like quality, and a decadence was in progress. The same mixed method on copper was used by J. W. M. Turner in his Liber Studiorum series of landscape plates, his object being to rival the pen-and-wash drawings of Claude's Liber Veritatis. Turner, however, was not so practised in etching or mezzotint as the engravers before mentioned, and the etched foundation of the Liber plates was too strong for the mezzotint tone, destroying the breadth of the light, the richness of the darks, and the artistic " keeping " of the whole effect. It is the grand design of Turner reflected in the plates, rather than any quality of mezzotint or etching in them, which appeals to the artist and the connoisseur. Perhaps the greatest success in harmonizing line and tone in one plate was achieved by David Lucas in his " English Landscape " series of mezzotint after John Constable, in which he sharpened his details with the roulette, or with a slight line put in with the point of the scraper as scraping proceeded, retaining the pure " burr " in his darks. Lucas, like Samuel Cousins and his contemporaries, was handicapped by being compelled to work on the steel plates introduced in 1823, and this was the cause of the chief defect of his plates, the excessive opposition of black and white. The warm general tone which assisted the picturesqueness of the 18th century mezzotints was lost by the use of steel, because the ink did not cling to it as it does to the more porous copper. Steel being harder than copper, the rocking-tool penetrated less deeply, raising less " burr," and the consequent loss of force in the darks necessitated the scraping up of the lights to a higher key to force contrast of effect, which was also enhanced by the use of very white paper and a coarse black ink. It was soon found that the unfortified " burr," even on steel, would not yield the constantly increasing numbers of impressions demanded. The labour of scraping sharp lights was greatly enhanced, and though some pure mezzotints were engraved on steel, painter-like touch was practically unattainable on it, and the general effect was cold and uninteresting. The early work of Samuel Cousins after Lawrence in the com- paratively pure method, and the final development of the " mixed style " on steel in his later plates after Reynolds, Millais and Land- seer, are referred to in the article on Samuel Cousins. For nearly forty years pure mezzotint ceased to be practised altogether, and the revival of it, which began in 1880, was led up to by the invention of steel-facing. The competition of photo- gravure, which steel-facing made a commercial possibility, for a time checked the new movement, but a photogravure, despite a mere surface resemblance to a mezzotint, is a photograph manipulated to imitate an engraving, entirely devoid of artistic individuality. In 1898 for the first time a Society of Mezzotint Engravers was formed to foster the art. Authorities. — British Mezzotinto Portraits, by John Challoner Smith (London, 1878), a standard book of reference, contains a long list of others at p. xiv., pt. i. See also Lectures on Etching and Mezzotint, by Hubert von Herkomer, R.A. (London, 1890), the most useful work on the technique. Etching, Engraving and other Methods of Printing Pictures, by H. W. Singer and William Strang (London, 1897); On the Making of Etchings, by Frank Short (London, 1898), containing a slight reference to mezzotint technique; Art of En- graving, by T. H. Fielding (London, 1854); Alfred Whitman, Masters of Mezzotint (London, 1898), Valentine Green (1902), Samuel William Reynolds (1903), Samuel Cousins (1904), Charles Turner (1907); Gordon Gordain, James McArdell (1903), Thomas Watson, James Watson, Elizabeth Judkins (1904); W. G. Rawlinson, Turner's Liber Studiorum, a Description and a Catalogue (2nd ed.', 1906); F. Wedmore's catalogue of the David Lucas mezzotints! A little anonymous book, A History of the Art of Engraving in Mezzotinto, from Its Origin to the Present Times [by Dr James Chelsum] (Winchester, 1786), is of considerable interest. Works on the technique are somewhat elementary, and no complete history of the art exists. (G. p. j) MFUMBIRO, or Kirtjnga, general names for a chain of volcanic mountains extending across the Central African, or Albertine, rift-valley immediately north of Lake Kivu. The range, the result probably of recent geological changes, com- pletely blocks the valley at this point, forming a divide between the rivers flowing north to the Nile and the waters of Lake Kivu, connected through Tanganyika with the Congo system. The chain consists of two groups of mountains, surrounded by a vast lava field. The western group lies directly north of Lake Kivu, and contains two active volcanoes, Kirunga-cha-gongo, the nearest tn the lake (11,194 ft. high), and Kirunga-namiagira (9711ft), some 10 m. further north. The eastern group contains several higher peaks— some rising to needle-like points, others being truncated cones. The most lofty, Karissimbi (14,683 ft.), lies in 29 27' 20" E., i° 30' 20" S. Mikeno, a few miles north and west of Karissimbi, is 14,385 ft. high. The most easterly of the peaks, Muhavuru (13,562 ft.), in 29 40' 30" E., i° 23' S., is an isolated sugarloaf-shaped mass with a crater filled with water on its summit. This is the mountain to which the names Mfumbiro and Kirunga were originally applied. Some 6 m. west and a little north of Muhavuru is Sabyino (Sabinjo), 11,881 ft. high. The eastern peaks are snowclad for a part of the year. North of these high mountains is a district, extending towards Albert Edward Nyanza, containing hundreds of low peaks and extinct volcanoes. It is to this region that the name Umfumbira or Mfumbiro is said properly to belong. Mfumbiro, i.e. Muhavuru, was first seen by a white man in 1 86 1, J. H. Speke, in his journey to discover the source of the Nile, obtaining a distant view of the cone, which was also seen by H. M. Stanley in 1876. By its Baganda name of Mfumbiro (cook-house mountains) it figured on the maps somewhat east of its true position, first ascertained by Franz Stuhlmann in 1 89 1. In 1894 Count von Gotzen travelled through the volcanic region, and the range was subsequently explored by E. S. Grogan, Major St Hill Gibbons, Captain Herrmann, Dr R. Kandt and others, the principal heights being determined in 1903. In 1907-1908 the range was geologically and topographically examined by the duke of Mecklenberg's expedition. By the Anglo-German agreement of the 1st of July 1890 " Mount Mfumbiro " was included in the British sphere in East Africa. See Captain Herrmann, " Vulkangebiet des zentralafrikanischen Grabens," in Mitteil. v. Forsch. u. Gelehrten a. d. deutschen Schutz- febieten, vol. xvii. (Berlin, 1904), and Adolf Friedrich, duke of Mecklenburg, Ins Innerste Afrika (Leipzig, 1909) ; both give maps. MHOW, a town of Central India, with British military canton- ment, within the native state of Indore, on the Malwa branch of the Rajputana railway, 13 m. S. of Indore. Pop. (1901), 36,039. It is the headquarters of the 5th division of the southern army, and one of the chief military stations of India. There are two high schools, a Zoroastrian and a Canadian mission, the Dorabji Pestonji dispensary, and a gaol. MIAGAO, a town on the southern coast of the province of Iloilo, island of Panay, Philippine Islands, about 25 m. W.S.W. of the town of Iloilo, the capital. Pop. (1903), 20,656; in the same year the neighbouring town of San Joaquin (pop. 1903, J 4>333) w as incorporated with Miagao. It has a cool and health- ful climate. The neighbouring country is hilly and sterile, but produces sibucao in considerable quantities. The weaving of fabrics of abaca. (Musa textilis), or Manila hemp, and pineapple fibre is the most important local industry. The language is Panay-Visayan. MIALL, EDWARD (1809-1881), English Nonconformist divine and journalist, was born at Portsmouth on the 8th of May 1809. He was Congregational minister at Ware (1831) and Leicester (1834), and in 1841 founded the Nonconformist, a weekly newspaper in which he advocated the cause of dis- establishment. Miall saw that if the programme of Noncon- formity was to be carried through it must have more effective representation in Parliament. One of the firstfruits of his work was the entrance of John Bright into parliamentary life; and by 1852 forty Dissenters were members of the House of Commons. This was due largely to the efforts of the Anti-State Church Association, afterwards known as the Liberation Society, which Miall had founded in 1844. The long fight for the abolition of compulsory church-rates was finally successful in 1868, and then in 1870 Miall was prominent in the discussions aroused by the Education Bill. He was at this time M.P. for Bradford (1860- 1874), having previously (1852-1867) sat for Rochdale. In 1874 he retired from public life, and received from his admirers a present of ten thousand guineas. He died at Sevenoaks on the 29th of April 1 88 1. See the Life, by A. Miall (1884). 354' MIAMI— MIAOULIS MIAMI, a city and the county-seat of Dade county, Florida, U.S.A., in the S.E. part of the state, on the N. bank of the Miami river and on Biscayne Bay. Pop. (1900), 1681; (1905), 4733; (1910), 5471. It is served by the Florida East Coast railway and by lines of coastwise steamships, and is the point of departure of the P. & O. steamships for Nassau and Havana. Miami is the centre of a farming country in which citrus fruits, especially grape-fruit, pineapples and winter vegetables are raised for northern markets. There is excellent rod-fishing; Spanish and king mackerel and blue-fish are shipped from Miami in large quantities; and in Biscayne Bay there are important sponge fisheries. An alligator " farm " and the Subtropical Laboratory of the U.S. government are points of interest. In the city is Fort Dallas (now abandoned), where American troops were quartered during the Seminole War; and Miami is still the trading point of the Seminole Indians, being immediately south of the Everglades, their home. In 1909 a project was on foot to cut a channel from Miami to Lake Okecho- bee and from the other side of that lake west to the Gulf at Fort Myers, thus providing an inland waterway and draining much swampy but fertile land. In 1896 there were only two dwellings and one storehouse within the present corporate limits, but in that year the place was chosen as the southern terminal of the Florida East Coast railway, which was afterwards extended towards Key West. Soon afterwards Henry M. Flagler (b. 1830), the owner of the railway, began the construction of the magni- ficent Royal Palm hotel, and Miami became a popular winter resort. Then came the development of commerce by the improve- ment of the harbour, by donations from Mr Flagler and grants by the United States government. MIAMI, a tribe of North American Indians of Algonquian stock. The English called them Twightwees, a corruption of the native name, which meant the cry of the crane. They were first found in south-eastern Wisconsin, and in 1764 num- bered about 1750. Their civilization was advanced and they lived in stockaded towns. They took part in Pontiac's con- spiracy in 1764 and in the American War of Independence and American War of 181 2 they fought on the English side. At the close of this war they were greatly reduced in numbers. A few Miami still live on a reservation in Oklahoma and in Wabash county, Indiana. MIANT0N0MO ( ? -1643), chief of the Narraganset tribe of North American Indians, nephew of their grand sachem, Cano- nicus (d. 1647). He seems to have been friendly to the English colonists of Massachusetts and Connecticut, though he was accused of being treacherous. In 1636, when under suspicion, he went to Boston to prove his loyalty to the colonists. In the following year he permitted John Mason to lead his Connecticut expedition against the Pequot Indians through the Narraganset country, and in 1638 he signed for the Narraganset the tripartite treaty between that tribe, the Connecticut colonists and the Mohegan Indians, which provided for a perpetual peace between the parties, and he agreed to take under his jurisdiction eighty of the two hundred troublesome Pequot. In 1643 a quarrel broke out between the Mohegan and the Narraganset, and Mian- tonomo led his warriors against those of Uncas, the Mohegan sachem. He was defeated and captured at what is now Norwich, Conn., was turned over to the Connecticut authorities, and was later tried at Boston by the commissioners of the United Colonies of New England. A committee of five clergymen, to whom his case was referred, recommended that he be executed, and the commissioners accordingly sentenced him to death and chose Uncas as his executioner. Miantonomo, who was kept in ignorance of this sentence, was taken to the scene of his defeat and was there tomahawked in cold blood by Wawequa, the brother of Uncas. There is a monument to Miantonomo in Sachem's Park, Norwich, Conn. MIANWALI, a town and district of India in the Multan division of the Punjab. The town is situated on the left bank of the Indus, 655 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 3591. The district was formed in 1901, after the creation of the North- West Frontier Province, out of the Cis-Indus portions of Bannu and Dera Ismail Khan districts. Area 7816 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 424,588, showing an increase of 6-i% in the decade. Aljout three-quarters of the district lies to the east of the Indus. Along the river is a low fertile tract, liable to floods. The remaining upland, known as the Thai, is barren and sandy, cultivable only where irrigation is possible. In the north-east the district includes the western flank of the Salt Range. The part of the district west of the Indus is a level and fairly fertile plain, enclosed by the Chichali and Maidani hills. The chief agricul- tural products are wheat and other grains and oil-seeds. Hides and wool are also exported, together with small quantities of alum (abundant in the Salt Range), salt (from the Salt and Maidani ranges), and coal of poor quality, which is found at several points. Petroleum has been discovered. The district is served by the Multan-Rawalpindi line of the North- Western railway. MIAOTSZE, or Miautse, one of the aboriginal tribes of southern China. At one time they occupied a considerable portion of the fertile lands which now form the central province of the empire, but as the Chinese advanced southwards they were driven into the mountain districts of the provinces of Yunnan, Kwei-chow, Kwang-si and Kwang-tung, where they are found at the present day. As early as the reign of King Suan (about 800 B.C.) we read of an expedition having been sent to drive them out of Hu-nan. The last important campaign against them was undertaken by the emperor K'ien-lung, who, having completely subjugated the Eleuths, attacked the Miaotsze, who suffered a crushing defeat, and were compelled to purchase peace by swearing allegiance to their conquerors. They still maintain a semi-independence in their mountain-homes, but are a decaying race, gradually giving way before the Chinese. They are allowed to govern themselves on their own patriarchal system. The Miaotsze of both sexes are shorter and darker-complexioned than the Chinese, their faces are rounder and their features sharper. See Sketches of the Miau-tsze, trans, by E. C. Bridgman; J. Edkins, The Miautsi Tribes, their History; and " Quaint Customs in Kwei- chow," Comhill Magazine (Jan. 1872); Playfair, The Maotzu of Kwei-chow and Yunnan (London, 1877) ; A. R. Colquhoun, Across Chryse (1883). MIAOULIS, ANDREAS VOKOS or Bokos (1768-1835), Greek admiral and politician, was born in Negropont. The surname Miaoulis, which was added to his family name of Vokos, or Bokos, is said to be derived from the Turkish word miaoul, a felucca. He settled in the island of Hydra on the east of the Morea, and when the Greek War of Independence began was known among his fellow townsmen as a trader in corn who had gained wealth, and who made a popular use of his money. He had been a merchant captain, and was chosen to lead the naval forces of the islands when they rose against the government of the Sultan. The islanders had enjoyed some measure of exemption from the worst excesses of the Turkish officials, but suffered severely from the conscription raised to man the Turkish ships; and though they seemed to be peculiarly open to attack by the Sultan's forces from the sea, they took an early and active part in the rising. As early as 1822 Miaoulis was appointed navarch,or ad- miral, of the swarm of small vessels which formed the insurgent fleet. He commanded the expedition sent to take revenge for the massacre of Chio (see Kanaris) in the same year. He con- tinued to be the naval chief of the Greeks till Lord Dundonald entered their service in 1827, when he retired in order to leave the English officer free to act as commander. In the interval he had had the general direction of the naval side of the Greek struggle for freedom. He had a share in the successful relief of the first siege of Missolonghi in December 1822 and January 1823. In 1824, after the conquest of Psara by the Turks, he commanded the Greek forces which prevented the further progress of the Sultan's fleet, though at the cost of the loss of many fire ships and men to themselves. But in the same year he was unable to prevent the Egyptian forces from occupying Navarino, though he harassed them with some success. During 1825 he succeeded in carrying stores and reinforcements into Missolonghi, when it was besieged for the second time, though he could not avert its fall. His efforts to interrupt the sea communications of the Egyptian forces failed, owing to the enormous disproportion of MICA 355 the two squadrons in the siege and strength of the ships. As the war went on the naval power of the Greeks diminished, partly owing to the penury of their treasury, and partly to the growth of piracy in the general anarchy of the Eastern Mediterranean. When Miaoulis retired to make room for Dundonald the conduct of the struggle had really passed into the hands of the powers. When independence had been obtained, Miaoulis in his old age was entangled in the civil conflicts of his country, as an opponent of Capodistrias and the Russian party. He had to employ his skill in the employment of fireships against them at Poros in 183 1. He was one of the deputation sent to invite King Otho to accept the crown of Greece, and was made rear-admiral and then vice- admiral by him. He died on the 24th of June 1835 at Athens. MICA, a group of widely distributed rock-forming minerals, some of which have important commercial applications. The principal members of the group are muscovite, biotite, phlogo- pite and lepidolite (q.v.). The name mica is probably derived from the Latin micare, to shine, to glitter; the German word glimmer has the same meaning. The mineral was probably included with selenite under Pliny's term lapis specularis. Mineralogical Characters. — The micas are characterized by a very easy cleavage in a single direction and by the high degree of flexibility, elasticity and toughness of the extremely thin cleav- age flakes. They all crystallize in the monoclinic system, often, however, in forms closely resembling those of the rhombohedral or orthorhombic systems. Crystals have usually the form of hexagonal or rhomb-shaped scales, plates or prisms, with plane tit' — .»---«■-- Fig. 1. Fig. 2. angles of 6o° and 120 , and, with the exception of the basal planes, are only rarely bounded by smooth and well-defined faces. The crystal represented in fig. 1 is bounded by the basal pinacoid c (001) parallel to which is the perfect cleavage, the clinopinacoid b (010) parallel to the plane of symmetry, and the pyramids m (221) and (112). The angles between these pyra- mids and the basal plane are 855 and 73° respectively. The prism (no) at 90° from the basal plane is not developed as a crystal face, but is a plane of twinning, the two individuals of the twin being united parallel to the basal plane (fig. 2). The different species of mica have very nearly the same forms and interfacial angles, and they not infrequently occur intergrown together in parallel position. The best developed crystals are those of Vesuvian biotite. When a cleavage flake of mica is struck a sharp blow with a blunt needle-point a six-rayed star of cracks or " percussion figure " is developed: the rays intersect at angles of approximately 6o°, and the pair most prominently developed are parallel to the plane of symmetry of the crystal. A similar six-rayed system of cracks, bisecting the angles between the rays of the previous set, is pro- duced when a blunt punch is gradually pressed against a sheet of mica ; this is known as the " pressure figure." These cracks coincide with planes of easy separation or of gliding in the crystal ; they are especially useful in helping to determine the crystallographic orienta- tion of a cleavage flake of mica when crystal faces are absent. Sheets of mica which have been subjected to earth-movements are frequently cracked and ridged parallel to these directions, and are then valueless for economic purposes. In their optical characters the micas exhibit considerable varia- tions. The indices of refraction are not high, the mean index being about I •58-1-60, but the double refraction is very strong (o-04-o-os) and is negative in sign. The angle between the optic axes varies from 70°-50° in muscovite and lepidolite to 10-0° in biotite and phlogopite; the latter are thus frequently practically uniaxial. The acute bisectrix of the optic axes never deviates from the normal to the basal plane by more than a degree or two, hence a cleavage flake of mica will always show an optic figure in convergent light when placed on the stage of a polarizing microscope. The plane of the optic axes may be either perpendicular or parallel to the plane of symmetry of the crystal, and according to its position two classes of mica are distinguished. To the first class, with the optic axial plane perpendicular to the plane of symmetry, belong muscovite, lepidolite, paragonite, and a rare variety of biotite called anomite; the second class includes zinnwaldite, phlogopite, lepidomelane and most biotites. Dark coloured micas are strongly pleochroic. Ac- curate determinations of the optical orientation, as well as the symmetry of the etching figures on the cleavage planes, seem to suggest that the micas, except muscovite, may be anorthic rather than monoclinic in crystallization. The different kinds of mica vary from perfectly colourless and transparent— as in muscovite — through shades of yellow, green, red and brown to black and opaque — as in lepidomelane; the former have a pearly lustre and the latter a submetallic lustre on the cleavage surfaces. Sheets of mica very often show coloured rings and bands (Newton's rings), due to the interference of light at the surfaces of internal cleavage cracks. The spec, grav. varies between 2-7 and 3 - i in the different species. The hardness is 2-3 ; smooth cleavage surfaces can be just scratched with the finger-nail. The micas are bad conductors of heat and electricity, and it is on these properties that many of their technical applications depend. Inclusions of other minerals are frequently to be observed in mica. Flattened crystals of garnet, films of quartz, and needles of tourmaline are not uncommon. Cleavage sheets are frequently disfigured and rendered of little value by brown, red or black spots and stains, often with a dendritic arrangement of iron oxides. Minute acicular inclusions, probably of rutile, arranged parallel to the rays of the percussion figure, give rise to the phenomenon of " asterism " in some micas, particularly phlogopite: a candle-flame or spot of light viewed through a cleavage sheet of such mica appears as a six-rayed star. Chemical Composition. — The micas are extremely complex and variable in composition. They are silicates, usually ortho- silicates, of aluminium together with alkalis (potassium, sodium, lithium, rarely rubidium and caesium), basic hydrogen, and, in some species magnesium, ferrous and ferric iron, rarely chromium, manganese and barium. Fluorine is also often an essential constituent, and titanium is sometimes present. The composition of the several species of mica is given by the following formulae, some of which are only approximate. It will be seen that they may be divided into two groups — alkali-micas (potash-mica, &c.) and ferromagnesian micas — which correspond roughly with the division into light and dark micas. Muscovite Paragonite Lepidolite. Zinnwaldite Biotite Phlogopite H 2 K Al 3 (Si0 4 ) 3 H 2 Na Al 3 (Si0 4 ) 3 KLi[Al(OH,F) 2 ]Al(Si0 3 ) 3 (K,Li) 3 [Al(OH,F) 2 ]FeAl 2 Si 6 I8 (H,K) 2 (Mg,Fe) 2 (Al,Fe) 2 (Si0 4 ) 3 [H,K,(MgF)] s Mg 3 Al(Si0 4 ) 8 The water which is present in muscovite to the extent of 4 to 6 %, and rather less in the other species, is expelled only at a high tempera- ture ; it is therefore water of constitution, existing as basic hydrogen or as hydroxyl replacing fluorine. Roscoelite is a mica in which the aluminium is largely replaced by vanadium (V 2 3 , 30 %) ; it occurs as brownish-green scaly aggre- gates, intimately associated with gold in California, Colorado and Western Australia. Various attempts have been made to explain the variations in composition of the micas. G. Tschermak, in 1878, regarded them as isomorphous mixtures of the following fundamental molecules: H 2 KAl 3 (Si0 4 ) 3 , corresponding with muscovite; Mg 6 Si 3 0i 2 , a hypo- thetical polymer of olivine; and H 4 Si50i 2 , a hypothetical silicic acid. F. W. Clarke (1889-1893) supposes them to be substitution derivatives of normal aluminium orthosilicate Al4(Si0.i) 3 , in which part of the aluminium is replaced by alkalis, magnesium, iron and the univalent groups (MgF), (A1F 2 ) , (AlO) , (MgOH) ; an excess of silica is explained by the isomorphous replacement of H 4 Si0 4 by the acid HLSisOg. Artificially formed crystals of the various species of mica have been observed in furnace-slags and in silicate fusions. Occurrence. — Mica occurs as a primary and essential con- stituent of igneous rocks of almost all kinds; it is also a common product of alteration of many mineral silicates, both by weather- ing and by contact- and dynamo-metamorphic processes. In sedimentary rocks it occurs as detrital material. Muscovite and biotite are commonly found in siliceous rocks, whilst phlogopite is characteristic of calcareous rocks. The best crystallized specimens of any mica are afforded by the small brilliant crystals of biotite, which encrust cavities in the limestone blocks ejected from Monte Somma, Vesuvius. Large sheets of muscovite, such as are of commercial value, are found only in the very coarsely crystallized pegmatite veins traversing granite, gneiss or mica- schist. These veins consist of felspar, quartz and mica, often with smaller amounts of other crystallized minerals, such as tourmaline, beryl and garnet; they are worked for mica in India, the United 35^ MICAH States (South Dakota, Colorado and Alabama), and Brazil (Goyaz, Bahia and Minas Geraes). The commercially valuable micas of Canada and Ceylon are mainly phlogopite (q.v.), which has a rather different mode of occurrence. The mica mined in India is practically all muscovite. The principal mining districts are those of Hazari- bagh in Bengal and Nellore in Madras; in the former district the mica has usually a ruby tint, whilst in the latter it is more often greenish. In the Inikurti mine, Nellore, " books " of mica measur- ing 10 ft. across, and up to 15 ft. across the folia have been found, and rectangular sheets measuring 30 by 24 in. and free from cracks and flaws have frequently been obtained. Uses. — On account of its transparency and its resistance to fire and sudden changes of temperature, mica has been much used for the windows of stoves and lanterns, for the peep-holes of furnaces, and the chimneys of lamps and gas-burners. At one time it was used for window panes of houses and the port-holes of Russian men-of-war, being commonly known as " Muscovy glass." Spangles of mica are much used for decorative purposes of various kinds, and the mineral was formerly known as glades Mariae (Ger., Frauenglas) because of its use for decorating statues of the Virgin. The lapis specularis of Pliny, scattered over the Circus Maximus to produce a shining whiteness, was probably mica. Large quantities of ground mica are used in the manufacture of wall-paper, and to produce a frosted effect on toys, stage scenery, &c. Powdered mica is also used in the manu- facture of paints and paper, as a lubricant, and as an absorbent of nitro-glycerine and disinfectants. Sheets of mica are used as a surface for painting, especially in India; for lantern slides; for carrying photographic films; as a protective covering for pictures and historical documents; for mounting soft and collap- sible natural history specimens preserved in spirit; for the vanes of anemometers; mirrors of delicate physical instruments; for various optical and many other purposes. Being a bad conductor of heat it is used for the packing and jackets of boilers and steam-pipes. Other applications depend on the strength of its resistance to acids. The most extensive application of mica at the present day is for electrical purposes. Being a bad conductor of electricity it is of value as an insulator, and the smooth flexible sheets are much used in the construction of armatures of dynamos and in other electrical machinery. For various purposes a manufactured material known as " micanite " or " micanite cloth " is much used; this consists of small sheets of mica cemented with shellac or other insulating cement on cloth or paper. Muscovite and phlogopite are practically the only species used commercially, the former being the more common. Phlogopite is rarely found as colourless transparent sheets and is therefore almost exclusively used for electrical purposes. Many other uses of mica might be mentioned. The potassium it contains renders it of value as a manure. The species lepidolite is largely used for the manufacture of lithium and rubidium salts. Mining, Preparation and Value. — Mica mining is an industry of considerable importance, especially in India; but here the methods of mining are very primitive and wasteful. In working downwards in open quarries and in tortuous shafts and passages much of the mica is damaged, and a large amount of labour is expended in hauling waste material to the surface. Since the mineral occurs in definite veins, a more satisfactory and economi- cal method of working would be that adopted in metalliferous mines, with a vertical shaft, cross-cuts, and levels running along the strike of the vein: the mica could then be extracted by overhead stopping, and the waste material used for filling up the worked-out excavations. In dressing mica the " books " are split along the cleavage into sheets of the required thickness, and the sheets trimmed into rectangles with a sharp knife, shears or guillotine, stained and damaged portions being rejected. The dressed sheets are sorted according to size, transparency, colour and freedom from spots or stains. Scrap mica is ground to powder or used in the manu- facture of micanite. The price of mica varies very considerably according to the size, transparency and quality of the sheets. .An average price for cut sheets of all sizes is about 4s. per lb, but for large sheets it may be as high as 54s. per lb. References. — For the mineralogical characters see the text- books of J. D. Dana and C. Hintze; for economic questions, the following: T. H. Holland, " The Mica Deposits of India," Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India (1902), xxxiv. 11-121; G. P. Merrill, The Non-Metallic Minerals (New York, 1904), pp. 163- 180; "The Mining and Preparation of Mica for Commercial Purposes," Bulletin of the Imperial Institute (London, 1904), ii. 278-291; F. Cirkel, "Mica: its Occurrence, Exploitation and Uses " (Canadian Dept. of the Interior, Mines Branch, Ottawa 1905, 148 pp.). (L. J. S.) MICAH (™;p), in the Bible, the name prefixed to the sixth in order of the books of the minor prophets. 1 He was a con- temporary and fellow-worker of Isaiah. The name in various modifications — Micaiahil, Micaiehu, Micaiah — is common in the Old Testament, expressing as it does a fundamental point of Hebrew faith: Who is like Yahweh ? 2 It was also borne among others by the Danite whose history is given in Judges xvii. seq. (see separate article), by the prophet who opposed Ahab's expedition to Ramoth-Gilead (1 Kings xxii.), 3 and by the son of Jonathan (see Saul). The editorial title of the book of Micah declares that Micah prophesied " in the days of Jotham (739-734), Ahaz (733-721) and Hezekiah (720-693), kings of Judah." Nothing in the book itself can claim to belong to the reign of Jotham, but the prophecy against Samaria (i. 5-8) may have been uttered originally before the fall of Samaria in 722, i.e. in the reign of Ahaz. In its present form, however, it has been incorporated in a prophecy against Judah, belonging, most probably, to the years 705-701, when a new Palestinian rising provoked Sennacherib's campaign of 701 (Nowack; cf. Marti). This prophetic activity of Micah under Hezekiah is confirmed by the direct statement of Jer. xxvi. 17 seq., where Mic. iii. 12 is quoted (" Zion shall be plowed as a field," &c). The verse quoted forms the climax of Mic. i.-iii., from which chapters only any certain conclusions as to the prophetic message of the historic Micah can be drawn; the remaining sections of the present book (iv.-v., vi.-vii.) consist, in whole or in greater part, of writings belonging to a later period. Chs. i.-iii. (with the exception of two verses, ii. 12, 13) 4 are a prediction of judgment on the sins of Judah and Ephraim. In a majestic exordium Yahweh Himself is represented as coming forth in the thunderstorm (cf. Amos i. 2) from His heavenly palace, and descending on the mountains of Palestine, at once as witness against His people, and the executer of judgment on their sins. Samaria is sentenced to destruction for idolatry; and the blow extends to Judah also, which participates in the same guilt (ch. i.). But, while Samaria is summarily dismissed, the sin of Judah is analysed at length in chs. ii. and iii., in which the prophet 1 A confusion between the two prophets of the name has led to the insertion in the Massoretic text of 1 Kings xxii. 28 of a citation from Micah i. 2, rightly absent from the LXX. 2 See, however, Gray, Hebrew Proper Names, p. 157: " In later times they were perhaps virtually synonymous; but this is not to be assumed for early times. The shorter forms may well have had a purely secular reference, signifying ' who is like this child ' ? " 3 He is called " the Morashtite " (Mic. i. 1 ; Jer. xxvi. 18) from his birthplace, Moresheth-Gath. That Micah lived in the Shephelah or Judaean lowland near the Philistine country is clear from the local colouring of i. 10 seq., where a number of places in this quarter are mentioned together (in connexion with the war in Philistia), and their names played upon in a way that could hardly have suggested itself to any but a man of the district. The paronomasia makes the verses difficult, and in i. 14 none of the ancient versions recognizes Moresheth-Gath as a proper name. The word Morashtite (Morashti) was therefore obscure to them; but this only gives greater weight to the traditional pronunciation with in the first syllable, which is as old as the LXX., and goes against the view, taken by the Targum both on Micah and on Jeremiah, and followed by some moderns (including Cheyne, E.B., 3198), that Micah came from Mareshah. When Eusebius placed Mapaadd near Eleutheropolis it is not likely that he is thinking of Mareshah (Maresa), for he speaks of the former as a village and of the latter as a ruin 2 m. from Eleutheropolis. Jerome too in the Epit. Paulae (Ep. cviii.), speaking as an eye-witness, distinguishes Morashtim, with the church of Micah's sepulchre, from Maresa. This indeed was after the pretended miraculous discovery of the relics of Micah in A.D. 385; but the name of the village which then existed (Praef. in Mich.) can hardly have been part of a pious fraud. 4 These two verses are a prophecy of restoration ; they are ad- mittedly an interruption in their present context (so, e.g., Driver, G. A. Smith) ; they bejong in substance to the second section of the book (iv. v.). MICAH 357 no longer deals with idolatry, but with the corruption of society, and particularly of its leaders — the grasping aristocracy whose whole energies are concentrated on devouring the poor and depriv- ing them of their little holdings, the unjust judges and priests who for gain wrest the law in favour of the rich, the hireling and glutton- ous prophets who make war against every one "that putteth not into their mouth," but are ever ready with assurances of Yahweh's favour to their patrons, the wealthy and noble sinners that fatten on the flesh of the poor. The internal disorders of the realm depicted by Micah are also prominent in Isaiah's prophecies; they were closely connected, not only with the foreign complications due to the approach of the Assyrians, but with the break-up of the old agrarian system within Israel, and with the rapid and uncom- pensated aggrandisement of the nobles during those prosperous years when the conquest of Edom by Amaziah and the occupation of the port of Elath by his son (2 Kings xiv. 7, 22) placed the lucrative trade between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea in the hands of the rulers of Judah. On the other hand the democratic tone which distinguishes Micah from Isaiah, and his announcement of the impending fall of the capital (the deliverance of which from the Assyrian appears to Isaiah as the necessary condition for the preservation of the seed of a new and better kingdom), are ex- plained by the fact that, while Isaiah lived in the centre of affairs, Micah, a provincial prophet, sees the capital and the aristocracy entirely from the side of a man of the oppressed people, and fore- tells the utter ruin of both. But this ruin does not present itself to him as involving the captivity or ruin of the nation as a whole; the congregation of Yahweh remains in Judaea when the oppressors are cast out (ii. 5) ; Yahweh's words are still good to them that walk uprightly; the glory of Israel is driven to take refuge in Adullam, 1 as in the days when David's band of broken men was the true hope of the nation, but there is no hint that it is banished from the land. Our only evidence as to the reception of Micah's message by his contemporaries is that afforded by Jer. xxvi. 17 seq., both directly, in the recorded effect on Hezekiah and the people; and indirectly, in the fact that the impression created was remem- bered a century afterwards. Micah resembles Amos, both in his country origin, and in his general character, which expresses itself in strong emphasis on the ethical side of religion. As the last of the four great prophets of the 8th century he undoubtedly contributed to that religious and ethical reformation whose literary monument is the Book of Deuteronomy. 2 The remainder of the book bearing the name of Micah falls into two main divisions, viz. iv., v. and vi., vii. Each differs from the first division (i.-iii.) in a marked degree. The second consists mainly of prophecies of restoration including eschatological (iv. 1 seq.) 3 and Messianic (v. 2 seq.) hopes. The third is formed of three or four apparently unrelated passages, on the spirituality of true worship (vi. 1-8), social immorality and its doom (vi. 9- 16; vii. i-6) x , and Israel's future recovery from present adversity through Divine grace (vii. 7-20). It is improbable that much, if any, of these chapters can be ascribed to Micah himself, 4 not only because their contents are so different from his undoubted work (i.-iii.), for which he was subsequently remembered (Jer. xxvi. 18), but because they presuppose the historic outlook of the Exile, or a later age (e.g. iv. 6 seq.; vii. 7 seq.). It is neither psychologically nor historically impossible for a prophet of 1 i. 15; the reference is, however, obscure and uncertain. 2 See the Introduction to the Century Bible, " Deuteronomy and Joshua," by H. Wheeler Robinson. 3 Mic. iv. 1-3 and Isa. ii. 2-4 are but slightly modified recensions of the same text, and as Isa. ii. is older than the prophecy of Micah, while on the other hand Mic. iv. 4 seems the natural completion of the passage, it is common to suppose that both copy an older prophet. But the words have little connexion with the context in Isaiah, and may be the quotation of a copyist suggested by ver. 5. On the other hand it has been urged that the passage belongs to a later stage of prophetic thought than the 8th century B.C. Reasons making this view the more probable one are given by Wellhausen (p. 142) and Marti (p. 281). 4 Nowack thinks that iv. 9, 10", 14 and v. 10-14 m ay possibly belong to Micah; Wellhausen recognizes the same possibility, which he extends, however, to vi. 1-8. Marti, who (like Cheyne in Ency. Bib.) finds nothing by Micah in iv.-vii., thinks these chapters have crystallized round two central passages, viz. iv. 1-4, and vi. 6-8, whose addition to the first three chapters formed the second stage in the growth of the present book. More conservative views as to authorship are taken by Driver and G. A. Smith, the former suggesting, however, that " the existing Book of Micah consists only of a collection of excerpts, in some cases fragmentary excerpts, from the entire series of the prophet's discourses " (L. O. T., ch. vi. § 6). judgment to be also a prophet of comfort; but the internal evidence of composite and (in whole or part) later authorship must outweigh the traditional attachment of these passages to a MS. containing the work of Micah. The sequence of thought in chs. iv. v. is really difficult, and has given rise to much complicated discussion. Thus iv. 11-13 stands in direct contradiction to iv. 9, 10, and indeed to iii. 12. The last two passages agree in speaking of the capture of Jerusalem, the first declares Zion inviolable, and its capture an impossible profanation. Such a thought can hardly be Micah's, even if we resort to the violent harmonistic process of imagining that two quite distinct sieges, separated by a renewal of the theocracy, are spoken of in consecutive verses. Another difficulty lies in the words " and thou shalt come even to Babylon " in iv. 10. Micah unquestionably looked for the destruction of Jerusalem as well as of Samaria in the near future and by the Assyrians (i. 9), and this i was the judgment which Hezekiah's repentance averted. If these words, therefore, belong to the original context, they mark it as not from Micah's hand; though they might be a later gloss. The prophetic thought is that the daughter (population) of Zion shall not be saved by her present rulers or defensive strength; she must come down from her bulwarks and dwell in the open field; there, and not within her proud ramparts, Yahweh will grant deliverance from her enemies. Opposition to present tyranny expresses itself in recurrence to the old popular ideal of the first simple Davidic kingdom (iv. 8). These old days shall return once more. A new David, like him whose exploits in the district of Micah's home were still in the mouths of the common people (? i. 15), goes forth from Bethlehem to feed the flock in the strength of Yahweh. The kindred Hebrew nations are once more united to their brethren of Israel (cf. Amos ix. 12, Isa. xvi. I seq.). The remnant of Jacob springs up in fresh vigour, inspiring terror among the surrounding peoples, and there is no lack of chosen captains to lead them to victory against the Assyrian foe. In the rejuvenescence of the nation the old stays of that oppressive kingship which began with Solomon, the strongholds, the fortified cities, the chariots and horses so foreign to the life of ancient Israel, are no more known; they disappear together with the divinations, the soothsayers, the idols, the mazzebah and asherah of the high places. Yahweh is king on Mount Zion, and no inventions of man come between Him and His people. The sixth chapter of Micah presents a very different situation from that of chs. i.-iii. or iv., v. Yahweh appears to plead with His people for their sins, but the sinners are no longer a careless and oppressive aristocracy buoyed up by deceptive assurances of Yahweh's help, by prophecies of wine and strong drink; they are bowed down by a religion of terror, wearied with attempts to propitiate an angry God by countless offerings, and even by the sacrifice of the first-born. Meantime the substance of true religion —justice, charity and a humble walk with God — is forgotten, fraud and deceit reign in all classes, the works of the house of Ahab are observed (worship of foreign gods).. Yahweh's judgments are multiplied against the land, and the issue can be nothing else than its total desolation. All these marks may be held to .fit exactly the evil times of Manasseh as described in 2 Kings xxi. Cp. vii. 1-6, in which the public and private corruption of a hopeless age is bitterly bewailed, possibly belongs to the same context. Micah may very well have lived into Manasseh's reign, but the title in i. 1 does not cover a prophecy which certainly falls after Hezekiah's death, and the style has nothing in common with the earlier part of the book. It is therefore prudent to regard the prophecy, with Ewald, as anonymous. Ewald ascribed the whole of chs. vi., vii. to one author. Wellhausen, however, remarks with justice that the thread is abruptly broken at vii. 6, and that verses 7-20 1 represent Zion as already fallen before the heathen and her inhabitants as pining in the darkness of captivity. The hope of Zion is in future restoration after she has patiently borne the chastisement of her sins. Then Yahweh shall arise mindful of His oath to the fathers, Israel shall be forgiven and restored, and the heathen humbled. The faith and hope which breathe in this passage have the closest affinities with the book of Lamen- tations and Isa. xl.-lxvi. Indeed, as Marti points out (p. 259) the triple division of the book of Micah (i.-iii.; iv., v.; vi., vii.) corresponds with that of the book of Isaiah (i.-xxxix. ; xl.-lv.; lvi.-lxvi.) in the character of the three divisions (judgment; coming restoration; prayer for help in adversity) respectively, and in the fact that the first alone gives us pre-exilic writing in the actual words of the prophet to whom the whole book is ascribed. In both cases, it need hardly be said, the great literary and spiritual value of the later passages ought in no way Regarded by Stade (Z. A. T. W., 1903, p. 164 seq.) as an inde pendent psalm. 358 MIC AH— MICHAEL to suffer prejudice from critical conditions as to their date and authorship. Literature. — The chief modern commentaries are those of Nowack (Die Kleinen Propheten, 1897; 2nd ed., 1904) and Marti (Dodekapropheton, 1904), where detailed references to the older liter- ature may be found; cf. Wellhausen, Die Kleinen Propheten (3rd ed., 1898). In English, reference may be made to Cheyne (" Micah," in the Cambridge Bible, i882;>2nd ed., 1895), and to G. A. Smith (" The Book of the Twelve," vol. i., in The Expositor's Bible, 1896) ; also to the articles on " Micah " by Nowack in Hastings's Diet, of the Bible (1900), iii. 359, 360, and by Cheyne in the Ency. Bibl. . (1902), iii. c. 3068-3074, the latter incorporating most of the original article (Ency. Brit. 9th ed.) by W. Robertson Smith, which has been revised above. For a review of recent criticism see Cheyne, introduction to W. R. Smith's The Prophets of Israel, 2nd ed., pp. xxiii.-xxvii. ; also Ency. Bib. loc. cit. J. M. P. Smith discusses " The Strophic Structure of the Book of Micah " in a volume of Old Test, and Semitic Studies: in memory of W. R. Harper (Chicago, 1908). (W. R. S. ; H. W. R.*) MICAH, in the Bible, a man of the hill-country of Ephraim whose history enters into that of the foundation of the Israelite sanctuary at Dan (Judges xvii. seq.). He had stolen from his mother eleven hundred pieces of silver (for the number cf . Judges xvi. 5), and when she uttered a curse upon the unknown thief he restored the money and she consecrated it to Yahweh. A carved image was made and set up in his private temple together with an ephod-idol and teraphim (objects used in divination, cf. Gen. xxxi. 19, 30; Hos. iii. 4). He employed one of his sons to serve as priest, but when a Levite from Bethlehem in Judah came along he gladly installed him as " father and priest." When the tribe of Dan subsequently sought new territory and sent men to search for a suitable district they passed by Micah's house, recognized the Levite and requested an oracle from him. When, later, they migrated, they despoiled the sacred place and carried off the gods and priest to their newly won home at Laish. MICA-SCHIST,, in petrology, a rock composed essentially of mica and quartz, and having a thin parallel-banded or foliated structure, with lamellae rich in mica alternating with others which are principally quartz. They split readily along the micaceous films, and have smooth or slightly uneven surfaces covered with lustrous plates of muscovite or biotite ; the quartzose lamellae are often visible only when the specimens are looked at edgewise. Mica-schists are very common in regions of Archean rocks accompanying gneisses, crystalline limestones and other schists. Some have a flat banding yielding smooth slabs; others are crumpled or contorted with undulating foliation. Occasion- ally the quartz forms elliptical lenticles or " eyes." In some cases mica composes nearly the whole of the rock, in others quartz preponderates so that they approach quartz-schists and quartzites. The mica may be muscovite or biotite; both are often present, while paragonite and green fuchsite or chrome-mica are not so common. In addition to quartz there may be a small amount of feldspar, usually albite. A great number of accessory minerals are known in mica-schists, and when these are conspicuous or important they may be regarded as constituting special varieties receiving distinctive names. Garnet, in rounded red crystals, not uncommonly idiomorphic, is the most frequent. Brown staurolite, pinkish andalusite, and grey or blue kyanite occur in some kinds of mica- schist, separately or together. The white mica-schist of the St Gothard contains kyanite and staurolite. Graphite (or graphitoid) is also a very frequent ingredient of these rocks, giving them a leaden grey colour and causing them to soil the fingers when handled. In some mica-schists there is much calcite (calc-mica-schists) ; and hornblende, scapolite and augite are often seen in rocks of this sort. Tourmaline occurs, sometimes in large black prisms but more commonly in minute crystals visible only in microscopic sections. Rutile in tiny prisms, ilmenite and hematite in black or brown scales, zircon, apatite, granules of epidote or zoisite chlorite, chloritoid and pyrites occur with more or less frequency in the rocks of this group." Mica-schists are in nearly all cases sedimentary rocks which have been recrystallized and have obtained a schistose structure during the process. This can be proved by their chemical composition, which is very much the same as that of clays, shales and slates. In some districts it is possible to trace every gradation from a slate (q.v.) to a mica-schist, the intermediate stages being represented by phyllites (q.v.) which consist of quartz, muscovite and chlorite, and are neither so crystalline nor so well foliated as the schists. In a few places, e.g. Bergen in Norway, fossils have been found in mica- schists. The association of quartzites and quartz-schists, graphite- schists and crystalline limestones with mica-schists in the field is explained by the fact that all these rocks are altered sediments, viz. sandstones, carbonaceous shales and limestones. Under the microscope the appearance presented by mica-schists differs according to whether the rock is cut parallel to or across the planes of foliation. In the latter case thin alternating bands com- posed of black or brown mica, and of quartz, cross the field of view (see Petrology, Plate 4, fig. 8) . The mica scales have their cleavages and their flat sides parallel; the quartz occurs in rounded, elliptical or irregular grains, with usually a small admixture of feldspar (albite, oligoclase, orthoclase) ; apatite and iron oxides are rarely absent from these rocks. If garnet is present it may form large well-shaped crystals containing innumerable enclosures of quartz, biotite and iron ores ; in some cases the garnets are cracked as if they had been broken by the pressures to which the rock had been subjected. Often the garnets are surrounded by small " eyes " of quartz, and they may be embedded in green chlorite, which is probably a second- ary or decomposition product. Some mica-schists are rich in iron oxides and pass into haematite-schists (itabirites). When graphite occurs in mica-schists its crystals are small flat plates perfectly opaque even in the thinnest sections. Like all metamorphic rocks, mica-schists are principally found in Archean areas; the great majority of them are of pre-Cambrian age. There are, however, in the Alps, Himalayas, &c, many rocks of this sort which are believed to be secondary or even tertiary ; the evidence for this is not in all cases satisfactory, as of course the fossils, which if preserved would be sufficient to prove it, are nearly always destroyed by the metamorphism. Mica-schists are rarely of economic value, being too fissile for building-stones and too brittle for roofing-slates. They are of wide-spread distribution in the Scottish Highlands, Norway and Sweden, Bohemia, Saxony, Brittany, the Alps, many parts of North America, &c. (J. S. F.) MICCA, PIETRO, Piedmontese soldier (d. 1706), was born at Andorno, and achieved fame by his death in the defence of Turin. During the siege of that city by the French in 1706 a party of the besiegers had succeeded in penetrating by surprise into the moat of the fortress on the night of August 29-30, and would undoubtedly have captured it had not Micca, a soldier in the engineers, fired a mine, with the result that they were blown into the air and the rest of the force driven back with heavy losses. Micca's heroism has been the subject of poems, plays and romances. But, according to Count Giuseppe Solaro della Margherita, the commander of the Turin garrison at the time, it was through a miscalculation of the pace of the fuse, and not by deliberate intent, that he sacrificed his life. See A. Manno Pietro Micca ed il generale conte Solaro della Mar- gherita (Turin, 1883). MICHAEL (Hebrew •?*; I 75 long tons). From 1847 to 1887 the product of Michigan exceeded that of any other state; from 1847 to 1883 its copper product was more than one-half that of all the states, but after 1887 (except in 1891) more of that mineral was mined in Montana than in Michigan, and in 1906 and in 1907 the yield in both Arizona and Montana was greater than in Michigan. Fields of bituminous coal extend over an area of over 10,000 sq. m. in the central portion of the lower peninsula; but its quality is inferior. The mining of coal began in Jackson county in 1835 and there was a slow increase in the output until 1882 (135,339 short tons) ; then there was a tendency to decrease until 1897, from which time the product increased from 223,592 short tons to 2,035,858 short tons in 1907. The principal mines are in Saginaw, Bay, Eaton, Jackson, Huron and Shiawassee counties. Salt wells are numerous in the middle and south-east sections of the lower peninsula; the first successful one was drilled in Saginaw county in 1859 and i860. For a number of years prior to 1893 Michigan was the leading salt-producing state, and, though her output was subsequently (except in 1901) exceeded by that of New York, it continued to increase up to 1905, when it was 9,492,173 barrels; in 1907, the product was 10,786,630 barrels. Gypsum is obtained from deposits along the banks of the Grand river in Kent county and in the vicinity of Alabaster along the shore of Lake Huron in Iosco county. Operations on the deposit near Grand Rapids were begun in 1841, and although that near Alabaster was opened in 1862, it was not until 1902 that it became of much im- portance; in that year the output of the state was 208,563 short tons; in 1907 317,261 short tons were mined. Marl is found in the south part of the state; limestone most largely in the north part of the lower peninsula, and the east part of the upper peninsula; and the production of Portland cement increased rapidly from 77,000 barrels in 1898 to 3,572,668 in 1907. Besides limestones and dolomites, the only building stone of much commercial impor- tance is the Potsdam sandstone, extensive beds of which lie in the north part of the upper peninsula. Grindstones are produced in considerable quantity in Huron county. A small quantity of petroleum is obtained from thirteen wells in St Clair county in the east part of the lower peninsula; and the mineral waters at Mount Clemens, Benton Harbor and Alma are of considerable commercial value for medicinal purposes. Manufactures. — In 1900 the value of the manufactured products of Michigan amounted to $356,944,082, which was an increase of 28-4% over that of 1890, and by 1904 there was a further increase of 20-19 %.* During the same period, however, the value of the products of the lumber and timber industry, which in 1870, 1880 and 1890 was greater than that of any other state, and in 1900 was still more than twice as great as that of the products of any other manufacturing industry in the state and was exceeded only by that of the product of Wisconsin, decreased from $83,121,969 in 1890 to $53,915,647 (35-1%) in 1900, and to $40,569,335 in 1 904, this decrease being due to the fact that the large quantities of raw material (both hard wood and pine) formerly found in the forests of Michigan had become so far exhausted that much of it had to be brought in from other states and from Canada. The value of the products of the furniture factories and of the planing mills, neverthe- less, has steadily increased ; that of the furniture factories (of which Grand Rapids is the leading centre not only in Michigan but in the United States) rising from $10,767,038 in 1890 to $14,614,506 in 1900 and $18,421,735 in 1904, and that of the planing mills from $10,007,603 in 1890 to $12,469,532 in 1900 and $14,375,467 in 1904. The total value of the lumber and timber products, the furniture products, and the planing-mill products amounted in 1900 to $80,999,685; the value of those manufactures based upon minerals mined or quarried amounted in the same year to $83,730,930. Another important class of manufactures is that based on agri- culture: the value of flour and grist mill products amounted to $21,643,547 in 1900, and $26,512,027 in 1904; that of food prepara- tions, for which Battle Creek is noted, to $1,891,516 in 1900 and $6,753,699 in 1904; that of agricultural implements to $6,339,508 in 1900 and $8,719,719 in 1904; and of malt liquors to $5,296,825 in 1900 and $6,999,251 in 1904. Among other manufactures in which the state ranks high and in which there was a large increase in value during the same period 1 The 1904 census, taken by the Federal Bureau of the Census in co-operation with the secretary of state of Michigan, covered the year ending on the 30th of June 1904, and is thus not strictly com- parable with the " 1905 " census of manufactures for other states, which were for the year ending on the 31st of December 1904. But like the special census of manufactures in other states, it is confined to establishments under the factory system, and hence its figures are considerably less than they would have been had it been taken on the same basis as that of the 1900 census, which included hand trades and other custom work ; for example, on the basis of the 1904 census the value of the manufactured products in 1900 was only $319,691,856, and as that of 1904 was $429,120,060, the real in- crease was 34-2% instead of 20-19%. In the above text from this point the statistics given for 1900 are for factory products only. are: leather, carnages and waggons, chemicals, paper and wood pulp and beet sugar. In 1904 Michigan manufactured automobiles valued at $6,876,708. The ten leading manufacturing centres are, in the order of the value of their products in 1904: Detroit, Grand Rapids, Kalamazoo, Battle Creek, Saginaw, Jackson, Lansing, Muskegon, Bay City and Port Huron, all in the south half of the lower peninsula. Communications. — The building of railways in Michigan began in 1830, but little progress had been made in 1837 when the state began the construction of three railways and two canals across the south half of the lower peninsula. The Michigan Central was completed from Detroit to Ypsilanti in January 1838, a portion of the Michigan Southern was in operation in November 1840, and considerable work was done on the proposed Michigan Northern and the two canals. By 1846, however, the state had proved itself incompetent to carry on the work and sold its interests to private companies. In 1850 there were 342 m. completed, and from then until 1880 the mileage increased to 3938; but the great period of railway building in Michigan was in the .decade from 1880 to 1890, when the mileage was increased to 7108-48. By the close of 1908 it had further increased to 8629-35. The principal lines are the Michigan Central, the Pere Marquette, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Grand Rapids & Indiana, the Ann Arbor, the Grand Trunk, the Chicago & North-Western, the Duluth South Shore & Atlantic, the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste. Marie, and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul. A board of railway commissioners, which in 1907 succeeded a commissioner (whose office was created in 1873) hears complaints, has power to issue various orders and permits of minor importance to railway companies, and reports annually to the governor. 2 The legislature is empowered to appoint a commission to fix transportation rates for railways and express companies. Besides railway communica- tion Michigan has a coast line of about 1600 m., along which vessels of 2000 tons can sail and find several good harbours, the water communication having been extended and improved by several canals, among which are the Sault Ste. Marie, which passes the rapids of St Mary's River; the St Clair Flats, at the north end of Lake St Clair, by which a deeper channel is made through shallow water; and the Portage Lake, in the copper district, which connects that lake with Lake Superior. The state undertook to construct that at Sault Ste. Marie in 1837 but little had been accomplished in 1852 when the national government granted 750,000 acres of land to the state in aid of the enterprise, and three years after that the canal was completed. Since its completion, the national government has enlarged its locks so as to make it navigable for vessels drawing 21 ft. of water. The national government con- structed the canal at the St Clair Flats in 1871 and contributed land for aid in the construction of that connecting lakes Portage and Superior, which was completed in 1873 and passed under national control in 189 1. Population. — The population of Michigan in 1880 was 1,636,937; in 1890 it was 2,093,889, an increase of 27-9% within the decade; in 1900 it was 2,420,982, a further increase of 15-6% and in 19 10, according to the preliminary returns of the U.S. census, it was 2,810,173. Of the total population in 1900, 2,398,563 or 99-07% were whites, 15,861 were negroes, 6354 were Indians, 240 were Chinese, and 9 were Japanese. 1,879,329 or 77-6% were native born and 541,653 were foreign- born, 184,398 of the foreign-born being natives of Canada (151,915 English; 32,483 French), 125,074 of Germany, 43,839 of England, and 30,406 of Holland. In 1906 982,479 communi- cants of different denominations were reported: of these 492,135 were Roman Catholics, 128,675 Methodists, 105,803 Lutherans, 50,136 Baptists, 37,900 Presbyterians, 28,345 members of Reformed bodies, and 26,349 members of the Protestant Episcopal Church. In 1900 39-3% of the total population lived in places having at least 2500 inhabitants. Administration. — The constitution under which Michigan is now governed was first adopted in 1850, when it was felt that the powers which the first one, that of 1835, conferred upon the executive and the legislature were too unrestricted. In 1908 it was revised, and many changes were made. The constitution admits of amendment by an affirmative vote of two-thirds of the members of each house of the legislature, fol- lowed at the next succeeding spring or autumn election by an affirmative vote of a majority of the electors voting upon the question; or an amendment may be proposed by an initiative petition signed by more than 20% of the total number of electors who voted for secretary of state at the preceding election, and such an amendment (unless disapproved by a majority vote in a joint meeting of the two houses of the legislature) is submitted to popular meeting 01 the two nouses 01 the legislature) is submitted to popular 2 In 1909 telegraph and telephone companies were put under the supervision of the same board. 374 MICHIGAN vote at the next election and comes into effect only if it receives a favourable majority of the popular vote. Amendments suggested by the legislature have been frequently adopted, and one, adopted in 1862, provided that the question of a general revision of the con- stitution shall be submitted to a popular vote once every sixteen years and at such other times as may be provided by law. When this question was so submitted for the first time, in 1866, the vote was to revise; but the revision prepared by a convention called for the purpose was rejected at the polls The revision by the Con- stitutional Convention of 1907- 1908 was adopted by popular vote in 1908. In its present form the constitution confers suffrage upon every male citizen of the United States who is twenty-one years of age or over and has resided in the state six months and in his township or ward twenty days immediately preceding an election; and any woman may vote in an election involving the direct expenditure of public money or the issue of bonds if she have the qualifications of male electors and if she have property assessed for taxes in any part of the district or territory affected by the election in question. At the head of the execu- tive department is the governor, who is elected for two years, and who at the time of his election must be at least thirty years of age and must have been for five years a citizen of the United States, and for the two years immediately preceding a resident of the state. A lieutenant-governor, for whom the same qualifications are prescribed, is elected at the same time for the same term. Under the first constitution the secretary of state, treasurer, auditor-general, attorney-general, commis- sioner of the land office, superintendent of public instruction and the judges were all appointed by the governor, but under the present one they are elected and only minor officers are appointed. In 1893 the legislature created a board of four members to be appointed by the governor, one of whom must be a physician, another an attorney, and made it its duty to investigate the case of every convict for whom a petition for pardon is received and then report and recommend to the governor what it deem expedient. The governor's salary is fixed by the revised constitution of 1908 at $5000 a year. The lieutenant-governor succeeds the governor in case of vacancy, and next in order of succession comes the secretary of state. The legislature, consisting of a Senate of 32 members, and a House of Representatives of 100 members (according to the constitution not less than 64 and not more than 100), meets biennially, in odd-numbered years, at Lansing. Both senators and representatives are elected for a term of two years by single districts, except that a township or city which is entitled by its population to more than one representative elects its representatives on a general ticket. Beginning in 1913 and at each subsequent tenth year, the legislature, under the revised constitution of 1908, rearranges the senatorial districts and reapportions the representatives among the counties and districts, using as a basis the returns of the next preceding decennial census; the taking of a state census between the decennial periods is discontinued. No bill can pass either house except by an affirmative vote of a majority of the members elected to that house, and on its third reading the ayes and noes must be taken and recorded ; for appro- priation bills a two- thirds majority of all members elected to each house is required. All legislation must be by bill, legislation by joint and concurrent resolutions thus being prevented. No bill may be passed at a regular session until it has been printed and in posses- sion of each house for five days; no bill may be passed at a special session on any subject not expressly stated in the governor's pro- clamation or submitted by special message. The governor has ten days (Sundays not being counted) in which to exercise his veto power (which may be applied to any item or items of any bill making appropriations of money and embracing distinct items), and an affirmative vote in each house of two-thirds of the members elected is required to pass a bill over his veto. Under the revised constitu- tion of 1908 any bill passed by the legislature and approved by the governor, except appropriation bills, may be referred by the legis- lature to the qualified electors; and no bill so referred shall become law unless approved by a majority of the electors voting thereon; no local or special act, passed by the legislature, takes effect until it is approved by a majority vote of the electors in the affected district. The administration of justice is entrusted to a supreme court, a continually increasing number of circuit courts (thirty-eight in 1909), one probate court in each county, and not exceeding four justices of the peace in each township. The supreme court is composed of one chief justice and seven associate justices, all elected for a term of ten years, not more than two retiring every two years; it holds four sessions annually, exercises a general control over the inferior courts, may issue, hear and determine any of the more important writs, and has appel- late jurisdiction only in all other important cases. There is only one circuit court judge for a circuit, unless the legislature provides for the election of more; the term of office is six years. Circuit court judges have original jurisdiction in most matters civil and criminal, hear appeals from the lower courts, and must hold at least four sessions annually in each county of the circuit. Each county elects a judge of probate for a term of four years; he has original concurrent jurisdiction with the circuit court in matters of probate, and has original jurisdiction in all cases of juvenile delinquents and dependents. The legislature may provide for the election of more than one judge of probate in a county with more than 100,000 inhabitants. Justices of the peace are elected by the townships for a term of four years — there are not more than four in each township; in civil matters they have exclusive jurisdiction of cases in which the demand does not exceed $100 and concurrent juris- diction with the circuit courts in contract cases in which the demand does not exceed $300. For purposes of local government the state is divided into eighty-three counties, each of which is in turn divided regularly by N. and S. and E. and W. lines into several townships. In the more sparsely inhabited counties of the upper peninsula and in the N.E. section of the lower peninsula the townships are much larger than in other parts of the state. The officers of the township are a supervisor, clerk, treasurer, highway- commissioner, one overseer of highways for each highway district, a justice of the peace, and not more than four con- stables, all of whom are elected at the annual township meeting in April. The supervisor, two of the justices of the peace and the clerk constitute the township board, whose duty it is to settle claims against the township, audit accounts, and publish annually an itemized statement of receipts and dis- bursements. The supervisor is also the township assessor, and the several township supervisors constitute the county board of supervisors who equalize property valuations as between townships, authorize townships to borrow money with which to build or repair bridges, are entrusted with the care and management of the property and business of the county, and may borrow or raise by tax what is necessary to meet the more common expenses of the county. Other county officers are a treasurer, clerk, sheriff, register of deeds, attorney, sur- veyor and two coroners, each elected for a term of two years, a school commissioner elected for a term of four years, and one or more notaries public appointed by the governor. Under the revised constitution of 1908 the former classifica- tion of cities into four classes and the practice of granting special charters were abolished, and the legislature is required to provide by general laws for the incorporation of cities and villages; " such general laws shall limit their rate of taxation for municipal purposes and restrict their powers of borrowing money and contracting debts." Cities and villages are permitted — upon authorization by the affirmative vote of three-fifths of the electors voting on the question — to own and operate, even outside their corporate limits, public utilities for supplying water, light, heat, power and transportation, and may sell and deliver, outside their corporate limits, water, heat, power and light to an amount not more than one-fourth that furnished by them in each case within their corporate limits; but no city or village of less than 25,000 inhabitants may own or operate transportation facilities. Under the revision of 1908 corporate franchises cannot be granted for a longer term than thirty years. Law.— A wife in Michigan has the same right to her property acquired either before or after marriage as she would have if single, except that she cannot under ordinary circumstances give, grant or MICHIGAN 375 sell it to another without her husband's consent. Grounds for a divorce are adultery, physical incapacity at the time of marriage, sentence to imprisonment for three years or more, desertion for two years, habitual drunkenness, extreme cruelty, or, in case of the wife, refusal of the husband to provide for her maintenance when suffi- ciently able to do so; but in case the parties were married outside of Michigan the party seeking the divorce must reside within the state at least one year before petitioning for the same. An insolvent debtor's homestead — consisting of not more than 40 acres of land with a house thereon, or a house and lot in a city or village not exceeding $1500 in value, together with not less than $500 of his personal property — is exempt from execution. For several years previous to 1876 a clause of the constitution prohibited the sale of intoxicating liquors within the state. Since then the whole liquor business has been subjected to a heavy tax, and since 1887 the prohibition of it has been left to the option of each of the several counties. A state court of mediation and arbitration, consisting of three members appointed by the governor with the consent of the senate, was created in 1889 to inquire into the cause of grievances threatening or resulting in any strike or lock-out and to endeavour to effect a settlement. Charitable and Penal Institutions. — The state supports the Michigan Asylum for the Insane (opened 1859), at Kalamazoo; the Eastern Michigan Asylum for the Insane (opened 1878), at Pontiac; the Northern Michigan Asylum for the Insane (opened 1885), at Traverse City; the Michigan Asylum for the Dangerous and Criminal Insane (established 1885), at Ionia; the Upper Peninsula Hospital for the Insane, at Newberry; a Psychopathic Hospital (established 1907), at Ann Arbor; a State Sanatorium (established 1905), at Howell; the Michigan State Prison (established 1839), at Jackson; the Michigan Reformatory (established 1887), at Ionia; the State House of Correction and Branch Prison (established 1885), at Marquette; the Industrial School for Boys, at Lansing; the Industrial Home for Girls (established 1879), near Adrian; the State Public School (opened 1874), at Coldwater, a temporary home for dependent chil- dren until homes in families can be found for them; the School for the Deaf (established 1854), at Flint; the School for the Blind, at Lansing; an Employment Institution for the Blind (established 1903), at Saginaw; the Home for the Feeble Minded and Epileptic (established 1893), at Lapeer; and the Michigan Soldiers' Home (established 1885), at Grand Rapids. Each of these institutions is under the control of a board of three or more members appointed by the governor with the approval of the Senate, and at the head of the department is the State Board of Corrections and Charities, consisting of the governor and four other members appointed by him, with the approval of the Senate, for a term of eight years, one retiring every two years. This board is required to visit each of the institutions at least once a year to ascertain its condition and needs, and all proposed appropriations for their support, plans of buildings, proposed systems of sewerage, ventilation and heating must be submitted to it. Education. — Michigan was a pioneer state in creating the American educational system; she began the organization of it at the time of her admission into the Union in 1837, an d nas since been noted for the high standard of her schools. Each township operating under the District Act has two school inspec- tors — one being elected at each town 1 meeting for a term of two years — who with the township clerk constitute the township board of school inspectors, and to this board is given authority to divide the township into school districts and to exercise a general supervision over the several schools within their jurisdiction; a township may be organized as a single district, called a " township unit district." The qualified electors of each district having an ungraded school elect a moderator, a director and a treasurer — one at each annual school meeting — -for a term of three years, who constitute the district school board, and this board is entrusted with ample power for direct- ing the affairs of the school. In a district having more than 100 children of school age a graded school under the control of five trustees is formed whenever two-thirds of the electors vote for it at a town meeting, and the trustees of a graded school may establish a high school whenever a majority of the electors authorize them to do so. A high school may also be established in any township in which there is no incorporated village or city if when the question is submitted to the electors of that township a majority of the votes cast are in the affirma- tive. Each county has a county school commissioner, elected for a term of four years, who exercises a general supervision over the schools within his jurisdiction, and a board of examiners, consisting of three members (including the commissioner) and appointed by the several boards of county supervisors, from whom teachers receive certificates. Finally, at the head of all the public elementary and secondary schools of the state is the state superintendent of public instruction, elected for a term of two years; he is ex officio a member and secretary of the, state board of education, and a member, with the right to speak but not to vote, of all other boards having control of public instruc- tion in any state institution. In every district having as many as 800 children between the ages of five and twenty the state requires that the school be taught not less than nine months a year; and a compulsory education law requires the attendance of all children between the ages of eight and fifteen for four months each year, in cities all between the same ages for the full school year, and between the ages of seven and sixteen if found frequenting public places without lawful occupation. The higher state institutions of learning consist of a university, to which graduates of high schools on an accredited list are admitted without examination, four normal schools, an agricultural college, and a school of mines. The university (at Ann Arbor) was estab- lished in 1837, and is under the control of a board of regents elected by the people for a term of eight years, two every two years; the president of the institution and the superintendent of public instruc- tion are members of the board but without the right to vote. The state normal schools are: the Michigan State Normal College at Ypsilanti (organized in 1849); the Central Michigan Normal School at Mount Pleasant (established in 1895) ; the Northern State Normal School at Marquette (established in 1899); and the Western State •Normal School at Kalamazoo (established in 1904). All of them are under the state board of education, which consists of the state super- intendent of public instruction and three other members elected, one every two years, for a term of six years. The agricultural college, at East Lansing, 3 m. east of Lansing, is the oldest in the United States; it was provided for by the state constitution of 1850, organ- ized in 1855 and opened in 1857, and is under the control of the state board of agriculture, consisting of the president of the college and six other members elected by popular vote for a term of six years, two every two years. The college of mines, at Houghton, was established in 1885 and is under the control of a board of six members appointed by the governor with the approval of the Senate, two every two years. In 1908 it had 35 instructors, 253 students, and a library of 22,000 volumes. Other important institutions of learning within the state but not maintained by it are: Albion College (Methodist Episcopal; opened in 1843), at Albion; Hillsdale College (Free Bap- tist, 1855), at Hillsdale; Kalamazoo College (Baptist, 1855), at Kalamazoo; Adrian College (controlled by the Methodist Protestant Church since 1867), at Adrian ; Olivet College (Congregational, 1859), at Olivet; Hope College (Reformed, 1866), at Holland; Detroit College -(Roman Catholic, 1877), at Detroit; Alma College (Presby- terian; incorporated 1886), at Alma; and some professional schools at Detroit (q.v.). Finance. — The revenue of the state is derived almost wholly from taxes, about 87 % from a direct or general property tax and the rest from various specific or indirect taxes, such as the liquor tax and the inheritance tax. The direct tax, other than that on the property of corporations, is assessed by the township supervisors, or, in cities and incorporated villages by the officer named in the charter for that service, on what is supposed to be the full cash value of the property. The assessment roll thus prepared is reviewed by a local board of review; an equalization between the assessing districts in a county is made annually by the county board of supervisors, and between the counties in the state every five years (and at such other times as the legislature may direct) by the state board of equaliza- tion, which is composed of the lieutenant-governor, auditor-general, secretary of state, treasurer, and commissioner of the land office. But at the head of the whole taxing system is the board of state tax commissioners and ex officio state board of assessors, consisting of three members appointed by the governor with the approval of the senate for a term of six years. It exercises a general supervision over all other taxing officers and is itself the assessor of the property of railroads, express companies and certain car companies. Mainly through the efficiency of this board the assessed value of the taxable property of the state was increased from $968,189,087 in 1899 to $1,418,251,858 in 1902, or 46-4%, and the taxes levied on railways, which had hitherto been assessed on their gross earnings, were in- creased from $1,483,907 in 1901 to $3,288,162 in 1902, or 121-6%. In entering upon the work of public improvements in 1837 the state borrowed $5,200,000, and the greater portion of the bonds were sold to the Morris Canal and Banking Company and to the Pennsylvania United States Bank, both of which failed when they had only in part paid for the bonds. About this time it was seen that the cost of the improvements undertaken would be much greater than the original estimate and that several of them were impracticable. The difficulty of meeting the interest as it became due soon threat- ened to be insurmountable, but the state finally sold the improve- ments made and came out of the experience with good credit although with a large debt — about two and a half millions of dollars. This was further increased during the Civil War, but after the close of that war it was rapidly diminished and finally was extinguished in 37^ MICHIGAN the last decade of the century. The present constitution (as revised in 1908) forbids the contraction of a state debt exceeding $250,000 except for repelling an invasion or suppressing an insurrection, and the borrowing power of the minor civil divisions is restricted by a general law. The early experience of the state with banks was scarcely less serious than that with public improvements. Although there were already fifteen banks in the state in 1837 yet the cry against mono- poly was loud, and so in that year a general banking law was passed whereby any ten or more freeholders might establish a bank with a capital of not less than fifty thousand nor more than three hundred thousand dollars and begin business as soon as 30% of the capital was paid in in specie. Only a few provisions were made, and those ineffectual, for the protection of the public : later in the same year the legislature passed an act for the suspension of specie payments until the 6th of May 1838, and the consequence was that the state was flooded with irredeemable paper currency. But most of the " wild cat " banks had passed out of existence by 1839, and in 1844 the bank act of 1837 was declared unconstitutional. Profiting by this experience, the framers of the constitution of 1850 inserted a provi- sion in that document whereby no general banking law can have effect until it has been submitted to the people and has been approved by a majority of the votes cast on the question. This provision is included in the revised constitution adopted in 1908, with an addi- tional provision that no amendment shall be made to any banking law unless it shall receive an affirmative two-thirds vote of both branches of the legislature. The present banking law provides that the capital stock of a state bank shall be not less than $20,000 in a city of not more than 1500 inhabitants, not less than $25,000 in a city of not more than 5000, not less than $50,000 in a city of between 5000 and 20,000, not less than $100,000 in a city of between 20,000 and 1 10,000, and not less than $250,000 in all larger cities. Commer- cial banks and savings banks are required to keep on hand at least 15% °f their total deposits. Every stockholder in a bank is made individually liable to the amount of his stock at its par value in addition to the said stock. And all banks are subject to the inspec- tion and supervision of the commissioner of the state banking depart- ment, who is appointed by the governor with the approval of the Senate for a term of four years. History. — From 1613 until 1760 the territory now within the borders of Michigan formed a part of New France, and the first Europeans to found missions and settlements within those borders were Frenchmen. Two Jesuits, Raymbault and Jogues, visited the site of Sault Sainte Marie as early as 1641 for the conversion of the Chippewas; in 1668 Marquette founded there the first permanent settlement within the state; three years later he had founded a mission among the Hurons at Michilimackinac; La Salle built a fort at the mouth of the Saint Joseph in 1679; and in 1701 Cadillac founded Detroit as an important point for the French control of the fur trade. But the missionaries were not interested in the settlement of the country by Europeans, the fur traders were generally opposed to it, there was bitter strife between the missionaries and Cadillac, and the French system of absolutism in govern- ment and monopoly in trade were further obstacles to progress. Even Detroit was so expensive to the government of the mother country that there was occasional talk of abandoning it; and so during the last fifty-nine years that Michigan was a part of new France there were no new settlements, and little if any growth in those already established. During the last war between the English and the French in America the Michigan settlements passed into the possession of the English, Detroit in 1760 and the others in 1761, but the time had not yet come for much improvement. The white inhabitants, still mostly French, were subjected to an English rule that until the Quebec Act of 1774 was chiefly military, and as a consequence many of the more thrifty sought homes elsewhere, and the Indians, most of whom had been allies of the French, were so ill-treated, both by the officers and traders, that under Pontiac, chief of the Ottawas, a simultaneous attack on the English posts was planned. Detroit was besieged for five months and both Michilimackinac and Saint Joseph were taken. Moreover, the English policy, which first of all was concerned with the profits of trade and manufacture, gave little more encouragement to the settlement of this section of the country than did the French. By the Treaty of Paris, in 1783, which concluded the American War of Independence, the title to what is now Michigan passed to the United States, and in 1787 this region became a part of the North- West Territory; but it was not until 1796 that Detroit and Mackinac (Michilimackinac), in accordance with Jay's Treaty of 1794, were surrendered by Great Britain. In 1800, on the division of the North-West Territory, the west portion of Michigan became a part of the newly-established Indiana Territory, into which the entire area of the present state was embodied in 1802, when Ohio was admitted to the Union; and finally, in 1805, Michigan Territory was organized, its south boundary being then described as a line drawn east from the south extremity of Lake Michigan until it intersected Lake Erie, and its west boundary a line drawn from the same starting point through the middle of Lake Michigan to its north extremity and then due north to the north boundary of the United States. In 1812, during the second war between Great Britain and the United States, General William Hull, first governor of the Territory, although not greatly outnumbered, surrendered Detroit to the British without a struggle; in the same year also Mackinac was taken and Michigan again passed under British rule. This rule was of short duration, however, for soon after Commodore Oliver H. Perry's victory on Lake Erie, in September of the next year, Detroit and the rest of Michigan except Mackinac, which was not recaptured until July 1815, were again taken into the pos- session of the United States. Up to this time the Territory had still remained for the most part a wilderness in which the fur trade reaped the largest profits, its few small settlements being confined to the borders; and the inaccurate reports of the surveyors sent out by the national government described the interior as a vast swamp with only here and there a little land fit for cultivation. The large number of hostile Indians was also a factor in making the Territory unattractive. But during the efficient administration of Lewis Cass, governor of the Territory from 1813 to 1 831, the interference of the British was checked and many of the Indians were removed to the west of the Mississippi; printing presses, established during the same period at Detroit, Ann Arbor, Monroe and Pontiac, became largely instrumental in making the country better known; the first steamboat, the " Walk-in-the-Water," appeared at Detroit in 1818; the Erie canal was opened in 1825; by 1830 a daily boat line was running between Detroit and Buffalo, and the population of Michigan, which was only 4762 in 1810 and 8896 in 1820, increased to 31,639 in 1830 and 212,267 in 1840. In 1819 the Territory had been empowered to send a delegate to Congress. By 1832 the question of admission into the Union had arisen, and in 1835 a convention was called in Detroit, a constitution was framed in May, that constitution was adopted by popular vote in October, state officers were elected, and application for admission was made; but a dispute with Ohio over the boundary between the two caused a delay in the admission by Congress until early in the year 1837. Although the ordinance creating the North-West Territory fixed the boundary line as claimed by Michigan, yet that line was found to be farther south than was at the time expected and when the constitution of Ohio was adopted it was accom- panied with a proviso designed to secure to that state a north boundary that was north of the mouth of the Maumee River. The territory between the two proposed lines was unquestionably of greater economic importance to Ohio than to Michigan, and, besides, at this particular time there were forcible political reasons for not offending the older state. The consequence was that after the bloodless " war " between the two states for the possession of Toledo, Congress settled the dispute in Ohio's favour and gave to Michigan the territory since known as the upper peninsula. The boundaries as fixed by Congress were rejected by a convention which met on the 4th of September at Ann Arbor, but they were accepted by the convention of the Jackson party, which met, also at Ann Arbor, on the 6th of December; the action of this latter convention was considered authoritative by Congress, which admitted Michigan into the Union as a state on the 26th of January 1837. Since admission into the Union the more interesting experiences of the state have been with internal improvements and with banking, which together resulted in serious financial distress; in the utili- zation of its natural resources, which have been a vast source of MICHIGAN, LAKE 377 wealth; and in the development of its educational system, in which the state has exerted a large influence throughout the Union. From the beginning of its government under its first state constitution in 1835 until 1855 Michigan had a Demo- cratic administration with the exception of the years 1840- 1842, when opposition to the financial measures of the Democrats placed the Whigs in power. But it was in Michigan that the Republican party received its first official recognition, at a state convention held at Jackson on the 6th of July 1857, and from the beginning of the following year the administration has been Republican with the exception of two terms from 1883 to 1885, and from 1891 to 1893, when it was again Democratic. Governors of Michigan „ .. Territorial. William Hull 1805-1813 Lewis Cass 1813-1831 Stevens Thompson Mason (acting) 1 83 1 George Bryan Porter . 1 831-1834 Stevens Thompson Mason (acting) 1 834-1 835 John Scott Horner (acting) State Stevens Thompson Mason . William Woodbridge . James Wright Gordon (acting) John Steward Barry Alpheus Felch William L. Greenly (acting) Epaphroditus Ransom John Steward Barry . Robert McClelland Andrew Parsons (acting) Kinsley S. Bingham Moses Wisner Austin Blair Henry Howland Crapo Henry Porter Baldwin John Judson Bagley Charles Miller Croswell David Howell Jerome Josiah W. Begole Russell Alexander Alger Cyrus Gray Luce Edwin Baruch Winans John T. Rich Hazen Smith Pingree . Aaron Thomas Bliss . Fred M. Warner . Chase S. Osborn . Authorities. — The Puh Democrat Whig Democrat Republican Democrat and Greenback Republican ,, Democrat Republican 1835 I 835-1 840 1840-1841 1841-1842 1 842-1 846 I 846-1 847 1847-1848 1848-1850 1850-1851 1851-1853 I853-I855 1 855-1 859 1 859-1 86 1 1861-1865 1 865-1 869 1869-1873 1873-1877 1877-1881 1881-1883 1 883-1 885 1885-1887 1 887-1 89 1 1891-1893 1893-1897 1 897-1 90 1 1901-1905 1905-1911 1911 ilications of the Michigan Geological Survey (Detroit, Lansing and New York, 1838 seq.) deal largely with the mining districts of the upper peninsula. Alexander Winchell, Michigan: Being Condensed Popular Sketches of the Topography, Climate and Geology of the State (1873), is in large measure restricted to the south half of the state. W. J. Beal and C. F. Wheeler, Michigan Flora (Lansing, 1892), contains the results of an extensive study of the subject. See also the Twelfth Census of the United Slates (Washington, 1901-1902) ; Silas Farmer, Michigan Book: a State Cyclopaedia with Sectional County Maps (Detroit, 1901); Bela Hubbard, Memorials of a Half-Century (New York, 1887), a well written account of obser- vations, chiefly upon scenery, fauna, flora and climate; Webster Cook, Michigan: its History and Government (New York, 1905), written primarily for use in schools and containing a reference bibliography ; A. C. McLaughlin, History of Higher Education in Michigan, in Circulars of Information of the United States Bureau of Education (Washington, 1891), being an account of the origin of the public school system and an individual account of each higher institution of learning » T. M . Cooley , Michigan : a History of Govern- ment (Boston, 1885), a critical but popular narrative by an eminent jurist; J. V. Campbell, Outlines of the Political History of Michigan (Detroit, 1876), also by a jurist of the state; Henry M. Utley and Byron M. Cutcheon, Michigan as a Province, Territory and State (4 vols., New York, 1906) ; Michigan Pioneer and Historical Society, Historical Collections: Collections and Researches (Lansing, 1877 seq.); and Publications of the Michigan Political Science Association (Ann Arbor, 1893). MICHIGAN, LAKE, the only one of the great lakes of North America wholly within the boundaries of the United States, and the second largest body of fresh water in the world. It lies S. of Lake Superior and W. of Lake Huron, between 41 37' and 46° 05' N. and 84 45' and 88° W.; is bounded on the N. and E. by the state of Michigan, on the W. by Wisconsin, while Illinois and Indiana touch its S. end. It is 320 m. long, and has an average width of 65 m. The maximum depth recorded by the United States Lake Survey is 870 ft.; the mean level of the surface is 581 \ ft. above mean sea-level, being the same as that of Lake Huron and 21 ft. below that of Lake Superior. Its area is 22,400 sq. m., and it has a basin 68,100 sq. m. in area. The shores of Lake Michigan are generally low and sandy, and the land slopes gradually to the water. The northern shore of the lake is irregular and more rugged and picturesque than the other shores, the summit of the highest peak being about 1400 ft. above the sea. On the eastern side are numerous sand hills, formed by the wind into innumerable fantastic shapes, sometimes covered with stunted trees and scanty vegetation, but usually bare and rising to heights of from 150 to 250 ft. The south-western shore is generally low, with sand hills covered with shrivelled pines and bur oaks. Along the western shore woods and prairies alternate, interspersed with a few high peaks. The cliffs on the east shore of Green Bay form a bold escarpment, and from this ridge the land slopes gradually to the lake. With the exception of Green and Traverse bays, Lake Michigan has few indentations of the coast line, and except at the north end it is free from islands. The waters near shore are shoal, and as there are few harbours of refuge of easy access navigation is dangerous in heavy storms. Around the lake the climate is equable, for, though the winter is cold and the summer hot, the waters of the lake modify the extremes, the mean temperature varying from 40° to 54° F. The average annual rainfall is 33 in. The finest agricultural land in the United States is near the lake, and there is an immense trade in all grains, fruits, livestock and lumber, and in products such as flour, pork, hides, leather goods, furniture, &c. Rich lead and copper mines abound, as also salt, iron and coal. Abundant water power promotes manufactures of all kinds. Beer and distilled liquors are largely manufactured, and fine building stone is obtained from numerous quarries. The lake is practically tideless, though true tidal pulsations amounting to 3 in. in height are stated to have been ob- served in Chicago. In the water of the lake there is a general set of current towards the outlet at the strait of Mackinac, following the east shore, with slight circular currents in the main portion of the lake and at the northern end around Beaver island. These currents vary in speed from 4 to 10 m. per day. Surface currents are set up by prevailing winds, which also seriously affect water levels, lowering the water at Chicago and raising it at the strait, or the reverse, so as greatly to inconvenience navigation. The level of the lake is subject to seasonal fluctuations, reaching a maximum in midsummer and a minimum in February, as well as to alter- nating cycles of years of high and low water. Standard high- water of 1838 was 3-36 ft. above mean level and standard low-water of 1895, 2-82 ft- below that datum, giving an extreme recorded range slightly over 6 ft. The northern portion of the lake only is covered with ice in winter, and ice never reaches as far south as Milwaukee. Milwaukee River remains closed on an average for one hundred days— from the beginning of December to the middle of March. The average date of the opening and closing of navigation at the strait of Mackinac, where the ice remains longest, is the 17th of April and the 9th of January respectively. 1 Regular lines of steamers specially equipped to meet winter conditions, most of them being car ferries, cross the lake and the strait of Mackinac all winter between the various ports. No notable rivers flow into Lake Michigan, the largest being the Big Manistee and Muskegon on the east shore, and on the west shore the Menominee and the Fox, both of which empty into Green Bay, the most important arm of the lake. The numerous harbours are chiefly artificial, usually located at the mouths of streams, the improvements consisting of two parallel piers extending into the lake and protecting a dredged channel. Sand bars keep filling up the mouths of these channels, necessitating frequent dredging and extension of the breakwaters, work undertaken by the Federal government, which also maintains a most comprehensive and com- plete system of aids to navigation, including lighthouses and light- ships, fog alarms, gas and other buoys, life-saving, storm signal and weather report stations. 1 Report of Deep Waterways Commission (1896). 378 MICHIGAN, UNIVERSITY OF— MICHIGAN CITY Chicago, the principal port on the lake, is at its south-west ex- tremity, and is remarkable for the volume of its trade, the number of vessels arriving and departing exceeding that of any port in the United States, though the tonnage is less than that of New York. It is a large railway centre, and the number and size of the grain elevators are noticeable. The port is protected by breakwaters enclosing a portion of the lake front. The level of the city above the lake being only 14 ft., much difficulty arose in draining it. A sanitary and ship canal 34 m. long was therefore completed in 1900 to divert the Chicago river, a small stream that flows into the lake, into the head waters of the Des Plaines river and thence through the river Joliet into the Mississippi at St Louis. The discharge of water is by law so regulated that the maximum flow shall not exceed 250,000 cub. ft. per minute. The effect upon the permanent level of the lakes of the withdrawal of water through this artificial outlet is receiving much attention. Milwaukee, situated on the shore of Milwaukee Bay, on the western side of the lake, is, next to Chicago, the largest city on the lake, and has a large commerce and a harbour of refuge. Escanaba, on Little Bay de Noc (Noquette), in the northern part of the lake, is a natural harbour and a large iron shipping port. Green Bay and Lake Michigan are connected by a canal extending from the lake to the head of Sturgeon Bay. Lake Michigan is connected at its north-east extremity with lake Huron by the strait of Mackinac, 48 m. long, with a minimum width of 6 m. ; the water is generally deep and the shoals lying near the usually travelled routes are well marked. Bibliography. — Sailing directions for Lake Michigan, Green Bay, and the Strait of Mackinac, U.S. Navy Hydrographic office publica- tion No. 108 B (Washington, 1906) ; Bulletin No. 17 : Survey of North- ern and North-western Lakes, U.S. Lake Survey Office (Detroit, Michigan, 1907) ; St Lawrence Pilot, 7th ed., Hydrographic Office Admiralty (London, 1906) ; Effect of Withdrawal of Water from Lake Michigan by the Sanitary District of Chicago, U.S. House of Repre- sentatives' Document No. 6, 59th Congress, 1st session (Washington, 1906). (W. P. A.) MICHIGAN, UNIVERSITY OF, one of the principal educational institutions of the United States, situated at Ann Arbor, Michigan. It embraces a department of literature, science and the arts (including industry and commerce), opened in 1841, and includ- ing a graduate school, organized in 1892; a department of medicine and surgery, opened in 1850; a department of law, opened in 1859; a school of pharmacy, opened as a separate department in 1876; a 'homoeopathic medical college, opened in 1875; a college of dental surgery, opened in 1875; and a department of engineering, separately organized in 1895, which includes courses in marine engineering, architecture, and archi- tectural engineering. The university was one of the first to admit women, having opened its doors to them in 1870 as a natural consequence of its receiving aid from the state (since 1867), and since 1900 they have constituted nearly one-half of the student body in the department of literature, science and the arts. In 1907-1908 there were in all departments 350 instructors and 5013 students (1796 in the department of literature, science and the arts; 1354 in the department of engineering; 391 in the department of medicine and surgery; 791 in the department of law; 101 in the school of pharmacy; 82 in the homoeopathic medical college; 168 in the college of dental surgery; and 1070 in the summer sessions). Besides the several main department buildings there is a library build- ing, a museum building, several laboratories, a gymnasium for men, and a gymnasium for women. The general library in 1908 contained 172,940 volumes, 3800 pamphlets, and 3370 maps, and the several department libraries brought the total up to 222,600 volumes and 5°°° pamphlets. The general museum contains large zoological collections, geological and anthropo- logical collections, including the exhibit of the Chinese govern- ment at the New Orleans Exposition, which was given by the government to the university in 1885; there are besides several special collections in some of the laboratories. The astronomical observatory is surmounted by a movable dome in which is mounted a refracting telescope having a thirteen-inch object glass. The several laboratories are equipped for use in instruc- tion in physics, chemistry, mineralogy, geology, zoology, psychology, botany, forestry, actuarial work, engineering, histology, physiology, hygiene, electrotherapeutics, pathology, anatomy and dentistry. The university is governed from without by a board of eight regents elected by popular suffrage, two biennially, at the same time as the election of judges of the supreme court; from within »_^a V\ €^3 j JQ. their bisections of the fixed wire by a pressure of the finger on the side of the tube, one is puzzled whether more to wonder at such poor adaptation of means to ends or the patience and skill which, with such means, led to such results. 3 Dawes, who employed a micrometer of the English type (figs. I, '2 and 3), used to bolt the head of one of the screws, and the instrument was provided with a slipping piece, giving motion to the micrometer by screws acting on two slides, one in right ascension, the other in declination, so that " either of the webs can be placed upon either com- ponent of a double star with ease and certainty " (Mem. R.A.S. xxxv. 1 9). The micrometer shown in fig. 8 was made by Fig. 9 represents the same Fig. 8. Repsolds for the Cape Observatory. 3 Professor Watson used to say, " After all the most important part of a telescope is the man at the small end." 384 MICROMETER micrometer with the upper side of the box removed. The letters in the description refer to both figures. S is the head of the micrometer screw, s that of the screw by which the micrometer box is moved relative to the plate/ (fig. 8), s' that of the screw which moves the eyepiece slide. K is the clamp in position angle, P the slow motion screw in position-angle; pp is the position circle, R, R its two readers. The latter _are_ in fact little microscopes carrying a vernier etched on glass, in lieu of a filar micrometer. These verniers can be read to 1', and estimated to o'-2. D is the drum-head which gives the fraction of a revolution, d that which gives the whole number of revolu- tions, I is the index or pointer at which both drums are read. This index is shown in fig. 9, but only its mode of attach- ment (X, fig. 9) in fig. 8. The teeth of the pinion z, fig. 9, are cut on the axis of the micrometer screw. The drum d and Fig. 9. its attached tooth wheel are ground to turn smoothly on the axis of the screw. The pinion 2 and the toothed wheel d are connected by an intermediate wheel and pinion Y; the numbers of teeth in the wheels and pinions are so proportioned that twenty-four revolutions of the micrometer screw produce one revolution of the drum and wheel d. The divisions of both drums are conveniently read, simul- taneously, by the lens e ; at night the lamp which illuminates the webs and the position-circle also illuminates the drum-heads (see on illumination p. 385). oaoa is the web-frame (fig. 9), 187 is a single rod consisting of two cylinders accurately fitting in the ends of the micro- meter box, the larger cylinder being at /3. There is a hole in the web- frame which smoothly fits the larger cylinder at 0', and another which similarly fits the smaller cylinder at 7'. A spiral spring, coiled round the cylinder 7, resting one end on the shoulder formed by the difference of the diameters of the cylinders. and 7 and the other on the inside of the web-frame, presses the latter con- tinuously towards 7. Contact of the web-frame of the micrometer with the side of the box at 7 would therefore take place, were it not for the micrometer screw. This screw fits neatly in the end of the box at £, passes loosely through the web-frame at e', is tapped into the frame at f ', and its end rests on a flat hardened surface at f. Rotation of the web-frame about 187 is prevented by the heads of the screws at m; the head of the screw on the lower side of the frame reposes on the plane vv, that on the upper side (fig. 9) touches lightly on the inner surface of the lid of the box. Such rotation can obviously be controlled within limits that need not be further considered. But freedom of rotation in the plane of the paper (fig. 9) is only prevented by good fitting of the holes |3' 7'; and, since the weight of the slide is on one side of the screw, misfit here will have the effect of changing the reading for coincidence of the movable with the fixed web in reverse positions of the micrometer. With the Cape micrometer a systematic difference has been found in the coincidence point for head above and head below amounting to o"-l4. This corresponds, in the Cape instrument, with an excess of the diameters of the holes over those of the cylinders of about TToinrth of an inch — a quantity so small as to imply good workman- ship, though it involves a systematic error which is very much larger than the probable error of a single determination of the coincidence point. The obvious remedy is to make all measures on opposite sides of the fixed web before reversing in position-angle — a precau- tion, however, which no careful observer would neglect. In measur- ing differences of declination, where the stars are brought up by the diurnal motion, this precaution cannot be adopted, because it is necessary always to bisect the preceding star with the fixed web. But in AS measures index error can be eliminated by bisecting both stars with the same web (or different webs of known interval fixed on the same frame), and not employing the fixed web at all. The discordance in zero, when known to exist, is really of no consequence, because the observations can be so arranged as to eliminate it. The box is mounted on a strong hollow steel cylinder CC (fig. 9) by holes 77, 8 in the ends of the box, which fit the cylinder closely and smoothly. The cylinder is rigidly fixed in the studs C, C, and these are attached to the foundation plate /. The cylinder contains towards ?j a sliding rod, and towards a compressed spiral spring. There is thus a thrust outwards of the spring upon the hollow cap W (attached outside the box), and a thrust of the rod upon the end of the screw s. The position of the box relative to the plate /, in the direction of measurement, depends therefore on the distance between the end of the screw s and the fixed stud C. A screwing in of 5 thus causes the box to move to the left, and vice versa. Rotation of the box round CC is prevented by downward pressure of the spring Z on a projection attached to the side of the box. The amount of this pressure is regulated by the screw 2'. The short screw whose divided milled head is a shifts the zero of the micrometer by pushing, without turning, the short sliding rod whose flat end forms the point d'appui of the micrometer screw at f . "The pitch of the screw a is the same as that of the measuring screw (50 threads to the inch), and its motion can be limited by a stop to half a revolution. The five fixed webs are attached to the table tt, which is secured to the bottom of the box by the screws p. The three movable webs are attached to the projections XX on the frame act. The plane surfaces tt and XX are composed of a bronze of very close texture, which appears capable of receiving a finish having almost the truth and polish of an optical surface. It seems also to take a very clean V cut, as the webs can be laid in their furrows with an astonishing ease and precision. These furrows have apparently been cut in situ with a very accurate engine; for not the slightest departure from parallelism can be detected in any of the movable webs relative to the fixed webs. Extraordinary care has evidently been bestowed in adjusting the parallelism and distance of the planes t and X, so that the movable wires shall almost, but not quite, touch the surface t. The varnish to fix the webs is applied, not on the surface t as is usual, but on a bevel for the purpose, 1 the position of the webs depending on their tension to keep them in their furrows. The result is that no trace of " fiddling " exists, and the movable and fixed webs come sharply together in focus with the highest powers. Under such powers the webs can be brought into apparent contact with such precision and delicacy that the uncertainty of measurement seems to lie as much in the estimation of the fraction of the division of the head as in the accuracy of the contact. It is Fig. 10. a convenient feature in Repsolds' micrometer that the webs are very near the inner surface of the top of the box, so that the eye is not brought inconveniently close to the plate when high powers are used. Another excellent micrometer, originally based on a model by Clark of Cambridge, Massachusetts, has been largely used by Burn- ham and others in America. The form, as constructed by Warner and Swasey for the 40-in. Yerkes telescope, is shown in figs. 10 and 11. The micrometer box, and of course with it the whole system of spider webs, is moved by the screw s, whilst the measuring web is indepen- dently moved by the screw S. The other parts of the instrument will be readily understood from the figure without further explana- tion. The method of counting the total number of revolutions gives more friction and is less convenient than Repsolds', and no provision seems to be made for illuminating the micrometer head in the practical and convenient plan adopted by Repsolds. Repsolds' more recent form of the spider-line micrometer (since 1 The marks of varnish so applied will be seen in fig. 9. MICROMETER 385 1893) for large telescopes is shown in fig. 12. Quick motion in posi- tion-angle for rough setting or for the measurement of close double stars is given by the large ring R. The micrometer is clamped in Fig. 11. position-angle by the screw K and slow motion in position-angle is given by the screw p. The small drum-head T opposite the micro- meter head S turns a screw which acts upon a short cylinder that cannot turn but can move only in the direction of the axis of the micrometer screw. The end-plane of this cylinder receives the pres- sure of the micrometer screw, so that by turning the small drum-head the coincidence-reading of the movable web with the fixed web can be changed, and thus any given angle can be measured with different parts of the micrometer screw in order to eliminate the effects of periodic error of the screw. The electric lamp a gives illumination of the webs in a dark field, nearly in the manner described for the Cape transit circle micrometer; the intensity of illumination is regulated by a carbon-resistance controlled by the screw h. The lamp c illuminates the drum-head and also, by reflection, the por- tions of the position-circle which come under the microscopes d and e. The head / is a switch which enables the observer to illuminate lamp a or c at pleasure. These lamps, although shown in the figure, are in reality covered so as not to shine upon the observer's eye. The illumination of the field is given by a lamp near the object glass, controlled by a switch near the micrometer. Repsolds in more recent micrometers under construction give a second motion to the eyepiece at right angles to the axis of the micrometer screw; this enables the observer to determine the zero of position-angle for his movable webs with the same accuracy as he formerly could only do for the so-called position-angle webs. Repsolds also provide two insulated sliding contact rings instead of the single ring g, so that the electric current for illuminating the lamps does not pass through the instrument itself but may come to the micrometer from the storage battery through two insulated leads. The same firm is also constructing a micrometer in which the readings of the head are printed on a band of paper instead of being read off at the time of observation. Instruments have been invented by Alvan Clark and Sir Howard Grubb for measuring with the spider-line micrometer angles which are larger than the field of view of the eyepiece. In both cases two eyepieces are employed, one to view each separate web. One draw- back to this form of instrument is that the two webs cannot be viewed simultaneously, and therefore the observer must rely on the steadi- ness of rate of the clockwork and uniformity in the conditions of refraction whilst the eye is moved from one eyepiece to the other. Clark's micrometer was exhibited at the June meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1859 {Monthly Notices, R.A.S., vol. xix.). Grubb's duplex micrometer is described in the 9th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Some examples of use of the latter are given by Professor Pritchard {Mem. R.A.S. xlvii. 4-12), who esti- mates the accuracy attainable with the duplex micrometer as equal to that of the heliometer ; but as few measures of permanent value have been made with the instrument, and those made exhibit an accuracy far inferior to that of the heliometer, it is unnecessary to describe the instrument here in greater detail. The Reading Micrometer-Microscope. — Micrometers used for sub- dividing the spaces on graduated circles and scales have, in general, only a single pair of cross-webs or parallel webs moved by a single screw. The normal form of the apparatus is shown in figs. 13 and 14. C is the objective, D the micrometer box, E the graduated head of the screw, G the milled i f head by which the screw cc is turned, A an Fig. 13. Fig. 14. eyepiece sliding in a tube B, aa (fig. 14) the slide, and b, b the spiral springs. The focal length of the objective and the distance between the optical centre of the lens and the webs are so arranged that images of the divisions are formed in the plane of the webs, and the pitch of the screw is such that one division of the scale corresponds with some whole number of revolutions of the screw. There is what is technically called a " comb " inserted in the micrometer box at d (fig. 14) — its upper surface being nearly in the plane of the wires. This comb does not move with reference to the box, and serves to indicate the whole revolution of which a fraction is read on the head. In fig. 14 a division is represented bisected by cross webs, and five revolutions of the screw correspond with one division of the scale. In all modern reading micrometers the cross webs of fig. 14 are replaced by parallel webs embracing the division (fig. 15). The means for changing the length of the tube and the distance of C from the scale are omitted in the figure. These appliances are required if the " run " has to be accurately adjusted. By " run " is meant the difference between the intended whole number of screw- revolutions and the actual measures of the space between two adjacent divisions of the scale in turns of the screw Fig. 15. divided by the number of intended revolutions. In delicate researches two divisions of the scale should always be read, not merely for increased accuracy but to obtain the corrections for " run " from the observations themselves. Repsolds employ for the micrometers of their reading microscopes the form of construction shown in fig. 9, omitting, of course, the motion of the whole micrometer box given by the screw s for those cases in which the axis of the micrometer is supposed to remain constant in position, as, for example, in the case of the reading microscopes of transit circles (see Transit Circle). But when the relative positions of two adjacent objects or scale- divisions have to be determined (as, for example, in the case of heliometer scales), much time is saved by retaining the motion of the micrometer box. One double web, fixed in the box, is pointed symmetrically, as in fig. 15, on one of the scales, by moving the whole micrometer box by means of the screw s; the pair of webs, mcved by the screw S, is then pointed upon an adjacent division on the other scale. If the reading for coincidence of the movable with the fixed webs is known, we then obtain from the single reading of S the difference from coincidence of the divisions of the two scales. xvni. 13 3 86 MICROMETER It is generally possible so to arrange the method of observation as to eliminate the effect of an error in " the reading for coinci- dence of the webs " from the results. This excellent time-saving contrivance has also been used in Gill's apparatus for measuring astrographic plates (see below). Ghost Micrometer. — C. E. Burton and Sir Howard Grubb (Monthly Notices, xli. 59), after calling attention to J. von Lamont's paper (Jahrbuch der K. S. b. Miinchen, p. 187) and K. L. von Littrow's paper (Proc. of Vienna Acad, of Sciences, xx. 253) on a like subject, proceed to describe a most ingenious form of " Ghost Micrometer," in which the image of a fine line or lines ruled in (or rather cut through) a silver film deposited on glass is formed at the common focus of an object-glass and eyepiece of a telescope. A faint light being thrown on the outside of the silvered plate, there appear bright lines in the field of view. We have not had an opportunity of testing this, nor Grubb's more recent models; but, should it be found possible to produce such images satisfactorily, without distortion and with an apparatus convenient and rigid in form, such micrometers may possibly supersede the filar micrometer. Their absolute freedom from diffraction, the perfect control of the illumination and thickness of the lines, and the accuracy with which it will be possible to construct scales for zone observations will be important features of the new method. The Astrographic 'Micrometer or Measuring Machine. — The application of photography to exact astronomy has created the necessity for new forms of apparatus to measure the relative positions of stellar and planetary images on photographic plates, and the relative positions of lines in photographic spectra. Especially important has been the problem of measuring the " catalogue plates " of the international Carte du del — a work that implies the determination of the positions of some millions of stars — that is to say, of all stars to the nth or 12th magnitude. The problem has been how to accomplish this work with the minimum of labour consistent with the desired accuracy. The adoption of a reseau photographed upon the plate has greatly facilitated the procedure. A plate of parallel-surfaced glass has a film of silver deposited upon it. On this film is ruled a system of lines 5 mm. apart, and another similar system of lines at right angles to the first, thus dividing the silvered surface of the plate into squares 5 mm. on the side. The cutter employed to rule these lines removes the silver in fine lines from the surface of the glass, Thus, if a photographic plate, before it is exposed in the telescope, is placed with its sensitive surface nearly in contact with the silvered surface of this reseau, and if parallel light, normal to the surface of the plate, is allowed to fall on the silvered film through the glass on which the film has been deposited, that light will pass through the fine lines in the silver film where the silver has been removed by the cutter, but will other- wise be intercepted by the silver film. Thus a latent image of the " reseau-lines " will be formed on the sensitive plate, and, when the latter has been exposed to the sky in the telescope, we obtain, on develop- ment, a negative of the images both of the stars and of the reseau-lines. If the errors of the rectangular co-ordinates of these lines are known, the problem of determining the co-ordinates of any star-image on the plate becomes reduced to the comparatively simple one of interpolating the co-ordinates of the star relative to the sides of the 5 mm. square within which that image is included. This interpolation can, of course, be accomplished with the aid of a micrometer-microscope whose optical axis is normal to the plate, provided that the plate is mounted on slides which enable the observer to bring the reseau-squares successively, under the microscope. This system has an additional advantage beyond its convenience, viz. that if any distortion of the film takes place during development the same distortion will be communicated both to the star-images and to the reseau-lines, and consequently its effect will be eliminated from the resulting star co-ordinates, except in so far as the distortion within the 5 mm. square is of an irregular character; this exception is hardly worth consideration. An originally unanticipated difficulty has arisen from the fact that the reseau-lines have not been ruled on plates of optical glass with optical surfaces, and that, in conse- quence of irregular refraction in the glass plate, the rays do not always pass through the silver film-lines in a direction strictly normal to the silvered surface; therefore, if the sensitive surface of the photographic plate is not in contact with the silver film of the reseau, the undeveloped photographic copy of the reseau may in such a case not be an exact reproduction of the silvered reseau. It is practically impossible to work with the sensitive film in contact with the reseau-film, not only because dust particles and contact would injure the silver film, but also because the plate-glass used for the photographic plates is seldom a perfect plane. The discre- pancies produced in this way are, however, very small, if care is taken to minimize the distance between the silver film and the photographic plate and to select a reasonably good piece of glass for the reseau. For very refined work, however, the irregularities in the reproduction of the reseau may be studied by comparing the measures of the original reseau with the mean of corresponding measures of a number of photographed copies of it. At Greenwich, Oxford and several other observatories, instead of measuring the distances of the star's image from the opposite sides of the 5 mm. reseau-square by means of a spider-line micrometer, a glass scale, on the plan shown in fig. 16, is employed in the common focus of the objective and the eyepiece. The image of the star is set upon the intersections of the lines of the central cross, and the positions of the reseau-lines are read off by estimation to ^ of a division on the glass scale. As each division corresponds to 3 sec. Greenwich Fig. 16.- Astrographic Catalogue, vol. i., by permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery office. —Diagram of the diaphragm in eyepieces of the micrometer used for measuring the plates of the Astrographic Catalogue. of arc, the nearest estimate corresponds with a nominal accuracy of ± 0-3". This involves a loss of accuracy because, with a spider- line micrometer, the accidental error of pointing is of the order of ± o- 1 " of arc. In the measuring machines in general use the field of view, as in the case of the glass-scale micrometer, is sufficiently large to include the image of the 5 mm. square. The microscope or viewing telescope is fitted with a spider-line micrometer having two screws at right angles to each other, by means of which readings can be made first on one reseau-line, then on the star, and finally on the opposite reseau-line in both co-ordinates. This form of micrometer is of course capable of giving results of high precision, but the drawback is that the process involves a minimum of six pointings and the entering of six screw-head readings in order to measure the two co-ordinates of the star. Gill's ^Measuring _ Machine. — Sir David Gill (Monthly Notices, R.A.S. lix. 61) devised a measuring machine which combines the rapidity of the glass-scale micrometer with the accuracy of the spider- line micrometer and simplifies the reductions of the observations at the same time. The essential conditions of the instrument are: — 1. The object glass of the micrometer-microscope is placed midway between the plane of the photographic plate and the plane of the micrometer webs. 2. The micrometer is provided with a " fixed square " 5 mm.X 5 mm., the sides of this square being parallel spider webs 4" of arc apart; the size of the square is reckoned from centre to centre of these double webs. MICROMETER 387 3. The two micrometer screws (X and Y, fig. 17), which actuate the movable slides, have heads divided into 100 parts, one revolution = 0-5 mm.; so that ten revolutions are =5 mm., or = the interval between two adjacent reseau-lines, or = the interval between the sides of the " fixed square." 4. Two other screws, 0, p, the heads of which are not graduated, give motions to the whole micrometer box through ± 1 mm. in directions parallel to the axes of the two micrometer screws. 5. Each of the two micrometer screws X and Y moves a system of six parallel webs, placed 4" of arc apart from each other. These Fig. 17. webs serve not only for pointing on stars to determine their co- ordinates (in manner afterwards described), but also for estimating the diameters of the star-images in terms of these 4" intervals. 6. All the essential parts of the micrometer, including the slides, micrometer box, tube, &c, are of steel or cast-iron, so that changes of temperature do not affect the adjustments. The necessary adjustments are the following: — 1. The webs of each set of movable webs shall, inter se, be strictly parallel, and the two sets shall be strictly at right angles to each other. 2. The double webs composing the sides of the fixed square shall be strictly parallel, and shall form a true square of exactly ten revolu- tions of the screw on the side. 3. The two micrometer screws shall be without sensible periodic or other error, and exactly alike in pitch. 4. The micrometer readings for coincidence of the movable webs with the webs of the fixed square shall.be exactly o-oooR and io-oooR. 5. The image of a normal reseau-square, as viewed in the micro- scope, shall exactly coincide with the square formed by the fixed webs — that is to say, the image of the sides of a normal reseau-square shall measure exactly 10 screw-revolutions. Assuming that these conditions can be rigidly realized, .we have the following very simple modus operandi : — 1. By means of the quick rack motions A and B move the plate so as to bring the reseau-square into the centre of the field of the micrometer; then, by means of the screw heads 0, p, perfect the coincidence of the " fixed square " of webs, with the image of the reseau-square. 2. By means of one of the micrometer screws X place the star's image in the middle of the six parallel webs which are moved by X. 3. Similarly, place the star's image in the middle of the webs moved by Y. 4. Estimate the diameter of the star's image in terms of the 4" intervals of the movable webs. By employing both hands, operation (1) can be made as quickly as a single pointing with the ordinary spider-line micrometer, and operations (2) and (3) can be similarly performed in the time required for a single pointing. The reading (2) is then the required co-ordinate in x and that of (3) is the required co-ordinate in y ; or, if the plate is reversed, 180°, these readings have to be subtracted from lo-ooo R . A general idea of the construction of the machine can be gathered from fig. 17 above, but the reader will find a detailed account of it, and of the manner in which the requisite adjustments are made, in the paper already quoted. The apparatus has been used with complete success at the Royal Observatory, Cape of Good Hope, and at Melbourne, Sydney and Cordoba. Effects' of Wear on the Micrometer Screws. — The accuracy of this apparatus has been frequently criticized on the ground that errors are produced in the screws by the effect of wear. One reply to t,his is that it is not difficult to determine from time to time the errors of the screws and to apply the necessary corrections to the observations. But a little con- sideration will show that when the plate is reversed 180 the effects of errors of the screws produced by. wear are practically eliminated. In discussing the effect of wear upon a screw, it will be convenient to imagine the thread unrolled and forming a wedge, of which we can represent the unworn bearing-side by a straight line AB (fig. 18), X X Fig. 18. on which rubs the block CD, which represents the female screw or bush, and moves between the points E and F, sometimes towards E, sometimes towards F, but having as often to measure short distances as long distances from the middle point of this range, and these as often towards E as towards F. Now, if CD is pressed by its weight or by a spring on the surface AB, the effect of wear will be to produce a symmetrical grinding away of both surfaces, which may be represented thus, fig. 19. That is to say, the screw-errors will be £ 2 Fig. 19. identical for revolution n and for io-», and thus will disappear in their effect in the mean of observations made in reversed positions of the plate. At the Cape of Good Hope, after more than 200,000 pointings had been made, the screw-errors were redetermined ; the results proved the truth of the above conclusions, viz. the absolute freedom of the derived co-ordinates from the effects of wear of the screws in the mean of measures made in reversed positions of the plate. Hinks's Measuring Machine. — A very refined modification of the Cape machine is described by A. Hinks {Monthly Notices, R.A.S., vol. 61, p. 444), and the instrument contains many elegant mechanical and optical details due to Horace Darwin and Messrs Zeiss respectively. Its fundamental principle is that, by a combination of glass scales with a micrometer screw, " the chief part of the distance to be measured is read off on the scale ; the fractional part of the scale- space is not estimated but measured by the screw." Hinks claims that thus never more than one- or two-tenths of a revolution of the screw need be used in making the measure, and little time is lost in running the screw backwards and forwards. All this is true, but three readings instead of one for each pointing, much more figure-work in computation (especially if corrections have to be applied to the scale readings to reduce them to exact normal screw readings), are factors which involve a far greater expenditure of time than making a few additional turns of a screw in the process of measurement. Hinks's further claim that, in consequence of the small motion of the screw, less error is produced in the screw by wear is not true; for, although large movements of the screw produce a large amount of wear, that wear is spread over longer parts of the screw but remains the same for any particular part of the screw; the resulting errors are exaggerated towards the ex- tremity of the range of screw employed (see Monthly Notices, R.A.S., vol. 45, p. 83), and are therefore more likely to produce errors which are not eliminated on reversal of the plate in cases where the screw range is not strictly limited, and the wear therefore not strictly symmetrical. The excellent manner in which the scales and micrometers are mounted, the employment of a compound microscope for viewing the scales, with its ingeniously arranged and admirably efficient reversing prism, and the perfection of its slow motions for focusing and reading, combine to render this a most accurate and convenient instrument for very refined measures, although too slow for work in which the measures must depend on single pointings in each of two reversed positions of the plate, and where speed of working is essential. Apparatus for Measuring Star-Spectra, &"c. — These machines may be divided into three classes, viz. A, in which the motion of the slide which carries the photographic plate is measured entirely by a screw; B, in which that motion is measured by combination of a scale and screw; and C, in which the 3 88 MICROMETER photographic plate is fixed and the measuring microscope is moved. The chief drawback to type A is that the errors of the screw are liable to change by wear, otherwise the apparatus, as made and used at Potsdam, is, on the whole, a convenient and accurate one. In determining the errors of the screw of the Potsdam form Fig. 20. of machine it is necessary to have regard to the fact that the screw is placed at one side of the 9lide, as in fig. 20. The result is that, if the screw is bent — if, for example, the end of the frame next the screw-head is raised and that next the end p is lowered in the diagram — a twist will be given to the web-frame, and the centre of the web will be moved nearer to the micrometer- drum than it should be, whilst the reverse effect will follow when the head has been turned 180°. This would, of course, create a periodic error, which would be determinable for the motion of any particular point (say the middle) of the web, but which would be smaller for a point near the axis of the screw and greater for a point farther from that axis. In the Potsdam form of this apparatus the micrometer is, for convenience, provided with a motion at right angles to the axis of the screw, and it has been found at the Cape Observatory that the periodic errors in this apparatus do vary very sensibly according as the microscope is directed to a point more or less distant from the measuring screw. Since the discovery of this fact all measurements have been made in that fixed position of the microscope with respect to the axis of the screw for which the errors of the screw have been determined. In the apparatus of type B as made by Zeiss there are two microscopes attached to a base-plate, one of which views the spectrum-plate (or other object) to be measured, while the other views a scale that moves with the slide on which the spectrum- plate is mounted. In this way the scale can be viewed by a micro- scope of much higher magnifying power than can be employed for the photographed spectrum. Indeed, if the scale were sub- divided to ^ mm. the power employed might only be limited by the sharpness of the division-lines. But for refined work this would imply the investigation of too many divisions of the scale; it is therefore more usual to divide the scale into single millimetres or half-millimetres and to provide a micrometer which subdivides the millimetre into 1000 or, by estimation, into 10,000 parts. For very accurate work it is desirable that the bate-plate, the slide and the scale should be of nickel steel, having the same thermal coefficient of expansion as glass. The forms of measuring machines of type C, often seen in physical laboratories, should be at once rejected for refined measurements, because it is impossible to construct slides of such perfection that the axis of the microscope will remain absolutely normal to the surface of the plate (assumed to be a plane) throughout the range of measurement. Even if the slide itself is mechanically perfect, the irregularity in the thickness of the lubricating oil between the bearing surfaces of the slide is apt to produce a variable error. Bakhuyzen (Bulletin de Com. perm, congres. astrog, i. 164) de- scribed a measuring-machine by Repsolds, in which the micrometer- microscope tilts in the bearings of the chariot on which it moves, so that it can view either a graduated scale or the photographic plate. We have, in fact, in this instrument a combination of types B and C. Even in this apparatus if the slide on which the chariot moves is not perfect (and no slide is perfect), the azimuth of the axis of the microscope is liable to change in the course of movement of the slide, and thus equal spaces on the scale will not be repre- sented by equal spaces on the plate under measurement. The remedy proposed by Repsold for this proved fault is to cause the whole slide to tilt instead of the microscope only; this should prove a complete remedy. The Travelling Wire Micrometer. — An important modern application of the micrometer, which is not dealt with in the article Transit Circle, is that which is now called " the travel- ling wire micrometer. In the Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 2940, Dr Repsold proposed a method of meridian observing which consists in causing a web to follow the image of a star in transit by motions communicated by the observer's hands alone, whilst electrical contacts on the drum of the micrometer screw register on the chronograph the instants corresponding to known intervals from the line of collimation. The purpose of his paper was to show that if the axis, by which the observer imparts motion to the slide on which the travelling web is mounted, is provided with two disks at its extremities, so that the observer can use the thumb and finger of both hands in rotating it, there is no difficulty, after a little practice, in keeping the web constantly bisecting the star in transit, and that with a little practice the mean of the absolute errors in following the star becomes nearly zero. In the Astron. Nach., No. 3377, Repsold gives a detailed de- scription of two forms of eye-ends of transit circles, fitted with meansof observing in this manner, to which he gives the name of " the impersonal micrometer." This method of observation was very successfully employed, under Seeliger at Munich, in an ex- tensive series of meridian observations, and, under the auspices of the Geodetic Institute at Potsdam, in telegraphic longitude opera- tions. Still more recently the method has been largely employed at the Cape of Good Hope and elsewhere. Under the date March 1901 Dr H. Struve published an account of the application of clockwork as an aid in Repsold's method; and, later, Dr Cohn published a more elaborate paper on the same subject in the Astron. Nach., 3767. The method consisted in having motion transmitted to the micrometer screw from an axis on which is mounted a disk that presses with friction-contact upon a cone that revolves uniformly by clockwork. The velocity of rotation of the micrometer-screw could therefore be varied for stars of different declination by varying the distance from the apex at which the revolving disk presses upon the revolving cone. In the Konigsberg transit instrument used by Struve and Cohn, the clockwork was attached to the eye-end of the instrument — a condition which is obviously undesirable both from the necessarily unsymmetrical position of the clockwork with respect to the optical axis, and from the impossibility of securing the uniform going of the clock in different positions of the instrument. In more recent instruments at the observatories of the Cape of Good Hope and Paris the motion is transmitted from a separately mounted cone and clock by a light rod passing through a perforation in the pivot of the transit instrument and thence through bevel-wheels in the cube of the axis to a second rod leading to the eyepiece. This rod turns a worm-screw which acts on a worm-wheel fitted " spring tight " upon the axis of the micrometer-screw. It should be mentioned that an essential feature of the travelling wire micrometer is that the eyepiece as well as the wire shall be moved by the micrometer-screw. Thus, if the star's image is kept in bisection by the wire, both star and wire will appear at rest in the field of view. The distinction between the old and new method of observation may thus, in one sense, be described as the difference between shooting at a moving object and in shooting at one at rest. In the case of the original Repsold plan without clockwork the de- scription is not quite exact, because both the process of following the object and correcting the aim are simultaneously performed; whilst, if the clockwork runs uniformly and the friction-disk is set to the proper distance from the apex of the cone, the star will appear almost perfectly at rest, and the observer has only to apply delicate corrections by differential gear — a condition which is exactly analogous to that of training a modern gun-sight upon a fixed object. It is impossible in this article to give a detailed description of the apparatus, but the reader is referred to Astron. Nach-, 3377, for an illustrated account of the original Repsolds instrument and to the History and Description of the Cape Observatory for a com- plete description of the most modern form of its application to the Cape transit circle, with and without clockwork. The Hartmann Spectrocomparator. — For accurate measurement of the displacements of lines of stellar spectra which are produced by the relative motion of star and observer in the line of sight, a very beautiful instrument has been devised by Dr J. Hartmann of Potsdam, and is described by him in the Publicationen des astrophysikalischen Observatoriums zu Potsdam, Bd. 18, Stuck 53 (1906). An English translation of this paper is given in the Astrophysical Journal, xxiv. 285-302. The method originally used by Huggins, who first conceived and proved the possibility of measuring stellar velocities in the line of sight, was to measure with a filar micrometer the displacement of some well-known line in a stellar spectrum relative to the corresponding line of a terrestrial spectrum. Vogel of Potsdam introduced the method of photographing stellar and terrestrial spectra on the same plate, and in this way obtained an immense advance in the ease and precision of observation. Vogel and his successors employed one or other form of measuring machine, provided with a micro- scope having single or close parallel webs which could be succes- sively pointed on the photographed lines of the star spectrum and the lines of the terrestrial spectrum. To derive the stellar velocity in the line of sight relative to the observer it was then necessary to assume that the normal wave-lengths of the stellar and terrestrial spectra are accurately known. But in the MICROMETER 389 complex spectra of stars of the solar type this is by no means the case; for, as Dr Hartmann remarks, " in the first place the lines in these spectra are so numerous that their complete . measurement and reduction would require many days, and in the second place a rigorous reduction of such material has hitherto not been at all possible because the wave-lengths of the lines are not known with sufficient accuracy. On this account, observers have until now limited themselves to a partial treatment of such spectra, measuring only a small number of lines, whereby the major part of the rich material present in the plate remains unutilized." But the spectroscopes that can be employed for stellar spectro- graphs are not sufficiently powerful to separate fully lines which are very closely adjacent, and therefore a line, assumed to be of a known wave-length, may be apparently displaced by the near neighbourhood of an unknown line. Hartmann overcame these and many other difficulties by directly superposing the image of the spectrogram of a star, having iron comparison lines, upon the image of a spectrogram of the sun taken also with iron comparison lines. The apparatus for this purpose is shown in fig. 21, its principle of construction is shown in figs. 22 and 23. The solar spectrograph is attached by clamps to the plate Ai, the stellar spectrograph to the plate A 2 . The plate Ai is mounted on the dove-tailed slide Bi, upon the metallic stage T, and can be moved to right or left relative to T by the micrometer-screw S; whilst the plate As is mounted on the dove-tailed slide B 2 and can From Zeitschr.fiir Inslrumenteriktmie, by permission of Julius Springer, Berlin. Fig. 22. From Zeitschr. fur Instrumentenkunde, by permission of Julius Springer, Berlin. Fig. 21. be moved at right angles to its greatest length by the screw G. The micrometer-screw S has a pitch of 0-5 mm., its head is divided into 100 parts. Two spiral springs underneath press the plate Bi with its agate end-bearing against the rounded end of the screw S. The whole number of revolu- tions of the screw is read by the scale X (fig. 23). The whole stage T, carrying both spectrograms, can be moved from right to left on the steei cylinder Z, by turning the head K, on the axis of which is a pinion that gears into a toothed rack attached to the lower side of the cylinder Z. A scale N on the cylinder Z serves for setting the slide to any required position. The preliminary conditions of measurement are : — 1. The centre of both spectrographs shall be parallel to the axis of the cylinder Z. 2. The distance between the centres of the two spectrographs shall be equal to the distance between the optical axes of the two viewing microscopes. 3. The scales of the images formed in the focus of the eyepiece common to both microscopes shall be identical. To fulfil condition (1) the plates Ai and A 2 are mounted in circular slides, whose centres are Ei and E 2 respectively, so that by means of the screws Di, D 2 , with their corresponding opposing springs Fi and F 2 , the operation can be very easily accomplished. To fulfil condition (2) the two microscopes whose object glasses are Oi and 2 (fig. 22) are attached to the plate L, their optical axes being normal to the stage T. The screw Q serves to adjust the axis of Oi to coin- cidence with the centre of the lines of the solar spectrograph, and the screw G then serves to move the slide B 2 till the optical axis of 2 is coincident with the centre of the lines of the stellar spectro- graph. Suppose now the solar spectrogram to be viewed in the focus of Oi, and the converging rays to be reflected by the prisms Pi and P3, till an image is formed in the focus of the eyepiece at the point where the axis of the eyepiece intersects 39° MICRONESIA the upper face of the prism P 3 . Then if the prism P4 is cemented to- P3, a sharp image of such lines of the solar spectrograph as are visible in the field of view will be seen in the eyepiece. If the stellar spectrograph is viewed in the focus of O2 and the converging rays are reflected by the prism P 2 to P4, no image would be seen in the eyepiece, for the rays would pass out directly through the parallel glass plate which is formed by the cementing together of the prisms P3 and P4. But if the cemented face of P4 is silvered, From Zeitschr. fur Instrumentenkunde by permission of Julius Springer, Berlin. Fig. 23. then the lines of the stellar spectrogram would be seen in focus of the eyepiece and the image of the solar spectrograph would be obliterated. Therefore, if one-half of the cemented face of P4 is silvered, it becomes possible to view, side by side, one-half of the image of the solar spectrograph formed by Oi and one-half of the image of the stellar spectrograph formed by O2. A prism half silvered in this way is provided, which enables the observer to com- pare the equality of scale of both photographs. If, for example, it is found that the image of the solar spectrograph is the larger of the two it becomes necessary to adjust the object glass Oi farther from the stellar spectrograph. This has the effect of forming the image of the latter farther from the observer's eye, and so it becomes necessary to turn the handle of the rack-pinion V in such a way as to move the prisms P 3 and P4 nearer to P 2 till the lines of the stellar spectrograph are again sharply in focus. The effect of turn- ing the pinion V is, of course, to displace the focus both of the solar and stellar spectrographs in the field of the eyepiece, but this displacement, is easily restored by the focussing screws Oi and Oy By successive adjustments of this kind condition (3) can be accurately realized. These three adjustments having been made, the prisms P 3 and P4 are removed and replaced by another prism in which the silvering is arranged as in fig. 24, where the hatched lines denote the silvered surfaces. The narrow tongues of the silvered surface will now reflect corresponding parts of the star-spectrograph, and will obliterate corresponding parts of the solar spectrograph — as shown in figs. 25 and 26. Fig. 25 shows the stellar and solar lines of the two spectrographs in coincidence, whilst the metallic lines of comparison are non-coincident. Fig. 26 shows the metallic lines of comparison in coincidence whilst the solar and stellar lines are non-coincident. It is obvious that these two conditions can be produced at the will of the observer by simply turning the screw S, and that the difference of the readings of the screw-head, which are required to reproduce the two conditions in question, gives a measure of the displacement of the stellar lines relative to the solar lines. If then the screw-value in kilometres per second is known for the neighbourhood of each of the comparison lines employed, the radial velocity of the star can be independently derived directly from coincidences made in above manner in the From Zeitschr. jiir Instrumenten- kunde, by permission of Julius Springer, Berlin. Fig. 24. neighbourhood of each comparison line. For the special purpose of determining the solar parallax this instrument has been used in a most refined and perfect manner by Dr Halm at the Cape of Good Hope {Annals of the Cape Observatory, vol. x. part 3). From Zeitschr. jiir Instrumentmkunde, by permission of Julius Springer, Berlin, Fig. 25. From Zeitschr. Jiir Instrumentenkunde, by permission of Julius Springer, Berlin. Fig. 26. Double Image Micrometers are described in the article Helio- meter (q.v.). (D. Gl.) MICRONESIA (from Gr. juiKpos, small, and vfjcos, island), one of the three great divisions of the oceanic islands in the central and western Pacific. Lying to the north of Melanesia, it embraces the following groups: Mariana, Pelew, Caroline, Marshall and Gilbert. See articles under these headings, and Pacific Ocean (section on Islands). The Micronesian islanders form in the main a branch of the Polynesian race, but distinguished from it by well-marked differences in appearance, language and institutions. Many of the islanders, however, show signs of hybridism. The proximity of Japan and the Philippines 1 on the west, and of the Papuan 'There are authenticated instances of Japanese junks, with living people in them, having been found in various parts of the North Pacific. In 1814 the British brig " Forester " met with one off the coast of California (about 30° N. lat.), with three living men and fourteen dead bodies on board. In December 1832 a Japanese junk arrived at the Hawaiian Islands with four of the crew living. If these junks could cross the Pacific in the latitude of Hawaii it is not at all unlikely that others running in a south-easterly direction would reach some of the many atolls which stretch over about 35° of longitude, forming the Caroline and Marshall archipelagoes. The traditions of the Gilbert Islanders tell us that their islands MICRONUCLEUS— MICROPEGMATITE 39 1 and South Polynesian islands on the south and south-east, suggests, what in fact is found, a combination of races. In some places the oblique Mongolian eye is noticed, and (together with certain Indo-Chinese customs) there is often a scantiness of beard and general " Malay " look, which increases westwards, and seems to imply relations with the archipelago subsequent to the departure thence of the pure Polynesians. In the Gilberts the traces of Polynesian (Samoan) influences are evident, and are confirmed by tradition. Among the Carolines and the Marshalls darker and more savage communities are found, suggesting a Melanesian element, which is further traceable in the Ebon (Marshall) and other languages. Each of the four main groups, viz. the Caroline, Marshall, Gilbert and Ladrone (Mariana), from long isolation, has developed ethnological peculiarities of its own. The most advanced folk were the " Chamorros " of the Ladrones, owing to the greater natural resources of the islands, and perhaps more frequent contact with influences from the west; but as a separate people they no longer exist, having been nearly exterminated by the Spaniards in the 17 th century. Next in advancement come the Caroline islanders. The general Micronesian type is a well-proportioned rather slightly built figure, with small and regular features; head high and well proportioned, but forehead rather retreating and narrow at the temples; cheek bones and chin slightly prominent; straight black hair, lanker than that of the Polynesians, colour somewhat darker than the Polynesians, the Marshalls being darker and more vigorous than the Carolines, while the Gilbert type, though smaller than the latter, is still darker and coarser. The upper class greatly surpasses the common people in physique and intelligence. There is a division of society into septs or clans, the membership of which constitutes the closest tie. Persons of the same sept must not intermarry, and when two islands or communities meet in war the members of one sept, however widely separated by dis- tance of space or time, will not injure or fight with each other. Each community is usually composed (but there are local differ- ences) of — (1) an upper class of chiefs, from among whom the head (tamol or iros) is chosen; (2) a lower but still noble class; and (3) common people, mostly without rights of property. These last are only allowed one wife. Here and there are traces, as in Tonga, of a spiritual sovereign, the descendants probably of a conquered dynasty. Succession is through the female side, which assures to women a certain position, and leads besides to some curious results (see paper by J. S. Kubary in Das Ausland, 1880, No. 27). The upper class are the keepers of traditions, boat-builders, leaders of expeditions ; tattooing is generally done by them, the amount increasing with a man's rank; the custom here still has definite religious associations. Both sexes are tattooed. The Marshall Islanders are the boldest and most skilful navi- gators in the Pacific. Their voyages of many months' duration, in great canoes sailing with outrigger to windward, well-provisioned, and depending on the skies for fresh water, help to show how the Pacific was colonized. They have a sort of chart, medo, of small sticks tied together, representing the positions of islands and the directions of the winds and currents. A two-edged weapon, of which the blade is of sharks' teeth, and a defensive armour of braided sennit, are also peculiar to the islands; a large adze, made of the shell of the Tridacna gigas (the largest bivalve known), was formerly used in the Carolines, probably by the old builder race. The dialects of Micronesia, though grammatically alike, differ widely in their vocabularies. They have the chief characteristics of the Polynesian, with Malay affinities, and peculiarities such as the use of suffixes and inseparable pronouns and, as in Tagal, of the infix to denote changes in the verb ; in the west groups there is a tendency to closed syllables and double^ consonants, and a use of the palatals ch, j, sh, the dental th, and s' (the last perhaps only in foreign words), which is alien to the Polynesian. These letters are wanting in the Gilbert language, which differs considerably from all the others, and has much greater affinities with the Polynesian. Most words take the accent on the penult. In some of the dialects there appears to be no true article, but in the Gilbert Islands the Polynesian te is used for both definite and indefinite article. Gender is sexual only. Number in the noun is either gathered from the were peopled from the west and also from the east. Those who came from the east are expressly said to be from Samoa. Those from the west were more numerous than those from the east. There are also traditions of the arrival of other strangers at some of these islands. On the island of Peru, in the Gilbert group, in 1869 there was still the remnants of a large proah which, from the description given, appears to have been like those used in the Indian Archipelago. requirement of the sense or is marked by pronominal words or numerals. Case is known by the position of the noun in the sen- tence or by prepositions. In the language of Ebon, one of the islands in the Marshall archipelago, nouns have the peculiarity which is characteristic of the Papuan languages : those which indi- cate close relationship — as of a son to a father, or of the members of a person's body — take a pronominal suffix which gives them the appearance of inflexions. Many words are used indiscriminately as nouns, adjectives or verbs, without any change of form. In some languages the personal pronouns are singular, dual and plural. In others there are no special dual forms, but the numeral for two is used to indicate the dual. In the Ebon language there are inclusive and exclusive_ forms of the personal pronouns which, so far as has been ascertained, do not occur in any of the other languages. The verbs usually have no inflexions to express re- lations of voice, mood, tense, number of person — such distinctions being indicated by particles. In the Ebon language, however, the tenses are sometimes marked ; but in that the simple form of the verb is frequently given. _ All have verbal directive particles. In Ponape, one of the Caroline Islands, many words of ceremony are used in addressing chiefs, as they are used in Samoa. The custom of tabooing words is also found there as it is in the Polynesian languages. The religious myths are generally identifiable with the Polynesian, but a belief in the gods proper is overshadowed by a general deifica- tion of ancestors, who are supposed from time to time to occupy certain blocks of stone, set up near the family dwelling, and sur- rounded by circles of smaller ones. These stones are anointed with oil, and worshipped with prayer and offerings, and are also used for purposes of divination, in which, and in various omens, thereis a general belief. In the Marshalls, in place of these stones, certain palm trees are similarly enclosed. The spirits also some- times inhabit certain birds or fishes, which are then taboo, as food, to the family; but they will help to catch them for others. Temples are very rare, though these blocks of coral are sometimes surrounded by a roofless enclosure opening to the west. The bodies of the dead, and sometimes even of the sick, are despatched to sea west- wards, with certain rites; those of the chiefs, however, are buried, for the order has something essentially divine about it ; their bodies therefore are sacred, and their spirits naturally assume the position above described. Such a belief greatly strengthened the king's authority, for the spirits of his ancestors were necessarily more powerful thanany other spirits. Thus too it comes that the chiefs, and all belonging to them, are taboo as regards the common people. There are various other subjects and occasions of taboo, but the institution has not the oppressive and all-pervading character which it has in Polynesia. Its action is often economical or charit- able, e.g. the ripening coco-nuts are taboo as long as the bread- fruit lasts, thus securing the former for future use; or it is put on after a death, and the nuts thus saved are given to the family — a kindness to them, and a mark of respect for the dead. The houses in the Gilberts and Marshalls (much less elaborate than in the Carolines) consist merely of a thatched roof resting on posts or on blocks of coral about 3 ft. high, with a floor at that level, which is reached from an opening in the centre. On this the principal people sleep, and it serves as a storehouse inaccessible to rats, which infest all the islands. MICRONUCLEUS, the smaller nucleus in Infusoria (q.v.). In fission it divides by mitosis, and in conjugation furnishes the pairing or gametonuclei, by whose reciprocal fusion a zygote- nucleus is formed, which gives rise to the meganuclei and micronuclei of the individuals of the next cycle of fission. MICROPEGMATITE, in petrology, a very fine intergrowth of quartz and alkali felspar, occurring as the last product of consoli- dation in many igneous rocks which contain high or moderately high percentages of silica. It shows the same structure on a minute scale as certain pegmatites (q.v.) or coarse granitic veins do on a large scale (see Petrology, PI. 2, figs. 6 and 8); the quartz forms angular patches scattered through a matrix of felspar. In polarized light the separate areas of each mineral extinguish at the same time, and this proves that even though apparently discontinuous they have the same crystalline orienta- tion. The felspar may be considered an irregular crystal of spongy structure, the interstices being filled up by another spongy crystal of quartz. This kind of mineral intergrowth is said to be " graphic," because the coarsely graphic veins have triangular quartz areas dotted over a felspathic background resembling certain primitive inscriptions. Micropegmatite differs from " graphic granite " only in being so much finer grained that its nature can only be detected with the microscope. The felspar of micropegmatite is usually orthoclase, but some- times albite, oligoclase or microcline. Occasionally it has crystalline form, and then it has been proved that the quartz 392 MICROSCOPE may be so disposed that the two minerals have a definite relation between their crystallographic axes (parallel growth). The quartz typically occurs as angular patches; at other times it forms club-shaped, curved or vermiform threads (vermicular micropegmatite, myrmekite), and then some authors consider that the felspar has been corroded and the quartz fills up the spaces thus produced (quartz de corrosion of French petro- graphers). Micropegmatite is often so fine grained that even in the thinnest sections and with high powers it cannot be resolved into its components. This fine micropegmatite resembles threads, having a divergent arrangement In some rocks the whole ground mass consists of such spherulitic growths of fibrous micropegmatite (see Quartz — Porphyry); in their centres there is often a quartz or felspar crystal; the outer boundaries of the spherulites are not usually circular but irreg- ular owing to the interlocking of adjacent spherulites at their margins (" granophyric structure "). Micrographic structures may occur in other minerals, e.g. quartz and garnet, cordierite, epidote or hornblende, augite and felspar, but are less common, and the name micropegmatite is usually reserved for aggregates of quartz and felspar. In rocks where micropegmatite frequently occurs (e.g. granite, porphyry and granophyre, quartz-diorite) it is usually the last product of consolidation, and represents the mother liquor left over after the other minerals had separated out in more or less perfect crystals. Hence it has no definite form of its own, but fills up the irregular interspaces between the earlier crystallizations. For that reason.it has been compared to a eutectic, and supposed to be the mixture of quartz and felspar which has the lowest fusion point. Eutectics are common in alloys and often have a very per- fect micrographic structure. The eutectic mixture of quartz and orthoclase has been estimated to contain 70-75% of the latter. This theory, however, _ is not without its difficulties; analyses of micropegmatite prove that its composition is by no means constant (this may perhaps be due to small admixtures of soda and lime felspars) ; and experimental researches on the fusion points of mixtures of quartz and felspar have not yet shown that there is a definite mixture which melts at a lower temperature than any other. Furthermore micropegmatite is not always the last con- solidation product, as a eutectic should be, but may occur as well- shaped phenocysts lying in a felsitic or glassy matrix which solidified at a still later time. Micrographic structures in the minerals of igneous rocks prove only that these minerals crystallized simul- taneously. (J. S. F.) MICROSCOPE (Gr. /uKpos, small, cKcnrdv, to 'dew), an optical instrument for examining small objects or details of such objects; it acts by making the angles of vision under which the images appear greater than when the objects themselves are viewed by the naked eye. Microscopes are distinguished as simple and compound. A simple microscope consists of a single positive lens, cr of a lens combination acting as a single lens, placed between the eye and the object so that it presents a virtual and enlarged image. The compound microscope generally consists of two positive lens systems, so arranged that the system nearer the object (termed the objective) projects a real enlarged image, which occupies the same place relatively to the second system (the eyepiece or ocular) as does the real object in the simple micro- scope. An image is therefore projected by the ocular from the real magnified image produced by the objective with increased magnification. History of the Simple Microscope. — Any solid or liquid trans- parent medium of lenticular form, having either one convex and one flat surface or two convex surfaces whose axes are coincident, may serve as a " magnifier," the essential condition being that it shall refract the rays which pass through it so as to cause widely diverging rays to become either parallel or but slightly divergent. Thus if a minute object be placed on a slip of glass, and a single drop of water be placed upon it, the drop will act as a magnifier in virtue of the convexity of its upper surface; so that when the eye is brought sufficiently near it (the glass being held horizontally) the object will be seen magnified. Again if a small hole be made in a thin plate of metal, and a minute drop of water be inserted in it, this drop, having two convex surfaces, will serve as a still more powerful magnifier. There is reason to believe that the magnifying power of transparent media with convex surfaces was very early known. A convex lens of rock- crystal was found by Layard among the ruins of the palace of Nimrud; Seneca describes hollow spheres of glass filled with water as being commonly used as magnifiers. The perfect gem-cutting of the ancients could not have been attained without the use of magnifiers; and doubtless the artificers who executed these wonderful works also made them. Convex glass lenses were first generally used to assist ordinary vision as " spectacles "; and not only were spectacle-makers the first to produce glass magnifiers (or simple microscopes), but by them also the telescope and the compound microscope were first invented. During the Thirty Years' War the simple microscope was widely known. Descartes (Dioptrique, 1637) describes microscopes wherein a concave mirror, with its concavity towards the object, is used, in conjunction with a lens, for illuminating the object, which is mounted on a point fixing it at the focus of the mirror. Antony van Leeuwenhoek appears to be the first to succeed in grinding and polishing lenses of such short focus and perfect figure as to render the simple microscope a better instrument for most purposes than any compound microscope then constructed. At that time the " compass " microscope was in use. One leg of a compass carried the object, and the other the lens, the distance between the two being regulated by a screw. Stands were also in use, permitting the manipulation of the object by hand. Robert Hooke shaped the minutest of the lenses with which he made many of the discoveries recorded in his Micrographia from small glass globules made by fusing the ends of threads of spun glass; and the same method was employed by the Italian Father Di' Torre. Early opticians and microscopists gave their chief attention to the improvement of the simple microscope, the principle of which we now explain. Simple Microscope Position and Size of the Image. — A person with normal vision can see objects distinctly at a distance varying from ten. inches to a very great distance. Objects at different distances, however, are not seen distinctly simultaneously, but in succession. This is effected by the power of accommodation of the eye, which can so alter the focal length of its crystalline lens that images of objects at different distances can be produced rapidly and distinctly one after another upon the retina. The angle under which the object appears depends upon the dis- tance and size of the object, or, in other words, the size of the image on the retina is determined by the distance and the dimensions of the object. The ratio between the real size of the object y (fig. 1) Fig. 1. and the distance /, which is equal to the tangent of the visual angle w, is termed the " apparent size " of the object. From the figure, which represents vision with a motionless eye, it is seen that the apparent size increases as the object under observation is approached. The greater the visual angle, the more distinctly are the details of the object perceived. On the other hand, as the observer recedes from the object, the apparent size, and also the image on the retina diminishes; details become more and more confused, and gradually, after a while, disappear altogether, and ultimately the external configuration of the object as a whole is no longer recognizable. This case arises when the visual angle, under which the object appears, is approximately a minute of arc; it is due to the physio- logical construction of the retina, for the ends of nerve fibres, which receive the impression of light, have themselves a definite size. The lower limit of the resolving power of the eye is reached when the distance is approximately 3438 times the size of the object. If the object be represented by two separate points, these points would appear distinct to the normal eye only so long as the dis- tance between them is at the most only 3438 times smaller than their distance from the eye. When the latter distance is increased still further, the two appear as one. Therefore when it is desired to distinctly recognize exceedingly small obiects or details of such, they are brought as near as possible to the eye. The eye is strained in bringing its focal length to the smallest possible amount, and when this strain is long continued it may cause pain. When the shortest distance obtained by the highest strain of accommodation is insufficient to recognize small objects, distinct vision is possible at even a shorter distance by placing a very small diaphragm MICROSCOPE 393 between the eye and the object, the pencils of rays proceeding from the object-points, which otherwise are limited by the pupils of the eye, being thus restricted by the. diaphragm. The object is then projected with such acute pencils on the plane focused for, in this case on the plane on which the eye can just accommodate itself, that the circle of confusion arising there is still so small that it is below the limit of angular visual distinctness and on that account appears as a sharp point. However, the loss of light in this procedure is extraordinarily large, so that only most intensely illuminated objects can be investigated. A naked short-sighted eye, which would be corrected for distant objects by a spectacle glass of — 10 diopters, may approach the object up to about 4 in. and have a sharp image upon the retina without any strain whatever. For the observation of small objects, a myopic eye is consequently superior to a normal eye; and the normal eye in its turn is superior to the hypermetropic one. When the details are no longer recognizable by the unaided eye, the magnifying glass or the simple microscope is necessary. As a rule large magnification is not demanded from the former, but a larger field of view, whilst the simple microscope should ensure powerful magnification even when the field is small. The simple microscope enlarges the angle of vision, and does not tire the eye when it is arranged so that the image lies in the farthest limit of distinct vision (the punctum remotum). A normal eye will therefore see an image formed by the magnifying glass most conveniently when it is produced at a great distance, i.e. when the object is in its front focal plane. If y (fig. 2) be the object the image appears to a normal Fig. 2. eye situated behind the system L with passive accommodation at a very great distance under the angle w . Since H' P = F O, = y, from the focal length of the simple microscope, the visual angle w' is given by tan w'ly = ijf =V, (1) in which /', = H' F', is the image-side focal length (see Lens). Since the lens is bounded by air, the image- and object-side focal lengths/' and / are equal. The value 1//' or V in (1), is termed the power of the lens. In most cases the number of " diameters " of the simple microscope is required; i.e. the ratio between the apparent sizes of the object when observed through the microscope and when viewed by the naked eye. When a person of normal vision views a small object, he brings it to the distance of distinct vision, which would average about 10 in. The apparent size is then (fig. 1) tan w = y/l, where 1 = 10 in., whilst the apparent size of the object viewed through the magnifying glass would result from the formula (1) tan w'=y/f. Consequently the number of diameters will be N = tan w'/tan w = yff . Ify = Iff = V.l; # (2) it is thus equal to the magnifying power multiplied by the distance of distinct vision, or the number of times that the focal length is contained in 10 in. Since this value for the distance of distinct vision is only con- ventional, it is understood that the capacity of the simple micro- scope given in (2) holds good only for eyes accustomed to examine small objects 10 in. away; and observation through the magnifying glass must be undertaken by the normal eye with passive accommo- dation. A lens of I in. focal length must be spoken of, according to this notation, as a X 10 lens, and a lens of ^ in. focal length as a X 100 lens. Obviously the position of a normal eye free from accommodation is immaterial for determining the magnification. A X 10 magnification is, however, by no means guaranteed to a myopic eye of — 10 D by a lens of I in. focus. Since this short- sighted observer can view the object with the naked eye with no inconvenience to himself at 4 in. distance, it follows (to him) the apparent size is tan w = y/4 ; and to secure convenient vision through the lens the short-sighted person would bring the object to such a distance that a virtual, magnified image would be pro- jected in his punctum remotum. In addition it will be supposed that the centre of the pupil of the observer coincides with the back focal poirft of the system. The apparent size of the object seen through the lens is then tan w' = y/f. The magnification, resulting from the simple microscope of 1 in. focus, is here N = tan it/ /tan w = ylf -\ly — Alf~\- Thus, while a lens of I in. focal length assures to the normal-sighted person a X 10 magnification, it affords to the short-sighted individual only X 4- On the other hand, it is even of greater use to the hypermetropic than to the observer of normal sight. From this it appears that each observer obtains specific advantages from one and the same simple microscope, and also the individual observer can obtain different magnifications by either using different accommodations, or by viewing in passive accommodation. Regulation of the Rays. 1 — In using optical instruments the eye in general is moved just as in free vision ; that is to say, the attention is fixed upon the individual parts of the image one after another, the eye being turned in its cavity. In this case the eye is always directed so that the part of the image which is wished to be viewed exactly falls upon the most sensitive portion of the retina, viz. the macula lutea (yellow spot). Corresponding to the size of the yellow spot only a small fraction of the image appears particularly distinctly. The other portions which are reproduced on the retina on the regions surrounding the yellow spot will also be perceived, but with reduced definition. These external and less sensitive parts of the retina, therefore, merely give information as to the general arrangement of the objects and to a certain extent act as guide-post in order to show quickly and conveniently, although not distinctly, the places in the image which should claim special attention. Vision with a motionless eye, or " indirect vision," gives a general view over the whole object with particular definition of a small central portion. Vision with a movable eye, or " direct vision," gives exact information as to the parts of the object one after another. The simple microscope permits such vision. If the instrument has a sensible lens diameter, and is arranged so that the centre of rotation of the eye can coincide with the intersection of the principal rays, the lens can then form with the eye a centred system. Such lenses are termed " lenses for direct vision." By moving the eye about its centre of rotation M the whole field can be examined. The margin of the mount of the lens serves as the diaphragm of the field of view. The selection of the rays emerging from the lens and actually employed in forming the image is undertaken by the pupil of the eye which, in this case, is consequently the exit pupil of the instrument. In fig. 3 P'P'i designates the exit pupil of the V- : 7 F' v FlG. 3. lens, and the image of P'P'i, i.e. PPj, which is formed by the lens, limits the aperture of the pencils of rays on the object-side; consequently it is the entrance pupil of the instrument. Since the exit pupil moves in observing the whole field, the entrance pupil also moves. The principal rays, which on the object-side connect the object-points with the centre of the entrance pupil, intersect the axis on the image-side at the centre of rotation M of the eye. M is therefore the intersection of the principal rays. So long as the exit pupil is completely filled the brightness of the image will be approximately equal to that of free vision. If, however, we fix the points lying towards the margin of the field of view, the diaphragm gradually cuts off more and more of the rays which were necessary to fill the pupil, and in consequence the brightness gradually fall's off to zero. This vignetting can be observed in all lenses. In most cases, and also in corrected systems, the intersection of the principal rays is no longer available for the centre of rotation of the eye, and this kind of observation is impossible. In some instruments observation of the whole available field is only possible when the head and eye are moved at the same time, the lens retaining its position. Dr M. von Rohr terms this kind of vision " peep-hole observation." It has mainly to be considered in connexion with powerful magnifying glasses. In most cases a diaphragm regulates the rays. Fig. 4 shows the position of the diaphragms . to be considered in this kind of observation. PP: is the' entrance pupil, P'Pi' the exit pupil, and GG the diaphragm. The inter- section of the principal rays in this case lies in the middle of the entrance pupil or of the exit pupil. By head and eye motion p the various parts of the ' **' whole field can be viewed one after another. The distance of the eye from the lens is here immaterial. In this case also the illumi- nation must fall to zero by the vignetting of the pencils coming from objects at the margin of the field of view. C and D -are the outermost rays which can pass through the instrument. Magnifying glasses are often used for viewing three-dimensional objects. Only points lying on the plane focused for can be sharply reproduced in the retina, which acts as object-plane to the retina. 1 See also Lens. 394 MICROSCOPE AH points lying out of this plane are reproduced as circles of con- fusion. The central projection, of which the centre is the middle point of the entrance pupil on the plane focused for, will show in weaker systems, or those very much stopped down, a certain finite depth of definition ; that is to say, the totality of points, which lie out of the plane focused for, and which are projected with circles of confusion so small that they appear to the eye as sharp points, will include the sharp object relief, and determine the depth of definition of the lens. With increasing magnification the depth of definition diminishes, because the circles of confusion are greater in consequence of the shorter focal length. Very powerful simple microscopes have hardly any depth of definition so that in fact only points lying in one plane can be seen sharply with one focusing. Illumination. — So long as the pupil of the observer alone under- takes the regulation of the rays there is no perceptible diminution of illumination in comparison with the naked eye vision. The losses of light which occur in this case are due to reflection, which takes place in the passage of the light through the glass surfaces. In a lens with two bounding surfaces in air there is a loss of about 9%; and in a lens system consisting of two separated lenses, i.e. with four surfaces in air, about 17 %. Losses due to absorption are almost zero when the lenses are very thin, as with lenses of small diameter. A. very marked diminution in illumination occurs, however, when the exit -pupil of the instrument is smaller than the pupil of the eye. In such instruments an arrangement is often required to intensely illuminate the object. Forms of the Simple Microscope. — If the ordinary convex lens be employed as magnifying glass, great aberrations occur even in medium magnifications. These are: (1) chromatic aberration, (2) spherical aberration and (3) astigmatism (see Aberration). When the pupil regulates the aperture of the rays producing the image the aberrations of the ordinary lenses increase considerably with the magnification, or, what amounts to the same thing, with the increase in the curvature of the surfaces. For lenses of short focus the diameter of the pupil is too large, and diaphragms must be employed which strongly diminish the aperture of the pencils, and so reduce the errors, but with a falling off of illumination. To reduce the aberrations Sir David Brewster proposed to employ in the place of glass transparent minerals of high refractive index and low dispersion. In this manner lenses of short focus can be produced having lower curvatures than glass lenses necessitate. The diamond has the requisite optical properties, its index of refraction being about 1-6 times as large as that of ordinary glass. The spherical aberration of a diamond lens can be brought down to one-ninth of a glass lens of equal focus. Apart, however, from the cost of the mineral and its very difficult working, a source of error lies in its want of homogeneity, which often causes a double or even a triple image. Similar attempts made by Pritchard with sapphires were more successful. With this mineral also spherical and chromatic aberration are a fraction of that of a glass lens, but double refraction, which involves a doubling of the image, is fatal to its use. Improvements in glass lenses, however, have rendered further experiments with precious stones unnecessary. The simplest was a sphere of glass, the equator of which (i.e. the mount) formed the diaphragm. Wollaston altered this by taking two plano-convex lenses, placing the plane surfaces towards each other and employing a diaphragm between the two parts (fig 5). Wollaston. Brewster. Brewster (Stanhope). Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Fig. 7. Sir David Brewster found that Wollaston's form worked best when the two lenses were hemispheres and the central space was filled up with a transparent cement having the same refractive index as the glass; he therefore used a sphere and provided it with a groove at the equator (see fig. 6). Coddington employed the same con- struction, and for this reason this device is frequently called the Coddington lens; although he brought the Wollaston-Brewster lens into general notice, he was neither the inventor nor claimed to be. This lens reproduced all points of a concentric spherical surface simultaneously sharp. A construction also employing one piece of glass forms the so-called Stanhope lens (fig. 7), which was really due to Brewster. This is a glass cylinder, the two ends of which are spherical surfaces. The more strongly curved surface is placed next the eye, the other serves at the same time as specimen carrier. This lens is employed in articles found in tourist resorts as a magnify- ing glass for miniature photographs of the locality. Doublets, &c. — To remove the errors which the above lenses showed, particularly when very short focal lengths were in question, lens combinations were adopted. The individual components required weaker curvatures and permitted of being more correctly manufactured, and, more particularly, the advan- tage of reduced aberrations was the predominant factor. Wollaston's doublet (fig. 8) is a combination of two plano-convex lenses, the focal lengths of which are in the ratio of 3 : 1 ; the plane Wollaston. Fraunhofer. Wilson. Steinheil. Chevalier (Brucke). ■os^lSS^ Fig. 8. Fig. 9. Fig. 10. Fig. 11. 1 Fig. 12. sides are turned towards the object, and the smaller of the two lenses is nearer the object. This construction was further improved (1) by introducing a diaphragm between the two lenses; (2) by altering the distance between the two lenses; and (3) by splitting the lower lens into two lenses. Triplets are employed when the focal length of the simple microscope was less than ^ in. When well made such constructions are almost free from spherical aberration, and the chromatic errors are very small. Similar doublets composed of two plano-convex lenses are the Fraunhofer (fig. 9) and the Wilson (fig. 10). Axial aberration is reduced by distributing the refraction between two lenses; and by placing the two lenses farther apart the errors of the pencils of rays proceeding from points lying outside the axis are reduced. The Wilson has a greater distance between the lenses, and also a reduction of the chromatic difference of magnification, but compared with the Fraun- hofer it is at a disadvantage with regard to the size of the free working distance, i.e. the distance of the object from the lens surface nearer it. By introducing a dispersive lens of flint the magnifying glass could be corrected for both chromatic and spherical aberrations. Browning's " platyscopic " lens and the Steinheil " aplanatic " lens (fig. 11) are of this type. Both yield a field of good definition free from colour. The manner in which the eye uses such a lens was first effectively taken into account by M. von Rohr. These anastigmatic lenses, which are manufactured up to X 40, are chromatically and spher- ically corrected, and for a middle diaphragm the errors of lateral pencils, distortion, astigmatism and coma are eliminated. " Peep- hole " observation is employed, observation being made by moving the head and eye while the lens is held steady. Even in powerful magnifications a good image exists in all parts of a relatively large field, and the free working distance is fairly large. For especially large free working distances the corrections pro- posed by Chevalier and carried out by E. Brucke must be noticed (fig. 12). To an achromatic collective lens, which is turned towards the object, a dispersive lens is combined (this type to a certain extent belongs to the compound microscope). By altering the distance of the collective and dispersive members the magnification can be widely varied. Through the large free working distance, which for certain work offers great advantages, the size of the field of view is diminished. In magnifying glasses for direct vision the eye must always be considered. The lens is brought as close as possible to the eye so as to view as large a field as possible. The watchmaker's glass is one of the earliest forms of this kind. Gullstrand showed how to correct these lenses for direct vision, i.e. to eliminate distortion and astigmatism when the centre of rotation of the eye coincided with the point where the principal rays crossed the axis. Von Rohr fulfilled this condition by constructing the Verant lens, which are low power systems intended for viewing a large flat field. Stands. — For dissecting or examining objects it is an advantage to have both hands free. Where very short focus simple micro- scopes are employed, using high magnifications, it is imperative to employ a stand which permits exact focusing and the use of a special illuminating apparatus. Since, however, only relatively low powers are now employed, the ordinary rack and pinion movement for focusing suffices, and for illuminating the object only- a mirror below the stage is required when the object is transparent, and a condensing lens above the stage when opaque. Dissecting stands vary as to portability, the size of the stand, and the manner in which the arm-rests are arranged. A stand is shown in fig. 57 (Plate). On the heavy horseshoe foot is a column carrying the stage. In the column is the guide for the rack-and- pinion movement. Lenses of various magnifications can be adapted to the carrier and moved about over the stage. The rests can be attached to the stage, and when done with folded together. Illu- mination of transparent objects is effected by the universal-jointed mirror. By turning the knob A, placed at the front corner of MICROSCOPE 395 the stage, a black or white plate, forming a dark or light back- ground, can be swung underneath the specimen. When the recognition of the arrangement in space of small objects is desired a stereoscopic lens can be used. In most cases refracting and reflecting systems are arranged so that the natural inter- pupillary distance is reduced. Stereoscopic lenses can never be powerful systems, for the main idea is the recognition of the depth of objects, so that only systems having a sufficient depth of definition can be utilized. Very often such stereoscopic lenses, owing to faulty construction, give a false idea of space, ignoring the errors which are due to the alteration of the inter-pupillary distance and the visual angles belonging to the principal rays at the object-side (see Binocular Instruments). Compound Microscope The view held by early opticians, that a compound microscope could never produce such good images as an instrument of the simple type, has proved erroneous; and the principal attention of modern opticians has been directed to the compound instru- ment. Although we now know how the errors of lenses may be corrected, and how the simple microscope may be improved, this instrument remains with relatively feeble magnification, and to obtain stronger magnifications the compound form is necessary. By compounding two lenses or lens systems separated by a definite interval, a system is obtained having a focal length considerably less than the focal lengths of the separate systems. If / and /' be the focal lengths of the combination, /i,/i' and/ 2 ,/ 2 ' the focal lengths of the two components, and A the distance between the inner foci of the components, then /= — /1/2/A, /'=// ft I A (see Lens). A is also equal to the distance Fi'Fz. The accented /'s are always on the image side, whilst the unaccented are on the object side. From this formula it follows, for example, that one obtains a system of | in. focal length by compounding two positive systems of 1 in. each, whose focal planes, turned towards one another, are separated by 8 in. A microscope objective being made in essentially the same way as a simple microscope, and the front focus of the compound system being situated before the front focus of the objective, the magnifica- tion due to the simple system makes the free object distance greater than that obtained with a simple microscope of equal magnification. Moreover, this distance between the object and eye is substantially increased in the compound microscope by the stand; the incon- veniences, and in certain circumstances also the dangers, to the eye which may arise, for example by warming the object, are also avoided. The convenient and rapid change in the magnification obtained by changing the eyepiece or the objective is also a special advantage of the compound form. In the commonest compound microscopes, which consist of two positive systems a real magnified image is produced by the objective. This permits researches which are impossible with the simple micro- scope. For example, the real image may be recorded on a photo- graphic plate; it may be measured; it can be physically altered by polarization, by spectrum analysis of the light employed by absorb- ing layers, &c. The greatest advantage of the compound microscope is that it represents a larger area, and this much more completely than is possible in the simple form. According to the laws of optics it is only possible either to portray a small object near one of the foci of the system with wide pencils, or to produce an image from a relatively large object by correspondingly narrow pencils. The simple microscope is subject to either limitation. As we shall see later, one of the principal functions of the microscope objective is the representation with wide pencils. In that case, however, in the compound microscope a small object may always be represented by means of wider pencils, one of the foci of the objective (not of the collective system) being near it. For the eyepiece the other rule holds; the object is represented by narrow pencils, and it is hence possible to subject the relatively great object, viz. the magni- fied real image, to a further representation. History of the Compound Microscope. — The arrangement of two lenses so that small objects can be seen magnified follo.wed soon after the discovery of the telescope. The first compound miscroscope (discovered probably by the Middelburg lens-grinders, Johann and Zacharias Janssen about 1590) was a combination of a strong biconvex with a still stronger biconcave lens; it had thus, as well as the first telescope, a negative eyepiece. In 1646 Fontana described a microscope which had a positive eyepiece. The development of the compound microscope essentially depends on the improvement of the objective; but no distinct improvement was made in its construction in the two centuries following the discovery. In 1668 the Italian Divini employed several doublets, i.e. pairs of plano-convex lenses, and his example was followed by Griendl von Ach. But even with such moderate magnification as these instruments permitted many faults were apparent. A microscope, using concave mirrors, was proposed in 1672 by Sir Isaac Newton; and he was succeeded 'Hq~ by Barker, R. Smith, B. Martin, D. Brewster, and, above all, Amici. More recently these catadioptric microscopes were disregarded because they yielded unfavourable results. From 1830 onwards many improvements were made in the miscroscope objective; these may be best followed from a discussion of the faults of the image. Position and Size of Image. — In most microscopic observations the object is mounted on a plane glass plate or slide about 0-06 in. thick, embedded in a liquid such as water, glycerine or Canada balsam, and covered with a plane glass plate of about 0-008 to 0-006 in. thick, called the cover-slip. If we consider the production of the image of an object of this kind by the two positive systems of a compound microscope shown in fig. 13, the objective Li forms a real magnified image O'CV; the object OOi must therefore lie some- what in front of the front focus Fi of the objective. Let OOi = y, O'Oi' = y', the focal distance of the image F/0' = A, and the image-side focal length ft, then the magnification M=y'/3- = A//i'. (3) The distance A is called the " optical tube length." Weak and strong microscope objec- tives act differently. Weak systems act like photographic objectives. In this case the optical tube length may be altered within fixed limits without spoiling the image; at the same time the objective magnification M is also altered. This change is usually effected by mounting the objective and eye- piece on two telescoping tubes, so that by drawing apart or pushing in the tube length is increased or diminished at will. For strong objectives there is, however, only one optical tube length in which it is possible to obtain a good image by means of wide pencils, any alteration of the tube length in- volving a considerable spoiling of the image. This limitation is examined below. When forming an image by a micro- scope objective it often happens that the transparent media bounding the system have different optical proper- ties. A series of objectives with short focal lengths are available, which per- mit the placing of a liquid between the cover-slip and the front lens of the objective; such lenses are known as "immersion systems"; objectives bounded on both sides by air are called " dry systems." The immer- sion liquids in common use are water, glycerine, cedar-wood oil, monobrom- naphthalene, &c. Immersion systems in which the embedding liquid, cover- FlG. 13. — Ray transmis- slip, immersion-liquid and front lens slon m compound micro- with positive have equal refractive indices are called SC0 P e " homogeneous immersion systems." ocula '- In immersion systems the object-side Li = objective, L 2 L 3 = eye- focal length is greater than the image- piece of the Ramsden type, side focal length. Nothing is altered Fi, , F/=object- and im- as to objective magnification, however, age-side foci of objec- as the first surface is plane, and the tive. employment of the immersion means F 2 == front focus of eye- that the value oi ft is unaltered. piece. If we assume that a normal eye P'Pi'=exit pupil of objec- observes the image through the eye- tive. piece, the eyepiece must project a P"Pi"=exit pupil of corn- distant image from the real image plete microscope, produced by the objective. This is D D = diaphragm of field the case if the image O'O/ lies in the of view, front focal plane of the eyepiece. In this case the optical tube length equals the distance of the adjacent focal planes of the two systems, which equals the distance of the image-side focus of the objective Fi' from the object-side focus of the eyepiece F 2 , The image viewed through the eyepiece appears then to the observer under the angle w", and as with the single microscope tana>7y = i//j' (4) where f\ is the image-side focal length of the eyepiece. 39 6 MICROSCOPE To obtain the magnification of the complete microscope we must combine the objective magnification M with the action of the eye- piece. If we replace / in equation (4) by the value given by (3), we obtain ta.nu>"ly=Mfi'.ilf i "=V, _ (5) the magnification of the complete microscope. The magnification therefore equals the power of the joint system._ The magnification is also expressed as the ratio of the apparent size of the object observed through the microscope to the apparent size of the object seen with the naked eye. As the conventional distance for clear vision with naked eye is 10 in., it results from fig. I that the apparent size is tan w = y/l. If this value of y be inserted in equation (5), we obtain the magnification number of the compound microscope : — N -tan w"l tan w = A///// 2 ' = VI. (6) The magnification number increases then with the optical tube-length and with the diminution of the focal lengths of objective and eyepiece. As with the simple microscope, different observers see differently in the same compound microscope; and hence the magnification varies with the power of accommodation. The image produced by a microscope formed of two positive systems (fig. 13) is inverted, the objective Li tracing from the object OOi a real inverted image O'O'i, and the eyepiece L 2 L 3 maintaining this arrangement. ' For many purposes it is immaterial whether the image is inverted or upright ; but in some cases an upright image lightens the work, or may be indispensable. The simplest microscope which produces an upright image has a negative lens as eyepiece. As shown in fig. 14, the real image formed by the objective must fall on the object-side focal plane of the eye- piece F 2 , where a normal eye without accommodation can observe it. But as the object-side focus F 2 lies behind the eyepiece, the real image is not produced, but the converging pencils from the objective are changed by the eyepiece in- to parallels ; and the point Oi in the top of the object y appears at the top to the eye, i.e. the image is upright. The erection of inverted images by prisms, which was applied to the simple telescope by Porro, and to the binocular (g.u.) by A. A. Boulanger was employed by K. Bratuscheck in the Greenough double microscope; these inverting prisms permit a convenient adaptation of the instrument to the interpupillary distance of the observer. Double microscopes, which produce a correct impression of the solidity of the object, must project upright images. The terrestrial eyepiece (see Telescope), which likewise ensures an upright image, but which involves an inconvenient lengthening, has also been employed in the binocular microscope. Regulation of the Rays. — Weak and medium microscope objectives work like photographic objectives in epi- scopic or diascopic projection; in the microscope, however, the projected image is not intercepted on a screen, but a real image in air is formed. This must lie in the front focal plane of the eyepiece if we retain the supposition that it is to be viewed by a normal eye with passive accommodation. The plane in the object conjugate to the focal plane of the eye-piece is the plane focused for; and all points in it are sharply portrayed (a perfect objective being assumed) . Object points lying out of the focal plane, on the other hand, are projected as circles of confusion on the plane focused for, the centre of the entrance pupil being the centre of pro- jection and the circles of confusion con- stituting, with the points of the focal plane, the object-side imago. As the pencils used in the representations are of wide aperture on the object-side, only such points as are proportionately very near the focal plane can produce such small dispersion circles on the plane focused for, that they, so far as the objective- and eyepiece-magnification permit, appear as points to the eye. It follows that the depth of definition of the microscope is in general very trifling. As it is entirely a =L Fig. 14. — Ray trans- mission in compound microscope with a nega- tive eyepiece. Li=weak achromatic ob- jective. L 2 = negative eyepiece. Fi, Fi'= object- and im- age-side foci of objec- tive. F 2 , F 2 '=object-_ and im- age-side foci of eye- piece. P'Pi'=exit pupil of ob- jective. P Pi' = virtual image of Pi Pi' = exit pupil of complete microscope. function of the aperture and the magnification, it can be increased by diminishing the entrance pupil, the magnification remaining unchanged. A diminution of the aperture, however, would injure a very much more important property, viz. the resolving power (see below). With powerful systems, object-points lying quite near the plane focused for would be represented by such large dispersion circles that practically only the points lying in one plane appear simultaneously sharp; and it is only by varying the focus that the object-points lying in other planes can be observed. The position of the diaphragm limiting the pencils proceeding from the object-points is not constant in the compound microscope. In all microscopes the rays are limited, not in the eyepiece, but in the objective, or before the objective when using a condenser. If the pencils are limited in the objective, the restriction of the pencil proceeding from the object-point is effected by either the front lens itself, by the boundary of a lens lying behind, by a real diaphragm placed between or behind the objective, or by a diaphragm-image. The centre of the entrance pupil is the point of intersection of the principal rays ; and it is therefore determinative for the perspective representation on the plane focused for. In fig. 15 the centre of the (After M. v. Rohi.) Fig. 15. — Entocentric transmission through a microscope objective. E=plane focused for; Oi*, 2 *= projections of Oi0 2 on E; Z = centre of projection; P Pi = a virtual image of real diaphragm P'Pi' with regard to the preceding part of the objective is the entrance pupil, entrance pupil lies behind the focal plane, and consequently nearer objects appear larger, and farther objects smaller (" entocentric transmission," see below). If a diaphragm lying in the back focal plane of the objective forms the exit pupil for the objective, as in figs. 13 and 14, so that its image, the entrance pupil, lies at infinity, all the principal rays in the object-space are parallel to the axis, and we have on the object-side " telecentric " transmission. The size of the imago on the focal plane is always equal to its actual size, and is independent of the distance of the object from the plane focused for. This representation acquires a special importance if the object be micrometrically measured, for an inaccuracy in focusing does not involve an alteration of the size of the image. To ensure the tele- centric transmission, the diaphragm in the back focus of the objective may be replaced by a diaphragm in the front focal plane of the condenser, supposing that uniformly illuminated objects are being dealt with; for in this case all the principal rays in the object-space are transmitted parallel to the axis. With uniformly illuminated objects it may happen that the pencil in the object-space may be limited before passing the object, either through the size of the source of light employed or through a diaphragm connected with the illuminating system. In fig. 16 (After M. v. Rohr.) Fig. 16. — Hypercentric transmission in a microscope objective. E, Oi*, O* and Z as in fig. 15. PPi is the entrance pupil. the intersection of the principal rays lies in front of the object, p.nd consequently objects in front of the plane focused for will be projected on E magnified and the objects lying behind it diminished (" hypercentric " transmission). It produces a perspec- tive representation entirely opposed to ordinary vision. As objects lying near us appear smaller in the case of hypercentric trans- mission than those lying farther from us, we receive a false impression of the spatial arrangement of the object. Whether the entrance pupil be before or behind the object, in general its position is such that it lies not too near the object, so that the principal rays will have in the object space only trifling inclina- tions towards one another or are strictly parallel. This is specially important, for otherwise pencils from points placed somewhat later- ally to theaxis arrive with diminished aperture at the image. We see from fig. 13 that the objective's exit pupil P'Pi' is portrayed by the positive eyepiece, the image P"Pi" limits the pencils. MICROSCOPE 397 proceeding from the eyepiece. This image P"Pi" is then the exit pupil of the combined system, and consequently the image of the entrance pupil of the combined system. As the exit pupil P'Pi' for the objective lies before the front focus of the eyepiece, generally at some distance and near the objective, the eyepiece projects a real image from it behind its image-side focus, so that if this point is accessible it is the exit pupil P"Pi". If, e.g. in the object-space the objective has telecentric transmission, the exit pupil must coincide with the back focal plane of the combined system, a»d it always lies behind the image-side focus of the eyepiece. The exit pupil, often called Ramsden's circle, is thus accessible to the observer, who by head- and eye-movements may survey the whole field. We can now understand the ray transmission in the compound microscope, shown in fig. 13. Points of a small object (compared with the focus of the objective) send to the objective wide pencils. The diaphragm limiting them, i.e. the entrance pupil, is placed so that the principal rays are either parallel or slightly inclined. The pencils producing the real image are very much more acute, and their inclination is the smaller the stronger the magnification. The eyepiece, which by means of narrow pencils represents the relatively large real image at infinity, transmits from all points of this real image parallel pencils, whereby the inclination of the principal rays becomes further increased. The point of intersection, i.e. the centre of the exit pupil, is Accessible to the eye of the observer. In the case of the negative eyepiece, on the other hand, the divergence of the principal rays through the eyepiece is also further augmented, but their point of intersection is not accessible to the eye. This property shows the superiority of the collective eyepiece over the dispersive. The increase of the inclination of the principal rays, which arises with the microscope, influences the perception of the relief of the object. In entocentric transmission this phenomenon appears in general as in the case of the contemplation of perspective represen- tations at a too short distance, the objects appearing flattened. Although in the case of the spatial comprehension of a perspective representation experience plays a large part, in observing through a microscope it does not count, or only a little, for the object is presumably quite unknown. In telecentric and hypercentric transmission we obtain a false conception of the spatial arrangement of the objects or their details; in these cases one focusses by turns on the different details, and so obtains an approximate idea of their spatial arrangement. While the limiting of the pencil is almost always effected by the objective, the limiting of the field of view is effected by the eyepiece, and indeed it is carried out by a real diaphragm DD arranged in the plane of the real image O'O/ (fig. 13) projected from the objective. The entrance window is then the real image of this diaphragm pro- jected by the objective in the surface conjugate to the plane focused for, and the exit window is the image projected by the eyepiece; this happens with the image of the object lying at infinity. The result must be that the field of view exhibits a sharp border. In the case of the dispersive eyepiece, on the contrary, no sharply limited field can arise, but vignetting must occur. Illumination. — The dependence of the clearness of the image on the aperture of the system, i.e. on the angular aperture of the image-producing pencil, holds for all instruments. The brightnesses of image points in a median section of the pencil are proportional to the aperture of the lens, supposing that the rays are completely reunited. This is valid so long as the pencil is in air; but if, on the other hand, the pencil passes from air through a plane surface into an optically denser medium, e.g. water or glass, the pencil becomes more acute and the aperture smaller. But since no rays are lost in this transmission (apart from the slight loss due to reflection) the brightness of the image point in the water is as large as that in air, although the apertures have become less. Fig. 17 shows a pencil in air, A, dispersing in water, W, from the semi- aperture Mi, or a pencil in water dispersing in air from the semi- aperture %. If the value of the clearness in air be taken as sin «i, then by the law of refraction N=sin Mi/sin w 2 , the value for the clearness in water is N sin u 2 . This rule is general. The value of the Fig. 17 clearness of an image-point in a median section is the sine of the semi-aperture of the pencil multiplied with the refractive index of the medium. An illustration of this principle is the immersion experiment. A view taken under water from the point O (fig. 18) sees not only the whole horizon, but also a part of the bed of the sea. The whole field of view in air of 180° is compressed to one of 97-5° in water. The rays from O which have a greater inclination to the vertical than 48-75° cannot come out into the air, but are totally reflected. If pencils proceed from media of high optical density to media of low density, and have a semi-aperture greater than the critical angle, total reflection occurs; in such cases no plane surface can be employed, hence front lenses have small radii of curvature in order to permit the wide pencils to reach the air (see fig. 19, in which P is the preparation, O the object-point in it, D the cover slip, I the immersing fluid, and L the front lens). The function n sin u = A, for the microscope, has been called by Abbe the numerical aperture. In dry-systems only the sine of the semi-aperture is concerned; in immersion-systems it is the product of the refractive index of the immersion-liquid and the sine of the object-side semi-aperture. In the case of the brightness of large objects obviously the whole pencil is involved, and hence the clear- ness is the squares of these values, i.e. sin 2 u or m 2 sin 2 u. As the semi- aperture of a pencil proceeding from an object point cannot exceed 90°, the numerical aperture of a dry-system cannot be greater than 1. On the other hand, in immersion-systems the numerical aperture can almost amount to the refractive index, for A = n sin u m _ . Abbe's .Zeiss . Jena Apertometer View from above Side view Fig. 56. — Abbe's Apertometer (Zeiss), glass plate bears two scales, over which two black thin metal plates bent back at right angles may be moved. A little hole in the silvered plate a marks the centre of this circle. Through this hole the points of the metal plates b can be observed by total reflection on the surface c. The apertometer is laid on the stage, so that the hole lies in the axis of the microscope, and the hole is sharply focused. The eyepiece being removed the image of the metal plates b pro- duced by the objective is seen. In order to ensure for the eye a central position, there is fixed on the upper end of the tube in place of the eyepiece a disk of pasteboard or metal with an axial hole. The metal plates b are then moved till the points just cut off the edge of the field to be surveyed. The angular or numerical aperture can then be read off. With strong systems the vanishing of the points is observed with an auxiliary microscope, formed by means of the inner tube. In immersion systems the immersion liquid is placed between the front lens and apertometer. If the numerical aperture be known the resolving power is easily found. The resolving power can also be determined by using differ- ent fine test objects. Norbert's test plates, which bear graduated groups of extremely fine and narrow divisions are very useful, while the tests of Amphipleura pellucida and Surirella gemma are often employed. The magnification of a microscope is determined from the focal lengths of the two optical systems and the optical tube length, for N = 25o A/fi'fi. To determine the optical tube length A, it is neces- sary to know the position of the focal planes of the objective and of the ocular. If one focuses an auxiliary microscope, carried in the inner tube, on the image situated in the back focal plane of the objective of a distant object, and then on the dust particles lying on a slide pressed against the end of the outer tube, the displacement of the auxiliary microscope gives the distance of the back focal plane of the objective from the end of the outer tube. To determine the position of the anterior focal plane of the eyepiece, the eyepiece is placed on the stage with the eye-lens downwards. An auxiliary microscope is now focused first on the image of a distant object and then on the plane of the edge of the setting. This plane can be marked by a small piece of paper. This gives the distance of the anterior focal plane of the eyepiece from the bottom edge of the setting of the eyepiece and consequently also of the edge of the eye- piece carried by the upper end of the tube. These measurements determine the optical tube length A. MICROTOMY 4c 7 There are many methods for determining the focal length of the objective. The objective to be examined is placed on the stage, and in the manner just shown, the distance of the focal plane from the edge of the fittings or to the surface plane of the front lens is deter- mined. Any plane object a few yards distant can be used. If the object can be seen by using the mirror, the plane mirror must be used ; then the actual size of the object and of the image produced by the objective is measured (of the image by a micrometer ocular). The distance of the object from the nearer focus of the objective is next determined. This distance is composed of the distance of the object from the centre of the plane mirror, and of the distance of the focus of the objective on the stage plate from the centre of the plane mirror. Let the size of the object be y, the size of the image y' the distance of the object from the focus x, then y/y' = x/fi f rom which /1 can be calculated (see Lens). The same method can be used to determine the focal length of the eyepiece. These are the dimensions necessary for determining the magnification of the micro- scope, viz. the optical length of the tube A, the focal lengths of the objective//, and of the eyepiece fa. The focal length of an objective can be more simply determined by placing an objective micrometer on the stage and reproducing on a screen some yards away by the objective which is to be examined. If the size of the image of a known interval of the objective micro- meter is determined by an ordinary scale, and the distance of the image from the focal plane of the objective belonging to it is measured, then the focal length can be calculated from the ratio y/y'=/i'/*i'i in which y is the size of the object, y' that of the image, and x\ the distance of the image from the focal plane belonging to it. Besides this indirect method of determining the magnification there is also a direct one, in which it is not necessary to first measure fi, fa or A. If a drawing prism is used above the eyepiece, and an objective micrometer is inserted, then if a scale is laid on the drawing board which is 25 cm. distant from the exit pupil, one or more intervals of the objective micrometer can be seen projected on the scale lying on the board. The comparison of the two scales gives directly the magnification. The course of the light within the drawing prism must be taken into account when determining the distance of the scale from the exit pupil. Although this method does not give very accurate results, it is more convenient and simple than the indirect method. Bibliography. — E. J. Spitta, Microscopy (2nd ed., 1909); Sir A. E. Wright, Principles of Microscopy (1906) ; W. B. Carpenter, The Microscope and its Revelations (8th ed. by W. H. Dallinger, 1901) ; J. Hogg, The Microscope (15th ed., 1898); H. van Heurck, The Microscope (Eng. trans, by W. E. Baxter, 1893). W. Kaiser, Technik des modernen Mikroskopes (Vienna, 1906), deals with the practical aspects, whilst the theory is treated in M. von Rohr (Die Theorie der optischen Instrumente, Berlin, 1904) and in S. Czapski (Grund- zuee der Theorie der optischen Instrumente; ed. by O. Eppenstein, Leipzig, 1904). (O. Hr.) MICROTOMY (Gr. tow, renveiv, to cut), the term applied to the preparation of minute sections of organic tissue for the microscope. In 1875 the methods were yet in their infancy; their development has enabled observers to achieve the most exact study of minute anatomy, in the case of small objects, which without these methods could only be investigated by the unsatisfactory process of focusing with the microscope through the solid object. It is not necessary here to detail at length the wet method of preparing sections. Briefly, the tissue is soaked in a solution of gum, or of gum and syrup, and after being frozen by ether spray, or by a mixture of ice and salt, is cut into sections either by the Rutherford, Cathcart or some similar section-cutter, or by apparatus which can be fitted to the more modern types of microtome referred to below. This method, which is to-day used mainly by pathologists, has two main disadvantages: the prolonged action of watery fluids on the tissues, and the impossibility of getting ribbons, each section having to be picked up separately. The general processes of the dry method employed in zoological ^nd botanical microtomy are, up to a certain point, practically identified with those used for the preservation of animals and their tissues for other branches of microscopic work. In the first place the tissues must be killed; in the second, they must be fixed, i.e. the protoplasm must be set or coagulated as far as possible in the condition in which it appears in life; and in the third, they must be hardened, i.e. in most cases dehydrated. Killing may be effected by asphyxiation or narcotization (nicotine, cocaine, chloral hydrate, &c.) in special cases, but is generally achieved by fixing reagents, of which corrosive subli- mate and other chlorides, picric, acetic, osmic and chromic acids, alone or in combination, chromates and strong alcohol / are the most usual. These serve to a great extent also as harden- ing agents, but alcohol, used after them, completes this process effectively, and when not too strong (70%) is the best storage fluid. The second set of processes relates to the staining, without which transparent sections are almost invisible. The stains are divisible into general stains, which dye the tissue practically uniformly and indifferently; and selective stains, which have affinity for special tissues or cell elements. Of the latter group some fasten on nuclei, others only on the chromatin of the nuclei; some on connective tissues, others on muscle fibres and so on. It is probable that the action of all these selective stains is produced by definite chemical combination with compounds originally present in, generated in, or introduced into the tissue selected. The most generally useful stains for ordinary work belong either to the cochineal series (borax-car- mine, carmalum, &c), or to the -logwood series (haematoxylin, haemalum, iron haematoxylin, &c); in both of these great improvements have been introduced of late years by Dr Paul Mayer. The activity of these stains apparently depends upon the presence of alumina or of some similar base. For more special researches, such as cytology, neuropathology, neuro- histology, and so forth, greater dependence is placed on the coal-tar colours, the name of which is legion. Some of these, such as safranine or gentian violet, are regressive stains; that is to say, the tissues are overstained uniformly, and the superfluous colouring matter washed out either by alcohol or by weak hydrochloric acid from the unselected parts. Others, such as methyl green, are progressive — that is, the colour is brought up to the pitch required and the reaction promptly stopped. The coal-tar stains can be used singly, or in combinations of two or three. Some of the best, unfortunately, are not permanent. A third group of stains is furnished by such reagents as silver nitrate, gold chloride, and the like (impregnation stains), which can be made not only to stain, but also to deposit a fine metallic precipitate on certain structures. In the case of small and delicate objects, the staining is done in the mass before any further preparation for sections, but with larger animals, or large pieces of resistant tissue, the stain is applied to the sections only. The processes so far mentioned are applicable to many branches of microscopic work. When preparing tissues for sections the first step is complete dehydration, generally effected by bringing the object into absolute alcohol. It is then transferred to one of a group of reagents, which are miscible with absolute alcohol, but would form an emulsion with water, and are solvents of the embedding medium. The embedding mass in most general use is paraffin wax, melting at a temperature of 54° to 6o° C, according to the character of the object and the thickness of section required. The object is transferred from absolute alcohol to benzol, chloroform, cedar oil, or similar fluid to the melted paraffin; the fluid diffuses and evaporates, leaving the tissues to be completely permeated by the paraffin. This process can be greatly has- tened by the use of a partial vacuum. When impregnation is complete the paraffin is cooled rapidly, so as to assume a homo- geneous non-crystalline condition, and the tissue thus comes to form part of a block of soft but tenacious material, which' pro- tects it from damage by air or damp, and can be readily cut by a razor. The block is then trimmed to the form of a triangle or rectangle, and fixed by a clamp or by local melting in the holder of the microtome. The first automatic microtome suitable for cutting a block of tissue into a continuous series of sections was made in 1883 in the university workshops of Cambridge, from a design by W. H. Caldwell and R. Threlfall. Only a single machine was made, but in 1884 twelve machines were made by the Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company from a design by Caldwell. Since then numerous excellent and simpler forms of microtome have been evolved. Some of these have distinct advantages over others, but with microtomes as with other tools — the success of the results depends very largely on the manipulator, for every one works best with his accustomed instrument. In one type of microtome the razor is attached at one end only to a heavy 4o8 MICROTOMY block, sliding backwards and forwards in a horizontal V-groove; the paraffin block is fed to this either up a vertical guide (Schanze, Reichert, &c.) or up an inclined plane (Thoma-Jung). In another type the razor is firmly clamped at both ends, to diminish vibration, and the paraffin block advances to it at the end of a long lever on trunnion bearings (Cambridge rocker) or up a vertical guide (Minot types). In the selection of a microtome, apart from its steadiness, rigidity, accuracy of workmanship, and so forth, it must be borne in mind that, in general, simplicity of working parts means longer life, and that an elaborate " automatic " mechan- ism, by which a single movement is translated into several in different directions, not only complicates the machine, but robs the operator of those alterations of pace, rigidity, pressure, &c, which are often necessitated by the varying texture in different parts of the object cut. For general use by less skilful students in a laboratory, price, simplicity and rapidity of work recom- mend the rocking microtome of the Cambridge Scientific Instru- ment Company, but it tends to fail at large or hard objects. For the all-round work of an investigator, its simplicity and finish have made Jung's sliding microtome with the Naples improvements deservedly popular for many years; it can be fitted with special apparatus for cutting celloidin and frozen objects, and it can be relied upon to cut any tissue, however difficult; but it cannot be worked as rapidly as some others, nor produce long ribbons of large objects. For this latter purpose the Minot-Becker, Minot-Zimmermann and Reinhold- Gilltay have been strongly recommended; these, however, are all of more complicated construction, with corresponding liability to uneven wear and damage; they are highly " automatic," leav- ing nothing but pace under control of the operator, and they are (particularly the last) expensive. [In 1910 the Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company issued a new microtome designed primarily for cutting larger sections than was possible in their earlier forms, which respectively dealt with sections 12X20 mm. and 30 mm. in diameter; the new instrument cuts sections measuring 150X120 mm. (6X4! in.) embedded in paraffin or celloidin and of a thickness varying from 0-002 to 0-06 mm., each division of the scale being equal to 0-002 mm. and the total distance of automatic feed being 21 mm. The construction and action of the instrument can be understood by referring to the figure; a detailed description is given, since the same principles are utilized to a greater or less extent in all sliding microtomes. Large Sliding Microtome. The object to be cut, having been embedded in a suitable prepara- tion A, is fixed to a wooden block which is attached by clamps to the object-holder B. The object-holder is provided with mechan- ism by means of which the height of the block is determined; this is effected by mounting the holder in a cup-shaped socket at the extremity of a brass pillar E, which can be raised or lowered and fixed in any position by a clamp. In addition, the direction in which a section is cut can be varied by adjusting the four screws, one of which is shown at C, which orientate the block. The object- holder and feeding mechanism are carried on a sliding carriage which rests at three points on two guides in the frame N, Ni of the instrument; and in order to secure easy running the necessary lubrication of the bearing surfaces is provided for by a groove in which oil is placed. The motion of the carriage in either direction is effected by the handle G, connected to a system of levers H, which, being constructed on geometrical principles, prevent any side-play and ensure a uniform motion. The arrangement for determining the thickness of the section cut consists of a stop-pin, which, operating through the ratchet M, causes a toothed wheel to revolve, which in turn raises the pillar K; the amount of the motion can be read off by an index. On the return stroke of the sliding carriage the stop-pin is again actuated in such a manner that just before the knife R reaches the object-holder the mechan- ism depresses this part of the instrument so that the knife is not fouled ; and after its passage the object-holder is raised to the posi- tion appropriate for taking the next section. The knife R is rigidly set in two heavy brass clamps adjustable by the screws S, and these clamps are attached to the frame of the instrument by the screws T. The angle which the cutting edge makes with the frame is also adjustable, and by means of a small angular scale engraved on the knife-holders any setting can be easily determined or repeated. The knife is flat on one side and hollow-ground on the other. In using the microtome it is essential that the cutting edge of the knife points towards the end of the instrument where the handle is placed; the hollow-ground face should be uppermost, and the flat surface should not be exactly horizontal but slightly inclined so that the lower facet of the cutting edge is parallel to the frame. As to the relation of the position of the knife to the direction of motion, it is the usual practice, when paraffin sections are to be taken, to have the cutting edge at right angles to the motion; when, on the other hand, celloidin preparations are being cut, the knife must be set obliquely across the frame, an angle of 30 being convenient. This oblique setting is also recommended for paraffin sections. In addition it must be remembered that celloidin prepar- ations always require lubricating when being cut, and it is also necessary to keep both the knife and the preparation constantly moistened with either 80 % alcohol or with cedar-wood oil.] The sections, when cut by the microtome with the knife straight and the two sides of the rectangular paraffin block parallel to it, in most cases can be got off in a continuous ribbon, each sticking to its predecessor. This very desirable result generally can be insured by a coating of softer paraffin; but if the object be large, or brittle, or of varying texture, it is safer to cut the sections singly from a triangular block with an oblique knife. The sections or ribbon are often not quite flat, but rolled, creased or compressed; they must be flattened before being attached to the slide. It is possible to carry out these two processes simultaneously by covering the carefully cleaned slide with plenty of a very dilute solution of Mayer's glycerine and albumen, and laying the sections on the fluid and the slide on a hot-plate; as the water becomes warm the sections flatten out, and as it evaporates they settle down on the slide, and are held there by the albumen (many other methods are in use). The slide is then warmed to melt the paraffin, and plunged into benzol, or some similar fluid, which removes the paraffin; thence into absolute alcohol, which de- H hydrates and coagulates the albumen. If the tissue has not been stained en bloc the sections can now be stained on the slide. After staining they are fully dehydrated, rendered transparent by oil of cloves, and mounted in xylol-dammar or Canada balsam. W. Giesbrecht was the first to fix sections on the slide, using a solution of shellac in creasote in 1881; and also in the same year and in the laboratory of the Naples aquarium, W. H. Caldwell first cut and fixed ribbons of sections. For ordinary work the paraffin method excels all others for rapidity, certainty and cleanliness; but for large and hard objects, or crumbling tissues (such as ova with a large quantity of yolk), some manipulators prefer to embed in celloidin. By this method, after dehydration, the tissue is soaked in a mixture of absolute alcohol and ether; thence transferred either to increasingly strong solutions of celloidin in the same mixture or to a thin solution which is then boiled down till, strong. The celloidin mass is then hardened: at first, if necessary, by drying; afterwards by a bath of chloroform or its vapour. It can then be cut in the microtome, either wet, or (if MIDAS— MIDDLE AGES 409 previously cleaned with cedar oil) dry like a paraffin block. The method is more tedious and more messy than the paraffin process; but amongst its advantages must be reckoned that little or no heat is required, and that the embedding mass is transparent, though it does not allow of such thin sections as paraffin. The above accounts present an outline of the complex processes employed to-day, by which, on the one hand, sections 30 ju in thickness may be made through the entire human brain; and, on the other, organisms invisible to the naked eye may be cut into a long ribbon of consecutive sections 1 n (one-thousandth of a millimetre) thick, every minutest fragment being retained in its proper place. The standard book on the subject is Bolles Lee's Microtomist's vade-mecum. Other works are G. Mann, Methods and Theory of Physiological Histology (Oxford, 1902), and A. Flatters, Methods in Microscopical Research (London, 1905). (G. H. Fo.) MIDAS, the name of several Phrygian kings. The first of these was said to have been the son of Gordius and Cybele, whose first priest he was, and in whose honour he founded a temple at Pessinus. Having taken the drunken Silenus back to his youth- ful charge Dionysus, he was rewarded by the god with the power of transforming everything he touched into gold. Finding himself in danger of starvation, even his food and drink being changed by his touch, Midas entreated Dionysus to take back the gift. By the command of the god he bathed in the river Pactolus, which henceforth became auriferous (Ovid, Metam. xi. 85-145; Hyginus, Fab. 191). Another story connects him with the musical contest between Apollo and Marsyas (or Pan). Having decided against the god, his ears were changed into those of an ass. He concealed them under a Phrygian cap; but the secret was discovered by his barber, who, being unable to keep it, dug a hole in the ground and whispered into it " Midas has the ears of an ass." He then filled up the hole, thinking his secret safe; but the reeds which grew up over the spot proclaimed it to all the world. Midas with the ass's ears was a frequent subject of the Attic satyr-drama. There is no doubt that Midas was the name of one or more real persons around whom religious legends have grown up. The name " Midas the king " occurs on a very ancient tomb in the valley of the Sangarius, the legen- dary seat of the Phrygian kingdom. The Phrygian monarchy was destroyed by the Cimmerians about 670 B.C., and the name Midas became in Greek tradition the representative of this ancient dynasty. On the connexion between Midas and the Attic story see J. G- Frazer, The Golden Bough, ii. 134. MIDDELBURG, the ancient capital of the province of Zeeland, Holland, in the middle of the island of Walcheren, 4 m. by rail N. by E. of Flushing, with which it is also connected by steam tramway and by ship canal (1873), which continues to Veere on the N.E. coast, with a branch eastward to Arnemuiden. Pop. (1903), 19,002. Middelburg contains many splendid old houses, which recall the prosperity which distinguished it until the end of the 18th century. The beautiful town-hall, built by Anton Keldermans about 1512, with a square tower 180 ft. high, and a facade adorned with statues of the counts and coun- tesses of Zeeland and Holland, contains the valuable city archives and antiquarian and historical collections. The old abbey of St Nicholas, founded in n 50, and now occupied by the provin- cial council, has some fine old tapestry of the end of the 16th century. The building was added to in the 14th and 15th centuries, and partly rebuilt after a fire in 1492. It was the scene in 1505 of a meeting of the knights of the Golden Fleece, and was frequently the residence of royal visitors, including Maximilian, Philip the Fair and Charles V. The abbot of Middel- burg formerly possessed a vote of his own in the Provincial States. What was formerly the nave of the abbey church is now the New Church, and the ancient choir constitutes the Choir Church. These churches are interesting for the monu- ments of William II., count of Holland, king of the Romans (d. 1256), the 16th century scholar Hadrian Junius, and Jan Pieterszoon; and the tombs of Jan and Cornelius Evertsen, who fell in the naval war against England in 1666. The high tower (280 ft.), known as de lange Jan, standing apart from the church contains a good chime of bells. The corn exchange, the hof St Joris and the hof St Sebastian (formerly buildings belonging to the gilds of archers, and now places of amusement) also deserve mention. The museum of antiquities belonging to the Zeeland Society of Arts and Sciences (founded at Flushing in 1769, and transferred to Middelburg in 1801) contains a complete collection of the fauna and flora of the province, many maps., plans and drawings relating to Zeeland, the first telescope made by Hans Lippershey and Zacharias Jansen in Middelburg in 1608, and some provincial Roman antiquities. The extensive trade which Middelburg formerly carried on with the East and West Indies and with England and Flanders, was ruined by the war with England and the French occupation. But the construction of the railway in 1872, followed by the opening of the ship canal and the large dock (1876), as well as the establishment, by the aid of the chamber of commerce, of certain manufacturing industries (iron, machinery, furniture, oil and cigars), lifted it out of its isolation. MIDDELBURG, a town of the Transvaal, 98 m. E. by rail of Pretoria, and 251 m. W. of Lourenco Marques. Pop. (1904), 5085 — of whom 2343 were whites. It is prettily situated on the high veld, 5090 ft. above the sea, on one of the head streams of the Olif ants River. Middelburg is the chief town of an adminis- trative division of the same name, and is a trading centre for a large district. It is also the centre of one of the richest coal- fields in South Africa. From some of the adjacent collieries excellent steam coal is obtained. Copper and cobalt are found in the neighbourhood. Middelburg was chosen in 1901 as the place of conference for peace negotiations between the British and the Boers. After the occupation of Pretoria in June 1900 by Lord Roberts the Boer forces had been reduced to guerilla warfare, and Lord Kitchener, learning that the Transvaal commandants were despondent, invited General Botha to enter into negotiations, on the basis of the recognition of British sovereignty. The conference between Lord Kitchener and General Botha was opened on the 28th of February and the negotiations, which ended in failure, were protracted until the 16th of March (see Transvaal: History, § The War of 1899-1902). Middelburg is also the name of a town in the Cape Province, South Africa, 250 m. N. by W. of Port Elizabeth. Pop. (1904), 6137. MIDDLE AGES, THE. This name is commonly given to that period of European history which lies between what are known as ancient and modern times, and which has generally been considered as extending from about the middle of the 5th to about the middle of the 15th centuries. The two dates adopted in old textbooks were 476 and 1453, from the setting aside of the last emperor in the West until the fall of Constantinople. In reality it is impossible to assign any exact dates for the opening and close of such a period. The trend of recent historical re- search leads one even to doubt the validity of the very concep- tion of any definite medieval period. The evolution of modern European society has been continuous. Progress has not been uniform. There was much retrogression with the intrusion of new barbarian races; but from their absorption by the 10th century until the 20th there is not a century in which some notable gain was not made towards the attainments of modern civilization. The correct perspective places between the sum- mits of modern and ancient times, not a long level stretch of a thousand years, with mankind stationary, spell-bound under the authority of the Church, absorbed in war or monastic dreams, but a downward and then a long upward slope, on both of which the forces which make for civilization may be seen at work. It is clear that a survey of the history of these so-called middle ages — long use makes the term inevitable — must include not only the political phase, but also economics, religion, law, science, literature, &c, since all are involved in the concept. A hurried outline of each of these vital branches of our civilization will at once reveal the falseness of the usual periodizing. It is only after having traced these one by one that we can properly review the process as a whole. 4io MIDDLE AGES In political history, the epochal fact which marks the close of ancient times is the decline of the Roman Empire. This was a process extending over three or four centuries, in which no one date lends itself to the historian. The deposition of Romulus Augustulus, the last Roman emperor in the West, in 476, was certainly not one of those events upon which the history of the Western world depends. Outwardly it did not mark the end of the Empire, but the restoration of imperial unity. The throne in Italy had been vacant before, and the restoration of unity was realized in fact under Justinian. There is no reason why the date 476 should stand out in European history more strongly than half a dozen other such dates. Yet we may say that the 5th century did witness the actual dismemberment of the* Roman Empire. The new nations in Spain, Gaul, parts of Italy and Britain were forming the rude beginnings of what were to become national states in the centuries following. Western Europe was taken out of the imperial mould and broken up. This is a revolution of sufficient magnitude to be regarded as politically the opening of a new era. It had been long preparing in the economic and administrative decline of the Empire, and in the steady influx of Germanic peoples into Roman territory for over two centuries; but the power of the old civilization to absorb the new races was exhausted by the 5th century, and the political history of Europe was turned into a different path. That path, however, was not destined to end blindly in a " middle age." The line of political development marked out in the 5th century — that of the national states — still continues. The revolution in which Alaric, Theodoric and Clovis figured did not set the prob- lem for the middle ages only, as is frequently stated; its full meaning did not appear until the Peninsular War, the Prussia of Stein and Scharnhorst, and even Solferino and Sedan. Thus the 5th century politically introduces not so much the history of the middle ages as that of modern Europe. The immediate introduction, however, was a long one — so long and so distinct from the later development as to constitute in itself a distinct phase. For five or six centuries — from the 5th until about the nth — comparatively little permanent progress was made. The Germanic tribes were still adjusting themselves and slowly learning to combine their primitive institutions with the remains of those of Rome; the premature union under Charlemagne gave way before new invasions, and anarchy be- came crystallized in feudalism. It was not until the 12th and 13th centuries that modern national states really took shape: England with its trial by jury, circuit courts, Magna Charta and parliament; France under the strong hand of the Capetians. A political middle age certainly lay between Theodosius and William the Conqueror, or at least between Justinian and Henry II. It is difficult to grasp its vastness. Few students of history realize that the period from the Saxon to the Norman Conquest of England would take us as far back as from George V. to Edward I.; or that from Theodosius to Philip Augustus there is an interval equal to that between the accession of Hugh Capet and the French Revolution. This, however, is not the period most frequently termed the middle ages in political histories. It does not include those two institutions which more than any others stand in popular imagination as genuinely medieval — the papal monarchy and the Holy Roman Empire. The papacy received its full monarchial structure under Hildebrand (Gregory VII.) in the middle of the nth century; its political decline set in suddenly after the ponti- ficate of Boniface VIII. at the opening of the 14th. The great age of the Empire began slightly earlier, and continued until the fall of the Hohenstaufen in the middle of the 13 th century. One cannot now deny the term middle ages to the period of these two institutions. It has been consecrated to this use too long. Yet when we include under a common name two eras so distinct as this and that preceding, our term becomes so vague as to be almost valueless. Moreover, it is doubtful if this second period is really as " medieval " as it has seemed. Papal mon- archy and Holy Roman Empire were not the only political phenomena of their age, and it is possible that their vast pre- tensions have somewhat blinded historians as to their real importance. While they were struggling to enforce their claims to universal sovereignty, the royal power, less extravagant but more real, was welding together the feudal states of France and moulding the England of to-day. Compared with this obscure process — this spread of the king's peace along the highways and through the distant forest lands of the 12th and 13th centuries — papal interdicts and jubilees, however impressive their spec- tacle, are but fleeting shows. The chivalry of Germany pouring through Alpine passes for an Italian campaign, or a coronation, left little trace in history except the lesson of their futility. There is much in the imperial and papal histories that is merely spectacular and romantic; much that appeals to the imagina- tion and lends itself to myth; and since the sources are abundant — the papal archives inexhaustible and the German chronicles easily accessible — an undue emphasis has been placed upon them. It is at least evident that the political middle ages were already disintegrating during the period of papal monarchy and Holy Roman Empire. In economic history there is a more definite line traceable. The one great economic change brought about by the decline of the Roman Empire was the lessening of urban life throughout the greater part of Europe, the closing up of avenues of com- munication and the predominance of isolated agricultural communities. This phase began to give way in the nth century to a commercial and industrial renaissance, which received a great impetus from the crusading movements — themselves largely economic — and by the 14th century had made the Netherlands the factory of Europe, the Rhine a vast artery of trade, and north Italy a hive of busy cities. The discovery of America and the expansion of commerce merely readjusted conditions already highly developed. The period of isolated economy which we may term medieval lasted only from about the 5th to the 12th centuries. As for manufactures, the antique methods survived until the 18th and 19th centuries. In religious history — to be distinguished from that of the political organization referred to above as the papal monarchy — • the official recognition of the Christian Church by Galerius in 311 serves as a convenient starting-point for what we know as universal Christendom, though the slow disappearance of paganism, as distinct from Christianity, stretches over at least a century more. The Reformation of the 16th century has long been regarded as the close of the period. The real close, how- ever, is the present day — as the result of the rationalism and science of the 18th and 19th centuries. The heroes of the Reformation, judged by modern standards, were reactionaries. Unconsciously and to its own ultimate damage the Reformation forged the weapons of progress; but it was itself in no sense, except the institutional and political, the end of that religious history inaugurated before the Council of Nicaea. The real change in attitude which marks the dawn of a new era came in the generation of Voltaire. And " medievalism " is only now on the defence against " modernism," both Catholic and Protestant. In legal history there was a distinct medieval period, when Germanic customs superseded Roman law, that most splendid of Rome's legacies. But the renaissance of law began relatively early; by the 12th century it had created a university, by the 13th it was helping to organize national states and laying the basis for that order which the economic renaissance was already demanding. In science there was no great product in antiquity to be lost. Compared with art or law, literature or philosophy, ancient science (in our sense) was almost insignificant. The promise in Aristotle of such production remained unfulfilled. The 17 th century is not so much a renaissance here as a mere beginning. No one can deny the general unscientific, uncritical nature of " medieval " thought. A single Roger Bacon does not relieve his age of the charge. But the middle age in science must include much of antiquity, including Pliny. Philosophy was the one subject which had, clearly and definitely, a medieval period. Scholasticism, which absorbed the attention of most thinkers from about the nth to about the MIDDLE AGES 41. i 1 5th centuries, is so easily marked ofi and played so considerable a role in the academic history of that time, that historians often refer to it as the only intellectual interest of " medieval " men. Then, selecting some of the later and less virile scholastics as victims, they ask how men could be seriously interested in their trivialities. But these men were not all busy over the problem of how many angels could stand on a needle-point; nor were they all dominated by the religious spirit of faith or intellectual cowardice. They were searching for truth with scientific eager- ness. Their very failure made possible the modern era. It is perhaps unnecessary to point out how small a proportion of the " intellectuals " were scholastics even in the 13th century. In the realm of art the " middle ages " had already set in before Constantine robbed the arch of Titus to decorate his own, and before those museums of antiquity, the temples, were plundered by Christian mobs. The victory of Christianity — iconoclastic in its primitive spirit — was but a single chapter in the story of decline. The process was completed by the misery of the decaying empire, and by the Germanic invasions. The barbarians, however, destroyed less than has been commonly supposed. Destruction was more the product of necessity than of wantonness. Thus public monuments became fortresses, and antique sculpture was built into city walls. Such art as continued was almost wholly religious; for in the wilderness of the times the churches formed oases of comparative prosperity and peace, and, even in the darkest times, wherever such oases existed there the seeds of art took root. The Church architecture of the " middle ages," then developed naturally and without a break, through the Byzantine and Romanesque styles, out of the secular and religious architecture of Greece and Rome. And, with the return of comparatively settled and prosperous condi- tions, not only architecture but the other arts also blossomed under the influence of what was later stigmatized as the " Gothic " spirit into new and original forms. Down to the Reformation the churches continued to be, as the temples of the ancient world had been, the main centres of the arts; yet the arts were not confined to them, but flourished wherever, as in castles or walled cities, the conditions essential to their development existed. With the revival of civilized conditions in secular life, secular ideals in art also revived; the ecclesiastical traditions in painting and sculpture, which always tend to become stereo- typed, began in the West to be encroached upon long before the period of the " Renaissance." The 12th and 13th centuries, which witnessed the great struggle between the secular and spiritual powers in the state, witnessed also the rise of a literature inspired by the lay spirit, and of an art which was already escaping from the thraldom of the stereotyped ecclesiastical forms. Gothic sculpture was not incidentally decorative, it was an essential element in the harmony of the architectural design. The elongated kings that guard the door of Chartres Cathedral, or the portals with the Last Judgment, are a necessary element in the facade. Thus fettered, even the realism of the Gothic sculptors failed, except in rare instances, of its full expression. The plastic arts were left for Italy, where antique models were at hand, and the glory of its achievement in the 15th and 16th centuries was so great as to obscure in men's eyes what had been done before. But this Italian renaissance was not the only one. It was but one of many; and it was concerned with the two subjects which perhaps least deeply influence the lives of the mass of men — -literary humanism and art. It is obviously absurd, in the face of the foregoing facts, to regard it as the end of a middle age in anything but in its own field. When one studies the history of Europe subject by subject, as indicated above, and not merely in a monastic chronicle of things in general, chosen according to the author's point of view, one sees the old-time framework passing away. The traditional idea of a barren middle age and a single glorious renaissance proves false. An organic study of the past reveals a more rational picture of the process which produced the Europe of to-day. Cataclysm and special creation here as elsewhere give way to evolution. The new synthesis reveals a universal decline from the 5th to the 10th centuries, while the Germanic races were learning the rudiments of culture, a decline that was deepened by each succeeding wave of migration, each tribal war of Franks or Saxons, and reached its climax in the disorders of the 9th and 10th centuries when the half-formed civilization of Christendom was forced to face the migration of the Northmen by sea, the raids of the Saracen upon the south and the onslaught of Hungarians and Slavs upon the east. That was the dark age. It left Europe bristling with feudal castles, and already alert for the march of progress. At once the march begins. Henry the Fowler beats back the Slavs and places the outposts of Christen- dom along the Elbe and the Oder. Otto I., his son, drives the Magyars from southern Germany and establishes the East Mark (Austria) to guard the upper Danube. The. restoration of the Empire in 962 marks the first milestone on the pathway of re- covery. Already scholarship had found a home in monasteries planted in the heart of the German forests. The succeeding century brought the Empire to the acme of its power, until Henry III. in the Synod of Sutri, sat in judgment on the impo- tent and demoralized papacy. Meanwhile France had been learning something even in its feudal anarchy. The monks of Cluny were at work. The Capetians had begun. The great monastery of Bee was drawing the sons of northern sea-robbers to the service of that greatest "civilizing force, the Church. The progress made through even this darkest age may be measured by the difference between the army of Rollo and that which William the Conqueror gathered for the invasion of England. There is a legend, current among historians from the days of Robertson and Hallam, that as the year 1000 approached man- kind prepared for the Last Judgment; that the earth " clothed itself with the white mantle of churches," and like a penitent watched in terror and in prayer for the fatal dawn. Contem- porary sources fail to bear out this beautiful conception. Apart from the fact that reckoning from the birth of Christ was by no means universal, and consequently the mass of men were ignorant that there was such a thing as the year 1000, one wonders how that most enduring type of architecture, the Romanesque, reached its maturity among men who thought that the earth itself was so soon to " shrivel like a parched scroll." Recent scholarship has absolutely disproved this legend, founded on a few trite phrases in monastic chronicles, and still to be heard in similar contexts. • The year 1000 marks no epoch in medieval history. The latter half of the nth century witnessed the most remark- able political creation in Europe since the days of Caesar, the papal monarchy of Hildebrand. The great scholastic contro- versies had already begun in the schools of France ; the revival of Roman law had called forth the university of Bologna, and the canonists had begun the codification of the law of the Church. The way was already cleared for the busy 12th century — the age of Louis VI. and Henry II., of Glanvill and Suger, of Abelard and Maimonides, of Frederick Barbarossa and Alexander III., of the emancipation of French communes and cities and the inde- pendence of those of Lombardy, of the growth of gilds and the extension of commerce, of trouvere and troubadour and the beginnings of vernacular literature, of the creation of Gothic art, of trial by jury and the supremacy of royal justice. Such are but a fraction of its achievements. The 12th century stands beside the 18th as one of the greatest creative centuries in human history. The 13th like the 19th applied these creations in the transformation of society. The century of Dante was also that of the first English parliament; its vast economic expansion enabled the national state to triumph in both England and France, and furnished the grounds for the overthrow of Boniface VIII. Into the complex history of this momentous age it is impossible to go in any detail. Sufficient to say that in the opening quarter of the 14th century England and France at least stood on the brink of " modern times." Then these two nations entered upon that long tragedy of the Hundred Years' War, a calamity absolutely immeasurable to both. But during its massacres, jacqueries, plagues and famines, the cities of Italy, growing rich with trade and manufactures, were in their turn 412 MIDDLEBORO^MIDDLESBROUGH the centres of progress, this time in a new direction, toward the recovery of the antique past and the development of art. This is the so-called Renaissance (q.v.). The humanists which it produced, interested only in its splendid revelations, forgot or ignored the achievements of the period which inter- vened between Cicero and Petrarch. Then by the genius of their work they fastened their mistaken perspective upon his- torians and the cultured world at large. They struck upon the unfortunate and opprobrious term " middle ages " for that which stood between them and their classic ideals. The term was first used in this sense by Flavio Biondo, whose " decades " was an attempt to block out the annals of history from 410 to 1410. His treatment fell in admirably with the ideas of his age and of that following. To Protestants the age of the papal monarchy was like the reign of Anti-Christ. Then, after the indifference of humanists and Protestant polemic, came the dis- gust of men of science at the scholastic philosophy — an attitude best exhibited in Bacon's Advancement of Learning. The 1 8th century was thus trebly barred from a knowledge of genuine medieval history. Romanticism, that reaction in which Sir Walter Scott, the Schlegels and Victor Hugo so largely figured, was as far from understanding what it admired as classicism had been from what it hated. Its extravagant praise of all that savoured of the middle ages was still blind to their real progress and work. They were, for it, the ages of romance and chivalry. The view of the romanticists was as one-sided as any that had gone before. It is only with the introduction of a wider outlook in the scientific study of history that it has been possible to straighten the perspective and modify the traditional scheme. In the purely intellectual sphere it is certainly true that the recovery of the antique world was of great importance; that it made possible genuine criticism by presenting new points of contrast and opening up fields that led away from theological quibbles. But it did not mean the " double discovery of the outer and inner world." Mankind did not, as Burckhardt and J. A. Symonds lead one to imagine, suddenly throw off a cowl that has blinded the eyes for a thousand years to the beauty of the world around, and awaken all at once to the mere joy of living. If any one was ever awake to the joys of living it was the minnesinger, troubadour or goliard, and the world had to wait until Rousseau and Burns before its external beauty was dis- covered, or at least deeply appreciated, by any but a few Dutch artists. Even Goethe crossed the Alps with his carriage shutters closed. Mont Blanc is not mentioned by travellers until after the middle of the 18th century. The discovery of the outer world is a recent thing in art as well as in science. As for the claim that the " Renaissance " delivered men from that blind reliance upon authority which was typical of " medieval " thought, that is a fallacy cherished by those who themselves rely upon the authority of historians, blind to the most ordinary processes of thought. In this regard, indeed, in spite of the advance of scientific method and the wealth of material upon which to base criticism, we are still for the most part in the middle ages. The respect for anything in books, the dogma of journalistic inerrancy which still numbers its devotees by millions, the common acceptance of even scientific conceptions upon the dicta of a small group of investigators, these are but a few of the signs of the persistence of what is surely not a medieval but a universal trait. The so-called Renaissance did much; but it did not do the things attributed to it by those who see the " middle ages " through humanist glasses. Upon the whole, therefore, it would seem that not only was there no one middle age common to all branches of human evolu- tion, except the period more definitely marked as the dark age, but that those characteristics which are generally regarded as " medieval " were by no means limited to a single epoch of European history. In short, the dark age was a reality; but the traditional " middle ages " are a myth. (J. T. S.*) MIDDLEBORO, a township of Plymouth county, Massachu- setts, U.S.A., in the S.E. part of the state, bounded on the N.W. by the Taunton river. Pop. (1890), 6065; (1900), 6885 — of whom 920 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 8214. Area, about 70 sq. m. The principal village also is named Middleboro', it is 35 m. S. of Boston, is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railroad and by electric lines connecting with Taunton, Boston, New Bedford and Cape Cod, and has a town- house, a soldiers' monument, and a public library housed in a building erected from a fund (part of which is used as a permanent endowment) bequeathed by Thomas Sprout Peirce (1823-1901), a merchant of the township, who, in addition, bequeathed about $500,000 as a special trust-fund for the use and benefit of the town of Middleboro; the income has been spent largely in the construction of macadam roads, the erection of an almshouse and the installation of special courses in the high school. The village, a place of considerable natural beauty, is a summer resort, and has various manufactures. Other villages in the township are North, East and South Middleboro, and Rock. The township had important herring fisheries in early times and manufactured straw hats (from 1828) and ladies' dress goods. Middleboro was settled about 1662 under the Indian name Nemasket; became a part of the township of Plymouth in 1663; and in 1669 was incorporated as a separate township, taking its name probably from Middlesbrough, North Riding, York. See Thomas Weston, History of the Town of Middleboro, Massa- chusetts (Boston, 1906). MIDDLEBURY, a village and the county-seat of Addison county, Vermont, U.S.A., in Middlebury township, on Otter Creek, about 31 m. N.N.W. of Rutland. Pop. of the village (1890), 1762; (1900), 1807 (221 foreign-born); (1910), 1866; of the township, (1900), 3045; (1910), 2848. Middlebury is served by the Rutland railroad. It is picturesquely situated near the Green Mountain range, and is the seat of Middlebury College (chartered, 1800; co-educational since i883),which offers a classical course and a Latin-scientific course, and had in 1907- 1908 12 instructors and 203 students (84 of whom were women), and a library of 35,000 volumes. The Sheldon art museum and a public library are among the public institutions of the village, and the principal buildings include the court-house and the opera-house. The principal industrial establishments are marble quarries, " Italian " marble works, iron foundries, lime-kilns, flour-mills, and door, sash and lumber mills. About 1 m. north of the village, in the township of Weybridge, there is a large United States government breeding station for Morgan horses; and merino sheep are raised in the vicinity. The township of Middlebury was incorporated in 1761, and the first settlement on the site of the present village was made in 1773. At the outbreak of the War ^f-Lndependence the settle- ment was deserted, and all except two or three of the houses were destroyed by British troops; but the settlers returned soon after the close of the war, and the township was formally organized and sent a- member to the state assembly in 1788. Middlebury was incorporated as a borough in 1813, and as a village in 1832. MIDDLESBROUGH, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough and seaport in the North Riding of Yorkshire, England, 2385 m. N. by W. from London, on the North Eastern railway. Pop. (1891), 75,532; (1901), 91,302. It lies on the south bank of the Tees, 5 m. from its mouth in the North Sea, and is the centre of one of the most important iron-working districts in the world. It is wholly of modern growth, having been incorporated in 1853. Its chief buildings are a fine town-hall with lofty clock-tower and spire (1889), containing the municipal offices, free library, &c; the exchange, county court, Dorman memorial museum and Roman Catholic cathedral. Besides iron and steel works, the first of which was that of Messrs Bolckow, Vaughan & Co., there are rolling-mills, tube works, wire-mills, engineering works, oil works, chemical works, salt works and a considerable ship- building industry. The district abounds in blast furnaces. The docks are accessible to large vessels, the entrance having a depth of 32 ft. Extensive dredging operations are carried on in the river. The accommodation for shipping includes two graving docks, two patent slips, &c. The entrance to the river is pro- tected by two breakwaters named respectively the North Gare and South Gare. The furnaces within the port produce some MIDDLESEX, ist EARL OF— MIDDLESEX 4i3 2,500,000 tons of pig iron annually. Middlesbrough is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop. The parliamentary borough falling within the Cleveland division of the county, returns one member. The county borough was created in 1888. The town is governed by a mayor, ten aldermen and thirty councillors. Area, 2823 acres. , The earlier history of the place is meagre. Where Middles- brough now stands there were at one time a small chapel and priory founded by Robert de Brus of Skelton Castle. These were dedicated to St Hilda, and with some lands were given by de Brus to the abbey of St Hilda at Whitby in 1 130. The priory fell into ruins at the time of the Reformation, and no trace now remains beyond some stones built into the wall of a brewery. The Oak Chair in the town-hall also is made from a fragment. In 1801 there were upon the site of Middlesbrough only four farm- houses. In 1829 a company styling itself the Middlesbrough Owners bought 500 acres of land, and began building in the town. In 1830 the Stockton & Darlington railway was extended to Middlesbrough; four years later the town was lighted with gas; and after six years more a public market was established. The census of 1831 showed the population to be 154; that of 1841 showed 5709. In 1842 the opening of the docks gave additional importance to the town. From the year 1851, when John Vaughan discovered the presence of ironstone in the Eston hills, the town advanced rapidly. MIDDLESEX, LIONEL CRANFIELD, ist Earl of (1575-1645), was a successful London merchant, who was introduced to King James I. by Henry Howard, earl of Northampton, and entered the royal service in 1605. In 16 13 he was knighted and was appointed surveyor-general of customs; in 1616 he became one of the masters of requests, and in 1619 master of the court of wards and liveries and chief commissioner of the navy. He was returned to parliament as member for Hythe in 1614 and for Arundel in 162 1. Cranfield, who was also master of the ward- robe, was responsible for many economies in the public service, and his business acumen was very useful to the king. Ho took part in the attack on Bacon in 1621, and although, contrary to general expectation, he did not succeed Bacon as lord chancellor, he was created Baron Cranfield in July of this year. In 1621 also he became lord high treasurer, and in September 1622 was created earl of Middlesex, losing his positions and influence shortly afterwards because he opposed the projected war with Spain, and had incurred the hostility of Prince Charles and George Villiers, duke of Buckingham. Impeached by the House of Commons for corruption, he was found guilty by the House of Lords in May 1624 and was sentenced to lose all his offices, to pay a heavy fine and to be imprisoned during the king's pleasure. However, he was released from prison in a few days, was pardoned in the following year, and was restored to his seat in the House of Lords in 1640. The earl's second wife was Anne Brett. (d. 1670). a cousin of Buckingham's mother, whom he married somewhat reluctantly in 162 1 in order to ensure Buckingham's support. Middlesex died on the 6th of August 1645, leaving with other issue a son James (1621-1651), 2nd earl of Middlesex, who was a partisan of the parliamentary party during the Civil War. James was succeeded by his brother, Lionel, and when this earl died in October 1674 his titles became extinct. The first earl's daughter Frances married Richard Sackville, 5th earl of Dorset, and their son Charles was created earl of Middlesex in 1675. Two years later he became earl of Dorset, and the title of earl of Middlesex was borne by the earls and dukes of Dorset until 1843. MIDDLESEX, a south-eastern county of England, bounded N. by Hertfordshire, E. by Essex, S.E. by the county of London, S. by Surrey, and W. by Buckinghamshire. The area is 283-3 sq. m., and, excepting Rutland, the county is the smallest in England. The area outside the county of London, or extra- metropolitan area, with which this article is mainly concerned, is 233-8 sq. m. It lies entirely in the basin of the river Thames, which forms its southern boundary. On the east it is separated from Essex by the Lea, the largest northern tributary of the Thames. The other rivers, in order westward, are the Brent, the Crane or Yedding Brook, and the Colne. The waters of several streams are collected in the artificial Brent reservoir near Hendon, from which the Brent flows with a circuitous course to the Thames at Brentford. The Crane, rising in the high ground near Harrow-on-the-Hill, joins the Thames at Isleworth; and the Colne, which rises on the elevated plain between Hatfield and St Albans (Hertfordshire), traverses a flat valley on the western boundary of the county, where it divides into several channels, and joins the main river at Staines. The highest ground, exceeding 400 ft. at several points, and reaching 503 ft. above Stanmore, is found along the northern boundary, in a line from Stanmore through Elstree, Chipping Barnet and Potter's Bar. Two well-marked lines of heights, detached from the main line, project southward, the eastern from Whetstone through Finchley and Highgate to Hampstead, where, within the county of London, a height of 443 ft. is found on Hampstead Heath ; the western being the isolated elevation on which stands Harrow-on-the-Hill. The hills skirting the Lea valley, in the neighbourhood of Enfield, are abrupt, though of no great elevation. Elsewhere the country is very slightly undulating or quite flat, as along the banks of the Thames and Lea. The Thames, however, beautifies its immediate neighbourhood, and rich sylvan scenery is not wanting in the higher districts. The greater part of the county was formerly densely forested and sparsely populated, and the name of Enfield Chase, a royal preserve in the north-east, still recalls this condition. In modern times the visible influence of London has spread over practically the entire county. Villages have grown into populous suburbs; large institutions, for which sites adjacent to rather than within the metropolis have been found preferable, are numerous, and the development of suburban railway communi- cations has brought fresh ground within reach of builders. Geology. — The county lies entirely within the structural basin of the Thames, and, as in the neighbouring counties, the general slope of the ground and dip of the strata is towards the south-east. South of an irregular line passing from Uxbridge, north of Hayes, by Hanwell and Ealing to Hyde Park and east of a similar line from the upper side of the Park to Tottenham and on from that point to Enfield, the only visible deposits are the gravels, loams, brick- earths and sands laid down in former times by the Thames, with contributions by the Lea and the Colne. These alluvial deposits rise gradually northward from the Thames and westward from the Lea, in a series of gentle terraces. The earliest portions of London were built upon these terraces, because while they were dry at the surface, water could be obtained by sinking shallow wells. The alluvium has yielded many flint implements and the bones of the mammoth, bear and rhinoceros, great elk and other extinct forms. The loams are dug for bricks and the gravel for ballast, &c, about West Drayton, Southall, Enfield and Tottenham. The London clay, a marine deposit, is bluish where it has not been turned brown by exposure to the weather. It underlies all the river deposits and rises to the surface north and east of the alluvial boundary indicated above. It gives rise to the undulating grassy country round Harrow, Chipping Barnet and Elstree. Below the London clay are the more sandy Reading beds, they may be seen at Harefield and at South Minims; inliers occur at Pinner and Ruislip. Chalk is only visible on the side of the Colne valley at Harefield, where it is quarried, and at South Mimms. Formerly, the sandy and pebbly Bagshot beds covered all the London clay area, but now only isolated patches remain, such as those on the top of Harrow, Hampstead and Highgate hills. Long after the Bagshot beds were laid down the country was covered by a variety of glacial deposits; such are the pebble gravels of Stanmore Heath and the district north of Barnet, the clay and sand of Finchley, Muswell Hill and Southgate, the chalky boulder clay to be seen at Finchley, Southgate and Potter's Bar. Several deep borings in the London basin prove the existence, beneath the chalk, of beds which do not crop out in Middlesex. The most interesting is that at Meux's Brewery, Tottenham Court Road (about 1146 ft.), which passes through the following formations: gravel and clay, 21 ft.; London clay, 64 ft. ; Reading beds, 51 ft. ; Thanet sand, 21 ft. ; chalk, 655 ft.; upper greensand, 28 ft.; gault, 160 ft.; lower greensand, 64 ft. ; Devonian rocks, 80 ft. 1 Industries, &c. — The climate of some of the high-lying districts is particularly healthy. Little more than one-half the total area of the county is under cultivation; and the grain crops, greatly decreasing, are insignificant. The soil in the north and north-west 1 See " Geology of Part of the London Basin," Mem. Geol. Survey, 2 vols.; "Soils and Subsoils," ditto; Proceedings of the Geolo- gists' Association. A large model of the geology of London is exhibited in the Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn Street, London. 4H is heavy, poor clay; but the rich alluvial soil of the Thames Valley is specially suitable for market gardens. On the outskirts of London much land now built over was formerly devoted to market gardening. The number of livestock decreases; in fact, agriculture as a whole has slowly to give place to extension of building. Industries are extensive and varied. The county is naturally, in view of the proximity of London, closely intersected with railways, the following companies, from east to west and south, affording communi- cations: Great Eastern, Great Northern, Midland, London & North- western, Metropolitan, Great Central, Metropolitan District, Great Western, London & South- Western. Moreover, in some parts the tramway system has been extended over a wide area from London ; thus Uxbridge, in the extreme west of the county, is so served. The principal canals are the Grand Junction, running west from Brentford to the Colne Valley, and thence northward; with a branch (the Paddington Canal) connecting it with the Regent's Canal in London ; and, in the east, the Lea navigation. Population and Administration. — The area of the ancient county is 181,320 acres, with a population in 1871 of 2,539,765; in 1891 of 3,251,671 ; and in 1901 of 3,585,323. At the time of the Domesday Survey the population of Middlesex, exclusive of London, was 2302. The extra-metropolitan area is 149,668 acres, with a population in 1901 of 798,738. The part of the ancient county transferred to the county of London under the Local Government Act 1888 was 31,484 acres in extent, and 771 acres were then transferred to Hertfordshire; while under the London Government Act 1899 the southern part of Hornsey was transferred to London. The area of the administrative county is 148,700 acres. The county contains six hundreds. The municipal boroughs are Ealing (pop. 33,031), Hornsey (72,056). The urban districts are Acton (37,744), Brent- ford (15,171), Chiswick (29,809), Edmonton (46,899), Enfield (42,738), Feltham (5280), Finchley (22,126), Friern Barnet (11,566), Greenford (819), Hampton (6813), Hampton Wick (2606), Hanwell (10,438), Harrow-on-the-Hill (10,220), Hayes (3000), Hendon (22,450), Heston and Isleworth (30,863), Kingsbury (757), Ruislip- Northwood (3850), Southall Norwood (13,200), Southgate (14,993), Staines (6688), Sunbury-on-Thames (4544), Teddington (14,037), Tottenham (102,541), Twickenham (20,991), Uxbridge (8585), Wealdstone (5901), Wembley (4519), Willesden (114,811), Wood Green (34,233). The county is in the jurisdiction of the central criminal court, and the whole extra-metropolitan county is within the metropolitan police district, the name of " Greater London " covering it. There are one court of quarter sessions and eight petty sessional divisions. The number of civil parishes is 60. Middlesex (extra-metropolitan) is wholly in the diocese of London, excepting a small portion in that of Oxford, and includes 153 ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly or in part. The extra-metropolitan parliamentary divisions, each returning one member, are Enfield, Tottenham, Hornsey, Harrow, Uxbridge, Brentford and Ealing. History. — The district which is now Middlesex was colonized in the 6th century by an offshoot of the East Saxon tribe, and derived its name from its position between the kingdoms of the East and West Saxons. In a charter dated 704 Middlesex is mentioned by name as a dependency of Essex, but soon after it acknowledged the supremacy of Mercia, and from 748 onwards the Mercian council was held at London, and from 780 onwards at Brentford. In the 9th century Middlesex formed part of the Danelagh, and in 993 Anlaf the Dane came with 93 ships to Staines. The only reference to Middlesex in the Saxon Chronicle occurs in 101 1 , when it was again overrun by the Danes. The Conqueror's march upon London was preceded by a general devastation of the surrounding country, the effects of which are illustrated in the Domesday Survey by the diminution in land values. At this time the district north of London formed the vast forest of Middlesex, the greater part of which was dis- afforested in the reign of Henry. III. Enfield had woodlands for 2000 pigs; Ruislip for 1500 pigs; and Kingsbury, Hillingdon and Hendon for 1000 pigs each. Vineyards are mentioned at Holborn, Colham, Kempton and Kensington; fishponds at ,Harmondsworth and Harefield produced each 1000 eels. As a shire Middlesex probably originated about the time of the frith of 886, when it is described as the land dependent upon London, and in 912 is referred to as " London and the land which owed obedience thereto." During the Saxon period the exten- sive manors held by the church of Canterbury, the bishop of London and his canons of St Paul's, and the abbey of Westminster were held as independent franchises, the courts for St Paul's being held at Stepney and Fulham, for West- minster at Westminster and Staines, and for Canterbury at Harrow. By charter of Henry I. (confirmed by Stephen and Henry II.) the citizens of London held Middlesex at MIDDLETON, EARLS OF farm for £300, with power to elect a sheriff from among their number, and by charter from John the shrievalty of both London and Middlesex was granted to the mayor and citizens in fee. By charter of 1242 the common pleas for the county of Middlesex were ordered to be held at the stone cross in the Strand. Under a charter of 1447 the lord mayor was authorized to nominate one of the city aldermen as justice of the peace for Middlesex. The six modern hundreds of Edmonton, Elthorne, Gore, Isleworth, Ossulston, and Spelthorne have been scarcely changed since the Domesday Survey, except that Isleworth was then Honeslaw (Hounslow), while in the 12th century hidage a hundred of " Mimes " is mentioned, corresponding with the Domesday hundred of Edmonton. Middlesex has always been included in the diocese of London. The archdeaconry of Middle- sex, which includes part of Essex, is mentioned in 1151, but the Middlesex portion was not subdivided into rural deaneries until 1857, when the deaneries of Fulham, Ealing, Uxbridge, Staines, Hampton, Enfield, Harrow and St Pancras were created. The deaneries of Chelsea, Hammersmith, Hampstead, Hornsey, Ken- sington, Paddington, St Marylebone, Westminster and Willesden were created later, but Staines was abolished. In 1 215 Middlesex was ravaged by William, earl of Salisbury, and Falkes de Breaute, and in the same year at Runnimede near Staines John was forced to issue the. Magna Carta. In the Civil War of the 17th century Middlesex supported the Parlia- mentary cause, joining in 1642 with Hertfordshire and Essex in a petition that the votes of the bishops and popish lords might be disallowed in the House of Lords, and that the forts and castles of the kingdom might be placed in such hands as the Parliament could confide in. Sir Denzil Hollis was defeated by the Royalists at Brentford in 1642, and in 1645 a fruitless treaty between Charles I. and the Parliament was concluded at Uxbridge. Brentford had famous election contests in 1768 and 1769. The woollen and leather industries flourished in Middlesex in Norman times. London was the great place of slaughter, and hides were tanned at Enfield. Bricks were also manu- factured from early times, and Heston was noted for its wheat. Paper was extensively manufactured in the 17th century, and much distress was caused in 1636 by a decree prohibiting the purchase of old rags for the Middlesex paper-mills for fear of the plague. In 1640 the manufacturers of mohair yarn in Middlesex appealed against a bill prohibiting the wearing of material made of the said yarn during the winter season. In 1655 a certificate of a hundred master tanners and other traders of Middlesex approved an invention for converting raw hides into leather by means of new liquor, with or without oak-bark. Middlesex returned two members to parliament in 1295. (For the representation of London, see London.) See John Nqrden, Speculum Britanniae: thefirste parte, an histori- call and chorographicall description of Middlesex (London, 1593; reprinted "1637 and 1723); Daniel Lysons, The Environs of London (1 792-1 796); Victoria County History, Middlesex. MIDDLETON, EARLS OF. John Middleton, ist Earl of Middleton (c. 1619-1674), belonged to a Kincardineshire family which had held lands at Middleton since the 12th century. In early life he served as a soldier in France; later he fought against Charles I. both in England and in Scotland, being especially prominent at the battle of Philiphaugh and in other operations against the great Montrose. He held a high command in the Scottish army which marched to rescue the king in 1648, and he was taken prisoner after the battle of Preston. He joined Charles II. when that monarch reached Scotland in 1650, but he was soon at variance with the party which at that time was dominant in church and state and was only restored to favour after doing a public penance at Dundee. He was a captive for the second time after the battle of Worcester, where he commanded the Royalist cavalry, but he escaped from the Tower of London to Paris. In 1653 Middleton was chosen by Charles II. to head the projected rising in Scotland. He reached that country in February 1654, but the insurrection was a complete failure. Its leader, who cannot be held responsible for this result, remained in Scotland until 1655, when he rejoined Charles II., who made MIDDLETON, A.— MIDDLETON, C. 4i5 him an earl in 1656. He returned to England with the king in 1660 and was appointed commander-in-chief of the troops in Scotland and lord high commissioner to the Scottish parliament, which he opened in January 1661. He was an ardent advocate of the restoration of episcopacy, this being one reason which led to serious dissensions between the earl of Lauderdale and himself, and in 1663 he was deprived of his offices. He was afterwards (1667) governor of Tangier, where he died in June 1674. His eldest son Charles, 2nd Earl of Middleton (c. 1640- 1710), held several offices under Charles II. and James II., being envoy extraordinary at Vienna and afterwards joint secretary for Scotland. In 1684 he became an English secretary of state, and with Richard Graham, Viscount Preston, he had the difficult task of managing the House of Commons for James II. He was loyal to James after the king fled to France, although he re- mained in England, where, as the leader of the moderate Jacob- ites, he sought to bring about a restoration by peaceful means. In 1693 the earl joined the exiled king at St Germains, where he became his secretary of state; afterwards he held the same office at the court of James Edward, the old pretender, in Flanders and in Lorraine. He was partly responsible for the unsuccessful expedition of the Jacobites to Scotland in 1707, and he resigned his office as secretary in 1713. Middleton, who had been created earl of Monmouth by the pretender, died in 1719. His titles had been declared forfeited in 1695, but they were claimed by his son John, who died unmarried about 1746. The earl was a Protes- tant, although a lukewarm one, until 1701, when he yielded to the dying wish of James II. and joined the Roman Catholic Church. One of Middleton's kinsmen was Sir Charles Middleton, Bart. (1726-1813). Having served in the navy Middleton was comptroller of the navy from 1778 to 1790, "standing out through that period of inept administration as the pillar of the service." In April 1805, at a most critical time, he was, although eighty years of age, appointed first lord of the admiralty by Pitt and was created Lord Barham. It has been usual to regard Barham as a cipher at the admiralty board, but more recent research, especially an examination of the Barham Papers, has proved this to be the reverse of the truth. He enjoyed the absolute confidence of Pitt, and it was his experience, industry and energy which made possible the great campaign which ended at Trafalgar. He resigned office in January 1806 and died on the 17th of January 1813. His barony passed through his daughter Diana (1762-1823) to the Noels, earls of Gains- borough, by whom it is still held. The Barham Papers are being edited by Sir J. K. Laughton (vol. i. 1907; vol. ii. 1910). See also J. S. Corbett, The Campaign of Trafalgar (1910). See A. C Biscoe, The Earls of Middleton (1876). MIDDLETON, ARTHUR (1742-1787), American politician and signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born at Middleton Place on the Ashley river, South Carolina, on the 26th of June 1742. His family was one of the most prominent in the colony. The grandfather, Arthur Middleton (1681-1737), was president of the Council in 1 721-1730 and as such was acting governor in 1725-1730, and the father, Henry Middleton (1717- 1784), was speaker of the Assembly in 1 745-1 747 and again in 1754-1755, a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1774-1776, and its president from October 1774 to May 1775, a member of the South Carolina Committee of Safety, and in 1775 president of the South Carolina Provincial Congress. Like most wealthy South Carolinians of the 18th century, Arthur Middleton was educated in England — at Hackney, at Westminster School, and at St John's College, Cambridge. He then returned to South Carolina, but soon afterwards went back to England to live, and travelled on the Continent. In 1773 he again returned to South Carolina, and in the controversies between the colonists and the home government became a leader of the Whigs. He was a member of the provincial Council of Safety in 1775-1776, and a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1776-1777. In 1778 he was elected governor of South Carolina, but owing to his dis- satisfaction with the new state constitution he declined to serve. He was captured by the British at Charleston in May 1780, was exchanged in July 1781, was again a delegate to Congress in 1 781-1783, and later served in the state legislature. He died on the 1st of January 1787 at Middleton Place, near Charleston. His eldest son, Henry Middleton (1770-1846), was an orator of ability, was governor of South Carolina in 1810-1812, a representative in Congress in 1815-1819, and the United States minister to Russia from 1820 to 1830, negotiating in 1824 a convention " relative to navigation, fishing and trading in the Pacific Ocean, and to establishments on the North-West Coast." This was the first treaty between the United States and Russia. MIDDLETON, CONYERS (1683-1750), English divine, was born at Richmond in Yorkshire on the 27th of December 1683. He graduated at Cambridge, took orders, and in 1706 obtained a fellowship, which he soon resigned upon contracting an advanta- geous marriage. In 171 7 a dispute with Richard Bentley, who made an extortionate demand on the occasion of Middleton's being created D.D., involved him in an acrimonious controversy. He wrote several trenchant pamphlets, among them the " Remarks " and " Further Remarks " on Bentley's Proposals for a New Edition of the Greek Testament, an endeavour to visit his grievances upon the text of the New Testament. In 1723 he was involved in a lawsuit by personalities against Bentley, which had found their way into his otherwise judicious tract on library administration, written on the occasion of his appointment as university librarian. In 1726 he offended the medical profession by a dissertation contending that the healing art among the ancients was only exercised by slaves or freedmen. Between the dates of these publications he visited Italy, and made those observations on the pagan origin of church ceremonies and beliefs which he sub- sequently embodied in his Letter from Rome (1729). This cogent tract probably contributed to prepare the storm which broke out against him on his next publication (1731). In his remonstrance with Daniel Waterland on occasion of the latter's reply to Matthew Tindal's Christianity as Old as the Creation, Middleton takes a line which in his day could hardly fail to expose him to the reproach of infidelity. He gives up the literal truth of the primeval Mosaic narratives; and, in pro- fessing to indicate a short and easy method of confuting Tindal, lays principal stress on the indispensableness of Christianity as a mainstay of social order. This was to resign nearly every- thing that divines of the Waterland stamp thought worth defend- ing. Middleton was warmly assailed from many quarters, and retreated with some difficulty under cover of a sheaf of apolo- getic pamphlets and a more regular attendance at church. His next important publication was a Life of Cicero (1741), largely told in that statesman's own words. Though Middleton's reputation was much enhanced by this piece of work, there is no doubt that he drew largely from the scarce book of William Bellenden, De tribus luminibus Romanorum. The work was undertaken at the instance of Lord Hervey, in correspondence with whom also originated his disquisition on The Roman Senate, published in 1747. The same year and the following produced the most important of all his writings, the Introductory Discourse and the Free Inquiry " concerning the miraculous powers which are supposed to have subsisted in the church from the earliest ages." In combating this belief Middleton indirectly established two propositions of capital importance. He showed that ecclesi- astical miracles must be accepted or rejected in the mass; and he distinguished between the authority due to the early fathers' testimony to the beliefs and practices of their times, and their very slender credibility as witnesses to matters of fact. Some individual grudge seems to have prompted him to expose, in 1750, Bishop Sherlock's eccentric notions of antediluvian prophecy, which had been published 25 years before. On the 28th of July 1750 he died at Hildersham, near Cambridge. Middleton's most ambitious work is obsolete from no fault of his, but his controversial writings retain a permanent place in the history of opinion. In his more restricted sphere he may not inappropriately be compared with Lessing. Like Lessing's, the character of his intellect was captious and iconoclastic, but redeemed from mere negation by a passion for abstract truth, too apt to slumber until called into activity by some merely personal stimulus. His diction is generally masculine and 4-i6 MIDDLETON, T. harmonious. Pope thought him and Nathaniel Hooke the younger the only prose writers of the day who dtoerved to be cited as authorities on the language. Samuel Parr, while expos- ing his plagiarisms, heaps encomiums on his style. But his bes'c qualities, his impatience of superstition and disdain of mere external authority, are rather moral than literary. The best general view of his intellectual character and influence is to be found in Sir Leslie Stephen's English Thought in the Eighteenth Century, ch. vi. A handsome edition of his works, containing several posthumous tracts, but not including the Life of Cicero, appeared in 4 vols, in 1752 and in 5 vols, in 1755. MIDDLETON, THOMAS (c. 1570-1627), English dramatist, son of William Middleton, was born about 1570, probably in London. There is no proof that he studied at either university, but he may be safely identified with one of the Thomas Middletons entered at Gray's Inn in 1593 and 1596 respectively. He began to write for the stage with The Old Law, in the original draft of which, if it dates from 1599 as is generally supposed, he was certainly not associated with William Rowley and Philip Massinger, although their names appear on the title-page of 1656. By 1602 he had become one of Philip Henslowe's established playwrights. The pages of Henslowe's Diary contain notes of plays in which he had a hand, and in the year 1607-1608 he produced no less than six comedies of London life, which he knew as accurately as Dekker and was content to paint in more realistic colours. In 1 613 he devised the pageant for the installation of the Lord Mayor, Sir Thomas Middleton, and in the same year wrote an entertainment for the opening of the New River in honour of another Middleton. From these facts it may be reasonably inferred that he had influential connexions. He was frequently employed to celebrate civic occasions, and in 1620 he was made city chronologer, performing the duties of his position with exactness till his death. The most notable event in his career was the production at the Globe theatre in 1624 of a political play, A Game at Chess, satirizing the policy of the court, which had just received a rebuff in the matter of the Spanish marriage, the English and Spanish personages concerned being disguised as the White Knight, the Black King, and so forth. The play was stopped, in consequence of remonstrances from the Spanish ambassador, but not until after nine days' performances, and the dramatist and the actors were summoned to answer for it. It is doubtful whether Middleton was actually imprisoned, and in any case the king's anger was soon satisfied and the matter allowed to drop, on the plea that the piece had been seen and passed by the master of the revels, Sir Henry Herbert. Middleton died at his house at Newington Butts, and was buried on the 4th of July 1627. He worked with various authors, but his happiest collaboration was with William Rowley, this literary partnership being so close that F. G. Fleay (Biog. Chron. of the Drama) treats the dramatists together. The plays in which the two collaborated are A Fair Quarrel (printed 161 7), The World Lost at Tennis (1620), an ingenious masque, TheChangeling (acted 1624, printed 1653), and The Spanish Gipsie (acted 1623, printed 1653). The main interest of the Fair Quarrel centres in the mental conflict of Captain Ager, the problem being whether he should fight in defence of his mother's honour when he no longer believes his quarrel to be just. The underplot, dealing with Jane, her con- cealed marriage, and the physician, which is generally assigned to Rowley, was suggested by a story in Giraldi Cinthio's Hecatom- mithi. The Changeling is the most powerful of all the plays with which Middleton's name is connected. The plot is drawn from the tale of Alsemeroand Beatrice-Joanna in Reynolds's Triumphs of God's Reveng against Murther (bk. L, hist, iv.), but the story, black as it is, receives additional horror in Middleton's hands. The famous scene in the third act between Beatrice and De Flores, who has murdered Piracquo at her instigation, is admirably described by Swinburne: " That note of incredulous amazement that the man whom she has just instigated to the commission of murder ' can be so wicked ' as to have served her end for any end of his own beyond the pay of a professional assassin, is a touch worthy of the greatest dramatist that ever lived. . . . That she, the first criminal, should be honestly shocked as well as physically horrified by revelation of the real motive which impelled her accomplice into crime, gives a lurid streak of tragic humour to the lifelike interest of the scene; as the pure infusion of spontaneous poetry throughout redeems the whole work from the charge of vulgar subservience to a vulgar taste for the presentation or the contemplation of criminal horror." Leigh Hunt thought that the character of De Flores, for effect at once tragical, probable and poetical, " surpassed anything with which he was acquainted in the drama of domestic life." The underplot of the piece, though it is based on the humours of a madhouse, has genuine comic flashes. The Spanish Gipsie has a double plot based on the Fuerza de la sangre and the Gitanitia of Cervantes Much has been said on the collaboration of Middleton with Rowley, who was much in demand with fellow- dramatists, especially for his experience in low comedy. These plays, even in scenes where the evidence in favour of one or other of the collaborators is clear, rise to excellence which neither dramatist was able to achieve alone. It was clearly no mechanical partnership the limits of which can be said to be definitely assigned when the actual text has been parcelled out between the collaborators. With Thomas Dekker he wrote The Roaring Girle, or Moll Cut- Purse (1611). The frontispiece represents Moll herself in man's attire, indulging in a pipe of tobacco. She was drawn or ideal- ized from life, her real name being Mary Frith (1584-1659 ?), who was made to do penance at St Paul's Cross in 161 2. "Worse things, I must confess," says Middleton in his preface, " the world has taxed her for than has been written of her; but 'tis the excel- lency of a writer to leave things better than he finds 'em." In the play she is the champion of her sex, and is equally ready with her sword and her wits. Middleton is also credited with a share in Thomas Dekker's Honest Whore (pt. i., 1604) . The Witch, first printed in 1778 from a unique MS., now in the Bodleian, ha,s aroused much controversy as to whether Shakespeare borrowed from Middleton or vice versa. The dates of both plays being uncertain, there are few definite data. The distinction between the two conceptions has been finely drawn by Charles Lamb, and the question of borrowing is best solved by supposing that what is common to the incantations of both plays was a matter of common property. The Mayor of Quinborough was published with Middleton's name on the title-page in 1661. Simon, the comic mayor, is not a very prominent character in the plot, which deals with Vortiger, Hengist, Horsus and Roxena among other characters. One of its editors, Mr Havelock Ellis, thinks the proofs of its authenticity as Middleton's work very slender. It is generally supposed to have been a very early work subjected to generous revision. The plays of Middleton still to be mentioned may be divided into romantic and realistic comedies of London Life. Dekker had as wide a knowledge of city manners, but he was more sympathetic in treatment, readier to idealize his subject. Two New Playes. Viz.: More Dissemblers besides Women. Women beware Women, of which the former was licensed before 1622, appeared in 1657. The plot of Women beware. Women is a double intrigue from a con- temporary novel, Hyppolito and Isabella,, and the genuine history of Bianca Capello and Francesco de Medici. This play, which ends with a massacre appalling even in Elizabethan drama, may be taken as giving the measure — no mean one — of Middleton's unaided power in tragedy. The remaining plays of Middleton are: Blurt. Master-Constable. Or the Spaniards Nighl-walke (1602); Michaelmas Terme (1607), described by A. C. Swinburne as an excellent Hogarthian comedy; The Phoenix (1607), a version of the Haroun-al-Raschid trick; The Famelie of Love (1608) ; A Trick to catch the Old-one (anonymously printed, 1608) ; Your Five Gallants (licensed 1608) ; A Mad World, my Masters (1608) ; A Chast Mayde in Cheapside (printed 1630), notable for the picture of Tim, the Cambridge student, on his return home; Anything for a Quiet Life (c. 1617, printed 1662); No Wit, No Help like a Woman's (c. 1613, printed 1657); The Widdow (printed 1652), on the title-page of which appear also the names of Ben jonson and John Fletcher, though their collaboration may be doubted. Eleven of his masques are extant. A tedious poem, The Wisdom of Solomon paraphrased, by Thomas Middleton, was printed in 1597, and Microcynicon, Six Snarling Satires by T. M. Gent, in 1599. Two prose pamphlets, dealing with London life, Father Hubbard's Tale and The Black Book, appeared in 1604 under his initials. His non-dramatic work, however, even if gtenuine, has little value. MIDDLETON— MIDDLEWICH 4i7 Authorities. — His works were edited by Alexander Dyce (5 vols.) in 184O, with a valuable introduction quoting many documents, and by A. H. Bullen (8 vols.) in 1885. The Best Plays of Thomas Middleton were edited for the Mermaid series (1887) by Havelock Ellis with an introduction by A. C. Swinburne. See also Miss P. G. Wiggin's Inquiry into the Authorship of the Middleton-Rowley Plays (Boston, 1897), and the notice on Middleton in Professor A. W. Ward's Hist, of Eng. Dram. Lit. (ed. 1899; ii., 493-540), which contains a full account of Middleton's Game at Chesse. A careful examination of the parallelisms between the plays of Shake- speare and Middleton is made by D. Hugo Jung in " Das Verhaltnis Thomas Middleton's zu Shakspere " (Miinchener Beitrage zur roman. u. engl. Phil. vol. xxix., 1904). MIDDLETON, a market town and municipal borough in the Middleton parliamentary division of Lancashire, England,, on the Irk, near the Rochdale Canal, and on the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway, 6 m. N.N.E. from Manchester. Pop. (1901), 25,178. The church of St Leonards is of mixed architecture, with a low square tower. The oldest portion of the building (the tower arch) dates from the 12th century, but the main portion from 141 2, and the south aisle from 1524. Two chapels in it con- tain memorials of, and are named after, two ancient Lancashire families, the Asshetons and the Hopwoods. The Queen Elizabeth grammar-school, a building in the Tudor style, was founded in 1572 by Nowell, dean of St Paul's, London. There are a handsome town-hall and municipal technical schools. An extensive system of tramways and electric light railways connects the town with its suburbs and adjacent industrial centres. The prosperity of the town dates from the introduction of manu- factures at the close of the 18th century. The staple trade is the spinning and weaving of cotton, and the other industries include silk weaving, calico-printing, bleaching, dyeing, iron-founding and the manufacture of soap and chemicals. There are collieries in the neighbourhood. The town was incorporated in 1886, and the corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 4775 acres. MIDDLETOWN, a city and the county-seat of Middlesex county, Connecticut, U.S.A., in the township of Middletown, in the south central part of the state, on the west bank of the Connecticut river, about 30 m. from its mouth, and about 15 m. south of Hartford. Pop. (1890), 9013; (1900), 9589, of whom 2316 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 11,851. Within a radius of 2 m. from the city hall there was found in 1910 most of the township's population of 20,749. The city is served by two branches of the New York, New Haven & Hartford railroad, by a line of coast steamers, and by electric lines connecting with neighbouring cities and villages. The city is connected by a long highway bridge with the village of Portland in the township of Portland (pop. in 1910, 3425; area 26 sq. m.), which is known for its brown-stone quarries. Four miles south of Middletown is Chest- nut Mountain (or Bull Hill), which commands a fine view; and about 3 m. east are the " Narrows " of the Connecticut river, where the water flows between high hills. Middletown has a number of handsome residences. In High Street stand the buildings of Wesleyan university (Methodist Episcopal), founded in 1831 by the Rev. Wilbur Fisk, who became the first president and the Rev. Laban Clark (1778-1868), who became the -first president of the board of trustees. Women were first admitted in 1872, but coeducation was later discontinued; and the last freshman class of women students under the old system entered in 1909. The university offers classical and scientific courses, and in 1908-1909 had 36 instructors, 322 students (30 being women), and a library of 79,000 volumes. In 1875-1877 the work of the first agricultural experiment station in the United States was carried on here under state supervision in Wesleyan University, with Professor Wilbur Olin Atwater (1844-1907) as director; it was then removed to New Haven. Middletown is also the seat of the Berkeley divinity school (Protestant Episcopal), founded in 1849 as the theological department of Trinity College, Hartford, rechartered and removed to Middletown in 1854, and having in 1907 a faculty of 8, and 16 students; and the city has a free public library (1874) with 17,700 vols, in 1907. South-east of the city is the Connecticut hospital for the insane, and south- xvin. 14 West of the city, the Connecticut industrial school for girls (reformatory). The total value of the factory products in 1905 was $5,604,676, an increase of 35 % over that for 1900. The municipality owns and operates the waterworks. Middletown occupies the site of an Indian village, Mattabesec or Mattabesett (from Massa-sepues-et, " at a great rivulet or brook "), the principal village of the Mattabesec Indians, an Algonquian tribe which included the Wongunk, Pyquaug and Montowese Indians and seems to have had jurisdiction over the whole of south-western Connecticut. The township of Middle- town was settled by whites in 1650, and until 1653, when the present name was adopted, was known by the Indian name, Mattabesett. It was incorporated in 1651; and the city was chartered in 1784. Shipbuilding and commerce became the principal sources of wealth. In the middle of the nineteenth century Middletown was one of the leading cities of Connecticut, and as late as 1886 it was a port of entry; but the development of rival ports, especially New Haven, Hartford and Bridgeport, into railway centres, retarded the growth of manufacturing, and commerce declined after the Civil War. MIDDLETOWN, a city of Orange county, New York, U.S.A., on the Wallkill river, 67 m. N.N.W. of New York City. Pop. (1890) 11,977; (19°°) i4,5 22 , including 1700 foreign-born and 480 negroes; (1905, state census) 14,516; (1910) 15,313. It is served by the Erie, the New York, Susquehanna & Western, and the New York, Ontario & Western railways, and is connected by an electric line with Goshen (pop. in 1910, 3081), the county-seat. It is situated in an attractive dairy and agricultural country; and in the city and vicinity there are many summer residences. Here are the state homoeopathic hospital for the insane, a state armoury, Thrall hospital, and Thrall library. Middletown is primarily a manufacturing city, and has the car shops of the New York, Ontario & Western railway. The value of its factory- products increased from $2,154,742 in 1900 to $3,356,330 in 1905, or 55-8 %. The municipality owns and operates its waterworks. Middletown was settled about 1796 and owed its early commercial importance to its being a " half-way house " (whence its name) for travellers on the Minisink Road to western New York, and it was for a time a terminus of the Erie railroad. It was incorporated as a village in 1848, and first chartered as a city in 1888. MIDDLETOWN, a city of Butler county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Miami river, 34 m. N. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1890), 7681; (1900), 9215, of whom 769 were foreign-born and 314 were negroes; (1910) 13,152. It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, the Cincinnati Northern (New York Central system), and a branch of the Cincinnati, Lebanon & Northern (Pennsylvania system) railways. It is the trade centre of a rich and beautiful agricultural region in which tobacco, wheat and Indian corn are the principal crops. The river furnishes considerable water-power and the total factory product in 1905 was valued at $8,357,993, an increase of 47-2 % over that in 1900. The waterworks are owned and operated by the municipality. Middletown was laid out in 1802 and was named from its location between Cincinnati and Dayton; it was incorporated in 1833. MIDDLETOWN, a borough of Dauphin county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the east bank of the Susquehanna river, 9 m. below Harrisburg. Pop. (1890), 5080; (1900), 5608 (340 foreign-born and 289 negroes) ; (1910), 5374. It is served by the Pennsylvania and the Philadelphia & Reading railways, and by an electric line to Harrisburg. The borough has a considerable trade with the surrounding agricultural country, and owing to the proximity of the Yorkhaven power-plant (across the river) and the excellent railway service, is a manufacturing centre. The municipality owns its electric lighting plant. Middletown was founded in 1755 by Friends (from Philadelphia and other places in Pennsyl- vania) and Scotch-Irish, and was so named because of its position midway between Lancaster and Carlisle. It was first incorporated as a borough in 1828. MIDDLEWICH, an urban district in the Northwich parlia- mentary division of Cheshire, England, 166 m. N.W. of London, 4i8 MIDHAT PASHA— MIDIAN on the London & North Western railway. Pop. (1901), 4669. It lies in open country near the river Dane, having water communications by the Trent and Mersey canal, and a branch giving access to the Shropshire Union canal. The church of St Michael and All Angels is of various periods and contains numerous monuments. In the streets not a few old buildings remain, making for picturesqueness, and a number of the fine timbered houses in which Cheshire abounds are seen in the immediate neighbourhood. Middlewich shares in the salt industry common to several towns, such as Northwich and Winsford, in this part of the county; there are also chemical works and a manufacture of condensed milk. MIDHAT PASHA (1822-1884), Turkish statesman, the son of a civil judge, was born at Constantinople in 1822. His father, a declared partisan of reform, trained him for an administrative career, and at the age of twenty-two he was attached as secretary to Faik Effendi, whom he accompanied in Syria for three years. On his return to Constantinople Midhat was appointed chief director of confidential reports, and after a new financial mission in Syria was made second secretary of the grand council. His enemies, however, succeeded in ousting him from this post, and caused him to be entrusted with the apparently impossible task of settling the revolt and brigandage rampant in Rumelia. His measures were drastic and their success was startling and the government made him an official of the first rank and restored him to his place in the grand council. In similar vigorous fashion he restored order in Bulgaria in 1857. In 1.860 he was made vizier and pasha, and entrusted with the government of Nisch, where his reforms were so beneficial that the sultan charged him, in conjunction with Fuad Pasha and Ali Pasha, to prepare the scheme for adapting them to the empire which was afterwards known as the law of the vilayets. After further administrative work in his province, he was ordered to organize the council of state in 1866, and was then made governor of Bagdad, where his success was as decisive as at Nisch, but attended with much greater difficulties. In 1871 the anti-reform influence of the grand vizier, Mahmoud Nedim, seemed to Midhat a danger to the country, and in a personal interview he boldly stated his views to the sultan, who was so struck with their force and entire disinterestedness that he appointed Midhat grand vizier in place of Mahmoud. Too independent, however, for the court, Midhat remained in power only three months, and after a short governorship of Saloniea he lived apart from affairs at Constantinople until 1875. From this time forward, however, Midhat Pasha's career resolved itself into a series of strange and almost romantic adventures. While sympathizing with the ideas and aims of the " Young Turkey "party, he was anxious to restrain its impatience, but the sultan's obduracy led to a coalition between the grand vizier, the war minister and Midhat Pasha, which deposed him in May 1876, and he was murdered in the following month. His nephew Murad V. was in turn deposed in the following August and replaced by his brother, Abdul Hamid II. Midhat Pasha now became grand vizier, reforms were freely promised, and the Ottoman parliament was inaugurated with a great flourish. In the following February, however, Midhat was dismissed and banished for supposed complicity in the murder of Abdul Aziz. He then visited various European capitals, and remained for some time in London, where he carefully studied the procedure in the House of Commons. Again recalled in 1878, he was appointed governor of Syria, and in August exchanged offices with the governor of Smyrna. But in the following May the sultan again ordered him to be arrested, and although he effected his escape and appealed to the powers, he shortly afterwards saw fit to surrender, claiming a fair hearing. The trial accordingly took place in June, when Midhat and the others were sentenced to death. It was, however, generally regarded as a mockery, and on the intercession of the British government the sentence was com- muted to banishment. The remaining three years of his life were consequently spent in exile at Taif in Arabia, where he died, probably by violence, on the 8th of May 1884. To great ability, wide sympathies, and undoubted patriotism he added absolute honesty, that rare quality in a vizier, for he left office as poor as when he entered it. (G. F. B.) MIDHURST, a market town in the north-western parlia- mentary division of Sussex, England, 1 2 m. N. by E. of Chichester by the London, Brighton & South Coast railway; served also by the London & South Western railway. Pop. (1901); 1674. It is pleasantly situated on slightly rising ground near the river Rother. The church of St Mary Magdalen and St Denis is a large Perpendicular building. The town retains several picturesque old houses, and in the vicinity, by the river, are the ruins of the 1 6th century mansion of Cowdray, burnt down in 1793. A grammar-school was founded at Midhurst in 1672 and attained some eminence. After being closed for many years it was re- opened in 1880. In 1906 a magnificent sanatorium for consump- tives was opened about 4 m. from Midhurst; it bears the name of King Edward VII., who laid its foundation stone and opened it. The name of Midhurst (Middeherst, Mudhurst) first occurs in the reign of Henry I. when Savaric Fitz-Cana held it of the honour of Arundel, then presumably in the king's hands. The charter of Henry I., although no longer extant, is quoted in later confir- mation charters of Richard I., Henry III., Edward III. and Richard II. Franco de Bohun inherited Midhurst from his uncle Savaric Fitz-Savaric, and the De Bohuns held the lordship until 1499 when Sir David Owen obtained it through his marriage with the daughter of the last male heir. He sold it to Sir William Fitz- William, from whom it passed to Sir Anthony Browne and descended to the viscounts Montague. Midhurst is definitely called a borough in the reign of Edward I., but the borough-court and market were probably in existence much earlier. It was governed by a bailiff, elected annually, until the office lapsed, probably early in the 19th century. In an act of 1883 it is mentioned as one of the towns which had long ceased to be municipal. No charter of incorporation is known. Midhurst returned two members to parliament from 1300-1301 till 1832, and from that date one member until 1885 when it was dis- franchised. In the reign of Henry VI. a market was held by the burgesses every Thursday, and a fair on Whit-Tuesday, by grant from Sir John Bohun. In 1888 the fair-days were the 6th of April, the 9th of May and the 29th of October. The market- day was Thursday. Pleasure-fairs are still held on the 6th of April and the 29th of October, but there is no market. MIDIAN (properly Madyan, so Sept.), in the Bible, one of the peoples of North Arabia whom the Hebrews recognized as distant kinsmen, representing them as sons of Abraham's wife Keturah (" incense "). Thus the sons of Keturah are the " incense-men," not indeed inhabitants of the far south incense-land, but presum- ably the tribes whose caravans brought the incense to Palestine and the Mediterranean ports. So the Midianites appear in con- nexion with the gold and incense trade from Yemen (Isa. lx. 6), and with the trade between Egypt and Syria (Gen. xxxvii. 28,36). They appear also as warriors invading Canaan from the eastern desert, and ravaging the land as similar tribes have done in all ages when Palestine lacked a strong government (see Gideon). Again, they are described as peaceful shepherds, and the pastures of the Midianites, or of the branch of Midian to which Moses's father-in-law (Jethro or Reuel, or Hobab) belonged, lay near Mount Horeb (Exod. iii. 1). The Kenites who had friendly relations with Israel, and are- represented in Judg. i. 16, iv. n, as the kin of Moses's father-in-law, appear to have been but one fraction of Midian which took a separate course from their early relations to Israel. 1 Balaam, according to one version of the story, was a Midianite (Num. xxii. seq.) and his association with Moab has been connected with the statement in Gen. xxxvi. 35, that the Edomite king Hadad defeated Midian in the land of Moab; (see Balaam, Edom). 1 The admixture of Midianite elements in Judah and the other border tribes of Israel is confirmed by a comparison of the names of the Midianite clans in Gen. xxv. 4 with the Hebrew genealogies (1 Chron. ii. 46, Ephah; iv. 17, Epher; Gen. xlvi. 9, Hanoch). Epher is also associated with 'Ofr near Hanakiya (Hanoch), three days north from Medina, also with Apparu a Bedouin locality mentioned by Assur-bani-pal. Ephah is probably the Hayapa transported by Sargon to Beth-Omri (Samaria). MIDLETON, VISCOUNT— MIDRASH 419 A place Midian is mentioned in 1 Kings xi. 18, apparently between Edom and Paran, and in later times the name lingered in the district east of the Gulf of 'Akaba, where Eusebius knows a city Madiam in the country of the Saracens and Ptolemy (vi. 7) places Modiana. Still later Madyan was a station on the pilgrim route from Egypt to Mecca, the second beyond Aila (Elath). Here in the middle ages was shown the well from which Moses watered the flocks of Sho'aib (Jethro), and the place is still known as " the caves of Sho'aib." It has considerable ruins, which have been described by Sir R. Burton (Land of Midian, 1879). This district which has on its east Tairna, a centre of civilization in the 5th century B.C., and on its south-east El-'Ola whose existence as a seat of culture is possibly even older, is identified by some scholars with the Musran of the Minaean (south Arabian) inscrip- tions, on which see Sabaeans, Yemen. That this part of north-west Arabia had frequent intercourse with Palestine appears certain from its commercial relations with Gaza; and the association of the Midianite Jethro with early Hebrew legislation, as also the possi- bility that Mizraim (" Egypt ") in the Old Testament should be taken in some cases to refer to this district, have an important bearing upon several Old Testament questions. See Mizraim. MIDLETON, WILLIAM ST JOHN FREMANTLE BRODRICK, 9TH Viscount (1856- ), English politician, was the son of the 8th viscount (1830-1907). He came of a Surrey family who in the 17th century, in the persons of Sir St John Brodrick and Sir Thomas Brodrick, obtained grants of land in the south of Ireland. Sir St John Brodrick settled at Midleton, between Cork and Youghal in 1641; and his son Alan Brodrick (1660-1728), speaker of the Irish House of Commons and lord chancellor of Ireland, was created Baron Brodrick in 171 5 and Viscount Midleton in 1717m the Irish peerage. In 1796 the title of Baron Brodrick in the peerage of the United Kingdom was created. The English family seat at Peper Harow, near Godalming, Surrey, was designed by Sir William Chambers. The 8th viscount was a Conservative in politics, who for a few years had a seat in the House of Commons, and who was responsible in the House of Lords for carrying the Infants Protection Act. His brother, the Hon. G. C. Brodrick, was for many years warden of Merton College, Oxford. As Mr St John Brodrick, the 9th viscount had a distinguished career in the House of Commons. After being at Eton and Balliol, Oxford, and serving as president of the Oxford Union, he entered parliament as conservative member for one of the Surrey divisions in 1880. From 1886 to 1892 he was financial secretary to the war office; under secretary for war, 1895-1898; under secretary for foreign affairs, 1898-1900; secretary of state for war, 1 900-1 903; and secretary of state for India, 1903-1905. He lost his seat for the Guildford division of Surrey at the general election of January 1906. In March 1907 he was made an alderman of the London County Council. He married, first in 1880, Lady Hilda (d. 1901), daughter of the 9th earl of Wemyss, by whom he had a family; and secondly in 1903, Madeleine Stanley, daughter of Lady St Helier by her first husband. MIDLETON, or Middleton, a market town of Co. Cork, Ireland, on the river Owenacurra, 13 m. E. of Cork by the Youghal branch of the Great Southern & Western railway. Pop. (1901), 3361. The river here enters a branch of Cork harbour. The surrounding hilly country is pleasant and fertile, and furnishes the town with a good agricultural trade. There are also whisky-distilleries. Ballinacurra, if m. south on the estuary, serves as a small port. The grammar school was founded in 1696, and here among its students were John Philpot Curran and Isaac Butt. Midleton is governed by an urban district council. MIDNAPORE, a town and district of British India, in the Burdwan division of Bengal. The town is 68 m. W. of Calcutta; it has a station on the Bengal Nagpur railway. Pop. (1901), 33,140. It is an important centre of trade, being the terminus of a navigable canal to Calcutta, and also the junction for the Sini branch of the Bengal-Nagpur railway. There are manu- factures of brass and copper wire. It has an American mission, a municipal college, and a public library founded in 1852. The District or Midnapore has an area of 5186 sq. m. The general appearance is that of a large open plain, of which the greater part is under cultivation. In the northern portion the soil is poor, and there is little wood. The country along the western boundary, known as the Jungle Mahals, is undulating and picturesque; it is almost uninhabited. The eastern and south-eastern portions are swampy and richly cultivated. The chief rivers of the district are the Hugh and its three tributaries, the Rupnarayan, the Haldi and the Rasulpur. Th Midnapore high-level canal used also for irrigation runs almost due east and west from the town of Midnapore to Ulubaria on the Hugli 16 m. below Calcutta, and affords a continuous navigable channel 53 m. in length. There is also a tidal canal for navigation, 26 m. in length, extending from the Rupnarayan river. The district is traversed as well by the Bengal-Nagpur railway towards Orissa, with a branch to Chota Nagpur. The jungles in the west of the district yield lac, tussur, silk, wax, resin, fire-wood, charcoal, &c, and give shelter to large and small game. The principal exports are rice, silk and sugar; and the chief imports consist of cotton cloth and twist. Salt, indigo, silk, mats and brass and copper utensils are manufactured. Both silk and indigo are decaying industries. The population in 1901 was 2,789,114, showing an increase of 6% in the decade. The early history of Midnapore centres round the ancient town of Tamluk, which in the beginning of the 5th century was an important Buddhist settlement and maritime harbour. The first connexion of the English with the district dates from 1760, when Mir Kasim ceded to the East India Company Midnapore, Chitta- gong, and Burdwan (then estimated to furnish one-third of the entire revenue of Bengal) as the price of his elevation to the throne of Bengal on the deposition of Mir Jafar. MIDRASH, a very common term in Jewish writings for " exposition " and a certain class of expository literature. The word also occurs twice in the Old Testament (2 Chron. xiii. 22, xxiv. 27; R.V. rather poorly " commentary "). 1. Introduction. — The term (Heb. midrdsh from ddrash "to search out, enquire ") denotes some explanation or exposition, which, in contrast to the more literal exegesis (technically called pSshat " simple "), endeavours to reach the spirit lying below the text. It may be defined as a didactic or homiletic development of some thought or theme, characterized by a more subjective, imaginative and ampliative treatment. Jewish Midrash falls broadly into two classes: Halaka (q.v.) or HSlaka (walking, way, conduct) and Haggddah (narrative [with a purpose], homily; Aramaic equivalent Aggadah; the incorrect form Agadah rests upon a mistaken etymology). The former dealt with legal and ritual matters; it flourished in the schools and developed into the most subtle casuistry. The latter covered all non-halakic exposition and was essentially popular. It embraced historical and other traditions; stories, legends, parables and allegories; beliefs, customs and all that may be called folk-lore. It fed itself, not upon the laws, but upon the narrative, the prophetical and the poetical writings of the Old Testament, and it had a more spiritual and ethical tone than the Halaka. In both classes, accepted tradition' (written or oral) was reinterpreted in order to justify or to deduce new teaching (in its widest sense) , to connect the present with a hallowed past, and to be a guide for the future; and the prevalence of this process, the innumerable different examples of its working, and the particular application of the term Midrash to an important section of Rabbinical literature complicates both the study of the subject and any attempt to treat it concisely. 1 Apart from the popular paraphrastic translations of the Old Testament (see Targum), the great mass of orthodox Rabbinical literature consists of (1) the independent Midrashlm, and (2) the Mishna which, with its supplement the Gemara, constitutes the Talmud. Both contain Halaka and Haggada, although the Mishna itself is essentially Halaka, and the Midrashim are more especially Haggadic; and consequently further information bearing upon Midrash must be sought in the art. Talmud. These two articles 1 For a careful study of the meaning of the term, see W. Bacher, Jew. Quart. Rev. IV. 406-429. 4-20 MIDRASH handle one of the most famous bodies of ancient literature, which, in its turn, has given rise to innumerable Jewish and non- Jewish works, and has many points of value and interest which cannot be adequately discussed here. It must suffice, therefore, to deal rather broadly with the subject, and to refer for fuller details to the special encyclopaedias, viz.: Hamburger's Real- Encyc. fur Bibel und Talmud, and the very elaborate articles in the Jewish Encyclopedia. ' 2. Narrative Midrash. — Of the three different kinds of historical writing — the genetic or scientific, the purely narrative and the pragmatic — it is the last which has prevailed among religious historians. It is extremely difficult to avoid the subjec- tive element in dealing with matters of fact, and the religious treatment of history is influenced, however unconsciously, by the mental environment of the writers. In giving greater promi- nence to events of religious importance and to their bearing upon the spiritual needs of contemporaries they view and interpret the past in a particular light, and will see in the past those growths which only in their own time have become mature. A latent significance is found, a particular connexion is traced, and a continuity is established, the true nature of which must be tested by critical students. Now, it is subjective history which we find in the earliest references to Midrash. The Midrash of the prophet Id do (2 Chron. xiii. 22) like the Visions and the Histories of Iddc and Shemaiah (ix. 29, xii. 15) which are quoted for the lives of Solomon, Abijah and Jeroboam, are evidently quite distinct from the sources cited in the parallel portions of the earlier compilation, and the entire spirit of the narratives is different. Similarly, there is a conspicuous difference of treat- ment of the life of Joash in 2 Kings xi. seq., compared with 2 Chron. xxiii. seq., which refers to some Midrash of the Book of the Kings (xxiv. 27). Although it is uncertain whether this com- prehensive Midrash also included the " books of the Kings " (xvi. 11, xxvii. 7, &c), and the Midrash of Iddo and other related works, it is clear that the Book of Chronicles (q.v.) marks a very noteworthy advance upon the records in the (canonical) Book of Kings (q.v.). It is now recognized that the compiler of the former has used many novel narratives of a particular edifying and didactic stamp, and scholars are practically unanimous that these are subsequent to the age of the Israelite monarchy and present a picture of historical and religious conditions which (to judge from earlier sources) is untrustworthy. At the same time various details (as comparison with the Book of Kings shows) are relatively old and, on a priori grounds, it is extremely unlikely that the unhistorical elements are necessarily due to deliberate imagination or perversion rather than to the develop- ment of earlier traditions. The religious significance of the past is dominant, and the past is idealized from a later standpoint; and whether the narratives in Chronicles are expressly styled Midrash or not, they are the fruit of an age which sought to inculcate explicitly those lessons which, it conceived, were implied in the events of the past. The value of the book lay not in history for its own sake, but in its direct application to present needs. But the tendency to reshape history for the edification of later generations was no novelty when Chronicles was first compiled (about 4th cent. B.C.), Pragmatic historiography is exemplified in the earliest continuous sources (viz. of the " Deuter- onomic " writers, i.e. allied to Deut., especially the secondary portions); and there are many relatively early narratives in which the details have been modified, and the heroes of the past are the mouthpiece for the thought of a later writer or of his age. Numerous instructive examples of the active tendency to develop tradition may be observed in the relation- ship between Genesis and the "Book of Jubilees," or in the embellishments of Old Testament history in the Antiquities of Josephus, or in the widening gaps in the diverse traditions of the famous figures ot the Old Testament (Adam, Noah, Enoch, Abraham, Moses, Isaiah, Ezra, &c), as they appear in non- canonical writings. In such cases as these one can readily perceive the different forms which the same material elements have assumed, and one may distinguish the unreliable accretions which are clearly later and secondary. Accordingly, when there are narratives which cannot be tested in this manner, should they show all the internal marks of didactic expansion and date from an age much later than the times with which they deal, their immediate value will not necessarily lie in the details which appear to be of historical interest, but in their contribution to later form's of tradition and phases of thought. So far then, Midrash tends to include moralizing history, whether we call it narrative or romance, attached to names and events, and it is obviously exemplified whenever there are unmistakable signs of untrustworthy amplification and of some explicit religious or ethical aim colouring the narrative. This, however, is only one of the aspects which have to be taken into consideration when one advances to the Rabbinical Midrash. For Old Testament " Midrash " see further K. Budde, Zeitsckr.f. alt-test. Wissenschaft, xii. 37, seq., and commentaries on Chronicles ((£.».). The elaborate study by the Jewish scholar Zunz (Die gottes- dienstlichen Vortrage, ch. viii.) is also valuable for bridging the gulf between the canonical and the non-canonical traditions and for its just attitude to the criticism of historical traditions. The rigid line between fact or fiction in religious literature, which readers often wish to draw, cannot be consistently justified, and in studying old Oriental religious narratives it is necessary to realize that the teach- ing was regarded as more essential than the method of presenting it. " Midrash " which may be quite useless for historical investiga- tion maybe appreciated for the light it throws upon forms of thought. Historical criticism does not touch the reality of the ideas, and since they may be as worthy of study as the apparent facts they clothe, they thus indirectly contribute to the history of their period. In any case, while the true historical kernel of the Midrashic narrative (e.g. dealing with Adam, Moses or Isaiah) will always be a matter of dispute, the teaching to which it is applied stands on an inde- pendent footing as also does the application of that teaching to other ages. 3. Continuity of Literature and Material. — Amid obscure vicissitudes in the 7th to 5th centuries, B.C., the Canonical books of the Old Testament gradually began to assume their present shape (see Palestine: History). The internal peculiarities show that the compilations are the much edited remains of a larger body of literature, and it may reasonably be supposed that the older sources did not at once perish. There is literary critical evidence for late insertions by exilic or later compilers; 1 the compiler of Chronicles apparently refers to accessible works; and there is a close material relationship between the Old Testa- ment and later literature. All this suggests that Old Hebrew writings, apart from those preserved in the Canon, persisted to a relatively late period. No a priori distinction can be made and no precise chronological line can be drawn between the books of the Canon (Canticles, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Ezekiel and Proverbs had been at one time or another subjects of debate among the Rabbis) and the Apocrypha (Ecclesiasticus, Judith, Maccabees and Tobit, were "allowed"); and the intimate relation between them appears in the character of the " Wisdom Literature " (e.g. Proverbs, and the Wisdom of Solomon), in the treatment of the stories of Esther and Daniel (the history of Susanna), and also in the twofold recensions Ezra and 1 Esdras. Historical or narrative Midrash is exemplified in the " canonical " books Daniel, Esther, Jonah and Ruth, and in the " apocryphal " stories of Daniel (viz. Susanna, where the point lies in the name Daniel " God is judge "), Esther, Judith, Tobit (and the Ahiqar cycle of stories), the story of Zerubbabel (1 Esd. iii. seq., the sequel of which belongs to the canonical Ezra), and the martyrdom of Eleazer (2 Mace. vi. seq., compare 4 Mace). This is not the place to notice the course of Jewish literary activity in Palestine or Alexandria, whether along the more rigid lines of Pharisaic legalism (the development of the canonical " priestly " law), or the popular and less scholastic phases, which recall the earlier apocalyptical tendencies of the Old Testament and were culti- vated alike by early Jewish and Christian writers. But after the fall of Jerusalem, partly through the need for systematizing the traditional post-biblical law, and partly through disputes with the Christians, orthodox Rabbinism received the stamp which has since characterized it. The traditional or oral law was codified in the Mishna (see Talmud, § 1 seq.), the Canon was 1 .E.g. Judg. i. (see G. F. Moore, Ency. Bib. " Historical Lit.," col. 2085, middle), 2 Sam. ix.-xx., &c. MIDRASH 421 fixed, and the fluctuations in the MSS. of the Old Testament (which, like the numerous variations in the Septuagint, compli- cated exact exegesis) gave way to what was virtually a single text. Moreover, the important body of apocalyptical and pseudepigraphical literature, with all its links between Christi- anity and Judaism, fell into disfavour on both sides. This literature is especially valuable because it illustrates contem- porary Halaka and Haggada, and it illuminates the circle of thought with which Jesus and his followers were familiar; it thus fills the gap between the Old Testament and the authoritative Rabbinical Midrashim which, though often in a form several centuries later, not rarely preserve older material. 1 A few miscellaneous examples of related Midrashic details may be cited : — i. The book of Jubilees (a haggadic and halakic Midrash on Genesis, about 2nd century B.C.), contains the story of the war between Amorite Kings and Jacob (ch. xxxiv.). This is known to the probably contemporary Testament of Judah and to much later Midrashim {Mid. Wayyisa'u, Yalqut Shimeoni, also the apo- cryphal " book of Jashar "), and is evidently connected with the cryptic allusion to the capture of Shechem in Gen. xlviii. 22 (R.V. marg.). Unless we suppose that the latter was suddenly expanded into the stories which thenceforth persisted, it may be inferred that an old extra-canonical tradition (for which a case can be made) continued to survive the compilation of Genesis {q.v.) and ultimately assumed the various exaggerated forms now extant. Naturally the probability of such a tradition — the merest hint of which happens to be preserved in Gen. loc. cit. — does not prejudice the problem of its origin or accuracy; in Jub. the story is useless for Jacob's history, and is probably influenced by a recollection of more recent events in the Maccabaean age. ii. A curious account of war between Egypt and Canaan after Joseph's death recurs in Jub. xli., Test, of Simeon, viii., and Benjamin vii., and is connected with details (burial of Jacob's sons at Hebron) recorded by Josephus {Ant. ii. 8). Josephus in turn has another story wherein Moses leads the Egyptians against Ethiopia {Ant. ii. 10, for parallels see Moore, Ency. Bib. col. 2089 seq.), and this is found in the late chronicles of Jerahmeel and the Book of Jashar (cf. also Mid. Dibre ha-yamlm shel-Mosheh; see Jew. Ency. viii. 573 seq.). The former may be linked with Gen. 1. 9 (where the con- course of chariots and horsemen would invite speculation), and the latter with the Cushite wife of Moses ; but although one may grant that the canonical sources do not by any means preserve all the older current traditions, the contents of the latter cannot be recovered from the later persisting Midrashim. 2 iii. The allusion in Jude v. 9 to the contention of the archangel Michael for the body of Moses belongs to a group of traditions which have been collected by R. H. Charles {Assumption of Moses, pp. 105 seq.), and it appears that the incident was familiar to Clement of Alexandria, Origen and other early writers. Moreover, Jude v. 16 agrees very closely with the Latin version of the Testament of Moses, which has other parallels in Matt. xxiv. 29; Acts vii. 36, 38 seq. (ibid. pp. lxii. seq.). Here may be added Jannes and Jambres, who withstood Moses (2 Tim. iii. 8) ; these or related names were known to the elder Pliny (xxx. i. 11), Apuleius (first half of 2nd century;, Origen (who refers to a book of Jannes and Mambres), and various earlier and later Jewish sources; see 1. Abrahams, Ency. Bib. col. 2327 seq.; H. St J. Thackeray, Relation of St Paul to con- temporary Jewish thought (London, 1900), pp. 215 sqq. iv. Jewish traditions of Abraham in Ur cf the Chaldees recur in the Targums, Midrashic works, and earlier in the book of Jubilees (ch. xii., ed. Charles, p. 91 ; cf. also Judith v. 6 seq.). The legends of his escape from a fiery furnace may have a philological basis {ur interpreted as " fire "), but the allusion to the redemption of Abraham in Isa. xxix 22 seems to indicate that older tradition was fuller than the present records in Genesis, and supplies another example of the link connecting the Old Testament with Rabbinical thought. v. Not to multiply examples further, it may suffice to refer to (a) the apparent belief that the serpent tempted Eve to unchastity (2 Cor. xi. 2 seq., see Thackeray pp. 50 seq.) ; {b) the descent of the angels upon earth (Gen. vi. 1 seq.; Jude 6, 14 seq., see Charles, Jub. p. 33 seq., Clermont-Ganneau, Quart. Statements of the Pal. Explor. Fund, 1903, pp. 233 seq. and the Midr. Abkir. see Jew, Ency. viii. 572) ; (c) the relationship between the Midrashic developments of the story of Esther in Josephus, the Greek and Old Latin Versions, the Targums and later Jewish sources (see L. B. Paton, Comm. on Esther, pp. 20, 100 and passim) ; and finally {d) the numerous minor miscellaneous parallels noticed in recent annotated editions of the 1 On the history of his intermediate stage see E. Schurer, Hist, of Jew. People (Edinburgh, 1886), Germ. Gesch. Jiid. Volkes; M. Fried- lander, Relig. Bewegungen innerhalb des Judentums im Zeitalter Jesu (Berlin, 1905) ; W. Fairweather, Background of the Gospels (Edinburgh 1908). See also Apocalyptic Lit. and Apocryphal Lit. 2 Note also the allusion to the wisdom of Moses in Acts vii. 22, upon which contemporary writings are pretty well informed. pseudepigraphical literature (especially those of R. H. Charles). (See further Talmud, § 5.) 4. Midrashic Exposition. — The Talmud poetically describes Midrash as' a hammer which wakes to shining light the sparks which slumber in the rock; and the simile is a happy one when one considers the exegetical implements, the workmen and their workmanship. For the expository or interpretative Midrash was bound up with rules and methods which often appear crude and arbitrary, they are nevertheless those of the age and they helped to build up lasting monuments. 3 It was believed that the Written Word had an infinite fulness; according to the Midr. Bemidbar Rabbak every word of the Law had seventy different aspects, and Philo of Alexandria held that there are no superfluous words in Scripture. Con- sequently an exaggerated emphasis is often laid upon single words; as, for example, in the school of Rabbi 'Aqiba, where even individual letters were forced to reveal their meaning. Thus, since the Hebrew eth, which marks the accusative, is also the preposition " with," Deut. x. 20 (" thou shalt fear [eth-] Yahweh thy God ") was interpreted to include the venera- tion of the doctors of the law along with Yahweh. 4 Many examples of literal interpretation can of course be found, but arbitrary cases of the kind just noticed are due either to an obviously far-fetched interpretation or to the endeavour to find some authoritative support for teaching which it was desired to inculcate. Thus faulty proof rather than faulty inference is illustrated when the word " in-number " (Ex. xii. 4) was used to confirm the Halaka that the man who killed the Passover Lamb must know how many people were about to share it {Jew. Ency. viii. 570). Often the biblical text cannot be said to supply more than a hint or a suggestion, and the particular application in Halaka or Haggada must be taken on its merits, and the teaching does not necessarily fall because the exegesis is illegitimate. To take another specimen: the Mekilta on Ex. xx. 25 infers from the unusual form of the word "it," that the prohibition of iron applies only to it, i.e. the altar, and not to stones used in building the temple. This Halaka is followed by a haggadic explanation of the prohibition: " iron abridges life while the altar prolongs it; iron causes destruction and misery, while the altar produces reconciliation between God and man; and therefore the use of iron cannot be allowed in making the altar." 6 Such were the sparks that could be hammered out of the rock, and it is instructive to observe similar exegetical methods in the New Testament. Emphasis upon a single word is illustrated by Gal. iii. 16, where the argu- ment rests upon the word " seed " (and not the plural " seeds ") in the proof-text, and the same word in Rabbinical writings is used to support other arguments. 6 By identical kinds of exegesis Lev. xix. 14 (not to put a stumbling block before the blind) is the ground for cautioning a father against striking an adult child, and Deut, xxv. 4 (the law of the muzzled ox) is used to show that God's labourer is worthy of his hire. 7 Again, since through Eve sin entered into the world, woman must be subordinate to man (1 Tim. ii. 11-14), or, she who has thus extinguished " the light of the world " should atone by lighting the festal candles on the sabbath (Talm. Shabb. 56). By the allegorical method Isa. lxi. is interpreted as applying to Jesus (Luke iv. 16-22), and frequently passages which origin- ally had another application have a Messianic reference in 3 For the Rabbinical " rules " and examples of their working see F. Weber, Jiid. Theologie (Leipzig, 1897), pp. 109-125; C. A. Briggs Study of Holy Scripture (Edinburgh, 1899), ch. xviii. ; Jew. Ency. xii. 30-33 ; S. Schechter, Hastings's Diet. Bible, v. 59, 63 ; and H. L. Strack, Einleitung in den Talmud (Leipzig, 1908), pp. 119-131, 4 So Aquila, the disciple of 'Aqlba, translates the accusative particle by avv; see W. R. Smith, Old Test, in the Jew. Church, p. 63. * Oesterley and Box, Religion and Worship of the Synagogue (London, 1907), p. 80; pp. 44-97 deal with Midrashic and other Jewish literature. 6 Mish. Sanhed. iv. 5, see A. Geiger, Zeit. f. morgenland. Gesell- schaft, 1858, pp. 307 sqq., S. R. Driver, Expositor, ix. (1889), p. 18 seq. 7 The Talmud Mo'ed Qa(an, ya, and New Testament (1 Cor. ix. 9, I Tim. v. 18) respectively. 422 MIDRASH Christian and Rabbinical teaching. Similarly the application of Hos. ii. 23, not to the scattered tribes of Israel, but to the Gentiles, is common to the Mishna and to Romans ix. 25 seq. (Sanday and Headlam, Comment, ad loc.) The Apostle Paul, once a disciple of the famous Rabbi Gamaliel, uses in 1 Cor. x. 4 (" the spiritual rock that followed them ") a familiar Jewish Haggada which, however, he reinterprets, even as, when he identifies the " rock " with Christ, he diverges from the Alex- andrian Philo who had identified it with Wisdom or the Word of God. Moreover, not only are passages thus taken out of their context, but they are combined, especially when they contain the same words or phrases, or appear to have the same or similar thoughts or aims. The Talmud, with a reference to Prov. xxxi. 14 (" she bringeth her food from afar "), says " the words of the Torah are poor (or deficient) in one place but rich in another." Hence in the Mid. Siphre on Numbers xv. 39, " ye shall not seek after . . . your own eyes " is explained to refer to adultery, after the words of Samson " she is pleasing in my eyes " (Judg. xiv. 3); and on Deut. vi. 5 it charges man to love the Lord " with all thy soul . . . even if he should take away thy soul," the teaching being based upon Ps. xliv. 22. 1 Similarly, in the New Testament, after the same method, Mai. iii. 1 and Is. xl. 3 (linked by the phrase " to prepare the way ") are combined in Mark i. 2 seq. ; Abraham's faith (Gen. xv. 6) and temptation (xxii. 1) are associated in James ii. 21-23, as also in contemporary Jewish thought; and by other combined quotations Paul enunciates the universality of sin (Rom. iii. 10 sqq.) and the doctrine that Christians are God's temple (2 Cor. vi. 16 sqq). Proceeding upon such lines as these, the Jews wove together their Midrashic homilies or sermons where, though we may find much that seems commonplace, there are illuminating parables and proverbs, metaphors and similes, the whole affording admirable examples of the contemporary thought and culture, both of the writers and — what is often overlooked — the level of their hearers or readers. Like many less ancient discourses, the Midrashim are apt to suffer when read in cold print, and they are sometimes judged from a stand- point which would be prejudicial to the Old Testament itself. But they are to be judged as Oriental literature and if they contain jarring extravagances and puerilities, one may recall that even in modern Palestine it was found that the natives understood Robinson Crusoe as a religious book more readily than the Pilgrim's Progress (J. Robertson, Early Rel. of Israel, 1892, p. 66). In making allowance for the defects (without which they would probably not have appealed to the age) it must be remembered that some of the Rabbis themselves recognized that the Midrashic Haggada was not always estimable. An interesting example of combined quotation is illustrated in Matt. xii. 4-8, where the teaching of Jesus on the law of the Sabbath rests upon 1 Sam. xxi. 1-6, Num. xxviii. 9 seq. and Hos. vi. 6. Apropos of this law the Rabbinical arguments are worth noticing. Appar- ently the severe rules laid down in Jubilees 1. 8-12 (see R. H. Charles, ad loc.) were exceptional. It was allowed that the Sabbath need not be too rigorously kept, and this was justified by Exod. xxxi. 13, where the singular use of the restrictive particle ak (EV " verily ") supported the teaching that other Sabbaths need not be observed. Also, from the_ words " holy unto you " (v. 14) it was taught that " the Sabbath is given to you to desecrate in case of need, but thou art not given to the Sabbath." Hence the Sabbath might be broken when life was in danger. Moreover, it was argued that a battle need not be stopped from religious considerations, e.g. the Sabbath. This was justified by Deut. xx. 20 " until it fall " (Talm. Shabb. 190). Also, the Passover Lamb could be sacrificed on the Sabbath, and justification for this was found in Num. ix. 2 " in its season " (Pesah. 660) . See further on this subject, and on the evasions of the Sabbath law, S. Shechter, Studies in Judaism, pp. 297 sqq. ; ibid, in C. G. Montefiore, Hibbert Lectures (for 1892), Appendix; ibid. Hastings' Diet. Bib. v. 63, and also S. R. Driver, Hastings' Diet. iv. 320 seq. With the above interpretations, cf. A. H. McNeile on Matt. xii. 5, John vii. 23: " the a priori element in them perhaps suggests that [these verses] were due to later reflexion on the part of Christians who had realized the inadequacy of the law " (Swete's Camb. Bibl. Essays, 1909, p. 226). For other examples illustrating Rabbinical methods of exegesis in the New Testament, see McNeile, pp. 221, sqq. (" Our Lord's use of the Old Testament ") ; Briggs, op. cit. pp. 436, 1 Cited by S. Schechter, Hastings, Diet. Bible, v. 64. sqq., and Thackeray, op. cit. (ch. vii. " use of the Old Testament," ch. viii. " St Paul the Haggadist "). The latter observes (p. 203) : " the arguments by which Paul tried to convince his opponents of the true meaning of the Old Testament as pointing forward to Christ, are those which they would themselves have employed for another purpose ; and to some extent we need not doubt that they were selected for that very reason. They were the arguments which were best calculated to appeal to them." Quite in accordance with Rabbinical custom is the system of question and answer (Rom. x. 5, seq., 16 seq.), and the argument in the sequence: statement, objection and reply, appears already in the book of Malachi (q.v.). 5. The Jewish Midrashim. — The earlier stages in the growth of the extant Rabbinical Midrashim cannot be traced with any certainty. Although there are several allusions to early written works, other references manifest an objection to the writing down of Haggada and Halaka. Perhaps it was felt that to preserve uniformity of teaching in the schools it was undesir- able to popularize the extant collections, or perhaps the refer- ences must be reconsidered in the light of those significant changes after the fall of Jerusalem which have been mentioned above (§ 3). 2 However this may be, the independent Halakoth (where the oral decisions are interpreted or discussed on the basis of the Old Testament) were gradually collected and arranged according to their subject in the Mishnah and Tosephta. (Talmud, § 1), while in the halakic Midrashim (where the decisions are given in connection with the biblical passage from which they were derived) they follow the sequence of the text of the Old Testament. The Haggada was likewise collected according to the textual sequence of the Old Testament. But the sermons or discourses of the homilelic Midrashim are classified according to the reading of the Pentateuch in the Synagogue, either the three year cycle, or else according to the sections of the Penta- teuch and Prophetical books assigned to special and ordinary Sabbaths and festival days. Hence the latter are sometimes styled Pesiqta (" section "). The homiletic Midrashim are characterized by (a) a proem, an introduction based upon some biblical text (not from the lesson itself), which led up to (b) the exposition of the lesson, the first verse of which is more fully discussed than the rest. They conclude (c) with Messianic or consolatory passages on the future glory of Israel. A feature of some Midrashim (e.g. nos. 4, si, e, and 7 below) is the halakic exordium which precedes the proems. 3 Among the more important Midrashim are: i. — Mekilta (Aram. " measure," i.e. " rule ") best known as the name of a now imperfect halakic Midrash on Exod. xii.-xxiii. 19 (also xxxi. 12-17 an d xxxv. 1-3). It represents the school of R. (Rabbi) Ishmael, is a useful source for old Haggadah (especially on the narrative portions of Exodus), and is interesting for its variant readings of the Canonical Massoretic text. 4 Edited by Blasius Ugolinus, Thes. Antiq. Sacr. xiv. (Venice, 1744, with a poor Latin translation), more recently by J. H. Weiss (Vienna, 1865) and M. Friedmann (ibid. 1870), Germ, trans, by J. Winter and A. Wiinsche Leipzig, 1909). See further J. Z. Lauterbach, Jew. Ency. viii. 444 seq. ii. Siphra (Aram. " the book ") or Torath Kohanlm (" the law of the priests "), a commentary on Leviticus, mainly halakic, the text being a source for various maxims. (On Lev. xix. 17 seq., neighbourly love and abstinence from vengeance con- stitute, according to R. Aqiba, the great principle of the Torah.) It is useful for the interpretation of the Mishnah treatises Qodashim and Teharoth. Latin trans, in Ugolinus, vol. xiv.; recent editions by I. H. Weiss (Vienna, 1862), and with the commentary of Shim- shon (Samson) of Siens (Warsaw, 1866) ; see Jew. Ency. xi. 330 sqq. iii. Siphre (Aram. " the books "), an old composite collection of Halaka on Numbers, after R. Ishmaei's school; and on Deut. after that of R. Aqiqa, although the haggadic portions belong to the former. Latin in Ugol. xv. ; recent edition, with good introduction by Friedmann (Vienna, 1864); see Jew. Ency. xi. 332 seq. The above works, although of 5th century or later date in their present form, contain much older material, which was perhaps first redacted in the earlier part of the 2nd century, A.D. They are of 2 See, on this point, Jew. Ency. viii. 549 seq., 552, 576; Schechter, op. cit. p. 62; Strack, op. cit. pp. 10 sqq. 3 See more fully Jew. Ency. viii. 553. Cf. for the structure, the hopeful concluding notes in the prophecies {e.g. Amos) and the dis- course after the reading of the lesson from the prophets in Luke iv. 17 sqq., Acts xiii. 15 sqq. 4 See I. Abrahams in Swete's Cambridge Bibl. Essays (1909), pp. 174 seq. MIDSHIPMAN 423 Palestinian origin, although the main redaction was made in Baby- lonia.' iv. Tanfyuma, one of the oldest on the lessons of the Pentateuch, with many proems ascribed to R. Tanhuma ben ("son of") Abba, one of the most famous haggadists of Palestine (4th century), who systematized and fixed the haggadic literature. This collection of 158-161 homilies is also known as T. Yelammedenu, from the opening words, Yel. Rabbenu, " our Rabbi teaches us " ; on the critical questions connected with the titles and the present redaction (probably 5th century), see Jew. Ency. viii. 560 seq., xii. 44 sqq. Recent edition by Buber (Wilna, 1885). v. Midrash Rabbah (or Rabbolh), a large collection of very diverse origin and date, probably not completed before the 13th century. It covers the Pentateuch (isl ed., Constantinople, 1512) and the "Five Rolls" (Pesaro, 1519; the whole printed first at Venice, 1545) ; Germ, trans, by A. Wiinsche, Bibliotheca rabbinica (Leipzig, 1880-1885). The several portions are named after the ordinary Jewish titles of the Old Testament books with the addition of Rabbah " great." These are (a) Bheshith (" in the beginning," Gen. i. 1) Rabbah, on Genesis, the oldest and most valuable of haggadic Midrashim. Traditionally ascribed to R. Hoshaiah (3rd. century), 'but in the main a redaction of 6th century. Ed. J. Theodor ; see Jew. Ency. iii. 62 seq. ; viii. 557 seq. (b) Shemoth (" names " Exod. i. 1) -R., a composite and incomplete work of nth and 12th century date, but valuable nevertheless for its Tan- huma homilies. Exod. i.-xi. is a commentary on the text in con- tinuation of (a). 1 See Jew. Ency. viii. 562 (c.) Wayyiqra (" and he called ") R., on Leviticus, perhaps 7th century, based upon sources in 2 and 5a above. It is characterized by its numerous proverbs (e.g. on xix. 6: "do not care for the good pup of a bad dog, much less for the bad pup of a bad dog "). See Jew. Ency. viii. 560, xii. 478 seq. (d) Bemidbar (" in the desert of . . . ") R., 33 homilies on Numbers, mainly derived from 4 above (though in an earlier text), with a later haggadic exposition, perhaps of 12th century, on Num. i.-vii. See Jew. Ency. ii. 669 sqq., viii. 562. (e) Debarim (" words ") R., independent homilies on Deuteronomy, of about A.D. 900, but with a good collection of Tanhumas and excerpts from the old sources. See Jew. Ency. iv. 487 seq. (/) Shir (" song ") R., or (after the opening words) Aggadath Hazith, a late compilation of haggadah on Canticles, illustrating the allegorical interpretation of the book in reference to the relation between God and Israel (so already in the exegesis of R. Aqiba, cf. also 2 Esd. v. 24, 26, vii. 26). For this and other Mid. on this popular book, see Jew. Ency. viii. 564 seq., xi. 291 seq. (g) Mid. Ruth or Ruth Rabbah,^ a com- pilation including an exposition of I Chron. iv. 21-23, xi. 13-15 and interesting Messianic references. For this and similar Mid. or Ruth, see Jew. Ency. viii. 565, x. 577 seq. (h) Iikah ("how ") Rabbathi, a compilation of about the 7th century on Lamentations, from sources cited also in the Palestinian Talmud. Thirty-six proems precede the commentary. See Jew. Ency. v. 85 seq. (i) Mid. Koheleth or Koh. Rabbah, on Ecclesiastes ; see Jew. Ency. vii. 529 sqq.; viii. 565. (j) Mid. Megillath Esther, dating, to judge from its indebtedness to Josippon (the pseudo-Josephus), after 10th century. On this and other similar works dealing with this ever- popular book, see Jew. Ency. v. 241, viii. 566, and Paton's Comment, on Esther, p. 104. vi. Pesiqta (" section ") or P. de-Rab Kahana, contains 33 or 34 homilies (on the principal festivals), the first of which opens with a sentence of R. Abba bar Kahana, who was confused with a pre- decessor, Rab Kahana. Although it goes back to early Haggada it has received later additions (as is shown by the technique of the proems). Edited by S. Buber (Lyck, 1868), Germ, trans, by A. Wiinsche (Leipzig, 1 885) ; see Jew. Ency. viii. 559 seq. Not to be confused with this is: — vii. Pesiqta Rabbathi. — A very similar but larger collection of 51 homilies, of which 28 have ajialakic exordium prefixed to the Tanhuma-proems, perhaps of 9th century. Edited by M. Fried- mann (Vienna, 1880). Quite another and later work is the Pes. Zutarta or Leqah Tob of Tobiah b. Eliezer of Mainz (trans. Ugolinus, vol. xv. seq. ; ed. Buber, 1880) ; see Jew. Ency. viii. 561 sqq. viii. In addition to the more prominent Midrashim mentioned above there are numerous self-contained works of greater or less interest. Some are connected with Old Testament books; e.g. Aggadath Bereshith, 83 homilies on Genesis, each in three parts connected with a section from the lectionary of the Pentateuch, and one from the Prophets, and a Psalm (ed. Buber, Cracow, 1903; see Jew. Ency. viii. 563) ; the Mid. Tehilllm on the Psalms (Germ, trans. A. Wiinsche, Trier, 1892-1893), &c. _ Others are historical, e.g. Pirqe or Baraitha de-Rabbi Eliezer, a fanciful narrative of events 'They contain (as I. Abrahams has pointed out to the present writer) a good deal of haggada, but far more halakic material than those which follow. The latter (nos. 4 sqq.) also contain halaka, but the chief contents are haggadic and homiietical. 2 1. Abrahams points out to the writer that the rest is more summary. This difference is accounted for by the fact that Exod. xii. onwards and the rest of the Pentateuch have independent Midrashim: the Law proper was held by the Rabbis to begin at Exod. xii. selected from the Pentateuch, &c. ; the eschatology is interesting. Though associated by name with a well-known 1st century Rabbi, it is hardly earlier than the 8th (Latin trans, by Vorstius, Leiden, 1644; see Jew. Ency. viii. 567). Further, the Megillath Ta'anlth (" roll of fasts "), an old source with a collection of miscellaneous legends, &c. ; Megillath Antiokhos, on the martyrdom under Hadrian; Seder'Olam Rabbah, on biblical history from Adam to the rebellion of Bar Kokba (Barcocheba) ; the " Book of Jashar "; the Chronicle of Jerahmeel," &c. Liturgical Midrash is illustrated by the Haggada shel Pesah, part of the ritual recited at the domestic service of the first two Passover evenings. In Mid. Ta'ame Haseroth we- Yetheroth, Hebrew words written " defectively " or " fully," and other Masso- retic details, are haggadically treated. Finally Kabbalah (q.v.) is exemplified in Othiyyoth de R. Aqiba on the alphabet, and M. Tadshe (or Baraitha de-R. Phinehas b. Ya'ir), on groups of numbers, &c. ; of some interest for its relation to the book of Jubilees. ix. Of collections of Midrash the chief are (a) the Yalqut Shimeoni, which arranges the material according to the text of the Old Testa- ment (extending over the whole of it), preserves much from sources that have since disappeared, and is valuable for the criticism of the text of the Midrashim (recent ed. Wilna, 1898) translation of the Yalqut on Zechariah by E. G. King (Cambridge, 1882; see further Jew. Ency. xii. 585 seq.). (6) Yal. ha-Makiri, perhaps later, covers only certain books, is useful for older sources and their criticism; portions have been edited by Spira (1894, on Isaiah); Buber (1899, on Psalms); Griinhut (1902, on Proverbs), (c) Midrash ha-Gadol (" the great "), an extensive thesaurus, but later (quoting from Ibn Ezra, Maimonides, &c.) ; the arrangement is not so careful as in (a) and (b). See further Jew. Ency. viii. 568 seq. Of modern collections special mention must be made of A. Jellinek's Bet ha-Midrasch (Leipzig, 1853) and A. Wiinsche's valuable translations; to those already mentioned must be added his Aus Israels 'Lehrhallen (excerpts of a more miscellaneous character (Leipzig, 1907 sqq.). Besides dictionary articles on this subject (S. Schiller-Szinessy, Ency. Brit., 9th ed. ; H. L. Strack, Real-Ency. f. Protest. Theol. u. Kirche; and especially J. Theodor and others in the Jew. Ency), see D. Hoffmann, Zur Einleitung in die halachischen Midraschim (Berlin, 1888), and the great work by Zunz, Die gottesdienstlichen Vortrage der Juden, 2nd ed. by N. Brtill (Frankfort on Main, 1892). These, as also the citations in the course of this article, give fuller information. (See further Talmud.) (S. A. C.) MIDSHIPMAN, the title in the British and American navies of the " young gentlemen " who are serving in order to qualify themselves to hold a commission as lieutenant. The English midshipman was originally a petty officer, one of the crew under the immediate orders of the boatswain. After the restoration of King Charles II., in 1660, the king and his brother, James Duke of York, lord high admiral, decided to train officers for the sea service. They therefore decided to send a volunteer to each ship of a squadron in commission, with a " letter of service," which instructed the admirals and captains that the bearer was to be shown " such kindness as you shall judge fit for a gentleman, both in accommodating him in your ship and in furthering his improvement." He was to receive the pay of a midshipman, and one midshipman less was to be borne in the ship. Until 1729 the young gentlemen who entered the British navy were known as " king's letter boys." In that year the system was altered. A school, known as the naval academy, was founded at Portsmouth in which forty lads were to be trained for the sea service. In 1773 the school, having proved unsatisfactory, was reorganized and the number of boys to be trained there increased from forty to seventy. In 1806 it was again reorganized, under the name of the naval college, and was finally suppressed in 1837, when the practice of training the boys under instructors in the ships was intro- duced. A special school was re-established in 1857, and was finally placed in the " Britannia." In the meantime the number of midshipmen had increased far beyond one for a ship. A line- of -battle ship in the 18th century carried as many as twenty- four, and the title had come to be confined entirely to those who were being trained as officers. The immense majority of officers of the British navy never passed through the academy or the college. They entered the ships directly as " captains' servants " or " volunteers," and were rated midshipman, if there was a vacancy, at the age of fifteen. As they were expected to learn navigation, they were instructed by the master, and at the age of seventeen were supposed to be qualified to be masters' mates. To-day the midshipman is the officer of the British and American navies who has passed through the 424 MIDSOMER NORTON— MIEREVELT preliminary schools and has been appointed to a ship. The French equivalent fs aspirant, and other European navies use that name, or cadet. MIDSOMER NORTON, an urban district in the northern parliamentary division of Somersetshire, England, 12I m. S.S.W. of Bath, on the Somerset & Dorset and the Great Western railways. Pop. (iqoi), 5809. The town is pleasantly situated in a hilly district, between two branches of the small river Somer. The church of St John the Baptist, principally Perpendicular, has in its tower three , bells presented by Charles II. Both this town and the adjacent urban district of Radstock (pop. 33 ss) have a considerable trade in coal, which is mined in the vicinity. The coalfield extends north- westward towards Bristol, and is of great importance to the manufactures of that city. MIDWIFE (Mid. Eng. midwif, mydwyf or medewife, from preposition mid, with, and wife, i.e. woman, in the sense of one who is with ,the mother, or from adjective mid, one who is the means of delivering the mother, a woman who assists other women in 'childbirth). As a class, midwives were recog- nized in Egypt in the time of the Jewish captivity. It was the universal practice in Europe until the middle of the 16th century, as it is to-day in the East, that women should be attended in confinement only by those of their own sex. From that period more attention was given to the practice of mid- wifery by the medical profession (see Obstetrics), while in continental Europe, towards the close of the 17th century, special schools were instituted for the proper training of mid- wives. But it was not until well on in the 19th century that any supervision or regulation was imposed on those who acted as midwives. Now in practically every European country midwives are under strict state control, they are required to undergo a course of thorough training, and their practice is carefully regulated by legislation. In France midwives (sages femmes) are divided into a first and a second class. Those qualifying for both classes go through a two years' course of training and must qualify both in the theory and practice of midwifery, as well as in anatomy, physiology and pathology. A midwife of the first class has a superior status and can practise in any part of France, while those of the second class are restricted in their practice to the department for which the certificate was issued. Their qualifications allow them also to vaccinate and to prescribe certain antiseptic preparations. They are not allowed to use instruments and must call in a medical man in difficult cases. All cases must be reported to a central officer. In Spain midwives are allowed to practise on the result of an ex- amination after studies covering at least four half-years. The diploma is issued by the director-general of public instruction. In Germany midwives are appointed, recognized and authorized by the state. They can conduct confinements independently and without the aid of a medical man. They must be provided with a certificate from the police authorities, and must reside in special districts assigned to them by the authorities. In Austria midwives before they are allowed to practise must pass'a strict examination, after having followed a six months' course at one of the state schools of midwifery. They are subject to elaborate ' ' instructions for midwives " issued from time to time by the ministry of the interior. In Italy a midwife must oass an examination and obtain a diploma from a recognized authority ; but in order to obviate the difficulty ' which the poorer classes in the smaller communes would find in obtaining properly-authorized midwives, a certificate of permission to practise may be given to a certain number who have practised without the sanction of the law satisfactorily during a term of five years. These certificates are distributed by the prefect. In Russia matters pertaining to the appointment, transfer, dismissal and pay of midwives are under the charge of the medical depart- ment of the ministry of the interior. In each town of a province or region there is stationed one senior midwife and a number of junior midwives in proportion to the number of districts in the province. The examination of midwives and the issue of certificates of competency is carried out by the Medico-Chirurgical Academy and certain of the universities. A duly-licensed midwife, on pre- sentation of her licence, is at once excluded from the tax-paying class to which she may have belonged. The general code of Russian laws lays down extensive rules for the carrying out of the duties of midwives. In Norway all midwives are licensed after examination and are under the control and inspection of the board of health. Provision is made for infirm and aged midwives. They are usually paid by the parish, but also receive fees according to the means of the person attended. In Sweden a certificate of competency and of having passed an examination does not give a midwife a right to practise until a note has been made on the certificate that the oath of office has been duly taken. All midwives are under the control of the board of health. When a midwife takes up her residence in a parish, or moves from one place to another, she must announce the fact within a month to the nearest appointed doctor and exhibit her certificate. In towns a midwife must put up a notice board outside her residence ; she must not absent herself from home without leaving word as to where she may be found and at what hour she will probably return. In the country a midwife may be paid out of the poor rate. In Denmark, also, midwives are recognized by the state, and the practise of midwifery is almost entirely in the'hands of women. In Holland a certain number of candidates are given free training by the state in return for their practising midwifery in scattered country districts at a fixed salary. Many of the states of the United States have also passed laws for the registration of midwives. In England alone there was no regulation of any kind so late as 1902. Any person, however ignorant and untrained, could describe herself as a midwife and practise for gain. Several societies made continuous efforts towards the close of the 19th century to obtain legislation. A select committee on midwives' registration reported in 1892 that the evidence they had taken showed that there was at the time " serious and unnecessary loss of life and health and per- manent injury to both mother and child in the treatment of child- birth, and that some legislative provision for improvement and regulation was desirable." A similar committee reported to the same effect in 1893. Eventually a bill was drafted with the object of securing the examination and registration of midwives, but, although introduced several times into the House of Commons, it was not successful until 1902. The Midwives Act 1902 forbids any woman after the 1st of April 1905 to call herself " midwife " without a certificate, or to act as a midwife for gain without a certificate after the 1st of April 19 10. Existing midwives (those who held certificates in midwifery from certain recognized institu- tions, or produced satisfactory evidence at the passing of the act that they had been for at least one year in bona fide practice as midwives, and bore good characters) were allowed to claim certifi- cates within two years from the 1st of April 1903. The act created a central midwives' board, whose duties are, inter alia, to regulate the issue of certificates and the conditions of admission to the roll of midwives; to regulate the course of training and conduct of examinations; to regulate, supervise and restrict within due limits the practice of midwives ; to publish annually a roll of duly certified midwives; to remove from the roll the name of any midwife who disobeys the rules and regulations laid down from time to time; to issue and cancel certificates, &c. There is an appeal to the High Court of Justice against removal of a name, but the appeal must be made within three months. Local authorities are required to exercise supervision over the midwives within their area ; they must investigate charges of malpractice, negligence or misconduct; exercise the power of suspension and report convictions. They must supply the central board with the names and addresses of those practising within their area, and notify any death. The local authority must appoint a committee to carry out its powers or duties under the act, and may, if it think fit, delegate its powers to a lesser local authority, such as a district council. The act provides for penalties for obtaining a certificate by false representation or for wilful falsification of the roll. The act does not apply to Ireland or Scotland. (T. A. I.) MIERES, a town of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo, 12 m. by rail S.E. of Oviedo, on the river Caudal, a tributary of the Nalon. Pop. (1900), 18,083. Mieres is the chief town of a mountainous, fertile and well-wooded region in which coal, iron, and copper are extensively mined and sulphur and cinnabar are obtained in smaller quantities. The town contains large iron foundries and chemical works, and has an active trade in fruit, cider, timber and live stock. MIEREVELT (Miereveld, or Mireveldt), MICHIEL JANSZ VAN (1567-1641), Dutch painter, was born at Delft, the son of a goldsmith, who apprenticed him to the copperplate engraver J. Wierix. He subsequently became a pupil of Willem Willemz and Augusteyn of Delft, until Anthonie van Montfoort (Blocklandt), who had seen and admired two of Mierevelt's early engravings, " Christ and the Samaritan " and " Judith and Holofernes," invited him to enter his school at Utrecht. Devoting himself first to still life, he eventually took up por- traiture, in which he achieved such success that the many commissions entrusted to him necessitated the employment of numerous assistants, by whom hundreds of portraits were turned out in factory fashion. The works that can with cer- tainty be ascribed to his own brush are remarkable for their sincerity, severe drawing and harmonious colour, but compara- tively few of the two thousand or more portraits that bear MIERIS— MIFFLIN 425 his name are wholly his own handiwork. He settled down in his native town, but went frequently to The Hague, where he entered the gild of St Luke in 1625. So great was his reputa- tion that he was patronized by royalty in many countries and acquired great wealth. The king of Sweden and the count palatine of Neuburg presented him with golden chains, Arch- duke Albrecht gave him a pension, and Charles I. vainly endea- voured to induce him to visit the English court. Though Mierevelt is chiefly known as a portrait painter, he also executed some mythological pieces of minor importance. Many of his portraits have been reproduced in line by the leading Dutch engravers of his time. He died at Delft on the 27th of June 1641. The Ryks Museum in Amsterdam has the richest collection of Mierevelt's works, chief of them being the portraits of William, Philip William, Maurice, and Frederick Henry of Orange, and of the count palatine Frederick V. At The Hague Museum are the portraits of four princes of the house of Orange, of Frederick V., king of Bohemia, and of Louise de Coligny as a widow. Other portraits by him are at nearly all the leading continental galleries, notably at Brunswick (3), Gotha (2), Schwerin (3), Munich (2), Paris (Louvre, 3), Dresden (4), Berlin (2), and Darmstadt (3). The town hall of Delft also has numerous examples of his work. Many of his pupils and assistants rose to fame. The most gifted of them were Paulus Moreelse and Jan van Ravesteyn. His sons Pieter (1596-1623) and Jan (d. 1633), and his son-in-law Willem Jacobz Delff, probably painted many of the pictures which go under his name. His portrait was painted by Van Dyck and engraved by Delff. MIERIS, the name of a family of artists who practised paint- ing at Leiden for three generations in the 17th and 18th centuries. 1. Frans van Mieris, the elder (? 1635-1681), son of Jan van Mieris, a goldsmith and diamond setter, was born, according to Houbraken, at Leiden on the 16th of April 1635, and died there on the 12th of March 1681. His father wished to train him to his own business, but Frans preferred drawing to chasing, and took service with Abraham Torenvliet, a glazier who kept a school of design. In his father's shop he became familiar with the ways and dress of people of distinction. His eye was fascinated in turn by the sheen of jewelry and stained glass; and, though he soon gave up the teaching of Torenvliet for that of Gerard Douw and Abraham van den Tempel, he acquired a manner which had more of the finish of the exquisites of the Dutch school than of the breadth of the disciples of Rembrandt. It should be borne in mind that he seldom chose panels of which the size exceeded 12 to 15 in., and whenever his name is attached to a picture above that size we may surely assign it to his son Willem or to some other imitator. Unlike Gerard Douw when he first left Rembrandt, or Jan Steen when he started on an independent career, Mieris never ventured to design figures as large as life. Characteristic of his art in its minute proportions is a shiny brightness and metallic polish. The subjects which he treated best are those in which he illustrated the habits or actions of the wealthier classes; but he sometimes succeeded in homely incidents and in portrait, and not unfrequently he ventured on allegory. He repeatedly painted the satin skirt which Ter Borch brought into fashion, and he often rivalled Ter Borch in the faithful rendering of rich and highly-coloured woven tissues. But he remained below Ter Borch and Metsu, because he had not their delicate perception of harmony or their charming mellowness of touch and tint, and he fell behind Gerard Douw, because he was hard and had not his feeling for effect by concentrated light and shade. In the form of his composition, which sometimes represents the framework of a window enlivened with greenery, and adorned with bas-reliefs within which figures are seen to the waist, his model is certainly Gerard Douw. It is a question whether Houbraken has truly recorded this master's birthday. One of his best-known pieces, a party of ladies and gentlemen at an oyster luncheon, in the Hermitage at St Petersburg, bears the date of 1650. Celebrated alike for composition and finish, it would prove that Mieris had reached his prime at the age of fifteen. Another beautiful example, the " Doctor Feeling a Lady's Pulse " in the gallery of Vienna, is dated 1656; and Waagen, in one of his critical essays, justly observes that it is a remarkable production for a youth of twenty-one. In 1657 Mieris was married at Leiden in the presence of Jan Potheuck, a painter, and this is the earliest written record of his existence on which we can implicitly rely. Of the numerous panels by Mieris, twenty-nine at least are dated — the latest being an allegory, long in the Ruhl collection at Cologne, illustrating what he considered the kindred vices of drinking, smoking and dicing, in the year 1680. Mieris had numerous and distinguished patrons. He received valuable commissions from Archduke Leopold, the elector- palatine, and Cosimo III., grand-duke of Tuscany. His practice was large and lucrative, but never engendered in him either carelessness or neglect. If there be a difference between the painter's earlier and later work, it is that the former was clearer and more delicate in flesh, whilst the latter was often darker and more livid in the shadows. When he died his clients naturally went over to his son Willem, who in turn bequeathed his painting-room to his son Frans. But neither Willem nor Frans the younger equalled Frans the elder. 2. Willem van Mieris (1662-1747), son of Frans. His works are extremely numerous, being partly imitations of the paternal subjects, or mythological episodes, which Frans habitually avoided. In no case did he come near the excellence of his sire. 3. Frans van Mieris, the younger (1680-1763), also lived on the traditions of his grandfather's studio. The pictures of all the generations of the Mieris family were successfully imitated by A. D. Snaphaan, who lived at Leipzig and was patronized by the court of Anhalt-Dessau. To those who would study his deceptive form of art a visit to the collection of Worlitz near Dessau may afford instruction. MIFFLIN, THOMAS (1744-1800), American soldier and politician, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 10th of January 1744, of Quaker parentage. He graduated at the college of Philadelphia (now the university of Pennsylvania) in 1760. As a member of the Pennsylvania house of representa- tives in 1772-1775, he was an ardent Whig, and in 1774 was a member of the first Continental Congress. After the outbreak of the War of Independence he devoted himself chiefly to the enlisting and drilling of troops, and was chosen major of a regiment. In June 1775 he entered the continental service as Washington's first aide-de-camp, and in August was chosen quartermaster-general. He became a brigadier-general in May 1776 and a major-general in February 1777. On the 5th of June 1776 he was succeeded as quartermaster-general by Stephen Moylan. Moylan, however, proved incompetent, and Mifflin resumed the office on the 1st of October. In the autumn of 1777 Mifflin was a leader in the obscure movement known as the Conway Cabal, the object of which was to replace Washington by General Horatio Gates. On the ground of ill health Mifflin tendered his resignation on the 8th of October, and on the 7th of November Congress accepted his resignation as quartermaster- general, but continued him in rank as major-general without pay. On the same day he was appointed a member of the new board of war, and on the following day was asked to continue as quartermaster-general until his successor should be appointed. On the 2 1 st of November he urged before the old board of war and ordnance that Gates should be made president of the new board of war " from a conviction that his military skill would suggest reformations in the different departments of the army essential to good discipline, order and economy, and that his character and popularity in the army would facilitate the execution of such reformations when adopted by Congress." The attacks on Washington failed, and in March 1778 Mifflin was finally superseded as quartermaster-general by General Nathanael Greene. In October of the same year he was removed from the board of war. The sufferings of the troops at Valley Forge having been charged to his mismanagement as quarter- 426 MIGNARD— MIGNET master-general, Congress, in June 1778, ordered an investigation; but before this inquiry had proceeded far, Congress granted him $1,000,000 to settle all claims against the office during his administration. In February 1779 he resigned his commission as major-general. During the war his eloquence was repeatedly of assistance to Congress in recruiting soldiers. He was a delegate in Congress in 1 782-1 784, and from November 1783 to November 1784 was president, in which office he received Washington's resignation of the command of the army and made a congratulatory address. In 1 785-1 788 he was speaker of the Pennsylvania general assembly (then consisting of only one house); he was a member of the Federal Constitutional Con- vention of 1787, and president of the state supreme executive council (or chief executive officer of the state) in 1 788-1 790. He was president of the Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention of 1 789-1 790; was the first governor of the state, from 1790 to 1799, after the adoption of the new state constitution; and during the Whisky Insurrection assumed personal command of the Pennsylvania militia. Towards the close of his last term as governor he was elected a member of the state assembly, but died during the first session, at Lancaster, on the 20th of January 1800. See William Rawle, " Sketch of the Life of Thomas Mifflin," in. Memoirs of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania (vol. 2, part 2, Philadelphia, 1830); and J. H. Merrill, Memoranda relating to the Mifflin Family (Philadelphia, 1890). MIGNARD, PIERRE (1610-1695), called— to distinguish him from his brother Nicholas — Le Romain, French painter, was born at Troyes in 1610, and came of a family of artists. In 1630 he left the studio of Simon Vouet for Italy, where he spent twenty-two years, and made a reputation which brought him a summons to Paris. Successful with his portrait of the king, and in favour with the court, Mignard pitted himself against Le Brun, declined to enter the Academy of which he was the head, and made himself the centre of opposition to its authority. The history of this struggle is most important, because it was identical, as long as it lasted, with that between the old gilds of France and the new body which Colbert, for political reasons, was determined to support. Shut out, in spite of the deserved success of his decorations of the cupola of Val de Grace (1664), from any great share in those public works the control of which was the attribute of the new Academy, Mignard was chiefly active in portraiture. Turenne, Moliere, Bossuet, Maintenon (Louvre), La Valliere, Sevigne, Montespan, Descartes (Castle Howard), all the beauties and celebrities of his day, sat to him. His readiness and skill, his happy instinct for grace of arrange- ment, atoned for want of originality and real power. With the death of Le Brun (1690) the situation changed; Mignard deserted his allies, and succeeded to all the posts held by his opponent. These late honours he did not long enjoy; in 1695 he died whilst about to commence work on the cupola of the Invalides. His best compositions have been engraved by Audran, Edelinck, Masson, Poilly and others. MIGNE, JACQUES PAUL (1800-1875), French priest and pub- lisher, was born at St Flour, Cantal, on the 25th of October 1800. He studied theology at Orleans, was ordained priest in 1824 and placed in charge of the parish of Puiseaux, in the diocese of Orleans. In 1833 he went to Paris, and started L'Univers religieux, which afterwards became Louis Veuillot's ultra- montane organ. On severing his connexion with the paper three years later, he opened at Petit Montrouge, near Paris, the great publishing house which brought out in rapid succession numerous religious works at popular prices. The best known of these are: Scripturae sacrae cursus completus, and Theologiae cursus (each in 28 vols., 1840-1845); Collection des auteurs sacres (100 vols., 1846-1848); Encyclopedic theologique (171 vols., 1 844-1 866); Patrologiae cursus completus, Latin series in 221 vols. (1844-1855; 2nd edition, 1878 seq.); Greek series, first published in Latin (85 vols., 1856-1861); with Greek text and Latin translation (165 vols., 1857-1866). Unfortunately these editions, brought out in great haste and often edited by super- ficial scholars, do not come up to the requirements of modern criticism. By far the most noteworthy is the Patrology, which was superintended by the learned Benedictine J. B. Pitra. Its vast scope leaves it still unique and valuable, where other editions of special works do not exist. The indices in 3 vols, are arranged so that one may easily find any reference in the patristic writings. In February 1868 a great fire destroyed the whole of Migne's printing premises, but he established a new house in Paris, which was purchased in 1876 by the publishers Gamier Freres, who still own all the works brought out by Mighe. He died in Paris on the 25th of October 1875. For a more complete account of Migne's life, see the article in the Catholic Encyclopedia (New York, 1906 seq.). MIGNET, FRANQOIS AUGUSTE ALEXIS (1796-1884), French historian, was born at Aix in Provence on the 8th of May 1796, and died at Paris on the 24th of March 1884. His father, a Vendean by birth, was an ordinary locksmith, who enthusiastically accepted the principles of the French Revolution and roused in his son the same love for liberal ideas. Francois had brilliant successes when studying at Avignon in the lycic where he was afterwards professor (181 5); he returned to Aix to study law, and in 1818 was called to the bar, where his elo- quence would have ensured his success had he not preferred the career of an historian. His abilities were shown in an Eloge de Charles VII., which was crowned by the Academie de Nimes in 1820, and a memoir on Les Institutions de Saint Louis, which in 1821 was crowned by the Academie des Inscrip- tions et Belles Lettres. He then went to Paris, where he was soon joined by his friend and compatriot, Adolphe Thiers, the future president of the French republic. He was introduced by J. A. Manuel, formerly a member of the Convention, to the Liberal paper, Courrier franqais, where he became a member of the staff which carried on a fierce pen-and-ink warfare against the Restoration. He acquired his knowledge of the men and intrigues of the Napoleonic epoch from Talleyrand. He wrote a Histoire de la revolution francaise (1824) in support of the Liberal cause. It was an enlarged sketch, prepared in four months, in which more stress was laid on fundamental theories than on the facts, which are more rigidly linked together than their historical sequence warrants. In 1830 he founded the National with Thiers and Armand Carrel, and signed the journal- ists' protest against the Ordonnances de juillet, but he refused to accept his share of the spoil after his party had won. He was satisfied with the modest position of director of the archives at the Foreign Office, where he stayed till the revolution of 1848, when he was dismissed, and retired permanently into private life. He had been elected a member of the Academie des Sciences Morales et Politiques, re-established in 1832, and in 1837 was made the permanent secretary; he was also elected a member of the Academie Francaise in 1836, and sought no further honours. He was well known in fashionable circles, where his witty, conversation and his pleasant manners made him a favourite. The greater part of his time was, however, given to study and to his academic duties. Eulogies on his deceased fellow-members, the Academy reports on its work and on the prizes awarded by it, which it was part of Mignet's duty as secretary to draw up, were literary fragments thoroughly appreciated by connoisseurs. They were collected in Mignet's Notices et portraits. He worked slowly when in his study, and willingly lingered over research. With the exception of his description of the French Revolution, which was chiefly a poli- tical manifesto, all his early works refer to the middle ages — De La feodalite, des institutions de Saint Louis et de l' influence de la legislation de ce prince (1822); La Germanie au viii" et au ix' siecle, sa conversion au christianisme, et son introduction dans la sociUe civilisee de I' Europe occidentale (1834); Essai sur la formation territoriale et politique de la France depuis la fin du xi e siecle jusqu'd la fin du xv" (1836); all of these are rough sketches showing only the outlines of the subject. His most noted works are devoted to modern history. For a long time he had been taken up with a history of the Reformation, but only one part of it, dealing with the Reformation at Geneva, has been published. His Histoire de Marie Stuart (2 vols., 1851) MIGNON— MIGRATION 427 is well worth reading; the author made liberal use of some important unpublished documents, taken for the greater part from the archives of Simancas. He devoted some volumes to a history of Spain, which had a well-deserved success — Charles Quint, son abdication, son sejour, et sa mort au monastere de Yuste (1845); Antonio Perez et Philippe II. (1845); and Histoire de la rivalite de Francois I. et de Charles Quint (1875). At the same time he had been commissioned to publish the diplomatic acts relating to the War of the Spanish Succession for the Collection des documents inidits; only four volumes of these Negociations were published (1835-1842), and they do not go further than the peace of Nijmwegen; but the intro- duction is celebrated, and Mignet reprinted it in his Melanges historiques. See the eulogy of Mignet by Victor Duruy, delivered on entering the Academie Frangaise on the 18th of June 1885, and the notice by Jules Simon, read before the Academie des Sciences Morales et Politiques on the 7th of November 1885. MIGNON, ABRAHAM (1640-1697), Dutch painter, was born at Frankfort. His father, a merchant, placed him under the still-life painter Jacob Merrel, by whom he was taken to Holland about 1660. He then worked under de Heem at Utrecht, where in 1675 he married the daughter of the painter Cornelis Willaerts. Sibylle Merian (1647-1717), daughter of the engraver Matthew Merian, became his pupil and achieved distinction as a flower painter. He died at Wetzlar. Mignon devoted himself almost exclusively to flowers, fruit, birds and other " still life," though at times he also attempted portraiture. His flower pieces are marked by careful finish and delicate handling. His favourite scheme was to introduce red or white roses in the centre of the canvas and to set the whole group of flowers against a dark background. Nowhere can his work be seen to better advantage than at the Dresden Gallery, which contains fifteen of his paintings, twelve of which are signed. Six of his pictures are at the Louvre, four at the Hermitage, and other examples are to be found at the museums of Amsterdam, The Hague, Rotterdam, Brussels, Munich, Karlsruhe, Brunswick, Cassel, Schwerin, Copenhagen and Turin. MIGNONETTE, or Mignonnette {i.e. " little darling "), the name given to a popular garden flower, the Reseda odorata of botanists, a " fragrant weed," as Cowper calls it, highly esteemed for its delicate but delicious perfume. The mignonette is generally regarded as being of annual duration, and is a plant of diffuse decumbent twiggy habit, scarcely reaching a foot in height, clothed with bluntish lanceolate entire or three-lobed leaves, and bearing longish spikes — technically racemes — of rather insignificant flowers at the ends of the numerous branches and branchlets. The plant thus naturally assumes the form of a low dense mass of soft green foliage studded over freely with the racemes of flowers, the latter unobtrusive and likely to be overlooked until their diffused fragrance compels attention. It is probably a native of North Africa and was sent to England from Paris in 1742; and ten years later it appears to have been sent from Leiden to Philip Miller at Chelsea. Though originally a slender and rather straggling plant, there are now some improved garden varieties in which the growth is more compact and vigorous, and the inflorescence bolder, though the odour is perhaps less pene- trating. The small six-petalled flowers are somewhat curious in structure: the two upper petals are larger, concave, and furnished at the back with a tuft of club-shaped filaments, which gives them the appearance of being deeply incised, while the two lowest petals are much smaller and undivided; the most conspicuous part consists of the anthers, which are numerous and of a brownish red, giving the tone of colour to the inflorescence. In the varieties named Golden Queen and Golden Machet the anthers have a decided tint of orange- yellow, which imparts a brighter golden hue to the plants when in blossom. A handsome proliferous or double-flowered variety has also been obtained, which is a very useful decorative plant, though only to be propagated by cuttings; the double white flowers grow in large massive panicles (proliferous racemes), and are equally fragrant with those of the ordinary forms. What is called tree mignonette in gardens is due to the skill of the cultivator. Though practically a British annual, as already noted, since it flowers abundantly the first season, and is utterly destroyed by the autumnal frosts, and though recorded as being annual in its native habitat by Desfontaines in the Flora Atlantica, the mignonette, like many other plants treated in England as annuals, will continue to grow on if kept in a suitable temperature. More- over, the life of certain plants of this semi-annual character may be prolonged into a second season if their flowering and seeding are persistently prevented. In applying these facts to the pro- duction of tree mignonette, the gardener grows on the young plants under glass, and prevents their flowering by nipping off the blooming tips of the shoots, so that they continue their vegetative growth into the second season. The young' plants are at first supported in an erect position, the laterals being removed so as to secure clean upright stems, and then at the height of one or two feet or more, as may be desired, a head of branches is encouraged to develop itself. In this way very large plants can be produced. For ordinary purposes, however, other plans are adopted. In the open borders of the flower garden mignonette is usually sown in spring, and in great part takes care of itself; but being a favourite either for window or balcony culture, and on account of its fragrance a welcome inmate of town conservatories, it is'also very extensively grown as a pot plant, and for market purposes with this object it is sown in pots in the autumn, and thinned out to give the plants requisite space, since it does not transplant well, and it is thereafter specially grown in pits protected from frosts, and marketed when just arriving at the blooming stage. In this way hundreds of thousands of pots of blooming mignonette are raised and disposed of year by year. In classifying the odours given off by plants Rimmel ranks the mignonette in the class of which he makes the violet the type; and Fee adopts the same view, referring it to his class of " iosmoids " along with the violet and wallflower. The genus Reseda contains about fifty species, natives of Europe and West Asia. R. luteola, commonly called dyer's-weed and weld, yields a valuable yellow dye. J?, alba is a fine biennial about 2 ft. high, with erect spikes of whitish flowers. MIGNONS, LES. In a general sense the French word mignon means " favourite," but the people of Paris used it in a special sense to designate the favourites of Henry III. of France, frivolous and fashionable young men, to whom public malignity attributed dissolute morals. According to the contemporary chronicler Pierre de l'Estoile, they made themselves " exceed- ingly odious, as much by their foolish and haughty demeanour, as by their effeminate and immodest dress, but above all by the immense gifts the king made to them." The Guises appear to have stirred up the ill will of the Parisians against them. From 1576 the mignons were attacked by popular opinion, and historians accredited without proof the scandalous stories of the time. The best known of the mignons were the dukes of Joyeuse and of Epernon. MIGNOT, CLAUDINE FRANCOISE [commonly called Marie] (c. 1617-1711), French adventuress, was born near Grenoble, at Meylan. At the age of sixteen she attracted the notice of the secretary of Pierre des Portes d'Amblerieux, treasurer of the province of Dauphiny, and Amblerieux promised to promote their marriage. He married the girl himself, however, and left her his fortune. His will was disputed by his family, and Claudine went to Paris in 1653 to secure its fulfilment. She sought the protection of Francois de PH6pital, marshal of France, then a man of seventy-five. He married her within a week of their first meeting, and after seven years of marriage died leaving her part of his estate. By a third and morganatic marriage in 1672 with John Casimir, ex-king of Poland, a few weeks before his death, she received a third fortune. Imme- diately on her marriage with Amblerieux she had begun to educate herself, and her wealth and talents assured her a welcome in Paris. She retired in her old age to a Carmelite convent in the city, where she died on the 30th of November 1711. Her history, very much modified, was the subject of a play by Bayard and Paul Duport, Marie Mignot (1829). MIGRATION. Under this title will be considered movements of men with intention of changing their residence or domicile. Such migration (Lat. migrare) may be either external — that is, from one country to another, including emigration from mother country to colony; or it may be internal — that is, within 428 MIGRATION the limits of a single country. .Under external migration are comprised emigration and immigration, denoting simply direction from and to. The emigrants are at the same time the immi- grants; that is, the material of the movement is the same, but the effect upon the country giving up and the country receiving the migrant requires separate treatment. Hence it is proper to separate emigration from immigration. Tem- porary migration, or travel for purposes of business, enterprise or pleasure, will be considered only incidentally, and because in some cases it is difficult to distinguish between such movements and permanent migration. Migration in general may be described as a natural function of social development. It has taken place at all times and in the greatest variety of circumstances. It has been tribal, national, class and individual. Its causes have been political, economic, religious, or mere love of adventure. Its causes and results are fundamental for the study of ethnology (forma- tion and mixture of races), of political and social history (forma- tion of states and survival of institutions), and of political economy (mobility of labour and utilization of productive forces). Under the form of conquest it makes the grand epochs in history (e.g. the fall of the Roman Empire); under the form of colonization it has transformed the world (e.g. the settlement of America); under free initiative it is the most powerful factor in social adjustment (e.g. the growth of urban population). It must suffice here to indicate the character of the principal movements in the past, and then describe certain aspects of modern migration. The early move- ments may be grouped as follows: (a) Prehistoric migrations. Among savage and nomadic nations the whole tribe often moves into new territory, either occupy- ing it for the first time or exterminating or driving out the indigenous inhabitants. We have only vague knowledge of these early movements, laboriously gleaned from archaeology, anthropology and philology. The cause has been commonly said to be the pressure of population on the food-supply. A more probable explanation is the love of booty and the desire of the stronger to take possession of the lands of the weaker, (b) Greek and Roman coloni- zation. Both of these ancient civilizations extended their influence through migration of individual families and the planting of colonies. The motive seems to have been primarily commercial — that is, the love of gain. It may have been partly a sort of " swarming " process, caused by pressure of population at home. In some cases it had a political motive, as the planting of military colonies or providing new homes for the proletariat. The con- sequences were of course momentous, (c) The German Conquest. Beginning about the 5th century, the Roman empire was overthrown by German tribes from the north of the river Danube and east of the river Rhine. This V blkerwanderung, as it is called by German historians, again transformed the face of Europe, resulting in the establishment of independent kingdoms and a great mix- ture of races and institutions. It was coincident with the building-out of the feudal system. The conquered in many cases could be left as serfs and tillers of the soil, while the conquerors seized the higher positions of administration and power, (d) The later middle ages saw many minor migratory movements, such as those accompanying the crusades, the pushing of German colonization among the Slavs, and the introduction of Flemish weavers into England. The religious reformation caused a considerable amount of expatriation, culminating in the expulsion of the Huguenots from France, (e) The period of discovery and colonization opened up a new era for migration. The first expeditions were for adventure and booty, especially the discovery of gold and silver. Then came the establishment of commercial posts or factories for the purposes of trade. Finally came coloni- zation proper — that is, the settlement of new countries by Europeans intending to remain there permanently, but still retaining their connexion with the mother country. This meant the opening up of the world to commerce and the extension of European civilization to vast areas formerly peopled by savages or half-civilized peoples. It meant a great outlet for the spirit of enterprise and adventure, relief from over-population, an enormous increase in wealth and power, and a struggle for supremacy among the nations of Europe. Colonization and colonial policy excited immense attention in Europe; and this extended into the 19th century (e.g. E. G. Wakefield's plans for colonization, and the various colonization societies of modern times). The colonial policy proper was broken down by the revolt of the North American colonies from Great Britain, and later of Mexico and Central and South America from Spain. (/) The movement of popula- tion, however, has continued under the form of emigration. This movement is characterized firstly by its magnitude; secondly, by the fact that the emigrant changes his political allegiance, for by far the greater part of modern emigration is to independent countries, and even where it is to colonies the colonies are largely self-governing and self-regarding; and thirdly, it is a movement of individuals seeking their own good, without state direction or aid. This is 20th-century emigration, differing from all preceding forms and having an importance of its own. Statistics of Emigration. — The direction of the modern movement is from Europe to America, Australia and South Africa, as shown in the following table: — Emigration from Certain States of Europe, i8qo~iqos> a3 B T3 a N 1? *i? ■ u >> B Year. c "o a '3 a, 3 u B & en C 3 3 NT3 .t; c S u " fa m E en Dh 760 792 39,366 21,369 35,634 1778 23,249 1898 139,188 928 851 38,546 23,280 53,947 1694 20,966 1899 H5,440 O 600 1347 47,058 17.539 99,299 1701 22,114 1900 I7L735 +-> 876 1899 55,452 20,794 117,372 2650 20,921 1901 288,947 E 1019 1874 48,892 20,439 136,557 2968 20,874 1902 295.443 1695 2301 44,401 23,880 185,449 3617 30,915 1903 292,033 a 2101 2963 — 21.291 222,218 4669 35,453 1904 267,249 2269 2440 — 27.925 144,038 3727 27.265 1905 479,349 •z 2540 2297 — — — 3780 27.403 Year. a ••a i .3 'to tO 3 3 6 a Great Britain and Ireland. ngland and Wales. •a c •d ! a Total Jnited ingdom. tn z Pi fa en — ■ a 1890 30,128 10,991 85,548 10,298 139,979 20,653 57,484 218,116 1891 38,318 13,341 109,415 10,382 I37,88i 22,190 58,446 218,507 1892 4L275 17,049 74,681 10,442 133,815 23,325 52,902 210,042 1893 37.504 18,778 4C545 9,150 134,045 22,637 52,132 208,814 i«94 9,678 5,642 17,792 4,105 99,590 14,432 42,008 156,030 1805 15.104 6,207 36,725 3,607 "2,538 18,294 54,349 185,181 1896 12,919 6,679 32,127 2,876 102,837 16,866 42,222 161,925 1897 8,926 4,669 18,107 2,260 94,658 16,124 35,678 146,460 1898 7,32i 4,859 27,853 2,340 90,679 i5,57o 34,395 140,644 1899 12,028 6,699 63,101 2,799 87,400 16,072 42,890 146,362 1900 16,434 10,931 92,833 3,570 102,448 20,472 45,905 168,825 1901 20,464 12,745 87,431 4,657 m,585 20,920 39,210 I7L7I5 1902 33,477 20,343 no,453 6,823 137,121 26,285 42,256 205,662 1903 35,975 26,784 140,211 8,214 I77.58I 36,801 45,568 259,950 1904 — 22,264 — 9,o34 175,733 37,445 58,257 271,435 1905 — 21,059 — 8,051 170,408 41,510 50,159 262,077 1 The figures relate only to the emigrants of each nationality emigrat- ing from their own country to countries outside of Europe. 2 Exclusive of emigrants to Spanish colonies. 3 Russian emigrants from German ports. MIGRATION 429 Since 1820 over twenty million persons have emigrated from Europe to countries beyond the sea. The greater part of this emigration has been to the United States of North America. The history of emigration is well shown in the following table of emigra- tion from Great Britain and Ireland. Down to 1853 the figures include all emigrants from British ports; after 1853 emigrants of British and Irish origin only. Emigration from Great Britain and Ireland, 1815-IQ05. All Emigrants. To British North America. To United States. To Australia. To other Places. Total. 1815-1820 ( 5 years) . 1821-1830 (10 „ ) . 1831-1840 (10 „ ) . 1841-1850 (10 „ ) . 1851-1852- (2 „ ) . 70,438 139,269 322,485 429,044 75,478 50,359 99,8oi 308,247 1,094,556 511,618 9,036 67,882 127,124 109,413 2,731 1,805 4-536 34,168 8,221 123,528 249,911 703,150 1,684,892 704,730 1815-1852 (37 years) . 1,036,714 2,064,581 313,455 5i,46l 3,466,211 Emigrants of British and Irish Origin. 1 853-1 860 ( 8 years) . 1861-1870 (10 „ ) . 1871-1880 (10 „ ) . 1881-1890 (10 „ ) . 1891-1900 (10 „ ) . 1901-1905 (5 „ ) . 123,408 130,310 177,976 301,922 176,336 181,504 805,596 1,132,626 1,087,372 1,713,953 1.090,685 290,679 365,307 267,358 303,367 372,744 119,018 27,120 18,372 41,535 110,204 169,916' 258,942 2 85,6o7 3 1,312,683 1,571,829 1,678,919 2,558,535 1,644,981 584,910 1853-1905 (53 years) . 1,091,456 6,120,911 1,454,914 684,576 9,351,857 it was speedily resumed on an enlarged scale owing especially to the improved means of ocean transportation. It culminated in the decade 1880-1890, and declined after the commercial crisis of 1893. Later there was another increase. The relative movement of nationalities is best presented by the statistics of the United States. The nationality (country of origin of immigrants coming to the United States, 1 871-1895) is shown in the following table: — Nationality, of Immigration to the United States. Anglo-Saxons, Celts, and . Welshmen — England and Wales Scotland . . . . Total Irish — Ireland ,, Per cent. 25 Years of Te given. 1,120 8,767 — 20,460 — 44,401 Italy, 1905 316,797 5,930 30,079 88,840 765 13,072 3,866 479,349 Switzerland, 1905 4,349 — 53 471 — — — 5,049 Austria-Hungary, 1905 284,967 io,399 — 5,346 — •' — - — . — Statistics of Immigration.— The statistics of the United States are the most important and the most complete. The statistics since 1820 are shown in the following table : — Immigration into the United States, 1820-1905. Decade ending 30th June. 1830 1840 1850 i860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1901-1905 Total . . .23,116,501 Prior to 1820 there was no official record of immigration, but it is estimated that the total number of immigrants from the dose of the Revolutionary War was 250,000. During the decade from 1820 to 1830 the movement was very moderate. From 1830 to 1840 it steadily increased, but never reached 100,000 per annum. In 1846 came the Irish potato famine, and an enormous emigration began, followed by a very large German emigration from similar causes. The Civil War of the United States interrupted the movement, but 1 Of these, 77,409 went to the Cape of Good Hope and Natal. 2 Of these, 152,797 went to the Cape of Good Hope and Natal. * Of these, 69,052 went to the Cape of Good Hope and Natal. Aggregate Annual Arrivals. Average. 143,439 H,343 599.125 59,912 1,713,251 171,325 2,598,214 259,821 2,314,824 231,482 2,812,191 281,219 5,246,613 524,661 3,844,422 384,442 3,833,076 766,615 Scandinavians — Denmark 159,759 Norway 331,258 Sweden 660,193 Total '1,151,210 Czechs, Magyars, Slavs — Bohemia 77,247 Hungary 256,347 Poland 141,908 Rumania 10,377 Russia 5°o,797 Total 986,676 Swiss — Switzerland T 35,736 Greeks — Greece 7,325 Turks — Turkey 3,41 1 Europe, not specified 294 Total Europe 9,197,014 North America 776,071 All other countries 366,454 Grand Total . 10,339,539 1-5 3-2 6-4 ii-i 430 MIGRATION A very important transformation has taken place in the propor- tionate number coming from different countries during the last half of the 19th century. At first the Irish and Germans were most prominent. Of later years, the Italians, Czechs, Hungarians and Russians were, as will be seen from the following table, numerously represented. Nationality of Immigrants to the United States, IQ01-IQ05. Number. Austria-Hungary 944,239 Belgium Bulgaria, Servia and Montenegro . Denmark France Germany Greece Holland Italy 959,768 Norway Portugal Rumania Russia Spain Sweden . Switzerland Turkey United Kingdom — England Ireland Scotland . Wales All other European countries Total 3.645.018 95 The following table shows the relative number of different nation- alities represented in the immigration to the United States: — Number. % 944.239 25'0 16,884 0-44 6,637 0-17 33.968 0-9 31.419 o-8 176,995 4-6 49.962 1-3 18,501 0-48 959,768 25-0 103,065 2-7 30,532 0-8 35.185 0-4 658,735 17-0 10,243 0-27 154.607 4-0 17,820 0-46 10,909 o-3 155.343 4-0 184,096 4-8 38,842 1-0 6,972 0-18 216 0-006 Country. Great Britain Ireland . . . . Germany Austria-Hungary Norway and Sweden Russia and Poland . Italy 1861-70. % 24-5 18-8 34-0 o-3 4-7 0-2 o-5 1871-80. % 16-4 15-5 25-5 2-6 7-5 19 2-0 I88I-9O. % 12-5 12-5 27-7 6-7 io-8 5-1 5-9 1891-1900. % 7-5 io-o 14-0 16-0 8-6 14-0 l8-0 Sex and Age. — Of all the immigrants (1871-1895), 61-25% were males and 38-75 % were females. This percentage remains fairly constant, but the proportion differs somewhat among different nationalities. The following table shows the proportions for 1905: — Males. Females. Austria-Hungary 207,034 77.933 France . - 5,574 3,889 Germany 21,586 15.357 Holland 3,082 1,758 Italy 216,268 5'. 2 73 Russia . . . . . . 111,795 66,065 Sweden and Norway . . . . . 29,907 18,105 United Kingdom — England 29,993 Ireland . . . . . . 18,754 Scotland 9,264 18,160 18,890 5,022 The immigrants were in the most vigorous period of life, few children and few old people, as shown in the following table :■ Ages of Immigrants to the United States, i88i-i8qo. Country of Origin. Under 15. From 15 to 40. Over 40 years. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Germany Ireland England Sweden and Norway . Italy . . . Russia (includ- ing Poland) . Austria . Scotland Hungary 386,934 92,308 I5L3I5 104,254 47.603 65.427 50,027 36,192 18,785 26-6 14- 1 23-5 18-3 15-3 24-7 22-1 24-2 14-7 904,002 515,089 420,303 414,609 212,475 174.754 149,909 97,819 95,635 62-2 78-6 65-2 73-0 69-2 65-9 66-3 65-2 74-9 162,034 48,085 73.062 49.499 47.771 24.907 26,109 15,858 13,261 II-2 7-3 n-3 8-7 15-5 9-4 n-6 io-6 10-4 Occupation. — The immigrants are for the most part unskilled labourers. The statistics for the United States show the following figures for the years 1 881-1890: — Occupation of Immigrants to the United States. Males. Females. Total. Professional Skilled Miscellaneous . Not stated . . . . Without occupation . Total .... 25,257 5H.552 1.833.325 73.327 759,45o 1,749 25,859 245,810 42,830 1,724,454 27,006 540,411 2,079,135 116,157 2,483,904 3. 2 05.9H 2,040,702 5,246,613 Those " without occupation " are mostly women and children. The " miscellaneous " are day labourers. It is probable that about 20% of the adult males are " skilled." Immigration to Other Countries. — In no other country is immigra- tion conducted on so important a scale as in the United States. The statistics are very imperfect. The main figures have already been given in the table of emigration. Australia has an annual immigra- tion of about 250,000, mostly of British origin. This is offset by a very heavy emigration, which sometimes exceeds the immigration in certain of the states. The immigration to Canada for the year 1905 was put down as 146,266, but a portion of this consisted of immi- grants passing through to the United States. Brazil has had a large immigration (in 1895 equal to. 169,524, but in 1904 only 12,447). The Argentine is credited with an immigration in 1905 of 177,117, and Uruguay with an immigration in 1903 of 6247. In all the South American immigration the countries principally represented are those of southern Europe, especially Italy. The majority of the immigrants are adult males and farm labourers. Balance of Emigration and Immigration. — Even in the case of emigration from Europe to countries beyond the seas there is some return movement. Emigrants who have been successful in business return in order to end their days in the old country. Those who have not succeeded return in order to be cared for by friends and relatives, or simply from home-sickness. Thus, for Great Britain and Ireland, while the emigration of persons of British and Irish origin was, in 1905, 262,077, the immigration of persons of the same category was 122,712, leaving a net emigration of only 139,365. In the United States' statistics we cannot distinguish in the outgoing passenger movement emigrants from other persons. But if for a period of years we take the total inward passenger movement and subtract from it the total outward passenger movement, we ought to have the net immigration. By this method we arrive at the conclusion that while the gross immigration during the five years 1901-1905 was 3,833,076, the net immigration was only 1,779,976, showing an out- ward movement of 273,134, or about 7-12 % of the total number of immigrants. Temporary Emigration. — In many European countries there is not only emigration beyond seas, but a very considerable movement to neighbouring countries in search of work, and generally with the intention of returning. Thus in Italy, the " permanent " emigration (i.e. to countries beyond seas) numbered, in 1905, 447,083; the " temporary " emigration to European or Mediterranean countries amounted to 279,248. This temporary emigration is strongest in the spring, and consists principally of adult males (agriculturists, farm and day labourers, bricklayers and masons) in search of work. It resembles somewhat the movement of Irish labourers into Great Britain at harvest time. It is notorious that the Italians who 'emigrate to the United States largely return. Effects of Emigration. — There are two views with regard to emigra- tion: one unfavourable, viz., that it is a drain on population, reduc- ing its economic strength and disturbing social and politicalrelations ; the second looking upon it as a relief from over-population and a congested labour market. As a matter of fact, emigration has not succeeded in diminishing the population of Europe, which, on the contrary, doubled during the 19th century. The one great excep- tion is Ireland, where population declined from 8,175,124 in 1841 to 4,458,745 in 1901. From 1851 to 1901 the total emigration from Ireland was 3,881,246 or 72-5 % of the average population. Emigra- tion, by carrying off the young men and women, also reduced the Irish marriage and birth-rates, which were almost the lowest in Europe. But hitherto the countries of strongest emigration (Eng- land, Germany, &c.) have shown practically undiminished birth and marriage-rates and a steady growth in population. The intensity of emigration is measured not by the absolute number of emigrants, but by the number of emigrants to the total population. Its, effect is shown by comparing the number of emigrants with the excess of births over deaths per 1000 of the population. This is shown in the following table (1905) : — MIGRATION 431 Excess of births over deaths per 1000 Inhabitants. Emigrants per 1000 Inhabitants. Great Britain and Ireland England and Wales Sweden (1903) .... Denmark Italy Austria-Hungary .... n-4 12-0 12-2 6-3 13-2 9-5 io-6 12-6 13-5 io-6 12-2 6-06 4-96 8-45 11-42 •45 1-45 6-89 9-n 3-12 H-33 6-29 It will be observed that, with the exception of Ireland and Italy, wherever there is a heavy emigration there is usually a considerable excess of births over deaths, i.e. natural increase more than makes up for the loss by emigration. Even taking Great • Britain and Ireland together, the loss by emigration per annum has not been very large, as is shown by the following table : — Annual Emigration per 1000 of the Average Population of Great Britain and Ireland. 853-1855 • . 8-4 1881-1890 . • 7-1 856-1860 . . 4-3 1891-1895 . ■ 51 861-1870 . . 5-2 1896-1900 . • 37 871-1880 . . 5-1 1901-1905 . • • 5'5 Even in particular districts where emigration is heavy the loss is made up by births. For instance, in 1891 the emigration from the provinces of West Prussia and Posen was extraordinarily heavy — 10-9 and 10-4 per mille respectively — but the excess of births over deaths was 19-6 per mille. Emigration may give temporary relief to congested districts, but it is not in itself a remedy for so-called over-population. It is difficult to analyse closely the economic effect of emigration, because so much depends upon the character of the emigrants and the condition of the labour market. The following considerations have been urged at different times: Although emigration does not diminish population, yet, as the emigrants are in the most productive period of life (15 to 45), the country of emigration loses adults and replaces them with children. It thereby loses the cost of rearing that number of people to adult age, and is left with a disproportionate number of children and old people. The age distribution of the population of Ireland lends some support to this view. In the same vein it is urged that voluntary emigration takes away the cream of the working-classes. It is the man of energy, of some means, of ambition, who takes the chances of success in the new country, leaving the poor, the indolent, the weak and crippled at home. It is maintained that such emigration institutes a process of selection which is unfavourable to the home country. On the other side, it is said that the men who are doing well at home are the ones least likely to emigrate, because they have least to gain. Modern means of transportation have made the voyage so cheap that almost any one is able to go. It is therefore the rest- less, the unsuccessful, or at least those not fitted for the strenuous competition of the older countries, who are tempted to go. Emigra- tion affords a natural outlet for the superfluous labour force of a country. The supply of labour is somewhat reduced, but wages are kept up for those who remain. Those who go find means of bettering their own condition beyond the seas, where they become producers of food and raw material for the home country, and at the same time customers for her manufactured products.^ Emigra- tion is .therefore an economic gain, both directly and indirectly. It is evident from these arguments that no general answer can be given to the question. In some cases it may be an evil; in most, when conducted under normal conditions, it would seem to offer little danger. The same remark would hold true in regard to the social and political effects of emigration. In some cases, by taking away the strong, self-reliant and energetic, it may result in the deterioration of the home population. In other cases it allows restless spirits who have failed at home to try again elsewhere. Often in cases of political revolution the members of the defeated party have sought refuge elsewhere, as after the revolutionary movements of 1848. In case of conquest the conquered nationality takes to emigration on an extensive scale, as after the absorption of Alsace-Lorraine by Germany in 1871. The movement may be aided either by the state or by private associations. Of such character have been the state-aided emigration from Ireland, and the assisted emigration of paupers, criminals and other persons in the effort to relieve a con- gested population, or simply from the desire to get rid of undesirable members of the community. Such efforts fail if the new countries are unwilling to admit these persons. Finally, we have the expulsion of the Jews from Russia as an example of the effort of a community to get rid of an element which has made itself obnoxious to the local sentiment. Effects of Immigration.— -The effects of emigration are negative in character; those of immigration are positive, (a) On population: immigration, of course, is a direct addition to the population of new countries, and greatly accelerates the growth by natural increase, especially as the immigrants are in the most productive ages of manhood and womanhood. In the United States, for instance, out of a population of 76,303,387 (in 1900), there were 26,147,407 persons who were either foreign-born or who had one or both parents foreign- born. This does not mean that the population would have been twenty-six millions less if it had not been for immigration ; for the rate of natural increase among the native-born might have maintained itself. Nevertheless, immigration has probably stimulated the growth of population. (6) Economic effects: The economic gain of immigration to new countries is evident. It adds directly to their available labour force, that is, to the number of adults engaged in the work of producing wealth. According to the United States census of 1900, out of 29,073,233 (1900) persons engaged in gainful occupations, 5,851,399 or 20-1 %, were of foreign birth. If we add to these the native whites of foreign parentage (5,300,924) we' have 11,152,323 persons of foreign extrac- tion or 39-4% of the total labour force. The foreign whites alone constituted 10-4% of the total number ef persons engaged in agricultural pursuits ; 1 1 -4 % of those in professional services ; 25-7 % in domestic and personal services ; 19-2 % in trade and transporta- tion; and 30-6 % of those engaged in manufacturing and mechanical industries. In addition to these, the native whites of foreign parentage constituted, in agriculture, &c, 10-6%; in professional service, 20-6%; in domestic and personal service, 16-4%; in trade and transportation, 25-7 % in manufacturing and mechanical, 25-4% of all those engaged in those occupations. The labour force of the United States is thus made up very largely of immigrants and the children of immigrants. Attempts have sometimes been made to put a money value on the economic gain by immigration. The amount of money brought by the immigrants is not large, and is probably more than offset by the money sent back by immigrants for the support of families and friends at home or to aid them in following. The valuable element is the able-bodied immigrant himself as a factor of production. It is said, for instance, that an adult slave used to be valued at from $800 to $1000, so that every adult immigrant may be looked upon as worth that sum to the country. Or, it has been said that an adult immigrant represents what it would cost to bring up a child from infancy to the age, say, of 15. This has been estimated by Ernst Engel as amounting to $550 for a German child. The most scientific procedure, however, is to calculate the probable earnings of the immigrant during the rest of his lifetime, and deduct therefrom his expenses of living. The remainder represents his net earnings which he will contribute to the well-being of the new country. W. Farr reckoned this to be, in the case of unskilled English emigrants, about £175. Multiplying the total number of adult immigrants by any one of these figures, we get the annual value of immigration. Such attempts to put a precise money value on immigration are futile. They neglect the question of quality and of opportunity. The immigrant is worth what it has cost to bring him up only if he is able-bodied, honest and willing to work. If he is diseased, crippled, dishonest or indolent, he may be a direct loss to the community instead of a gain. So, too, the immigrant is worth his future net earnings to the community only if there is a demand, for his labour. Social and Political Effects of Immigration. — The influx of millions of persons of different nationality, often of a foreign language and generally of the lower classes, would seem to be a danger to the homogeneity of a community. The United States, for instance, has felt some inconvenience from the constant addition of foreigners to its electorate and its population. The foreign-born are more numerously represented among the criminal, defective and dependent classes than their numerical strength would justify. They also tend to segregate more or less, especially in large cities. Nevertheless, the process of assimilation goes on with great rapidity. Intermarriage with the native-born occurs to a considerable extent. The influence of the physical environment leads to the adoption of the same mode of life. The most powerful influences, however, seem to be social. These are common school education and the adoption of one language (English) ; participation in political life, which is granted to all adult males after five years' residence; and the general influence of social standards embodied in laws, institutions and customs already established. Doubtless immigration in the last fifty years of the 19th Century hadj a modifying effect on American life; but on the whole the power of a modern civilized community working through individual freedom to assimilate elements not differing from it too radically has been displayed to a remarkable degree. Restriction of Immigration. — New countries have sought to escape certain evils of indiscriminate immigration. These evils were as follows: (a) The immigration of criminals, paupers, persons diseased in mind or body, and persons unable to support themselves. By the Acts of 1882 and 1893 such persons were refused admission to the United States, and, when rejected, the steamship companies that brought them were compelled to take them back. The number debarred from 1896 to 1905 is shown in the following table:— 432 MIGRATION Causes. 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 Insane .... Paupers Diseased Assisted Convicts Prostitutes . Contract Labourers All other . . . Total debarred . 10 2010 2 776 1 6 1277 1 3 1 328 1 12 2261 258 79 2 417 1 19 2599 348 82 8 741 1 32 2974 393 2 4 7 833 1 16 2798 309 5° 7 3 327 6 27 3944 7-9 9 3 275 7 23 5812 1773 9 51 13 1086 2 33 4798 1560 38 35 9 1501 20 92 7898 2198 19 39 24 1 164 445 2799 1617 3030 3798 4246 3516 4974 8769 7994 11,879 Year. No law of international comity is violated by the refusal to receive these unfortu- nates. They should be taken care of at home. The English legislature in 1905 passed an act to prevent the landing of undesirable aliens, and the number refused admission in 1906 was 493. (b) Immigration sometimes increases the competition in the labour market, and thus lowers wages. One case is particularly aggravating, viz. when employers import foreign labourers in order to take the place of their men who are on strike. In 1885 the United States passed what is called the Contract Labor Law, forbidding the landing of any person who is under contract to perform labour in the United States. It is very difficult to discover such cases, but the number rejected is fairly large (see table above), (c) The immigration of men of alien race who refuse to assimilate , with the natives is said sometimes to be a danger to the country. This at least is the excuse for the entiife exclusion of Chinese labourers from the United States since 1882 (provisions made more severe in 1888 and 1892) (see also the article Coolie). Internal Migration. — In modern times there is constant movement of population within national lines, from section to section, and especially from rural districts to the cities. No record is kept ot this, and we can trace it only through the census- statistics of birth- place. In the United States, for instance, it was shown in 1890 that more than 21-5 per cent, of the native-born inhabitants were living in a state other than that in which they were born. Still further, it appears that about one-half of the native-born inhabitants had moved out of the county in which they were born. In 1890 there were 1,233,629 natives of the state of New York living in other states. The movement is principally westwards in direction and along parallels of latitude. For instance, New York has made large contributions to the population of Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, Wiscon- sin, Iowa and so on. Virginia has contributed largely to the popula- tion of West Virginia, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and Missouri. In Europe there is a similar movement; but it is difficult to make comparisons, because of the differences in the administrative areas. In England in 1891, 71-6% of the population were residing in their native county; in Prussia, 69-7% in the kreis; in France, 81-7% in the department; in Austria, 80-2% in the bezirk; in Switzerland, 82-1% in the canton where they were born (Weber, Growth of Cities, p. 249). The most important phase of internal migration is the movement from the rural districts to the cities. The statistical results are shown in the following table extracted from the admirable work of Weber, just quoted: — Year. United In Towns of Rural States. 8000 and over. Districts. 1 790-1 800 % 35-1 % 60 % 34 1800-1810 36-4 69 35 1810-1820 33-0 33 33 1820-1830 33'6 82 31 1 830-1 840 32-7 68 30 1840-1850 35-9 99 30 1 850-1 860 35-6 75 30 1860-1870 22-6 59 15 1870-1880 30-1 40 27 1880-1890 24-9 61 15 1 890-1 900 20-8 37 14 In England and Wales the rural population increased in the aggregate during the first half of the 19th century, but at a gradually diminishing rate; in the second half of the century the population declined with varying regularity, until the decennium 1 891-1900, when there was an increase. But notwithstanding this aggregate increase there are many rural districts which still show a steadily declining population. The urban population is increasing, as shown in the following table :— Decennial Rale of Increase or Decrease. 1851- 1861- 1871- 1881- 1891- 1861 1871 1881 1891 1900 Jrban. Rural. % % +21-9 + 1-88 +28-1 -5-86 +25-6 -3-84 + 18-5 —2-76 + 15-22 +2-94 Percentage of Population living in Towns of 10,000 and over at Three Periods. About 1800 About 1850 About 1890 or 1 801. or 1851. or 1891. England and Wales 21-3 39-5 61-7 Scotland , . 17-0 32-2 50-0 Australia (7 colonies) 41-4 Belgium Netherlands 13-5 20-8 34-8 29-5 29-0 31-3 Prussia (18 16) . . 7-3 10-6 30-0 United States 3-8 12-0 27-6 France .... 9-5 14-4 25-9 Denmark 10-9 9-6 23-6 Italy .... — 20-6 Ireland .... 7-8 IO-I 18-0 Norway .... 3-3 5-3 16-7 Switzerland (1822) . 4-3 7-3 16-5 Austria .... 4.4 5-8 15-8 Hungary Sweden .... 5-4 9-1 161 3-9 47 13-7 Portugal 12-7 2-9 12-7 Russia .... 3-7 5-3 9-3 Everywhere the city population is increasing faster than the rural. In the United States the rate of increase per decade was as follows : — Somewhat the same phenomenon is seen in France. According to the census of 1 89 1 not less than 55 out of the 87 departments had decreased in population ; and out of the 32 that had increased, 7 showed a decrease in their rural parts when the large towns were deducted. In Germany the towns of 10,000 and over show a much more rapid increase than the rural districts; and the same fact is generally true of the other countries of Europe. This more rapid increase of population in cities is due only in part to migration from the country. Until the 19th century deaths generally exceeded births in cities, so that if it had not been for constant immigration the cities would not only not have grown, but would have decreased in population. Cities grow more rapidly now than formerly, because the excess of deaths over births has been turned into an excess of births over deaths. Thereby the cities are becoming less dependent upon immigration for increase of population than formerly, but the migration still goes on. The causes of migration from country to city are mainly economic. In early stages of culture men are scattered over the country, or at most gathered together in hamlets and villages. Each of these is self-sufficing, having its own artisans and handicraftsmen, and producing what it needs. With the beginning of exchange commercial centres spring up, situated on navigable streams and especially at points where land and water journeys are broken. With the growth of manufactures, industrial centres spring up where the division of labour can be fully provided for. In modern times two factors have accelerated this process, viz.: (1) the building of railways, which have developed commerce to a very great degree and favoured the large towns at the expense of the small; and (2) the invention of machinery, which has greatly increased the possibility of division of labour and manufactures on a large scale. The old handicraftsman has been superseded by machine labour and the village artisan by the factory hand. At the same time improvements in agriculture and the opening up, of new countries have enabled the modern community to gain its food and raw material with a less expenditure of labour force, and the surplus agricultural population has gone to the city. The attractive influences upon individuals have been higher wages, greater scope for the ambitious, and the social advantages of city life. The general laws of internal migration may be summarized (according to Ravenstein) as follows: — 1. The great body of migrants proceed only a short distance. 2. The process of absorption goes on as follows : The inhabitants of the country immediately surrounding a town of rapid growth flock into it ; the gaps thus left in the rural population are filled up by migrants from more remote districts, until the attractive force of one of the rapidly-growing cities makes its influence felt, step by step, to the most remote corner of the land. Migrants enumerated in a certain centre of absorption will consequently grow less with the distance, proportionately to the native population which furnishes them. 3. The process of dispersion is the inverse of that of absorption, and exhibits similar features. MIGRATION 433 4. Each main current of migration produces a compensating countercurrent. 5. Migrants proceeding long distances generally go by preference to one of the great cities of commerce or industry. 6. The natives of towns are less migratory than those of the rural parts of the country. 7. Females are more migratory than males. Authorities.— The statistics of migration are to be found in the official returns of different countries, especially the statistical tables relating to emigration and immigration published by the British Board of Trade, and the Reports (annual) of the Commissioner- General of Immigration of the United States. For general discus- sion see Philippovich, Auswanderung und Auswanderungspolitik (Leipzig, 1892). An exhaustive bibliography will be found in an article by same author, " Auswanderung," in Handworterbuch der Slaatswissenschaften; R. Mayo-Smith, Emigration and Immigration, with bibliography (New York, 1890). For internal migration see A. F. Weber, Growth of Cities (New York, 1899). See also Ravenstein, "The Laws of Migration," in Journal of Royal Statistical Society (1885 and 1889). Professor Flinders Petrie, in his Huxley Lecture for 1906 on Migrations (reprinted by the Anthropological Institute), deals with the mutations and movements of races from an anthro- pological standpoint with profound knowledge and originality. (R. M.-S. ; T. A. I.) Migration, in Zoology. In zoology considerable import- ance attaches to the problems of migration, by which is meant the wandering of living creatures into another, usually distant, locality in order to breed there; this implies a return, and the double phenomenon is annual. All other changes of the abode are either sporadic, epidemic, or fluctuating within lesser limits. Further, migration should not be confounded with " spreading," which proceeds steadily, and in epicycles, with a totally different result. It need not be emphasized that hard and fast lines between these phenomena do not exist; they are often a question of degree. For instance, when the common toad, which is a strictly terrestrial creature, wanders every spring to a fre- quently distant pool in order to spawn there, this is a true migration. The same applies, strictly speaking, to those insects which hibernate in the ground, at the root of the tree on which they feed and breed. The grey plover breeds in the arctic circle and winters in equatorial countries. To complicate matters further, it is not necessary that the migration be undertaken periodically, more than once, by the same individual. For instance, the common eel ascends the rivers as an elver in its youth; years after it returns to the sea, there to breed and to die, whilst other fishes come and go, year after year. Further, some of the larger birds, for instance swans and cranes, are still immature in their second year, and yet they migrate like their older relations. It seems permissible to use this fact as an indication that the breeding as such is not the prime reason of their wanderings. The fundamental impelling agent must have been the want of food, and what we usually under- stand by migration cannot suddenly have sprung into existence to its full extent, but is more likely the cumulative effect of the doings of countless generations. The faculty of shifting the abode was of course always there, the necessity of moving further on was also present, and those which went in the wrong direction came to grief, while the others flourished and returned with their progeny. They did not at first cover enormous distances, but just enough to find unoccupied ground. The annual repetiton became an established habit, at last an ineradicable instinct. There can be but little doubt that the prime impulse was want of food. The new growing grass on the prairie or on the veldt attracts every year those creatures which live upon pasture. The inter-tropical belt of the world is so crowded with creatures that there is the keenest competition, whilst in the temperate and cold regions is a long winter quiescence unfit for the support of many creatures, whereas in the summer these same regions are covered with new vegetation, with its concomitant abundance of insects and other invertebrates. The tables are decked again, and these opportunities are not wasted. The process of migration, in its most striking cases, is now very complicated. Many a bird goes actually to the arctic regions for the shortest of summers, but spends most of the year within the tropics. On the other hand there are many species which do not go so far north, but stop to breed in the intermediate regions. We must not take the extremes when trying to unravel the development of the problem. The periodical migrations of mammals, with their more limited extent and greater leisure, are less perplexing. It has been argued with some show of reason that the real home of a bird is that country in which it was born, in other words where the species breeds, but this is not in every case a valid conclusion. It applies to most creatures, but it can well bear exceptions if we leave sentiment aside. When it comes to a question of domicile, the ten weeks' sojourn of the swift, Cypselus, in England are more than weighted down by the nine months or more which these birds spend in southern countries, although we do not know whether they are resident there or roam about. The breeding time is the busiest period of a bird's life; then the numbers of each species are suddenly multiplied, and so is the stress of providing food, and the par- ticular food which is best for the young may not be available in every country. The idea that the arctic circle is the original home of the numerous kinds of birds which breed in it, whence they are now periodically driven away by stress, has been coupled with the glacial epoch, that supposed solution of so many diffi- culties. We have only to assume that the old, permanent home of these migrants was in the arctic region, that the progressing glaciation drove them away, of course towards the equator, and that, when times improved again, the birds returned to their old home. This sounds very plausible, but it involves huge assumptions. The birds, not the individuals, but the species, are supposed to have inherited such a loving reminiscence of their old home, that after thousands of years — with most of the small birds meaning as many generations — they returned at the first opportunity. It implies that their long continued sojourn in foreign lands, where — under this assumption — thousands of generations must have been bred and have spent all their lives, was not sufficient to naturalize them, so to speak, in other words to supplant the instinctive love of the primary ancient home. That the last glacial epoch has driven the limit of many kinds of animals and plants farther south is as certain as that many have recovered the lost ground after the reversion of the glaciation, but it must have been a very slow and steady process of spreading. It may, and probably does, account for the present annual visitations of arctic lands, as a phenomenon which has been evolved de novo, which would have come to pass even if no birds had existed in pre-glacial times. How do birds manage to find their way, thousands and thousands of miles across land and water? This question has been extolled as a mystery of mysteries. It has been stated that the old birds show the way to the young, a specula- tion which does not apply to those many cases in which old and young notoriously travel at different times. It has teen assumed that they travel by sight, taking advantage of certain landmarks; another untenable idea, since — experience having to be excluded in a flock of birds which made the journey for the first time — it implies that the young must have inherited the reminiscence of those landmarks! Others have likened the bird to a kind of compass, because in eastern Siberia E. von Middendorff found some migration routes to coincide with the direction of the magnetic pole. The whole question reduces itself to a sense of direction, a faculty which is possessed by nearly all animals; in some it is present to an astonishing extent ; but the manifestations of this sense vary only in degree. The cat which escapes out of the bag finds its way back-, directly or after many adventures. The bee, after having loaded itself with pollen, returns by the proverbial line to the hive which may be a mile away, but, move the small entrance hole in the meantime an inch to the right or left, and the bee will knock its head against the hive and blunder about ; move the hive a few yards and bee after bee returning will be puzzled to find its hive again. They, maybe with the help of landmarks, have accustomed themselves to steer a course. Such instances need not be multiplied. The principle is the same whether 434 MlUKA'l'lUJN the journey be one of a few yards or of many miles. Given the sense of direction, it is no more difficult to steer a course due north than it is to lay one south-east by east, provided always the impetus to be on the move. There is no mystery, except that we, the most intellectual of mankind, should so well nigh have lost this sense, and even this fact is simply an instance of the loss of a faculty through long-continued disuse. Birds. — (The following account is to a great extent based upon A. Newton's article " Birds "in Ency. Brit., 9th ed.) In almost all countries there are some species which arrive in spring, remain to breed, and depart in autumn; others which arrive in autumn, stop for the winter and depart in spring; and others again — and these are strictly the " birds of passage "— which show themselves but twice a year, passing through the country without staying long in it, and their transient visits take place about spring and autumn. These three apparently different categories of migrants are all acted upon by the same impulse in spite of the at first sight dissimilar nature of their movements. The species which resort to Britain and to other temperate countries in winter are simply those which have their breeding quarters much nearer the poles, and in returning to them on the approach of spring are but doing exactly as do those species which, having their winter abode nearer the equator, come to us with the spring. The birds-of-passage proper, like our winter visitants, have their breeding quarters nearer the pole, but like our summer visit- ants, they seek their winter abode nearer the equator, and thus perform a somewhat larger migration. As H. Seebohm puts it (Geograph. Distrib. of the family Charadriidae, London) : — " They all represent birds which breed in the north and winter in the south. Every migratory bird wintering in England goes north to breed, and every migratory bird breeding in England goes south to winter. It is a rule without exception in the northern hemisphere that each bird breeds in the extreme north point of its migrations. To make the rule apply to the southern hemi- sphere as well it must be modified as follows: each bird breeds in the coldest climate which it visits on its migrations. ... It is a remarkable fact that whilst there are many birds breeding in the northern hemisphere and wintering in the southern, it is not known that any land-bird breeds in the southern and habitually winters in the northern! This is probably owing to the difference in the distribution of the land, there being no antarctic breeding grounds. . . . Birds breeding in the tropics are always resident, except when they breed on mountains, where the climate causes them to descend into the valleys for the winter." In many countries we find that while there are some species, such as in England the swallow or the fieldfare, of which every individual disappears at one period of the year or another, there are other species, such as the pied-wagtail or the woodcock, of which only the majority of individuals vanish — a few being always present — and these species form the so-called " partial migrants." In England the song-thrushes receive in the autumn a considerable accession in numbers from the birds which arrive from the north, though the migration is by no means so well marked as it is on the continent, where the arrival of the strangers sets all the fowlers at work. In most localities in Britain the newcomers depart after a short sojourn, and are accompanied by so many of the home- bred birds that in some parts of the island it may be safely declared that not a single song-thrush can be found from the end of November to the end of January, while in others examples can always be seen. Much the same may be said of the redbreast. Undeniably resident as a species, attentive scrutiny will reveal the fact that its numbers are subject to very considerable variation, according to the season of the year. At no time do our redbreasts collect in bands, but towards the end of summer they may be seen in the south of England successively passing onward, the travellers being mostly — if not wholly — young birds of the year; and so the great majority dis- appear, departing it may be safely presumed for more southern countries, since a few weeks later the markets of most towns, first in France and then in Italy, are well supplied with this species. But the migratory influence affects, though in a less degree, many if not most of the redbreasts that remain with us. Every bird of the northern hemisphere is to a greater or less degree migratory in some part or other of its range. Want of food, and perhaps of the special, proper kind during the breeding season, seems to be the most obvious cause of migration, and none can wonder that those animals which possess the power of removing themselves from a place of scarcity should avail them- selves of it, while it is unquestionable that birds possess this faculty in the greatest degree. Even among those species which we com- monly speak of as sedentary it is only the adults which maintain their ground throughout the year. It has long been known that birds-of-prey customarily drive away their offspring from their own haunts so soon as the young are able to shift for themselves. The reason generally, and no doubt truly, given for this behaviour, which at first sight appears so unnatural, is the impossibility of both parents and progeny getting a livelihood in the same vicinity. The practice, however, is not limited to the birds-of-prey alone, but is much more universal. We find it to obtain with the red- breast, and if we watch our feathered neighbours closely we shall perceive that most of them indulge in it. The period of expulsion, it is true, is in some birds deferred from the end of summer or the autumn, in which it is usually performed, until the following spring, when indeed from the maturity of the young it must be regarded as much in the light of a voluntary secession on their part as in that of an act of parental compulsion, but the effect is ultimately the same. The mode in which the want of sustenance produces migration may best be illustrated by confining ourselves to the unquestion- ably migrant birds of our own northern hemisphere. As food grows scarce towards the end of summer in the most northern limits of the range of a species, the individuals affected thereby seek it elsewhere. Thus doing, they press upon the haunt of other in- dividuals: these in like manner upon that of yet others, and so on, until the movement which began in the far north is communicated to the individuals occupying the extreme southern range of the species at that season; though, but for such an intrusion, these last might be content to stay some time longer in the enjoyment of their existing quarters. This seems satisfactorily to explain the southward movement of all migrating birds in the northern hemisphere; but when we con- sider the return movement which takes place some six months later, doubt may be entertained whether scarcity of food can be assigned as its sole or sufficient cause, and perhaps it would be safest not to come to any decision on this point. On one side it may be urged that the more equatorial regions which in winter are crowded with emigrants from the north, though well fitted for the resort of so great a population at that season are deficient in certain neces- saries for the nursery. Nor does it seem too violent an assumption to suppose that even if such necessaries are not absolutely wanting, yet that the regions in question would not supply sufficient food for both parents and offspring — the latter being at the lowest computation twice as numerous as the former — unless the numbers of both were diminished by the casualties of travel. 1 But on the other hand we must remember what has above been advanced in regard to the pertinacity with which birds return to their accus- tomed breeding-places, and the force of this passionate fondness for the old home cannot but be taken into account, even if we do not allow that in it lies the whole stimulus to undertake the perilous voyage. A. R. Wallace in some remarks on the subject (Nature, x. 459) ingeniously suggests the manner in which the habit of migration has come to be adopted 2 : — " It appears to me probable that here, as in so many other cases, ' survival of the fittest ' will be found to have had a powerful influence. Let us suppose that in any species of migratory bird, breeding can as a rule be only safely accomplished in a given area; and further, that during a great part of the rest of the year sufficient food cannot be obtained in that area. It will follow that those birds which do not leave the breeding area at the proper season will suffer, and ultimately become extinct; which will also be the fate of those which do not leave the feeding area at the proper time. Now, if we suppose that the two areas were (for some remote ancestor of the existing species) coincident, but by geological and climatic changes gradually diverged from each other, we can easily under- stand how the habit of incipient and partial migration at the proper seasons would at last become hereditary, and so fixed as to be what we term an instinct. It will probably be found that every grada- tion still exists in various parts of the world, from a complete coincidence to a complete separation of the breeding and the sub- sistence areas; and when the natural history of a sufficient number of species is thoroughly worked out we may find every link between species which never leave a restricted area in which they breed and live the whole year round, to those other cases in which the two areas are absolutely separated." A few more particulars respecting migration are all that can here be given, and it is doubtful whether much can be built upon them. It has been ascertained by repeated observation that in the spring- movement of most species of the northern hemisphere the cock- birds are always in the van of the advancing army, and that they appear some days, or perhaps weeks, before the hens. It is not difficult to imagine that, in the course of a journey prolonged throughout some 50 or 6o° of latitude, the stronger individuals 1 If the relative proportion of land to water in the southern hemisphere were at all such as it is in the northern, we should no doubt find the birds of southern continents beginning to press upon the tropical and equatorial regions of the globe at the season when they were thronged with the emigrants from the north, and in such a case it would be only reasonable that the latter should be acted upon, by the force of the former, according to the explanation given of the southward movement of northern migrants. But, though we know almost nothing of the migration of birds of the other hemisphere, yet, when we regard the comparative deficiency of land in southern latitudes all round the world, it is obvious that the feathered population of such as nowadays exists can exert but little influence, and its effects may be practically disregarded. 2 In principle F. W. Hutton had already foreshadowed the same theory (Trans. New Zeal. Inst., 1872, p. 235). MIGRATION 435 should outstrip the weaker by a very perceptible distance, and it can hardly be doubted that in most species the males are stronger, as they are bigger than the females. Some observers assert that the same thing takes place in the return journey in autumn — Seebohm, for instance, says that, from Europe, first go the young, then the males, having finished their moult of autumn, and lastly the females — but on this point others are not so sure, which is not surprising when we consider that the majority of observations have been made towards what is the northern limit of the range of the Passeres, to which the remark is especially applicable — in the British islands, France, North Germany and the Russian empire — for it is plain that at the beginning of the journey any inequality in the speed of travelling will not have become so very manifest. There is also another matter to be noticed. It has been suspected that where there is any difference in the size of birds of the same species, particularly in the dimensions of their wings, the individuals that perform the most extensive journeys would be naturally those with the longest and broadest remiges, and in support of this view it certainly appears that in some of the smaller migrants — such as the wheatear (Saxicola oenanthe) and willow-wren (Phylloscopus trochilus) — the examples which reach the extreme north of Europe and there pass the summer possess greater mechanical powers of flight than those of the same species which stop short on the shores of the Mediterranean. It may perhaps be also inferred, though precise evidence is wanting, that these same individuals push further to the southward in winter than do those which are less favoured in this respect. It is pretty nearly certain that such is the case with some species, and it may well be so with individuals. H. B. Tris- tram has remarked (Ibis, 1865, p. 77) that, in many genera of birds, " those species which have the most extended northerly have also the most extended southerly range; and that those which resort to the highest latitudes for nidification also pass further than others to the southward in winter," fortifying his opinion by examples adduced from the genera Turdus, Fringilla, Cypselus and Turtur. For many years past a large number of persons in different countries have occupied and amused themselves by carefully registering the dates on which various migratory birds first make their appearance, and there is now an abundance of records so compiled. Still it does not seem that they have been able to determine what connexion, if any, exists between the arrival of birds and the weather; in most cases no corresponding observations have been made about the weather in the places whence the travel- lers are supposed to have come. As a rule it would seem as though birds were not dependent on the weather to any great degree. Occasionally the return of the swallow or the nightingale may be somewhat delayed, but most sea-fowls may be trusted, it is said, as the almanac itself. Foul weather or fair, heat or cold, the puffins (Fratercula arctica) repair to some of their stations punctu- ally on a given day as if their movements were regulated by clock- work. Whether they have come from far or from near we know not, but other birds certainly come from a great distance, and yet make their appearance with scarcely less exactness. Nor is the regularity with which certain species disappear much inferior; every observer knows how abundant the swift {Cypselus apus) is up to the time of its leaving its summer-home — in most parts of England, the first days of August — and how rarely it is seen after that time is past. It must be allowed, however, that, with few exceptions, the mass of statistics above spoken of has never been worked up and digested so as to allow proper inferences to be made from it, and there- fore it would be premature to say that little would come of it, but the result of those exceptions is not very encouraging. E. von Middendorff carefully collated the records of the arrival of migratory birds throughout the Russian Empire, but the insight into the question afforded by his published labours is not very great. His chief object has been to trace what he has termed the isepipteses (I°SS- Within its area of about 15 sq. m. are a large rural population and the village of Milford, on the Charles river, about 33 m. S.W. of Boston, served by the Boston & Albany, the New York, New Haven & Hartford and the Grafton & Upton railways (the last named having its passenger department operated by electricity and its freight by steam, and connecting Milford with North Grafton), and by inter-urban electric lines. The village has a memorial hall, housing the public library, and in the town- ship there is an excellent hospital, the gift of Eben. S. Draper. The village is a shipping point for an agricultural and manufac- turing district. In 1905 the value of the township's factory products was $3,390,504 (32-8% more than in 1900). The most important manufacture? ire boots and shoes; the industry was established in 1795, and for many years the special product was brogans for Southern negroes. In 1908 there were 12 large granite quarries in the township (north and north-east of the village). Milford granite is the typical stone of an area reaching into Rhode Island south of the southern boundary of Providence county; it is a biotite granite of post-Cambrian age, is generally pinkish-gray in colour (owing to the large proportion of feldspar among its constituents), and is widely used for building purposes. The township was the east precinct of Mendon until 1780, when it was incorporated; in 1835 parts of Holliston and Hopkinton were annexed; in 1886 a part was separated as Hopedale. See Adin Ballou, History of Milford (Boston, 1882); and T. Nelson Dale, The Chief Commercial Granites of Massachusetts, New Hampshire and Rhode Island (Washington, 1908), Bulletin 354 of the U.S. Geological Survey. MILFORD HAVEN, a market town, seaport, urban district and contributory parliamentary borough of Pembrokeshire, Wales, situated on the north shore of the celebrated harb.our of the same name. Pop. (1901), 5102, including the adjacent village of Hakin. Milford Haven is the terminus of a branch-line of the South Wales section of the Great Western railway. The town possesses a pier and important dock accommodation, inclu- ding a graving-dock 600 ft. long, and is the centre of a valuable and increasing fishing industry. The promenade of Hamilton Terrace commands a fine view of the broad expanse of the Haven with its various towns and forts. The present town of Milford Haven, originally a hamlet in the parish of Steynton, is of modern growth, and was first called into existence by the exertions of the Hon. R. F. Greville, nephew of Sir William Hamilton, who in 1790 laid out a town on this spot, the advantages of which as a convenient port for the Irish traffic he clearly recognized. In the opening years of the 19th century a royal dockyard was established here, but in 1814 dockyard and arsenal were removed to Paterchurch near Pem- broke. The growth of the town was further checked twenty years later by the development of Neyland, or New Milford, further east on the Haven, whither the Irish packet service was trans- ferred; but towards the close of the 19th century the town recovered much of its former prosperity. The importance of the place is wholly due to its excellent situation on the splendid land-locked harbour, which is here 2 m. broad. ' Milford Haven itself, designated by the Welsh Aberdaugleddau, as the estuary of the united East and West Cleddy rivers, has played an important part on several occasions in the course of history. Throughout Plantagenet times it formed the chief point of embarcation for Ireland. It was from Milford Haven that Henry II. set sail for the conquest of Ireland in 1172, and to this harbour he made his return journey. In 1399 Richard II. landed at Milford Haven from Ireland, shortly before his surrender to Henry of Lancaster, afterwards Henry IV., in whose reign a French fleet with 12,000 men on board sailed to the Haven and disembarked with the object of assisting the rebellion of Owen Glendower. In 1485 Henry, earl of Richmond, disem- barked here on his return from France, and was welcomed on landing by Sir Rhys ap Thomas and much of the chivalry of Wales. In 1588 the leading persons of Pembrokeshire, with Bishop Anthony Rudd of St David's at their head, petitioned Queen Elizabeth to fortify the Haven against the projected Spanish invasion, upon which the block-houses of Dale and Nangle at either side of the mouth of the harbour were accord- ingly erected. During the 19th century numerous forts have been constructed for the protection of the Haven and of the royal dockyard at Pembroke Dock. MILICZ, or Militsch (d. 1374), Bohemian divine, was the most influential among those preachers and writers in Moravia and Bohemia who, during the 14th century, in a certain sense paved the way for the reforming activity of Huss. The date of his birth is not known, but he was in holy orders in 1350, in 1360 was attached to the court of the emperor Charles IV., whom he accompanied into Germany in that year, and about the same time also held a canonry in the cathedral of Prague along with the dignity of archdeacon. About 1363 he resigned all his appointments that he might become a preacher pure and simple; he addressed scholars in Latin, and (an innovation) the laity in their native Czech, or in German, which he learnt for the purpose. He was conspicuous for his apostolic poverty and soon roused the enmity of the mendicant friars. The success of his labours made itself apparent in the way in which he transformed the notorious " Benatki " street of Prague into a benevolent institu- tion, " Jerusalem." As he viewed the evils inside and outside the church in the light of Scripture, the conviction grew in his mind that the " abomination of desolation " was now seen in the temple of God, and that antichrist had come, and in 1367 he went to Rome (where Urban V. was expected from Avignon) to expound these views. He affixed to the gate of St Peter's a placard announcing his sermon, but before he could deliver it was thrown into prison by the Inquisition. Urban, however, on his arrival, ordered his release, whereupon he returned to Prague, and from 1369 to 1372 preached daily in the Teyn Church there. In' the latter year the clergy of the diocese com- plained of him in twelve articles to the papal court at Avignon, whither he was summoned in Lent 1374, and where he died in the same year, not long after being declared innocent and authorized to preach before the assembly of cardinals. He was the author of a Libellus de Antichristo, written in prison at Rome, a series of Poslillae and Lectiones quadragesimales in Latin, and a similar series of Postils (devotional tracts) in Czech. See Count Liitzow, Life and Times of Master John Hus (1909), pp. 27-38. MILITARY FRONTIER (Ger. Militargrenze, Slav. Granitza), a narrow strip of Austrian-Hungarian territory stretching along the borders of Turkey, which had for centuries a peculiar military organization, and from 1849 to 1873 constituted a crown-land. As a separate division of the monarchy it owed its existence to the necessity of maintaining during the 16th and 17th centuries a strong line of defence against the invasions of the Turks, and may be said to have had its origin with the establishment of the captaincy of Zengg (a coast town about 35 m. south-east of Fiume) by Matthias Corvinus and the introduction of Uskoks (q.v.) into Croatia. By the close of the 17th century there were three frontier " generalates " — Carlstadt, Warasdin and Petrinia MILITARY LAW 445 or Petrinja (the last also called the Banal). After the defeat of the Turkish power by Prince Eugene it was proposed to abolish the military constitution of the frontier, but the change was successfully resisted by the inhabitants of the district; in fact a new Slavonian frontier district was established in 1702, and Maria Theresa extended the organization to the march-lands of Transylvania (the Szekler frontier in 1764, the Wallachian in 1766). 1 As a reward for the service it rendered the government in the suppression of the Hungarian insurrection in 1848, the Military Frontier was erected in 1849 into a crown-land, with a total area of 15,182 sq. m. and a population of 1,220,503. In 1851 the Transylvanian portion (1177 sq. m.) was incorporated with the rest of Transylvania; and in 1871 effect was given to the imperial decree of 1869 by which the districts of the Warasdin regiments (St George and the Cross) and the towns of Zengg, Belovar, Ivanic, &c, were " provincialized " or incorporated with the Croatian-Slavonian crown-land. In 1872 the Banat regiments followed suit; and in 1873 the old military organiza- tion was abolished in the rest of the frontier. Not till 1881, however, were the Croatian-Slavonian march-lands completely merged in the kingdoms to which they naturally belonged. The social aspect of the military frontier regime is interesting. The zadruga system of land tenure was artificially kept in exist- ence (see See. via). Watch-towers with wooden clappers and the beacons which flashed the alarm along the whole frontier in a few hours are still features in the landscape. MILITARY LAW, "the law which governs the soldier in peace and in war, at home and abroad. At all times and in all places the conduct of officers and soldiers as such is regulated by military law." The above is the definition as given in the opening chapter of the Manual of Military Law, which is issued under the authority of the English War Office, and which is the text- book used by all English courts martial. The definition is, however, somewhat too wide, as the British system does not exclude in time of peace the action of the civil courts. In time of peace all persons who belong to the military class in most European continental countries are judged by military law and by military courts. There is also in most continental countries an intermediate stage between war and peace, known as in itat de siege, which may be declared for a fixed period for a district, or even a city, by reason of domestic insurrection or the presence of an enemy. It requires legislative enactment. Thirdly comes a state of war, when the military authorities are supreme; and whilst they can call upon the civil power to act in concert with them, the military authority is final. This is a brief summary of the system of military law that prevails in most countries of the continent. The cardinal point of difference between the British and the continental systems lies in the fact that in the United Kingdom the soldier is not only a soldier, but a citizen also; and although he may be tried for civil offences by a military tribunal, the power is not exercised in all cases. Thus treason, treason- felony, murder, manslaughter, rape, are brought before a civil court in times of peace, if the offence is committed in the United Kingdom, or if it is committed anywhere else in the king's dominions, except Gibraltar, within a hundred miles from a place where the offender can be tried by a civil court. Minor civil offences, when not committed within military lines, or when the person affected by the offence is a civilian, or when it is a case for a jury, or where intricate questions of law may arise, may also be brought before a civil tribunal. But an offence, of whatever nature, committed on active service would be brought before a military tribunal. The military law of England in early times existed, like the 1 By 1848 the following had come to be the division of the Mili- tary Frontier: (1) The Carlstadt (Carlowatz), Warasdin and Banal Generalate; corresponding to the original three generalates. (2) The Slavonian Generalate; (district of Mitrovica). (3) The Banat Generalate; south and east of Temesvar, and (4) The Transylvanian Generalate. Twelve towns, known as " military communities," had communal constitutions not unlike those of the free towns of Hungary-Carlopago, Zengg, Petrinia, Kostajnica,. Belovar, Ivanic, Brod, Peterwardein, Carlowitz, Semlin, Pancsova and Weisskirchen. •forces to which it applied, in a period of war only. Troops were raised for a particular service, and were disbanded upon the cessation of hostilities. The crown, of its mere . prerogative, made laws known as Articles of War, LaWt for the government and discipline of the troops while thus embodied and serving. Except for the punishment of deser- tion, which offence was made a felony by statute in the reign of Henry VI., these ordinances or Articles of War remained almost the sole authority for the enforcement of discipline until 1689, when the first Mutiny Act was passed and the military forces of the crown were brought under the direct control of parliament. Even the Parliamentary forces in the time of Charles I. and Cromwell were governed, not by an act of the legislature, but by articles of war similar to those issued by the king and authorized by an ordinance of the Lords and Commons, exercising in that respect the sovereign prerogative. This power of law-making by prerogative was, however, held to be applicable during a state of actual war only, and attempts to exercise it in time of peace were ineffectual. Subject to this limitation it existed for con- siderably more than a century after the passing of the first Mutiny Act. From 1689 to 1803, although in peace time the Mutiny Act was occasionally suffered to expire, a statutory power was given to the crown to make Articles of War to operate in the colonies and elsewhere beyond the seas in the same manner as those made by prerogative operated in time of war. In 1715, in consequence of the rebellion, this power was created in respect of the forces in the kingdom. But these enactments were apart from and in no respect affected the principle acknowledged all this time— that the crown of its mere prerogative could make laws for the government of the army in foreign countries in time of war. The Mutiny Act of 1803 effected a great constitutional change in this respect: the, power of the crown to make any Articles of War became altogether statutory, and the prerogative merged in the act of parliament. So matters remained till the year 1879, when the last Mutiny Act was passed and the last Articles of War were promulgated. The Mutiny Act legislated for offences in respect of which death or penal servitude could be awarded, and the Articles of War, while repeating those provi- sions of the act, constituted the direct authority for dealing with offences for which imprisonment was the maximum punishment as well as with many matters relating to trial and procedure. The act and the articles were found not to harmonize in all respects. Their general arrangement was faulty, and their language sometimes obscure. In 1869 a royal commission recommended that both should be recast in a simple and intelli- gible shape. In 1878 a committee of the House of Commons endorsed this view and made certain recommendations as to the way in which the task should be performed. In 1879 the govern- ment submitted to parliament and passed into law a measure consolidating in one act both the Mutiny Act and the Articles of War, and amending their provisions in certain important respects. This measure was called the " Army Discipline and Regulation Act 1879." After one or two years' experience of its working it also was found capable of improvement, and was in its turn superseded by the Army Act 1881, which now forms the founda- tion and the main portion of the military law of England. It contains a proviso saving the right of the crown to make Articles of War, but in such a manner as to render the power in effect a nullity; for it enacts that no crime made punishable by the act shall be otherwise punishable by such articles. As the punish- ment of every conceivable offence is provided for by the act, any articles made thereunder can be no more than an empty formality having no practical effect. Thus the history of English military law up to 1879 may be divided into three periods, each having a distinct constitutional aspect: (1) that prior to 1689, when the army, being regarded as so many personal retainers of the sovereign rather than servants of the state, was mainly governed by the will of the sovereign; (2) that between 1689 and 1803, when the army, being recognized as a permanent force, was governed within the realm by statute and without it by the pre- rogative of the crown; and (3) that from 1803 to 1879, when it was governed either directly by statute or by the sovereign under 446 MILITARY LAW an authority derived from and denned and limited by statute. Although in 1879 the power of making Articles of War became in effect altogether inoperative, the sovereign was empowered to make rules of procedure, having the force of law, which regulate the administration of the act in many matters formerly dealt with by the Articles of War. These rules, however, must not be inconsistent with the provisions of the Army Act itself, and must be laid before parliament immediately after they are made. Thus in 1879 the government and discipline of the army became for the first time completely subject either to the direct action or the close supervision of parliament. A further notable change took place at the same time. The Mutiny Act had been brought into force on each occasion for one year only, in compliance with the constitutional theory that the maintenance of a standing army in time of peace, unless with the consent of parliament, is against law. Each session therefore the text of the act had to be passed through both Houses clause by clause and line by line. The Army Act, on the other hand, is a fixed permanent code. But constitutional traditions are fully respected by the insertion in it of a section providing that it shall come into force only by virtue of an annual act of parliament. This annual act recites the illegality of a standing army in time of peace unless with the consent of parlia- ment, and the necessity nevertheless of maintaining a certain number of land forces (exclusive of those serving in India) and a body of royal marine forces on shore, and of keeping them in exact discipline, and it brings into force the Army Act for one year. Military law is thus chiefly to be found in the Army Act and the rules of procedure made thereunder, the Militia Acts, the Reserve Forces Acts and the Volunteer Acts, together with certain acts relating to the yeomanry, the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act 1907, and various royal warrants and regulations. In the Army (Annual) Act 1906 important amendments were made to the Army Act for the purpose of preventing soldiers convicted of offences against discipline under the act, and not discharged with ignominy, being subjected to the stigma attach- ing to imprisonment. This was effected by creating a new pun- ishment, termed detention, the places in which soldiers undergo detention being termed detention barracks. The change, while principally one of nomenclature, removed an undoubted griev- ance. The Army Act itself is, however, the chief authority. Although the complaint has been sometimes made, and not without a certain amount of reason, that it does not accomplish much that it might in point of brevity, simplicity and clearness of expression, it is a very comprehensive piece of legislation, and shows some distinct improvements upon the old Mutiny Acts and Articles of War. When a person subject to military law commits an offence he is taken into military custody, which means either arrest in his own quarters or confinement. He must without unnecessary delay be brought before his commanding officer, who upon in- vestigating the case may dismiss the charge, if in his discretion he thinks it ought not to be proceeded with, or may take steps to bring the offender before a court martial. Where the offender is not an officer he may dispose of the case summarily, the limit of his power in this respect being seven days' imprisonment with hard labour, a fine not exceeding 10s. for drunkenness, certain deductions from pay, confinement to barracks for twenty-eight days, this involving severe extra drills, deprivations and other minor punishments. Where the offence is absence without leave for a period exceeding seven days, the commanding officer may award a day's imprisonment in respect of each day of such absence up to twenty-one. It is only in the case of the imprison- ment exceeding seven days that the evidence before the com- manding officer is taken on oath, and then only in the event of the accused so desiring it. The commanding officer is enjoined by regulation not to punish summarily the more serious kind of offences, but his legal jurisdiction in this respect is without limit as regards any soldier brought before him, and when he has dealt summarily with a case the accused is free from any other liability in respect of the offence thus disposed of. In any instance where the commanding officer has summarily awarded imprisonment, fine or deduction from pay, the accused may claim a district court martial instead of submitting to the award. Ordinary courts martial are of three kinds, viz. (1) a regimental court martial, usually convened and confirmed by the command- ing officer of the regiment or detachment, presided over by an officer not under the rank of captain, composed of at least three officers of the regiment or detachment with not less than one year's service, and having a maximum power of punishment of forty-two days' detention; (2) a district court martial, usually convened by a general officer having authority to do so, consis- ting of not less than three officers, each with not less than two years' service, and having a maximum power of punishment of two years' imprisonment; (3) a general court martial, the only tribunal having authority to try a commissioned officer, and with a power of punishment extending to death or penal servitude, for offences for which these penalties are authorized by statute; it consists of not less than nine officers in the United Kingdom, India, Malta and Gibraltar and of five elsewhere, each of whom must have had over three years' service, five being not under the rank of captain. There is another kind of tribunal, viz. a field general court martial. It is convened (1) by any officer in command of a detachment or portion of troops beyond the seas when not on active service, or by any officer in immediate com- mand of a body of forces on active service where it appears to him on complaint or otherwise that a person subject to military law has committed an offence. The officer must be satisfied that it is not practicable, with due regard to the public service, to try the person by an ordinary court martial. The quorum of the court is three, if consistent with military exigencies, and each member must have held a commission for not less than a year. The quorum may be reduced when the public service requires it. The procedure of ordinary courts martial is observed as far as possible, and the proceedings always should be in writing when possible. But in the circumstances in which these courts are assembled, it is not always possible to adhere to the technical rules which obtain in the ordinary tribunals, although the broad principles are not violated. The evidence on a field general court martial is taken on oath. The prisoner may cross-examine the witnesses for the prosecution, and may call any available witnesses for his defence. The prisoner is allowed to address the court in his own defence. The Army Act prescribes the maximum punishment which may be inflicted in respect of each offence. That of death is incurred by various acts of treachery or cowardice before the enemy, or by, when on active service, interfering with or impeding authority, leaving without orders a guard or post, or when sentry sleeping or being drunk on a post, plundering or committing an offence against the person or property of an inhabitant, intentionally causing false alarms, or deserting. Whether upon active service or not, a soldier also becomes liable to the. punishment of death who mutinies or incites to or joins in or connives at a mutiny, who uses or offers violence to or defiantly disobeys the lawful command of his superior officer when in the execution of his office. Penal servitude is the maximum punishment for various acts and irregularities upon active service not distinctly of a treacherous or wilfully injurious character, for using or offering violence or insubordinate language to a superior, or disobeying a lawful command when upon active service. The same punishment is applicable when not upon active service to a second offence of desertion or fraudulent enlistment (i.e. enlistment by one who already belongs to the service), certain embezzlements of public property, wilfully releasing without authority a prisoner or wilfully permitting a prisoner to escape, enlisting when previously discharged from the service with disgrace without disclosing the circumstances of such discharge, or any other offence which by the ordinary criminal law of England is punishable with penal servitude. Imprisonment for two years is the maximum punishment for minor forms and degrees of those offences which if committed upon active service would involve death or penal servitude, such as using or offering violence or insubordinate language to a superior or disobey- ing a lawful command, and for the following offences: resisting an escort, breaking out of barracks, neglect of orders, a first offence of desertion or attempted desertion or aiding or conniving at deser- tion, or of fraudulent enlistment, absence without leave, failure to appear at parade, going beyond prescribed bounds, absence from school, malingering or producing disease or infirmity, maiming with intent to render a soldier unfit for service, an act of a fraudulent nature, disgraceful conduct of a cruel, indecent or unnatural kind, drunkenness, releasing a prisoner without proper authority or MILITARY LAW 447 allowing him to escape, 'being concerned in the unreasonable deten- tion of a person awaiting trial, escaping or attempting to escape from lawful custody, conniving at exorbitant exactions, making away with, losing by neglect, or wilfully injuring military clothing or equipments, ill-treating a horse used in the service, making false or fraudulent representations in public documents, making a wilfully false accusation against an officer or soldier, making a false confession of desertion or fraudulent enlistment, or a false statement in respect of the prolongation of furlough, misconduct as a witness before a court martial or contempt of such court, giving false evidence on oath, any offence specified in relation to billeting or the impressment of carriages, making a false answer to a question put upon attesta- tion, being concerned in unlawful enlistment, using traitorous or disloyal words regarding the sovereign, disclosing any circumstance relating to the numbers, position, movements or other circumstances of any part of His Majesty's forces so as to produce effects injurious to His Majesty's service, fighting or being concerned in or conniving at a duel, attempting suicide, obstructing the civil authorities in the apprehension of any officer or soldier accused of an offence, any con- duct, disorder or neglect to the prejudice of good order and military discipline, any offence which if committed in England would be punishable by the law of England. There is another offence which can be committed by officers only, namely " scandalous conduct unbecoming the character of an officer and a gentleman." It necessitates cashiering, a punishment which in the case of an officer may be awarded as an alternative to imprisonment in several other instances. There is also an offence peculiar to officers and non- commissioned officers, that of striking or ill-treating a soldier or unlawfully detaining his pay. A sentence of cashiering as dis- tinguished from that of dismissal in the case of an officer involves an incapacity to serve the crown again. An officer may be also sentenced to forfeiture of seniority of rank and to reprimand or severe reprimand. A non-commissioned officer may be sentenced to be reduced to a lower grade or to the ranks, and where sentenced to penal servitude or imprisonment the tribunal also has power to deprive him of his seniority. The Army Council in England, or the commander-in-chief in India or in either of the presidencies, may also cause a non-commissioned officer to be reduced to a lower grade or to the ranks. An acting non-commissioned officer may be ordered by his commanding officer for an offence or for inefficiency or otherwise to revert to his permanent grade— in other words, to forfeit his acting rank. It will have been observed that persons subject to military law are liable to be tried by court martial for offences which if committed in England would be punishable by the ordinary law, and to suffer either the punishment prescribed by. the ordinary criminal law or that authorized for soldiers who commit offences to the prejudice of 'good order and military discipline. The effect of the latter alter- native is that for many minor offences for which a civilian is liable to a short term of imprisonment, or perhaps only to a fine, a soldier may be awarded two years' imprisonment or detention. A court martial, however, cannot take cognizance of the crimes of treason, murder, manslaughter, treason-felony or rape if committed in the United Kingdom. If one of these offences be committed in any place within His Majesty's dominions other than the United Kingdom or Gibraltar, a court martial can deal with it only if it be committed on active service or in a place more than ioo miles from a civil court having jurisdiction to try the offence. With regard to all civil offences the military law, it is to be understood, is subordinate to the ordinary law, and a civilian aggrieved by a soldier in respect of a criminal offence against his property or person does not forfeit his right to prosecute the soldier as if he were a civilian. The crimes for which soldiers are most usually tried are desertion, absence without leave, loss of necessaries, violence or insubordina- tion to superiors, drunkenness, and various forms of conduct to the prejudice of discipline. The punishments are, generally speaking, gauged as much with regard to the character and antecedents of the prisoner as to the particular offence. For a first offence of an ordinary kind a district court martial would give as a rule fifty-six days' imprisonment with hard labour, for a second or graver crime eighty-four days. There are not many instances in which the period of imprisonment exceeds six months. Corporal punishment, which had been practically limited to offences committed upon active service, and in 1879 to crimes punishable with death, was finally abolished in 1881, and a summary punishment substituted. The practice of marking a soldier with the letters " D " (deserter) or " BC " (bad character), in order to prevent his re-enlistment, was abolished in 1879 in deference to public opinion, which erroneously adopted the idea that the " marking " was effected by red-hot irons or in some other manner involving torture. Many military men regretted its abolition, and maintained that if the practice were still in force the army would not be tainted by the presence of many bad characters who find means of eluding the vigilance of the authorities and enlisting after previous discharge. The course of procedure in military trials is as follows. When a soldier is remanded by his commanding officer for trial by a district or general court martial, a copy of the charge, together with the statements of the witnesses for the prosecution (called the sum- mary of evidence), is furnished to him, and he is given proper oppor- tunity of preparing his defence, of communicating with his witnesses or legal adviser, and of procuring the attendance of his witnesses. Further, if he desires it, a list of the officers appointed to form the court shall be given him. Any officer is disqualified to sit as a member who has convened the court, who is the prosecutor or a witness for the prosecution, who has made the preliminary inquiry into the facts, who is the prisoner's commanding officer, or who has a personal interest in the case. The prisoner may also object to any officer on the ground of bias or prejudice, similarly as a civilian might challenge a juror. Except as regards the delay caused by the writing out of the evidence, the procedure at a court martial is very much the same as that at an ordinary criminal trial — the examination and cross-examination of the witnesses, addresses of the prosecutor and prisoner, and the rules governing the admission or rejection of evidence being nearly identical. At a general court martial, and sometimes at a district court, a judge advocate repre- senting the judge advocate general officiates, his functions being very much those of a legal assessor to the court. He advises upon all points of law, and sums up the evidence just as a judge charges a jury. When the prisoner pleads guilty the court finds a verdict accordingly, reads the summary of evidence, hears any statement in mitigation of punishment, and takes evidence as to character before proceeding to pass sentence. The sentence is that of the majority of the court, except where death is awarded, when two- thirds of the members in the case of a general court martial and the whole in that of a field general court martial must concur. When an acquittal upon all the charges takes place the verdict is announced in open court, and the prisoner is released without any further proceeding. When the finding is " guilty," evidence as to character is taken, and the court deliberates in private upon the sentence, but the result is not made known until the proceedings are confirmed and promulgated. No conviction or sentence has any effect until it is thus confirmed by the proper authority. The confirming authority in the case of a regimental court is the commanding officer, in that of a district court martial an officer authorized to convene general courts martial or some officers deriving authority to confirm the findings and sentences of district courts martial, and in that of a general court, if held in the United Kingdom, His Majesty, and if abroad in most cases the general officer commanding. The con- firming authority may order the reassembling of the court in order that any question or irregularity may be revised and corrected, but not for the purpose of increasing a sentence. He may, however, of his own discretion and without further reference to the court, refuse confirmation to the whole or any portion of the finding or sentence, and he may mitigate, commute or entirely remit the punish- ment. In the case of a general court martial the proceedings are sent to the judge advocate general, who submits to the sovereign his opinion as to the legality of the trial and sentence. If they are legal in all respects he sends the proceedings to the Army Council, upon whom rests the duty of advising the sovereign regarding the exercise of clemency. In addition to confirmation, however, every general or district court martial held out of India has another ordeal to go through. It is reviewed and examined in the office of the judge advocate general, and any illegality that may be disclosed is cor- rected and the prisoner is relieved of the consequences. To a certain extent a protection against illegality also exists in the case of regi- mental courts martial. A monthly return of those held in each regiment is laid before the general commanding, by whom any ques- tion that might appear to him doubtful would be referred to the adjutant general or the judge advocate general for decision. It is to be noted, however, that the judge advocate general, although fulfilling duties which are in their nature judicial, is only an adviser. He is not actually a judge in an executive sense, and has no authority directly to interfere with or correct an illegal conviction. In many cases the law thus provides no remedy for an officer or soldier who may have been wronged by the finding or sentence of a court martial — for instance, through a verdict not justified by the evidence or through a non-observance of the rules and practice prescribed for these tribunals. A person who has suffered injustice may appeal to the king's bench division of the high court of justice. But, speaking generally, that tribunal would not interfere with a court martial exercising its jurisdiction within the law as regards the pri- soner, the crime and the sentence. In most cases, therefore, the virtual protector of an accused person against illegality is the judge advocate general, who personally advises the sovereign and the military authorities that the law shall be complied with (see Judge Advocate General). The Army Act applies to European officers and soldiers serving in India in the same manner as to the rest of the army, but natives of India are governed by their own Articles of War, and in the case of civil offences they are dealt with according to the provisions of the Indian penal code. There are judge advocates general for each of the presidencies, and a deputy judge advocate at each of the more important military centres. Important changes were made in the system of courts of inquiry by an Army Order of the 10th of February 1902. A court of inquiry is and has been an assembly of officers di- rected by a commanding officer to collect evidence and report with respect to a transaction into which he cannot conveniently 44 8 MILITARY LAW himself make inquiry. But now, whenever any inquiry affects the character or military reputation of an officer or soldier, full opportunity must be given him of being ^"T° f P resent at the inquiry and of giving any evidence oqury. ^ making any statement, or cross-examining adverse witnesses, or producing witnesses, on his own behalf. Evidence may now be ordered to be taken on oath if the assembling officer thinks the case requires it. No proceedings of a court of inquiry, no confession, statement or answer, is admissible in a court martial. But an officer or soldier tried by court martial in respect of matter which has been the subject of a court of inquiry is entitled, to a copy of the proceedings on payment of the cost of the copy. The finding and sentence are only valid after confirmation by the proper military authority. A sentence of death or penal servitude can only be confirmed by the general or field officer in command of the forces with which the prisoner is present. The rule which allows the prisoner and his wife to tender their evi- dence on oath under the Criminal Evidence Act 1898 as regards evidence is applicable to field general courts martial. It is use- ful to note that the Army Act, sec. 70, enables His Majesty to make new provisions under the hand of a secretary of state for, amongst other things, the assembly and the procedure of courts of inquiry. The power to make changes by Army Order or rule is only limited by the principle that the rules must not be contrary to or inconsistent with the act. In an authoritative report published by the Norwegian government, and compiled by a trained Norwegian lawyer who visited the various countries, the systems of twenty- Coatiaeatal ty/0 states are reviewed. The earliest military law la^* sti11 in force is found in Norwa y and Denmark, and dates from 1683, while England and Sweden date from 1881. Sweden has a military penal code, and England is ruled by the Army Act. There are two kinds of military courts of first instance: (1) those belonging to separate military bodies, such as divisions, brigades, regiments; (2) those having jurisdiction in a certain territory, and their seat determined. In times of war the courts must follow the military bodies. In Bavaria and Switzerland a military jury is attached to a court martial. In several states " auditors," i.e. judicial guides, are attached to courts martial. In some a military jurisconsult (lawyer) is attached as judge, always a fixed post. This obtains in Sweden, Finland, Austria-Hungary, Switzerland and Portugal. In Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Belgium, Great Britain, Germany, Austria, United States, Spain, Wurttemberg and Switzerland the presiding officer is chosen for the single trial. In other states the military judges are appointed for a certain term, usually six months. The quorum of judges required on military courts on the continent differs. Seven judges sit in Belgium, Holland, France, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Turkey and Wurttemberg; three only, in cases of ordinary offences com- mitted by non-commissioned officers and soldiers in Switzerland, Russia, the United Kingdom, United States and Bavaria. In grave cases in the United Kingdom five to nine sit, nine in Russia, five to thirteen in the United States. In Norway and Denmark the court is of thirteen up to twenty-five, unless replaced by a commission and a military lawyer. In Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, and Bavaria and other places in Germany, special summary courts martial are Summary held when necessary. Certain forms and legal Courts guarantees are then dispensed with. Such are held Martial j n Belgium and Holland " in a town or place in state of siege." La Privdte is a special court of a judge assisted by a registrar, for vagabonds, servants, sutlers, and with a very limited competence over soldiers who have committed a petty offence, held in time of war in France, Rumania and Greece. The United Kingdom has a summary court martial when the regular court martial cannot be held without injuring the military service. In the United States there are the "field officers' court martial " and " military commission," consisting of three officers. The second is for judging spies and some other matters that escape the jurisdiction of the regular courts martial. A special military tribunal in Germany judges the officials attached to the army. Courts of honour exist in Russia, Germany, Bavaria, Wurttemberg, Austria-Hungary and Spain. Great Britain and the United States have the system of a " court of inquiry." This was only a commission of inquiry, but it is now public, the accused is present, and the witnesses are sworn. Soldiers not on active service, says the Swedish report, should be answerable for infractions of common law under the jurisdiction of the civil courts. All infractions of military order or discipline committed by soldiers, ^^Stev* whether on active service or no, should be judged by courts. military courts. In time of war, it is equally ad- mitted, military courts must judge all offences, even offences at common law, committed by soldiers forming part of an army on campaign. The difference lies in regard to offences committed in time of peace. Sweden, Great Britain, France, Italy and the United States, as a general rule, place offences against the common law (infractions de droit commun) in time of peace under the jurisdiction of the civil courts. In the United States offences against good order, in Great Britain personal offences (such as drunkenness), are judged by courts martial. In most other states the general rule is that soldiers, even in time of peace, if on actual service are judged by courts martial. In the case of complicity between a soldier and a civilian, sometimes one is judged by a military and the other by a civil court (in Germany, Switzerland and Spain), sometimes both by a military court (Belgium, Italy, Servia, Rumania and Greece); sometimes it depends on the nature of the crime — in the United Kingdom, United States, Sweden, Finland, Holland and Portugal. In Norway a mixed tribunal judges them. The procedure in military courts differs according to the countries. In some systems (a) the examination and preparation of evidence are confided to a juge d' instruction ; (6) in other systems j^^ they are confided to a special commission of inquiry; (c) again, in other places they are left to the court martial itself that will judge the case. The United Kingdom and the United States follow the last plan. There is no preparatory examination in these two countries. A commission of inquiry for the preparation of evidence is held in Norway, Denmark, Germany, Wurttemberg, Austria-Hungary, Servia, Belgium and Holland. An auditor directs these courts of inquiry. In Russia an officer acts as juge d' instruction; in grave cases he must be a military jurisconsult. In Italy, Spain, Rumania, Greece and Turkey an officer acts as juge d 'instruction. The proceedings before a court martial are usually public, except in the case of matters that offend morality, compromise public order, or where publicity is considered injurious to the PabBcUy. interests of the service (cases of discipline, disclosing plans, &c.). This does not apply (except in Great Britain and the United States) to the proceedings before the courts charged with preliminary investigation. In several states, i.e. Norway, Denmark, Holland, Austria, Servia, Germany and Wurttemberg, the public prosecutor is also the counsel of the accused. The auditor who directs the court of inquiry fills these offices (except in cases of small importance in Germany and Wurttemberg). In other states there is a special office of public prosecutor. In Spain, Portugal, Rumania, Greece and Turkey he is an officer. In Russia, Belgium, Bavaria, Switzerland and Italy he is a military lawyer. In these countries the accused has the right to choose a counsel, or one is assigned him. In the United Kingdom and the United States, when the matter is grave, the direction of the case is put in the hands of a judge advocate. In the United States the judge advocate is the public prosecutor. There is no superior tribunal to which to appeal in Denmark, Great Britain and the United States. In Denmark the cases are sent to the auditor-general, who can annul if there is , . error in form, and send back the case to be tried anew. C%f? na ^ In Great Britain and the United States judgment in i owe a a ad ordinary cases must be confirmed by the commanding tow i, om , officer by whose order the court was called. He can lighten the sentence. In certain cases of great gravity it must go to the head of the state, after passing the revision of the judge advocate general, who in Great Britain is the constitutional adviser of the crown as regards courts martial from the view of legality. There is also in these two countries a special revision of judgments in the judge advocate general's office. This revisional power is the safeguard of military justice, as all decisions are reviewed, and if any illegality is pointed out the proceedings are consequently I quashed. The effect of this disapproval is not merely to annul the MILITIA 449 proceedings, but it also prevents the accruing of any disability or forfeiture. The British judge advocate's office has been much strengthened. It now consists of: (i) The judge advocate general (one of H.M. judges) ; (2) a deputy judge advocate general, who is a trained lawyer; (3) a deputy judge advocate, also a trained lawyer; (4) a military officer of the rank of colonel who has been called to the bar; (5) in South Africa (since 1899, and on a five-years' appointment from 1902) a colonel who has been called to the bar. In Germany there is no appeal, except for officials attached to the army. In Austria-Hungary the sentence can be lightened by the commanding officer. It can also be returned for trial by a superior court if it appears to him too light. In Spain all judgments have to be confirmed, and if confirmation is refused, it is carried before the supreme court of the navy and army. The condemned has no power of appeal himself, but all cases of death or life sentences go before the supreme court of the navy and army. Russia only requires the con- firmation of the commanding officer. In Rumania and Greece all condemned prisoners in time of peace can demand a court of revision, composed of a general and four superior officers. In time of war the court may be composed of three. Certain forms of punishment, in all countries but the United States, can be given by the superior officer, without judicial intervention, for small purely military offences, where a summary DiscjpUaaty procedure is required. The offender, if he prefers, may Punish- k e carr ; ec i before court-martial. The punishment is men s * immediately carried into force, but the person punished can complain to higher military authority. In that case, if the complaint is not admitted, the punishment is enhanced. The com- monest of these disciplinary punishments are deprivation of liberty, confined to barracks, arrests and prison. Certain special punish- ments obtain in certain countries — for instance, imprisonment in Turkey may be accompanied by a bread-and-water diet ; and officers in Finland and Russia may be deprived of advancement. In 1908 France took steps to abolish courts-martial in time of peace, all common law offences to be judged by the ordinary courts, and breaches of military discipline such as rebellion, insubordination, desertion and the like by mixed courts composed of civil and military magistrates. See Clode, Military Forces of the Crown; T. Gram, Fonctionnement de Injustice militaire dans les differents £tats de V Europe. (Jno. S.) MILITIA (Fr. milice, Ger. Miliz, from Lat. miles, soldier, ■ militia, military service), a term used generally for organized military forces which are not professional in character and not permanently embodied. All ancient armies, with the exception of the personal guards of their leaders, were militias or national levies, remaining under arms for the war or the campaign and returning to their ordinary occupations at the close of each military episode. Militias such as those of the Greek city-states and that of Rome were of course highly trained to the use of arms; so were the barbarian " nations in arms "; which overcame the professionalized Roman armies of the Empire; and although in the Eastern Empire these new fighting elements were absorbed into a fully organized regular arm, in the West the tribal militia system gradually developed into feudalism. The noble and the knight indeed spent the greater part of their lives in the field and devoted themselves from their youth to the cult of arms, but the feudal tenantry, who were bound to give forty days' war service and no more, and the burghers who, somewhat later in the history of civilization, formed the efficient garrisons of the walled towns were true militias. The English Yeomanry indeed almost ruled the battlefield. In the 15th century the introduction of firearms began to weigh down the balance in favour of the professional soldier. Artillery was always the arm of the specialist. The develop- ment of infantry, " fire-power," with the early arquebus and musket, called for the highest skill and steadiness in the individual soldier, and cavalry too adopted the new weapon in the form of long and expensive wheel-lock pistols. In the new military organization there was no place for the unprofessional soldier. The r61e of the unprofessional combatant, generally speaking, was that of an insurgent — harassing small detachments of the enemy, cutting off stragglers, and plundering convoys. Towards the end of the first civil war in England (1645) the country-folk banded themselves together to impose a peace on the two warring armies, but their menace was without effect, and they were easily disarmed by Fairfax and Cromwell, who did not even trouble to hold them as prisoners. The calling out of the arriere ban of Franche-Comte in 1675 displayed its ludicrous inefficiency, and thereafter in France, which set the fashion to *vm. 1? Europe in all military matters, the " provincial militia," which Louvois and Barbezieux raised in place of the discredited arriere ban, was employed partly to find drafts for and partly to augment the regular army. When a first line army was large enough to absorb the fighting strength of the country there was neither room nor need for a true militia force. This was the case with France under Napoleon's regime, but things were different elsewhere. In Great Britain the county militia (whose special history is briefly sketched below) was permanently embodied during the greater part of the Napoleonic Wars. Destitute as it was of technical and administrative services, of higher staffs and organization, and even of cavalry, this militia was a regular army in all but name. Combining continuous service with territorial recruiting as it did, it consisted of men of a better stamp than the casually recruited regular forces. In those days, the militia was a county force commanded by the lords- lieutenant and officered by men of influence; it was not administered by the War Office. In other countries, Napoleon's invading armies had only to deal with regular or professional troops. Once these were crushed, nothing remained for the beaten side but to make peace with the conqueror on such terms as could be obtained. Militias existed in name as organizations, for the production of more or less unwilling drafts for the line, but the fundamental militia obligation of defending the fatherland as distinct from defending the slate, produced only local and occasional outbursts of guerrilla warfare. In the Crimean War, the 1859 war in Italy, the 1866 war in Germany, and other wars (the Hungarian War of 1848-49 excepted) the forces, other than the regular troops, engaged in first line were guerrilleros, insurgents, Garibaldians, &c, and behind the forces in first line there were draft-supplying agencies, but no true militia. Only the British militia and the Prussian landwehr represented the self-contained army of second line, and of these the former was never put to the test, while the latter, responding feebly to a political call to arms in 1850, was in consequence so entirely reorganized that it formed a mere rear rank to the line troops. This latter system, consecrated by the German successes of 1870, became the universal model for the continent of Europe, and organized and self-contained militias to-day are only to be found in states maintaining first line armies of " general service " professionals, or in states which maintain .no first line troops whatever. In the first class are the auxiliary forces of the British Empire and the United States, in the second the Swiss, Norwegian, Dutch and Swedish forces. Militia of the United Kingdom The title of " militia " disappeared from the list of the British forces in 1908, on the conversion of the existing self-contained militia into an army " special reserve " which is restricted to the rdle of providing drafts for the first line. 1 The " self-contained" second line army of the present day is the Territorial Force (see United Kingdom: Army). The county organization of England, with which throughout the militia was closely associated, began with the advent of the Saxons. The prototype of the militia was the Fyrd. In this force as reorganized by Alfred liability of service was general on the part of every able-bodied male between the ages of 16 and 60. Although the title of " The Fyrd " survived until long after the Norman Con- quest, the force established by King Alfred was known as the general levy, which was bound to appear armed when ordered to aid in sup- pressing domestic riots as well as in defending the realm against invasion by foreign foes. Service was restricted to the counties, except in case of invasion, when it was extended to the whole kingdom. _ For centuries these remained with little alteration as the principles governing the national forces ot the kingdom, and form in effect with certain developments the basis of the modern militia system. The Norman Conquest was immediately followed by the introduction of the feudal levy in addition to the general levy, the distinction between these forces being that while obligation to serve in the latter rested upon every male within certain limits of 1 Various dominions and colonies of the British Empire have militias, for which see United Kingdom: Army. For the Swiss Militia System, which is in many respects the archetype of modern militias, see Switzerland; and for the organized militia of the United States see United States. 11 45° MILITIA age, service in the feudal levy depended upon tenure of land under the king as feudal lord. The general levy was not in any case liable for service overseas, but the king for a long time employed his feudal tenants in continental wars until they too, successfully resisted the demand. Personal service formed the basis of both levies, but service by deputy, or payment in lieu ot personal service, and the calling out of a quota only, were allowed rom very early times. The feudal levy was discontinued during the Commonwealth and abolished at the Restoration; but liability to serve in the general levy has never been extinguished, but remains in the statutory and practical form of liability to serve both in the general and local militia. Even at the abolition of these forces the statutory liability to service in them was not done away with. Inspections of arms and the assembly and training of the men raised under this national system were secured from time to time by means of " assizes of arms," " views of armour," " commissions of array," and " com- missions of musters," dating from early in the 12th century down to the 1 6th century. The machinery employed to carry out the law formed the basis of the existing procedure for the enforcement of the ballot for the militia, which thus bears a strong resemblance to the means adopted from ancient times. These constitutional powers were frequently abused by " electing " or impressing men to serve out of the kingdom, but this was checked in the year 1327 by an Act of Parliament, which strictly regulated the scope and limits of military service within the kingdom at the charge of the parishes or counties, but provided for service abroad at the charge of the Crown. " Commissions of musters " were a development of preceding measures for raising men and material for military service, under which the commissioners registered and mustered persons liable to serve, sorted them into bands and trained and exercised them at the charge of the county. These bands became known as train or trained bands, and were mustered annually. With them 'were asso- ciated lieutenants of counties, first appointed in 1549 by Edward VI., subsequently in Queen Mary's reign called lords lieutenant, and after the Restoration appointed as statutory officers for the militia, their commissions at the present day being issued under the Militia Act. There does not appear to have been any clearly defined regimental organization in existence until these bands or companies were called into active service, but the Acts of the Commonwealth supplied this defect, and initiated a permanent regimental system. One of the earliest attempts to reform the force since the time of King Alfred was made by Charles I. in 1629, when Orders in Council were issued instructing lords lieutenant to put the militia on a better footing and to fill up vacancies among the officers. Cromwell subsequently issued similar orders couched in strong terms, though under the Commonwealth the duties of lords lieutenant were not recognized, the militia being raised by commissioners. The great services rendered by the militia in the " crowning mercy " of Wor- cester are a historic exception to the general decadence of second line troops in the 17th and 18th centuries (see Great Rebellion). At the Restoration an act was passed declaring that the control of the militia was the prerogative of the king. By the same statute the militia of each county was placed under the lieutenant, who was vested with the appointment of officers, but with a reservation to the Crown in the way of commissioning and dismissal. The cost of the annual training — for fourteen days — fell upon the local authority. Offences against discipline were dealt with by the civil magistrates, but with a power to the officers of fining and of imprisoning in de- fault. Upon this footing the militia of England remained for nearly a century with the general approval of the community. It was recognized as an instrument for defence and for the preservation of internal order, while it was especially popular from the circumstance that from its constitution and organization the Crown could not use it as a means of violating the constitution or abridging the liberty of the subject. It was controlled and regulated in the county ; it was officered by the landowners and their relatives, its ranks were filled by men not depending for their subsistence or advancement upon the favour of the Crown; its numbers and maintenance were beyond the royal control; its government was by statute. While the supreme command was distinctly vested in the Crown, every practical security was thus taken against its use by the Crown for any object not constitutional or legitimate. It was regarded as, and was, in fact, the army of the state as distinguished from the standing army, which was very much the army of the king personally. The latter consisted of hired soldiers, and was more than once recruited by a conscription, confined, however, to persons of the vagrant class not having a lawful employment, while the former was mainly composed of those having a fixed abode and status. The militia thus enjoyed for many years as compared with the regular forces a social as well as a constitutional superiority. To this, however, along with the general breakdown of militia systems under the new " professional " conditions of warfare, explained above, and perhaps the practice of trying military offences by civil courts, may be attributed the disrepute into which the militia fell and the inefficiency it displayed, with the exception of the trained bands of London, until it was reorganized in 1757. Under the act of 1662 all train bands were discontinued in the counties, but those of Lon- don, with their auxiliaries, remained until 1794, when they were reorganized as the City of London Militia. In 1688 an act was passed raising the militia for one year, and for some time it was an annually sanctioned force as the regular army is to-day. In 1690, on the occasion of the threatened French invasion, the militia was embodied; and again in 17 15 and 1745 during the troubles caused by the Old and Young Pretenders. In a pamphlet of 1712 the Eng- lish militia was estimated at 7450 horse and 84,391 foot soldiers. From 17 15 until 1734, and again from that year until 1757, with the exception of 1745, no votes were taken in parliament for the militia. The foregoing .emarks apply only to the English militia and its predecessors. Ireland and Scotland did not furnish any regular militia until 1715 and 1797 respectively, although in Scotland militia existed long before 1797, e.g. in Perthshire in 1684; and in addition corps of fencibles were raised and embodied. The Irish militia when first raised in 1715 was restricted to Protestants between the ages of 16 and 60, who were bound to appear or provide substi- tutes. The force was not made subject to military law, but various military offences were punishable by fine or imprisonment. Several amendments and other acts followed until 1793, when a new act was passed providing for raising a force of militia by ballot among men between the ages of 18 and 45, to serve for four years. Each county was liable to a fine of £5 for each man deficient, and enlist- ment in the army was prohibited. Other amendments followed from time to time, and notably one in 1797 abolishing religious restrictions for the supplementary militia, and another in 1802 removing the same restrictions in the case of the general militia. Finally, all the acts were consolidated in 1809 by an act which fixed establishments, provided for raising the men by ballot, but gave power to the lord-lieutenant to authorize voluntary enlist- ment by means of bounties, and also to suspend the raising of any regiment. The Scottish militia was at first raised by ballot among men between the ages of 19 and 30. In 1802 former acts were re- placed by an Act providing for the organization of the militia on a basis similar to that on which the militia of England was organized by the Consolidation Act passed in that year. To return to England, the immediate cause of the organic reform carried out in 1757 was the disclosure of the inefficiency of the militia during the Rebellion of 1745. The act of 1662 followed the old law by requiring owners of property to furnish men, horses and arms in proportion to the value of their property, and the liability of persons of small property was to be discharged out of a rate levied in the parish. This was entirely altered in 1757, a liability on the part of the county or parish being substituted for a liability on the part of individuals. Each county was required to furnish a quota apportioned among the various parishes; men were to be chosen by lot to serve for three years (this being the first provision of a fixed term of service) or to provide, or pay £10 for the provision of, a substitute, and vacancies were to be filled from time to time by a like process of ballot. The ages of liability were from 18 to 45. The system thus legalized is practically the existing though sus- pended ballot system. The force was to be annually trained and exer- cised for a limited period, and in case of invasion or danger thereof, or in case of rebellion, the Crown could order it or any portion of it to be embodied; but only on condition of informing parliament (which was if not sitting to be summoned for the purpose). During the embodiment or annual training it was subject to the Mutiny Act, except that no punishment during training was to extend to " life or limb "; to prevent an unconstitutional use of the militia by the Crown, the estimate for its training was framed each year, not by an executive minister of the sovereign, but by the House of Commons itself. Upon the initiative of a committee of the house, an act was passed providing for the pay and clothing of the militia for the year. The king directly appointed the permanent staff and was given a veto on the appointment and promotion of the offi- cers, who were to have a property qualification. Under this act 30,000 militiamen were raised by ballot and em- bodied from 1759 to 1763. This force was exclusively " Protestant," and remained so until 1802. The service of the militia as thus arranged remained nearly in the same state until 1870. Pitt's reform, however, was followed by numerous amendments, new enactments, and other changes, of which the following is a summary in chronological order: — 1758. Men volunteering to serve recognized as counting towards the quota. 1 761. Raising of quota made compulsory on counties under penalty of fines. Mutiny Act applied to militia when out for training as well as when embodied. : 775- (American War.) Act passed empowering embodiment of militia in case of colonial as well as domestic rebellion. 1786. Charge on parishes for storage of arms, &c, transferred to counties. 1795. Enlistment into regulars encouraged. 1796. Supplementary militia formed, consisting of 63,878 men. 1798. (Irish Rebellion.) English militia volunteered for service in Ireland. 1799. Irish militia volunteered to serve in Great Britain. 15,000 militiamen volunteered to regular army. 1803. 45,492 men raised for militia by ballot, but of these 40,998 were substitutes. 1805. Militia affiliated to line for purposes of recruiting for regulars. MILK 45i 1806. Training Act to raise by ballot 200,000 men to be trained for one whole year, and then to discharge them from train- ing for two years. 1808. Difficulties having arisen under above Act, local militia (which is in effect the old general levy) established in addi- tion to general militia then embodied. 27,000 militiamen volunteered to regular army during pre- ceding twelve months. 181 1. English militia, hitherto not liable to serve out of the king- dom, now made liable to serve in any part of the United Kingdom under certain restrictions, which were subse- quently (in 1859) removed. Method of obtaining men from militia for regulars further systematized. 1812. In this year there were 250 regiments of local militia, with an establishment of 240,388 men and 214,418 actually enrolled. 1813. During ten years, from 1803 to 1813, nearly 100,000 militia- men joined the regular army. Act passed to enable militia to serve abroad as militia with their own officers. Three strong battalions joined the British army in France. 1815. Militiamen recruited in great numbers the army which fought at Waterloo. Local militia ceased to be raised. 1816. Local militia and Ballot Act suspended. General militia disembodied. 1820-21-25. Militia called out for training. 1829. Act passed suspending ballot for the general militia. 1831. Militiamen raised by ballot in accordance with Order in Council, 27th of December 1830. This was the last occa- sion on which the ballot was put in force. In the latter stages of the great French war the tendency of the government was to use the general militia rather as a reservoir producing drafts (in the end whole units) for service abroad, and the local militia as the real defensive force. During the height of the war (in 1812) the relative position of the various branches of the army was as follows: First line, the standing army; second line, the general or regular militia, which as the war went on were more and more used abroad; third line, the local militia, with the survivors of the volunteers, who at that time numbered about 68,000 men. After the peace of 181 5 the militia was allowed practically to fall into abeyance, and although the permanent staff was maintained, it had no duties to perform. In 1848 the Prime Minister intimated in parliament his intention to re-establish the militia, but it was not until 1852, after an unsuccessful attempt to resuscitate the local militia, that the general militia of England was reorganized under a system of voluntary enlistment with the ballot in reserve, Scotland and Ireland being included in 1854. The property qualification of officers which had hitherto existed (with exception in favour of ex-officers of the army and navy) was reduced, and after a further reduction in 1854, abolished in 1869. Larger powers respecting the militia were conferred upon the Crown, and during the Crimean War the queen was authorized to embody the militia whenever a state of war existed with any foreign power. In that war the militia was embodied and did garrison duty not only in the United Kingdom but in the Mediterranean garrisons, thus enabling the authorities to send most of the available regular troops to the scene of hostilities. It further contributed many officers and some 30,000 men to the line. During the Indian Mutiny it filled scarcely less useful functions when again called out. The acceptance of voluntary offers of service in the Channel Islands and Isle of Man was definitely authorized in 1859, and extended to service in Malta and Gibraltar in 1875. In 1871 an important constitutional change was made. It was part of the new army system inaugurated in that year that the con- trol of the militia should be removed from the lord-lieutenant of the county and vested wholly in the Crown. It now virtually ceased to exist as a distinct body, and in 1 88 1 it became a part of the regular forces with a limitation as to the time and area and other conditions of service. Militia battalions were united with the line battalions to form territorial regiments, the artillery and engineers being also closely associated with the regular services. Various amendments and new enactments followed, all in the direction of increasing the usefulness of the militia, rendering it more efficient and readier for service, though at the same time making it more and more a means for supplying recruits, both officers and men, to the regular army. The officers, who were commissioned by the Crown, were in 1877 made subject at all times to military law. Non-commissioned officers and men were only so subject when embodied or out for training, with extension in the case of men convicted of offences committed during training until the expiration of the punishment. 1 Enlistment was voluntary, compulsory service by ballot remained 1 This, though here mentioned as part of a process of " regular- izing " the militia, was in fact a reform that was advisable under any conditions. The new Territorial Force when created out of the Volunteer Force (which had no such liabilities except when training or serving with regulars) was made subject to military law, officers at all times, men whenever under instruction. legal, but suspended. The period of engagement was for six years, re-engagements for periods of four years up to the age of 45 being permitted. Bounties were paid to militiamen at various rates upon enlistment, conclusion of training, re-engagement, enlist- ment into reserve or special service section, and other special circumstances. Recruit training, maximum six months, as a rule did not exceed three months. Recruits were either drilled immedi- ately upon enlistment at any time of the year, which is now the most usual system, or else at preliminary drills (first instituted in i860), immediately preceding the annual training of the corps. The annual training varied with the different branches of the service. The usual term for infantry was 27 days, but when on manoeuvres this was generally extended to 34 days, 56 days being the legal maximum. Artillery and fortress engineers trained for 41 days and submarine mining engineers for 55 days. Trainings took place for the most part in camp or barracks, and large numbers of militia battalions were latterly called on to take part in field manoeuvres. The militia depdts occupied as a rule the same barracks, and officers and men wore (with slight distinctions) the same uniform as the regulars. The militia occupied an- important position in the mobilization scheme for national defence. The permanent staff (adjutant, quartermaster, and an establishment of non-commissioned officers and buglers or drummers, all regulars) was engaged during the non-training period of the year in recruiting, care of arms, clothing &c, and in drilling recruits. The general lines of the system, as regards training are still followed with the Special Reserve, though the constitution of the new force is very different. The militia ordinarily was liable only for service in the United Kingdom, but by legislation in 1899 may voluntarily serve in any part of the world, including India. During 1899-1900, 22,000 militiamen were thus accepted for service abroad, the bulk of them proceeding to the seat of war in South Africa. The militia reserve consisted of men selected from the ranks of the militia for special enlistment for service in the regular army when called upon in emergencies, in the following proportions to the establishments of the various corps: Artillery, one-third; engineers and infantry, one-fourth ; medical staff corps, one-half. The militia reserve was first formed in 1867, and in 1900 numbered 30,000 men. During an emergency in 1878, 20,000 militia reservists joined the regular army. The term " militia " reserve was therefore a complete misnomer, and the force so called was purely an army reserve. The special service section of the militia was formed by royal warrant in 1898, and consisted of (1) militia units and (2) individual militia- men. A militia unit was considered as available for special service if not less than 75 % of the officers and men present at training made a voluntary offer to engage for special service in any part of the world, and if in the infantry at least 500 and in the artillery at least 250 men were accepted as qualified. Individual militiamen engage to serve either with their militia unit if it were registered for service, or else for special service with the regular forces. Liability for service was limited to twelve months. Men of the special service section could also belong to the militia reserve, and receive a bounty in addition to that given for the reserve. The result of this special section was not up to 1900 satisfactory. Very few units could qualify for registration, and the response of individual men was comparatively insignificant. During and after the South African War, while militia recruiting for the regulars showed a constant increase compared with preceding years, the strength of the militia itself decreased year after year. Its militia character had been diminishing ever since the creation of the " militia reserve " and the close affiliation of the force to the regular army. For good or evil, then, it had become in the first place a draft-producing agency, and on the reorganization of the forces of the Crown into two lines by Mr Haldane the old " con- stitutional force " was frankly reorganized as a reserve for the line, enlistment and training conditions remaining somewhat similar to those in vogue in the militia, but the liability for service abroad becoming the first and most important condition in the " special reservist s " enlistment. MILK (O. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root, cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. kiitkyuv), the fluid secreted by the mammary glands of the division of vertebrate animals called Mammalia (see Mammary Gland), and primarily devised for the nourishment of their own young. The milk of various domesticated animals is more or less used by man for food. The milk of the cow, which may be taken as typical of all others, and is indeed by far the most important and valuable of all (see Dairy and Dairy Farming), is, when newly drawn, an opaque white fluid, with a yellowish tinge, soft, bland and sweetish to the taste, and possessed of a faintly animal odour. This odour, according to Schreiner, is due to the presence of sulphuretted hydrogen, and disappears after a short exposure. The specific gravity of milk ordinarily ranges from 1-029 t° I-0 33> very seldom reaching 1-035 or falling so low as 1-027. In chemical constitution it consists of an emulsion 452 MILKWORT of fatty globules (cream) in a watery alkaline solution of casein, and a variety of sugar, peculiar to milk, called lactose. The fat (which when separated we know as butter) and the lactose constitute the carbonaceous portion of the milk regarded as food. The casein, which forms the principal constituent of cheese, and a certain proportion of albumen which is present, form the nitrogenous, while the complex saline substances and water are the mineral constituents. These various substances are present in the proportions which render milk a perfect and typical food suitable to the wants of the young of the various animals for whom it is provided by nature. The milk of animals, so far as is known, contains them, although they are present in somewhat different proportions. It is probable that the milk of ruminants possesses certain physical and physio- logical distinctions from that of non-ruminant animals, which will account for the virtues attributed to the milk of the ass and mare. The following table exhibits the chemical constitution of the kinds of milk most frequently used by man : — Cow. Goat. Ewe. 1 Mare. Ass. Human. 6 S E U V M > u i> > c u V B U Chevallier and Henry. u ■fi V Water. . Fat . . . Casein and albumin . Sugar . Ash. . . 86-87 3-50 |4-75 4-00 0-70 87-00 4-00 4-10 4-28 0-62 84-48 6-n 3-94 4-68 0-79 83-70 4-45 5-16 5-73 0-96 90-310 1-055 1-953 6-285 0-369 91-65 O-II 1-82 6-o8 0-34 88-02 2-90 i-6o 7-03 0-31 In addition to these constituents milk contains small propor- tions of the gases carbonic acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen, and minute quantities of other principles, the constant presence and essential conditions of which have not been determined. These consist of gaiactin and lactochrome, substances peculiar to milk, discovered by Winter Blyth, with certain animal principles such as leucin, pepton, kreatin, tyrosin, &c. The salts in milk consist, according to the average of numerous analyses by Fleischmann, of the following constituents: — Phosphoric acid Chlorine Lime .... Soda .... 28-31 16-34 27-00 10-00 Potash . • • 17-34 Magnesia . • • 4-07 Ferric oxide 0-62 Milk thus is not to be regarded as a definite chemical compound nor even as a mixture of bodies in fixed and invariable propor- tions. Not only does the milk of different races and breeds of cows vary within comparatively wide limits; the milk of the same animal is subject to extensive fluctuation. The principal causes of variation in the individual are age, period of lactation, nature and amount of food, state of health, and treatment, such as frequency of milking, &c. The following table indicates the range of normal variations: — Water 90-00 to 83-65 Fat 2-80 „ 4-50 Casein and albumin 3-36 „ 5-55 Sugar 3-oo „ 5-50 Ash 0-70 „ o-8o The average quantity of milk yielded by cows is also highly variable, both in individuals and breeds. Milk and Disease. — Although the milk of a perfectly healthy cow may be absolutely sterile, it is difficult to obtain it in that condition. In the report of the joint committee appointed for the purpose by the county boroughs of Bradford, Hull, Leeds, Rotherham and Sheffield in 1908, the following conclusions were drawn: (1) Cows' milk freshly drawn from the udder by ordinary methods contains bacteria. They are more numerous in the first flow of the milk. (2) There is a great increase in contamination in the milk at each stage before it reaches the customer. This is due to (a) the dirty condition of the cows' udders, (b) the imperfect cleansing of the cans and of the hands of the milkers. The committee recommend: 1 Ewe's milk is exceedingly variable, especially in its percentage of fat. The above analysis is one of nine by Dr Arthur Voelcker, in which the fat was found to range from about 2 to iaf %. " (1) The washing of the udder and flanks with soap and water, and similar attention to the hands of the milker. (2) Efficient steriliza- tion of all vessels by steam if possible, or by abundance of boiling water. (3) Rejection of the first draw of the milk from each teat. (4) Avoidance of any work raising dust immediately before or during milking. (5) Removal of the milk of each cow immediately from the shed. (6) Ventilation and cleanliness of the cowsheds. This provides for the reduction as far as possible of contamination during the milking process itself. As any bacteria present in the milk tend to multiply rapidly on the way to the consumer, it is mainly a question of the time which elapses before consumption. It is, there- fore, further recommended (a) that the milk be rapidly cooled or chilled, as the lower the temperature the less do the bacteria multiply, (6) that contamination during railway transit be avoided by dust- proof locked milk cans. By treating milk at a temperature of 6o° C. for one hour, 70 C. for ten minutes, and 95 C. for one minute, tubercle bacilli, if present, will certainly be killed. Cholera and typhoid organisms are less resistant, and are killed more quickly than tubercle bacilli at the above temperatures. Only a single pathogenic species can with- stand the short boiling to which milk is ordinarily treated in domestic management, and this is the anthrax bacillus containing spores. The danger from this source is remote, as the microbe does not form spores within the animal body. Even in the worst cases, therefore, only vegetable forms, easily destroyed by boiling, can find their way into the milk from the body of the cow. The lactic acid bacillus, always present in unboiled milk (to which the souring of milk is due), is easily destroyed by heat; but the bacillus mesentericus, often found in it, forms spores, which are not destroyed by ordinary boiling, and germinate when the milk is kept at a moderately warm temperature, producing a brisk fermentation whereby a large volume of gas is liberated. The fundamental idea of Soxhlet's method for sterilizing milk is to boil it for forty minutes in small bottles holding just enough for one meal, and closing the same with an impervious stopper, which is only re- moved just before use. Milk so treated will keep at the ordinary room temperature, as the spores of the B. mesentericus do not develop below 15° C. ; but if it be introduced into the alimentary canal of a child the spores will rapidly multiply, and in such cases large quanti- ties of gas, giving rise to flatulency, will be formed, and possibly also poisonous decomposition products of albuminoid matter. To render milk sterile in the strict sense of the word it is necessary to raise it to a temperature of about 120° C. for twenty minutes. Under these conditions the lactose decomposes into dark-brown fission products, the fat loses its emulsified condition and separates out as cream which cannot be made to diffuse again even by shaking, and the albuminoids are converted into a form very difficult of digestion. In short, there is the greatest difficulty in freeing milk on a large scale from germs without at the same time seriously prejudicing its flavour and nutritive value. Since, then, the destruction of the hardy germs is so difficult, the greater care should be taken, by wash- ing the udder, hands and milk vessels, to secure extreme cleanliness in the preparation of milk intended for infant consumption. Steriliza- tion then becomes an easier task, the milk drawn under these con- ditions being very poor in spore-forming bacteria. It is imperative that cream destined for butter-making should be free from patho- genic organisms. The organisms of cholera, typhoid fever and tuberculosis present in butter retain their vitality for a long time. As butter is consumed in the raw state, a trustworthy preliminary treatment of the cream is in the highest degree desirable. Schuppan has shown that it is possible to produce good butter from Pasteurized or even sterilized cream, and Weigmann introduced the plan of arti- ficially souring cream by means of pure cultures of B. acidi laciici. Since Metchnikoff's introduction (see Longevity) of the use of soured milk for dietetic purposes — the lactic acid bacillus destroying pathogenic bacteria in the intestine — a great impetus has been given to the multiplication of laboratory preparations containing cultures of the bacillus; and in recent years much benefit to health has, in certain cases, been derived from the discovery. See also the articles Adulteration ; Dairy and Dairy Farming ; Infancy; Dietetics; Food and Food Preservation; in the last of which the preparation of condensed milk is described. MILKWORT, in botany, the common name for plants of the genus Poly gala (natural order Polygalaceae), a large genus widely dispersed in temperate and tropical regions and represented by a few species in Britain. The common species, P. vulgaris, is a small wiry perennial found on heaths and in meadows through- out the British Isles. The stems are 2 to 10 in. long and bear narrow rather tough leaves and small, \ to \ in. long, white, pink, blue, lilac or purple flowers. The flowers (see fig.) are peculiar in form and arrangement of parts; they have five free sepals the two inner of which (b) are large petaloid and winglike, forming the most conspicuous part of the flower; the petals are united below with the sheath of the eight stamens forming a tube split at the base behind; their form recalls that of the pea family. The name Polygala is from the Greek woXw, much, MILL, JAMES and y&\a, milk, the plant being supposed to increase the yield of milk in cows. Some species with showy flowers are known in cultivation as greenhouse, or hardy r.nnual or perennial, herbs or shrubs. The root of P. Senega, snake-root, a North American species is officinal. Sea milkwort is the common name for Glaux maritima, a small succulent herb found on seashores and in estuaries in the British Isles; it belongs to the primrose order (Primulaceae). After Berg & Schmidt, from Strasburger's Lekrbuch der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer. Poly gala Senega. A, Flower; o, small sepals; b, large sepals; c, keel, representing the anterior petal; d, its fimbriated edge; e, lateral petals. B, The 8 stamens united into a sheath below; h, anthers (magnified). MILL, JAMES (1773-1836), historian and philosopher, was born on the 6th of April 1773, at Northwater Bridge, in the parish of Logie-Pert, Forfarshire, the son of James Mill, a shoe- maker. His mother, Isabel Fenton, of a good family which had suffered from connexion with the Stuart rising of, 1745, resolved that he should receive a first-rate education, and sent him first to the parish school and then to the Montrose Academy, where he remained till the unusual age of seventeen and a half. He then entered the university of Edinburgh, where he distinguished himself as a Greek scholar. In October 1798 he was licensed as a preacher, but met with little success. From 1790 to 1802, in addition to holding various tutorships, he occupied himself with historical and philosophical studies. Finding little prospect of a career in Scotland, in 1802 he went to London in company with Sir John Stuart, then member of parliament for Kin- cardineshire, and devoted himself to literary work. From 1803 to 1806 he was editor of an ambitious periodical called the Literary Journal, which professed to give a summary view of all the leading departments of human knowledge. During this time he also edited the St James's Chronicle, belonging to the same proprietor. In 1804 he wrote a pamphlet on the corn trade, arguing against a bounty on the exportation of grain. In 1805 he published a translation (with notes and quotations) of C, F. Villers's work on the Reformation, an unsparing exposure of the alleged vices of the papal system. In 1805 he married Harriet Burrow, whose mother, a widow, kept an establishment for lunatics in Hoxton. He then took a house in Pentonville, where his eldest son, John Stuart Mill (q.v.), was born in 1806. About the end of this year he began his History of India, which he took twelve years to complete, instead of three or four, as he had expected. In 1808 he became acquainted with Jeremy Bentham, and was for many years his chief companion and ally. He adopted Bentham's principles in their entirety, and determined to devote all his energies to bringing them before the world. Between 1806 and 1818 he wrote for the Anti-Jacobin Review, the British Review and the Electric Review, but there is no means of tracing his contributions. In 1808 he began to write for the Edinburgh Review, to which he contributed steadily till 1813, his first known article being " Money and Exchange." He also wrote on Spanish America, China, General Miranda, the East India Company, and the Liberty of the Press. In the Annual Review for 1808 two articles of his are traced — a " Review of Fox's History," and an article on " Bentham's Law Reforms," probably his first published notice of Bentham. In 181 1 he co-operated with William Allen (1 770-1843), quaker and chemist, in a periodical called the Philanthropist. He contributed largely to every number — his principal topics being Education, 453 Freedom of the Press, and Prison Discipline (under which he expounded Bentham's " Panopticon "). He made powerful onslaughts on the Church in connexion with the Bell and Lan- caster controversy, and took a prominent part in the discussions which led to the foundation of London University in 1825. In 1814 he wrote a number of articles, containing an exposition of utilitarianism, for the supplement to the fifth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, the most important being those on " Jurisprudence," " Prisons " and " Government." In 1818 the History of India was published, and obtained a great and immediate success. It brought about a change in the author's position. The year following he was appointed an official in the India House, in the important department of the examiner of Indian correspondence. He gradually rose in rank till he was appointed, in 1830, head of the office, with a salary of £1900, raised in 1836 to £2000. His great work, the Elements of Political Economy, appeared in 1821 ' (3rd and revised ed. 1826). From 1824 to 1826 Mill contributed to the Westminster Review, started as the organ of his party, a number of articles in which he attacked the Edinburgh and Quarterly Reviews and ecclesi- astical establishments. In 1829 appeared the Analysis of the Human Mind. From 1831 to 1833 Mill was largely occupied in the defence of the East India Company, during the controversy attending the renewal of its charter, he being in virtue of his office the spokesman of the court of directors. For the London Review, founded by Sir William Molesworth in 1834, he wrote a notable article entitled " The Church and its Reform," which was much too sceptical for the time, and injured the Review. His last published book was the Fragment on Mackintosh (1835). He died on the 23rd of June 1836. Mill had a thorough acquaintance with Greek and Latin literature, general history, political, mental and moral philosophy. His intellect was logical in the highest degree; he was clear and precise, an enemy of loose reasoning, and quick to refute pre- vailing fallacies. All his work is marked by original constructive thought, except in a few sutjects, in which he confessedly expounded Bentham's views. At a time when social subjects were as a rule treated empirically, he brought first principles to bear at every point. His greatest literary monument is the History of India. The materials for narrating the acquisition by England of its Indian Empire were put into shape for the first time; a vast body of political theory was brought to bear on the delineation of the Hindu civilization; and the conduct of the actors in the successive stages of the conquest and administra- tion of India was subjected to a severe criticism. The work itself, and the author's official connexion with India for the last seventeen years of his life, effected a complete change in the whole system of governing that country. ■ Mill played a great part also in English politics, and was, more than any other man, the founder of what was called " philosophic radicalism." His writings on government and his personal influence among the Liberal politicians of his time determined the change of view from the French Revolution theories of the rights of man and the absolute equality of men to the claiming of securities for good government through a wide extension of the franchise. Under this banner it was that the Reform Bill was fought and won. His Elements of Political Economy, which was intended only as a textbook of the subject, shows all the author's precision and lucidity. As Dr J. K. Ingram said, it has the " character of a work of art. " It followed up the views of Ricardo, with whom Mill was always on terms of intimacy. Its interest is mainly historical, as an accurate summary of views which are now largely discarded. Among the more important of its theses are: (1) that the chief problem of practical reformers is to limit the increase of popu- lation, on the assumption that capital does not naturally increase at the same rate as population (ii. § 2, art. 3); (2) that the value of a thing depends entirely on the quantity of labour put into it; and (3) that what is now known as the " unearned increment " of land is a proper object for taxation. The work as a whole is a striking example of the weakness of treating 454 MILL, JOHN— MILL, JOHN STUART economic problems from a purely a priori standpoint by the deductive method. By his Analysis of the Mind and his Fragment on Mackintosh Mill acquired a position in the history of psychology and ethics. He took up the problems of mind very much after the fashion of the Scottish school, as then represented by Reid, Stewart and Brown, but made a new start, due in part to Hartley, and still more to his own independent thinking. He carried out the principle of association into the analysis of the complex emotional states, as the affections, the aesthetic emotions and the moral sentiment, all which he endeavoured to resolve into pleasurable and painful sensations. But the salient merit of the Analysis is the constant endeavour after precise definition of terms and clear statement of doctrines. The Fragment on Mackintosh is a severe exposure of the flimsiness and misrepresentations of Sir James Mackintosh's famous Dissertation on the Progress of Ethical Philosophy (1830), and discusses the foundations of ethics from the author's utilitarian point of view. Bibliography. — Leslie Stephen, The English Utilitarians, vol. ii. (iqoo), and article in Diet. Nat. Biog.\ A. Bain, James Mill (1882); G. S. Bower, Hartley and James Mill (1881); James McCosh, Scottish Philosophy (1885); J. S. Mill, Autobiography (1873) ; Th. Ribot, La Psychologie anglaise (1870; Eng. trans., 1873) ; J. Morley in Fortnightly Review, xxxvii. (1882); Graham Wallas, The Life of Francis Place (1898). MILL, JOHN (c. 1645-1707), English theologian, was born about 1645 at Shap in Westmorland, entered Queen's College, Oxford, as a servitor in 1661, and took his master's degree in 1669 in which year he spoke the " Oratio Panegyrica " at the opening of the Sheldonian Theatre. Soon afterwards he was chosen fellow and tutor of his college; in 1676 he became chaplain to the bishop of Oxford, and in 1681 he obtained the rectory of Bletchington, Oxfordshire, and was made chaplain to Charles II. From 1685 till his death he was principal of St Edmund's Hall ; and in 1704 he was nominated by Queen Anne to a prebendal stall in Canterbury. He died on the 23rd of June 1707, just a fortnight after the publication of his Greek Testament. Mill's Novum testamentum grcecum, cum lectionibus varianlibus MSS. exemplarium, versionum, editionum SS. patrum et scrip- torum ecclesiasticorum, et in easdem notis (Oxford, fol. 1707), was undertaken by the advice and encouragement of John Fell {a. v.), his predecessor in the field of New Testament criticism ; it represents the labour of thirty years, and is admitted to mark a great advance on all that had previously been achieved. The text indeed is that of R. Stephanus (1550), but the notes, besides embodying all pre- viously existing collections of various readings, add a vast number derived from his own examination of many new MSS, and Oriental versions (the latter unfortunately he used only in the Latin transla- tions). Though the amount of information given by Mill is small compared with that in modern editions, it is probable that no one person, except perhaps Tischendorf, has added so much material for the work of textual criticism. He was the first to notice, though only incidentally, the value of the concurrence of the Latin evidence with the Codex Alexandrinus, the only representative of an ancient non- Western Greek text then sufficiently known; this hint was not lost on Bentley (see Westcott and Hort, Introduction to New Testa- ment). Mill's various readings, numbering about thirty thousand, were attacked by Daniel Whitby (1638-1726) in his Examen as destroying the validity of the text; Antony Collins also argued in the same sense though with a different object. The latter called forth a reply from Bentley (Phileleutherus lipsiensis). In .1.710 Kuster reprinted Mill's Testament at Amsterdam with the readings of twelve additional MSS. MILL, JOHN STUART (1806-1873), English philosopher and economist, son of James Mill, was born on the 20th of May 1806 in his father's house in Pentonville, London. He was educated exclusively by his father, who was a strict disciplinarian, and at the age of three was taught the Greek alphabet and long lists of Greek words with their English equivalents. By his eighth year he had read Aesop's Fables, Xenophon's Anabasis, and the whole of Herodotus, and was acquainted with Lucian, Diogenes Laertius, Isocrates and six dialogues of Plato (see his Auto- biography). He had also read a great deal of history in English — Robertson's histories, Hume, Gibbon, Robert Watson's Philip II. and Philip III., Hooke's Roman History, part of a translation of Rollin's Ancient History, Langhorne's Plutarch, Burnet's History of My Own Times, thirty volumes of the Annual Register, Millar's Historical View of the English Government, Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History, M'Crie's Knox, and two histories of the Quakers. A contemporary record of Mill's studies from eight to thirteen is published in Bain's sketch of his life. It shows that the Autobiography rather understates the amount of work done. At the age of eight he began Latin, Euclid, and algebra, and was appointed schoolmaster to the younger children of the family. His main reading was still history, but he went through all the Latin and Greek authors commonly read in the schools and universities, besides several that are not commonly read by undergraduates. He was not taught to compose either in Latin or in Greek, and he was never an exact scholar; it was for the subject matter that he was required to read, and by the age of ten he could read Plato and Demosthenes with ease. His father's History of India was published in 18 18; immediately thereafter, about the age of twelve, John began a thorough study of the scholastic logic, at the same time reading Aristotle's logical treatises in the original. In the following year he was introduced to political economy and studied Adam Smith and Ricardo with his father. Not unnaturally the training which the younger Mill received has aroused amazement and criticism; and it is reasonable to doubt whether the material knowledge which he retained in the result was as valuable to him as his father imagined. It is important, however, to note that the really important part of the training was the close association which it involved with the strenuous character and vigorous intellect of his father. From his earliest days he spent much time in his father's study and habitually accompanied him on his walks in North London. Much therefore of what he acquired was assimilated without difficulty, and the accuracy of his impressions was tested by his subsequently drafting a resume of their conversations. He thus learned early to grapple with difficulties and to accustom himself to the necessity of precision in argument and expression. It was an inevitable result of such an education that Mill acquired many of his father's speculative opinions, and his father's way of defending them. But he did not receive the impress passively and mechanically. " One of the grand objects of education," according to the elder Mill, " should be to generate a constant and anxious concern about evidence." The duty of collecting and weighing evidence for himself was at every turn impressed upon the boy; he was taught to accept no opinion on authority. He was deliberately educated as an apostle, but it was as an apostle of reasoned truth in human affairs, not as an apostle of any system of dogmatic tenets. It was to prevent any falling off from this high moral standard till it should become part of his being that his father kept the boy so closely with himself. Mill expressly says that his childhood was not unhappy. It seems unhappy only when we compare it with the normal life of a boy and decline to imagine its peculiar enjoyments and aspirations. Mill complains that his father often required more than could be expected of him, but his tasks were not so severe as to prevent him from growing up a healthy and high-spirited boy, though he was not constitutionally robust, and his pursuits were so different from those of other boys of the same age. From May 1820 till July 1821 Mill was in France in the family of Sir Samuel Bentham, brother of Jeremy Bentham. Away from his father he maintained his laborious habits. Copious extracts from a diary kept by him at this time are given by Bain; they show how methodically he read and wrote, studied chemistry and botany, tackled advanced mathematical problems, made notes on the scenery and the people and customs of the country. He also gained a thorough acquaintance with the French language. On his return in 182 1 he added to his work the study of psychology, and that of Roman law, which he read with John Austin, his father having half decided on the bar as the best profession open to him. In 1822, however, when he had just completed his seventeenth year, this intention was aban- doned, and he entered as a clerk in the examiner's office of the India House, " with the understanding that he should be employed from the beginning in preparing drafts of despatches, and be thus trained up as a successor to those who then filled the highest departments of the office." MILL, JOHN STUART 455 Mill's work at the India House, which was henceforth his livelihood, did' not come before the public; hence some have scouted his political writings as the work of an abstract philo- sopher, entirely unacquainted with affairs. From the first he was more than a clerk, and after a short apprenticeship he was promoted, in 1828, to the responsible position of assistant- examiner with a salary of £600 a year. The duty of the so-called examiners was to examine the letters of the agents of the Company in India, and to draft instructions in reply. The character of the Company's government was almost entirely dependent upon their abilities as statesmen. For twenty years, from 1836 (when his father died) to 1856, Mill had charge .of the Company's relations with the native states, and in 1856 he became chief of the office with a salary of £2000. In the hundreds of despatches that he wrote in this capacity, much, no doubt, was done in accordance with established routine, but few statesmen of his generation had a wider experience of the responsible application of the principles of government. About this work he said little in the Autobiography, probably because his main concern there was to expound the influences that effected his moral and mental development. About the time of his entering the India House Mill read Dumont's exposition of Bentham's doctrines in the Traits de Legislation, which made a lasting impression upon him. When he laid down the last volume, he says, he had become a different being. It gave unity to the detached and fragmentary parts of his knowledge and beliefs. The impression was confirmed by the study of the English psychologists, as well as Condillac and Helvetius, and in 1822-1823 he established among a few friends the " Utilitarian " Society, taking the word, as he tells us, from Gait's Annals of the Parish. Two newspapers were open to him — the Traveller, edited by a friend of Bentham's, and the Morning Chronicle, edited by his father's friend Black. One of his first efforts was a solid argument for freedom of discussion, in a series of letters to the Chronicle apropos of the prosecution of Richard Carlile. But he watched all public incidents with a vigilant eye, and seized every passing oppor- tunity of exposing departures from sound principle in parliament and courts of justice. Another outlet was opened up for him (April 1824) by the starting of the Westminster Review, and still another in the following year in the Parliamentary History and Review. This year also he found a congenial occupation in editing Bentham's Rationale of Judicial Evidence. All the time, his mind full of public questions, he discussed eagerly with the many men of distinction who came to his father's house. He engaged in set discussions at a reading society formed at Grote's house in 1825, and in set debates at a Speculative Society formed in the same year. From the Autobiography we learn that in 1826 Mill's enthu- siasm was checked by a misgiving as to the value of the ends which he had set before him. This expression was the result, no doubt, of his strenuous training and the comparative lack of congenial friendships. His father Was reserved, undemonstra- tive even to the pitch of chilling sternness, and among young Mill's comrades contempt of feeling was almost a watchword. Himself absorbed in abstract questions and projects of general philanthropy, he had been careless of personal attachment. On the other hand without experience he could not have been prepared for the actual slowness of the reformer's work. In 1826 he looked back to four years of eager toil. What were the results? He had become convinced that his comrades in the Utilitarian Society, never more than ten, had not the stuff in them for a world-shaking propaganda; the society itself was dissolved; the Parliamentary Review was a failure; the West- minster did not pay its expenses; Bentham's Judicial Evidence produced little effect on the reviewers. His own reception at the Speculative Debating Society, where he first measured his strength in public conflict, was calculated to produce self- distrust. He found himself looked upon with curiosity as a precocious phenomenon, a " made man," an intellectual machine set to grind certain tunes. The outcome of this period of depression was a broadening of his outlook on the problems which he had set himself to solve. He now saw that regard for the public good was too vague an object for the satisfaction of a man's affections. It is a proof of the dominating force of his father's character that it cost the younger Mill such an effort to shake off his stern creed about poetry and personal emotion. Like Plato, the elder Mill would have put poets under ban as enemies of truth, and he subordinated private to public affections. Landor's maxims of " few acquaintances, fewer friends, no familiarities " had his cordial approval. These doctrines the younger Mill now felt himself forced in reason to abandon. Too much in awe of his father to make him a confidant, he wrestled in the gloomy solitude of his own mind. He gained from the struggle a more catholic view of human happiness, at delight in the poetry of nature and the affections as well as the poetry of heroic unselfishness, a disposition to study more sympathetically the point of view of opponents, a more courteous style of polemic, a hatred of sectarianism, an ambition, no less noble and disinterested, but moderated to practical possibilities. In the course of the next few years he wrote comparatively little, but he continued his reading, and also derived much benefit from discussions held twice a week at Grote's house in Threadneedle Street. Gradually also he had the satisfaction of seeing the debates in the Speculative Society becoming famous enough to attract men with whom it was profitable for him to interchange opinions, among others Maurice and John Sterling. He ceased to attend the society in 1829, but he carried away from it the strengthening memory of failure overcome by per- severing effort, and the important doctrinal conviction that a true system of political philosophy was " something much more complex and many-sided than he had previously had any idea of, and that its office was to supply, not a set of model institutions but principles from which the institutions suitable to any given circumstances might be deduced." The first sketch of Mill's political philosophy appeared in a series of contributions to the Examiner in the autumn of 1830 entitled " Prospects in France." He was in Paris soon after the July Revolution, and made the acquaintance of the leading spirits among the younger men; in his discussion of their pro- posals we find the germs of many thoughts afterwards more fully developed in his Representative Government. It is from this time that Mill's letters supply a connected account of his life (see Hugh Elliott, Letters of John Stuart Mill, 1010). The letters in the Examiner may be taken as marking the close of his period of meditative search, and his return to hopeful aspiring activity. It was characteristic of his nature that he should be stirred to such delight by the Revolution in France, and should labour so earnestly to make his countrymen under- stand with what gravity and sobriety it had been effected. Their own Reform Bill came soon after and it is again character- istic of Mill — at once of his enthusiasm and of his steady deter- mination to do work that nobody else seemed able or willing to do — that we find him in the heat of the struggle in 1831 writing to the Examiner a series of letters on " The Spirit of the Age " which drew from Carlyle the singular exclamation " Here is a new mystic 1" How little this criticism was justified may be seen from the fact that Mill's inductive logic was the direct result of his aspirations after political stability as determined by the dominion of the wisest {Examiner letters). " Why is it," he asked, " that the multitude accept implicitly the decisions of the wisest, of the specially skilled, in physical science? " Because in physical science there is all but complete agreement in opinion. " And why this agreement?" Because all accept the same methods of investigation, the same tests of truth. Is it possible then to obtain unanimity as to the methods of arriving at con- clusions in social and political matters, so as to secure similar agreement of opinion among the specially skilled, and similar general respect for their authority ? The same thought appears in a review of Herschel's Natural Philosophy, written about the same time. Mill remarks that the uncertainty hanging over the very elements of moral and social philosophy proves that the means of arriving at the truth in those sciences are not yet 45 6 MILL, JOHN STUART properly understood. " And whither," he adds, " can mankind so advantageously turn, in order to learn the proper means, and to form their minds to the proper habits, as to that branch of knowledge in which by universal acknowledgment the greatest number of truths have been ascertained, and the greatest possible degree of certainty arrived at ? " By 1831 the period of depression had passed; Mill's enthusiasm for humanity had been thoroughly reawakened, and had taken the definite shape of an aspiration to supply an unimpeachable method of search for conclusions in moral and social science. No mystic ever worked with warmer zeal than Mill. But his zeal encountered a check which baffled him for several years, and which left its mark in various inconsistencies and inco- herences in his completed system. He had been bred by his father in a great veneration for the syllogistic logic as an antidote against confused thinking. He attributed to his early discipline in this logic an impatience of vague language which in all likeli- hood was really fostered in him by his study of the Platonic dialogues and of Bentham, for he always had in himself more of Plato's fertile ingenuity in canvassing the meaning of vague terms than the schoolman's rigid consistency in the use of them. Be this as it may, enthusiastic as he was for a new logic that might give certainty to moral and social conclusions, Mill was no less resolute that the new logic should stand in no antagonism to the old. In his Westminster review of Whately's Logic in 1828 (invaluable to all students of the genesis of Mill's logic) he appears, curiously enough, as an ardent and brilliant champion of the syllogistic logic against highfliers such as the Scottish philosophers who talk of " superseding " it by " a supposed system of inductive logic." His inductive logic must " supple- ment and not supersede." But for several years he searched in vain for the means of concatenation. Meantime, while recurring again and again, as was his custom, to this cardinal difficulty, Mill worked indefatigably in other directions where he saw his way clear. The working of the new order in France, and the personalities of the leading men, had a profound interest for him; he wrote on the subject in the Examiner. He had ceased to write for the Westminster in 1828; but during the years 1832 and 1833 he contributed many essays to Tait's Magazine, the Jurist, and the Monthly Repository. In 1835 Sir William Moles worth founded the London Review with Mill as editor; it was amalgamated with the Wesminster (as the London and Westminster Review) in 1836, and Mill continued editor (latterly proprietor also) till 1840. Much of what he wrote then was subsequently incorporated in his systematic works: some of his essays were reprinted in his first two volumes of Dissertations and Discussions (1859). The essays on Bentham and Coleridge constituted the first manifesto of the new spirit which Mill sought to breathe into English Radicalism. But the reprinted papers give no just idea of the immense range of Mill's energy at this time. His position in the India Office, where alone he did work enough for most men, cut him off from entering parliament; but he laboured hard though ineffectually to influence the legislature from without by com- bating the disposition to rest and be thankful. In his Auto- biography he admits that the attempt to form a Radical party in parliament at that time was chimerical. It was in 1837, on reading Whewell's Inductive Sciences and re-reading Herschel, that Mill at last saw his way clear both to formulating the methods of scientific investigation and joining on the new logic as a supplement to the old. The Logic was published in 1843. In 1844 appeared his Essays on Some Unsettled Questions in Political Economy. These essays were worked out and written many years before, and show Mill in his first stage as a political economist. Four out of the five essays are elaborate and powerful solutions of perplexing tech- nical problems — the distribution of the gains of international commerce, the influence of consumption on production, the definition of productive and unproductive labour, the precise relations between profits and wages. Though Mill appears here purely as the disciple of Ricardo, striving after more precise statement, and reaching forward to further consequences, we can well understand in reading these essays how about the time when he first sketched them he began to be conscious of power as an original and independent thinker. That originality and independence became more conspicuous when he reached his second stage as a political economist, struggling forward towards the standpoint from which his systematic work was written. It would seem that in his fits of despondency one of the thoughts that marred his dreams of human improvement was the apparently inexorable character of economic laws, condemning thousands of labourers to a cramped and miserable existence, and thousands more to semi- starvation. From this oppressive feeling he found relief in the thought set forth in the opening of the second book of his Political Economy — that, while the conditions of production have the necessity of physical laws, the distribution of what is produced among the various classes of producers is a matter of human arrangement, dependent upon alterable customs and institutions. There can be little doubt that this thought, whether or not in the clear shape that it afterwards assumed, was the germ of all that is most distinctive in his system of political economy. This system, which for many years sub- sequently was regarded as authoritative, has been subjected to vigorous criticism by later economists, and it is perhaps not too much to say that it now possesses mainly an historical interest. Its chief importance is perhaps the stress which it laid on the vital connexion which must subsist between true economic theory and the wider facts of social and national development. While his great systematic works were in progress, Mill wrote very little on events or books of the day. He turned aside for a few months from his Political Economy during the winter of the Irish famine (1846-1847) to advocate the creation of peasant- proprietorships as a remedy for distress and disorder in Ireland. He found time also to write elaborate articles on French history and Greek history in the Edinburgh Review apropos of Michelet, Guizot and Grote, besides some less elaborate essays. The Political Economy was published in 1848. Mill could now feel that his main work was accomplished; he remained, however, on the alert for opportunities of useful influence, and pressed on with hardly diminished enthusiasm in his search for useful truth. Among other things, he made a more thorough study of socialist writers, with the result that, though he was not converted to any of their schemes as being- immediately practic- able, he began to look upon some more equal distribution of the produce of labour as a practicability of the remote future, and to dwell upon the prospect of such changes in human character as might render a stable society possible without the institution of private property. This he has called his third stage as a political economist, and he says that he was helped towards it by the lady, Mrs Taylor, 1 who became his wife in 185 1. It is generally supposed that he writes with a lover's extravagance about this lady's powers when he compares her with Shelley and Carlyle. But a little reflection will show that he wrote with his usual accuracy and sobriety when he described her influence on him. He expressly says that he owed none of his technical doctrine to her, that she influenced only his ideals of life for the individual and for society; the only work perhaps which was directly inspired by her is the essay on the enfranchisement of women {Dissertations, vol. ii.). It is obvious from what he says that his inner life became very different after he threw off his father's authority. This new inner life was strengthened and enlarged by Mrs Taylor. During the seven years of his married life Mill published less than in any other period of his career, but four of his most 1 Mrs Taylor (Harriet Hardy) was the wife of John Taylor, a wholesale druggist in the city of London. She was a confirmed invalid, and lived in the country, where Mill visited her regularly for twenty years, with the full consent of her husband, a man of limited mental powers, but of high character and unselfish- ness. Mill's friendship with Mrs Taylor and their marriage in 1 85 1 involved a break with his family (apparently due te his resentment at a fancied slight, not to any bitterness on their part), and his practical disappearance from society. (On these points see Mary Taylor, Mrs Mill's grand-daughter, in Elliott's edition of the Letters.) MILL, JOHN STUART 457 closely reasoned and characteristic works, the Liberty, the Utilitarianism, the Thoughts on Parliamentary Reform, and the Subjection of Women, besides his posthumously published essays on Nature and on the Utility of Religion, were thought out and partly written in collaboration with his wife. In 1856 he became head of the examiner's office in the India House, and for two years, till the dissolution of the Company in 1858, his official work, never a light task, kept him fully occupied. It fell to him as head of the office to write the defence of the Company's government of India when the transfer of its powers was pro- posed. Mill was earnestly opposed to the transfer, and the documents in which he substantiated the proud boast for the Company that " few governments, even under far more favour- able circumstances, have attempted so much for the good of their subjects or carried so many of their attempts to a beneficial issue," and exposed the defects of the proposed new government, are models of trenchant and dignified pleading. On the dissolution of the Company Mill was offered a seat in the new council, but declined, and retired with a pension of £1500. His retirement from official work was followed almost immediately by his wife's death at Avignon, whither they had come in the course of a tour. So great was the shock that for the rest of his life he spent most of his time at a villa at St Veran, near Avignon, returning to his Blackheath residence only for a short period in each year. He sought relief in active literary occupation, in politics, sociology and psychology. He pub- lished, with a touching dedication to his wife, the treatise on Liberty, which they had wrought out together. He then turned to poHtics, and published, in view of the impending Reform Bill, a pamphlet on parliamentary reform. The chief feature in this was an idea concerning which he and Mrs Mill often deliberated — the necessity of providing checks against uneducated demo- cracy. His suggestion of a plurality of votes, proportioned to the elector's degree of education, was avowedly put forward only as an ideal; he admitted that no authentic test of education could for the present be found. An anonymous Conservative caught at the scheme in another pamphlet, proposing income as a test. Soon after Mill supported in Fraser's, still with the same object, Hare's scheme for the representation of minorities. In the autumn of the same year he turned to psychology, reviewing Bain's works in the Edinburgh Review. In his Repre- sentative Government (i860) he systematized opinions already put forward in many casual articles and essays. His Utili- tarianism (published in Fraser's in 1861) was a closely-reasoned systematic attempt to answer objections to his ethical theory and remove misconceptions of it. He was especially anxious to make it clear that he included in " utility " the pleasures of the imagination and the gratification of the higher emotions, and to show how powerfully the good of mankind as a motive appealed to the imagination. His next treatise, The Subjection of Women, was not published till i860. 1 His Examination of Hamilton's Philosophy, published in 1865, had engaged a large share of his time for three years before. While mainly occupied in those years with philosophical studies, Mill did not remit his interest in current politics. He supported the North in the American crisis of 1862, using all his strength to explain what has since been universally recognized as the issue really at stake in the struggle, the abolition of slavery. It was characteristic of the closeness with which he watched current events, and of his zeal in the cause of " lucidity," that when the Reader, an organ of science and unpartisan opinion, fell into difficulties in 1865 Mill joined with some distinguished men of science and letters in an effort to keep it afloat. He supplied part of the money for carrying it on, contributed several articles, and assisted the editor, Fraser Rae, with his advice. The effort was vain, though such men as Herbert Spencer, 1 He was one of the founders, with Mrs P. A. Taylor, Miss Emily Davies and others, of the first women's suffrage society, which developed into the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, and his writings are still the most important theoretical statement of the case for women's suffrage. He presented to Parliament the first petition on the subject (see further Blackburn, Women's Suffrage Record). Huxley, Tyndall, Cairnes, Mark Pattison, F. Harrison, Sir Frederick Pollock and Lockyer were among the contributors. In 1865 he agreed to stand as parliamentary candidate for Westminster, on conditions strictly in accordance with his principles. He would not canvass, nor pay agents to canvass for him, nor would he engage to attend to the local business of the constituency. He was with difficulty persuaded even to address a meeting of the electors. The story of this remarkable election has been told by James Beal, one of the most active supporters of Mill's candidature. In parliament he adhered to his life-long principle of doing only work that needed to be done, and that nobody else seemed equally able or willing to do. It may have been a consciousness of this fact which prompted a remark, made by the Speaker, that Mill's presence in parliament elevated the tone of debate. The impression made by him in parliament is in some danger of being forgotten, because he was not instrumental in carrying any great measure that might serve as an abiding memorial. But, although his first speech on the bill for the prevention of cattle diseases excited the opposition of country members, and a subsequent speech against the suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act in Ireland was very unfavourably received, Mill thoroughly succeeded in gaining the ear of the House. The only speech made by him during his three years in parliament that was listened to with impatience was, curiously enough, his speech in favour of counteracting democracy by providing for the representation of minorities. His attack on the conduct of Governor Eyre in Jamaica (q.v.) was listened to, but with repugnance by the majority, although his action in this matter in and out of parliament was far from being ineffectual. He took an active part in the debates on Disraeli's Reform Bill (moving an amendment to omit the word " man " and insert " person "), and helped to extort from the government several useful modifications of the Bill for the Prevention of Corrupt Practices. The reform of land tenure in Ireland, the representation of women, the reduction of the national debt, the reform of London government, the abrogation of the Declaration of Paris, were among the topics on which he spoke with marked effect. He took occasion more than once to enforce what he had often advocated in writing, England's duty to intervene in foreign politics in support of the cause of freedom. As a speaker Mill was somewhat hesitating, pausing occasionally as if to recover the thread of his argument, but he showed great readiness in extemporaneous debate. Viewed as a candidate for ministerial office, he might be regarded as a failure in parliament, but there can be no doubt that his career there greatly extended his influence. Mill's subscription to the election expenses of Bradlaugh, and his attitude towards Governor Eyre, are generally regarded as the main causes of his defeat in the general election of 1868. But, as he suggests himself, his studied advocacy of unfamiliar projects of reform had made him unpopular with " moderate Liberals." He retired with a sense of relief to his cottage and his literary life at Avignon. His parliamentary duties and the quantity of correspondence brought upon him by increased publicity had absorbed nearly the whole of his time. The scanty leisure of his first recess had been devoted to writing his St Andrews rectorial address on higher education and to answering attacks on his criticism of Hamilton; of the second, to annotating in conjunction with Bain and Findlater, his father's Analysis of the Mind. Now he looked forward to a literary life, and his letters show how much he enjoyed the change. His little cottage was filled with books and newspapers; the beautiful country round it furnished him with a variety of walks; he read, wrote, discussed, walked, botanized. He was extremely fond of music, and was himself a fair pianist. His step-daughter, Miss Taylor (d. January 1907), was his constant companion after his wife's death. " Helen," he wrote to W. T. Thornton, an old colleague in the India House, " has carried out her long-cherished scheme (about which she tells me she consulted you) of a ' vibratory ' for me, and has made a pleasant covered walk, some 30 ft. long, where I can vibrate in cold or rainy weather. The terrace, you must know, as it goes round two sides of the house, has got itself +5 8 MILL, JOHN STUART dubbed the ' semi-circumgyratory.' In addition to this, Helen has built me a herbarium, a little room fitted up with closets for my plants, shelves for my botanical books, and a great table whereon to manipulate them all. Thus, you see, with my herbarium, my vibratory, and my semi-circumgyratory, I am in clover; and you may imagine with what scorn I think of the House of Commons, which, comfortable club as it is said to be, could offer me none of these comforts, or, more perfectly speak- ing, these necessaries of life." Mill was an enthusiastic botanist all his life long, and a frequent contributor of notes and short papers to the Phytologist. One of the things that he looked forward to during his last journey to Avignon was seeing the spring flowers and completing a flora of the locality. His delight in scenery frequently appears in letters written to his friends during his summer and autumn tours. Yet he did not relax his laborious habits nor his ardent out- look on human affairs. The essays in the fourth volume of his Dissertations — on endowments, on land, on labour, on meta- physical and psychological questions — were written for the Fortnightly Review at intervals after his short parliamentary career. One of his first tasks was to send his treatise on the Subjection of Women (written 1861, published 1869, many edi- tions) through the press. The essay on Theism was written soon after. The last public work in which he engaged was the starting of the Land Tenure Reform Association. The inter- ception by the state of the unearned increment, and the promo- tion of co-operative agriculture, were the most striking features in his programme. He wrote in the Examiner and made a public speech in favour of the association a few months before his death. The secret of the ardour with which he took up this question probably was his conviction that a great struggle was impending in Europe between labour and capital. He regarded his project as a timely tompromise. Mill died at Avignon on the 8th of May 1873. He was a man of extreme simplicity in his method of life. Though occasionally irritable in speech, in his written polemics he was remarkable for courtesy to opponents and a capacity to understand their point of view. His references to his friends were always generous, and he was always ready to assist those whose work needed help. For example, he desired to guarantee the cost of the first books of Bain and Herbert Spencer. A statue in bronze was placed on the Thames Embankment, and there is a good portrait by Watts (a copy of which, by Watts himself, was hung in the National Gallery). The influence which Mill's works exercised upon contemporary English thought can scarcely be overestimated. His own writings and those of his successors {e.g. J. E. Cairnes and Alexander Bain) practically held the field during the third quarter of the 19th century and even later. In philosophy his chief work was to systematize and expound the utilitarianism of his father and Bentham (see Utilitarianism) . He may, in fact, be regarded as the final exponent of that empirical school of philosophy which owed its impulse to John Locke, and is generally spoken of as being typically English. Its fundamental characteristic is the emphasis laid upon human reason, i.e. upon the duty incumbent upon all thinkers to investigate for themselves rather than to accept the authority of others. Know- ledge must be based upon experience. In reasserting and amplifying the empirical conclusions of his predecessors, especially in the sphere of ethics, Mill's chief function was the introduction of the humanist element. This was due, no doubt, to his revulsion from the sternness of his upbringing and the period of stress through which he passed in early manhood, but also to the sympathetic and emotional quali- ties which manifested themselves in his early manhood. We have seen, for example, that he was led to investigate the subject of logic because he found in attempting to advance his humanitarian schemes in politics an absence of that fundamental agreement which he recog- nized as the basis of scientific advance. Both his logical and his metaphysical studies were thus undertaken as the pre-requisites of a practical theory of human development. Though he believed that the lower classes were not yet ripe for socialism, with the principles of which he (unlike James Mill and Bentham) was in general agree- ment, his whole life was devoted to the amelioration of the conditions of the working classes. This fact, no doubt, should be taken into account in any detailed criticism of the philosophic work ; it was taken up not as an end but as ancillary to a social and ethical system. Reference to the articles on Logic, Metaphysics, &c, will show that subsequent criticism, however much it has owed by way of stimulus to Mill's strenuous rationalism, has been able to point to much that is inconsistent, inadequate and even superficial in his writings. Two main intellectual movements from widely different standpoints have combined to diminish his influence. On the one hand there has arisen a school of thinkers of the type of Thomas Hill Green, who have brought to bear on his metaphysical views the idealism of modern German thinkers. On the other hand are the evolutionists, who have substituted for the utilitarian ideal of the " greatest happiness " those of " race- preservation " and the " sur- vival of the fittest " (see Ethics, ad. fin. ; Spencer). In the sphere of psychology, likewise— e.g. in connexion with Mill's doctrine of Association of Ideas {q.v.) and the phrase " Mental Chemistry," by which he sought to meet the problems which Associationism left unsolved— modern criticism and the experimental methods of the psycho-physiological school have set up wholly new criteria, with a new terminology and different fields of investigation (see Psychology). A similar fate has befallen Mill's economic theories. The title of his work, Principles of Political Economy, with some of their Applications to Social Philosophy, though open to criticism, indicated a less narrow and formal conception of the field of the science than had been common amongst his predecessors. He aimed in fact at producing a work which might replace in ordinary use the Wealth of Nations, which in his opinion was " in many parts obsolete and in all imperfect." Adam Smith had invariably associated the general principles of the subject with their applications, and in treating those applications had perpetually appealed to other and often far larger considerations than pure political economy affords. And in the same spirit Mill desired, whilst incorporating all the results arrived at in the special science by Smith's successors, to exhibit purely economic phenomena in relation to the most advanced conceptions of his own time in the general philosophy of society, as Smith had done in reference to the philosophy of his century. This design he certainly failed to realize. His book is very far indeed from being a " modern Adam Smith." It is an admirably lucid, and even elegant, exposition of the Ricardian economics, the Malthusian theory being of course incorporated with these; but, notwithstanding the introduction of many minor novelties, it is in its scientific substance little or nothing more. With respect to economic method he shifted his position, yet to the end occupied uncertain ground. In the fifth of his early essays he asserted that the method a priori is the only mode of investiga- tion in the social sciences, and that the method a posteriori " is altogether inefficacious in those sciences as a means of arriving at any considerable body of valuable truth." When he wrote his Logic he had learned from Comte that the a posteriori method — in the form which he chose to call " inverse deduction " — was the only mode of arriving at truth in general sociology; and his ad- mission of this at once renders the essay obsolete. But, unwilling to relinquish the a priori method of his youth, he tries to establish a distinction of two sorts of economic inquiry, one of which, though not the other, can be handled by that method. Sometimes he speaks of political economy as a department " carved out of the general body of the science of society;" whilst on the other hand the title of his systematic work implies a doubt whether political economy is a part of " social philosophy " at all, and not rather a study preparatory and auxiliary to it. Thus, on the logical as well as the dogmatic side, he halts between two opinions. Not- withstanding his misgivings and even disclaimers, he yet remained as to method a member of the old school, and never passed into the new " historical " school. Bibliography. — Works: System of Logic (2 vols., 1843; 9th ed., 1875; " People's " ed., 1884); Essays on some Unsettled Questions of Political Economy (1844, ed. 1874); Principles of Political Economy (2 vols., 1848; many ed., especially ed. by W. J. Ashley, 1909); On Liberty (1859; ed. Courtney, 1892, W. B. Columbine, 1903; with introd. Pringle-Pattison, 1910) ; Thoughts on Parliamentary Reform (1859); Dissertations and Discussions (i., ii., 1859; iii., 1867; iv., 1876); Considerations on Representative Government (1861 ; 3rd ed. 1865); Utilitarianism (1863); Examination of Sir W. Hamilton's Philosophy (1865); Aug. Comte and Positivism (1865, ed. 1908); Inaugural Address at the University of St Andrews (1867); England and Ireland (1868); Subjection of Women (1869; ed. with introd. by Stanton Coit, 1906) ; Chapters and Speeches on the Irish Land Question (1870). The Autobiography appeared in 1873 (ed. 1908), and Three Essays on Religion (1874). Many of these have been translated into German, and there is a German edition by Th. Gomperz (12 vols., 1873-1880). A convenient edition in the New Universal Library appeared between 1905 and 1910. Biographical and Critical. — Many of Mill's letters are published in Mrs Grote's 'life of her husband, in Duncan's Life of Herbert Spencer, in the Memories of Caroline Fox, and in Kingsley s letters. There are also editions of the correspondence with Gustave d'Eichtal and Comte (specially that of Levy-Bruhl, 1899). By far the most illuminating collection is that of Hugh Elliott, Letters of John Stuart Mill (2 vols., 1910), which contains letters to John Sterling, Carlyle, E. Lytton Bulwer (Lord Lytton), John Austin, Alex. Bain, and many leading French and German writers and politicians. These letters are essential to an understanding of Mill'slife and thought, Besides the Autobiography and many references in the writings of Mill's friends (e.g. Alex. Bain's Autobiography, 1904), see furthei MILL— MILLAIS, SIR J. E. 459 A. Bain, John Stuart Mill, a Personal Criticism (1882) ; Fox Bourne, Life of J. S. Mill (1873); J ontl (Viscount) Morley, Miscellanies (1877), ii. 239-327; J. E. Cairnes, J. S. Mill (1873), on economic theories; W. L. Courtney, Mataphysics of J. S. Mill (1879) and Life (1889); Douglas, John Stuart Mill, a Study of his Philosophy (1895), and Ethics of J. S. Mill (1897); Albee, Hist, of Eng. Utili- tarianism (1902) ; Sir Leslie Stephen, The English Utilitarians (1900); J. MacCunn, Six Radical Thinkers (1907); Fred. Harrison, Tennyson, Ruskin, Mill (1899); John Watson, Comte, Mill and Spencer (1895); T. Whittaker, Comte and Mill (1905); Charles Douglas, /. S. Mill, a Study of his Philosophy (1895) ; J. Rickaby, Free Will and Four English Philosophers (1906); J. M. Robertson, Modern Humanists (1891); D. G. Ritchie, Principles of State Inter- ference (1891) ; W. Graham, English Political Philosophy from Hobbes to Maine (1899). There are also a number of valuable French and German criticisms, e.g. Taine, Positivisme anglais, etude sur Stuart Mill (Paris, 1864); F. A. Lange, Mills Ansichten iiber die soziale Frage (Duisburg, 1866); Littrti, A. Comte et Stuart Mill (3rd ed., Paris, 1877); Cauret, Philosophie de Stuart Mill (Paris, 1885); Gomperz, John S. Mill, ein Nachruf (Vienna, 1889); S. Sanger, J. S. Mill, sein Leben und Lebenswerk (Stuttgart, 1901); S. Becher, Erkenntnistheoretische Uniersuchungen zu Stuart Mills Theorie der Kausalitdt (1906) ; E. M. Kantzer, La Religion de J. S. Mill (1906). See also histories of modern philosophy. See further Logic (Historical Sketch) ; Psychology ; Association of Ideas. (W. M.; J. M. M.) MILL (O. Eng. mylen, later myln, or miln, adapted from the late Lat. molina, cf . Fr. moulin, from Lat. mala, a mill, molere, to grind; from the same root, mol, is derived " meal;" the word appears in other Teutonic languages, cf . Du. molen, Ger. mtihle) , the term given to the apparatus or machinery used in the grind- ing of corn into flour, and hence applied to similar mechan- ical devices for grinding, crushing to powder, or pulping other substances, e.g. coffee-mill, powder-mill. " Mill " was first used of the building containing the apparatus, frequently with a word attached descriptive of the motive power, e.g. wind-mill, water- mill, &c. It was not the early word used of the actual grinding mechanism. The old hand-mill was known as a " quern," a word which appears in this sense in many Indo-European languages; the ultimate root is gar-, to grind. " Quern " (see Flour) is only remotely connected with " churn " (q.v.). The word is also applied to many mechanical devices by which raw material is transformed into a condition ready for use or into a stage preparatory to other processes, e.g. saw-mill, rolling-mill, &c, or still more widely to buildings containing machinery used in manufactures, e.g. cotton-mill. In mining it is applied to various machines used in breaking and crushing the ore (see Ore-Dressing) . In the engineering industries milling machines constitute a very important class of machine tools, the characteristic of which is that rotary cutters are employed for shaping the metal (see Tools). In coins the " milling is the serrated edge, called " crenneling " by John Evelyn (Discourse on Medals, 1697, p. 225), which is formed on them to prevent clipping and filing. Coins made by the old process of hammering were apt to have irregular edges which invited mutilation; but the introduction of the screw press, which came to be known as a mill (cf. W. Lowndes, Amendm. Silver Coinage, 1695, p. 93), permitted the production of a regular edge with serrations, which in consequence were termed milling. This machine also enabled legends to be impressed round the edges of coins, such as the Decus et tutamen suggested by Evelyn (see W. J. Hocking, Catalogue of the Coins, &c, in the Museum of the Royal Mint, 1906). It was invented about the middle of the 16th century, and has generally been attributed to Guyot Brucher (d. 1556), who was succeeded at the Paris mint by his brother Antoine. Introduced into England by one Eloye Mestrel in 1561, it was used for twelve years, and was then abandoned owing to the opposition of the mint officials to Mestrel, who was executed for counterfeiting and striking money outside the precincts of the Tower of London; but it was again introduced by one Peter Blondeau in 1662, when it permanently superseded hammering. In the United States of America the term " milling " or " milled " is applied to the raised edge on the face of the coin; this is known in the British mint as " marking " (see Mint). MILLAIS, SIR JOHN EVERETT (1829-1896), English painter, was born at Southampton on the 8th of June 1829, the son of John William Millais, who belonged to an old Norman family settled in Jersey for many generations, and Emily Mary, nie Evamy, the widow of a Mr Hodgkinson. After his birth the family returned to Jersey, where the boy soon began to sketch. At the age of eight he drew his maternal grandfather. He went to school for a short time, but showed no inclination for study, and was afterwards educated entirely by his mother. In 1835 the family removed to Dinan in Brittany, where he sketched the French officers, to their great amusement, and in 1837, on the family's return to Jersey, he was taught drawing by a Mr Bissel. In 1838 he came to London, and on the strong recommendation of Sir Martin Archer Shee, P.R.A., his future was decided. He was sent at once to Sass's school, and entered the Academy schools in 1840. He won a silver medal from the Society of Arts in 1839, and carried off all the prizes at the Royal Academy. He was popular amongst the students, and was called " the child," because he wore his boyish costume till long after the usual age. In 1840 and the immediately succeeding years he made the acquaintance of Wordsworth and other interesting and useful people. He was at this time painting small pictures, &c, for a dealer named Thomas, and defraying a great part of the household expenses in Gower Street, where his family lived. In 1846 he exhibited " Pizarro seizing the Inca of Peru " at the Royal Academy, and in 1847 "Elgiva seized by the Soldiers of Odo." In the latter year he competed unsuccessfully at the exhibition of designs for the decoration of the Houses of Parlia- ment, sending a very large picture of " The Widow's Mite," which was afterwards cut up. In the beginning of 1848 he and W. Holman Hunt, dissatisfied with the theory and practice of British art, which had sunk to its lowest and most conventional level, initiated what is known as the Pre-Raphaelite movement, and were joined by Dante Gabriel Rossetti, and afterwards by five others, altogether forming the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. Rossetti was then engaged, under the technical guidance of Hunt, upon his picture of " The Girlhood of Mary Virgin," which, with Hunt's " Light of the World " and Millais's " Christ in the House of His Parents," forms what has been called the trilogy of Pre- Raphaelite art. According to Millais, the Pre-Raphaelites had but one idea — " to present on canvas what they saw in Nature." Millais's first picture on his new principles was a banquet scene from Keats's " Isabella " (1849), and contains all the character- istics of Pre-Raphaelite work, including minute imitation of nature down to the smallest detail, and the study of all persons and objects directly from the originals. The tale was told with dramatic force, and the expression of the heads was excellent. His next important picture, " Christ in the House of His Parents," or "The Carpenter's Shop" (1850), represented a supposed incident in the childhood of our Lord treated in a simply realistic manner, and drew down upon him a storm of abuse from nearly all quarters, religious and artistic. The rest of his more strictly Pre-Raphaelite pictures — " The Return of the Dove to the Ark," " The Woodman's Daughter " and the " Mariana " of 1851, " The Huguenot " and " Ophelia " of 1852, " The Proscribed Royalist " and " The Order of Release " of 1853 — met with less opposition, and established his reputation with the public. Indeed, this may be said to have been accomplished by the " Huguenot " and " Ophelia," the refined sentiment and exquisite execution of which appealed to nearly all who were unprejudiced. The public were also greatly influenced by the splendid champion- ship of Ruskin, who, in letters to The Times, and in a pamphlet called " Pre-Raphaelitism," enthusiastically espoused the cause of the Brotherhood. In 1851 Millais, who had refused to read Modern Painters, where the supposed principles of the Brother- hood were first recommended, became acquainted with Ruskin, and in 1853 went to Scotland with him and Mrs Ruskin, the latter of whom sat for the woman in " The Order of Release." He made several designs for Ruskin, and painted his portrait. In 1855 Millais exhibited " The Rescue," a scene from a fire, which drew great attention, from the frantic expression of the mother and the brilliant painting of the glare. In the Paris Exhibition of this year he was represented by " The Order of Release," " Ophelia " and " The Return of the Dove." This was also the 460 MILLAR— MILLAU year of his marriage with Mrs Ruskin (Euphemia Chalmers, daughter of Mr George Gray of BowersweU., Perth), who had obtained a decree of the nullity of her previous marriage. The newly-wedded couple went to live at Annat Lodge, near Bowers- well, where " Autumn Leaves," described by Ruskin as " the first instance of a perfect twilight," was painted. This and " Peace Concluded " were singled out for special praise by Ruskin in his notes on the Academy Exhibition of 1856, which contained, with other works by Millais, the picture of " A Blind Girl," with a beautiful background of Icklesham and its common. The principal pictures of 1857 were " Sir Isumbras at the Ford," and " The Escape of a Heretic," both of which were violently attacked by Ruskin, who was kinder to the " Apple-blossoms " and ,: Vale of Rest " of 1859, extolling the power of their painting, but still insisting on the degeneracy of the artist. The " Black Brunswicker " of i860 was in motive very like the " Huguenot," but it was less refined in expression, and a great deal broader in execution, and may be said to mark the end of the period of transition from his minute Pre-Raphaelite manner to the masterly freedom of his mature style. From i860 to 1869 the invention of Millais was much employed in illustration, especially of Trol- lope's novels, beginning with Framley Parsonage in the Cornhill Magazine. He made altogether eighty-seven drawings for Trollope, and was the cleverest and one of the most prolific of the book illustrators of the 'sixties. He contributed to Moxon's illustrated edition of Tennyson's Poems, and made occasional drawings for Once a Week, the Illustrated London News, Good Words, and other periodicals and books. In 1863 he was elected a Royal Academician. The most important pictures of this and the next few years were " The Eve of St Agnes," remarkable for the painting of moonlight, " Romans leaving Britain " (1865), " Jephthah " (1867), " Rosalind and Celia " (1868), " A Flood," and " The Boyhood of Raleigh " (1870). All these were executed in a very broad and masterly manner. In many of his pictures of this period, such as " The Boyhood of Raleigh," his children were his models, and formed the subject of many more, like "My First Sermon," "My Second Sermon," "Sleeping," " Awake," " Sisters," " The First Minuet," and " The Wolf's Den." He now painted many single figures with more or less sentiment, like " Stella," " Vanessa," and " The Gambler's Wife," with occasionally a' more important composition, like " Pilgrims to St Paul's," and " Victory, O Lord " (exhibited 1871), representing Aaron and Hur holding up Moses' hands (Exod. xvii. 12). With it was exhibited the first and most popular of his pure landscapes, called " Chill October," which was followed at intervals by several others remarkable for literal truth to nature and fine execution. They were all from Perth- shire, where he generally spent the autumn, and included " Scotch Firs " and " Winter Fuel " (painted in 1874), " Over the Hills and Far away," and " The Fringe of the Moor " (1875) and "The Sound of Many Waters" (1876). A later series was painted in the neighbourhood of Murthly, a village in the parish of Little Dunkeld, Perthshire, where he rented a house and shooting from 1881 to 1891. It was to painting nature and the world around him that he principally devoted himself for the last twenty-five years of his life, abandoning imaginative or didactic themes. To this period belong a number of pictures of children, with fancy titles, like "Cherry Ripe," " Little Miss Muffet," " Bubbles," and others well known by reproductions in black and white and in colour for the illustrated papers; and also some charming studies of girlhood, like " Sweetest eyes were ever seen," and " Cinderella." Amongst his more serious pictures were " The Princes in the Tower " (1878), " The Princess Elizabeth " (1879), two pictures from Scott—" Effie Deans " and " The Master of Ravenswood "— painted for Messrs Agnew in 1877 and 1878, and " The North- West Passage," sometimes regarded as his masterpiece, repre- senting an old mariner (painted from Edward John Trelawney, the friend of Byron) listening to some tale of Arctic exploration in a room overlooking the sea and strewn with charts. " A Yeoman of the Guard " (1877) was perhaps his most splendid piece of colour, and was greatly admired at the Paris Exhibition of 1878, where it was sent with " Chill October " and three others of his pictures. But perhaps the works of his later years by which he will be most remembered are his portraits — especially his three portraits of Gladstone (1879, 1885 and 1890), and those of John Bright, of Lord Tennyson, and of Lord Beaconsfield, which was left unfinished at his death. He also painted the marquess of Salisbury, Lord Rosebery, the dukes of Devonshire and Argyll, Cardinal Newman, Thomas Carlyle, Sir James Paget, Sir Henry Irving, George Grote, Lord Chief Justice Russell, J. C. Hook, R.A., and himself (Uffizi Gallery, Florence). He drew Charles Dickens after his death. Amongst his finer portraits of women were those of Mrs Bischoffsheim, the duchess of Westminster, Lady Campbell and Mrs Jopling. No very serious interruption of his usual life as a prosperous English gentleman occurred in these years, except the death of his second son, George, in 1878. In 1875 he went to Holland, one of his few visits to the Continent. In 1879 he left Cromwell Place for a house at Palace Gate, Kensington, which he built, and where he died. In 1885 he was created a baronet, on the suggestion of Mr Gladstone. In 1892 his health began to break down. After a bad attack of influenza he was troubled with a swelling in his throat, which proved to be due to cancer. He suffered much from depression, but worked when he could, and derived much pleasure in painting several pictures, including " St Stephen," " A Disciple," " Speak ! Speak ! " (which was bought out of the Chantrey Bequest), and " The Forerunner " — his last exhibited subject-picture. His finely-characterized portraits of Mr John Hare, the actor, and Sir Richard Quain belong also to his last years. In 1895, in consequence of the illness of Lord (then Sir Frederick) Leighton, he was called upon to preside at the annual banquet of the Royal Academy, and on the death of Lord Leighton he was elected to the presidential chair. He died on the 13th of August 1896, and was buried in St Paul's Cathedral. The Winter Exhibition of the Royal Academy in 1898 was devoted to his works. The list of his honours at home and abroad is a long one. Millais was one of the greatest painters of his time, and did more than any other to infuse a new and healthy life into British art. He had not the imagination of an idealist, but he could paint what he saw with a force which has seldom been excelled. As a man he was manly, frank and genial, devoted to his art and his family, and very fond of sport, especially hunting, fishing and shooting. He was greatly loved by a very large circle of friends. He was singularly handsome, and had a fine presence. The National Gallery of British Art possesses many of his finest works. He is also represented in the National Gallery, in the National Portrait Gallery, the Victoria and Albert Museum, and in the public galleries at Manchester, Liverpool and Birmingham. Authorities. — J. G. Millais, Life and Letters, &c; Ruskin's Modern Painters, Notes on Royal Academy Exhibitions, Pre-Raphaelit- ism, &c; Catalogues of Grosvenor Gallery (summer of 1886); and of Royal Academy (winter of 1898) ; M. H. Spielmann, Millais and his Works (London, 1896); A. L. Baldry, Sir J. E. Millais, his Art and Influence (London, 1899). (C. Mo.) MILLAR, ANDREW (1707-1768), British publisher, was born in 1707. About 1729 he started business as a bookseller and publisher in the Strand, London. His own judgment in literary matters was small, but he collected an excellent staff of literary advisers, and did not hesitate to pay what at the time were considered large prices for good material. " I respect Millar, sir," said Dr Johnson in 1755, " he has raised the price of literature." He paid Thomson £105 for The Seasons, and Fielding a total sum of £700 for Tom Jones and £1000 for Amelia. He was one of the syndicate of booksellers who financed Johnson's Dictionary, and on him the work of seeing that book through the press mainly fell. He also published the histories of Robertson and Hume. He died at his villa at Kew Green, near London, on the 8th of June 1768. MILLAU, a town of southern France, capital of an arron- dissement in the department of Aveyron, on the right bank of the Tarn at its confluence with the Dourbie, 74 m. N. of Beziers on the Southern railway. Pop. (1906), 16,853. Millau lies in a, MILLBURY— MILLENNIUM 461 rich valley 1200 ft. above the sea surrounded by the spurs of the Levezou, Causse Noir and Larzac ranges. The streets are narrow and some of the houses of great antiquity, but the town is surrounded by spacious boulevards. One of its squares is bordered on two sides by wooden galleries supported on stone columns. The only buildings of special interest are the Roman- esque church of Notre Dame, restored in the 16th century, and the fine Gothic belfry of the old hotel de ville. Millau is seat of a sub-prefect, and possesses tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a communal college. The principal industry is the manu- facture of gloves, and various branches of the leather industry are carried on. The chief articles of trade are skins, wool, wine and Roquefort cheese. In the middle ages Millau was the seat of a viscounty held by the counts of Barcelona and afterwards by the counts of Armagnac. In the 16th century it became one of the leading strongholds of Calvinism in southern France. In 1620 it revolted against Louis XIII., and after its submission Richelieu caused its fortifications to be dismantled. The edict of Nantes hastened the decline of the town, which did not recover its prosperity till after the Revolution. MILLBURY, a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts, on the Blackstone river, 5 m. S.S.E. of Worcester. Pop. (1890), 4428; (1900) 4460 (1176 foreign-born); (1905, state census) 4631; (1910) 4740. Area, 15-79 sq. m. Millbury is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford, and the Boston & Albany railways, and by electric interurban railways. It lies for the most part in the valley of the Blackstone river, from which water-power is derived for its mills; among its manufactures are cotton, linen, felt and woollen goods, hemp thread, and foundry and machine-shop products. The municipality owns and operates the waterworks and electric-lighting plant. Millbury was formed in 1813 from the North Parish of Sutton; in 1851 a part of Auburn was annexed to the township. MILLEDGEVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Baldwin county, in the central part of Georgia, U.S.A., on the Oconee river, at the head of navigation, 32 m. E.N.E. of Macon. Pop. (1890), 3322; (1900), 4219 (2663 negroes); (i9ro), 4385. It is served by the Georgia and the Central of Georgia railways. Milledgeville is situated in the Cotton Belt, and its principal industry is the preparation of cotton for the markets. The importance of the place, however, is mainly educational and historical. It is the seat of the Middle Georgia Military and Agricultural College, which occupies the old capitol building, and of the Georgia Normal and Industrial College for girls (1889; enrolment 1908-1909, 653), which is a part of the University of Georgia, and occupies the site of the old state penitentiary. About 2 m. north-west of Milledgeville is the state juvenile reformatory; 2 m. south of the city are the state asylums for white and negro insane; and 3 m. north-west is the state prison farm. Milledgeville was founded in 1803, and was named in honour of John Milledge (1757-1818), a representative in Congress in 1792-1793 and 1795-1802, governor of Georgia in 1802-1806, a United States senator in 1806-1809, and a benefactor of the state university. In 1804 it was made the seat of the state government in place of Louisville (capital in 1 795-1 804; pop. in 1900, roog), a dignity it held until 1868. The city was first chartered in 1836. Although admirably situated for trade and manufacturing, Milledgeville was surpassed in both by Macon, which became the commercial emporium of middle Georgia; but it was a favourite place of residence for the wealthy and cultivated class of Georgians before the Civil War. It was seized by General William T. Sherman on the 23rd of November 1864. In order to remove the state documents beyond reach of the enemy, Governor Joseph E. Brown called upon the convicts in the penitentiary for aid, granting them pardons in return for their services. MILLENNIUM (a pseudo-Latin word formed on the analogy of biennium, triennium, from Lat. milk, a thousand, and annus, year), literally a period of a thousand years. The term is specially used of the period of 1000 years during which Christ, as has been believed, would return to govern the earth in person. Hence it is used to describe a vague time in the future when all flaws in human existence will have vanished, and perfect good- ness and happiness will prevail. The attribution of a mystic significance to the millennium-period, though perhaps not prominent in that theory of Christian eschatology to which the names Millenarianism and Chiliasm (from Gr. x l ^"*s, a thousand) are given, is quite common in non-Christian religions and cosmological systems. Faith in the nearness of Christ's second advent and the establishing of his reign of glory on the earth was undoubtedly a strong point in the primitive Christian Church. In the antici- pations of the future prevalent amongst the early Christians (c. 50-150) it is necessary to distinguish a fixed and a fluctuating element. The former includes (1) the notion that a last terrible battle with the enemies of God- was impending; (2) the faith in the speedy return of Christ; (3) the conviction that Christ will judge all men, and (4) will set up a kingdom of glory on earth. To the latter belong views of the Antichrist, of the heathen world- power, of the place, extent, and duration of the earthly kingdom of Christ, &c. These remained in a state of solution; they were modified from day to day, partly because of the changing circum- stances of the present by which forecasts of the future were regulated, partly because the indications — real or supposed— of the ancient prophets always admitted of new combinations and constructions. But even here certain positions were agreed on in large sections of Christendom. Amongst these was the expectation that the future kingdom of Christ on earth should have a fixed duration — according to the most prevalent opinion, a duration of one thousand years. From this fact the whole ancient Christian eschatology was known in later times as " chiliasm " — a name which is not strictly accurate, since the doctrine of the millennium was only one feature in its scheme of the future. 1. This idea that the Messianic kingdom of the future on earth should have a definite duration has — like the whole eschatology of the primitive Church — its roots in the Jewish apocalyptic literature, where it appears at a comparatively late period. At first it was assumed that the Messianic kingdom in Palestine would last for ever (so the prophets; cf. Jer. xxiv. 6; Ezek. xxxvii. 25; Joel iv. 20; Dan. vi. 27; Sibyll. iii. 49 seq., 766; Psalt. Salom. xvii. 4; Enocn lxii. 14), and this seems always to have been the most widely accepted view (John xii. 34). But from a comparison of prophetic passages of the Old Testament learned apocalyptic writers came to the conclusion that a dis- tinction must be drawn between the earthly appearance of the Messiah and the appearance of God Himself amongst His people and in the Gentile world for the final judgment. As a necessary consequence, a limited period had to be assigned to the Messianic kingdom. According to the Apocalypse of Baruch (xl. 3) this kingdom will last." donee finiatur mundus corruptionis." In the Book of Enoch (xci. 12) "a week " is specified, in the Apoca- lypse of Ezra (vii. 28 seq.) four hundred years. This figure, corresponding to the four hundred years of Egyptian bondage, occurs also in the Talmud (Sanhedrin 99a). But this is the only passage; the Talmud has no fixed doctrine on the point. The view most frequently expressed there (see Von Otto in Hilgenf eld's Zeitschrijt, 1877, p. 527 seq.) is that the Messianic kingdom will last for one thousand (some said two thousand) years. " In six days God created the world, on the seventh He rested. But a day of God is equal to a thousand years (Ps. xc. 4). Hence the world will last for six thousand years of toil and labour; then will come one thousand years of Sabbath rest for the people of God in the kingdom of the Messiah." This idea must have already been very common in the first century before Christ. The combination of Gen. i., Dan. ix. and Ps. xc. 4 was peculiarly fascinating. Nowhere in the discourses of Jesus is there a hint of a limited duration of the Messianic kingdom. The apostolic epistles are equally free from any trace of chiliasm (neither 1 Cor. xv. 23 seq. nor r Thess. iv. 16 seq. points in this direction). In Revelation however, it occurs in the following shape (ch. xx.). After 462 MILLENNIUM Christ has appeared from heaven in the guise of a warrior, and vanquished the antichristian world-power, the wisdom of the world and the devil, those who have remained steadfast in the time of the last catastrophe, and have given up their lives for their faith, shall be raised up, and shall reign with Christ on this earth as a royal priesthood for one thousand years. At the end of this time Satan is to be let loose again for a short season; he will prepare a new onslaught, but God will miraculously destroy him and his hosts. Then will follow the general resurrection of the dead, the last judgment, and the creation of new heavens and a new earth. That all believers will have a share in the first resurrection and in the Messianic kingdom is an idea of which the author of Revelation knows nothing. The earthly kingdom of Christ is reserved for those who have endured the most terrible tribulation, who have withstood the supreme effort of the world- power — that is, for those who are actually members of the church of the last days. The Jewish expectation is thus considerably curtailed, as it is also shorn of its sensual attractions. " Blessed and holy is he that hath part in the first resurrection; on such the second death hath no power; but they shall be priests of God and of Christ, and shall reign with Him a thousand years." Other ancient Christian authors were not so cautious. Accepting the Jewish apocalypses as sacred books of venerable antiquity, they read them eagerly, and transferred their contents bodily to Christianity. Nay more, the Gentile Christians took possession of them, and just in proportion as they were neglected by the Jews — who, after the war of Bar-Cochba, became indifferent to the Messianic hope and hardened themselves once more in devotion to the law — they were naturalized in the Christian com- munities. The result was that these books became " Christian " documents; it is entirely to Christian, not to Jewish, tradition that we owe their preservation. The Jewish expectations are adopted for example, by Papias, by the writer of the epistle of Barnabas, and by Justin. Papias actually confounds expressions of Jesus with verses from the Apocalypse of Baruch, referring to the amazing fertility of the days of the Messianic kingdom (Papias in Iren. v. 33). Barnabas (Ep. 15) gives us the Jewish theory (from Gen. i. and Ps. xc. 4) that the present condition of the world is to last six thousand years from the creation, that at the beginning of the Sabbath (the seventh millennium) the Son of God appears, to put an end to the time of " the unjust one," to judge the ungodly and renew the earth. But he does not indulge, like Papias, in sensuous descriptions of this seventh millennium; to Barnabas it is a time of rest, of sinlessness, and of a holy peace. It is not the end, however; it is followed by an eighth day of eternal duration — " the beginning of another world." So that in the view of Barnabas the Messianic reign still belongs to ovtos 6 atcoe. Justin (Dial. 80) speaks of chiliasm as a necessary part of complete orthodoxy, although he knows Christians who do not accept it. He believes, with the Jews, in a restoration and extension of the city of Jerusalem; he assumes that this city will be the seat of the Messianic kingdom, and he takes it as a matter of course that there all believers (here he is at one with Barnabas) along with patriarchs and prophets will enjoy perfect felicity for one thousand years. That a philosopher like Justin, with a bias towards an Hellenic con- struction of the Christian religion, should nevertheless have accepted its chiliastic elements is the strongest proof that these enthusiastic expectations were inseparably bound up with the Christian faith down to the middle of the 2nd century. And another proof is found in the fact that even a speculative Jewish Christian like Cerinthus not only did not renounce the chiliastic hope, but pictured the future kingdom of Christ as a kingdom of sensual pleasures, of eating and drinking and marriage festivities (Euseb. H. E. iii. 28, vii. 25). After the middle of the 2nd century these expectations were gradually thrust into the background. They would never have died out, however, had not circumstances altered, and a new mental attitude been taken up. The spirit of philosophical and theological speculation and of ethical reflection, which began to spread through the churches, did not know what to make of the dd hopes of the future. To a new generation they seemed pa ltry, earthly and fantastic, and far-seeing men had good reason to regard them as a source of political danger. But more than this, these wild dreams about the glorious kingdom of Christ began to disturb the organization which the churches had seen fit to intro- duce. In the interests of self-preservation against the world, the state and the heretics, the Christian communities had formed themselves into compact societies with a definite creed and con- stitution, and they felt that their existence was threatened by the white heat of religious subjectivity. So early as the year 170, a church party in Asia Minor — the so-called Alogi — rejected the whole body of apocalyptic writings and denounced the book of Revelation as a book of fables. All the more powerful was the reaction. In the so-called Montanistic controversy (c. 160-220) one of the principal issues involved was the continuance of the chiliastic expectations in the churches. The Montanists of Asia Minor defended them in their integrity, with one slight modifica- tion: they announced that Pepuza, the city of Montanus, would be the site of the New Jerusalem and the millennial kingdom. After the Montanistic controversy chiliastic views were more and more discredited in the Greek Church; they were, in fact, stigma- tized as " Jewish " and consequently " heretical." It was the Alexandrian theology that superseded them; that is to say, Neo- Platonic mysticism triumphed over the early Christian hope of the future, first among the " cultured," and then, when the theology of the " cultured " had taken the faith of the " un- cultured " under its protection, amongst the latter also. About the year 260 an Egyptian bishop, Nepos, in a treatise called e\e7xos aWriyopiaruv, endeavoured to overthrow the Origenistic theology and vindicate, chiliasm by exegetical methods. Several congregations took his part; but ultimately Dionysius, bishop of Alexandria, succeeded in healing the schism and asserting the allegorical interpretation of the prophets as the only legitimate exegesis. During this controversy Dionysius became convinced that the victory of mystical theology over " Jewish " chiliasm would never be secure so long as the book of Revelation passed for an apostolic writing and kept its place among the homolo- goumena of the canon. He accordingly raised the question of its apostolic origin; and by reviving old difficulties, with ingenious arguments of his own, he carried his point. At the time of Eusebius the Greek Church was saturated with prejudice against the book and with doubts as to its canonicity. In the course of the 4th century it was removed from the Greek canon, and thus the troublesome foundation on which chiliasm might have continued to build was got rid of. The attempts of Metho- dius of Tyre at the beginning of the 4th century and Apollinarius of Laodicea about 360 to defend chiliasm and assail the theology of Origen had no result. For many centuries the Greek Church kept Revelation out of its canon, and consequently chiliasm remained in its grave. It was considered a sufficient safeguard against the spiritualizing eschatology of Origen and his school to have rescued the main doctrines of the creed and the regula fidei (the visible advent of Christ; eternal misery and hell-fire for the wicked). Anything beyond this was held to be Jewish. It was only the chronologists and historians of the church who, following Julius Africanus, made use of apocalyptic numbers in their calculations, while court theologians like Eusebius entertained the imperial table with discussions as to whether the dining-hall of the emperor — the second David and Solomon, the beloved of God — might not be the New Jerusalem of John's Apocalypse. Eusebius was not the first who dabbled in such speculations. Dionysius of Alexandria had already referred a Messianic pre- diction of the Old Testament to the emperor Gallienus. But mysticism and political servility between them gave the death- blow to chiliasm in the Greek Church. It never again obtained a footing there; for, although, late in the middle ages, the book of Revelation— by what means we cannot tell — did recover its authority, the Church was by that time so hopelessly trammelled by a magical cultus as to be incapable of fresh developments. In the Semitic churches of the East (the Syrian, Arabian and Ethiopian), and in that of Armenia, the apocalyptic literature was preserved much longer than in the Greek Church. They were very conservative of ancient traditions in general, and hence MILLER, H. 463 chiliasm survived amongst them to a later date than in Alexandria or Constantinople. But the Western Church was also more conservative than the Greek. Her theologians had, to begin with, little turn for mystical speculation; their tendency was rather to reduce the gospel to a system of morals. Now for the moralists chiliasm had a special significance as the one distinguishing feature of the gospel, and the only thing that gave a specifically Christian character to their system. This, however, holds good of the Western theologians only after the middle of the 3rd century. The earlier fathers, Irenaeus, Hippolytus, Tertullian, believed in chiliasm simply because it was a part of the tradition of the church and because Marcion and the Gnostics would have nothing to do with it. Irenaeus (v. 28, 29) has the same conception of the millennial kingdom as Barnabas and Papias, and appeals in support of it to the testimony of disciples of the apostles. Hip- polytus, although an opponent of Montanism, was nevertheless a thorough-going millennarian (see his book De Antichristo) . Tertullian (cf. especially Adv. Marcion., 3) aimed at a more spiritual conception of the millennial blessings than Papias had, but he still adhered, especially in his Montanistic period, to all the ancient anticipations. It is the same all through the 3rd and 4th centuries with those Latin theologians who escaped the influence of Greek speculation. Commodian, Victorinus Petta- vensis, Lactantius and Sulpicius Severus were all pronounced millennarians, holding by the very details of the primitive Christian expectations. They still believe, as John did, in the return of Nero as the Antichrist; they still expect that after the first resurrection Christ will reign with his saints " in the flesh " for a thousand years. Once, but only once (in the Gospel of Nicodemus), the time is reduced to five hundred years. Victori- nus wrote a commentary on the Apocalypse of John; and all these theologians, especially Lactantius, were diligent students of the ancient Sibylline oracles of Jewish and Christian origin, and treated them as divine revelations. As to the canonicity and apostolic authorship of the Johannine Apocalypse no doubts were ever entertained in the West; indeed an Apocalypse of Peter was still retained in the canon in the 3rd century. That of Ezra, in its Latin translation, must have been all but a canoni- cal book — the numbers of extant manuscripts of the so-called 4 Ezra being incredibly great, while several of them are found in copies of the Latin Bible at the beginning of the 16th century. The Apocalypse of Hermas was much read till far through the middle ages, and has also kept its place in some Bibles. The apocalyptic " Testamenta duodecim patriarcharum " was a favourite reading-book ; and Latin versions of ancient apocalypses are being continually brought to light from Western libraries {e.g. the Assumptio Mosis, the Ascensio Jesajae, &c). All these facts show how vigorously the early hopes of the future main- tained themselves in the West. In the hands of moralistic theologians, like Lactantius, they certainly assume a somewhat grotesque form, but the fact that these men clung to them is the clearest evidence that in the West millennarianism was still a point of " orthodoxy " in the 4th century. This state of matters, however, gradually disappeared after the end of the 4th century. The change was brought about by two causes — first, Greek theology, which reached the West chiefly through Jerome Rufinus and Ambrose, and, second, the new idea of the church wrought out by Augustine on the basis of the altered political situation of the church. Augustine was the first who ventured to teach that the catholic church, in its empirical form, was the kingdom of Christ, that the millennial kingdom had commenced with the appearing of Christ, and was therefore an accomplished fact. By this doctrine of Augustine's, the old millennarianism, though not completely extirpated, was at least banished from the official theology. It still lived on, however, in the lower strata of Christian society; and in certain undercurrents of tradition it was transmitted from century to century. At various periods in the history of the middle ages we encounter sudden outbreaks of millennarianism, sometimes as the tenet of a small sect, sometimes as a far-reaching movement. And, since it had been suppressed, not, as in the East, by mystical speculation, its mightiest antagonist, but by the political church of the hierarchy, we find that wherever chiliasm appears in the middle ages it makes common cause with all enemies of the secularized church. It strengthened the hands of church democracy; it formed an alliance with the pure souls who held up to the church the ideal of apostolic poverty; it united itself for a time even with mysticism in a common opposition to the supremacy of the church; nay, it lent the strength of its convic- tions to the support of states and princes in their efforts to break the political power of the church. It is sufficient to recall the well-known names of Joachim of Floris, of all the numerous Franciscan spiritualists, of the leading sectaries from the 13th to the 15th century who assailed the papacy and the secularism of the church — above all, the name of Occam. In these men the millennarianism of the ancient church came to life again; and in the revolutionary movements of the 15th and 16th centuries — especially in the Anabaptist movements — it appears with all its old uncompromising energy. If the church, and not the state, was regarded as Babylon, and the pope declared to be the Anti- christ, these were legitimate inferences from the ancient traditions and the actual position of the church. But, of course, the new chiliasm was not in every respect identical with the old. It could not hold its ground without admitting certain innovations. The " everlasting gospel " of Joachim of Floris was a different thing from the announcement of Christ's glorious return in the clouds of heaven; the " age of the spirit " which mystics and spiritualists expected contained traits which must be character- ized as " modern "; and the " kingdom " of the Anabaptists in Munster was a Satanic caricature of that kingdom in which the Christians of the 2nd century looked for a peaceful Sabbath rest. Only we must not form our ideas of the great apocalyptic and chiliastic movement of the first decades of the 16th century from the rabble in Munster. There were pure evangelical forces at work in it; and many Anabaptists need not shun com- parison with the Christians of the apostolic and post-apostolic ages. The German and Swiss Reformers also believed that the end of the world was near, but they had different aims in view from those of the Anabaptists. It was not from poverty and apoca- lypticism that they hoped for a reformation of the Church. In contrast to the fanatics, after a brief hesitation they threw millen- narianism overboard, and along with it all other " opiniones Judaicae." They took up the same ground in this respect which the Roman Catholic Church had occupied since the time of Augustine. How millennarianism nevertheless found its way, with the help of apocalyptic mysticism and Anabaptist influences into the churches of the Reformation, chiefly among the Re- formed sects, but afterwards also in the Lutheran Church, how it became incorporated with Pietism, how in more recent times an exceedingly mild type of " academic " chiliasm has been developed from a belief in the verbal inspiration of the Bible, how finally new sects are still springing up here and there with apocalyptic and chiliastic expectations — these are matters which cannot be fully entered upon here. See Schtirer, Lehrbuch der neutestamentlichen Zeitgeschichte (1874), §§ 28, 29; Corrodi, Kritische Geschichte des Chiliasmus (1781); R. H. Charles, The Doctrine of a Future Life (1899); Book of the Secrets of Enoch (1896), pp. xxvii-xxx, ch. xxxii. 2-xxxiii. 2; Apocalypse of Baruch (1896), xxix. 3-8 (notes); Book of Enoch (index, s.v. " Messianic Kingdom"); Bousset, Religion des Juden- thums (1903), 273-276; C. A. Briggs, The Messiah of the Apostles, p. 284 seq. ; Sabatier, Les Origines litteraires et la composition de l' Apocalypse de St Jean (1887); Spitta, Die Offenbarung des Johannes untersucht (1889). See also Eschatology and works there quoted. (A. Ha.) MILLER, HUGH (1802-1856), Scottish geologist and man of letters, was born in humble circumstances at Cromarty, on the 10th of October 1802; his father, Hugh Miller, a seaman, was drowned when he was but five years old. His primary education was acquired at a dame's school and afterwards at the parish school, and at the age of six he had learned that " the art of reading is the art of finding stories in books." At the age of twelve he began to write verses. Two of his mother's brothers, James and " Sandy " Wright, hard-working men at Cromarty, 464 MILLER, JOAQUIN— MILLER, W. offered to assist him to enter the ministry, but he felt no call to the sacred office, and from 1820 to 1822 he was apprenticed to a stone-mason. During the next few years he obtained employ- ment as a journeyman mason in Edinburgh, Inverness and various other parts of Scotland. The writing of verses occupied his leisure hours, and in 1826 he sent to the Scotsman an " Ode on Greece " which was refused. It was not until 1829 that he met with his first success in the publication of Poems written in the Leisure Hours of a Journeyman Mason. These were printed and issued from the office of the Inverness Courier. Miller now turned his attention to prose and contributed many essays to the Inverness Courier. As remarked by Sir A. Geikie, " These made so favourable an impression that they were soon afterwards reprinted separately. They marked the advent of a writer gifted with no ordinary powers of narration and with the command of a pure, nervous and masculine style." At the age of thirty-two he was still a stone-mason, but in the latter part of 1834 he was offered a post as accountant in the Commercial Bank of Scotland, and was almost immediately transferred to the Cromarty branch. His prose writings had now attracted much notice, and he next issued in 1835 Scenes and Legends of the North of Scotland, or the traditional history of Cro- marty, in which he introduced some memoranda on the geology. This work met with a cordial reception. Miller, while still a stone-mason, had observed the abundant fossils in the Jurassic shales on the shores of Ethie, but it was not until 1830 that he first obtained remains of fossil fishes in the Old Red Sandstone. These for many years he collected and studied as far as he could, and in 1837 some of his specimens were brought to the notice of R. I. Murchison and Professor Agassiz. In the following year he was in communication with Murchison and his career as a geologist was definitely opened. In 1837 Miller married Lydia Falconer Frazer (i8ii?-i876), a lady of good position and great natural ability, whom he had met six years previously. He set up his household in Cromarty, on a salary of sixty pounds a year, aided by the small sums he then earned by literary work; and his wife took a few pupils. Mrs Miller eventually became well known under the pseudonym of Mrs Harriet Myrtle as author of the Ocean Child (1857) and other story-books for children. Soon after his marriage, Miller became greatly stirred by the internal dissensions in the Church of Scotland, of which he was a staunch member and he published two pamphlets which brought him to the notice of some of the prominent members of the liberal church party. In 1839 he went by invitation to Edinburgh to edit a new Whig newspaper, the Witness, which was intended to support the views of those who after the disruption in 1843 formed the Free Church. The paper rapidly attained a large circulation; and this was no doubt largely due to his own literary and scientific essays. In 1840 he contributed a series of articles on The Old Red Sandstone, and these were reprinted in book form in the following year. The charm of this work was widely appreciated, as was also the natural sagacity shown in the descriptions and restora- tions of some of the fossil fishes. His Footprints of the Creator was published in 1849, and My Schools and Schoolmasters in 1854. He was engaged on the final proofs of his Testimony of the Rocks on the day of his death. During the last year of his life he suffered from inflammation of the lungs; and the strain of ill-health proving too severe, he died by his own hand in Edinburgh on the 23rd of December 1856. By request of his wife, The Cruise of the Betsey, with Rambles of a Geologist (1858) previously printed only in the Witness newspaper was published under the editorship of the Rev. W. S. Symonds. In memory of Hugh Miller a monument was erected by public subscription in i860 at Cromarty; and the cottage in which he was born was acquired at a later period by his son Hugh. In it have been placed part of his library, a set of the Witness newspaper, some letters addressed to him, and a number of geo- logical specimens, including many referred to in his Old Red Sandstone. On the 22nd of August 1902 the centenary of his birth was celebrated at Cromarty, and was attended by scientific representatives from all parts of the world. His elder son, Hugh Miller (1850-1896), passed through the Royal School of Mines and joined the Geological Survey in England in 1873; afterwards he was transferred to Scotland and surveyed the country around Cromarty and other parts of Ross-shire and Sutherlandshire. He was author of Landscape Geology, 1891. See The Life and Letters of Hugh Miller, by Peter Bayne (2 vols., 1871) ; Hugh Miller; his work and influence, address by Sir A. Geikie, at the centenary celebration. (H. B. Wo.) MILLER, JOAQUIN (Cincinnatus Heine) (1841- ), American poet, was born in Indiana, on the 10th of November 1 84 1, and was educated for the law. After some experiences of mining and journalism in Idaho and Oregon, he settled down in 1866 as judge in Grant county, Oregon, and during his four years' tenure of this post he began to write verse. In 1870 he travelled in Europe, and in 1871 he published his first volume of poetry, full of tropical passion, Songs of the Sierras, on which his reputation mainly rests. His Songs of the Sunlands (1873) followed in the same vein, and after other volumes had appeared, his Collected Poems were published in 1882. He also wrote plays, The Danites in the Sierras having some success as a sensational melodrama. On his return from Europe he became a journalist in Washington, but in 1887 returned to California. His pen- name, " Joaquin Miller," by which he is known, was assumed by him when he published his first book, in consequence of his having written an article in defence of Joaquin Murietta, the Mexican brigand. Revised editions oi his Complete Poetical Works appeared at San Francisco in 1902. MILLER, JOE (Joseph or Josias( (1684-1738), English actor, first appears in the cast of Sir Robert Howard's Committee at Drury Lane in 1709 as Teague. Trinculo in The Tempest, the First Grave-digger in Hamlet and Marplot in The Busybody, were among his many favourite parts. He is said to have been a friend of Hogarth. He died on the 16th of August 1738. After his death, John Mottley (169 2-1 7 50) brought out a book called Joe Miller's Jests, or Wit's Vade Mecum (1739), a collection of contemporary and ancient coarse witticisms, only three of which are told of Miller. Owing to the quality of the jokes in Mottley's book, their number increasing with each of the many subsequent editions, any time-worn jest has, somewhat unjustly, come to be called " a Joe Miller." MILLER, SAMUEL FREEMAN (1816-1890), American jurist, was born in Richmond, Kentucky, on the 5th of April 1816, of Pennsylvania- German stock. He was brought up on a farm, was a clerk in a drug-store, graduated from the medical department of Transylvania University in 1838, and practised medicine in Barboursville, Kentucky, until 1847. In that year he was admitted to the bar, and entered politics as a Whig. His anti- slavery sympathies induced him to settle in Iowa, where in 1850 he freed his slaves and began to practise law in Keokuk, and he soon became a leader of the Republican party in the state. In 1862 he succeeded Justice Peter V. Daniel (1784-1860), as a justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, and served until his death in Washington, D.C., on the 13th of October 1890, when he was senior justice. Miller was a man of great mental force and individuality, and his judgments carried great weight. In 1877 he was a member of the electoral commission, which adopted his' motion that Congress could not " go behind the returns " as properly accredited by state officials. He was a prominent member of the Unitarian Church and for three years was president of its national conference. He published a volume of Lectures on the Constitution of the United States (New York, 1891). See Wm. A. Maury, in The Juridical Review of Edinburgh (for January 1 891), and Chas. M. Gregory, in Yale Law Journal (for April 1908). MILLER, WILLIAM (1782-1849), leader of the Second Adventists in America, was born on the 5th of February 1782 at Pittsfield, Massachusetts. He was a recruiting officer at the beginning of the War of 181 2, and after Plattsburg he was promoted captain, retiring from the army in 1815. About 1816 he settled in Low Hampton, Washington county, New York. MILLER, W.— MILLERITE 465 He now joined the Baptist Church at Low Hampton, and, after two years of minute study of the Bible, about 1818 became a Second Adventist. In 1831 he began to lecture, arguing that the " two thousand three hundred days " of Daniel viii. 14 meant 2300 years, and that these years began with Ezra's going up to Jerusalem in 457 B.C., and therefore came to an end in 1843, and urging his hearers to make ready for the final coming of Christ in that year. To his many followers, after the year 1 843 had passed, he proclaimed that 1844 was the year, that his error was due to following Hebrew instead of Roman chronology, and that the 22nd of October was to be the day. There was renewed excite- ment among Miller's followers; many of them left their business, and in white muslin robes, on house tops and hills, awaited the epiphany. In spite of disappointment, many still believed with him that the time was near. He returned to Low Hampton and died there on the 20th of December 1849. The Adventists or Millerites, who were formed into a single body in a convention called by him in April 1845, have since separated into several sects: the Evangelical Adventists (1147 in the United States in 1908), who believe in everlasting punishment; the Seventh Day Adventists (64,332), who observe the seventh day, and practise the sacrament of foot- washing; the Advent Christians (26,500), the Churches of God in Jesus Christ (2872), and the Life and Advent Union (3800). Their total number in the United States in 1908 was about 99,300. Miller published in 1833 a pamphlet which was the basis of his lectures; these were published in 1842 as Evidence from Scripture and History of the Second Coming of Christ about the Year 1843. See Sylvester Bliss, Memoirs of William Miller (Boston, 1853); James White, Sketches of the Christian Life and Public Labors of William Miller (Battle Creek, 1875); and Edward Eggleston's novel, End of the World (1872). MILLER, WILLIAM (1795-1861), British soldier, who took a prominent part in the South American Wars of Liberation, entered the British artillery service in 181 1, and till 1814 he was continuously on active service with Wellington's army in the Peninsula. In the latter year he accompanied the ill-fated New Orleans expedition. After the general peace he travelled for two years about Europe, and then went to South America. The war which culminated in the expulsion of the Spaniards was just breaking out, and he took command in the Chilean artillery, with which he served during the Chilean part of the war. As a major he commanded the marines on Cochrane's vessel, the " O'Higgins." In 1821 he landed in Peru, to assist General San Martin against the Spanish General Canterac. He was made general of brigade, and became very intimate with Simon Bolivar. He rendered the most conspicuous services at Junin (Aug. 6, 1824), and his regiment, the " Hussars of Junin," covered itself with glory in the decisive victory of Ayacucho (Dec. 9, 1824). From 1830 to 1839 he filled various high military and political offices in Peru. In the latter year he was involved in the fall of Santa Cruz, and went into exile. For some years he filled the post of British Consul-General of the Pacific Coast. He died on board H.M.S. " Naiad " at Callao, on the 31st of October 1861. See the Memoirs published by his brotherJohnMiller(London,l827). MILLER, WILLIAM (1796-1882), Scottish line-engraver, was born in Edinburgh on the 28th of May 1796. After studying in London under George Cook, a pupil of Basire's, he returned to Edinburgh. He executed plates after Thomson of Duddingston, Macculloch, D. O. Hill, Sir George Harvey, and other Scottish landscapists, but his chief works were his transcripts from Turner. The first of these was the Clovelly (1824), of The Southern Coast, a publication undertaken by George Cook and his brother William B. Cook, to which Miller also contributed the Combe Martin and the Portsmouth. He was engaged on the illustrations of England and Wales, 1827-1838; of The Rivers of France, 1833- 1835; of Roger's Poems, 1834; and very largely on those of The Prose and Poetical Works of Sir Walter Scott, 1834. In The Pro- vincial Antiquities and Picturesque Scenery of Scotland, 1826, he executed a few excellent plates after Thomson and Turner. Among his larger engravings of Turner's works may be mentioned "The Grand Canal, Venice"; "The Rhine, Osterprey and Feltzen "; " The Bell Rock "; " The Tower of London "; and " The Shepherd." The art of William Miller was warmly appre- ciated by Turner himself, and Ruskin pronounced him to be on the whole the most successful translator into line of the paintings of the greatest English landscapist. His renderings of complex Turnerian sky-effects are especially delicate and masterly. To- wards the end of his life Miller abandoned engraving and occupied his leisure in the production of water-colours, many of which were exhibited in the Royal Scottish Academy, of which he was an honorary member. He resumed his burin, however, to produce two final series of vignettes from drawings by Birket Foster illustrative of Hood's Poems, published by Moxon in 1871. Miller, who was a Quaker, died on the 20th of January 1882. MILLER, WILLIAM HALLOWES (1801-1880), British mineralogist and crystallographer, was born at Velindre near Llandovery, Carmarthenshire, on the 6th of April 1801. He was educated at St John's College, Cambridge, where he gradu- ated in 1826 as fifth wrangler, and became a fellow in 1829. For a few years he was occupied as a college tutor and during this time he published treatises on hydrostatics and hydro- dynamics. He also gave special attention to crystallography, and on the resignation of W. Whewell he succeeded in 1832 to the professorship of mineralogy, a post which he occupied until 1870. His chief work, on Crystallography, was published in 1838. He was elected F.R.S. in 1838. In 1852 he edited a new edition of H. J. Brooke's Elementary Introduction to Miner- alogy. He assisted in 1843 the committee appointed to super- intend the construction of the new Parliamentary standards of length and weight (see Phil. Trans., 1856). He died in Cambridge on the 20th of May 1880. MILLERAND, ALEXANDRE (1859- ), French socialist and politician, was born in Paris on the 10th of February 1859. He was educated for the bar, and made his reputation by his defence, in company with Georges Laguerre, of Ernest Rcche and Duc-Quercy, the instigators of the strike at Decazeville in 1883; he then took Laguerre's place on M. Clemenceau's paper, La Justice. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies for the department of the Seine in 1885 as a radical socialist. He was associated with MM. Clemenceau and Camille Pelletan as an arbitrator in the Carmaux scrike (1892). He had long had the ear of the Chamber in matters of social legislation, and after the Panama scandals had discredited so many politicians his influence grew. He was chief of the Socialist left, which then mustered sixty members, and edited until 1896 their organ in the press, La Petite Republique. His programme included the collective ownership of the means of production and the international association of labour, but when in June 1899 he entered Waldeck-Rousseau's cabinet of " republican defence " as minister of commerce he limited himself to practical reforms, devoting his attention to the improvement of the mercantile marine, to the development of trade, of technical education, of the postal system, and to the amelioration of the conditions of labour. Labour questions were entrusted to a separate department, the Direction du Travail, and the pension and insurance office was also raised to the status of a " direction. " The introduction of trades-union representatives on the Supreme Labour Council, the organization of local labour councils, and the instructions to factory inspectors to put themselves in communication with the councils of the trades-unions, were valuable concessions to labour, and he further secured the rigorous application of earlier laws devised for the protection of the working-classes. His name was especially associated with a project for the establishment of old age pensions, which became law in 1905. He became in 1898 editor of La Lanterne. His influence with the extreme Socialists had already declined, for it was said that his departure from the true Marxist tradition had disintegrated the party. For his administration in the Waldeck-Rousseau cabinet see A. Lavy, VCEuvre de Millerand (1902); his speeches between 1899 and 1907 were published in 1907 as Travail et travailleurs, MILLERITE, a mineral consisting of nickel sulphide, NiS. Crystals belong to the rhombohedral system and have the form 4 66 MILLER'S THUMB— MILLET, J. F. of slender needles arranged in divergent groups or of delicate fibres loosely matted together. The colour is brass-yellow and the lustre metallic. Before the chemical composition of the mineral had been determined it had been known as " capillary pyrites " or " hair pyrites " (Ger., Haarkies), and was not distinguished from the capillary forms of pyrites and marcasite: the name millerite was given by W. Hai dinger in 1845, in honour of W. H. Miller. The hardness is 3-3^ and the specific gravity 5-65. There are perfect cleavages parallel to the faces of the rhombohedron (100); and gliding planes parallel to the faces of the rhombohedron (no), on which secon- dary twinning may be readily produced artificially by pressure. Typical specimens of millerite are found in the coal measures in the neighbourhood of Merthyr Tydvil in South Wales, where the delicate needles and fibres occur with crystals of quartz and pearl-spar in the fissures of septarian nodules of clay- ironstone. Radiating groups of needles are found with ankerite in cavities in haematite in the Sterling mine at Antwerp in Jefferson county, New York. At the Gap mine in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, the mineral occurs as fibrous encrusting masses with a velvety lustre. The most perfect crystals are those formerly found with calcite, diopside and a bright green chrome-garnet in a nickel mine at Orford in Sherbrooke county, Quebec. (L. J. S.) MILLER'S THUMB (Cottus gobio), a small fish, abundant in all rivers and lakes of northern and central Europe with clear water and gravelly bottom. The genus Cottus, to which the miller's thumb belongs, is easily recognized by its broad, flat head, rounded and scaleless body, large pectoral and narrow ventral fins, with two dorsal fins, the anterior shorter than the posterior; the praeoperculum is armed with a simple or branched spine. The species of the genus Cottus are rather numerous, and are Gonfined to the north temperate zone of the globe, the majority being marine, and known by the name of " bullheads." The miller's thumb is confined to fresh water; and only one other freshwater species is found in Europe, C. poecilopus, from rivers of Hungary, Galicia, and the Pyrenees; some others occur in the fresh waters of northern Asia and North America. The miller's thumb is common in all suitable localities in Great Britain, but is extremely rare in Ireland; in the Alps it reaches to an altitude exceeding 7000 ft. Its usual length is from 3 to 5 in. Generally hidden under a stone or in a hollow of the bank, it watches for its prey, which consists of small aquatic animals, and darts when disturbed with extra- ordinary rapidity to some other place of refuge. The female deposits her ova in a cavity under a stone, whilst the male watches and defends them until the young are hatched and able to shift for themselves. MILLET, FRANCIS DAVIS (1846- ), American artist, was born at Mattapoisett, Massachusetts, on the 3rd of November 1846. He was a drummer boy with the Union forces in the Civil War; graduated from Harvard College in 1869; and in 1871 entered the Royal Academy of Fine Arts, Antwerp, where he studied under Van Lerius and De Keyser. In 1873 he was made secretary of the Massachusetts commission to the Vienna Exposition. During the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 he was correspondent of the London Daily News and Graphic, and of the New York Herald. On his return he was made a member from the United States of the International Art Jury at the Paris Exposition of 1878. He was director of decorations at the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893, and in 1898 he went to Manila as war correspondent for The Times and for Harper's Weekly. In 1880 he became a member of the Society of American Artists, and in 1885 was elected to full membership in the National Academy of Design, New York, and was for one term its vice-president; he became a member also of the American Water Color Society and of the Institute of Painters in Oil Colours, London. As a decorative artist his work may be seen at Trinity Church, Boston; the Bank of Pittsburg; and the Capitol at St Paul, Minnesota. His pictures are in many public collections: among them are " A Cosy Corner," in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; " At the Inn," in the Union League Club, New York; and " Between two Fires," in the Tate Gallery, London. He also wrote essays and short stories, and an English version of Tolstoi's Sebastopol (1887); and among his publications are The Danube (1891), Capillary Crime and other Stories (1892), and Expedition to the Philip- pines (1899). MILLET (or Mile), JEAN FRANCOIS (c. 1642-1679), com- monly called Francisque, was born at Antwerp about 1642, and is generally classed amongst the painters of Flanders on account of the accident of his birth. But his father was a Frenchman, a turner in ivory of Dijon, who took service with the prince of Conde and probably returned after a time to his native country. He remained long enough in Antwerp to apprentice his son to an obscure member of a painter family called Laurent, pupil of Gabriel Franck. With Laurent, Francis- que left Antwerp for Paris, and there settled in 1660 after marry- ing his master's daughter. He was received a member of the Academy of Painting at Paris in 1673, and after gaining consider- ation as an imitator of the Poussins he died in 1679, bequeathing his art and some of his talents to one of his sons. Francisque probably knew, as well as imitated, Nicolas Poussin, Gaspar Dughet and Sebastian Bourdon; and it is doubtless because of his acquaintance with these travelled artists that, being himself without familiarity with the classic lands of Italy and Greece, he was able to imagine and reproduce Italian and Arcadian scenery with considerable grace and effectiveness. It is indeed surprising to observe, even at this day how skilfully he executed these imaginary subjects, enlivened them with appropriate figures, and shed over them the glow of a warm yet fresh and sparkling tone. Twelve of his most important landscapes, which remained in the palace of the Tuileries, were destroyed by fire; and though many of his pieces may still be found catalogued in Continental and English collections, others in great number remain unknown and unacknowledged. His son Jean Francois Millet, the younger (1666-1723), also called Francisque, was born in Paris, and was made a member of the Academy of Painting in 1709. He is not quite so independent in his art as his father; but he had clever friends, and when he wanted figures to his landscapes, he consulted Watteau, and other followers of the " court shepherdess " school. In the museum of Grenoble is a " Paysage " by him which is prettily adorned with Watteau's figures. MILLET, JEAN FRANCOIS (1814-1875), French painter, who came cf a peasant family, was born on the 4th of October 1814 in the hamlet of Gruchy, near Greville (La Manche), in the wild and picturesque district called La Hague. His boyhood was passed working in his father's fields, but the sight of the engravings in an old illustrated Bible set him drawing, and thenceforth, whilst the others slept, the daily hour of rest was spent by Millet in trying to render the familiar scenes around him. From the village priest the lad learnt to read the Bible and Virgil in Latin, and acquired an interest in one or two other works of a high class which accompanied him through life; he did not, however, attract attention so much by his acquirements as by the stamp of his mind. The whole family seems, indeed, to have worn a character of austerity and dignity, and when Millet's father finally decided to test the vocation of his son as an artist, it was with a gravity and authority which recalls the patriarchal households of Calvini'st France. Two drawings were prepared and placed before a painter at Cher- bourg named Mouchel, who at once recognized the boy's gifts, and accepted him as a pupil; but shortly after (1835) Millet's father died, and the eldest son, with heroic devotion, took his place at home, nor did he return to his work until the pressing calls from without were solemnly enforced by the wishes of his own family. He accordingly went back to Cherbourg, but after a short time spent there with another master (Langlois) started with many misgivings for Paris. The council-general of the department had granted him a sum of 600 francs, and the town council promised an annual pension of 400, but in spite of friendly help and introductions Millet went through great difficulties. The system of the Ecole des Beaux Arts MILLET 467 was hateful to him, and it was not until after much hesitation that he decided to enter an official studio — that of Delaroche. The master was certainly puzzled by his pupil; he saw his ability, and, when Millet in his poverty could not longer pay the monthly fees, arranged for his free admission to the studio, but he tried in vain to make him take the approved direction, and lessons ended with " Eh, bien, allez a votre guise, vous etes si nouveau pour moi que je ne veux rien vous dire." At last, when the competition for the Grand Prix came on, Delaroche gave Millet to understand that he intended to secure the nomination of another, and thereupon Millet withdrew himself, and with his friend Marolle started in a little studio in the Rue de l'Est. He had renounced the beaten track, but he continued to study hard whilst he sought to procure bread by painting portraits at 10 or 15 francs apiece and producing small " pastiches" of Watteau and Boucher. In 1840 Millet went back to Greville, where he painted " Sailors Mending a Sail " and a few other pictures — reminiscences of Cherbourg life. His first success was obtained in 1844, when his " Milkwoman " and " Lesson in Riding " (pastel) attracted notice at the Salon, and friendly artists presented themselves at his lodgings only to learn that his wife had just died, and that he himself had disappeared. Millet was at Cherbourg; there he remarried, but having amassed a few hundred francs he went back to Paris and presented his " St Jerome " at the Salon of 1845. This picture was rejected and exists no longer, for Millet, short of canvas, painted over it " Oedipus Unbound," a work which during the following year was the object of violent criticism. He was, however, no longer alone; Diaz, Eugene Tourneux, Rousseau, and other men of note supported him by their confidence and friendship, and he had by his side the brave Catherine Lemaire, his second wife, a woman who bore poverty with dignity and gave courage to her husband through the cruel trials in which he penetrated by a terrible personal experience the bitter secrets of the very poor. To this date belong Millet's " Golden Age," " Bird Nesters," " Young Girl and Lamb," and "Bathers"; but to the " Bathers " (Louvre) succeeded " The Mother Asking Alms," " The Workman's Monday," and " The Winnower." This last work, exhibited in 1848, obtained conspicuous success, but did not sell till Ledru Rollin, informed of the painter's dire distress, gave him 500 francs for it, and accompanied the purchase with a commission, the money for which enabled Millet to leave Paris for Barbizon, a village on the skirts of the forest of Fontainebleau. There he settled in a three-roomed cottage for the rest of his life — twenty-seven years, in which he wrought out the perfect story of that peasant life of which he alone has given a " complete impression." Jules Breton has coloured the days of toil with sentiment; others, like Courbet, whose eccentric " Funeral at Ornans " attracted more notice at the Salon of 1850 than Millet's " Sowers and Binders," have treated similar subjects as a vehicle for protest against social misery; Millet alone, a peasant and a miserable one himself, saw true, neither softening nor exaggerating what he saw. In a curious letter written to M. Sensier at this date (1850) Millet expressed his resolve to break once and for all with mythological and undraped subjects, and the names of the principal works painted subsequently will •show how steadfastly this resolution was kept. In 1852 he pro- duced " Girls Sewing," " Man Spreading Manure "; 1853, " The Reapers "; 1854, " Church at Greville "; 1855— the year of the International Exhibition, at which he received a medal of second class—" Peasant Grafting a Tree "; 1857, " The Gleaners "; 1859, " The Angelus," " The Woodcutter and Death "; i860, " Sheep Shearing "; 1861, " Woman Shearing Sheep," " Woman Feed- ing Child"; 1862, "Potato Planters," "Winter and the Crows "; 1863, " Man with Hoe," " Woman Carding "; 1864, " Shepherds and Flock, Peasants Bringing Home a Calf Born in the Fields"; 1869, "Knitting Lesson"; 1870, "Butter- making; 1871, " November — recollection of Gruchy." Any one of these works will show how great an influence Millet's previous practice in the nude had upon his style. The dresses worn by his figures are not clothes, but drapery through which the forms and movements of the body are strongly felt, and their contour shows a grand breadth of line which strikes the eye at once. Something of the imposing unity of his work| was also, no doubt, due to an extraordinary power of memory, which enabled Millet to paint (like Horace Vernet) without a model; he could recall with precision the smallest details of attitudes or gestures which he proposed to represent. Thus he could count on presenting free from afterthoughts the vivid impressions which he had first received, and Millet's nature was such that the impressions which he received were always of a serious and often of a noble order, to which the character of his execution responded so perfectly that even a " Washerwoman at her Tub " will show the grand action of a Medea. The drawing of this subject is reproduced in Souvenirs de Barbizon, a pamphlet in which M. Piedagnel has recorded a visit paid to Millet in 1864. His circumstances were then less evil, after struggles as severe as those endured in Paris. A contract by which he bound himself in i860 to give up all his work for three years had placed him in possession of 1000 francs a month. His fame extended, and at the exhibition of 1867 he received a medal of the first class, and the ribbon of the Legion of Honour, but he was at the same moment deeply shaken by the death of his faithful friend Rousseau. Though he rallied for a time he never com- pletely recovered his health, and on the 20th of January 1875 he died. He was buried by his friend's side in the churchyard of Chailly. His pictures, like those of the rest of the Barbizon school, have since greatly increased in value. See the article Barbizon; also A. Sensier, Vie et ceuvre de J. F. Millet (1874); Piedagnel, Souvenirs de Barbizon, &c. (1876); D. C. Thomson, The Barbizon School (1891); Richard Muther, J. F. Millet (1905); Gensel, Millet und Rousseau (1902). (E. F. S. D.) MILLET (Fr. millet; Ital. miglietto, diminutive of miglio = Lat. mille, a thousand, in allusion to its fertility) , a name applied with little definiteness to a considerable number of often very variable species of cereals, belonging to distinct genera and even subfamilies of Gramineae. Common millet is Panicum milia- ceum (German Hirse). It is probably a native of Egypt and Arabia but has been cultivated in Egypt, Asia and southern Europe from prehistoric times. It is annual, requires rich but friable soil, grows to about 3 or 4 ft. high, and is character- ized by its bristly, much branched nodding panicles. One variety has black grains. It is cultivated in India, southern Europe, and northern Africa, and ripens as far north as southern Germany, in fact, wherever the climate admits of the production of wine. The grain, which is very nutritious, is used in the form of groats, and makes excellent bread when mixed with wheaten flour. It is also largely used for feeding poultry, for which purpose mainly it is imported. Hungarian grass, Setaria italica (also called Panicum italicum), a native of eastern Asia is one of the most whole- some and palatable Indian cereals. It is annual, grows 4 to 5 ft. high, and requires dry light soil. German Millet (Ger. Kolbenhirse, Mohar) is probably merely a less valuable and dwarf variety of S. italica, having an erect, compact, and shorter spike. The grains of both are very small, only one half as long as those of common millet, but are exceedingly prolific. Many stalks arise from a single root, and a single spike often yields 2 oz. of grain, the total yield being five times that of wheat. They are imported for poultry feeding like the former species and for cage-birds, but are extensively used in soups, &c, on the Continent. Numerous other species belonging to the vast genus Panicum — the largest among grasses, of which the following are among the most important — are also cultivated in tropical or subtropical countries for their grain or as fodder Setaria italica. 468 MILLIGAN— MILLIPEDE grasses, or both, each variety of soil, from swamp to desert, having its characteristic forms. Polish millet is P. sanguinale; P. frumentaceum, shamalo, a Deccan grass, is probably a native of tropical Africa; P. decom- positum is the Australian millet, its grains being made into cakes by the aborigines. P. maximum is the Guinea grass, native of tropical Africa; it is perennial, grows 8 ft. high, and yields abun- dance of highly nutritious grain. P. spectabile is the coapim of Angola, but has been acclimatized in Brazil and other tropical countries. Other gigantic species 6 or 7 ft. high form the field- crops on the banks of the Amazon. Of species belonging to allied genera, Pennisetum lyphoideum, bajree, sometimes also called Egyptian millet or pearl millet, is largely cultivated in tropical Asia, Nubia and Egypt. Species of Paspalum, Eleusine and Milium, are also cultivated as millets. For Indian millet, see DURRA. MILLIGAN, WILLIAM (1821-1892), Scottish theologian, was born on the 15th of March 1821, the eldest son of the Rev. George Milligan and his wife Janet Fraser. He was educated at the High School, Edinburgh, and, from the age of fourteen, at the university of St Andrews, where he graduated in 1839. In 1843 at the disruption he took the side of those who remained in the Establishment, and in 1844 became minister of Cameron in Fifeshire. In 1845, his health having given way, he went to Germany, and studied at the university of Halle. After his return to Scotland and his resumption of his clerical duties he began to write articles on Biblical and critical subjects for various reviews. This led to his appointment in i860 to the professorship of Biblical criticism in the university of Aberdeen. In 1870 he was appointed one of the committee for the revision of the translation ofthe New Testament. His fervent piety, and his wide interest in educational and social questions, extended his influence far beyond the circle of theologians. His contribu- tions to periodical literature for many years were numerous and valuable; but his reputation chiefly rests on his works on the Resurrection (1890) and Ascension of our Lord (1892), his Baird lectures (1886) on the Revelation of St John, and his Discussions (1893) on that book. All these volumes are dis- tinguished by great learning and acuteness, as well as by breadth and originality of view. He died on the nth of December 1892. MILLINER, originally a dealer in goods from the city of Milan in Italy, whence the name. Such goods were chiefly steel work, including cutlery, .teedles, also arms and armour and textile fabrics, ribbons, gloves and " Milan bonnets." The " milliners " of London, though never formed into a Livery Company seem to have been associated with the " Cappers and Hurers," which later were amalgamated with the "Haber- dashers " (q.v.). Minsheu's derivation of the word from tniile, thousand (" as having a thousand small wares to sell "), though a typical instance of guessing etymologies, shows the miscella- neous character of their trade in the 16th and 17th centuries. The modern use of the word is confined chiefly to one who makes and sells bonnets and hats for women ; but articles of " millinery " include ribbons, laces, &c, usually retailed by haberdashers. MILLIPEDE, the popular name of the best known members of a group of the Arthropoda, scientifically known as Diplopoda, and formerly united with the Chilopoda (see Centipede), the Pauropoda and the Symphyla as an order of the class Myriapoda. This classification, however, has of late years been abandoned on account of the recognition of closer affinity between the Chilopoda (centipedes) and the Hexapoda (insects) than between the Chilopoda and Diplopoda. By modern writers the above- mentioned groups of " tracheate " Arthropoda are either regarded as independent classes of this phylum Arthropoda, or associated in two superclasses, the Opisthogonea or Opistho- goneata for the Chilopoda and Hexapoda; and the Prosogonea or Prosogoneata for the Diplopoda, Pauropoda and Symphyla. The structural character upon which these superclasses are based is the position of the generative apertures which open anteriorly in the Prosogonea and posteriorly in the Opisthogonea. Although the Pauropoda and Symphyla are not, strictly speak- ing, Diplopoda, these three groups of prosogoneate arthropods are here for convenience considered together. \ CLASS DIPLOPODA. Structure. — The anterior extremity is provided with a distinct head which by its general form and the nature of its appendages is as sharply marked off from the body as is the case in the Hexa- poda. It always bears at least three pairs of appendages, the eyes when present and, in the Oniscomorpha a peculiar sense organ. The inferior edge of the head plate overhangs the mouth and is termed the labrum. The exoskeleton of a typical somite consists of the following elements: a dorsal plate, a ventral plate, and a pleural plate on each side. To the external margin of the ventral plate or sternum is articulated a pair of legs and between the leg and the pleural plate is situated the spiracle of the tracheal system. But the segmentation of the Diplo- poda presents two marked peculiarities. The first is the fact that, with the ex- ception of a few of the anterior i leg-bearing seg- ments and perhaps one or two of those at the posterior end of the body, a single dorsal plate or tergum with its pleural plates overlies two sternal plates, two pairs of legs and two pairs of spiracles. Hence the segments appear to be double and to be furnished with twice as many legs as is normal in the Arthropoda — a peculiarity which has suggested the term " Dip- lopod " or " double-footed," for this group. It is generally believed that each tergal plate results from the coalescence of the terga of two originally distinct adjoining segments; but the same effect would be produced by the enlargement of one of a pair of terga and the complete excalation of the other. It is in favour of the latter view that there is only a single pair, and not two pairs, of stink-glands on each so-called double tergal plate. Unfortun- ately the history of the development of the segments does not clear up the difficulty since the terga of the double segments are single from the first, and no evidence either of fusion or excalation is supplied. The second of the two peculiarities above-mentioned is the great development of the tergal sclerite as compared with the sternal. Only very rarely {i.e. in Platydesmus) is there a broad sternal area. In the majority of cases the lateral edges of the tergum are bent downwards and inwards towards the mid ventral fine; the sternum at the same time is so much reduced that the basal segments of the legs of opposite sides are almost in contact. The <■■& a.ty After Pocock in Max Weber's Zool. Ergebnisse, &c, IV., PI. XXI., fig. 8, i8q 4 . Fig. 1. — Spirostreptus vittalus, an Oriental species of the Spirostrep- toidea, lateral view, showing the repugnatorial pores on the sides of the segments. a.tg, a.st, head with eyes and antennae, tergal plate of first segment, tergal plate of last or anal segment, sternal plate of ditto, anal valve. A ' h "' B After Silvestri, Ann. Mas. Genova, (2), xvi, figs. 17, 19, 25. Fig. 2. — The Gnathochilarium or jaws of second pair of various Chilongatha. A, of Spirostreptus. B, of Julus. C, of Glomeris. c, cardo. m, menturri. st, stipes. pm, promentum. Ig, linguae. h, hypostoma. pleural plate on each side usually disappears either by suppression or by fusion with the tergum. The sterna with their attached legs often remain free. But quite commonly the coalescence of the skeletal elements is carried to such an extreme that each seg- ment is a solid ring with two pairs of movable appendages. The last segment is differently constructed from the others. It is always limbless, and usually consists of a complete tergal ring, a single sternal plate, and a pair of movable anal valves which are normally closed, but are capable of being opened for the passage of faeces. These anal valves are possibly the homologues of the plural scutes of a normal segment. The appendages are modified MILLIPEDE 469 as a single pair of antennae, two or three pairs of jaws and a variable number of walking-legs, of which one or more pairs may be trans- formed into gonopods. The antennae are short and very similar to the legs. They are preoral in position, and usually consist of seven segments, the seventh or distal segment being small, as a rule, and furnished with a sense organ which is probably olfactory or tactile in function. The mandibles or jaws of the first pair are the most anterior of the postoral appendages. They are large, powerful, and usually consist of three or two segments, a basal or Fig. After Voges. 3. — Inner view of ventral area of a single segment of Julus, much enlarged to show the structure and arrangement of the tracheal organs. The two pairs of tracheae are seen in situ, the posterior pair overlapping the anterior. h, Posterior margin of the body- t, Fine tracheae given off from it. ring (tergum). ms, Respiratory muscle attached r, Anterior border. to tracheal sac. st, Tubular chamber of tracheae, m, Ventral body muscle. cardo, which is sometimes absent, a second or stipes, and a third or mala, the latter being supplied with a strong tooth and pectinate lamellae. In all Diplopods, with the exception of the Pselapho- gnatha, there are only two pairs of jaws, those of the second pair forming a large plate, the gnathochilarium, which acts as a lower lip. It consists of several distinct sclerites, two external on each side, the proximal known as the cardo, the distal as the stipes, the latter being tipped with one or two lobes (malae) and far exceeding the cardo in size. Between the external plates there is a median proximal plate (mentum) generally of large size and often itself subdivided, and a pair of distal plates (linguae). Behind the base of the gnathochilarium there is a single large transverse plate, the hypostoma. In the Pselaphognatha, the jaws representing the gnathochilarium are differently constructed and an additional pair, the maxillulae, has been recently detected between the gnathochi- larium and the mandibles. Behind the gnathochilarium, which from embryological data appears to result from the modification of a single pair of appendages, a legless somite has been detected in some embryos. Possibly the plate referred to above as the hypostoma is its sternal element. The heart is a median dorsal vessel composed of a series of chambers each giving off a pair of arteries and furnished with a pair of orifices or ostia. According to Newport, the anterior chamber lying in the second segment is prolonged into an aortic trunk from which arise three pairs of lateral arteries dipping down on each side of the alimentary canal and uniting beneath it in a common ventral vessel. The heart is enveloped in a delicate pericardial membrane and is supported by lateral alary muscles. The alimentary canal is a simple tube extending usually straight through the body from mouth to anus. Only in the Oniscomorpha is it looped, thus suggesting the origin of this short-bodied group of millipedes from longer, more vermiform ancestors. A pair of so-calleci salivary glands opens into the fore-gut near its anterior extremity and one or two pairs of malpighian tubes communicate with the hind-gut at its junction with the broad mesenteric portion of the canal. Respiration is effected by means of tracheal tubes which communicate with the exterior by means of spiracles situated just above the bases of the walking limbs. Each spiracle leads into a longer or a shorter pouch whence the tracheae, which are of two kinds, arise. In the majority of the orders the tracheae are tufted, that is to say, they form two bundles of short simple tubules springing from the innermost corners of each pouch. In the Oniscomorpha, however, each pouch gives rise to a number of long tubes which extend through the body and somewhat resemble those of the Chilopoda except that they neither branch nor are extensive. As in the Chilopoda and Hexapoda the tracheae are strengthened and kept expanded by a slender spiral filament. The ventral nerve cord consists of two strands so closely approxi- mated as to be practically fused, with a small ganglionic enlarge- ment for each pair of legs. Hence in the double segments there are two such ganglia, which in addition to the crural nerve give off on each side a large branching nerve to other organs in the segment. In the Opisthospermophora (Julus, Spirostreptus) and the Onisco- morpha {Glomeris, Sphaerotherium) the ganglia are spaced at equal distances on the cord, but in the Merochaeta (Polydesmus) they are grouped in pairs to correspond to the spacing of the legs. The apodous penultimate and anal segments are innervated from the last ganglion of the cord, as are also the gonopods of the males of C cb . oc Tvgon After G. C. Bourne, J. Linn. Soc. xix., PI. 29, 1886. Fig. 4. — Diagram of the nervous and circulatory system of Sphae- rotherium obtusum, a South African species of Oniscomorpha. c, oc, ant, mi, gP and g/ 22 , Second and twenty- second ganglia of chain, the posterior nerve of each gan- glion, Ig.n, supplies the leg, the anterior, tr.n, the tra- cheal sac and other organs. n.gon, Nerve to gonopods. tr. Tracheal tubes with spiral filament. tr.s, Tracheal sac. Head. Eye-cluster. Antenna. Basal segment of mandible. tg* and tg 13 , Part of the terga of the second and thirteenth segments. cb, Cerebral ganglia supplying the eyes and antennae. oes, Oesophagus, cut through. sb.gl, Suboesophageal or first ganglion of ventral chain. the Oniscomorpha. The first (suboesophageal) ganglion of the cord supplies the mandibles and gnathochilarium and is connected by the oesophageal commissures with the bilobed cerebral nerve whence arises the nerves for the eyes, when present, and the antennae. Eyes are sometimes absent, as in all the genera of Merochaeta and in many genera of other groups, as in Siphonophora, one of the Colobognatha, and several of the Juloidea (Typhloblaniulus) . In other cases they are represented by one or two ocelli on each side (Stemmiuloidea) ; or by a vertical series of ocelli as in the Glomeroidea and Polyzonium amongst the Colobognatha. But in the majority of the orders they are represented by triangular or subspherical aggregations of ocelli recalling in a certain degree those of the Litho- biomorpha amongst the Chilopoda. They are simple in structure and consist externally of a cuticular corneal thickening or lens and internally of a retinular layer of enlarged epidermic cells, the 47o MILLIPEDE internal or proximal ends of which are continuous with the fibres of the optic nerve. The ovary is unpaired and extends almost the entire length of the body beneath the alimentary canal. The oviducts are sometimes separate tubes (Lysiopetalum) , some- times confluent and divided just before terminating in the two orifices behind the base of the legs of the second pair (Julus). The testes and seminal ducts occupy the same position and extent as the ovary and oviducts. The ducts are sometimes coiled, some- times divided, sometimes united. The two testes are sometimes united by transverse branches across the middle line, and are some- times branched posteriorly. They bear short caecal diverticula in which the semen is developed. There are no accessory glands associated with the generative organs; but in some forms, e.g. Polyxenus, there is a pair of receptacula seminis extending back- wards alongside the ovary and opening into the oviduct. post After Pocock, /. Linn. Soc. xxi., PI. 25. Fig. 5. — Gonopods of Trigoniulus andersoni, one of the Opistho- spermophora (Spiroboloidea). Jj A, Anterior view, and B, lateral views of the apparatus, ant, anterior, and post, posterior portions of the coleopod ensheathing the phallopod, of which the proximal portion, ph, is shown. C, Phallopod removed from the coleopod. The secondary sexual characters of the males are of great taxonomic importance. The seminal ducts, like the oviducts, open behind the legs of the second pair. Associated with them in the Limacomorpha (Glomeridesmus), there is a pair of very long retractile penes. In the Spirostreptoidea and Juloidea the penes are much shorter and have coalesced. Sometimes they are un- developed (Spiroboloidea). In other cases, the Merochaeta, Oniscomorpha, &c, the ducts traverse the coxae of the legs of the second pair. But in all these groups, with the exception of the Oniscomorpha, semen is transferred from the genital orifices, with or without the aid of the penes, either into the first or second pairs of appendages of the seventh segment which are modified in various ways, and are termed phallopods. When the posterior legs are so modified the anterior are as a rule even more profoundly altered to form a protective sheath, or coleopod, for the phallopod; and as a further precaution the entire apparatus is usually withdrawn within the seventh segment. In the Oniscomorpha the semen is transferred into a pair of receptacles developed upon the coxae of the legs of the last pair, which are chelate. The male appendages that are modified in the above described ways are comprehensively spoken of as gonopods. Other secondary sexual characters, like the stridulating organs of the males of some Oniscomorpha, the suctorial pads on the legs of Spirostreptoidea, the development of angular processes upon the mandible or first tergal plate, or of fine ridges in the gnathochilarium — all of which are concerned in enabling the male to maintain a secure hold upon the female — are of great taxonomic use in distinguishing the genera and species. The most important glands in the Diplopoda are the repugnatorial or stink-glands, which, except in the Oniscomorpha, Limacomorpha and Ascospermophora, open by pores upon the sides of more or fewer of the segments. They secrete a fluid with an unpleasant odour, breaking up in one case into cyanide of potassium, and are practically the only means of protection, apart from the hard exoskeleton, which Diplopods possess. In some millipedes silk glands also exist and open upon papillae upon the posterior border of the last tergal plate. They are found in the Ascospermophora, Stemmiuloidea and Proterospermophora, and are used for spin- ning nests for the eggs and protective cases for the young during exuviation. Classification. — The existing members of the class Diplopoda may be classified as follows : — Subclass I. PSELAPHOGNATHA. Order: Penicillata {Polyxenus). „ 2. Chilognatha. Order: Oniscomorpha (Glomeris, Zephronia). Limacomorpha (Glomeridesmus). Colobognatha (Polyzonium, Siphonophora) . Ascospermophora (Ghordeuma) . Proterospermophora (Lysiopetalum) . Merochaeta (Polydesmus). Opisthospermophora. Suborder: Stemmiuloidea (Stemmiulus) . „ Spiroboloidea (Spirobolus) . ,, Spirostreptoidea (Spirostreptus). „ Juloidea (Julus, Nemasoma). Subclass PSELAPHOGNATHA. Diplopods with the soft integument strengthened by weakly chitinized sclerites and furnished above and on the head with trans- verse rows of short, stout, somewhat squamiform bristles; laterally, on each side of the principal segments, with a thick tuft of long bristles and with a large, silky, white tuft projecting backwards from the posterior extremity. Mandibles one-jointed. Behind them a pair of small, one-jointed maxillulae, attached to a median membranous " lingua." Behind the " lingua " and maxillulae, a large, double, transverse plate with a long, external sclerite bearing distally in Polyxenus an inner short-lobate process and an outer long spiny palpiform branch. The latter, however, is absent in Lophoproctus. These sclerites probably represent the gnatho- chilarium of the Chilognatha, but the homology between the skeletal elements of the jaws in question is not clearly understood. It has been suggested that they represent two pairs of jaws, but embryological proof of this does not exist. A, after Ca^pente^,Q./.lf.5 , . 49, PI. 28, fig. 1. B, after Latzel, DieMyr. Ost. Ung. Urn. II., PI. ii., 1884. Fig. 6. — Jaws of Polyxenus lagurus. A, Jaws of second and third pairs, mxl, maxillula; mx.p, palpi- form branch of maxilla; mx.lb, lobate process of maxilla; mx.ext, external plate of maxilla perhaps corresponding to the stipes of the gnathochilarium of the Chilognatha; mx.int, internal plate of maxilla, perhaps corresponding to the mentum and promentum of the gnathochilarium (by Carpenter mx.int is regarded as an appendage posterior to the maxilla) ; mb, membrane. _B, Mandibles of Polyxenus lagurus. Order Penicillata ( = Ancyrotricha). Head large, usually with lateral eyes. Antennae eight-jointed, attached near the middle of the front of the head. On the dorsal side of the body there are eleven segments, simple and compound. The first four of these bear one pair of legs each, the suc- ceeding four two pairs of legs, the ninth segment one pair, making a total of thirteen pairs of legs. The tenth and eleventh or anal segment are legless. There is a narrow sternal area separating the bases of the legs of the two sides. There are no repugnatorial glands. In the male none of the legs are modified as gonopods, but the coxa of each of the legs of the second pair is furnished with a conical penis, which during copulation, it may be supposed, is inserted into the genital orifice of the female, which occupies a corresponding position in that sex. The young when first hatched has only three pairs of legs and five segments. The millipedes of this order are all of small size, measuring at most only a few millimetres in length. The best-known genera are Polyxenus and Lophoproctus, both of which occur in Europe. Other forms have been discovered in the West Indies, North and South America, and Ceylon; and it is probable that the group has an almost cos- mopolitan range. They live under stones or the loosened bark of trees. The carbon- iferous fossil, Palaeocampa, is usually re- ferred to this subclass. Subclass Chilognatha. Diplopods with firmly chitinized exo- skeleton, sometimes thickly, sometimes sparsely covered with short, simple hairs,, but never decorated with tufts or rows of peculiarly modified bristles, After Bode. Fig. 7. — Ventral view of Polyxenus lagurus much en- larged, actual length a little over j^th of an inch. a, Position of gener- ative openings. MILLIPEDE 47i Mandibles, two- or three-jointed ; maxillulae absent, the jaws of the second pair being represented by the gnathochilarium described above. Order Oniscomorpha. Body short and broad, hemispherical in transverse section; convex above, flat below, and capable of being spherically coiled. The exoskeleton of a typical compound segment consists of a vaulted tergum, a pair of free pleural sclerites, two pairs of small tracheal sclerites and two pairs of legs, the latter attached to the ventral membrane, which has no sternal plates. The tergal plates are twelve or thirteen in number, whereof the first is very small, the second enormously expanded laterally, and the last, also en- larged and probably representing at least three segments, extends laterally and posteriorly like a hood over the posterior end of the 9P*~yl- paw After Pocock, in Max Weber's Zool. Ergebnisse, &c. , IV., PI. xx. Fig. 8. — Sphaeropoeus hercules, a Sumatran species of the Oniscomorpha. A, Lateral view of the entire animal, c, head; ant, antenna; 'g 1 . t£ anf l tg u < tergal plates of first, second and thirteenth segments ; Ig, extremities of some of the anterior legs. B, Gonopods of the male, g^ 1 and gp 2 , anterior and posterior pairs of gonopods, both being chelate claspers ; pen, processes arising from the basal segments of the gonopods of the second pair, which act as penes. C, Vulvae or genital plates attached to the basal segments of the legs of the second pair in the female, g.o, genital orifice. body without forming a chitinous ring round the anal valves and sternum. In the male the legs of the penultimate pair are some- times modified as claspers ; those of the last pair are always enlarged and prehensile, and bear on their coalesced basal segments a pair of sperm-carrying processes analogous to the phallopods of other groups. Apart from these organs the male has no penis, the seminal ducts perforating the coxae of the legs of the second pair. This order contains two well-marked suborders, the Glomeroidea and the Zephronioidea. The Glomeroidea, comprising the families Glomeridae, Gervaisiidae, Onomeridae, have the antennae approxi- mated on the head, the eyes uniserial and twelve (rarely eleven) tergal plates. To this group belong the common pill-millipedes of Europe and North Africa. In North America the Onomeridae alone are found. The Zephronioidea, with the single family Zeph- roniidae, have the antennae at the sides of the head, the eyes com- posed of a spherical cluster of ocelli, and always thirteen tergal plates. This group is common in the tropical and southern con- tinents of the Old World, having representative genera in South Africa, Madagascar, India, Malaysia, Australia and New Zealand. They are much larger forms than the Glomeroidea, large specimens reaching two or three inches in length. In addition to the characters mentioned above the Oniscomorpha differ from all other Diplopods in having long tubular tracheae and the alimentary canal bent upon itself. Order Limacomorpha. Resembling the Oniscomorpha in the shape and structure of a typical segment, except that the tracheal plates are unrepresented ; in the facts that the last tergal plate does not form a complete ring round the anal area, and that the last pair of legs in the male are modified; but differing from them in that the body consists of nineteen or twenty segments, is elongate, and tapers anteriorly and posteriorly, the second and last tergal plates being small ; in the presence in the male of a pair of long hairy protrusible penes between the legs of the second and third pairs, and in the structure of the gonopods, which, instead of being chelate, terminate in a slender, tapering tarsal segment. This order contains two families : Zeph- roniodesmidae (Zepkroniodesmus) and Glomeridesmidae- (Glomerisdes- mus), the former from tropical Asia, the latter from tropical America. The largest of these millipedes reach a length of only about 7 mm. Nothing special is known of their habits. Order Colobognatha. Body elongate, capable of being spirally coiled, consisting of a large and indefinite number of segments, each being furnished with a distinct often large sternal area, and with the pleural sclerite or membrane distinct from the tergum. The last tergal plate forms a complete ring round the anal valves. Legs with coxal pouches; those of the seventh segment transformed into gonopods of a very simple type in the male, which is also furnished with a double penis completely or partially confluent with the coxae of the legs of the second pair. Head always small, frequently triangular or piriform, in the latter case the gnathites reduced in size and complexity. Repugnatorial pores present and lateral. The genera of this order ouv.tg B tg^ cui.tg r pert; coplg After Pocock, /. Linn. Soc. xxiv., PI. 37. Fig. 9. — Glomeridesmus marmoreus, one of the Limacomorpha. A, Lateral view, c, head with antennae; tg l , tergal plate of first segment ; an.tg, tergal plate of last or anal segment. B, Lower view of one of the segments, tg, inferior edge of the tergal plate; pi, pleural sclerite; Ig 1 , basal segment of leg. C, Posterior extremity of body, an.tg, tergal plate of anal seg- ment ; cop.lg. gonopod or copulatory leg. D, Legs of the third pair with extruded penes, pen, in front of them. are divisible into three families: the Platydesmidae (Platydesmus, Pseudodesmus), Polyzonidae (Polyzonium, Siphonotus), Siphono- phoridae (Siphonophora). Of these the Platydesmidae have de- parted least and the Siphonophoridae most from the typical Diplopod in the structure of the mouth parts. The group is for the most part tropical, one genus only, Polyzonium, extending as far north as Central Europe. Order Ascospermophora. Body elongate, consisting of from twenty-six to thirty-two segments, but not varying within specific limits; the pleurae coalesced with the terga, the sterna free. More or fewer of the anterior ten pairs of legs may be modified in the males, but no true phallopods are differentiated, the function of seminal receptacles being performed (according to C. Verhoeff) by the exsertile coxal pouches of the two pairs of legs of the eighth segment. The seminal ducts in the male perforate the coxae of the legs of the second pair. There are no repugnatorial pores, and the terga are furnished with three pairs of symmetrically placed hairs or bristles. On the posterior border of the last tergal plate there is a pair of spinning papillae. The millipedes of this order, also called Coelochoeta, are referable to several families: Chordeumidae (Chordeuma), Craspedosomidae (Craspedosoma) , Heterochordeumidae (Heterochor- deunta), &c. The Heterochordeumidae belong to the Oriental region, extending from India to New Zealand. The others are particularly abundant in genera and species in North and Central America and Europe; but are unknown in Africa, south of the Sahara. Order Proterospermophora. Differing from the Ascospermophora in that the number of seg- ments is large and variable; they are furnished with repugnatorial pores, and not with the three pairs of setae. In the males the anterior appendages of the seventh segment are modified as phallo- pods, and the seminal ducts perforate the coxae of the legs of the second pair. This order, containing the family Lysiopetalidae (Lysiopetalum), is widely distributed in Europe and North America. Large ex- amples of some of the species, e.g. L. xanthinum, reach a length of 4 or 5 ins. Order Merochaeta. Resembling the Proterospermophora in having only the anterior appendages of the seventh segment converted into phallopods and the seminal ducts perforating the coxae of the second legs in the males; but differing essentially in that the sterna are 472 MILLIPEDE solidly welded to the rest of the exoskeleton of the segments, which are either nineteen or twenty in number, in the absence of eyes and of spinning papillae, and in having six- jointed legs. This order is cosmopolitan jn distribution and consists of a very large number of genera which by some authors are referred to the single family Poly- desmidae ; by others to numerous families. Many species are brightly coloured, and some individuals of the Oriental genus ~a>vb f,-* 1 ci.ty After Pocock, in Max Weber's Zool. Ergetnisse, &c, IV., PI. xx. Fig. io. Platyrhachus mirandus, a Sumatran species of Polydesmidae, to show the form characteristic of the order Merochaeta. c, Head. ant, Antenna. tg l , Tergal plate of first body segment. tg 7 , Ditto of seventh, a.tg, Tergal plate of anal segment. The figure also shows the repugnatorial pores which are present upon the majority of the segments, the laterally exparfded tergal plates, and the presence of two pairs of legs for each of the segments except the two last, the four first and the seventh; the latter, since the figured specimen was a male, has the anterior leg converted into a phallopod which is concealed beneath the body. Platyrhachus may reach a length of 5 ins. The segments are usually provided with lateral laminate or tubercular expansions bearing the repugnatorial pores, which are only very rarely absent. Order Opisthospermophora. Resembling the Proterospermophora in possessing a large and variable number of segments, each of which, with the exception of the last and the anterior four or five, is furnished with a pair of repugnatorial pores, but differing essentially from them in that the posterior pair of appendages of the seventh segment are converted into phallopods, and the anterior into protective coleopods in the male, and that the seminal ducts in this sex do not perforate the coxae of the legs of the second pair but are usually associated with a distinct penis situated immediately behind them. The genera of this order present greater diversity of structure than is found in the other orders and are referred to four suborders, which by some zoologists are erected to ordinal rank, namely, the Stemmiuloidea (Monochaeta) ; the Spiroboloidea (Anochaeta) ; the Spirostreptoidea (Diplochaeta) ; and the Juloidea (Zygochaeta). In the Stemmiuloidea the sterna are free and the pleurae partially so; the terminal segment of the legs is bisegmented ; there are two pairs of spinning papillae on the last tergite; the penis is a single long tube, and the eyes are represented by one or two large lenses on each side of the head. The genus Stemmiulus, constituting the Stemmiulidae, is represented by a few species recorded from the Oriental, Ethiopian and Neotropical regions. In the possession of silk-glands this suborder resembles the Ascospermophora and Proterospermophora, and should perhaps rank as an order apart from the Opisthospermophora. The Spiroboloidea, containing one family, the Spirobohdae (Spirobolus, Rhinocricus, &c), have the sterna and pleurae coalesced, the tarsi undivided ; no spinning papillae, no penis, the eyes repre- sented by an aggregation of ocelli ; and the first five segments each with a single pair of legs, the sixth carrying two pairs. This group attains its maximum of development in the tropics, where species and genera are numerous and specimens of large size, i.e. 6 ins. or over, are met with. „.,,., The Spirostreptoidea resemble the Spiroboloidea in many par- ticulars, but the fourth segment is footless, and the fifth has two pairs of linibs; the male has a distinct and double penis, and in both sexes the stipites of the gnathochilarium extend to the proximal end of the mentum, which is relatively small. The distribution of this order, which contains several families : Spirostreptidae (Spiro- streptus, Rhynchoproctus), Cambalidae (Cambala, Julomorpha), &c, is practically the same as that of the Spiroboloidea. Specimens over 6 ins. in length are met with in the tropics of Africa and Asia. The Juloidea differ from the Spirostreptoidea in having the third segment limbless, the first, second and fourth with a single pair of appendages, and the stipites of the gnathochilarium much expanded and meeting for a considerable distance in the middle line behind the very small promentum. The best marked family of this group is the Julidae, which is widely distributed in the northern hemisphere. Its species and genera (Julus, Pachyiulus) are abundant in Europe. Another European family, the Nemasomidae, is founded for the genus Nemasoma, which is remarkable for having the sterna free. Habits, &c. — Millipedes are principally cryptozoic, living under stones or logs of wood in damp, secluded localities. They feed almost wholly upon decaying vegetable matter, and drink a con- siderable quantity of water. Some of the tropical species emerge in numbers from their hiding-places after heavy rains, and crawl over the ground and bushes in search of moisture in broad day- light. Their method of progression over level ground is quite peculiar. The body is held in a straight line and is propelled by a succession of wave-like movements of the legs, which are moved in groups, the groups on the right and left side exactly correspond- ing. Some forms, e.g. Stemmiulus, have been described as attempt- ing to evade capture by a hopping action caused by vigorous jerking and wriggling of the body. Many of the species are very conspicuously coloured and the association of brilliant colouring with the existence of the nauseous secretion of the repugnatorial glands suggests that the coloration is aposematic or of warning significance. Copulation between the sexes takes place before oviposition. In the Opisthospermophora the males and females coil together with the ventral surface of the anterior ends of their bodies opposed, the male holding the female securely by the head while the extended phallopods carrying the semen are brought into contact with her genital orifice. In the Polydesmidue pairing is effected in the same way except that the male and female instead of intercoiling remain extended, the male clasping the female with his legs. In the Onisco- morpha the sexes also pair front to front, not head to head, however, but head to tail, so that the gonopods in the anal segment of the male can be applied to the second pair of postoral appendages in the female. Some males of this group, e.g. Sphaerolherium, have a stridulating organ on their posterior gonopods and stridulate when finding the females. The method of disposing of the young, which usually have only three pairs of legs at hatching, differs in various groups. In Julus and Polydesmus the female burrows below the surface and makes a subspherical nest of small blocks of earth which are moistened with the'salivary secretion and moulded to the proper shape between her jaws and anterior legs. When the re- ceptacle is nearly finished she deposits her eggs in it, and, closing the aperture, leaves the whole to its fate. On the other hand, a female specimen of the South African species, Archispirostreptus erythrocephalus, that lived in the London Zoological Gardens, buried herself, coiled round the eggs, and remained with her young for some time after they were hatched. Again, millipedes, like the Stemmiuloidea and Ascospermophora, which possess silk-glands, spin silken cases for the protection of their eggs. Immature specimens of these groups spin similar silken cases at the time of exuviation; and cases, resembling the nests, are likewise made for purposes of moulting by immature forms of some From Balfour, after Metsch- nikov. Fig. 1 1 . — Larva of Strongylosoma Guerinii, one of the Polydesmidae, just hatched, exotic species of Polydesmidae, e.g. by the tropical African Oxydes- mus. There is good reason to think, however, that the animal makes use of its own voided excrement in the formation of these receptacles. A considerable number of Chilognatha of doubtful systematic position have been recorded from beds of the carboniferous forma- tion. The best known are Acantherpestes and Euphoberia. Speci- mens referred to existing genera have been discovered in amber beds of Oligocene age. CLASS PATJROPODA. As in the Diplopoda there is a distinct head bearing a pair of antennae and two pairs of jaws. On each side of the head there is an eye-like spot which may conceivably represent a degenerate eye, although the external cuticle shows no corneal thickening nor the epidermis retinular specialization, and optic nerves are absent from the brain. The antennae are structurally unique in the Arthropoda. There are four short basal segments from the distal of which arise two one-jointed branches, an external thinner and an internal thicker. The external or postaxial branch is tipped with a single long annulate flagelliform bristle with a rounded apical knob ; and the internal or preaxial branch with two similar but shorter bristles and a globular, usually pedunculated, sense organ between them. The mandibles or jaws of the first pair are large and one-jointed. Those of the second pair are very short, piriform, and attached to the ventral side of the head by a long, rod-like sclerite. Between these two pairs of jaws there is a horny framework forming a kind of lower lip to the mouth. The correspondence between these mouth parts and those of the Diplopoda is not understood. No doubt the mandibles are homologous in the two groups ; but whether the jaws of the second pair in the Pauropoda correspond to the maxillulae of the Pselaphognatha, or to part of the gnathochilarium in the Chilognatha, or whether the chitinous framework alone or in conjunction with the pair of jaws answers to the gnathochilarium MILLIPEDE 473 are questions to which no answer can as yet be given. Judging from the segmentation and the appendages the body is composed of twelve somites, including the last or anal, which, like the pen- ultimate somite, is limbless. Each somite in front of the penultimate ani one asff. A and B, after Kenyon, Tufts Colt. Studies, iv., 1895; C, after Hansen, Vid. II did., 1901, PI. VI., fig. sa; D. and E, after Kenyon. Fig. 12. — Pauropus. A. Pauropus huxleyi (?). c, head; ant. antenna; tg l and fg 5 , first and fifth double tergal plates; Ig 1 , first walking-leg ( = 2nd post- cephalic appendage); /g 9 , ninth walking-leg; a.sg, anal segment; st, setae. B. Eurypauropus spinosus. Lettering as in A. C. Brachypauropus superbus. Lettering as in A and B ; (tg 1 ) = first and second terga ; tg b , = ninth and tenth terga. D. Jaws of Pauropus huxleyi; md, mandible; mx, maxilla; lb, labial framework. E. Antenna of Eurypauropus spinosus; fl, flagella; gl, sensory organ. bears a single pair of legs, nine pairs of which are fully developed ambulatory limbs, while those of the first segment are reduced to After Lubbock. Fig. 13. — Enlarged view of Pauropus huxleyi, from ventral side, a pair of bud-like processes. The first and last pairs of ambulatory limbs consist of five segments; in the remaining pairs the terminal segment may be subdivided into two, so that there may be six segments in all. The ambulatory limbs are usually terminated by three claws, a principal and two subsidiary, each claw being accom- panied by a membranous pad. Between these limbs, which are relatively longer and stronger than in the Diplopoda and evenly spaced on each side of the body, extends a soft-skinned sternal area. The distensible pleural region of the body is also membra- nous, but the dorsal area is covered by chitinous plates or terga, usually six in number, excluding that of the anal segment ; each of the anterior five of these overlies two limb-bearing somites, the first covering the somite of the rudimentary limbs and of the first pair of locomotor legs, the second those of the second and third pairs of locomotor legs, and so on. This condition is an adumbra- tion of the far completer fusion of somites seen in the Diplopoda. The sixth tergal plate belongs to the limbless penultimate somite. The duplex character of the first five terga is suggested in Pauropus by the presence of two rows of sensory bristles; there being only one such row upon the sixth tergum. In the aberrant genus Brachy- pauropus the evidence is practically completed by the correspon- dence in number between the terga and pairs of legs, there being a divisional line between the two rows of setae. On each side of the body there are five long pubescent tactile setae situated on the second to the sixth terga in Pauropus, and on the pleural area corresponding to these terga in Brachypauropus. The cerebral mass of the nervous system is large and when viewed from above is seen to consist of two lobes defined by a median groove. In the absence of eyes no optic nerves are given off. Beneath these are two antennal lcbes whence arise, close together, the antennal nerves.' Two short commissural cords connect the cerebral mass with the suboesophageal ganglion, a composite mass formed of the nervous centres which supply the two pairs of jaws and the rudimentary legs of the first pair. Behind this large ganglion the cord, which shows superficially no trace of its double origin, presents a ganglionic swelling for each pair of legs. No circulatory or respiratory organs have been detected. The alimentary canal consists of a short, narrow fore-gut, a large, straight mid-gut, and a moderately long hind-gut which is itself composed of two parts, an anterior narrow tube which opens into vup.1. ¥ r %' > Ig' After Kenyon, Tufts Coll. Studies, iv., 1805. FlG._I4. — Pauropoda. A. Alimentary canal of Pauropus ; /g, fore-gut ; sg, salivary gland ; mg, mid-gut; hg, anterior portion of hind-gut; a, anus; m.p.t., mal- pighian tubule. B. Female genital organs of Eurypauropus; ov, ovary; ovid, oviduct ; rs, receptaculum seminis ; go, genital orifice. C. Male genital organs of Pauropus; t 1 and fi, anterior and pos- terior portions of testes; vd l , vd 2 , vd 3 , vasa deferentia; vs.s, vesi- cula seminalis; cd, common duct; go, genital orifices. D. Lateral view of Pauropus; c, head; ant. antenna; tg 1 ,tg t , first and fifth tergal plates; a.sg, anal segment; st, lateral bristles; Ig.r, rudimentary leg; Ig 1 and Ig, 9 first and ninth fully formed walking legs ; p, penis. a dilated, piriform, posterior portion, narrowing gradually to terminate in the anus. Opening into the anterior extremity of the fore-gut there is a pair of " salivary " glands. Malpighian tubes have been found in some forms, i.e. females of Eurypauropus spinosus, but not in any examples, male or female, of Pauropus huxleyi. Where present they open at the point of union of the mid- 474 MILLIPEDE and hind-guts. The generative organs in the female are very simple, and much like those of the Diplopoda. In the male they are highly complex, and unlike those of any known Arthropod in certain particulars. The wide, unpaired ovary extends nearly to the posterior end of the body. Anteriorly it passes into an oviduct which is unpaired throughout its length. The posterior portion of the duct is wide. The anterior, an abruptly narrowed tube, curves round the nerve-cord and opens by a single sub-median orifice in the third segment. Just within the orifice there opens into the oviduct the short duct of a spherical receptaculum seminis. In the male the testis is never paired. Sometimes it is single, sometimes divided into an anterior and a posterior mass, and sometimes merely constricted. It lies above the intestine in the posterior half of the body in the adult, but at least in the young in some cases, where as many as four divisions have been detected, its position is more lateral. Leading from the sperm masses there may be as many as three slender short ducts which soon expand into wider tubes. These tubes, regarded as seminal vesicles, after forming a complex of loops, coils and caecal prolongations, ulti- mately unite beneath the intestine in a single tube which passing forwards divides on each side of the alimentary canal to terminate in the two penes situated just behind the bases of the second pair of complete legs, that is to say, the legs of the third segment. Just at the root of the penis there is an accessory gland on the duct, and a little farther back a'much larger glandular swelling. The Pauropoda are divided into three rather sharply defined groups or families which may be briefly characterized as follows : — Pauropodidae. — Head not covered by the first tergal plate. Anal segment not covered by the sixth tergal plate. Terga of the first ten body segments fused in couples. Tactile setae situated on the lateral portions of the terga which are neither sculptured nor spinous. {Pauropus, Stylopauropus.) Brachypauropodidae. — Head and anal segment free and the terga smooth as in the last ; but each of the double terga of the Pauropodidae divided into an anterior and posterior plate by a transverse band of membrane and each of these into a pair of plates by a longitudinal integumental strip. The tactile setae arising from the pleural area of the segments. {Brachy pauropus.) Eurypauropodidae. — Body wide and onisciform, the head and the anal segment concealed dorsally by the first and penultimate terga respectively. Terga fused as in the Pauropodidae, but thickly spinous or sculptured. The tactile setae situated beyond the edge of the terga, as in the Brachypauropodidae. (Eury pauropus.) The genus Pauropus is probably world-wide in distribution, since it has been discovered in Europe, North and South America, and in Siam. The two known species of Brachypauropus were found respectively in Italy and Austria. Eurypauropus has representatives in North America and Europe. Examples of Pauropus are extremely agile, recalling the centipede Lithobius in their movements; those of Eurypauropus, on the contrary, are extremely slow and quite comparable in lack of agility to the common pill-millipede. They are usually found in woods, under stones, fallen branches, dead leaves or other damp situations. They are believed to be vegetable feeders and are oviparous. The young upon hatching has four segments and three pairs of legs representing the first three pairs of ambulatory legs of the adult. The two last segments are apodous, the first bears the first pair of legs, and the second the second and third pairs. The young passes through four successive moults, and gradually acquires its full complement of segments and limbs. CLASS SYMPHYLA. Prosogoneate Arthropods, differing in many important particulars from the Diplopoda and Pauropoda. The axis of the head lies in the same straight line as that of the body, as in the Chilopoda, and not at right angles to it as in the Diplopoda and Pauropoda. There are no eyes. The antennae are very long and many-jointed. Four pairs of gnathites attached to the under-side of the head have been detected. The first pair (mandibles) are two-jointed, as in many Diplopods. The second pair (maxillulae) are minute, one jointed and articulated to a median lobe or hypopharynx which is supported by two chitinous skeletal rods. The third pair (maxill'e) consist of a long, basal segment terminating distally in two lobes; near the distal end of the basal segments there is externally a minute one- or two-jointed process, regarded as a palpus. Between the maxillae lies a large, double plate (labium or maxillae of second pair) which is attached proximally to two rod-like basal segments and terminates distally in two pairs of short lobes. The body is long and narrow and bears on its dorsal side fifteen tergal plates. The first of these, immediately succeeding the head, is very short; the remainder are large and sub-equal in size. The adult animal is furnished with twelve pairs of walking legs, which, with the exception of the first pair, are alike in size and segmentation. Each consists of five segments, the distal of which is long and termi- nates with two powerful claws. The proximal "segment bears internally a slender, cylindrical process which may be termed the parapod. It has been asserted that the segment bearing this para- pod is in reality the second and that the true basal segment or coxa is embedded in the ventral integument. The legs of the first and second pairs never have the parapod, but they are invariably present in the remaining ten pairs. The legs of the first pair are never more than four-jointed; they are always smaller than the others, and are sometimes reduced to mere bud-like pro- cesses. They belong to the first segment behind the head. The segment represented by the last tergal plate has no ambulatory limbs; but. articulated to its posterior border is a pair of large, backwardly directed sclerites, which are perforated by the ducts of two spinning glands. These segments are regarded by some authors as the appendages of the last After Latzel, Die Myr. Osi. Ung. Mon. II. PI. L. 1884. A. Mandibles or jaws of first pair of Scolopendrella; md 1 , md % , first and second segments; t, tendon; c, part of ventral skeleton of head. B. Jaws of second pair; mxl, maxillula; hyp, hypopharynx. C. Jaws of third and fourth pairs; mx, maxilla; p.mx, maxillary palp; Ib.mx, maxillary lobes; Ib.st, sternal plate of jaw of fourth pair or labium; lb 1 , lb 2 , first and second segments of labium. (Figs. A, B, C modified from Hansen, Q.J. M.S., 47, Pi. I-) D. Posterior end of body from below; lg u , leg of nth pair: /g 12 , rudimentary leg of 1 2th pair of immature specimen; sc, exsertile sac; ent., parapod; pap, sensory papilla; cere, cercus or spin- ning sclerite: dl, duct of silkgland; a, anus. „ Fig. 15. segment, and have been compared to the cercopods of insects. At- tached also to the sides of the last segment in front of the spinning mamilla there is a sub-conical papilla bearing an apical seta arising from a cuplike depression. It has been suggested that these papillae also represent a pair of appendages. In that case the last segment must be double and bear two pairs of appendages. Thus there may be as many as fourteen pairs of trunk append- ages. There are, however, only twelve pairs known to exist with certainty. These are represented by as many segments on the ventral side; but are numerically less by two than the terga. It is not known whether this very unusual phenomenon is to be accounted for by the addition of two supernumerary terga or by the excalation of two pairs of appendages. The legs of the first pair are basally in contact; the rest are separated by a triangular sternal area. At the base of the legs, with the exception of those of the first and last pair, there is a slit-like orifice recalling the coxal sacs of certain Diplopoda {e.g. Lysiopetalum, Platydesmus). In internal anatomy the Symphyla closely resemble the Diplopoda. The alimentary canal is straight and simple, with a pair of " salivary " glands opening into the fore-gut, and a pair of malpighian tubes joining the hind-gut close to its communication with the mid-gut. There is a dorsal heart with seg- mental ostia and valves, and also a supraneural vessel. The silk glands, which occur in both sexes, are situated as in Lysiopetalum. The generative glands and ducts, which are paired, lie between the alimentary canal above and the nor- mally constructed nerve-cord below, and are accompanied in the male by a pair of seminal vesicles; and the orifice lies ventrally in the third segment behind the head. A peculi- arity in which the Symphyla differ from all " tracheate " arthropoda is the presence of a single pair of tracheal tubes opening by a pair of spiracles Ml \r a Fig. 16. — 1, Scutigerella sp? highly magnified (slightly modified from Packard); a, tuoes opening uy a pair _oi irm ; sc l e rites; b, b, legs on the lower surface of the K r t ° • . . an( . pnn head behind the antennae. The newly hatched young has a of first pair; c, antennae. 2, One of the functional ine newly natcnea young nas a , further enlarged (from smaller number of appendages than w s ood Mason) showing the the adult, the full complement of fiye joints and terminal pair legs, being reached only after sue- o{ c ,J h parap od. cessive moults. The known species of Symphyla are referred to two genera, Scolopendrella and Scutigerella, which together constitute the family Scolopendrellidae. The chief difference between the two lies in the form of the tergal plates, which in Scolopendrella have the posterior MILLOM— MILLVILLE 475 angles produced and angular, whereas in Scutigerella they are rounded. Both genera are widely distributed and are represented, in Europe, South America, Siara, &c. Large specimens reach a limit of between six and seven millimetres. They live in earth, beneath stones, dead leaves or fallen branches, and resemble diminutive centipedes {Scolo- pendra or Lithobius) both in appearance and movements. The Symphyla have frequently been compared with the Thysanurous Hexapods, the parapods with their adjacent exsertile vesicles in Scolopendretta being very similar to the abdominal appendages and vesicles of such an insect as Machilis; while the posterior spinning sclerites or cerci of the former bear much resemblance to the cerco- pods of Japyx. It must be remembered, however, that the spinning glands of certain Diplopods occupy the same position as those of the Symphyla and open upon papilliform processes of the last tergal plate, which are certainly not appendages. Hence, if the papillae are the homologues of the cerci in Scolopendretta, these cerci cannot be morphologically comparable to the cercopods of Japyx or other insects. But even if the full force of the arguments in favour of relationship between the Symphyla and the Hexapoda be admitted, the Symphyla, nevertheless, differ essentially from the Hexapoda in the anterior position of the generative orifice, and in the presence of twelve pairs of similar ambulatory limbs. (R. I. P.) MILLOM, a market town in the Egremont parliamentary division of Cumberland, England, in the extreme south-west of the county, on the Furness railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 10,426. The church of Holy Trinity, Early Norman and Decorated in date, is chiefly of interest for its curious pillars, alternately round and octagonal, and for a window in the north aisle, which has five lights, and is known, on account of its unique shape, as the " fish-window." A massive roodstone stands in the churchyard. Millom Castle, dating from shortly after the Conquest, was fortified in the 14th century by Sir John Huddlestone, whose descendants held it until 1774. For centu- ries, they exercised the power of life and death; a stone stands where the gallows were formerly erected, and indicates that here they exercised jura regalia. Though strongly built, the castle was never of great size, and it has been largely dismantled. A fine carved staircase, however, still exists in the main chapel. In 164S the Parliamentary forces besieged Millom Castle, and early in the 19th century its park was converted into farmland. In the neighbourhood qf Millom there are blast furnaces and highly productive mines of red haematite ore. The deposit lies partly under the foreshore of the river Duddon, and a company has expended upwards of £120,000 upon a sea-wall and embankment to protect the mine from the sea. MILLS, JOHN (d. 1736), English actor, was a member of the company at Drury Lane from 1695 almost uninterruptedly to the time of his death, playing and creating hundreds of parts. He was at his best in tragedy. His wife was an actress, and their son William — " the younger Mills " — was also an actor of some meiit. MILLS, ROGER QUARLES (1832- ), American legislator, was born in Todd county, Kentucky, on the 30th of March 1832. He went to Texas in 1839, studied law, and was admitted to the bar by a special act of the legislature before he was twenty-one. He entered the Confederate army in 1861, took part as a private in the battle of Wilson's Creek, and as colonel commanded the Tenth Texas Infantry at Arkansas Post, Chickamauga (where he commanded a brigade during part of the battle), Missionary Ridge and Atlanta. He served in the national House of Representatives as a Democrat from 1873 to 1892 and in the Senate from 1892 to 1899. He made the tariff his special study, and was long recognized as the leading authority in Congress. As chairman of the Ways and Means Committee of the House of Representatives in 1887-1889 during President Cleveland's first administration, he led the fight for reform. From his committee he reported in April 1888 the " Mills Bill," which provided for a reduction of the duties on sugar, earthen- ware, glassware, plate glass, woollen goods and other articles, the substitution of ad valorem for specific duties in many cases, and the placing of lumber (of certain kinds), hemp, wool, flax, borax, tin plates, salt and other articles on the free list. This bill was passed by the Democratic House on the 21st of July, and was then so amended by a Republican Senate as to be unacceptable to the house. The tariff thus became the chief issue in the presi- dential campaign of 1888. In 1891 Mills was a candidate in the Democratic caucus for Speaker of the house, but was defeated by Charles F. Crisp (1845-1896) of Georgia. During the free silver controversy he adhered to the Cleveland section of the Democratic party, and failed to be re-elected when his term in the Senate expired in 1899. He then retired to Corsicana, Texas, where he engaged in business and the practice of law. MILLSTONE GRIT, in geology, a series of massive sandstones, grits and conglomerates with alternate shales, the whole resting directly upon the Carboniferous Limestone or upon intervening shales (Yoredale, Limestone Shales), usually in stratigraphical continuity. Its occasional coal-seams show that conditions of coal-formation had already begun. In Great Britain its outcrop extends from the Bristol Coalfield through South and North Wales to its fullest development in the north-midland counties, Lancashire and Yorkshire, and thence to Scotland, where the Roslin Sandstone of the Lothians and the Moor Rock of Lanark and Stirling are considered its equivalents. Character- ized by grits and sandstones of the same general type, though individually variable, as sandbanks formed on the shoaling of the Carboniferous sea, yet often persistent over wide areas, the formation, estimated as 5000 ft. thick in Lancashire, con- tains typically the following grits in descending order: First, or Rough Rock; second, or Haslingden Flags (Lancashire); third, or Chatsworth Grit (the last two being the Middle Grits of Yorkshire); fourth and fifth, or Kinderscout Grits and the Shale Grits. The first and third, the most persistent, are often coarse and pebbly, like the Kinderscout Grits. In the north of England these grits lose their identity. In South Wales the Millstone Grit, immediately succeeding the Carboniferous Limestone, consists of 450 ft. of grit and shale, its upper member being the massive pebbly Farewell Rock. It extends into the Bristol Coalfield, though not recognized in the Devonshire Culm. In Ireland certain grey grits and flags are assigned to it. In northern France and Belgium it loses its individuality and is merged in the Coal-measures. It reappears east of the Rhine, but is unrecognizable in the somewhat different Carboniferous succession of eastern Europe. In America the Pottsville Conglomerate, 1500 ft. thick in the south Appa- lachians, with workable coals, and widely unconformable upon the Mississippian, introduces the Pennsylvanian (Upper Carbon- iferous) system, and approximately represents the Millstone Grit of western Europe, as does the red conglomerate of Nova Scotia. The shales of the Millstone Grit include thin beds of marine goniatites {Glyphioceras bilingue, Gastrioceras carbonarium), Pterinopecten papyraceus, and Lingula mytiloides, while the grits contain Lepidodendron, Stigmaria and calamites. In Scotland plants and estuarine fishes differ markedly above and below the Roslin Sandstone. The English Millstone Grit produces a characteristic scenery of wild moorland plateaux, or alternations of shale-valleys and rugged grit-ridges. The grits furnish valuable building- stones .and grindstones. They also afford an excellent water supply. (C. B. W.*) MILLVILLE, a city of Cumberland county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on the Maurice river, 40 m. S. by E. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 10,002; (1900) 10,583 (598 foreign-born); (1905, state census) 11,884; (1910) 12,451. It is served by the West Jersey & Seashore railway, by electric lines to Philadelphia, Bridgeton, Vineland and Fairton, and by schooners and small freight boats. Peaches and small fruit are cultivated extensively in the surrounding country. In the north part of the city is a large public park, in which a beautiful lake 3 m. long and about 1 m. wide has been formed by damming the river. Glass and moulding sand is found in the vicinity, and the city is engaged principally in the manufacture of glass (especially druggists' ware). The value of the city's factory products increased from $2,513,433 in 1900 to $3,719,417 in 1905, or 48%; and of the total value in 1905, $2,332,614, or 62-7%, was the value of the glass products. Millville was incorporated as a town in 1801, was chartered as a city in 1866, and its charter was revised in 1877. 476 MILMAN— MILNER, VISCOUNT MILMAN, HENRY HART (1791-1868), English historian and ecclesiastic, third son of Sir Francis Milman, Bart., physician to George III., was born in London on the 10th of November 1791. Educated at Eton and at Brasenose College, Oxford, his university career was brilliant. He gained the Newdigate prize with a poem on the Apollo Belvidere in 181 2, was elected a fellow of Brasenose in 1814, and in 1816 won the English essay prize with his Comparative Estimate of Sculpture and Painting. In 1816 he was ordained, and two years later was presented to the living of St Mary's, Reading. Milman had already made his appearance as a dramatic writer with his tragedy Fazio (produced on the stage under the title of The Italian Wife). He also wrote Samor, the Lord of The Bright City, the subject of which was taken from British legend, the " bright city " being Gloucester; but he failed to invest it with serious interest. In subsequent poetical works he was more successful, notably the Fall of Jerusalem (1820) and the Martyr of Antioch (1822). The influence of Byron is seen in his Belshazzar (1822). A tragedy, Anne Boleyn, followed in 1826; and Milman also wrote " When our heads are bowed with woe," and other hymns; an admirable version of the Sanskrit episode of Nala and Damayanti; and translations of the Agamemnon of Aeschylus and the Bacchae of Euripides. In 1821 he was elected professor of poetry at Oxford, and in 1827 he delivered the Bampton lectures on the character and conduct of the apostles as an evidence of Christianity. His poetical works were published in three volumes in 1839. Turning to another field, Milman published in 1829 his History of the Jews, which is memorable as the first by an English clergyman which treated the Jews as an Oriental tribe, recognized sheikhs and amirs in the Old Testament, sifted and classified documentary evidence, and evaded or minimized the miraculous. In consequence, the author was violently attacked and his inevit- able preferment was delayed. In 1835, however, Sir Robert Peel made him rector of St Margaret's, Westminster, and canon of Westminster, and in 1849 he became dean of St Paul's. By this time his unpopularity had nearly died away, and generally revered and beloved, he occupied a dignified and enviable position, which he constantly employed for the promotion of culture and in particular for the relaxation of subscription to ecclesiastical formularies. His History of Christianity to the Abolition of Paganism in the Roman Empire (1840) had been com- pletely ignored; but widely different was the reception accorded to the continuation of his work, his great History of Latin Christianity (1855), which has passed through many editions. In 1838 he had edited Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, and in the following year published his Life of Gibbon. Milman was also responsible for an edition of Horace, and when he died he had almost finished a history of St Paul's Cathedral, which was completed and published by his son, A. Milman (London, 1868), who also collected and published in 1879 a volume of his essays and articles. Milman died on the 24th of September 1868, and was buried in St Paul's Cathedral. .By his wife, Mary Ann, a daughter of Lieut. -General William Cockell, he had four sons and two daughters. His nephew, Robert Milman (1816-1876), was bishop of Calcutta from 1867 until his death, and was the author of a Life of Torquato Tasso (1850). See A. C. Tait, Sermon in Memory of H. H. Milman (London, 1868), and Arthur Milman, H. H. Milman (London, 1900). See also the Memoirs of R. Milman, bishop of Calcutta, by his sister, Frances Maria Milman (1879). MILNE-EDWARDS, HENRY (1800-1885), French zoologist, the son of an Englishman, was born in Bruges on the 23rd of October 1800, but spent most of his life in France. At first he turned his attention to medicine, in which he graduated at Paris in 1823; but his passion for natural history soon prevailed, and he gave himself up to the study of the lower forms of animal life. One of his earliest papers (Recherches anatomiques sur les crus- tacis), which was presented to the Academy of Sciences in 1829, formed the theme of an elaborate and eulogistic report by G. Cuvier in the following year. It embodied the results of two dredging expeditions undertaken by him and his friend J. V. Audouin during 1826 and 1828 in the neighbourhood of Granville, and was remarkable for clearly distinguishing the marine fauna of that portion of the French coast into four zones. Much of his original work was published in the Annates des sciences naturelles, with the editorship of which he was associated from 1834. Of his books may be mentioned the Hisloire naturelle de crustac&s (3 vols., 1837-1841), which long remained a standard work; Histoire naturelle des coralliaires, published in 1858-1860, but begun many years before; Lecons sur la physiologie et I'anatomie comparee de I'homme et des animaux (1857-1881), in 14 volumes; and a little work on the elements of zoology, origin- ally published in 1834, but subsequently remodelled, which enjoyed an enormous circulation. He was appointed in 1841 professor of entomology at the museum d'histoire naturelle, where twenty-one years later he succeeded Geoffroy Saint- Hilaire in the chair of zoology. The Royal Society in 1856 awarded him the Copley medal in recognition of his zoological investigations. He died in Paris on the 29th of July 1885. His son, Alphonse Milne-Edwards (1835-1900), who became professor of ornithology at the museum in 1876, devoted himself especially to fossil birds and deep-sea exploration. MILNER, ALFRED MILNER, Viscount (1854- ), British statesman and colonial administrator, was born at Bonn on the 23rd of March 1854, the only son of Charles Milner, M.D., whose wife was a daughter of Major-General Ready, sometime governor of the Isle of Man. His paternal grandfather, an Englishman, settled in Germany and married a German lady; and their son, Charles Milner, practised as a physician in London and became later Reader in English at Tubingen University. Alfred Milner was educated first at Tubingen, then at King's College, London, and under Jowett as a scholar of Balliol College, Oxford, from 1872 to 1876. He graduated in 1877, with a first class in classics, having won the Hertford, Craven, Eldon and Derby scholarships, and was elected to a fellowship of New College. At Oxford he formed a close friendship with Arnold Toynbee, and was associated with his schemes of social work; and subsequently he wrote a tribute to his friend, Arnold Toynbee: a Reminiscence (1895). In 188 1 he was called \o the bar at the Inner Temple and joined the staff of the Pall Mall Gazette under John Morley, becoming assistant editor under W. T. Stead. In 1885 he abandoned journalism, and became Liberal candidate for the Harrow division of Middlesex at the general election, but was defeated. He acted as private secretary to Mr (afterwards Lord) Goschen, and in 1887, when Goschen became chancellor of the exchequer, was appointed his principal private secretary. It was by Goschen's influence that in 1889 he was made under-secretary of finance in Egypt. He remained in Egypt four years, his period of office coinciding with the first great reforms, after the danger of bankruptcy had been avoided. Milner returned to England in 1892, and was appointed chairman of the Board of Inland Revenue, being made C.B. in 1894 and K.C.B. in 1895. Shortly after his return to England he published his England in Egypt, which at once became the authoritative account of the work done since the British occupation. Sir Alfred Milner remained at the Board of Inland Revenue until 1897. He was regarded as one of the clearest-headed and most judicious officials in the British service, and his position as a man of moderate Liberal views, who had been so closely associated with Goschen at the Treasury, Cromer in Egypt and Hicks-Beach (Lord St Aldwyn) and Sir W. Harcourt while at the Inland Revenue, marked him out as one in whom all parties might have confidence. The moment for testing his capacity in the highest degree had now come. In April Lord Rosmead resigned his posts of high commissioner for South Africa and governor of Cape Colony. The situation resulting from the Jameson raid (see Transvaal and South Africa) was one of the greatest delicacy and difficulty, and Mr Chamberlain, now colonial secretary, selected Milner as Lord Rosmead's successor. The choice was cordially approved by the leaders of the Liberal party, and warmly recognized at a farewell dinner presided over by Mr Asquith (March 28th, 1897). The MILNER, VISCOUNT 477 appointment was avowedly made in order that an acceptable British statesman, in whom public confidence was reposed, might go to South Africa to consider all the circumstances, and to formulate a policy which should combine the upholding of British interests with the attempt to deal justly with the Transvaal and Orange Free State governments. Sir Alfred Milner reached the Cape in May 1897, and after the difficulties with President Kruger over the Aliens' Law had been patched up he was free by August to make himself personally acquainted with the country and peoples before deciding on the lines of policy to be adopted. Between August 1897 and May 1898 he travelled through Cape Colony, the Bechuanaland Protectorate, Rhodesia and Basutoland. The better to understand the point of view of the Cape Dutch and the burghers of the Transvaal and Orange Free State, Milner also during this period learned both Dutch and the South African " Taal." He came to the conclusion that there could be no hope of peace and progress in South Africa while there remained the " permanent subjection of British to Dutch in one of the Republics." He also realized — as was shown by the triumphant re-election of Mr Kruger to the presidency of the Transvaal in February 1898 — that the Pretoria govern- ment would never on its own initiative redress the grievances of the " Uitlanders." In a speech delivered at Graaf Reinet, a Bond stronghold, on the 3rd of March 1898, he made it clear ihat he was determined to secure freedom and equality for the British subjects in the Transvaal, and he urged the Dutch colonists to induce the Pretoria government to assimilate its institutions, and the temper and spirit of its administration, to those of the free communities of South Africa. The effect of this pronouncement was great, and it alarmed the Afrikanders, who at this time viewed with apprehension the virtual resump- tion by Cecil Rhodes of his leadership of the Progressive (British) party at the Cape. That Milner had good grounds for his view of the situation is shown in a letter written (March n) by Mr J. X. Merriman to President Steyn of the Free State: "The greatest danger (wrote Mr Merriman^ lies in the attitude of President Kruger and his vain hope of building up a State on a foundation of a narrow unenlightened minority, and his obstinate rejection of all prospect of using the materials which lie ready to his hand to establish a true republic on a broad liberal basis. Such a state of affairs cannot last. It must break down from inherent rottenness." Though this was recognized by the more far-seeing of the Bond leaders, they were ready to support Kruger, whether or not he granted reforms, and they sought to make Milner's position impossible. His difficulties were increased when at the general election in Cape Colony the Bond obtained a majority. Acting strictly in a con- stitutional manner, Milner thereupon (Oct. 1898) called upon Mr W. P. Schreiner to form a ministry, though aware that such a ministry would be opposed to any direct intervention of Great Britain in the Transvaal. Convinced that the existing state of affairs, if continued, would end in the loss of South Africa by Britain, Milner came to England in November 1898. He returned to the Cape in February 1899 fully assured of the support of Mr Chamberlain, though the government still clung to the hope that the moderate section of the Cape and Free State Dutch would induce Kruger to deal justly with the Uitlanders. He found the situation more critical than when he had left, ten weeks previously. Johannesburg was in a ferment, while General Sir William Butler, who acted as high commissioner in Milner's absence, had allowed it to be seen that he did not take a favourable view of the Uitlander griev- ances. On the 4th of May Milner penned a memorable despatch to the Colonial Office, in which he insisted that the remedy for the unrest in the Transvaal was to strike at the root of the evil — the political impotence of the injured. " It may seem a paradox," he wrote, " but it is true that the only way for protecting our subjects is to help them to cease to be our subjects." The policy of leaving things alone only led from bad to worse, and " the case for intervention is overwhelming." Milner felt that only the enfranchisement of the Uitlanders in the Transvaal would give stability to the South African situation. He had not based his case against the Transvaal on the letter of the Conventions, and regarded the employment of the word " suze- rainty " merely as an " etymological question," but he realized keenly that the spectacle of thousands of British subjects in the Transvaal in the condition of " helots " (as he expressed it) was undermining the prestige of Great Britain throughout South Africa, and he called for " some striking proof " of the intention of the British government not to be ousted from its predominant position. This despatch was telegraphed to London, and was intended for immediate publication; but it was kept private for a time by the home government. Its tenor was known, however, to the leading politicians at the Cape, and at the instance of J. H. Hofmeyr a conference was held (May 31-June 5) at Bloemfontein between the high com- missioner and the president of the Transvaal. Milner then made the enactment by the Transvaal of a franchise law which would at once give the Johannesburgers a share in the government of the country his main, and practically his only, demand. The conference ended without any agreement being reached, and the diplomatic discussion which followed (see Transvaal) gradually became more and more contentious. When war broke out, October 1899, Milner rendered the military authorities " unfailing support and wise counsels," being, in Lord Roberts's phrase " one whose courage never faltered." In February 1901 he was called upon to undertake the adminis- tration of the two Boer states, both now annexed to the British Empire, though the war was still in progress. He thereupon resigned the governorship of Cape Colony, while retaining the post of high commissioner. The work of reconstructing the civil administration in the Transvaal and Orange River Colony could only be carried on to a limited extent while operations continued in the field. Milner therefore returned to England to spend a " hard-begged holiday," which was, however, mainly occupied in work at the Colonial Office. He reached London on the 24th of May 1901, had an audience with the king on the same day, was made a G.C.B. and privy councillor, and was raised to the peerage with the title of Baron Milner of St James's and Cape Town. Speaking next day at a luncheon given in his honour, answering critics who alleged that with more time and patience on the part of Great Britain war might have been avoided, he asserted that what they were asked to " conciliate " was " panoplied hatred, insensate am- bition, invincible ignorance." Meanwhile the diplomacy of 1899 and the conduct of the war had caused a great change in the attitude of the Liberal party in England towards Lord Milner, whom Mr Leonard Courtney even characterized as " a lost mind." A violent agitation for his recall, in which Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman joined, was organized, but without success, and in August he returned to South Africa, where he plunged into the herculean task of remodelling the administration. In the negotiations for peace he was associated with Lord Kitchener, and the terms of surrender, signed at Pretoria oh the 31st of May 1902, were drafted by him. In recognition of his services he was, on the 15th of July, made a viscount. Immediately following the conclusion of peace Milner published (June 21) the Letters Patent establishing the system of crown colony government in the Transvaal and Orange River colonies, and exchanging his title of administrator to that of governor. The reconstructive work necessary after the ravages of the war was enormous. He provided a steady revenue by the levying of a tax of 10% on the annual net produce of the gold mines, and devoted special attention to the repatriation of the Boers, land settlement by British colonists, education, justice, the constabulary, and the development of railways. While this work of reconstruction was in progress domestic politics in England were convulsed by the tariff reform movement and Mr Chamberlain's resignation. Milner, who was then spending a brief holiday in Europe, was urged by Mr Balfour to take the vacant post of secretary of state for the colonies. This offer he declined (Oct. 1, 1903), considering it more important to complete his work in South Africa, where economic depression 47 8 MILNER, J.— MILO OF GLOUCESTER was becoming pronounced. He was back in Johannesburg in December 1903, and had to consider the crisis in the gold-mining industry caused by the shortage of native labour. Reluctantly he agreed, with the assent of the home govern- ment, to the proposal of the mineowners to import Chinese coolies on a three years' contract, the first batch of Chinese reaching the Rand in June 1904. In the latter part of 1904 and the early months of 1905 Lord Milner was engaged on the elaboration of a scheme to provide the Transvaal with a system of " representative " government, a half-way house between crown colony administration and that of self-government. Letters patent providing for repre- sentative government were issued on the 31st of March 190s. 1 For some time he had suffered in health from the incessant strain of work, and he determined to retire. He left Pretoria on the 2nd of April and sailed for Europe on the following day. Speaking at Johannesburg on the eve of his departure, he re- commended to all concerned the promotion of the material pros- perity of the country and the treatment of Dutch and British on an absolute equality. Having referred to his share in the war, he added: " What I should prefer to be remembered by is a tremendous effort subsequent to the war not only to repair the ravages of that calamity but to re-start the colonies on a higher plane of civilization than they have ever previously attained." He left South Africa while the economic crisis was still acute and at a time when the voice of the critic was audible everywhere; but, in the words of the colonial secretary (Mr Alfred Lyttelton) he had in the eight eventful years of his administration " laid deep and strong the foundation upon which a united South Africa would arise to become one of the great states of the empire." On his return home his university honoured him with the honorary degree of D.C.L. Experience in South Africa had shown him that underlying the difficulties of the situation there was the wider problem of imperial unity. In his farewell speech at Johannesburg he concluded with a reference to the subject. " When we who call ourselves Imperialists talk of the British Empire we think of a group of states bound, not in an alliance — for alliances can be made and unmade — but in a permanent organic union. Of such a union the dominions of the sovereign as they exist to-day are only the raw material." This thesis he further developed in a magazine article written in view of the colonial conference held in London in 1907. He advocated the creation of a permanent deliberative imperial council, and favoured preferential trade relations between the United Kingdom and the other members of the empire; and in later years he took an active part in advocating the cause of tariff reform and colonial preference. In March 1906 a motion censuring Lord Milner for an infraction of the Chinese labour ordinance, in not forbidding light corporal punishment of coolies for minor offences in lieu of imprisonment, was moved by a Radical member of the House of Commons. On behalf of the Liberal government an amendment was moved, stating that " This House, while recording its condemnation of the flogging of Chinese coolies in breach of the law, desires, in the interests of peace and conciliation in South Africa, to re- frain from passing censure upon individuals." The amendment was carried by 355 votes to 135. As a result of this left-handed censure, a counter-demonstration was organized, led by Sir Bartle Frere, and -a public address, signed by over 370,000 persons, was presented to Lord Milner expressing high apprecia- tion of the services rendered by him in Africa to the crown and empire. See also E. B. Iwan-Miiller, Lord Milner and South Africa (London, 1902) ; W. B. Worsfold, Lord Milner' s Work in South Africa (London, 1906); W. T. Stead, " Sir Alfred Milner," in The Review of Reviews, vol. xx. (1899); and the bibliography to South Africa. MILNER, JOSEPH (1 744-1 797), English evangelical divine, was born at Leeds and educated at Leeds grammar-school and Cambridge. After taking his degree he went to Thorparch, 1 Owing to the advent of a Liberal ministry in England, December 1905, this scheme remained inoperative (see Transvaal: History). Yorkshire, as curate and assistant schoolmaster. Subsequently he became head master of Hull grammar-school, and in 1768 he was chosen afternoon lecturer at Holy Trinity church, Hull. He became a strong supporter of the evangelical move- ment of the period, and greatly contributed to its success in Hull. In addition to his work as head master, he took charge of North Ferriby parish, about 9 m. from Hull. His published works include essays and numerous sermons, but his best known work is the History of the Church of Christ (Lon- don, 1794-1809). He lived to complete the first three volumes, and two more were added by his brother, Isaac Milner (1750- 1820), dean of Carlisle, who re-edited the whole work in 1810. MILNGAVIE (locally pronounced Millguy), a police burgh of Dumbartonshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 3481. It lies 6 m. N.N.W. of Glasgow by the North British railway. The chief industries include bleach-fields, dye-works, a distillery and a paper mill; but the town is largely a residential quarter for Glasgow business men. Close to the town are two reservoirs, Mugdock (62 acres) and Craigmaddie (88 acres), in which is stored the water from Loch Katrine. Mugdock Castle, if m. N. of Milngavie, is an old stronghold of the Grahams; in Balder- nock parish, about 2 m. E., stands a cromlech, called "the Auld Wives' Lift " (400 ft. high), commanding a fine view of the lands between the Forth and Clyde. Dougalston Loch, 1 m. S.E., contains several rare aquatic plants. MILO, or Milon, of Crotona, Greek athlete, lived about the end of the 6th century B.C. He was six times crowned at the Olympic games and six times at the Pythian for wrestling, and was famous throughout the civilized world for his feats of strength — such as carrying an ox on his shoulders through the stadium at Olympia. In his native city he was much honoured, and he commanded the army which defeated the people of Sybaris in 511. The traditional account of his death is often used to point a moral: he found a tree which some woodcutters had partially split with a wedge, and attempted to rend it asunder; but the wedge fell out, and the tree closed on his hand, imprisoning him till wolves came and devoured him. His name became proverbial for personal strength (Diod. Sic. xii. 9; Pausanias vi. 14; Strabo vi. 263; Herodotus iii. 137). MILO, TITUS ANNIUS, Roman political agitator, was the son of C. Papius Celsus, but was adopted by his mother's father, T. Annius Luscus. He joined the Pompeian party, and organized bands of mercenaries and gladiators to support the cause by public violence in opposition to P. Clodius, who gave similar support to the democratic cause. Milo was tribune of the plebs in 57 B.C. He took a prominent part in bringing about the recall of Cicero from exile, in spite of the opposition of Clodius. In 53, when Milo was candidate for the consulship and Clodius for the praetorship, the two leaders met by acci- dent on the Appian Way at Bovillae and Clodius was murdered (January 52). Milo was impeached; his guilt was clear, and his enemies took every means of intimidating his supporters and his judges. Cicero was afraid to speak, and the extant Pro Milone is an expanded form of the unspoken defence. Milo went into exile at Massilia, and his property was sold by auction. He joined M. Caelius Rufus in 48 in his rising against Caesar, but was slain near Thurii in Lucania. His wife was Fausta, daughter of the dictator Sulla. MILO OF GLOUCESTER, lord of Brecknock and earl of Hereford (d. 1143), was the son of Walter of Gloucester, who appears as sheriff of that county between n 04 and n 21. Milo succeeded his father about the latter year. He was high in the service of Henry I. between 1130 and 1135, and combined the office of sheriff with that of local justiciar for Gloucester- shire. After the death of Henry I. he declared for Stephen, at whose court he appears as constable in 1136. But in 1139, when the empress Matilda appeared in England, he declared for her, and placed the city of Gloucester at her disposal; he was further distinguished by sacking the royalist city of Wor- cester and reducing the county of Hereford. In n 41, at Matilda's coronation, he was rewarded with the earldom of MILORADOVICH— MILTIADES 479 Hereford. He remained loyal to the empress after her defeat at Winchester. John of Salisbury classes him with Geoffrey de Mandeville and others who were non tarn comites regni quam hosies pubhci. The charge is justified by his public policy; but the materials for appraising his personal character do not exist. See the Continuation of Florence of Worcester (ed. B. Thorpe, 1848- 1849); the Cartulary of Gloucester Abbey (Rolls series); and J. H. Round's Geoffrey de Mandeville (1892). MILORADOVICH, MICHAEL ANDRIJEVICH, Count (1770- 1825), Russian general, saw service under Suvarov in the wars against Turkey and Poland, and in the campaign of Italy and Switzerland (1799) earned much distinction as a commander of advanced troops. In 1805, having attained the rank of lieutenant-general, he served under Kutusov in the campaign of Austerlitz, taking part in the actions of Enns and Krems and in the decisive battle of the 2nd of December, in which his column held the Pratzen heights. In the Turkish War he distinguished himself at Giurgevo (1807). Promoted general of infantry in 1810, he commanded a corps at Borodino, and subsequently inflicted the defeat of Tarutino (or Winkovo) on Murat, king of Naples (October 18, 1812). His corps was one of those most active in the pursuit of Napoleon's Grande Armee, and in 1813 he led the rear-guard of the Allies after their earlier defeats. At the victory of Kulm he was present in command of a Russian-Prussian corps, which he led at Leipzig and in the campaign of 1814. From 1818 to the time of his death he was military governor of St Petersburg. He perished in the popular outbreak in the capital, on the 26th (14th o.s.) of December 1825. MILOSH OBRENOVICH I. (1780-1860), prince of Servia, founder of the Obrenovich dynasty, was born in 1780 of poor Servian peasants. When he later became prince of Servia he used to tell how for a penny a day he drove cattle from Servia to Dalmatia. His half-brother, Milan Obrenovich, who had developed into a successful exporter of cattle and pigs into Austria, associated him in his own export trade and otherwise supported him. Partly from gratitude and partly because the family name of his half-brother was already honourably known in the country, Milosh adopted that name as his own, and called himself Obrenovich, instead of Theodorovich. Kara- george, the leader of the first Servian revolution against the Turks, appointed Milosh Obrenovich in 1807 a voyvode, i.e. district commander of the national army and civil administrator. As such he distinguished himself in many battles, and was reputed a wise and energetic administrator and a just judge. When in 1813 the Turks under the Grand Vizier Khurshid occupied Servia, and Karageorge and almost all his voyvodes left the country for Austria, Milosh, although strongly advised to follow their example, refused to do so. He remained in the country, surrendered to the Turks, and was recognized by them as the voyvode of Rudnik (Central Servia). As he was then practically the only chief of the nation, the Turks called him to Belgrade, where he was kept through the year 1814 as a hostage. But he found means to prepare a new rising of the Servians against the Turks, and on Palm Sunday 181 5 he appeared with his voyvode's standard before the people round the small church of Takovo, and started the second and successful in- surrection. Not so much by his victories on the battlefields as by his clever exploitation of the international difficulties of Turkey, and of the known weakness of the Turkish pashas for " baksheesh " — no doubt also by his statesmanlike modera- tion — he succeeded in less than two years in obtaining from the Porte the practical recognition of the Servian people's right to self-government. The National Assembly in 1817 elected him prince of Servia. From that year began the organization of Servia by the Servians as an autonomous province of the Ottoman Empire. But its existence as such rested on no safe and legal basis, except on the readiness of the Servians to defend it with all their might and on the goodwill of the sultan and his" Sublime Porte." Milosh therefore worked hard to obtain some sort of international recognition of the semi-independent status of Servia. Russia came to his assistance, and by the Treaty of Adrianople of 1829 the Porte engaged formally to grant Servia full autonomy. This engagement was somewhat devel- oped in the Hatti-sherif of 1830, which added to Servia three districts (Krushevats, Alexinats, Zaechar), acknowledged her full autonomy, recognized Milosh as hereditary prince of Servia, and declared that the Turks in Servia could have properties and live only in fortified places where there were Turkish garrisons, and not in other towns and villages. Milosh won for his family the hereditary right to the throne of Servia with- out the co-operation of Russia. The creation of a hereditary dynasty in Servia was outside the Russian Balkan policy of that time, and this great and independent success of Milosh was the first cause of Russia's dissatisfaction with him. The second cause was that, yielding to the pressure exercised on him by his own people, he gave the country a constitution without asking " the protector of Servia," the tsar, for his approval of the step. The third cause was that Milosh consistently resented the interference of Russia in the internal affairs of the principality. The climax of his misdeeds, from the Russian point of view, was that on the occasion of his visit to the Sultan Mahmud II. in 1836 he persuaded the British ambassador, Lord Ponsonby, that it would be useful to establish a British consulate in Belgrade. The first British consul in Servia, Colonel Hodges, became speedily an intimate friend of Prince Milosh, who — probably under his new friend's influence — began to agitate to replace the exclusive protectorate of Russia by the joint protectorate of all the great Powers of Europe. The cabinet of St Petersburg now decided to remove Milosh from the throne of Servia, and, supported by the Russian consul- general, the leaders of the Servian opposition, who posed as champions of a constitutional system, succeeded in forcing him to abdicate in 1839. After his abdication Milosh lived mostly on his estates in Rumania, or in Vienna. In December 1858 the National Assembly of Servia, having dethroned Prince Alexander Karageorgevich, recalled Milosh to the throne of Servia. Milosh came, accompanied by his son Michael, and began to reign in his own old fashion; but death closed his activity on the 14th (27th n.s.) of September i860. He was buried in the cathedral of Belgrade. (C. Mi.) MILTIADES, the name of two Athenian statesmen and generals of a family (the Philaidae) of Aeginetan origin, which claimed descent from Aeacus. 1. Miltiades (6th century B.C.), the son of Cypselus, a promi- nent opponent of Peisistratus. According to Herodotus (vi. 36, 37) he led a colony to the Tbracian Chersonese at the request of the Doloncians, who, hard pressed by the Absinthians (or Apsinthians), were advised by the Delphian oracle to invite to their country the man who should first show them hospi- tality after leaving the temple. Since, however, the Athenians had from c. 600-590 B.C. held Sigeum in the Troad, whence they had fought against Mitylene, it is probable that the Doloncians appealed for help to Athens, and that Peisistratus took the opportunity of getting rid of one of his chief opponents by sending Miltiades. He became " tyrant " of the Chersonesus, which he fortified by a wall across the isthmus from Cardia to Pactya. He was captured by the people of Lampsacus, but released on the intercession of Croesus of Lydia. He was succeeded by Stesagoras, son of his half-brother, Cimon. 2. Miltiades (died c. 488 B.C.), the victor of Marathon, was another son of Cimon. On the death of Stesagoras, he was sent to the Chersonese (? about 518-516) by Hippias — no doubt to support Hegesistratus at Sigeum (see Peisistratus). He entrapped and imprisoned the chief men of Chersonesus, which was then in a turbulent condition, and strengthened himself by an alliance with Hegesipyle, daughter of the Thracian prince Olorus (Herod, vi. 39). He led a contingent in the Scythian expedition of Darius Hystaspis and, according to Herodotus, advised the leaders who were left at the Danube bridge to destroy it and leave Darius to his fate. This story is improbable, as Darius left Miltiades in possession of the Chersonese for some 4 8o MILTON twenty years longer, though Persian forces Vere frequently in the neighbourhood. Miltiades was, according to Herodotus, expelled by Scythian invaders, but was brought back by the Doloncians, and subsequently captured Lemnos and Imbros for Athens from the so-called Pelasgian inhabitants, who were Persian dependents. Having thus (probably) incurred the enmity of Darius, Miltiades fled to Athens on the approach of the Persians under Datis and Artaphernes, leaving his son Metiochus a prisoner in Persian hands, and was at once impeached unsuccessfully on the charge of tyranny in the Chersonese. 1 Possibly the story of his having tried to destroy the Danube bridge was invented or exaggerated at this time as an argument in his favour (see Grote, History of Greece, i vol., ed. 1907, p. 119 note). Since, however, Herodotus almost certainly relied on Alcmaeonid tradition, which was hostile to Miltiades, the whole story is uncertain; the statement that he fled before a Scythian invasion is especially improbable. If Miltiades really recommended the destruction of the bridge, we may infer that the Herodotean story of his flight before the Scythians is a misunderstanding of the fact that his residence in Chersonese after the Scythian invasion was insecure and not continuous. On the approach of the Persians Miltiades was made one of the ten Athenian generals, and it was on his advice that the polemarch Callimachus decided to give battle at Marathon (?.».). Subsequently he used his influence with the Athenians to induce them to give him a fleet of seventy ships without any indication of his object (Herod, vi. 132-136). Cornelius Nepos (Miltiades, c. vii.), probably on good authority (? Eph- orus), states that he had a commission to regain control over the Aegean. No doubt his object was to establish an outer line of defence against future Persian aggression. Herodotus says that, having besieged Paros vainly for nearly a month, he made a secret visit to Timo, a priestess of Demeter in Paros, with a view to the betrayal of the island, and being compelled to flee wounded himself severely in attempting to leap a fence (but see Ephorus in Fragm. hist. gr. 107). , On his return to Athens he was impeached by Xanthippus, who was allied by marriage to the Alcmaeonids, on the ground that he had " deceived the people," and only escaped on the strength of his past services with a fine of 50 talents. The facts of the trial and the charge are difficult to recover, nor do we know why the siege was raised. Some authorities hold that he was bribed to this course, and hence that the charge was one of treason; others suggest that be retired in the belief that a Persian fleet was approaching. All that is known is that he died of his wound (480-488), without paying the fine, which was paid subsequently by his son Cimon (q.v.). He appears to have been a man of strong determination and great personal courage, of a type characteristic of the pre-Cleisthenic constitution. His absence in the Chersonese during the first years of the new democracy (508-493?) and his patrician line- age account naturally for the difference which existed between him and the popular leaders — Themistocles and Aristides. See the passages of Herodotus and Cornelius Nepos, quoted above, and histories of Greece. On the Parian expedition and the trial, R. W. Macan, Herodotus iv.-vi., vol. 2, appendix xi. ;on the foreign policy of Miltiades see Themistocles. (J. M. M.) HILTON, JOHN (1608-1674), English poet, was born in Bread Street, Cheapside, London, on the 9th of December 1608. His father, known as Mr John Milton of Bread Street, scrivener, was himself an interesting man. He was a native of Oxford- shire, the son of a Richard Milton, yeoman of Stanton-St- John's, one of the sturdiest adherents to the old Roman Catholic religion in his district, and was educated at Christ Church, Oxford, where he turned Protestant. According to the poet's earliest biographer, John Milton senior was disinherited in the beginning of Queen Elizabeth's reign for reading the Bible. With a good education and good abilities, especially in music, he may have lived for some time in London by musical teaching and practice. 1 So Herodotus ; but the story is difficult to believe in view of the fact that the family of Miltiades was distinctively fiKrorvpavvos. Possibly the trial is merely a hostile version of the ordinary test of a man's qualification for office (Soni/toola). Not till 1595, at all events, when he must have been long past the usual age of apprenticeship, do we hear of his preparation for the profession of a scrivener; and not till February 1599-1600, when he was about thirty-seven years of age, did he become a qualified member of the Scriveners' Company. It was then that he set up his " house and shop " at the sign of the Spread Eagle in Bread Street, and began his business of drawing up wills, marriage-settlements, and the like, with such related business as that of receiving money from clients for investment and lending it out to the best advantage. It was at the same time that he married, not, as stated by Aubrey, a lady named Bradshaw, but Sarah Jeffrey, one of the two orphan daughters of a Paul Jeffrey, of St Swithin's, London, " citizen and merchant- taylor," originally from Essex, who had died before 1583. At the date of her marriage she was about twenty-eight years of age. Six children were born to the scrivener and his wife, of whom three survived infancy — Anne, who married Edward Phillips; John, the poet; and Christopher (1615-1693), who was knighted and made a judge under James II. The first sixteen years of Milton's life, coinciding exactly with the last sixteen of the reign of James I., associate themselves with the house in Bread Street. His father, while prospering in business, continued to be known as a works. man of " ingeniose " tastes, and acquired distinction in the London musical world of that time. He contributed a madrigal to Thomas Morley's Triumph of Oriana (1601), four motets to Sir William Leighton's Tears and Lamentations of a Sorrowful Soul (1614), and some hymn tunes — one of which, " Yor," is still in common use — in Thomas Ravenscroft's Whole Book of Psalms (1621). Music was thus a part of the poet's domestic education from his infancy. Again and again Milton speaks with gratitude and affection of the ungrudging pains bestowed by his father on his early education. " Both at the grammar school and also under other masters at home," is the statement in one passage, " he caused me to be instructed daily. " When Milton was ten years of age his tutor was Thomas Young (1587-1655), a Scottish divine, who afterwards became master of Jesus College, Cambridge. Young's tutorship lasted till 1622, when he accepted the pastorship of the congre- gation of English merchants in Hamburg. Already, however, for a year or two his teaching had been only supplementary to the education which the boy was receiving by daily attendance at St Paul's public school, close to Bread Street. The head- master of the school was Alexander Gill, an elderly Oxford divine, of high reputation for scholarship and teaching ability. Under him, as usher or second master, was his son, Alexander Gill the younger, also an Oxford graduate of scholarly reputa- tion, but of blustering character. Milton's acquaintanceship with this younger Gill, begun at St Paul's school, led to subse- quent friendship and correspondence. Far more affectionate and intimate was the friendship formed by Milton at St Paul's with his schoolfellow Charles Diodati, the son of an Italian physician, Dr Theodore Diodati, a naturalized Englishman settled in London, and much respected, both on his own account and as being the brother of the famous Protestant divine, Jean Diodati of Geneva. Young Diodati, who was destined for his father's profession, left the school for Trinity College, Oxford, early in 1623; but Milton remained till the end of 1624. In that year his elder sister, Anne, married Edward Phillips, a clerk in the Government office called the Crown Office in Chancery. Milton had then all but completed his sixteenth year, and was as scholarly, as accomplished and as handsome a youth as St Paul's school had sent forth. We learn from himself that his exercises " in English or other tongue, prosing or versing, but chiefly this latter," had begun to attract attention even in his boyhood. Of these poems the only specimens that now remain are two copies of Latin verses, preserved in a common- place book of his (printed by the Camden Society in 1877), and his " Paraphrase on Psalm CXIV " and his " Paraphrase on Psalm CXXXVI." At the age of sixteen years and two months, Milton was entered as a student of Christ's College, Cambridge, MIETON 481 in the grade of a " Lesser Pensioner," and he matriculated two months later, on the 9th of April 1625. The master of Christ's was Dr Thomas Bainbrigge; and among the thirteen fellows were Joseph Meade, still remembered as a commentator on the Apocalypse, and William Chappell, afterwards an Irish bishop. It was under Chappell's tutorship that Milton was placed when he first entered the college. At least three students who entered Christ's after Milton, • but during his residence, deserve mention. One was Edward King, a youth of Irish birth and high Irish connexions, who entered in 1626, at the age of fourteen, another was John Cleveland, afterwards known as royalist and satirist, who entered in 1627; and the third was Henry More, subsequently famous as the Cambridge Platonist, who entered in 1631, just before Milton left. Milton's own brother, Christopher, joined him in the college in February 1630-1631, at the age of fifteen. Milton's academic course lasted seven years and five months, bringing him from his seventeenth year to his twenty-fourth. The first four years were his time of undergraduateship. It was in the second of these — the year 1626 — that there occurred the quarrel between him and his tutor, Chappell, which Dr Johnson, making the most of a lax tradition from Aubrey, magnified into the supposition that Milton may have been one of the last students in either of the English universities that suffered the indignity of corporal punishment. The legend deserves no credit; but it is certain that Milton, on account of some disagreement with Chappell, left college for a time, though he did not lose his term; and that when he did return, he was transferred from the tutorship of Chappell to that of Nathaniel Tovey. From the first of the Latin elegies one infers that the cause of the quarrel was some outbreak of self-assertion on Milton's part. We learn indeed, from words of his own elsewhere, that it was not only Chappell and Bainbrigge that he had offended by his independent demeanour, but that, for the first two or three years of his undergraduateship, he was generally unpopular, for the same reason, among the younger men of his college. They had nicknamed him " the Lady " — a nickname which the students of the other colleges took up, converting it into "the Lady of Christ's"; and, thbugh the allusion was chiefly to the peculiar grace of his personal appear- ance, it conveyed also a sneer at what the rougher men thought his unusual prudishness, the haughty fastidiousness of his tastes and morals. A change in this state of things had certainly occurred before January 1628-1629, when, at the age of twenty, he took his B.A. degree. By that time his intellectual pre- eminence had come to be acknowledged. His reputation for scholarship and literary genius, extraordinary even then, was more than confirmed during the remaining three years and a half of his residence in Cambridge. A fellowship in Christ's which fell vacant in 1630 would undoubtedly have been his had the election to such posts depended then absolutely on merit. As it was, the fellowship was conferred, by royal favour on Edward King, his junior in college standing by sixteen months. In July 1632 Milton completed his career at the university by taking his M.A. degree. Tradition still points out Milton's rooms at Christ's College. They are on the first floor on the first stair on the north side of the great court. Of Milton's skill at Cambridge, in what Wood calls " the collegiate and academical exercises," specimens remain in his Prolusiones quaedam oratoriae. They consist of seven rhetorical Latin essays, generally in a whimsical vein, delivered by him, either ; n the hall of Christ's College or in the public university schools. To Milton's Cambridge period belong four of his Latin " Familiar Epistles," and the greater number of his preserved Latin poems, including: (1) the seven pieces, written in 1626, which compose his Elegiarum liber, two of the most interesting of them addressed to his friend, Charles Diodati, and one to his former tutor, Young, in his exile at Ham- burg; (2) the five short Gunpowder Plot epigrams, now appended to the Elegies-, and (3) the first five pieces of the Sylvamm liber, the most important of which are the hexameter poem " In quintum novembris " (1626), and the piece entitled Naturam xvin. 16 non pati senium (1628). Of the English poems of the Cambridge period the following is a dated list: " On the Death of a fair Infant " (1625-1626), the subject being the death of the first-born child of his sister Anne Phillips; "At a Vacation Exercise in the College" (1628), the magnificent Christmas ode; "On the Morning of Christ's Nativity " (1629); the fragment called " The Passion " and the " Song on May Morning," both probably belonging to 1630; the sonnet " On Shakespeare," certainly belonging to that year, printed in the Shakespeare folio of 1632; the two facetious pieces " On the University Carrier " (1630- 1631); the "Epitaph on the Marchioness of Winchester" (163 1); the sonnet "To the Nightingale," probably of the same year; the sonnet " On arriving at the Age of twenty- three," dating itself certainly in December 1631. Just before Milton quitted Cambridge, his father, then verging on his seventieth year, had practically retired from his Bread Street business, leaving the active management of it to a partner, named Thomas Bower, a former apprentice of his, and had gone to spend his declining years at Horton in Buckinghamshire, a small village near Colnbrook, and not far from Windsor. Here, in a house close to Horton church, Milton mainly resided for the next six years — from July 1632 to April 1638. Although, when he had gone to Cambridge, it had been with the intention of becoming a clergyman, that intention had been abandoned. His reasons were that " tyranny had invaded the church," and that, finding he could not honestly subscribe the oaths and obligations required he " thought it better to preserve a blameless silence before the sacred office of speaking, begun with servitude and forswearing." x In other words, he was disgusted with the system which Laud was establishing and maintaining in the Church of England. " Church-outed by the prelates," as he emphatically expresses it, he seems to have thought for a time of the law, but he decided that the only life possible for himself was one dedicated wholly to scholar- ship and literature. His compunctions on this subject, expressed already in his sonnet on arriving at his twenty-third year, are expressed more at length in an English letter of which two drafts are preserved in Trinity College, Cambridge, sent by him, shortly after the date of that sonnet, and with a copy of the sonnet included, to some friend who had been remon- strating with him on his " belatedness " and his persistence in a life of mere dream and study. There were gentle remon- strances also from his excellent father. Between such a father and such a son, however, the conclusion was easy. What it was may be learnt from Milton's fine Latin poem Ad patrem. There, in the midst of an enthusiastic recitation of all that his father had done for him hitherto, it is intimated that the agree- ment between them on their one little matter of difference was already complete, and that, as the son was bent on a private life of literature and poetry, it had been decided that he should have his own way, and should in fact, so long as he chose, be the master of his father's means and the chief person in the Horton household. For the six years from 1632 this, accordingly, was Milton's position. In perfect leisure, and in a pleasant rural retirement, with Windsor at the distance of an easy walk, and London only about 17 m. off, he went through, he tells us, a systematic course of reading in the Greek and Latin classics, varied by mathematics, music, and the kind of physical science we should now call cosmography. It is an interesting fact that Milton's very first public appear- ance in the world of English authorship was in so honourable a place as the second folio edition of Shakespeare in 1632. His enthusiastic eulogy on Shakespeare, written in 1630, was one of three anonymous pieces prefixed to that second folio. Among the poems actually written by Milton at Horton the first, in all probability, after the Latin hexameters Ad patrem, were the exquisite companion pieces L Allegro and 27 Penseroso. There followed, in or about 1633, the fragment called Arcades. It was part of a pastoral masque performed by the young people of the noble family of Egerton before the countess-dowager 1 See the preface to Book II. of his Reason of Church Government (1641-1642), which is of great biographical interest. 482 MILTON of Derby, at her mansion of Harefield, about 10 m. from Horton. That Milton contributed the words for the enter- tainment was, almost certainly, owing to his friendship with Henry Lawes, who supplied the music. Next in order among the compositions at Horton may be mentioned the three short pieces, " At a Solemn Music," " On Time," and " Upon the Circumcision "; after which comes Comus, the largest and most important of all Milton's minor poems. The name by which that beautiful drama is now universally known was not given to it by Milton himself. He entitled it, more simply and vaguely, " A Masque presented at Ludlow Castle, 1634, on Michaelmas night, before John Earl of Bridgewater, Lord President of Wales " (1637). The earl of Bridgewater, the head of the Egerton family, had been appointed president of the council of Wales ; among the festivities on his assumption of the office, a great masque was arranged in the hall of Ludlow Castle, his official residence. Lawes supplied the music and was stage manager; he applied to Milton for the poetry; and on Michaelmas night, the 29th of September 1634, the drama furnished by Milton was performed in Ludlow Castle before a great assemblage of the nobility and gentry of the Welsh princi- pality, Lawes taking the part of "the attendant spirit," while the parts of " first brother," " second brother " and " the lady," were taken by the earl's three youngest children, Viscount Brackley,Mr Thomas Egerton and Lady Alice Egerton. From September 1634 to the beginning of 1637 is a compara- tive blank in our records. Straggling incidents in this blank are a Latin letter of date December 4, 1634, to Alexander Gill the younger, a Greek translation of " Psalm CXIV.," a visit to Oxford in 1635 for the purpose of incorporation in the degree of M.A. in that university, and the beginning in May 1636 of a troublesome lawsuit against his now aged and infirm father. The lawsuit, which was instituted by a certain Sir Thomas Cotton, bart., nephew and executor of a deceased John Cotton, Esq., accused the elder Milton and his partner Bower, or both, of having, in their capacity as scriveners, misappro- priated divers large sums of money that had been entrusted to them by the deceased Cotton to be let out at interest. The lawsuit was still in progress when, on the 3rd of April 1637, Milton's mother died, at the age of about sixty-five. A flat blue stone, with a brief inscription, visible on the chancel- pavement of Horton church, still marks the place of her burial. Milton's testimony to her character is that she was " a most excellent mother and particularly known for her charities through the neighbourhood." The year 1637 was otherwise eventful. It was in that year that his Comus, after lying in manuscript for more than two years, was published by itself, in the form of a small quarto of thirty-five pages. The author's name was withheld, and the entire responsibility of the publica- tion was assumed by Henry Lawes. Milton seems to have been in London when the little volume appeared. He was a good deal in London, at all events, during the summer and autumn months immediately following his mother's death. The plague, which had been on one of its periodical visits of ravage through England since early in the preceding year, was then especially severe in the Horton neighbourhood, while London was comparatively free. It was probably in London that Milton heard of the death of Edward King, who had sailed from Chester for a vacation visit to his relatives in Ireland, when, on the 10th of August, the ship in perfectly calm water struck on a rock and went down, he and nearly all the other passengers going down with her. There is no mention of this event in Milton's two Latin " Familiar Epistles " of September 1637, addressed to his friend Charles Diodati, and dated from London; but in November 1637, and probably at Horton, he wrote his matchless pastoral monody of Lycidas. It was his contribution to a collection of obituary verses, Greek, Latin and English, inscribed to the memory of Edward King by his numerous friends, at Cambridge and elsewhere. The collection appeared early in 1638. The second part contained thirteen English poems, the last of which was Milton's monody, signed only with his initials " J. M." Milton was then on the wing for a foreign tour. He had long set his heart on a visit to Italy, and circumstances now favoured his wish. The vexatious Cotton lawsuit, after hanging on for nearly two years, was at an end, as far as the elder Milton was concerned, with the most absolute and honourable vindica- tion of his character for probity, though with some continuation of the case against his partner, Bower. Moreover, Milton's younger brother Christopher, though but twenty-two years of age, and just about to be called to the bar of the Inner Temple, had married ; and the young couple had gone to reside at Horton to keep the old man company. Before the end of April 1638 Milton was on his way across the channel, taking one English man-servant with him. At the time of his departure the last great news in England was that of the National Scottish Covenant. To Charles the news of this " damnable Covenant," as he called it, was enraging beyond measure; but to the mass of the English Puritans it was far from unwelcome, promising, as it seemed to do, for England herself, the subversion at last of that system of " Thorough," or despotic government by the king and his ministers without parliaments, under which the country had been groaning since the contemptuous dissolution of Charles's third parliament ten years before. Through Paris, where Milton received polite attention from the English ambassador, Lord Scudamore, and had the honour of an introduction to the famous Hugo Grotius, then ambassador for Sweden at the French court, he moved on rapidly to Italy, by way of Nice. After visiting Genoa, Leghorn and Pisa, he arrived at Florence, in August 1638. Enchanted by the city and its society, he remained there two months, frequenting the chief academies or literary clubs, and even taking part in their proceedings. Among the Florentines with whom he became intimate were Jacopo Gaddi, founder of an academy called the Svogliati, young Carlo Dati, author of Vile de' pittori anlichi, Pietro Frescobaldi, Agostino Coltellini, the founder of the Academy of the Apatisti, the grammarian Benedetto Buommattei, Valerio Chimentelli, afterwards professor of Greek at Pisa, Antonio Francini and Antonio Malatesti. It was in the neigh- bourhood of Florence also that he " found and visited " the great Galileo, then old and blind, and still nominally a prisoner to the Inquisition for his astronomical heresy. 1 By way of Florence and Siena, he reached Rome some time in October, and spent about another two months there, not only going about among the ruins and antiquities and visiting the galleries, but mixing also, as he had done in Florence, with the learned society of the academies. Among those with whom he formed acquaintance in Rome were the German scholar, Lucas Holstenius, librarian of the Vatican, and three native Italian scholars, named Alessandro Cherubini, Giovanni Salzilli and a certain Selvaggi. There is record of his having dined once, in company with several other Englishmen, at the hospitable table of the English Jesuit College. The most picturesque incident, however, of his stay in Rome was his presence at a great musical entertainment in the palace of Cardinal Francesco Barberini. Here he had not only the honour of a specially kind reception by the cardinal himself, but also, it would appear, the supreme pleasure of listening to the marvellous Leonora Baroni, the most renowned singer of her age.. Late in November he left Rome for Naples. Here he met the aged Giovanni Battista Manso, marquis of Villa (1560-1645), the friend and biographer of Tasso, and subsequently the friend and patron of Marini. He had hardly been in Naples a month, however, when there came news from England which not only stopped an intention he had formed of extending his tour to Sicily and thence into Greece, but urged his immediate return home. "The sad news of civil war in England," he says, " called me back; for I considered it base that, while my fellow- countrymen were fighting at home for liberty, I should be travelling at my ease for intellectual culture" (Defensio secunda). In December 1638, therefore, he set his face northwards 1 This interview forms the subject of one of W. S. Landor'* Imaginary Conversations. MILTON 4*3 again. His return journey, however, probably because he learnt that the news he had first received was exaggerated or premature, was broken into stages. He spent a second January and February (1638-1639) in Rome, in some danger, he says, from the papal police, because the English Jesuits in Rome had taken offence at his habit of free speech, wherever he went, on the subject of religion. From Rome he went to Florence, his second visit to the city, including an excursion to Lucca, extending over two months; and not till April 1639 did he take his leave, and proceed, by Bologna and Ferrara, to Venice. About a month was given to Venice; and thence, having shipped for England the books he had collected in Italy, he went on, by Verona and Milan, over the Alps, to Geneva. In this Protestant city he spent a week or two in June, forming interesting acquaintanceships there too, and having daily conversations with the great Protestant theologian Dr Jean Diodati, the uncle of his friend Charles Diodati. From Geneva he returned to Paris, and so to England. He was home again in August 1639, having been absent in all fifteen or sixteen months. Milton's Continental tour, and especially the Italian portion of it, which he describes at some length in his Defensio secunda, remained one of the chief pleasures of his memory through all his subsequent life. Nor was it without fruits of a literary kind. Besides two of his Latin Epistolae familiares, one to the Florentine grammarian Buommattei, and the other to Lucas Holstenius, there have to be assigned to Milton's sixteen months on the Continent his three Latin epigrams A d Leonoram Romae canentem, his Latin scazons Ad Salsillum poetam romanum aegrotantem, his fine Latin hexameters entitled Mansus, ad- dressed to Giovanni Battista Manso, and his five Italian sonnets, with a canzone, in praise of a Bolognese lady. His bosom friend and companion from boyhood, Charles Diodati, died in Blackfriars, London, in August 1638, not four months after Milton had gone away on his tour. The intelligence did not reach Milton till some months afterwards, probably not till his second stay in Florence; and, though he must have learnt some of the particulars from his friend's uncle in Geneva, he did not know them fully till his return to England. How profoundly they affected him appears from his Epitaphium Damonis, then written in memory of his dead friend. The importance of this poem in Milton's biography cannot be overrated. It is perhaps the noblest of all his Latin poems; and, though written in the artificial manner of a pastoral, it is un- mistakably an outburst of the most passionate personal grief. In this respect Lycidas, artistically perfect though that poem is, cannot be compared with it; and it is only the fact that Lycidas is in English, while the Epitaphium Damonis is in Latin, that has led to the notion that Edward King of Christ's College was peculiarly and pre-eminently the friend of Milton in his youth and early manhood. We should not have known, but for an incidental passage in the Epitaphium Damonis, that, at the time of his return from Italy, he had chosen a subject for a great poem from the Arthurian legend. The passage (lines 160-178) is one in which, after referring to the hopes of Diodati's medical career so suddenly cut short by his death, Milton speaks of himself and of his own projects in Ms profession of literature. Milton wrote that he was meditating an epic of which King Arthur was to be the central figure, but which should include somehow the whole cycle of British and Arthurian legend. This epic was to be in English, and he had resolved that all his poetry for the future should be in the same tongue. Not long after Milton's return the house at Horton ceased to be the family home. Christopher Milton and his wife went to reside at Reading, taking the old gentleman with them, while Milton himself preferred London. He had first taken lodgings in St Bride's Churchyard, at the foot of Fleet Street; but, after a while, probably early in 1640, he removed to a " pretty garden house " of his own, at the end of an entry, in the part of Aldersgate Street which lies immediately on the city side of what is now Maidenhead Court. His sister, whose first husband had died in 163 1, had married a Mr. Thomas Agar, his successor in the Crown Office; and it was arranged that her two sons by her first husband should be educated by their uncle. John Phillips, the younger of them, only nine years old, had boarded with him in the St Bride's Churchyard lodgings; and, after the removal to Aldersgate Street, the other brother, Edward Phillips, only a year older, became his boarder also. Gradually a few other boys, the sons of well-to-do personal friends, joined the two Phillipses, whether as boarders or for daily lessons, so that the house in Aldersgate Street became a small private school. The Arthurian epic had been given up, and his mind was roving among many other subjects, and balancing their capa- bilities. How he wavered between Biblical subjects and heroic subjects from British history, and how many of each kind suggested themselves to him, one learns from a list in his own handwriting among the Milton MSS. at Cambridge. It contains jottings of no fewer than fifty-three subjects from the Old Testament, eight from the Gospels, thirty-three from British and English history before the Conquest, and five from Scottish history. It is curious that all or most of them are headed or described as subjects for " tragedies," as if the epic form had now been abandoned for the dramatic. There are four separate drafts of a possible tragedy on the Greek model under the title of Paradise Lost, two of them merely enumerating the dramatis personae, but the last two indicating the plot and the division into acts. In 1641 he wrote in the Reason of Church Government that he was meditating a poem on high moral or religious subjects. But the fulfilment of " these plans was indefinitely postponed. Milton became absorbed in the ecclesiastical controversies following on the king's attempt to force the episcopal system on the Scots. Of the first proceedings of the Long Parliament, including the trial and execution of Strafford, the impeachment and imprisonment of Laud and others, and the breakdown of the system of Thorough by miscellaneous reforms and by guarantees for parliamentary liberty, Milton was only a spectator. It was when the church question emerged distinctly as the question paramount, and there had arisen divisions on that question among those who had been practically unanimous in matters of civil reform, that he plunged in as an active adviser. There were three parties on the church question. There was a high- church party, contending for episcopacy by divine right, and for the maintenance of English episcopacy very much as it was; there was a middle party, defending episcopacy on grounds of usage and expediency, but desiring to see the powers of bishops greatly curtailed, and a limited episcopacy, with councils of presbyters round each bishop, substituted for the existing high episcopacy; and there was the root-and- branch party, as it called itself, desiring the entire abolition of episcopacy and the reconstruction of the English Church on something like the Scottish Presbyterian model. Since the opening of the parliament there had been a storm of pamphlets from these three parties. The manifesto of the high-church party was a pamphlet by Joseph Hall, bishop of Exeter, entitled " Humble Remonstrance to the High Court of Parliament." In answer to Hall, and in representation of the views of the root- and-branch party, there had stepped forth, in March 1640-1641, five leading Puritan parish ministers, the initials of whose names, clubbed together on the title-page of their joint pro- duction, made the uncouth word " Smectymnuus." These were Stephen Marshall, Edmund Calamy, Thomas Young, Matthew Newcomen and William Spurstow. Thomas Young was the Scottish divine who had been Milton's tutor in Bread Street; he had returned from Hamburg in 1628, and had been appointed to the vicarage of Stowmarket in Suffolk. The famous Smectymnuan pamphlet in reply to Hall was mainly Young's. What is more interesting is that his old pupil Milton was secretly in partnership with him and his brother-Smec- tymnuans. Milton's hand is discernible in a portion of the original Smectymnuan pamphlet; and he continued to aid the Smectymnuans in their subsequent rejoinders to Hall's defences 4 8 4 MILTON of himself. In May 1641 he put forth a defence of the Smec- tymnuan side in Of Reformation touching Church Discipline in England and the Causes that hitherto have hindered it. He reviewed English ecclesiastical history, with an appeal to his countrymen to resume that course of reformation which he considered to have been prematurely stopped in the preceding century, and to sweep away the last relics of papacy and prelacy. Among all the root-and-branch pamphlets of the time it stood out, and stands out still, as the most thorough-going and tremendous. It was followed by four others in rapid succession, — Of Prelatical Episcopacy and whether it may be deduced from the Apostolical Times (June 1641), Animadversions upon the Remonstrant's Defence against Smectymnuus (July 1641), The Reason of Church Government urged against Prelaty (Feb. 1641-1642), Apology against a Pamphlet called a Modest Confuta- tion of the Animadversions, &c. (March and April 1641-1642). The first of these was directed chiefly against that middle party which advocated a limited episcopacy, with especial reply to the arguments of Archbishop Ussher, as the chief exponent of the views of that party. Two of the others, as the titles imply, belong to the Smectymnuan series, and were castigations of Bishop Hall. The greatest of the four, and the most important of all Milton's anti-episcopal pamphlets after the first, is that entitled The Reason of Church Government. It is there that Milton takes his readers into his confidence, speaking at length of himself and his motives in becoming a controversialist. Poetry, he declares, was his real vocation; it was with reluctance that he had resolved to " leave a calm and pleasing solitariness, fed with cheerful and confident thoughts, to embark in a troubled sea of noises and hoarse disputes"; but duty had left him no option. The great poem or poems he had been meditating could wait; and meanwhile, though in prose- polemics he had the use only of his " left hand/' that hand should be used with all its might in the cause of his country and of liberty. The Apology was in answer to a Modest Confutation of a Slanderous and Scurrilous Libel, the joint work of Hall and his son, attacking Milton's personal character. The parliament had advanced in the root-and-branch direction so far as to have passed a bill for the exclusion of bishops from the House of Lords, and compelled the king's assent to that bill, when, in August 1642, the further struggle between Charles and his subjects took the form of civil war. The Long Parlia- ment moved on more and more rapidly in the root-and-branch direction, till, by midsummer 1643, the abolition of episcopacy had been decreed, and the question of the future non-prelatic constitution of the Church of England referred to a synod of divines, to meet at Westminster under parliamentary authority. Of Milton's life through those first months of the Civil War little is known. He remained in his house in Aldersgate Street, teaching his nephews and other pupils; and the only scrap that came from his pen was the semi-jocose sonnet bearing the title " When the Assault was intended to the City." In the summer of 1643, however, there was a great change in the Aldersgate Street household. About the end of May, as his nephew Edward Phillips remembered, Milton went away on a country journey, without saying whither or for what purpose; and, when he returned, about a month afterwards, it was with a young wife, and with some of her sisters and other relatives in her company. He had, in fact, been in the very headquarters of the king and the Royalist army in and round Oxford; and the bride he brought back with him was a Mary Powell, the eldest daughter of Richard Powell, of Forest Hill, near Oxford. She was the third of a family of eleven sons and daughters, of good standing, but in rather embarrassed circumstances, and was seventeen years and four months old, while Milton was in his thirty-fifth year. However the marriage came about, it was a most unfortunate event. The Powell family were strongly Royalist, and the girl herself seems to have been frivolous, and entirely unsuited for the studious life in Aiders- gate Street. Hardly were the honeymoon festivities over, when, her sisters and other relatives having returned to Forest Hill and left her alone with her husband, she pined for home again and begged to be allowed to go back on a visit. Milton consented, on the understanding that the visit was to be a brief one. This seems to have been in July 1643. Soon, however, the intimation from Forest Hill was that he need not look ever to have his wife in his house again. The resolution seems to have been mainly the girl's own; but, as the king's cause was then prospering in the field, Edward Phillips was probably right in his conjecture that the whole of the Powell family had repented of their sudden connexion with so prominent a Parliamentarian and assailant of the Church of England as Milton. While his, wife was away, his old father, who had been residing for three years with his younger and lawyer son at Reading, came to take up his quarters in Aldersgate Street. Milton's conduct under the insult of his wife's desertion was most characteristic. Always fearless and speculative, he converted his own case into a public protest against the existing law and theory of marriage. The Doctrine and Disci- pline of Divorce, Restored to the good of both Sexes from the Bondage of Canon Law and other Mistakes was the title of a pamphlet put forth by him in August 1643, without his name, but with no effort at concealment, declaring the notion of a sacramental sanctity in the marriage relation to be a clerically invented superstition, and arguing that inherent incompatibility of char- acter, or contrariety of mind, between two married persons is a perfectly just reason for divorce. If the date, the 1st of August, is correct, the pamphlet must have been written almost immedi- ately on his wife's departure and before her definite refusal to return. There was no reference to his own case, except by implication; but the boldness of the speculation roused attention and sent a shock through London. It was a time when the authors of heresies of this sort, or of any sort, ran considerable risks. The famous Westminster Assembly of Divines, called by the Long Parliament, met on the 1st of July 1643. Whether Milton's divorce tract was formally discussed in the Assembly during the first months of its sitting is unknown; but it is certain that the London clergy, including not a few members of the Assembly, were then angrily discussing it in private. That there might be no obstacle to a more public prosecution, Milton put his name to a second and much enlarged edition of the tract, in February 1644, dedicated openly to the parliament and the assembly. Then, for a month or two, during which the gossip about him and his monstrous doctrine was spreading more and more, he turned his attention to other subjects. Among the questions in agitation in the general ferment of opinion brought about by the Civil War was that of a reform of the national system of education and especially of the univer- sities. To this question Milton made a contribution in June 1644, in a small treatise, Of Education, in the form of a letter to Samuel Hartlib, a German then resident in London and interesting himself busily in all philanthropic projects and schemes of social reform. In the very next month, however, July 1644, he returned to the divorce subject in a pamphlet addressed specially to the clergy and entitled The Judgment of Martin Bucer concerning Divorce. The outcry against him then reached its height. He was attacked in pamphlets; he was denounced in pulpits all through London, and especially by Herbert Palmer in a sermon preached on the 13th of August, before the two Houses of Parliament; strenuous efforts were made to bring him within definite parliamentary censure. In the cabal formed against him for this purpose a leading part was played, at the instigation of the clergy, by the Stationers' Company of London, which had a plea of its own against him on the ground that his doctrine was not only immoral, but had been put forth in an illegal manner. His first divorce treatise, though published immediately after the " Printing Ordinance " of the parliament of the 14th of June 1643, requiring all publica- tions to be licensed for press by one of the official censors, and to be registered in the books of the Stationers' Company, had been issued without license and without registration. Com- plaint to this effect was made against Milton, with some others MILTON 485 liable to the same charge of contempt of the printing ordinance, in a petition of the Stationers of the House of Commons in August 1644; and the matter came before committee both in that House and in the Lords. It is to this circumstance that the world owes the most popular and eloquent, if not the greatest, of all Milton's prose writings, his famous Areopagitica, a Speech of Mr John Milton for the Liberty of Unlicensed Printing, to the Parliament of England. It appeared on the 25th of November 1644, deliber- ately unlicensed and unregistered, and was -a remonstrance addressed to the parliament, as if in an oration to them face to face, against their ordinance of June 1643 and the whole system of licensing and censorship of the press. Nobly eulogistic of the parliament in other respects, it denounced their printing ordinance as utterly unworthy of them, and of the new era of English liberties which they were initiating, and called for its repeal. Though that effect did not follow, the pamphlet virtually accomplished its purpose. The licensing system had received its death-blow; and, though the Stationers returned to the charge in another complaint to the House of Lords, Milton's offence against the press ordinance was condoned. He was still assailed in pamphlets, and found himself " in a world of disesteem "; but he lived on through the winter of 1644/5 undisturbed in his house in Aldersgate Street. To this period there belong, in the shape of verse, only his sonnets ix. and x., the first to some anonymous lady, and the second " to the Lady Margaret Ley," with perhaps the Greek lines entitled Philosophus ad regent quendam. His divorce specula- tion, however, still occupied him; and in March 1644/5 he published simultaneously his Tetrachordon: Expositions upon the four chief places of Scripture which treat of Marriage, and his Colasterion, a Reply to a nameless Answer against the Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce. In these he replied to his chief recent assailants, lay and clerical, with merciless severity. Through the latter part of 1644, Milton had been saved from the penalties which his Presbyterian opponents would have inflicted on him by the general championship of liberty of opinion by Cromwell and the army Independents. Before the middle of 1645 he, with others who were on the black books of the Presbyterians as heretics, was safer still. Milton's position after the battle of Naseby may be easily understood. Though his first tendency on the Church question had been to some form of a Presbyterian constitution for the Church, he had parted utterly now from the Scots and Presbyterians, and become a partisan of Independency, having no dread of " sects and schisms," but regarding them rather as healthy signs in the English body-politic. He was, indeed, himself one of the most noted sectaries of the time, for in the lists of sects drawn out by contemporary Presbyterian writers special mention is made of one small sect who were known as Miltonists or Divorcers. So far as Milton was concerned personally, his interest in the divorce speculation came to an end in July or August 1645, when, by friendly interference, a reconciliation was effected between him and his wife. The ruin of the king's cause at Naseby had suggested to the Powells that it might be as well for their daughter to go back to her husband after their two years of separation. It was not, however, in the house in Aldersgate Street that she rejoined him, but in a larger house, which he had taken in the adjacent street called Barbican, for the accommodation of an increasing number of pupils. The house in Barbican was tenanted by Milton from about August 1645 t° September or October 1647. Among his first occupations there must have been the revision of the proof sheets of the first edition of his collected poems. It appeared as a tiny volume, copies of which are now very rare, with the title, Poems of Mr John Milton, both English and Latin, compos' d at several times. Printed by his true Copies. The songs were set in Musick by Mr Henry Lawes. . . . The title-page gives the date 1645, but the 2nd of January 1645/6 seems to have been the exact day of its publication. Whether because his pedagogic duties now engrossed him or for other reasons, very few new pieces were added in the Barbican to those that the little volume had thus made public. In English, there were only the four sonnets now numbered xi.-xiv., the first two entitled " On the Detraction which followed upon my writing certain Treatises," the third "To Mr Henry Lawes on his Airs," and the fourth" To the Religious Memory of Mrs Catherine Thomson," together . with the powerful anti-Presbyterian invective or " tailed sonnet " entitled " On the New Forcers of Conscience under the Long Parliament "; and in Latin there were only the ode Ad Joannem Rousium, the Apologus de Rustico et Hero, and one interesting " Familiar Epistle " (April 1647) addressed to his Florentine friend Carlo Dati. Some family incidents of importance belong to this time of residence in Barbican. The fall of Oxford in 1646 compelled the whole of the Powell family to seek refuge in London, and most of them found shelter in Milton's house. His first child, a daughter named Anne, was born there on the 29th of July that year; on the 1st of January 1646/7 his father-in-law Richard Powell died there, leaving his affairs in confusion; and in the following March his own father died there, at the age of eighty-four, and was buried in the adjacent church of St Giles, Cripplegate. From Barbican Milton removed, in September or October 1647, to a smaller house in that part of High Holborn which adjoins Lincoln's Inn Fields. His Powell relatives had now left him, and he had reduced the number of his pupils, or perhaps kept only his two nephews. But, though thus more at leisure, he did not yet resume his projected poem, but occupied himself rather with three works of scholarly labour which he had already for some time had on hand. One was the compilation in English of a complete history of England, or rather of Great Britain, from the earliest times; another was the preparation in Latin of a complete system of divinity, drawn directly from the Bible; and the third was the collection of materials for a new Latin dictionary. Milton had always a fondness for such labours of scholarship and compilation. Of a poetical kind there is nothing to record, during his residence in High Holborn, but an experi- ment in psalm-translation, in the shape of Ps. Ixxx.-lxxxviii. done into service-metre in April 1648, and the sonnet to Fairfax, written in September of the same year. The crushing defeat of the Scottish army by Cromwell in the three days' battle of Preston (1648) and the simultaneous suppression of the English Royalist insurrection in the south- east counties by Fairfax's siege and capture of Colchester, left King Charles at the mercy of the victors. Milton's sonnet " On the Lord General Fairfax, at the siege of Colchester," attested the exultation of the writer at the triumph of the parliamentary cause. His exultation continued through what followed. When the king was beheaded (1649) the first English- man of mark out of parliament to attach himself openly to the new republic was John Milton. This he did by the publication of his pamphlet entitled " Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, proving that' it is lawful, and hath been held so in all ages, for any who have the power, to call to account a Tyrant or wicked King, and, after due conviction, to depose and put him to death, if the ordinary Magistrate have neglected or denied to do it." It was out within a fortnight after the king's death, and was Milton's last performance in the house in High Holborn. The chiefs of the new republic could not but perceive the importance of securing the services of a distinguished man who had so opportunely and so powerfully spoken out in favour of their tremendous act. In March 1649, accordingly, Milton was offered, and accepted, the secretaryship for foreign tongues to the council of state of the new Commonwealth. The salary was to be £288 a year (worth about £1000 a year now). To be near his new duties in attendance on the council, which held its daily sittings for the first few weeks in Derby House, close to Whitehall, but afterwards regularly in Whitehall itself, he removed at once to temporary lodgings at Charing Cross. In the very first meetings of council which Milton attended he must have made personal acquaintance with President Brad- shaw, Fairfax, Cromwell himself, Sir Henry Vane, Whitelocke, 486 MILTON Henry Marten, "Haselrig, Sir Gilbert Pickering and the other chiefs of the council and the Commonwealth, if indeed he had not known some of them before. After a little while, for his greater convenience, official apartments were assigned him in Whitehall itself. At the date of Milton's appointment to the secretaryship he was forty years of age. His special duty was the drafting in Latin of letters sent by the council of state, or sometimes by the Rump Parliament, to foreign states and princes, with the examination and translation of letters in reply, and with personal conferences, when necessary, with the agents of foreign powers in London, and with envoys and ambassadors. As Latin was the language employed in the written diplomatic documents, his post came to be known indifferently as the secretaryship for foreign tongues or the Latin secretaryship. In that post, however, his duties, more particularly at first, were very light in comparison with those of his official colleague, Walter Frost, the general secretary. Foreign powers held aloof from the English republic as much as they could; and, while Frost had to be present in every meeting of the council, keeping the minutes, and conducting all the general correspondence, Milton's presence was required only when some piece of foreign business turned up. Hence, from the first, his employment in very miscellaneous work. Especially, the council looked to him for everything in the nature of literary vigilance and literary help in the interests of the struggling Commonwealth. He was employed in the examination of suspected papers, and in inter- views with their authors and printers; and he executed several great literary commissions expressly entrusted to him by the council. The first of these was his pamphlet entitled Observa- tions on the Articles of Peace (between Ormonde and the Irish). It was published in May 1649, and way in defence of the republic against a complication of Royalist intrigues and dangers in Ireland. A passage of remarkable interest in it is one of eloquent eulogy on Cromwell. More important still was the Eikonoklastes (which may be translated " Image-Smasher "), published by Milton in October 1649, by way of counterblast to the famous Eikon Basilike (" Royal Image "), which had been in circulation in thousands of copies since the king's death, and had become a kind of Bible in all Royalist households, on the supposition that it had been written by the royal martyr himself (see Gaxjden, John). In the end ot 1649 there appeared abroad, under the title of Defensio regia pro Carolo I., a Latin vindication of the memory of Charles, with an attack on the English Common- wealth. As it had been written, at the instance of the exiled royal family, by Salmasius, or Claude de Saumaise, of Leiden, then of enormous celebrity over Europe as the greatest scholar of his age, it was regarded as a serious blow to the infant Common- wealth. Milton threw his whole strength into a reply through the year 1650, interrupting himself only by a new and enlarged edition of his Eikonoklastes. His Latin Pro populo anglicano defensio (1651), ran at once over the British Islands and the Continent, and was received by scholars as an annihilation of Salmasius. Through the rest of 165 1 the observation was that the two agencies which had co-operated most visibly in raising the reputation of the Commonwealth abroad were Milton's books and Cromwell's battles. Through the eventful year 1651, in addition to the other duties of his secretaryship, Milton acted as licenser and superintending editor of the Mercurius politicus, a newspaper issued twice a week, of which Marchamont Nedham was the working editor and proprietor. Milton's hand is discernable in some of the leading articles. About the end of 1651 Milton left his official rooms in White- hall for a " garden house " he had taken on the edge of St James's Park in what was then called Petty France, Westminster, but is now York Street. The house, afterwards 19 York Street, was occupied by James Mill and William Hazlitt in succession, and was not pulled down till 1877. Milton had now more to do in the special work of his office, in consequence of the increase of correspondence with foreign powers. But he had for some time been in ailing health; and a dimness of eyesight which had been growing upon him gradually for ten years had been settling rapidly, since his labour over the answer to Salmasius, into total blindness. Before or about May 1652, when he was but in his forty-fourth year, his blindness became total, and he could go about only with some one to lead him. Hence a rearrangement of his secretarial duties. Such of these duties as he could per- form at home, or by occasional visits to the Council Office near, he continued to perform; but much of the routine work was done for him by an assistant, a well-known German, George Rudolph Weckherlin, succeeded later by Philip Meadows and, eventually, by Andrew Marvell. Precisely to this time of a lull in Milton's secretaryship on account of his ill-health and blindness we have to refer his two great companion sonnets "To the Lord General Cromwell " and " To Sir Henry Vane the Younger." In 1652 died his only son, who had been born at Whitehall in the March of the preceding year. His wife died in 1653/4, just after she had given birth to his third daughter, Deborah. With the three children thus left him — Anne, but six years old, Mary, not four, and the infant Deborah — the blind widower lived on in his house in Petty France in such desolation as can be imagined. He had recovered sufficiently to resume his secretarial duties; and the total number of his dictated state letters for the single year 1652 is equal to that of all the state letters of his preceding term of secretaryship put together. To the same year there belong also three of his Latin " Familiar Epistles." In Decem- ber 1652 there was published Joannis Philippi Angli responsio ad apologiam anonytni cujusdam tenebrionis, being a reply by Milton's younger nephew, John Phillips, but touched up by Milton himself, to one of several pamphlets that had appeared against Milton for his slaughter of Salmasius. In December 1653 Cromwell's formal sovereignty began under the name of the Protectorate, passing gradually into more than kingship. This change from Government by the Rump and its council to government by a single military lord protector and his council was regarded by many as treason to the republican cause, and divided those who had hitherto been the united Commonwealth's men into the "Pure Republicans," represented by such men as Bradshaw and Vane, and the " Oliverians, " adhering to the Protector. Milton, whose boundless admiration of Cromwell had shown itself already in his Irish tract of 1649 and in his recent sonnet, was recognized as one of the Oliverians. He remained in Oliver's service and was his Latin secretary through the whole of the Protectorate. For a while, indeed, his Latin letters to foreign states in Cromwell's name were but few— Thurloe, as general secretary, officiating as Oliver's right- hand man in everything, with a Philip Meadows under him, at a salary of £200 a year, as deputy for the blind Milton in foreign correspondence and translations. The reason for this temporary exemption of Milton from routine duty may have been that he was then engaged on an answer to the pamphlet from the Hague entitled Regit sanguinis clamor ad coelum adversus parricidas anglicanos (March 1652). Salmasius was now dead, and the Commonwealth was too stable to suffer from such attacks; but no Royalist pamphlet had appeared so able or so venomous as this in continuation of the Salmasian controversy. All the rather because it was in the main a libel on Milton himself did a reply from his pen seem necessary. It came out in May 1654, with the title Joannis Miltoni Angli pro populo anglicano defensio secunda (Second Defence of John Milton, Englishman, for the People of England) . The author of Regii sanguinis clamor was Dr Peter du Moulin the younger, a naturalized French Presbyterian minister, then moving about in English society, close to Milton; but, as that was a profound secret, and the work was universally attributed on the Continent to an Alexander More or Moras, a French minister of Scottish descent then a professor at Middel- burg, who had certainly managed the printing in consultation with the now deceased Salmasius, and had contributed some portion of the matter — Milton made More the responsible person and the one object of his invective. The savage attack on More's personal character, however, is but part of the Defensio secunda. It contains passages of singular autobiographical and histori- cal value, and includes laudatory sketches of such eminent MILTON 487 Commonwealth's 'men asBradshaw, Fairfax, Fleetwood, Lambert and Overton, together with a long panegyric on Cromwell himself and his career, which remains to this day unapproached for elaboration and grandeur by any estimate of Cromwell from any later pen. From about the date of the publication of the Defensio secunda to the beginning of 1655 the only specially literary relics of Milton's life are his translations of Ps. i.-viii. in different metres, done in August 1654, his translation of Horace's Ode, i. 5, done probably about the same time, and two of his Latin "Familiar Epistles." The most active time of his secretaryship for Oliver was from April 1655 onwards. In that' month, in the course of a general revision of official salaries under the Protec- torate, Milton's salary of £288 a year hitherto was reduced to £200 a year, with a kind of redefinition of his office, recognizing it, we may say, as a Latin secretaryship extraordinary. Philip Meadows was to continue to do all the ordinary Foreign Office work, under Thurloe's inspection; but Milton was to be called in on special occasions. Hardly was the arrangement made when a signal occasion did occur. In May 1655 all England was horrified by the news of the massacre of the Vaudois Protestants (Waldenses) by the troops of Emanuele II., duke of Savoy and prince of Piedmont, in consequence of their disobedience to an edict requiring them either to leave their native valleys or to conform to the Catholic religion. Cromwell and his council took the matter up with all their energy; and the burst of indig- nant letters on the subject despatched in that month and the next to the duke of Savoy himself, Louis XIV. of France, Cardinal Mazarin, the Swiss cantons, the states-general of the United Provinces, and the kings of Sweden and Denmark, were all by Milton. His famous sonnet " On the Late Massacre in Pied- mont " was his more private expression of feeling on the same occasion. This sonnet was in circulation, and the case of the Vaudois Protestants was still occupying Cromwell, when, in August 1655, there appeared the last of Milton's Latin pamphlets. It was his Pro se defensio ... in answer to an elaborate self- defence which More had put forth on the Continent since Milton's attack on his character. In that year also appeared Milton's Scriptum domini protectoris . . . contra hispanos. Through the rest of Cromwell's Protectorate, Milton's life was of comparatively calm tenor. He was in much better health than usual, bearing his blindness with courage and cheerfulness; he was steadily busy with important despatches to foreign powers on behalf of the Protector, then in the height of his great foreign policy; and his house in Petty France seems to have been, more than at any previous time since the beginning of his blind- ness, a meeting-place for friends and visitors, and a scene of pleasant hospitalities. The four sonnets now numbered xix.- xxii., one of them to young Lawrence, the son of the president of Cromwell's council, and two of the others to Cyriack Skinner, once his pupil, belong to this time of domestic quiet, as do also no fewer than ten of his Latin " Familiar Epistles." His marriage with Katherine Woodcock on the 12th of November 1656 brought him a brief period of domestic happiness; but, after only fifteen months, he was again a widower, by her death in childbirth in February 1657/8. The child dying with her, only the three daughters by the first marriage remained. The touching sonnet which closes the series of Milton's Sonnets is his sacred tribute to the memory of his second marriage and to the virtues of the wife he had so soon lost. Even after that loss we find him still busy for Cromwell. Andrew Marvell, in September 1657 succeeded Meadows, much to Milton's satisfac- tion, as his assistant secretary; but this had by no means relieved him from duty. Some of his greatest despatches for Cromwell, including letters, of the highest importance, to Louis XIV., Mazarin and Charles Gustavus of Sweden, belong to the year 1658. There is, unfortunately, no direct record to show what Cromwell thought of Milton; but there is ample record of what Milton thought of Cromwell. " Our chief of men," he had called Cromwell in his sonnet of May 1652; and the opinion remained unchanged. He thought Cromwell the greatest and best man of his generation, or of many generations; and he regarded Crom- well's assumption of the supreme power, and his retention of that power with a sovereign title, as no real suppression of the republic, but as absolutely necessary for the preservation of the republic, and for the safeguard of the British Islands against a return of the Stuarts. Nevertheless, under this prodigious admiration of Cromwell, there were political doubts and reserves. Milton was so much of a modern radical of the extreme school in his own political views and sympathies that he cannot but have been vexed by the growing conservatism of Cromwell's policy through his Protectorate. To his grand panegyric on Oliver in the Defensio secunda of 1654 he had ventured to append cautions against self-will, over-legislation and over-policing; and he cannot have thought that Oliver had been immaculate in these respects through the four subsequent years. The attempt to revive an aristocracy and a House of Lords, on which Cromwell was latterly bent, cannot have been to Milton's taste. Above all, Milton dissented in toto from Cromwell's church policy. It was Milton's fixed idea, almost his deepest idea, that there should be no such thing as an Established Church, or state-paid clergy, of any sort or denomination or mixture of denominations, in any nation, and that, as it had been the connexion between church and state, begun by Constantine, that had vitiated Christianity in the world, and kept it vitiated, so Christianity would never flourish as it ought till there had been universal disestablishment and disendowment of the clergy, and the propagation of the gospel were left to the zeal of voluntary pastors, self -supported, or supported modestly by their flocks. He had at one time looked to Cromwell as the likeliest man to carry this great revolution in England. But Cromwell, after much meditation on the subject in 1652 and 1653, had come to the opposite conclusion. The conservation of the Established Church of England, in the form of a broad union of all evangelical denominations of Christians, whether Presbyterians, or Independents, or Baptists, or moderate Old Anglicans, that would accept state-pay with state-control, had been the fundamental notion of his Protectorate, persevered in to the end. This must have been Milton's 1 deepest disap- pointment with Cromwell's rule. Cromwell's death on the 3rd of September 1658 left the Protec- torship to his son Richard. Milton and Marvell continued in their posts, and a number of the Foreign Office letters of the new Protectorate were of Milton's composition. In October 1658 appeared a new edition of his Defensio prima, and, early in 1659, a new English pamphlet, entitled Treatise of Civil Power in Ecclesiastical Causes showing that it is not lawful to compel in Matters of Religion, in which he advocated the separation of Church and State. To Richard's Protectorate also belongs one of Milton's Latin " Familiar Epistles." The last of his known official performances in his Latin secre- taryship are two letters in the name of William Lenthall, as the speaker of the restored Rump, one to the king of Sweden and one to the king of Denmark, both dated the 15th of May 1659. Under the restored Rump, if ever, he seemed to have a chance for his notion of church-disestablishment; and accordingly, in August 1659, he put forth, with a prefatory address to that body, a pamphlet entitled Considerations touching the likeliest means to remove Hirelings out of the Church. The restored Rump had no time to attend to such matters. They were in struggle for their own existence with the army chiefs; and to prevent the restora- tion of the monarchy, to argue against it and fight against it to the last, was the work to which Milton set himself; the preserva- tion of the republic in any form, and by any compromise of differences within itself, had become his one thought, and the study of practical means to this end his most anxious occupation. In a Letter to a Friend concerning the Ruptures of the Common- wealth, written in October 1659, he had propounded a scheme of a kind of dual government for reconciling the army chiefs with the Rump; through the following winter, marked only by two of his Latin "Familiar Epistles," his anxiety over the signs of the growing enthusiasm throughout the country for the recall of Charles II. had risen to a passionate vehemence which found vent in a pamphlet entitled The Ready and Easy Way to Establish 4 88 MILTON a Free Commonwealth, and the Excellence thereof compared with the Inconveniences and Dangers of readmitting Kingship to this Nation. An abridgment of this pamphlet was addressed by him to General Monk- in a letter entitled " The Present Means and Brief Delineation of a Free Commonwealth " (March 1660). Milton's proposal was that the central governing apparatus of the British Islands for the future should consist of one indis- soluble grand council or parliament, which should include all the political chiefs, while there should be a large number of provincial councils or assemblies sitting in the great towns for the management of local and county affairs. Not even when the king's cause was practically assured would Milton be silent. In Brief Notes upon a late Sermon, published in April 1660, in reply to a Royalist discourse by a Dr Matthew Griffith, he made another protest against the recall of the Stuarts, even hinting that it would be better that Monk should become king himself; and in the same month he sent forth a second edition of his Ready and Easy Way, more frantically earnest than even the first, and containing additional passages of the most violent denunciation of the royal family, and of prophecy of the degradation and disaster they would bring back with them. This was the dying effort. On the 25th of April the Convention Parliament met; on the 1st of May they resolved unanimously that the government by King, Lords and 'Commons should be restored; and on the 29th of May, Charles II. made his triumphal entry into London. The chief republicans had by that time scattered themselves, and Milton was hiding in an obscure part of the city. How Milton escaped the scaffold at the Restoration is a mystery now, and was a mystery at the time. The Commons voted that he should be taken into custody by the serjeant-at- arms, for prosecution by the attorney-general on account of his Eikonoklastes and Defensio prima, and that all copies of those books should be called in and burnt by the hangman. There was a story that Milton had once protected Davenant and now owed his immunity to him; but it is more likely that he was protected by the influence of Marvell, by Arthur Annesley, after- wards earl of Anglesey, and by other friends who had influence at court. At all events, on the 29th of August 1660, when the Indemnity Bill did come out complete, with the king's assent, Milton did not appear as one of the exceptions on any ground or in any of the grades. From that moment, therefore, he could emerge from his hiding, and go about as a free man. Not that he was yet absolutely safe. There were several public burnings by the hangman at the same time of Milton's con- demned pamphlets; and the appearance of the blind man him- self in the streets, though he was legally free, would have caused him to be mobbed and assaulted. Though the special prosecution ordered against him by the Commons had been quashed by the subsequent Indemnity Bill, the serjeant-at-arms had taken him into custody. Entries in. the Commons journals of the 17th and 19th of December show that Milton complained of the exorbitant fees charged by the serjeant-at-arms for his release, and that the matter was referred to a committee at the instance of Andrew Marvell. Milton did not return to Petty France. For the first months after he was free he lived as closely as possible in a house near what is now Red Lion Square, Holborn. Thence he removed, apparently early in 1661, to a house in Jewin Street, in his old Aldersgate Street and Barbican neighbourhood. In Jewin Street Milton remained for two or three years, or from 1661 to 1664. This is the time of which he says: — "... though fallen on evil days, On evil days though fallen, and evil tongues, In darkness, and with dangers compassed round, And solitude." The "evil days" were those of the Restoration in its first or Clarendonian stage, with its revenges and reactions, its return to high Episcopacy and suppression of every form of dissent and sectarianism, its new and shameless royal court, its open procla- mation and practice of anti-Puritanism in morals and in litera- ture no less than in politics. For the main part of this world of the Restoration Milton was now nothing more than an infamous outcast, the detestable blind republican and regicide who had, by too great clemency, been left unhanged. The friends that adhered to him still, and came to see him in Jewin Street, were few in number, and chiefly from the ranks of those noncon- forming denominations, Independents, Baptists or Quakers, who were themselves under similar obloquy. Besides his two nephews, the faithful Andrew Marvell, Cyriack Skinner and some others of his former admirers, English or foreign, we hear chiefly of a Dr Nathan Paget, who was a physician in the Jewin Street neighbourhood, and of several young men who would drop in upon him by turns, partly to act as his amanuenses, and partly for the benefit of lessons from him — one of them a Quaker youth, named Thomas Ellwood. With all this genuine attachment to him of a select few, Milton could truly enough describe his condition after the Restoration as one of " solitude." Nor was this the worst. His three daughters, on whom he ought now to have been able principally to depend, were his most serious domestic trouble. The poor motherless girls, the eldest in her seventeenth year in 1662, the second in her fifteenth and the youngest in her eleventh, had grown up, in their father's blind- ness and too great self-absorption, ill-looked-after and but poorly educated; and the result now appeared. They " made nothing of neglecting him"; they rebelled against the drudgery of reading to him or otherwise attending on him; they " did combine together and counsel his maid-servant to cheat him in her marketings"; they actually "had made away some of his books, and would have sold the rest." It was to remedy this state of things that Milton consented to a third marriage. The wife found for him was Elizabeth Minshull, of a good Cheshire family, and a relative of Dr Paget. They were married on the 24th of February 1662/3, the wife being then only in her twenty-fifth year, while Milton was in his fifty-fifth. She proved an excellent wife; and the Jewin Street household, though the daughters remained in it, must have been under better management from the time of her entry into it. Meanwhile, he had found some solace in renewed industry of various kinds among his books and tasks of scholarship, and more particularly he had been building up his Paradise Lost. He had begun the poem in earnest, we are told, in 1658 at his house in Petty France, not in the dramatic form contemplated eighteen years before, but deliberately in the epic form. He had made but little way when there came the interruption of the anarchy preceding the Restoration and of the Restoration itself; but the work had been resumed in Jewin Street and prosecuted there steadily, by dictations of twenty or thirty lines at a time to whatever friendly or hired amanuensis chanced to be at hand. Considerable progress had been made in this way before his third marriage; and after that the work proceeded apace, his nephew, Edward Phillips, who was then out in the world on his own account, looking in when he could to revise the growing manuscript. It was not in the house in Jewin Street, however, that Paradise Lost was finished. Not very long after the third marriage, probably in 1664, he removed to another house, with a garden, in " Artillery Walk, leading to Bunhill Fields." Here Paradise Lost was certainly finished before July 1665 — Aubrey says in 1663— for when Milton and his family, to avoid the Great Plague of London, went into temporary country-quarters in a cottage in Chalfont St Giles, Buckinghamshire, 1 the finished manuscript was taken with him, in probably more than one copy. This we learn from Thomas Ellwood, who had taken the cottage for him, and was allowed to take a copy of the manu- script way with him for perusal, during Milton's stay at Chal- font {Life of Thomas Ellwood, 17 14). The delay in the publica- tion of the poem may be explained partly by the fact that the official licenser hesitated before granting the necessary imprima- tur to a book by a man of such notorious republican antecedents, and partly by the paralysis of all business in London by the Great Fire of September 1666. It was not till the 27th of April 1667 that Milton concluded an agreement, still preserved in the British 1 Milton's cottage here is still standing, and is open to visitors. MILTON 489 Museum, with Samuel Simmons, printer, of Aldersgate Street, London, to dispose of the copyright for £5 down, the promise of another £5 after the sale of the first edition of 1300 copies, and the further promise of two additional sums of £5 each after the sale of two more editions of the same size respec- tively. It was as if an author now were to part With all his rights in a volume for £17, 10s. down, and a contingency of £52, 1 os. more in three equal instalments. The poem was duly entered by Simmons as ready for publication in the Stationers' Registers on the 20th of the following August ; and shortly after that date it was out in London as a neatly printed small quarto, with the title Paradise Lost: A Poem written in Ten Books: By John Milton. The reception accorded to Paradise Lost has been quoted as an example of the neglect of a great work, but the sale of an edition of 1300 copies in eighteen months proves that the poem found a wide circle of readers. " This man cuts us all out, and the ancients too " is the saying attributed to Dryden on the occasion ; and it is the more remarkable because the one objection to the poem which at first, we are told, " stumbled many " must have " stumbled " Dryden most of all. Except in the drama, rhyme was then thought essential in anything professing to be a poem; blank verse was hardly regarded as verse at all; Dryden especially had been and was the champion of rhyme, contending for it even in the drama. That, notwithstanding this obvious blow struck by the poet at Dryden's pet literary theory, he should have welcomed the poem so enthusiastically and proclaimed its merits so emphatically, says much at orce for his critical percep- tion and for the generosity of his temper. According to Aubrey, Dryden requested Milton's leave to turn the poem into a rhymed drama, and was told he might " tag his verses if he pleased." The result is seen in Dryden's opera, The State of Innocence and the Fall of Man (1675). One consequence of Milton's renewed celebrity was that visitors of all ranks again sought him out for the honour of his society and conversation. His obscure house in Artillery Walk, Bunhill, we are told, became an attraction now, " much more than he did desire," for the learned notabilities of his time. Accounts have come down to us of Milton's personal appearance and habits in his later life. They describe him as to be seen every other day led about in the streets in the vicinity of his Bunhill residence, a slender figure, of middle stature or a little less, generally dressed in a grey cloak or overcoat, and wearing sometimes a small silver-hilted sword, evidently in feeble health, but still looking younger than he was, with his lightish hair, and his fair, rather than aged or pale, complexion. He would sit in his garden at the door of his house, in warm weather, in the same kind of grey overcoat, " and so, as well as in his room, received the visits of people of dis- tinguished parts, as well as quality." Within doors he was usually dressed in neat black. He was a very early riser, and very regular in the distribution of his day, spending the first part, to his midday dinner, always in his own room, amid his books, with an amanuensis to read for him and write to his dictation. Music was always a chief part of his afternoon and evening relaxation, whether when he was by himself or when friends were with him. His manner with friends and visitors was extremely courteous and affable, with just a shade of stateliness. In free conversation, either at the midday dinner, when a friend or two happened, by rare accident, to be present, or more habitually in the evening and at the light supper which concluded it, he was the life and soul of the company, from his " flow of subject " and his " unaffected cheerfulness and civility," though with a marked tendency to the satirical and sarcastic in his criticisms of men and things. This tendency to the sarcastic was connected by some of those who observed it with a peculiarity of his voice or pronunciation. " He pronounced the letter r very hard,*' Aubrey tells us, adding Dryden's note on the subject : " litera canina, the dog-letter, a certain sign of a satirical wit." He was extremely temperate in the use of wine or any strong liquors, at meals and at all other times; and when supper was over, about nine o'clock, " he smoked his pipe and drank a glass of water, and went to bed." He suffered much from gout, the effects of which had become apparent in a stiffening of his hands and finger-joints, and the recurring attacks of which in its acute form were very painful. His favourite poets among the Greeks were Homer and the Tragedians, especially Euripides; among the Latins, Virgil and Ovid; among the English, Spenser and Shakespeare. Among his English contemporaries, he thought most highly of Cowley. He had ceased to attend any church, belonged to no religious communion, and had no religious observances in his fami'y. His reasons for this were a matter for curious surmise among his friends, because of the profoundly religious character of his own mind; but he does not seem ever to have furnished the explanation. The matter became of less interest perhaps after 1669, when his three daughters ceased to reside with him, having been sent out " to learn some curious and ingenious sorts of manufacture that are proper for women to learn, particularly embroideries in gold or silver." After that the household in Bunhill consisted only of Milton, his wife, a single maid-servant, and the " man " or amanuensis who came in for the day. The remaining years of Milton's life, extending through that part of the reign of Charles II. which figures in English history under the name of the " Cabal Administration," were by no means unproductive. In 1669 he published, under the title of Accedence commenced Grammar, a small English compendium of Latin grammar that had been lying among his papers. In 1670 there appeared, with a prefixed portrait of him by Faithorne, done from the life, his History of Britain . . . to the Norman Conquest, being all that he had been able to accomplish of his intended complete history of England; and in the same year a Latin digest of Ramist logic, entitled Artis logicae plenior institutio, of no great value, and doubtless from an old manu- script of his earlier days. In 1671 there followed his Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes, bound together in one small volume, and giving ample proof that his poetic genius had not exhausted itself in the preceding great epic. In 1673, at a moment when the growing political discontent with the govern- ment of Charles II. and the conduct of his court had burst forth in the special form of a " No-Popery " agitation and outcry, Milton ventured on the dangerous experiment of one more political pamphlet, in which, under the title " Of True Religion, Heresy, Schism, Toleration, and what best means may be used against the growth of Popery," he put forth, with a view to popular acceptance, as mild a version as possible of his former principles on the topics discussed. In the same year appeared the second edition of his Poems . . . both English and Latin, which included, with the exception of the Sonnets to Cromwell, Fairfax, Vane and the second address to Cyriack Skinner, all the minor poems. Thus we reach the year 1674, the last of Milton's life. One incident of that year was the publication of the second edition of Paradise Lost, with the poem rearranged as now — into twelve books, instead of the original ten. Another was the publication of a small volume 1 containing his Latin Epistolae familiar es, together with the Prolusiones oratoriae of his student-days at Cambridge — these last thrown in as a substitute for his Latin state-letters in his secretaryship for the Commonwealth and the Protectorate, the printing of which was stopped by order from the Foreign Office. A third publication of the same year, and probably the very last thing dictated by Milton, was a transla- tion of a. Latin document from Poland, relating to the recent election of the heroic John Sobieski to the throne of that kingdom, with the title A Declaration or Letters Patents of the Election of this present King of Poland, John the Third. It seems to have been out in London in August or September 1674. On Sunday the 8th of the following November Milton died, in his house in Bunhill, of " gout struck in," at the age of sixty-five years and eleven months. He was buried, the next Thursday, in the church of St Giles, Cripplegate, beside his father; a considerable concourse attending the funeral. Before the Restoration, Milton — what with his inheritance from his father, what with the official income of his Latin secretaryship — must have been a man of very good means indeed. Since then, however, various heavy losses, and the cessation of all official income, had greatly reduced his estate, so that he left but £900 (worth about or over £2700 now) besides furniture and household goods. By a word-of-mouth will, made in presence of his brother Christopher, he had bequeathed the whole to his widow, on the ground that he had done enough already for his " undutiful " daughters, and that there remained for them his interest in their mother's marriage portion of £1000, which had never been paid, but which their relatives, the Powells of Forest Hill, were legally bound for, and were now in 1 Joannis Miltonii Angli epistolarum familiarum liber unus; quibus accesserunt, ejusdem (jam olim in collegio adolescentis) prolusiones quaedatn oratoriae (1674; translation by J. Hall, 1829). Family. 49° MILTON circumstances to make good. The daughters, with the Powells probably abetting them, went to law with the widow to upset the will; and the decision of the court was that they should receive £100 each. With the £600 thus left, the widow, after some further stay in London, retired to Nantwich in her native Cheshire. There, respected as a pious member of a local Baptist congregation, she lived till 1727, having survived her husband fifty-three years. By that time all the three daughters were also dead. The eldest, Ann Milton, who was somewhat deformed, had died not long after her father, having married " a master- builder," but left no issue; the second, Mary Milton, had died, unmarried, before 1694; and only the third, Deborah, survived as long as her step-mother. Having gone to Ireland, as com- panion to a lady, shortly before her father's death, she had married an Abraham Clarke, a silk- weaver in Dublin, with whom she returned to London about 1684, when they settled in the silk-weaving business in Spitalfields, rather sinking than rising in the world, though latterly some public attention was paid to Deborah, by Addison and others, on her father's account. One of her sons, Caleb Clarke, had gone out to Madras in 1703, and had died there as " parish-clerk of Fort George " in 1719, leaving children, of whom there are some faint traces to as late as 1727, the year of Deborah's death. Except for the possibility of further and untraced descent from this Indian grandson of Milton, the direct descent from him came to an end in his grand- daughter, Elizabeth Clarke, another of Deborah's children. Having married a Thomas Foster, a Spitalfields weaver, but afterwards set up a small chandler's shop, first in Holloway and then in Shoreditch, she died at Islington in 1754, not long after she and her husband had received the proceeds of a performance of Comus got up by Dr Johnson for her benefit. All her children had predeceased her, leaving no issue. Milton's brother Chris- topher, who had always been on the opposite side in politics, rose to the questionable honour of a judgeship and knighthood in the latter part of the reign of James II. He had then become a Roman Catholic — which religion he professed till his death in retirement at Ipswich in 1692. Descendants from him are traceable a good way into the 18th century. Milton's two nephews and pupils, Edward and John Phillips, both of them known as busy and clever hack-authors before their uncle's death, continued the career of hack-authorship, most industri- ously and variously, though not very prosperously, through the rest of their lives: Edward in a more reputable manner than John, and with more of enduring allegiance to the memory of his uncle. Edward died about 1695; John was alive till 1706. Their half-sister, Ann Agar, the only daughter of Milton's sister by her second husband, had married, in 1673, a David Moore, of Sayes House, Chertsey; and the most flourishing of all the lines of descent from the poet's father was in this Agar-Moore branch of the Miltons. Of masses of manuscript that had been left by Milton, some portions saw the light posthumously. Prevented, in the last year of his life from publishing his Latin State Letters in the Posthumous same vomme W1 th his Latin Familiar Epistles, he had Publications. comm ;tted the charge of the State Letters, prepared for the press, together with the completed manuscript of his Latin Treatise of Christian Doctrines, to a young Cambridge scholar, Daniel Skinner, who had been among the last of his amanuenses, and had, in fact, been employed by him especially in copying out and arranging those two important MSS. Negotiations were on foot, after Milton's death, between this Daniel Skinner and the Amsterdam printer, Daniel Elzevir, for the publication of both MSS., when the English government interfered, and the MSS. were sent back by Elzevir, and thrown aside, as dangerous rubbish, in a cupboard in the State Paper Office. Meanwhile, in 1676, a London bookseller, named Pitt, who had somehow got into his possession a less perfect, but still tolerably complete, copy of the State Letters, had brought out a surreptitious edition of them, under the title Literae pseudo-senatus anglicani, Cromwellii . . . nomine etjussu conscriptae a Joanne Miltono. No other posthumous publications of Milton's appeared till 1 681, when another bookseller put forth a slight tract entitled Mr John Milton's Character of the Long Parliament and Assembly of Divines, in 1641, consisting of a page or two, of rather dubious authenticity, said to have been withheld from his History of Britain in the edition of 1670. In 1682 appeared A Brief History of Moscovia, and of other less-known Countries lying Eastward of Russia as far as Cathay . . . undoubtedly Milton s, and a specimen of those prose compilations with which he sometimes occupied his leisure. Of the fate of his collections for a new Latin Dictionary, which had swelled to three folio volumes of MS., all that is known is that, after having been used by Edward Phillips for his Enchiridion and Speculum, they came into the hands of a committee of Cambridge scholars, and were used for that Latin dictionary of 1693, called The Cambridge Dictionary, on which Ainsworth's Dictionary was based. In 1698 there was published in three folio volumes, under the editorship of John Toland, the first collective edition of Milton's prose works, professing to have been printed at Amsterdam, though really printed in London. A very interesting folio volume, published in 1743 by " John Nickolls, junior," under the title of Original Letters and Papers of State addressed to Oliver Cromwell, consists of a number of intimate Cromwellian documents that had somehow come into Milton's possession immediately after Cromwell's death, and were left by him confidentially to the Quaker Ellwood. Finally, a chance search in the London State Paper Office in 1823 having discovered the long-lost parcel containing the MSS. of Milton's Latin Stale Letters and his Latin Treatise of Christian Doctrine, as these had been sent back from Amsterdam a hundred and fifty years before, the Treatise on Christian Doctrine was, by the command of George IV., edited and published in 1825 by the Rev. C. R. Sumner, keeper of the Royal Library, and afterwards bishop of Winchester, under the title of Joannis Miltoni Angli de doctrina Christiana libri duo posthumi. An English translation, by the editor, was published in the same year. Those state papers of Milton which had not been already printed were edited by W. D. Hamilton for the Camden Society, in 1859. Milton's literary life divides into three almost mechanically distinct periods: (1) the time of his youth and minor poems, (2) his middle twenty years of prose polemics, and (3) the time of his later Muse and greater poems. Had Milton died in 1640, when he was in his thirty-second year, and had his literary remains been then collected, he would have been remembered as one of the best Latinists of his generation and one of the most exquisite of lst ff s " er " minor English poets. In the latter character, more particularly, he would have taken his place as one of that interesting group or series of English poets, coming in the next forty years after Spenser, who, because they all acknowledged a filial relationship to Spenser, may be called collectively the Spenserians. In this group or series, counting in it such other true poets of the reigns of James I. and Charles I. as Phineas and Giles Fletcher, William Browne and Drummond of Haw- thornden, Milton would have been entitled, by the small collec- tion of pieces he had left, and which would have included his Ode on the Nativity, his L' Allegro and II Penseroso, his Comus and his Lycidas, to recognition as indubitably the very highest and finest. There was in him that peculiar Spenserian something which might be regarded as the poetic faculty in its essence, with a closeness and perfection of verbal finish not to be found in the other Spenserians, or even in the master himself. Few as the pieces were, and owning discipleship to Spenser as the author did, he was a Spenserian with a difference belonging to his own consti- tution — which prophesied, and indeed already exhibited, the passage of English poetry out of the Spenserian into a kind that might be called the Miltonic. This Miltonic something, dis- tinguishing the new poet from other Spenserians, was more than mere perfection of literary finish. It consisted in an avowed consciousness already of the os magna soniturum, " the mouth formed for great utterances," that consciousness resting on a peculiar substratum of personal character that had occasioned a new theory of literature. " He who would not be frustrate of his hope to write well hereafter on laudable things ought himself to be a true poem " was Milton's own memorable expression afterwards of the principle that had taken possession of him from his earliest days; and this principle of moral manliness as the true foundation of high literary effort, of the inextricable identity of all literary productions in kind, and their coequality in worth, with the personality in which they have their origin, might have been detected, in more or less definite shape, in all or most of the minor poems. It is a specific form of that general Platonic doctrine of the invincibility of virtue which runs through his Comus. That a youth and early manhood of such poetical promise should have been succeeded by twenty years of all but incessant prose polemics has been a matter of regret with many. But this MILTON 491 is to ignore his political and social side. If Burke, whose whole public career consisted in a succession of speeches and pamphlets, is looked back upon as one of the greatest men of his century on their account, why should there be regret over the fact that Milton, after having been the author of Comus and Lycidas, became for a time the prose orator of his earlier and more tumul- tuous generation? Milton was not only the greatest pamph- leteer of his generation — head and shoulders above the rest — but there is no life of that time, not even Cromwell's, in which the history of the great Revolution in its successive phases, so far as the deep underlying ideas and speculations were concerned, may be more intimately and instructively studied than in Milton's. Then, on merely literary grounds, what an interest in those prose remains! Not only of his Areopagitica, admired now so unreservedly because its main doctrine has become axiomatic, but of most of his other pamphlets, even those the doctrine of which is least popular, it may be said confidently that they answer to his own definition of " a good book," by containing somehow " the precious life-blood of a master- spirit." From the entire series there might be a collection of specimens, unequalled anywhere else, of the capabilities of that older, grander and more elaborate English prose of which the Elizabethans and their immediate successors were not ashamed. Nor will readers of Milton's pamphlets continue to accept the hackneyed observation that his genius was destitute of humour. Though his prevailing mood was the severely earnest, there are pages in his prose writings, both English and Latin, of the most laughable irony, reaching sometimes to outrageous farce, and some of them as worthy of the name of humour as anything in Swift. Here, however, we touch on what is the worst feature in some of the prose pamphlets — their measureless ferocity, their boundless licence in personal scurrility. While it is wrong to regard Milton's middle twenty years of prose polemics as a degradation of his genius, and while the fairer contention might be that the youthful poet of Comus and Lycidas actually promoted himself, and became a more powerful agency in the world and a more interesting object in it for ever, by consenting to lay aside his " singing robes " and spend a portion of his life in great prose oratory, who does not exult in the fact that such a life was rounded off so miraculously at the close by a final stage of compulsory calm, when the " singing robes " could be resumed, and Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes could issue in succession from the blind man's chamber? Of these three poems, and what they reveal of Milton, no need here to speak at length. Paradise Lost is one of the few monu- mental works of the world, with nothing in modern epic literature comparable to it except the great poem of Dante. This is best perceived by those who penetrate beneath the beauties of the merely terrestrial portion of the story, and who recognize the coherence and the splendour of that vast symbolic phantasma- gory by which, through the wars in heaven and the subsequent revenge of the expelled archangel, it paints forth the connexion of the whole visible universe of human cognisance and history with the grander, pre-existing and still environing world of the eternal and inconceivable. To this great epic Paradise Regained is a sequel, and it ought to be read as such. The legend that Milton preferred the shorter epic to the larger is quite incorrect. All that is authentic on the subject is the statement by Edward Phillips that, when it was reported to his uncle that the shorter epic was " generally censured to be much inferior to the other," he " could not hear with patience any such thing." The best critical judgment now confirms Milton's own, and pronounces Paradise Regained to be not only, within the possibilities of its briefer theme, a worthy sequel to Paradise Lost, but also one of the most artistically perfect poems in any language. Finally, the poem in which Milton bade farewell to the Muse, and in which he reverted to the dramatic form, proves that to the very end his right hand had lost none of its power or cunning. Samson Agonistes is the most powerful drama in the English language after the severe Greek model, and it has the additional interest of being so contrived that, without any deviation from the strictly objective incidents of the Biblical story which it enshrines, it is yet the poet's own epitaph and his condensed autobiography. Much light is thrown upon Milton's mind in his later life, and even upon the poems of that period, by his posthumous Latin Treatise of Christian Doctrine. It differs from all his other prose writings of any importance in being cool, abstract and didactic. Professing to be a system of divinity derived directly from the Bible, it is really an exposition of Milton's metaphysics and of his reasoned opinions on all questions of philosophy, ethics and politics. The general effect is to show that, though he is rightly regarded as the very genius of English Puritanism, its represen- tative poet and idealist, yet he was not a Puritan of what may be called the first wave, or that wave of Calvinistic orthodoxy which broke in upon the absolutism of Charles and Laud, and set the English Revolution agoing. He belonged distinctly to that larger and more persistent wave of Puritanism which, passing on through Independency, and an endless variety of sects, many of them rationalistic and freethinking in the extreme, developed into what has ever since been known as English Liberalism. The treatise makes clear that, while Milton was a most fervid theist and a genuine Christian, believing in the Bible, and valuing the Bible over all the other books in the world, he was at the same time one of the most intrepid of English thinkers and theologians. (D. Ma.;X.) Considerable interest attaches among collectors to the variety of prints representing portraits of Milton. So far as the original contemporary portraits are concerned, which have portraits inspired the large number of engravings, the following may be mentioned: (1) The existing. Janssen painting, 1618 (" aetatis suae 10 "), which belonged to Mrs Milton. (2) An unknown painting of 1623 (?i62o), from which was taken an engraving in the Gentleman's Magazine for September 1787 (" aet. suae 12 "). (3) The " Onslow " painting of Milton when a Cambridge scholar (lost), which belonged to Mrs Milton and in 1794 was in Lord Onslow's possession; a copy by Van der Gucht was made for Lord Harcourt and is still at Nuneham. (4) William Marshal's engraved frontispiece to Moseley's edition of the poems (1645). (5) William Faithorne's engraving of Milton from life, at the age of sixty-two, in Milton's History of Britain (1670). (6) Faithorne's original drawing for the above, belonging in 1909 to Sir R. H. Hobart. (7) The Bayfordbury (or Tonson) drawing (probably by Faithorne, or (?) by White or Richardson) at Bayfordbury Park near Hertford. (8) A drawing by George Vertue in Dr Williamson's collection. (9) A clay bust (? by Pierce or Simon) at Christ's College. (10) A miniature by Cooper (1653), which is, however, considered by Dr G. C. Williamson not to be of Milton at all. (n) A painting by Pieter Van der Plas (d. 1704) in the National Portrait Gallery. (12) An oil painting at Christ's College. (13) The " Woodcock " miniature of Milton when about forty-eight. In Poets' Corner, Westminster Abbey, a bust by Rysbrack was put up in 1737. A monument in St Giles, Cripplegate, by John Bacon, R.A., was erected by Samuel Whitbread in 1793; and a modern statue by Horace Montford also stands there. A memorial window in St Margaret's, West- minster, with an inscription by J. G. Whittier, was presented by G. W. Childs, of Philadelphia. _ Bibliography. — MSS. of the poems of Milton's earlier period in his own handwriting are preserved in the library of Trinity College, Cambridge. These are not enumerated among the gifts made by Sir Henry Newton Puckering in 1691, but presumably belonged to him, and came to the library at his death in 1700, as they were found by Charles Mason, a fellow of the college, among papers and books which had been his. They were bound in a folio volume by the care of Thomas Clarke, afterwards Master of the Rolls, in 1736. Besides the poems, with many interlineations and corrections, the MS. contains suggestions, and in some cases fully developed plans, for works generally dramatic in form. This manuscript volume, invaluable as an index to Milton's methods of work, was reproduced in facsimile (Cambridge, 1899) by W. Aldis Wright. The first complete edition of The Poetical Works of Mr John Milton . . . was printed by Jacob Tonson in 1695. In 1732 Richard Bentley put forward a curious edition of Paradise Lost in which long passages were rejected and placed in the margin on the ground that they were interpolations made possible by Milton's blindness. The Latin and Italian poems, with a translation by William Cowper, 492 MILTON— MILWAUKEE were printed by W. Hayley in 1808. The most important of the numerous later editions of Milton's poetical works are by H. J. Todd (6 vols., 1801); J. Mitford (" Aldine edition," 3 vols., 1832); T. Keightley (2 vols., 1859), whose notes are most original and interest- ing; D. Masson (" Library "or "Cambridge "edition, 3 vols., 1874; of which a new edition appeared in 1890, with memoir, introduction, notes and an essay on Milton's English and versification) ; John Bradshaw (new " Aldine edition," 2 vols., 1892) ; also a careful reprint retaining the peculiarities of the earlier printed copies, by H. C. Beeching (" Oxford edition," 1904) ; and another, with variant readings, by W. Aldis Wright (Cambridge University Press, 1903). The prose works were first partially collected in 1697. They were edited by J. Toland (3 vols., 1698), by C. Symmons (7 vols., 1806), by Pickering (8 vols., 1851) with the poetical works, and by J. A. St John for Bohn's "Libraries" (5 vols., 1848-1853). There are numerous annotated editions of separate works. The earliest life of Milton is contained in Wood MS. D. 4 in the Bodleian Library, Oxford, and was printed in the Eng. Hist. Review for January 1902, also by E. S. Parsons in Colorado College Studies, No. X (1903). The author, who sympathized with the poet's political views, is unknown, but the name of Milton's friend, Dr Nathan Paget, is suggested. His account formed the basis of the life given by Anthony a Wood in Fasti oxonienses (1691). Wood was also indebted to John Aubrey, whose Brief Lives were not printed until later. The life by his nephew Edward Phillips was prefixed to the Letters of State printed in 1694, and reprinted by William Godwin in his Lives of E. and J. Phillips (1815). Samuel Johnson's famous Life of Milton (1779), which contains some valuable criticism, is written from a somewhat unfriendly standpoint. The records of Milton's official life, available in the State Papers, were first made use of by H. J. Todd in a third edition (1829) of his Milton. All the available information was gathered in Professor Masson's ' Life of John Milton; narrated in Connexion with the Political, Ecclesi- astical and Literary History of his Time (6 vols., 1859-1880, with index, 1894; new ed. of vol. i., 1881) which contains ample reference to original authorities. Shorter works are Milton und seine Zeit (2pts., 1877,1879), by Alfred Stern; Milton (1879), by Mark Pattison in the " English Men of Letters " series, and Life of John Milton (1890) by Dr Richard Garnett in the " Great Writers" series, with a bibliography by J. P. Anderson. The sources of Paradise Lost have given rise to much discussion. It has been supposed to owe something to Adamo, a comedy by Giovanni Battista Andreini (1 578-1652), to the Paraphrase associated with the name of Caedmon which was printed at Amsterdam in 1D 55 by Francis Junius, and to the Lucifer and other plays of Joost van den Vondel. Parallelisms between Vondel and Milton were pointed out by Mr Edmund Gosse in Literatures of Northern Europe (1879), an d the comparison was carried further in Mr G. Edmund- son's Milton and Vondel; A Curiosity of Literature (1885), a book which aroused much discussion. A valuable contribution to Miltonic criticism was made in 1893 by Mr Robert Bridges in an essay on Milton's Prosody. This was reprinted in 1901, with some additional matter and an essay on " Classical Metres in English Verse " by W. J. Stone. Amongst other critical essays should be mentioned essays by Macaulay (Edinburgh Review, 1825) ; Walter Bagchot (Literary Studies, vol. i., 1879); S. T. Coleridge {Seven Lectures on Shakespeare and Milton 1856); Edward Dowden (Transcripts and Studies, 1888); Edmond Scherer (Etudes stir la lillerature contem- poraine, vol. vi., 1882) ; Augustine Birrell (Obiter dicta, second series 1887); Walter Raleigh (Mtlion, 1900); E. Allodoli, Giovanni Milton e Vltalia (Prato, 1907). Concordances of Milton's Poetical Works were compiled by G. L. Prendergast (Madras, 1856-1857); by C. J. Cleveland (1867), based on a verbal index used in an American edition 1853, of the Poetical Works; by John Bradshaw (1894), by L. E. Lockwood, Lexicon to the English Poetical Works of John Milton (New York, 1907). The tercentenary of Milton's birth was celebrated in 1908 in Cambridge, London and elsewhere. An exhibition of the portraits of Milton, authentic and supposed, with a great collection of valuable editions of the poet's works, was held in June and July at Christ's College, Cambridge. The catalogue of this exhibition, drawn up by Dr G. C. Williamson, forms a valuable bibliography and icono- graphy of the poet. A collection of Milton autographs, early editions and portraits was also held in December at the British Museum, and the anniversary itself was celebrated by a special meeting of the" British Academy, at which papers by Professors W. J. Courthope, Edward Dowden and others were read. There was a religious service at St Mary-le-Bow, Cheapside, and a banquet at the Mansion House. MILTON, a township of N.E. Norfolk county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., about 7 m. S. of Boston, the Neponset river forming a large part of its N. and N.W. boundary. Pop. (1890), 4278; (1900), 6578 (1840 being foreign-born) ; (1905, state census), 7054: (1910) 7924. It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and is primarily a residential suburb of Boston, with which it is connected by electric lines. The township covers an area of about 13 sq. m., and includes the villages of Milton, East Milton and Mattapan. The country is rolling and hilly, the Blue Hills (with the exception of a part included in Brain tree in 171 2 and now in Quincy) lying in Milton. On Great Blue Hill, the highest (635 ft. above tide-level), great fires were kindled at the news of the repeal of the Stamp Act, of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, and of the sur- renders of Burgoyne and Cornwallis; beacon fires were burned during the American War of Independence; an " observatory " for tourists was built at an early date; and in 1885 the Blue Hill Observatory for meteorological investigation was established by Abbott Lawrence Rotch (b. 1861), who made important investi- gations concerning clouds, and attracted attention by his use of kites for obtaining meteorological data. Milton Academy (a non-sectarian school) was founded in 1798, opened in 1805, and suspended in 1867; a new academy was opened in 1885. There is a public library, which was opened in 187 1, and in 1909 had more than 20,000 volumes. Cunningham Park is under the control of the trustees of a fund left for the benefit of the town- ship, and contains a gymnasium, skating-pond, tennis courts, &c, open to townspeople only. Hutchinson Field, another public park, is a part of the estate of the last royal governor, Thomas Hutchinson; Governor Jonathan Belcher also lived in Milton for a time. There are two granite quarries in the town- ship, immediately north-west of the Blue Hills; the granite is of the " dark Quincy " variety — dark bluish grey in colour — and is used chiefly for monuments. Milton, originally a part of Dorchester, was first settled in 1640, and was called Uncata- quissett. The township was separated from Dorchester and incorporated in 1662. It owes its name either to its early paper and grist mills (Milton being abbreviated from Milltown) or to Milton Abbey, Dorset, whence members of the Tucker family came, it is supposed, to Milton about 1662. In 1712 the Blue Hill lands were divided between Milton and Braintree, and in 1868 part of Milton was included in the new township of Hyde Park. In Milton, on the 9th of September 1774, at the house of Daniel Vose, a meeting, adjourned from Dedham, passed the bold " Suffolk Resolves " (Milton then being included in Suffolk county), which declared that a sovereign who breaks his compact with his subjects forfeits their allegiance, that parliament's repressive measures were unconstitutional, that tax-collectors should not pay over money to the royal treasury, that the towns should choose militia officers from the patriot party, that they would obey the Continental Congress and that they favoured a Provincial Congress, and that they would seize crown officers as hostages for any political prisoners arrested by the governor; and recommended that all persons in the colony should abstain from lawlessness. See A. K. Teele, History of Milton, Mass., 1640 to 1887 (Milton, 1887). MILTON, a borough of Northumberland county, Pennsyl- vania, U.S.A., on the Susquehanna river at the mouth of Lime- stone Run, about 66 m. N. of Harrisburg. Pop. (1890), 5317; (1900), 6175 (166 foreign-born); (1910), 7460. It is served by the Pennsylvania, and the Philadelphia & Reading railways, and is connected with Lewisburg and Watsontown by an electric line. Milton has an attractive public park, is in an agricultural region, and has various manufactures. It was founded in 1792, and incorporated as a borough in 18 17. In 1880 it was in great part destroyed by fire. MILWAUKEE, a city and the county-seat of Milwaukee county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., the largest city of the state, at the mouth of the Milwaukee river on the W. shore of Lake Michigan, about 85 m. N. of Chicago. Pop. (1900), 285,315; (1910), 373)857. The Milwaukee river entering the city from the north is joined about 5 m. from its mouth by the Menominee flowing from the west and a short distance from the lake by the Kinnikinnic flowing from the south. These rivers are navigable for lake traffic into the heart of the city. Milwaukee Bay, into which their combined waters empty, is an inlet of Lake Michigan, about 6 m. across. By the construction of extensive piers and breakwaters a fine harbour of refuge has been created; and its inner harbour is deep enough for the largest lake-steamers. MILWAUKEE 493 From the shore of the lake the land rises, rather abruptly in most places, to a height of from 75 to 100 ft. From a broad plateau overlooking the lake the land slopes gradually westward to the river, again rising on the north, west and south to a height of 125 ft. or more. The rivers separate the city into three distinctly marked divisions of varying character known as the east, west and south sides. The manufactories are largely on the " flats " along the rivers and on the south side. The exten- sive use as building material of cream-coloured brick made in the vicinity gives the city its nickname, " the Cream City." The city has many beautiful parks and squares, the most picturesque of which is Juneau Park, along the lake bluff. It contains statues of Leif Ericsson and Solomon Juneau. Other parks are Lake Park, also on the lake shore, at North Point, where stands the waterworks pumping station with its tall tower; Riverside and Kilbourn Parks, east and west respectively of the upper Milwaukee river, in the northern part of the city, Washing- ton Park on the west side, containing a menagerie and a herd of deer; Sherman Park on the west side, and Kosciusko, Humboldt and Mitchell Parks on the south side. McKinley Park on the lake shore south of the city, and Whitefish Bay 6 m. north of the city, are popular bathing resorts. In addition to the statues in Juneau Park there is a statue of Kosciusko in the park of that name; one of Washington and a soldiers' monument on Grand Avenue; a statue of Henry Bergh in front of the city hall; one of Robert Burns in the First Ward Park, and, in Washington Park, a replica of Ernst Rietschel's Schiller-Goethe monument in Jena, given to the city in 1908 by the Germans of Milwaukee. Of the several cemeteries, that of Forest Home, south-west of the city, is the largest and most beautiful. The city is well sewered, and has an excellent water-supply system owned by the munici- pality and representing an investment of more than $5,000,000. The water is obtained from Lake Michigan through an intake far out in the lake. Through a tunnel J m. long, constructed in 1888, water is pumped by means of one of the largest single pumps in the world from the lake into the upper Milwaukee river, which is thus completely flushed by fresh water every twenty-four hours. Milwaukee is one of the most healthful of the larger cities of the United States. Its average annual death-rate for 1000-1004 was 13-6. The proximity of Lake Michigan cools the atmosphere in summer and tempers the cold in winter. As a result, the extremes of heat and cold are not as great as those in most inland cities. The mean monthly temperatures vary between 20 in January and 70 in July, with extremes of ioo° and -25°. The mean annual precipitation is 31-4 in. Suburbs— Milwaukee proper occupies 22J sq. m., a small area as compared with other cities near it in population — Detroit (36 sq. m.) and Washington, D.C. (69} sq. m.). As a result, the population has overflowed into several populous suburbs industrially a part of a " greater " Milwaukee. Of these by far the most important are the township of Wauwatosa (pop., 1905, 11,132; 1910, 11,536), and the city of the same name, separated from the township in 1897 and having in 1910 a population of 3346; the city and township are on the Menominee river, immediately adjoining the city on the west. The first settlement was made here in 1835. Wauwatosa has important manufactures, including machinery, brick, lime, beer, chemicals and wooden-ware, and extensive market gardens and nurseries and valuable stone quarries. It has a Carnegie library, and is the seat of an Evangelical Lutheran theological seminary (1865), of Lutheran homes for the aged and orphan, of the Milwaukee county hospital for the insane, of the Milwaukee sanatorium for nervous diseases, and of the north-western branch of the national soldiers' home, which has grounds covering 385 acres and with main building and barracks affording quarters for over 2000 disabled veterans, and has a hospital, a theatre, and a library of 15,000 volumes. Within the limits of Wauwatosa also are the State Fair grounds. Other suburbs are West Allis pop., 1905, 2306; U. S. cen- sus 1910, 6645), an incorporated rapidly growing manufacturing city on the west; Cudahy (pop., 1910, 3691), a manufacturing village south of Milwaukee, largely devoted to meat packing ; South Milwaukee (pop. 1910, 6092), an incorporated city with several large manufactories, and North Milwaukee (pop., 1910, i860), a village immediately adjoining the city on the north. Public Buildings, Institutions, &c. — The principal public building in the city is the Federal building (1895-1898), the post office, custom- house and local headquarters for the United States courts. The public library and museum, on the north side of Grand Avenue, in addition to an excellent collection of natural history, palaeontology, &c, contained in 1909 a library of about 190,000 volumes. The city hall on the east side is surmounted by a tal! clock-tower containing one of the largest bells in the world. The Layton Art Gallery contains one of the best collections of paintings west of the Alleghanies. The chamber of commerce, and the Pabst, Mitchell, North-Western Life Insurance, Germania Sentinel and Wells build- ings, are among the principal business structures. In Milwaukee are St John's Roman Catholic Cathedral and All Saints Protestant Episcopal Cathedral — the city is the see of a Roman Catholic arch- bishopric (established in 1892) and of a Protestant Episcopal bishopric. Among other church structures are Plymouth Congrega- tional, Westminster Presbyterian, Church of Gesu (Roman Catholic) and Trinity Lutheran. The hotels include the Pfister on the east side and the Plankinton, the Republican and the Schlitz on the west side. Among the theatres are the Davidson, Majestic, Schubert, Bijou, Alhambra and the Pabst German. During the summer there are open-air theatres in several private parks or " gardens." The social clubs include the Milwaukee, Deutscher-Concordia, University and Marquette clubs. The predominance of Germanic influence in the city is evidenced by at least 75' musical clubs and numerous Turnverein societies. There are 12 hospitals (3 of them city in- stitutions), 6 orphan asylums, 4 homes for the aged, a foundlings' home and a state industrial school for girls. The educational institutions are numerous. Marquette University was established in 1906 by a union of Marquette College (1881), a Roman Catholic school of high rank, and existing schools of medicine, pharmacy, dentistry and law; in 1908 it added a department of engineering, and in that year it had 81 instructors and 630 students. Milwaukee-Downer College (for girls), in the north-east part of the city was established in 1895 by a consolidation of Milwaukee College for girls, and Downer College, formerly at Fox Lake. Other in- stitutions are Concordia College (1881, Lutheran), a state normal school (1880), the Wisconsin College of physicians and surgeons (1893), the national German-American teachers' seminary (normal), Milwaukee academy (1864), Milwaukee University school, Milwaukee school of engineering (1904), Milwaukee Turnverein school of physical culture, one of the largest schools of the sort in the United States, St John's Catholic institute, Our Lady of Mercy acadeYny (Roman Catholic), Wisconsin academy of music, the Wisconsin school of art (art students' league), a Catholic normal school, St Rose's manual training school, the industrial chemical institute (the only technical school for brewers in the United States) and several business and commercial schools. At St Francis, adjoining the city on the south, is the seminary of St Francis of Sales (Roman Catholic), and St Joseph's institute for deaf mutes (Roman Catholic). The Milwaukee public school system comprises four high schools, a high school of trades, and in addition to the ordinary grades, a kindergarten department and day schools for the blind and deaf. Transportation. — Milwaukee is favourably situated commercially, with excellent facilities for shipping both by lake and rail afforded by four trunk lines and a dozen lines of lake steamboats. It is served by the Chicago & North-Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Mane, the Grand Trunk, and the P6re Marquette railways. The last-named connects with the main line at Ludington, Michigan, by means of a railway ferry across Lake Michigan; the Grand Trunk has a railway ferry from Milwaukee to Grand Haven. The city's extensive street railway system connects with interurban electric lines leading to Waukesha, Oconomowoc and Watertown on the west, Sheboygan and Fond du Lac on the north, and Chicago and intermediate points along the lake shore on the south. Trade and Commerce. — Commercially Milwaukee is one of the most important of the inland cities of the United States, although its trade it largely domestic. It is a distributing point for a con- siderable part of Wisconsin, and several states farther west, its wholesale business aggregating about $350,000,000 annually. The country produce sold in Milwaukee averages about $75,000,000 a year in value. The chief commodities of trade are coal, grain, lumber, flour and various products of the city's own manufactories. Milwaukee is an important grain shipping port— in 1908 it shipped 28,618,519 bushels of grain and 3,752,033 barrels of flour, and its 25 elevators have a capacity of over 12,500,000 bushels. It is one of the largest distributing centres in the country for coal, which is received by lake, and stored in enormous coal docks for trans- shipment by rail throughout the west and north-west. The city is a port of entry, and in 1908 its imports were valued at $3,080,437, and its exports at only $75,525. Manufactures.— In 1905 the total value of Milwaukee's factory products was $138,881,545, 25-3% more than in 1900. In the manufacture of malt liquors and malt Milwaukee stands first among the cities of the United States and of the world. The total value of these products for 1905 was $29,909,248, of which $22,134,580 was the value of malt liquors and $3,774,668 was the value of malt. In 1905 Milwaukee manufactured 77-1 % of the malt liquors manu- factured in the state and 7-4 % of the entire product of the United States. Other products exceeding $1,000,000 in value were: leather ($14,074,397), Milwaukee being second in the manufacture of leather among the cities of the United States ; foundry and machine 494 MILWAUKEE .23: _ grist-mill products ($6,320,428) ; slaughtering and meat-packing products ($5,958,515); men's clothing ($4,759,548); boots and shoes ($2,929,405); electrical machinery, apparatus and supplies ($2,257,229); chewing and smoking tobacco ($1,966,930) and cigars and cigarettes ($1,540,019); furniture ($1,767,290); trunks and valises ($1,623,310); hosiery and knit goods ($1,535,176); confectionery ($1,379,668); stoves and furnaces ($1,288,931); leather gloves and mittens ($1,207,633); structural iron work ($1,037,217); wooden packing boxes ($1,024,750); and paints ($1,015,774). Among Milwaukee's largest industrial establish- ments are: the Pabst and the Schlitz breweries, on the west side of the city, the machine shops (35 acres) of the Allis-Chalmers Company at West Allis, employing about 5000 men and making engines of all kinds; and the plant of the Illinois Steel Company, at Bay View on the south side, which covers 154 acres. The flour mills of Milwaukee have a capacity of about 12,000 barrels a day. Two of the city's tanneries are among the largest in America. In the Menominee river valley the peculiar cream-coloured Milwaukee bricks are made. North of the city on the Milwaukee river are extensive cement works. Newspapers. — The first newspaper in Milwaukee, the Advertiser, began publication in 1836. The first German newspaper was established in 1844. In 1909 there were eleven daily newspapers, as follows: Evening Wisconsin (1847; Republican), Free Press (1901; Independent Republican),- Journal (1882; Independent Democrat), News (1886; Independent), and Sentinel (1837; Republican), the oldest paper in continuous publication, Daily Commercial Letter (Commercial), Reporter (legal and commercial), Dziennik Milwaucki (Polish), Kuryer Polski (1888; Republican; Polish), Germania Abendpost (1872; Independent; German); and Der Herold (1854; Independent; German). Of more than a hundred other publications thirty-two, 10 monthly or quarterly and 22 weekly, were published in German. There are 5 Polish weekly publications, 3 Bohemian, 1 Italian and one periodical for the blind. Population. — The population of Milwaukee in 1840 was only 1712. During the following decade there was a steady flow of immigrants from the eastern states and from Europe, with the result that in 1850, two years after the admission of Wisconsin to the Union, the population was 20,061. The population at the succeeding decennial censuses was as follows: (i860), 45,246; (1870), 71,440; (1880), 115,587; (1890), 204,468; (1900), 285,315. In 1905, according to the state census, the population was 312,948; The fact that out of a population of 285,315 in 1900, 88,991 were foreign-born, and 235,889 were of foreign parentage, that 53,854 were born in Germany, that 124,211 had both parents born in Germany, and that 26,834 additional had one or the other parent born in Germany, stamps the character of Milwaukee's population. The negro population in 1900 was only 862. The proportion of illiterates is small. Of the male population, aged 10 years or more, only 3206 (2968 foreign-born whites; 194 native-born whites) were illiterate in 1900. Government. — Milwaukee is governed under a city charter of 1874, providing the form of city government most common in America, a mayor (elected biennially) and a single board of aldermen. There are the usual administrative boards whose members are appointed by the mayor, some of them with the approval of the board of aldermen, though the board of school directors is elected by direct popular vote. Two boards of civil service commissioners, one for fire and police departments and one for all other departments, have supervision over the city's civil service. The assessed valuation of taxable property, in the city, in August 1906 was $201,585,127, of which $157,611,560 represented realty and $43,973,567 personality. The valuation is about 60 % of the actual value. The tax rate for all purposes in that year was $2-26 per ,$100. According to a special report of the census the cost of the city government of Milwaukee in 1906 was smaller per capita than that of any other city in the country with a population of over 300,000. At the close of the year 1906 the total debt was $8,835,049, and the funded debt was $8,106,500. History. — The first Europeans known to have visited the site of Milwaukee were Father Jacques Marquette, the Jesuit missionary, and his companion, Louis Joliet, who on their return in the autumn of 1673 to the mission of St Francis Xavier at De Pere from their trip down the Mississippi, skirted the west shore of Lake Michigan in their canoes from Chicago northward. Milwaukee Bay is distinctly marked in the map attributed to Marquette, the original of which is now in the Jesuit College at Montreal, Canada; it was discovered in a convent in Montreal by Felix Martin (1804-1886), of the Society of Jesus, and was copied by Parkman. In 1679 La Salle and his party probably stopped here on their way south, and in the Jesuit Relations of that year the name Milwaukee first appears, as " Millioke. " This, and the various other spellings of the name, attempted to reproduce the Indian name of the village here, which Kelton thinks was pronounced Minewagi and meant " there is a good point " or " there is a point where huckleberries grow," in allu- sion to the fertile soil. Doubtless the coureurs du hois who at this time began to frequent the Wisconsin forests, touched at the bay many times within the succeeding years as the place was known to be a favourite rendezvous of the Fox (or Outagamie) Indians. In 1699- 1700 Father St Cosme, a Recollet friar, was here, finding bands of Mascoutens, Fox, Winnebago and Potawatomi. He called the river " Melwarik," " Melwarck " and " Meliwarik." For more than half a century no definite reference to the place can be found. In 1760 its advantageous situation attracted the adventurous trader, Alexander Henry, the first Englishman known to have visited the spot. Three years late* (1763) there was a French fur-trading post here, but it is uncertain just when it was established or how long it was maintained. In 1795 Jacques Vieau, a Frenchman in the employ of the North- Western Fur Company, established a permanent post here, which seems to have continued, under his direction, with practically no inter- ruption until 1820, when it was superseded by that of Astor's American Fur Company. Vieau built a dwelling and a ware- house and conducted extensive trading operations. In 1818 there joined the settlement a young Frenchman named Laurent Solomon Juneau (1793-1856), who married one of Vieau's daughters and eventually bought out his business. Juneau and several others who arrived at about the same time built homes on the east side of the river near the foot of the present Wisconsin Street. Vieau's house and store was at this time on the south side. Milwaukee was on the direct route of travel between Fort Dearborn (Chicago) and the flourishing settlement at Green Bay, and at once after the treaties between the United States and the Menominee in 1831 and 1833 for the extinguishing of the Indian titles, settlers began to come to [the neighbourhood. A map of 1830 shows a small settlement on " Milwalky Bay "; and the treaty of the 8th of February 1831 speaks of the " Mil- wauky or Manawauky River." Morgan L. Martin (1805-1887) of Green Bay, a lawyer and judge, and a delegate to Congress in 1845-1847 from Wisconsin territory, explored the harbour facilities in 1833 and made a map of the place which he called " Milwaukie." He entered into an agreement later in the same year with Juneau and Michael Dousman for its development. A saw-mill was built in 1834, and settlers began to arrive. The east side was platted in the summer of 1835, and very soon after- ward the plat of a settlement on the west side was also recorded, Byron Kilbourn being the chief projector and proprietor of the latter. The rival settlements, officially known as Milwaukee East Side and Milwaukee West Side, bore the popular designa- tions of " Juneautown " and " Kilbourntown." A third settle- ment, begun on the south side by George H. Walker and known as " Walker's Point," was subsequently platted independently. The rivalry between the east and west side towns was intense, the plats were so surveyed that the streets did not meet at the river, and there were bitter quarrels over the building of bridges. Milwaukee county was set off from Brown county in 1834, and in 1836 the establishment of townships was authorized. Under this act the east and west sides were independently incorporated in February 1837. A realization that the continuation of inde- pendent and rival corporations retarded growth eventually led to a compromise by which the two were united as two wards of the same village in 1839, the autonomy of each being still recognized by an odd arrangement whereby each maintained practically independent management of its finances and affairs. Walker's Point, the south side, was annexed as a third ward in 1845, and in 1846 the three wards were incorporated as the city of Milwaukee, of which Solomon Juneau was elected first MIMETITE— MIMICRY 495 mayor. The influence of this early rivalry may be seen in several provisions of the existing city charter. About 1840 a strong tide of immigration from Germany set in, continuing steadily for a half-century. It was greatly accelerated by the German revolutionary movements of the late 'forties, which added to the city's population a considerable element of educated Germans of the upper class. From this time the Teutonic character of the population was marked. The first newspaper, the Advertiser, began publication in 1836; the first bank was established in 1837. In 1839 George Smith and Alexander Mitchell established the Fire and Marine Insur- ance Company Bank. As " Mitchell's Bank " this institution was known for forty years as one of the strongest banking houses west of the Alleghanies, its notes passing at par during panics in which even the government issues were depreciated. Through it the Chicago Milwaukee & St Paul and other western railways were financed. Beer was first brewed in Milwaukee in 1840. Milwaukee was connected with Chicago by telegraph in 1849, and by railway in 1856. Previous to this, however, in 185 1, the first train ran over- the Chicago Milwaukee & St Paul railway to Waukesha, and in 1857 through trains were run over the same road to the Mississippi at Prairie du Chien. See J. S. Buck, Pioneer History of Milwaukee (4 vols., Milwaukee, 1876-1886); A. C. Wheeler, Chronicles of Milwaukee (Milwaukee, 1861); E. S. Mack, " The Founding of Milwaukee " in Proceedings of the State Historical Society for iqo6 (Madison, 1907) ; and L. M. Larson, Administrative History of Milwaukee (Madison, Wisconsin, 1908). MIMETITE, a mineral consisting of lead chloro-arsenate, •(PbCl)Pb4(As0 4 )3, crystallizing in the hexagonal system and closely resembling pyromorphite (q.v.) in appearance and general characters. The arsenic is usually partly replaced by equivalent amounts of phosphorus, and there may thus be a gradual passage from mimetite to pyromorphite. The two species can, as a rule, only be distinguished by chemical analysis, and because of their close resemblance the less frequently occurring chloro-arsenate was named mimetite or mimetesite, from Gr. lunrirfy, imita- tor. Crystals of pyromorphite though usually optically uniaxial are sometimes biaxial, but in mimetite this anomalous character is almost always present; a cross-section of a hexa- gonal prism of mimetite shows a division into six optically biaxial sectors or a complex lamellated structure. In colour mimetite is usually yellow or brown, rarely white or colourless; the lustre is resinous to adamantine. The hardness is 35, and the specific gravity •j-o-']-2$. Like pyromorphite, mimetite is found in the upper parts of veins of lead ore, where it has been formed by the oxidation of galena and mispickel. When found in large amount it is of importance as an ore of lead. The best crystallized specimens are those from Johanngeorgen- stadt in Saxony and Wheal Unity in Cornwall. It was formerly found in considerable amount at Dry Gill in Cumberland, as six-sided barrel-shaped crystals of a brownish-red or orange- yellow colour and containing a considerable proportion of phos- phoric acid; this variety has been called campylite, from Gr. KafiirvKos, curved, on account of the remarkable curvature of the faces of the crystals. (L. J. S.) MIMICRY, in zoology, the deceptive and advantageous resemblance presented by defenceless and edible species of animals to other species of animals living in the same locality, which are harmful or distasteful and are consequently avoided by all or by a majority of the enemies of the class to which the mimetic and usually the mimicked species belong. Mimicry is a special form of protective resemblance, differing from ordinary protective resemblance as exemplified by the similarity of the resting goat-sucker to a piece of bark or of leaf- and stick-insects to the objects after which they are named, in that the imitated object belongs to the animal kingdom and not to the vegetable kingdom or to inorganic nature. Although, like protective resem- blance, quite independent of affinity between the organisms con- cerned in the likeness, mimicry occurs most commonly between animals structurally similar, and therefore related, to one another, the relationship may be close or remote. For instance, the commonest and best-known cases are found in insects where both mimic and model may belong to the same genus, sub-family, family or order, or to different orders. More rarely it occurs between members of distinct classes of the same sub-kingdom, i.e. between spiders and ants or spiders and beetles; yet even in this case both mimic and model have in common certain funda- mental structural points to which the finishing touches complet- ing the mimetic likeness are superadded. Still more rarely mimicry exists between totally unrelated species like cater- pillars and snakes or spiders and snails. But in no case does it appear that the modifications in shape and colour, which con- tribute to bring about a mimetic resemblance, are greater and more elaborate than those which result in the simpler examples of ordinary protective resemblance. The principle of protective resemblance, for which the term mimicry, as above defined, was originally employed, was first explained by H. W. Bates. Subsequently the meaning of the word was extended by F. Muller to include cases of mutual resemblance between two or more noxious species inhabiting the same area. Hence the resemblances belonging to the first category are commonly termed " Batesian mimicry," and those belonging to the second category " Mullerian mimicry," or more properly " Mullerian resemblance." The difference between the two phenomena is essential and evident; but without experi- mental information as to palatability it is impossible to know with certainty to which of the two a particular case of mimicry is to be assigned. Over and over again extended knowledge on this point and inferences drawn from other facts have shown the certainty or probability of examples of mimicry being in reality " Mullerian," which were previously accepted without question as " Batesian." A simple illustration will serve to explain these two aspects of mimicry and to show the advantage in the struggle for existence that mimicry confers upon the species concerned. There is a common English Syrphid fly (Eristalis tenax) known as the drone-fly from its resemblance to a large hive or honey bee. Honey bees are protected from a large number of insect enemies because they sting and are distasteful. Insect-eating birds soon learn to associate distastefulness with the size, form and colour of the bees, and consequently leave them alone after one or more trials. But flies of the drone-fly kind cannot sting, and, so far as is known, are perfectly innocuous and edible. The advantage to the fly of its deceptive resemblance to the bee is theoretically perfectly evident and practically can be demonstrated by experiment. It is in the first place a matter of common know- ledge that human beings who have been taught to avoid handling bees invariably fear to touch drone-flies, unless specially trained to distinguish the one from the others. Moreover, Professor Lloyd Morgan found that young birds that had tasted and re- jected workers of the hive bee as unpalatable subsequently refused to taste not only drones, which have no sting, but also drone-flies. So far as our information at present extends the resemblance between these two insects is a simple case of mimicry in the Batesian sense of the word. That is to say, an edible species is protected by resembling one that is inedible. But if it be discovered, as is possible, that the drone-fly is also inedible, the mimicry must be ascribed to the Mullerian category, and the reason for it becomes less evident. In what way, it may be asked, are two or more distasteful species of insects, occurring in the same locality, benefited by resembling each other? The ingenious explanation suggested by Fritz Muller for similar cases met with in butterflies is probably the true answer. This explanation depends upon what is now an experimentally demon- strated fact that insectivorous birds, and probably other animals, have no instinctive knowledge of what insects are edible and what inedible. This knowledge is acquired by experience; and since it is not, at all events as a rule, taught by the first taste to any individual bird, it is reasonable to infer that a considerable amount of injury, sufficient to disable if not to kill, is annually inflicted upon insects belonging to species protected by distaste- fulness or kindred qualities. Now insects that possess noxious attributes, and the same is true of other animals, usually have a conspicuous warning coloration which appeals to the eyes of enemies and helps them to remember more easily the cause of an 49-6 MIMICRiYT unpleasant experience, helps in fact to establish a psychical association between a particular style of coloration and a nasty taste or a painful wound. This being so, it is evident that if all the distasteful species in a given area are differently coloured, some individuals of all the species will be annually sacrificed to the experimental tasting of inexperienced foes before the numer- ous lessons have been learnt. But if all the species in question resemble each other the resemblance will be mutually beneficial to them because the association between the two attributes they have in common, namely distastefulness and a particular scheme of colour, will be rapidly established. One lesson only, instead of many, has to be learnt ; and once learnt at the expense of a few individuals of one or two species it will thereafter be applied indiscriminately to all. This type of mimicry has been well defined by Professor E. B. Poulton as the unification of warning colours. Since belief in the adequacy of the two theories, above outlined, to account for the facts they profess to explain, depends ultimately upon the testimony that can be brought forward of the usefulness of warning characters, of the deception of mimicry and of the capacity for learning by experience possessed by enemies, it is necessary to give some of the evidence that has been accumulated on these points, (i) In South America there are butterflies formerly grouped as Heliconidae which are conspicuously coloured, slow of flight and abundant in individuals so as to be susceptible of easy capture. They possess scent glands. By observation and experiment it was discovered independently by Messrs Bates, Wallace and Bell that they are not attacked by birds nor by many other enemies that prey upon unprotected Lepidoptera. (2) As the result of a series of trials made in Calcutta F. Finn came to the conclusion that young birds have no instinctive knowledge of the unpalatability of dis- tasteful insects, but that experimental tasting soon teaches them to recognize and avoid species they have previously rejected with dislike, and that having once learnt the lesson they long remember it. (3) That birds may also be deceived by insects that mimic those they have found to be uneatable has been shown by the above- quoted experiment with the drone-fly and the honey-bees made by Professor Lloyd Morgan. He also found that chickens that had been given meal moistened with quinine and placed upon glass slips banded black and yellow, afterwards refused to touch meal moistened with water and spread upon the same slips, although they had previously eaten it with readiness off plain coloured slips. With two exceptions, these chickens that had learnt to associate black and yellow banding with a bitter taste also refused to touch the caterpillar of the cinnabar moth (Euchelia jacobaeae) , which is banded with these colours. Moreover, young birds that had been taught by experience that these caterpillars are uneatable also left wasps untouched. (4) Guy Marshall once offered to a baboon a dis- tasteful butterfly (Acraea anemosa), holding the insect in such a way as to display its bright red and black markings to the monkey. It was taken but rejected after being tasted. A specimen of another butterfly (Precis sesamus) which mimics the Acraea was then offered in the same manner. The baboon took it, held it in her hands for a few moments, and then let it escape uninjured without trying to taste it. But when another butterfly of the same species, but with the wings cut off, was offered to her she promptly ate it without showing any sign of dislike. The results of this experiment with the baboon and of those with the birds are precisely what would be expected if the theory of mimicry is true. Experiments to test distastefulness have also been made with various kinds of insecti- vorous Arthropoda, like spiders and mantises. These experiments have shown that Arthropods also have their likes and dislikes in the matter of insect-food and frequently refuse to eat insects which are warningly coloured and are distasteful to vertebrated enemies. They appear, however, to have no appreciation of mimetic and warn- ing colours, and have therefore not influenced in any way the evolu- tion of mimetic resemblances dependent upon hues and patterns. Nevertheless, as explained below, it seems to be highly probable that ant-imitating insects and spiders, when the resemblance is dependent to a greater extent upon size, shape and movement than upon tint, have acquired their mimetic likeness especially to protect them from the attacks of such insect-enemies as predaceous wasps of the family Pompilidae, flies of the family Asilidae, and from so- called parasitic hymenoptera of the family Ichneumonidae, as well as from other insect-eating Arthropods. The term mimicry has also been applied to resemblances of a different kind from the two enumerated above — resemblances, that is to say, by which predaceous species are supposed to be enabled to approach or mix without detection with animals they prey upon or victimize in other ways. To this end the resem- blance may be actually to the species victimized or preyed upon or else to a species which the species preyed upon does not fear. This phenomenon is termed " aggressive mimicry " as opposed to the Batesian and Mullerian phenomena, which are termed " protective mimicry." A few possible cases of aggressive mimicry are enumerated in the following summary of some of the recorded cases of mimicry in different classes of the animal kingdom; but the phenomenon is of comparatively rare occur- rence, and the supposed instances may be susceptible of other interpretations, excluding them altogether from mimicry, or bringing them under the Batesian or Mullerian interpretation of the phenomenon. Among mammalia there are no certain cases of mimicry knowni It has been claimed that the resemblance between some of the Oriental tree-shrews of the genus Tupaia and squirrels comes under the category of aggressive mimicry, the tupaias being enabled by their likeness to approach and pounce upon small birds or other animals which, mistaking them for the vegetable-feeding squirrels, make no effort to get out of the way. But this hypothesis cannot be accepted as furnishing a satisfactory explanation of the likeness. For in the first place there seems to be no good reason for thinking that the Tupaias feed to any considerable extent upon prey of that kind, and in the second place the resemblance is due to characters which may be merely adaptations to a similar mode of life. A long and bushy tail, for instance, is a useful balancer and is a not un- common feature in mammals which lead an active arboreal life. Similarly the dull coloration of the two sets of animals is very pos- sibly procryptic and serves to hide both shrews and squirrels from enemies. Hence there seem to be good reasons for regarding the likeness in question as due to similarity in habitat and not as mimetic. In East and South Africa there is a genus of Mustelidae known as Ictonyx (Zorilla) which possesses a foetid odour and is warningly coloured with black and white bands after the manner of skunks. There also occurs in South Africa another member of this family {Poecilogale albinucha) , which is very similarly coloured. It is possible that this resemblance is mimetic in the Batesian sense of the word,, and that the Poecilogale, if inoffensive, profits by its likeness to the highly offensive and warningly coloured Ictonyx. But, on the other hand, Poecilogale may itself be a protected form since sub- caudal stink-glands are commonly found in species of the weasel tribe. If this be the case the two species probably furnish an instance of true Mullerian mimicry. In South America there is considerable superficial resemblance between the little bush dog (Speothos vehaticus) of Guiana and Brazil and the large weasel-like animal of the same countries — the tayra (Galera barbara). The tayra is, when adult, black beneath and on the legs, and not un- commonly has a considerable quantity of greyish hair on the head! In these particulars, as well as in size and shortness of leg, the dog resembles the weasel ; and since there are good reasons for believing that the latter is protected alike by ferocity and stink-glands, it is quite possible that the dog, of unusual coloration and form for the Canidae, is protected from the attacks of pumas, jaguars and ocelots by his likeness to the tayra. A few cases of mimicry have been recorded in birds. The common cuckoo and some other species inhabiting Africa and Asia closely resemble sparrow-hawks. Some cuckoos are singular for their habit of using the nests of smaller' birds to lay their eggs in, so that the young may be reared by foster-parents; and it has been suggested that the object of the likeness exhibited to the hawk is to enable the cock cuckoo either to frighten the small birds away from their nests or to lure them in pursuit of him, while the hen bird quietly and without molestation disposes of her egg. The fact that both sexes of the cuckoo resemble the hawk does not necessarily prove this suggested explanation to be false; but if it be true that the smaller passerine birds are duped by the similarity to the bird of prey, it may be that the cuckoos themselves escape molestation from larger hawks on account of their resemblance to the sparrow- hawk. Another species of this group, the black cuckoo of India, apparently mimics the black drongo-shrike (Dicrurus ater), the resemblance between the two species being very close. The drongo is a fierce and powerful bird which will not tolerate a strange bird of the size of a cuckoo near its nest, yet on account of its resemblance to the drongo, the hen cuckoo is enabled, it has been claimed, to lay her egg in the nest of the drongo, which mistakes the cuckoo for one of its own kind. In this case also both sexes of the cuckoo mimic the drongo, whereas according to the theory it would be necessary for the hen bird alone to do so. This suggests that the resemblance to the pugnacious drongo may be beneficial in protect- ing the defenceless cuckoo from enemies. Some observations, however, of Guy Marshall on the inedibility of certain birds suggest that the resemblance between cuckoos and hawks on the one hand and cuckoos and drongos on the other may be susceptible of another explanation in full agreement with the theory of mimicry as propounded by Bates. He found that a South African drongo {Dicrurus (Buchanga) assimilis) was rejected after one or two attempts to eat it by a hungry mongoose (Herpestes galera) which had been starved for purposes of the experiment. The drongo is blue and black and is, he believes, warningly coloured. The same mongoose also refused to eat a kestrel (Cerchneis rupico- loides) and a hobby {Falco subbuteo), although it devoured certain MIMIGRY 497 other birds that -were given to it. It is clearly possible, therefore, that cuckoos which mimic drongos and hawks may be protected from those enemies which find these birds distasteful. One of the most perfect cases of mimicry in birds is presented by a Madagascar thrush or babbler (Tylas eduardi), which resembles feather for feather a. shrike {Xenopirostris polleni), from the same island. The Tylas has departed from the normal coloration of its group to take on that of the shrike, a comparatively powerful and pugnacious bird. Analogous cases are supplied by the mimicry that exists between some of the orioles {Mimeta) and the friar-birds (Philemon or Tropidorhynchus) of the Austro-Malayan Islands. The friar-birds are noisy and pugnacious species of the group of honey- eaters, and mob hawks and other birds of prey, which leave them unmolested. The general style of coloration of orioles is gaudy yellow and black, rendering them invisible in sunlit foliage, and quite different from the more sombre hues of the friar-birds; but in the islands of Bourou, Timor and Ceram the orioles have not only assumed the tints of friar-birds in general, but in each of the islands named a species of oriole has acquired the little peculiarities in colour of plumage possessed by the friar-bird of the same locality. There seem to be no reasons for doubting that these are cases of genuine protective mimicry. Apparently the only instances of mimicry known amongst reptiles occur amongst snakes; and in all the cases quoted by Wallace harmless snakes mimic venomous species. In tropical America the genus Elaps, which is both poisonous and warningly coloured, is a model for several innocuous snakes. In Guatemala Elaps fulvus is mimicked by Pliocerus equalis; in Mexico Elaps corallinus by Homalocranium semicinctum, and in Brazil, Elaps lemniscatus by Oxyrhopus trigeminus. In South Africa the harmless egg-eating snake {Dasypeltis scaber) is very like the Cape adder (Bitis atropos) ; and in Ceylon the harmless Colubrine Lycodon aulicus_ is alleged to mimic Bungarus ceylonicus , an ally of the deadly krait of India. Considering, however, the numbers of venomous and innocuous snakes that occur in most tropical countries, it might be supposed that mimicry in this order of reptiles would be of commoner occur- rence than appears to be the case. It must be remembered, however, that apart from size and colour all snakes resemble each other in a general way in their form and actions. They present a strong family likeness which is not found in any other terrestrial vertebrated animals with exception of some lizards and possibly Caecilians amongst the Amphibia. So close indeed is the similarity that many monkeys, apes and human beings have an apparently instinctive fear of all snakes and do not discriminate between poisonous and non-poisonous forms. Hence it may be that innocuous snakes are in many instances sufficiently protected by their likeness in shape to poisonous species that close and exact resemblance in colour to particular species is superfluous. As a possible instance of mimicry in fishes, A. T. Masterman recalls the fact that two species of weever (Trachinus draco and T. vipera), have the same habitat in British waters as certain species of soles (e.g. Solea vulgaris). The weevers are poisonous and the venom is concentrated principally in the six spines of the first dorsal fin. These spines are sharp and connected by a black membrane which projects, when the fish is disturbed, as a danger singal, it is believed, above the surface of the sand in which the fishes lie hid awaiting prey. For protective purposes soles, which are edible, also lie buried in or on the sand which they match in colour, with the exception of the right or upper pectoral fin which has a large black patch. When disturbed the soles raise this black fin and, as a rule, hold it rigid so that it becomes a very conspicuous object. If the view that the sole is protected by the blackness of the pectoral fin resembling the blackness of the dorsal fin of the weever, be correct, these fishes furnish an instance of Batesian mimicry. Furthermore, there is a common littoral fish in the Mediterranean (Uranoscopus scaber), belonging to the same family as Trachinus, exhibiting the same habits and living on the same ground, which also has a jet black erectile dorsal fin, and is believed to be poisonous. It is probable that the resemblance between Uranoscopus and Trachinus with respect to the colour of the dorsal fin is mutually beneficial to the two fishes. If so, the likeness must be regarded as an instance of Miillerian mimicry. It is amongst Arthropods, however — and especially amongst insects — that mimicry, both Batesian and Miillerian, occurs in greatest profusion and perfection. In insects of the order Orthoptera, departure from the normal in fortn and colour, carrying with it similarity to other living things, usually takes the line of protective resemblance to parts of plants. This is well exemplified by the leaf-insects (Phyllium) and stick- insects (Baclra), where the likeness to the models after which they are named is procryptic; and also by various species of tropical Mantidae which resemble flowers for the purpose of alluring insects within striking distance and perhaps also for concealing their identity from enemies. Some cases of genuine mimicry, however, are known in the order. Perhaps the best is that of the Sudanese Locustid (Myrmecophana fallax), which is strikingly ant-like. The head is large, the neck slender, the antennae short and the legs Iongish, and the appearance of the long stalk-like waist of the ant is produced by a patch of whitish hair on each side of the forepart of the abdomen which has the effect of cutting away the parts of the segments so covered, leaving a narrow dark-coloured median area to represent the waist. This at least is the method of disguise suggested by examination of the dried insect; but representatives of the same or an allied species found in Mashonaland were observed in the living state to be green with the antlike parts represented in black pigment. These parts were quite conspicuous against the green of the plants frequented by the insects, wherever the green portions were rendered invisible by the same background. Ant- mimicry has also been recorded in the case of the larva of one of the Indian species of Mantidae. Again, several species of this order have become profoundly modified in form in imitation of inedible beetles. In the Philippines, a cricket (Scepastus pachyrhynchoides), has taken on the shape and coloration of a species of Apocyrtus, a hard and inedible weevil (Curculionidae) ; and Phoraspis, a kind of grasshopper similarly resembles ladybirds (Coccinellidae) . A species of beetle (Caria dilalata) of this family in Borneo is mimicked by a species of a genus allied to Gammaroteltix not only in shape and colora- tion but also in the habit of remaining still when disturbed. In the same island a species of Gryllacris mimics Pheropsophus aquatus, a " Bombardier " beetle which ejects a puff of volatile formic acid when attacked; and Condylodera tricondyloides mimics different species of tiger-beetles (Cicindelidae) at different stages of its growth. Finally the larva of one of the Bornean Mantidae, which is a floral simulator in its pupal and adult stages, closely resembles in its black and red coloration the larva of the stinking and warningly coloured bug Eulyes amoena. Comparatively few cases of mimicry in the Neuroptera have been observed. There are records, however, of species of Mantispa mimicking the wasp Polisles in North America and Borneo and Belonogaster in South Africa; and other species of the genus imitate parasitic hymenoptera of the genera Bracon and Mesostenus. Coleoptera (beetles) supply instances of mimicry of ants, wasps and Ichneumonids, and some defenceless forms of this order mimic others that are protected. A good illustration of wasp-mimicry is furnished by a large heteromerous beetle (Coloborhombus fasciati- pennis) from Borneo which is remarkably like a large wasp (Myg- nimia aviculus) from the same island. The front wings of the wasp have a conspicuous white patch near the tip and a patch similar in size and colour is present on the wings of the beetle, which, unlike the majority of beetles, habitually keeps its wings extended, and since the elytra are exceptionally short the wings are not covered by them when folded. The resemblance also extends to the general form of the body and to the length and thickness of the wings and antennae. The elytra are equally reduced, and apparently for the same purpose, in an Australian Longicorn beetle (Esthesis ferrugineus) , which, like so many wasp-like Hymenoptera, has the body banded red and black. This beetle probably mimics the Australian hornet (Abispa australis). In the European Longicorn (Clylus arietis), on the other hand, the elytra are of normal length and are banded with yellow stripes. The beetle, moreover, is of slender build and all its actions are suggestively wasp-like. This may, however, be an in- stance of Miillerian rather than of Batesian mimicry, the beetle being itself inedible; for Shelford has stated his conviction that the Bornean representatives of the sub-family (Clytinae), to which Clytus arietis belongs, are all highly distasteful and are warningly coloured, as are members of this sub-family from other parts of the world. In the Philippine Islands several species of Longicorns of the genus Doliops mimic hard inedible weevils (Curculionidae) of the genus Pachyrhynchus. The antennae of these weevils are short and end in a knob; those of the Longicorns are very much larger, but the weevil-like look is produced by the presence of a knob-like swelling upon the third joint, the terminal portion of the antenna being so extremely fine as to be almost invisible. Similar modification of the antennae in the Longicorn Estigmenida variabilis brings about the resemblance between this beetle and a beetle, Estigmena chinen- sis, one of the Phytophaga of the family Hispidae. Numerous instances of mimicry in this order of insects have recently been recorded from Borneo by R. W. C. Shelford, a large number of them being in all probability Miillerian. Instances of ant-mimicry, unique in the method employed to bring about the resemblance, are supplied by some insects of the Homopterous group of the Rhynchota, belonging to the family Membracidae. In one of these (Heteronolus trinodosus), the dorsal area of the forepart of the thorax is developed into a plate which projects backwards over the body of the insect, which retains its normal form, and conceals all but the head, wings and legs. This shield if shaped in such a manner as to resemble closely the body of an ant, the median portion of the shield being deeply constricted in imitation of the waist and the terminal portion sub-globular like the abdomen of the ant. This insect comes from Central America. Still more curious is the mimicry of another of these insects from Venezuela which is found in company with a leaf-cutting ant (Oecodoma cephalotes) of that country. When pursuing their operations of leaf-storage, these ants present the appearance of a crawling crowd of leaf-particles, fragments of leaves being carried by the insects in such a way as to conceal to a great extent the insect underneath, of which little more than the dark coloured legs project beyond the burden. The immature form of the above-mentioned species of Membracidae mimics both ant 498 MIMICRY and leaf-particle. The legs and lower part of the body are dark coloured, but the dorsal surface of the thorax and abdomen is coloured green and is raised so as to form a crest with jagged edges exactly reproducing the irregular margin of a fragment of leaf cut out by the mandibles of the ant. In Borneo the Homopteron Issus bruchoides mimics a species of Curculionid beetle of the genus Alcides. In the Hemipterous group of the Rhynchota ant-mimicry is illustrated by the larva of a British species of Reduviidae (Nabis lativentris) in which the forepart of the abdomen is furnished on each side with a patch of white hairs leaving a central narrow dark portion in imitation of the waist of the ant ; and also by an East African species (Myrmoplasta mira) which in its general form exhibits a close resemblance to an ant (Polyrrhacis gagates) which occurs in the same neighbourhood. Another instance in this group is supplied by a Bornean species of Reduviidae which mimics a species of the genus Bracon, one of the parasitic Hymenoptera. Typical dipterous insects (flies) closely resemble in general form aculeate Hymenoptera belonging to the families of bees and wasps. The changes in colour and structure required to complete the resem- blance to particular species are comparatively slight and much less complicated than those needed to produce a likeness to other pro- tected insects. Hence we find that the majority of flies that mimic insects of other orders haye bees or wasps for their models. Many of the Syrphidae are banded black and yellow and present a general resemblance to wasps, especially when they alight, the resemblance being enhanced by a twitching action of the abdomen imitating the similar action so familiar in species of stinging hymenoptera. These flies are characterized by a peculiar method of flight. They commonly hang poised in the air, then dart with lightning swiftness to another spot and poise themselves again. This habit, the origin of the name " hover-flies," is probably connected with their mimetic coloration. If they flew like ordinary flies their resemblance to Hymenoptera would be obscured by the rapidity of their flight and they might be caught on the wing by insectivorous birds or other insects; but when poised they display their coloration. When the latter is lost during flight, the rapidity of their movement defies pursuit. The particular likeness to a honey-bee presented by one member of this family, the drone-fly {Eristalis tenax), has been already referred to. But the likeness probably goes deeper than superficial resemblance that appeals to the eye; for spiders which distinguish flies from bees by touch and not by sight, treat drone-flies after touching them, not in the fearless way they evince towards blue- bottles (Calliphora), but in the cautious manner they display to- wards bees and wasps, warily refraining from coming to close quarters until their prey is securely enswathed in silk. This forcibly suggests that the drone-fly mimics a honey-bee not only in appear- ance but also in the feel of its hairs or the nature of its buzz. Other flies of the genus Volucella, larger and heavier in build than Eristalis, resemble humble-bees in colour and form, and it was formerly supposed that the purpose of this similarity was to enable the flies to enter with impunity the nests of the humble-bees and to lay their eggs amongst those of the latter insects. But it has been ascer- tained that the species of Volucella which behave in this manner also visit for a like purpose the nests of wasps, which they do not resemble. Hence it is probable that this case of mimicry is purely of a protective and not of an aggressive nature and serves to save the flies from destruction by insectivorous enemies. The same explanation no doubt applies to the mimicry, both in Borneo and South Africa, of hairy bees of the family Xylocopidae by Asilid flies of the genus Hyperechia, and also to other cases of mimicry of Hymenoptera as well as of inedible beetles of the family Lycidae by Diptera. Numerous other cases of mimicry between Diptera and Hymenoptera might be cited. The Lepidoptera furnish more instances of mimicry, both Batesian and Mtillerian, than any other order of insects. In the majority of cases both model and mimic belong alike to the Lepidoptera, and it is often uncertain whether both are inedible (Miillerian mimicry) or whether inedibility is the attribute only of the model (Batesian mimicry). A large number of cases that were formerly regarded as belonging to the latter category are now suspected of belonging rather to the former. Sometimes Lepi- doptera mimic protected members of other orders of insects — such as Coleoptera, Hymenoptera and Hemiptera ; but perhaps the most singular illustrations of the phenomenon known in the order are exemplified by the larvae of the hawk-moth Chaerocampa, which imitate the heads of snakes. Professor Poulton long ago suggested, and supported the suggestion by experimental evidence on a lizard, that the larvae of two British species, C. elpenor and C. porcellus, are protected by the resemblance to the heads of snakes presented by the anterior extremities of their bodies which are ornamented with large eye-like spots. When the larvae are disturbed the similarity is produced with startling suddenness by the telescopic contraction of the anterior segments in such a manner as to suggest a triangular, pointed head with two large dorsal eyes. Subsequent observers (A. Weismann, La.dy Verney) have shown by experiment- ing upon birds that this suggestion is correct ; and Guy Marshall found that baboons which are afraid of snakes are also afraid of the snake-like larva of the South African Chaerocampa osiris. Finally Shelford states that the anterior end of a Bornean species (C. myodori) offers a striking and detailed resemblance to the head of a snake (Dendrophis picta). Instances of ant-mimicry in this order are sometimes confined to the larval stage. The early larval stage of the " Lobster Moth " {Stauropus fagi) . for example, presents a general resemblance, due to a combination of shape, colour, attitude and movements, to black ants, the swollen head and the caudal disk with its two tentacles representing respectively the abdomen and antenna-bearing head of the model. A parallel case of mimicry exists at Singapore be- tween the larva of a Noctuid moth and the common red tree-ant (Oecophylla smaragdina). In this case also the posterior end of the larva represents the anterior end of the ant. Another instance of mimicry affecting the larval form is supplied by the moth Endromis versicolor, the caterpillars of which resemble the inedible larvae of saw-flies. The resemblance that certain moths — e.g. Trochilium apiforme, crabroniforme — present to bees and wasps is effected in the main by the loss of the scales from the wings, leaving these organs transparent. It is important to note that the scales are present when the moths first emerge from the pupa-case, but are loosely attached and fall off with the first flight. Of the multitudes of cases of mimicry between different species of Lepidoptera, a few only can be selected for description. These cases, however, have a peculiar interest and importance for they have been studied in fuller detail than any others and the discovery of a particular instance in South America first suggested to Bates the theoretical explanation of this bionomical phenomenon. On the Amazons and in other parts of South America there are butterflies of the group Ithomiinae which are distasteful and have all the charac- ters of specially protected species, being conspicuously coloured, slow of flight, careless of exposure and abundant in individuals. The wings are transparent and are black-bordered and black-barred, the anterior wing having two black bars and the posterior one. This type of colouring is also found in genera of quite distinct sub-families of butterflies, namely in Danainae and Pierinae, as well as in some diurnal moths, all of which occur in the same district as the Itho- miinae. The following species may be cited as instances of this type of pattern : Methona confusa, Thyridia psidii, . Eutresis imita- trix and Dirgenna dero (Ithomiinae) ; Itura ilione and /. phenarete (Danainae) ; Dismorphia arise (Pierinae) ; Anthomyza buckleyi (moth of the family Pericopidae) and Castnia linus (moth of the family Castniidae). So alike in form, colour and mode of flight are those Lepidoptera that when on the wing it is almost or quite impossible to distinguish one from the other, and the resemblance between members belonging to different sub-families cannot be assigned to affinity. Microscopical examination of the wings, moreover, has shown that the transparency of the wings, common to all, has been acquired by a different modification of the scales in each of the genera exhibiting the Ithomiine type of coloration. That the Danaine and Ithomiine species are distasteful is known. Itura, for example, belonging to the former, has protrusible scent-emitting processes at the end of the abdomen; and Thyridia has scent-pro- ducing tufts of hair on the edge of the posterior-wing. Bates offered no satisfactory explanation of the resemblance between these two genera and others of the same protected sub-families; but he did not hesitate to ascribe the resemblance to them presented by the Pierine, Dismorphia (Leptalis) orise, to mimicry, believing Dis- morphia to be unprotected and noting that it departed widely in the matter of coloration from typical members of the sub-family to which it belongs. Although mimicry in the Lepidoptera has been carried to a greater extreme in South America than in any other country of the world, remarkable instances of it have taken place in the Ethiopian and Oriental regions. A classical and highly com- plex case first investigated and explained by R. Trimen is that of Papilio dardanus which is widely distributed in Africa and is repre- sented_ by several sub-species or geographical races. The most primitive of these is antinorii from Abyssinia, which is non-mimetic and has the two sexes nearly alike. The males ,of the other sub- species are much like the males of antinorii; but the females are widely different and mimic various species of inedible butterflies belonging to the protected groups of the Danainae and Acraeinae. One of these sub-species, merope, which ranges from the west coast to Victoria Nyanza, is polymorphic and occurs under three forms, namely (a) hippocoon, which mimics the Danaine Amauris niavius; (b) trophonius, which mimics the Danaine Limnas chrysippus; (c) planemoides, which mimics the Acraeine Planema poggei. Oddly enough one or more of these forms may occur in other sub-species. For example, the sub-species cenea which occurs in south and south- east Africa not only has the form cenea mimicking two Danaines, Amauris echeria and^l. albimaculata, but also the hippocoon form which resembles a local race of Amauris niavius, known as domini- canus. The sub-species polytrophus from the Kikuyu Escarpments also has the planemoides and cenea forms and another form trimeni, which is intermediate between the unmodified female of antinorii and hippocoon, and like the latter is mimetic of Amauris niavius dominicanus. Finally the sub-species tibullus from the east coast has the cenea-iorm, the trimeni-form and probably the planemoides- form. The study of this intricate case is not yet completed and it is at present unknown whether it is an instance of Batesian or Miillerian mimicry. Special attention may be drawn to two pheno- mena connected with it, both of not uncommon occurrence in MIMICRY 499 mimetic Lepidoptera. The first is the occurrence of mimicry only in the female sex. The reason for this is to be found in the greater need of protection of the female which is slower in flight than the male and is exposed to special danger of attack when resting to lay her eggs. The second noteworthy phenomenon is the mimi- cry of more than one protected species by members of a single species. This is a not uncommon occurrence, and in the case of Batesian mimicry the explanation is probably this. When an edible species gains protection by mimicking a distasteful one, there is a likelihood of its increasing in numbers until it equals or surpasses its model in this respect. Were this to take place the purpose of the mimicry would be abortive, because enemies would probably not refrain from slaughter if even every alternate capture proved palatable. It is advantageous therefore that the numbers of the mimetic species should be fewer than those of the model; and this appears to be achieved in some cases by the individuals of the mime- tic species dividing themselves between two or more models Spiders furnish numerous instances of mimicry. Though simple in kind, many of these are as perfect illustrations of the phenomenon as any found in the animal kingdom. Amongst the orbweavers of the family Argyopidae there are species belonging to the genera Cyclosa and Cyrtophora which closely resemble small snail-like gastropods as they cling to the underside of leaves with their legs drawn up. Other members of the same family — like Araneus- coccinella, and Parapleciana ihorntoni — ■ imitate beetles of the family Coccinellidae which are known to be distasteful; and certain genera of the family Salticidae (Homalattus and Rhanis) closely resemble small hard-shelled beetles. The most perfect cases, however, are exhibited by those species which imitate ants. The structural modifications required to con- vert a spider into the image of an ant are of a more complicated character than those that serve the same purpose in an insect. All insects have the same regional division of the body into head, thorax and abdomen, the same number of legs, a pair of antennae and a segmented abdomen. Spiders on the contrary have no antennae, no separate " head," an unsegmented abdomen and an additional pair of legs. In the majority of ant-imitating spiders the forepart of the cephalothorax is constricted on each side to resemble the neck of the insect, and in many cases the similarity is increased by the presence of a stripe of white hairs which has the optical effect of cutting out an extra piece of integument, exactly as occurs in analogous cases in insects. Narrowing of the posterior portions of the spider's cephalothorax and sometimes of the anterior end of the abdomen reproduces the slender waist of the ant, and frequently transverse bands of hairs represent the segmentation of this region in the insect. The legs become slender and those of the first or of the second pairs are held up and carried in front of the head to simu- late the antennae of the ant. Added to this the spiders commonly copy to the life the mode of progression and the restless activities of their models. The likeness presented varies considerably in degree from a general resemblance to several species, such as is seen in the Salticid spider (Peckhamia picata) of North America, to a close similarity to particular species. To this category belong Myrmarachne plataleoides, one of the Salticidae, and Amyciaea forticeps, one of the Thomisidae which in India imitate and live with the vicious little red ant (Oecophylla smaragdina) ; also Myrmarachne providens, which mimics the red and black Indian ant (Sima rufonigra) ; and the South American species of Clubionidae, e.g. Myrmecium nigrum, which is an accurate copy of the large black ant (Pachycondyla villosa). Sometimes it is only the males of a species of spider that mimic ants, as in the case of Ildebaha mutilloides and /. myrmicaeformis, two South American species of the family Argyopidae, in which the females are protected by strong spine-armature. The males are without these protective spines and are exposed to special dangers as they wander in search of the webs of the females. In South Africa too the males of a species of Eresidae (Seothyra) resemble and are found in company with a large ant (Camponotus fuhopilosus) , which is common on the veld. Like the males of Ildebaha, those of Seothyra wander about by day in search of the females which live concealed in burrows. Many other spiders belonging to the Theri- diidae and Linyphiidae also mimic ants; but it is needless to enumer- ate them, the most perfect examples of this phenomenon being found in the families Clubionidae and Salticidae. Ant-mimicking spiders have been seen now and again to devour their models. It has therefore been suggested by some and taken for granted by others that the resemblance comes under the category of aggressive mimicry and that the ants are deluded by this resem- blance into regarding the spiders as members of their own species. That the ants do not destroy them is certain; but that they are deceived by the superficial similarity of the spiders to themselves is highly improbable, for these insects are capable of distinguishing a strange ant belonging to the same species if it comes from another colony. Moreover, the above-suggested explanation does not coincide with the explanation of the likeness to ants shown by certain insects such as Myrecophana fallax, the ant and leaf-like Membracid Homopteron and the larvae of the lobster-moth (Stauro- posfagi), which are plant-eaters. It is probable that one explanation — namely, that of protection — covers all cases of ant-mimicry; and this explanation lies in all probability in the immunity from the attacks of most insectivorous enemies that ants enjoy, and especially from predaceous wasps of the family Pompilidae which annually destroy thousands upon thousands ot spiders to feed their larvae; and since more than one observer has testified to the fear and abhorrence these wasps have of ants, it is needless to look farther for the benefit ant-mimicry is to spiders. These wasps, moreover, also provision their nurseries with' caterpillars, grasshoppers and other insects. Hence it may be inferred that the insects which imitate ants profit in the same way that spiders do from this form of mimicry. In the above-cited historical instance of mimicry amongst some South American Lepidoptera which formed the foundation of Bates' theory, species of butterflies, belonging to the Ithomiine genus Itura and the Danaine genus Thyridia, both unpalatable forms, resemble each other. This is a very simple case of the possession of the same type of coloration by two or more protected insects inhabiting the same district. The significance of this phenomenon, as already stated, was first explained by Fritz Miiller; but although the term " Milllerian mimicry " has been assigned to this and similar instances, they are not strictly speaking cases of mimicry at all but of warning coloration. Poisonous or noxious animals usually have some special advertising attribute, sometimes the display of con- spicuous coloration, as in the skunk; sometimes the emission of sound as in the rattlesnake; sometimes a combination of the two, as in the common porcupine and the large black scorpions of Africa and India. Such characters have been termed by Professor Poulton " aposematic." Neither of the above-mentioned animals is mimicked; but where two or more noxious animals, inhabiting the same district, resemble each other, both being aposematically or warningly coloured, the likeness is said to be " synaposematic." Synaposemasy is Milllerian mimicry. Finally, the likeness of an edible species to a warningly coloured inedible one in the same locality is termed " pseudaposematic," in allusion to the pretentious- ness or falsity of the warning signal. Pseudaposemasy is Batesian mimicry. An important phenomenon connected with insect mimicry is the convergence of several species in the same area towards a common type of coloration and shape, exhibited by one or more than one protected form. The resemblance shows various grades of complete- ness; and the convergent mimics may be themselves noxious, or edible and innocuous. In other words the insects entering into the combination may furnish instances of Batesian and of Milllerian mimicry. Very commonly different species of aculeate Hymenop- tera, inhabiting the same district, form the centres of mimetic attrac- tion for insects of various orders, so that a considerable percentage of the insect-fauna can be arranged in groups according to the pattern of the particular model the species have copied. Good illustrations of this law have been discovered by Guy Marshall in Mashonaland. He found on the same day on a bud of vetch, specimens of black ants (Camponotus sericeus and C. cosmicus), black ant-like Hemipterous insects (Megapetus atratus). and the ant- like Orthopteron (Myrmecophana fallax) (cf. supra). In this little coterie the ants are beyond question the models towards which the bug and the grasshopper have converged in appearance. Since many of the insects of the order Hemiptera are distasteful, the mimi- cry of the bug (Megapetus) is in this case probably Mtillerian or synaposematic; the grasshopper (Myrmecophana), on the other hand, is probably edible and the mimicry is Batesian or pseudaposematic. This is a simple case consisting of a small number of component species. Others are more complex, numerous species being in- volved. In Mashonaland, for instance, a large number of genera and species of Hymenoptera belonging to the Apidae, Eumenidae, Sphegidae, Pompilidae, Scoliidae, Tiphiidae and Mutillidae, resemble each other in having black bodies and dark blue wings. The same style of coloration is found in Coleoptera of the families Cetoniidae and Cantharidae; in Diptera of the families Asilidae, Bombylidae, Tabanidae and Tachinidae ; in Hemiptera of the family Reduviidae and in Lepidoptera of the family Zygaenidae. In this instance the Hymenoptera, of which the coloration is synaposematic, form together a composite model which the other insects have mimicked. Of the latter, the Lepidopteron (Tascia homochroa) is distasteful, as also are the beetles of the family Cantharidae (e.g Lytta moesta). Probably the bugs too (e.g. Harpactor tristis) are protected. The mimicry of these insects therefore is synaposematic ; but some, at all events, of the flies like the Bombylid Exoprosopa umbrosa, probably form pseudaposematic elements in the group. Into another category Hymenoptera enter not as models but as mimics, the models being inedible Malacodermatous beetles mostly belonging to the genus Lycus and characterized by orange coloration set off by a large black patch upon the posterior end of the elytra and a smaller black spot upon the thorax. Towards this Lycoid centre have converged Coleoptera (beetles) of the sub-order Lamellicornia (Copridae), Phytophaga ; Heteromera (Cantharidae) and Longicornia ; Hemiptera of the families Pyrrhocoridae, Lygaeidae and Reduviidae ; Lepidop- tera of the families Arctiidae and Zygaenidae ; Diptera of the family Asilidae; and lastly Hymenoptera of the families Braconidae, Pom- pilidae, Crabronidae and Eumenidae. With the exception of the Asilid fly and perhaps some of the Longicorn and Phytophagous beetles, which are probably protected Batesian mimics, all the other species constituting the above-mentioned assemblage are, it is believed, Miillerian or synaposematic mimics. In the three cases 5°° MIMNERMUS— MINA tited above, with the exception of the first, the synaposematic mimics are vastly in excess of the pseudaposematic ; this appears to be the general rule elsewhere. Frequently the groups are composed solely of protected species, so far as is at present known ; and some- times solely, in all probability, of unprotected species with exception of course of the model. An example of the latter occurs in Singapore where the vicious red spinning-ant (Oecophylla smaragdina) is mimicked by the larva of a Noctuid moth and by spiders belonging to two distinct families, namely, Saltiicus plataleoides (Salticidae) and Amyciaea forticeps (Thomisidae) , there Deing no reason to suppose that either the moth larva or the spiders are protected forms. Mimetic aggregations of species similar to those mentioned above have been found in other countries; but the instances cited are sufficient to show how widespread are the influences of mimicry and how pro- foundly it has modified the insect fauna of various parts of the world. Bibliography. — H. W. Bates, Trans. Linn. Soc. (Lond., 1862); id. The Naturalist on the Amazons (1879) ; T. Belt, The Naturalist in Nicaragua (2nd ed. 1888) ; F. A. Dixey, Rep. Brit. Assoc. (1894) p. 692 ; id. Tr. Ent. Soc. {London, 1894), p. 249; id., op. cit. (1896); p. 65; id., op. cit. (1897), p. 317-; also Proc. Ent. Soc. (Lond. 1897), pp. xx.- xxxii. and xxxiv.-xlvii. ; F. Finn, Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, lxiv., (1895); lxv. (1896) and lxvi. (1897); E. Haase, Bibliotheca zoologica, (1891-1893, Stuttgart; English trans, by C. M. Child, 1896); G. A. K. Marshall, Trans. Ent. Soc. (London, 1902), pp. 287-584 (annotated by E. B. Poulton) ; A. T. Masterman, Journ. Linn, Soc, xxx., 239-244 (1908) ; R. Meldola, Proc. Ent. Soc. London (1877), p. 12 ; id. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5)x. (1882); C. Lloyd Morgan, Habit and Instinct (London, 1896) ; id. Animal Behaviour, pp. 164-165 (London, 1900) ; F. Miiller, Kosmos (May 1879), p. 100; (trans.) Proc. Ent. Soc.London (1879), xx. ; A. Newton, A Dictionary of Birds, p. 572-575 (London, 1893-1896); E. G. Peckham, Occasional Pap. Nat. Hist. Soc. Wisconsin, i. (1889) ; R. I. Pocock, Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool., pp. 256-270 (1909); id. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 944-959 (1909); E. B. Poulton, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1887), 191-274; id. The Colours of Animals, 216-244 (1890); id. " Natural Selection the Cause of Mimetic Resemblance and Com- mon Warning Colour," Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool., xxvi. (1898); revised and amplified in Essays on Evolution, pp. 220-270 (1908) ; id. " Mimi- cry and Natural Selection," Verhandl. d. V. internal, zool. Congr. Berlin (Jena, 1902); revised in Essays on Evolution, 271-292; id. "The Place of Mimicry in a Scheme of Defensive Coloration," Essays on Evolution, pp. 293-382 (1908) ; W. P. Pycraft, The Story of Bird Life, PP- 32-23 (" Mimicry "), (1899); M. Roelofe, C.R. Soc. Ent. Belg. (2), No. 59 (1878) ; R. Shelford, Proc. Zool. Soc. (1902), ii. part 2, 230-284; R. Trimen, Trans. Linn. Soc, xxvi. p. 497 (1870) ; A. R. Wallace, Proc. Zool. Soc. (1863), pp. 26-28; id. Trans. Linn. Soc, xxv. pp. 19-22 (1866); id. The Malay Archipelago, ii. (London, 1869); id. Contri- butions to the Theory of Natural Selection, pp. 103-106 (London, 1875) ; id. Darwinism, pp. 239-265 (London, 1889) ; A. Weismann, The Evolu- tion Theory, Eng. trans. (London, 1904). (R. I. P.) MIMNERMUS of Colophon, Greek elegiac poet, flourished about 630-600 B.C. His life fell in the troubled time when the Ionic cities of Asia Minor were struggling to maintain themselves against the rising power of the Lydian kings. One of the extant fragments of his poems refers to this struggle, and contrasts the present effeminacy of his countrymen with the bravery of those who had once defeated the Lydian king Gyges. But his most important poems were a set of elegies addressed to a flute- player named Nanno, collected in two books called after her name. Mimnermus was the first to make the elegiac verse the vehicle for love-poetry. He set his own poems to the music of the flute, and the poet Hipponax says that he used the melancholy wpos KpaSwjs, "the fig-branch strain," said to be a peculiar melody, to the accompaniment of which two human purificatory victims were led out of Athens to be sacrificed during the festival of Thargelia (Hesychius, s.v.). Edition of fragments in T. Bergk, Poetae lyrici Graeci; see also G. Vanzolini, Mimnermo (1883), a study of the poet, with notes and a metrical version of the fragments. MIMOSA (so named from the movements of the leaves in many species which " mimic " animal sensibility), a genus of the natural order Leguminosae, which gives its name to the large sub-order Mimoseae (characterized by usually small regular flowers with valvate corolla), to which belongs also the nearly allied genus Acacia. They are distributed throughout almost all tropical and subtropical regions, the acacias preponderating in Australia and the true mimosas in America. The former are of considerable importance as sources of timber, gum and tannin, but the latter are of much less economic value, though a few, like the talh (M. ferruginea) of Arabia and Central Africa, are important trees. Most are herbs or undershrubs, but some South American species are tall woody climbers. They are often prickly Branch and leaves of the sensitive plant (Mimosa pu- dica), showing the petiole in its erect state, a, and in its depressed state, 6; also the leaflets closed (c), and the leaflets expanded (d); p, pulvinus. The roots of some Brazilian species are poisonous, and that of M. pudica, has irritating properties. The mimosas, how- ever, owe their interest and their extensive cultivation, partly to the beauty of their usually bipin- nate foliage, but still more to the remarkable development in some species of the sleep movements manifested to some extent by most of the pinnate Leguminosae, as well as many other (especially seedling) plants. In the so-called " sensitive plants " these move- ments not only take place under the influence of light and dark- ness, but can be easily excited by mechanical and other stimuli. When stimulated — say, at the axis of one of the secondary petioles — the leaflets move up- wards on each side until they meet, the movement being propagated centripetally. It may then be communicated to the leaflets of the other secondary petioles, which close (the petioles, too, con- verging), and thence to the main petiole, which sinks rapidly downwards towards the stem, the bending taking place at the pul- vinus (p in figure) or swollen base of the leafstalk. When shaken in any way, the leaves close and droop simultaneously, but if the agitation be continued, they reopen as if they had become accustomed to the shocks. The common sensitive plant of hot- houses is M. pudica, a native of tropical America, but now naturalized in corresponding latitudes of Asia and Africa, but the hardly distinguishable M. sensitiva and others are also cultivated. Species of the closely allied genus Schrankia are known as sensitive-briar in the southern United States. MIMULUS, in botany, a genus (nat. order Scrophulariaceae), of showy, hardy or half-hardy, herbaceous, rarely shrubby plants, natives of the extra-tropical or mountainous parts of both old and new worlds excepting Europe, but chiefly American. The plants have opposite, undivided leaves, and axillary, generally solitary flowers with a two-lipped, gaping corolla. The herbaceous species thrive best in damp situations; the shrubby species, of which M. glutinosus (formerly called Diplacus) is best known, are adapted for pot culture in the greenhouse. M. luteus, the monkey-flower of gardens, has yellow flowers with two dark marks in the mouth of the corolla; M. Langsdorfii, an American species, has become naturalized by river-sides in many parts of Britain. M. moschatus, musk, a native of north-western America, with small, nearly regular, yellow flowers, diffuse hairy stem and hairy scented leaves, is a well known and favourite perennial for pot culture and outside borders. MINA, FRANCISCO ESPOZ Y (1781-1836) Spanish guerrillero leader and general, was born at Ydozin in Navarre on the 17th of June 1 78 1. His father, Juan Esteban Espoz y Mina, and his mother Maria Teresa Hundain y Ardaiz, belonged to the class of yeomen. Mina remained working on the small family inheri- tance till 1808. When Napoleon endeavoured to seize Spain in that year he enlisted in the regiment of Doyle, and then passed to the guerrilla band commanded by his nephew Xavier Mina. When Xavier was captured by the French on the 21st of March 1810, seven men of the band elected to follow Francisco; and on the 1st of April of the same year the Junta of Aragon gave him the command of the guerrilleros of Navarre. His first act was to arrest and shoot at Estella, one Echevarria, who, under pretence of being a patriotic guerrillero, was in fact a brigand. The national government at Cadiz gave him rank, and by the 7th of September 181 2, he had been promoted to be commander-in- chief in Upper Aragon, and on the left bank of the Ebro. In the interval he claimed that he had fought 143 actions big and little, had been repeatedly wounded with bullet, sword and lance, had taken 13 fortified posts, and 14,000 prisoners, and had never been MINARET— MINAS GERAES 5oi surprised by the French. Though some maintain that he was not at his best as a leader in battle, as a strategist he was very successful, and he displayed great organizing capacity. The French authorities were compelled to allow him to levy customs dues on all goods imported into Spain, except contraband of war, which he would not allow to pass without fighting. The money thus obtained was used to pay his bands a regular salary. He was able to avoid levying excessive contributions on the country and to maintain discipline among his men, whom he had brought to a respectable state of efficiency in 181 2. Mina claimed that he immobilized 26,000 French troops which would but for him have served with Marmont in the Salamanca campaign. In the cam- paign of 1813 and 1814 he served with distinction under the duke of Wellington. After the restoration of Ferdinand he fell into disfavour. On the 25th and 26th of September he attempted to bring about a rising at Pamplona in favour of the Liberal party, but failed, and went into exile. His political opinions were democratic and radical, and as a yeoman he disliked the hidalgos (nobles). The revolution of 1820 brought him back, and he served the Liberal party in Galicia, Leon and Catalonia. In the last district he made the only vigorous resistance to the French intervention in favour of Ferdinand VII. On the ist'of Novem- ber 1825 he was compelled to capitulate, and the French allowed him to escape to England by sea. In 1830 he took part in an un- successful rising against Ferdinand. On the death of the king he was recalled to Spain, and the government of the regent Christina gave him the command against the Carlists in 1835, though they feared his Radicalism. By this time, years, exposure and wounds had undermined his health. He was also opposed to Thomas Zumalacarregui {q.v.), an old officer of his in the War of Independence, and an even greater master of irregular mountain warfare. His health compelled him to resign in April 1835, and his later command in Catalonia was only memorable for the part he took in forcing the regent to grant a constitution in August 1836. He died at Barcelona on the 24th of December 1836. Mina was a brave and honest man, who would have conducted the war against the French in 1810-12 with humanity if they had allowed him, but as they made a practice of shooting those of his men whom they took, he was compelled to retaliate. He finally forced the French to agree to an exchange of prisoners. Authorities. — In 1825 Mina published A Short Extract from the Life of General Mina, in Spanish and English, in London. Mention is made of him in all histories of the affairs of Spain during the first third of the 19th century. His full Memoirs were published by his widow at Madrid in 1851-1852. (D. H.) MINARET (from the Arabic manarat ; manar or minar is Arabic for a lighthouse, a tower on which nor, fire, is lit), a lofty, turret peculiar to Mahommedan architecture. The form is derived from that of the Pharos, the great lighthouse of Alexan- dria, in the top storey of which the Mahommedan conquerors in the 7th century placed a small praying chamber. The light- house form is perpetuated in the minarets which are found attached to all Mahommedan mosques, and probably had considerable influence on the evolution of the Christian church tower (see an exhaustive study in Hermann Thiersch, Pharos Antike, Islam und Occident, 1909). The minaret is always square from the base to the height of the wall of the mosque to which it is attached, and very often octangular above. The upper portion is divided into two or three stages, the wall of the upper storey being slightly set back behind the one below, so as to admit of a narrow balcony, from which the azan, or call to prayer, is chanted by the muaszin {muezzin, moeddin). In order to give greater width to the balcony it is corbelled out with stalactitic vaulting. The balconies are surrounded with stone balustrades, and the upper storeys are richly decorated; the top storey being surmounted with a small bulbous dome. The earliest minaret known is that which was built by the caliph Walid (a.d. 705) in the mosque of Damascus, the next in date being the minaret of the mosque of Tulun, at Cairo (a.d. 879), with an external spiral flight of steps like the observatory towers in Assyrian architecture. This mina- ret as also the example of El Hakim (996), is raised on great square towers. The more remarkable of the other Cairene minarets are those of Imam esh-Shafi (1218), Muristan al Kalaun (1280), Hassan (1354), Barkuk (a.d. 1382) and Kait Bey (a.d. 1468). Of the same type are the two minarets added to the mosque of Damascus in the 1 5th century. In Persia the minarets are gener- ally circular, with a single balcony at the top, corbelled out and covered over. In India, at Ghazni, there are no balconies, and the upper part of the tower tapers upwards; the same is notice- able at Delhi, where the minaret of Kutab is divided into six storeys with balconies at each level. In the well-known tomb of the Taj Mahal the four minarets are all built in white marble, in three storeys with balconies to each storey, and surmounted by open lanterns. The minarets of Constantinople are very lofty and wire-drawn, but contrast well with the domes of the mosques, which are of slight elevation as compared with those at Cairo. MINAS [MINOi'DES] (c. 1 790-1 860), Greek scholar, was a native of Macedonia. During the Greek War of Independence he migrated to Paris, where he tried to enlist the sympathies of Europe on behalf of his countrymen and to promote the study of ancient and modern Greek. But his chief claim to recognition consists in his discovery of two important MSS. (amongst others) in the monastery of Mt Athos during his exploration of the libraries of Turkey and Asia, at the instance of M. Villemain, minister of public instruction in France. One of these contained the last part of a treatise on the Refutation of all Heresies, now generally admitted to be the work of Hippolytus (q.v.), the other the greater portion of the Fables of Babrius. MINAS GERAES (i.e. " general mines "), popularly Minas, an inland state of Brazil, bounded N. by Goyaz and Bahia, E. by Bahia, Espirito Santo and Rio de Janeiro, S. by Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo, and W. by Sao Paulo, Matto Grosso and Goyaz. It is very irregular in outline and covers an area of 221,861 sq. m. upon the great Brazilian plateau. Among the Brazilian states it is fifth in size and first in population — 3,184,099 in 1890, and 3,594,471 m 1900. The surface of Minas Geraes is broken by mountain ranges and deeply eroded rivercourses, the latter forming fertile valleys shut in by partly barren uplands, or campos. The reckless destruc- tion of forests along the watercourses also adds to the barren aspect of the country. The principal mountain ranges are the Serra da Mantiqueira on its southern frontier and its N. exten- sion, the S. do Espinhaco, which runs parallel to the Serra do Mar, or coast-range, and separates the inland or campo region from a lower forested zone between the two ranges. Most of the wooded district south of the Mantiqueira belongs to the states of Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, but east of the Espinhaco it belongs to Minas Geraes and extends eastward to the Serra das Aymores, on the frontier of Espirito Santo. This zone has an abundant rainfall, dense forests and a fertile soil. It is drained by the Doce, Mucury, Jequitinhonha and Pardo, which have their sources on the eastern slopes of the Espinhaco and cut their way through the Aymores to the sea. The tributaries of the Rio Doce cover the slopes of the Serra do Espinhaco for a distance north and south of about 200 m. The southern part of this region is well populated, and is covered with coffee and sugar plantations. On the western frontier a northern extension of the great central chain of Goyaz forms the water-parting between the drainage basins of the Sao Francisco and Tocantins, and is known at different points as the Serra do Paranan, Serra de Sao Domingos and Serra das Divisoes. South-east of this chain, between the headwaters of the Parana and Sao Francisco, are the Serra da Canastraand Serra da Matta da Corde, an irregular chain of moderate elevation running north and south. The highest elevations in the state, so far as known, are Itatiaya (8898 ft.) in the Serra da Mantiqueira, and Caraca (6414 ft.), near Ouro Preto, in the Serra do Espinhaco. The hydrography of the campo region of Minas Geraes is extremely complicated. The Mantiqueira-Espinhaco chain shuts out the streams flowing directly east to the Atlantic, and the boundary ranges on the west shut out the streams that flow into the Tocantins, though their sources are on the actual threshold of the state. Between these two mountain chains the head streams of the Parana and Sao Francisco are intermingled — the one flowing inland and 502 MINAS GERAES southward to the great La Plata estuary, the other northward and eastward across the arid highlands of Brazil to the Atlantic coast in io° 30' S. lat. Less than 100 m. from the city of Rio de Janeiro and about 60 m. from the coast is the source of the Rio Grande, the larger of the two rivers that form the Parana. It rises near the peak of Itatiaya, on the northern slopes of the Mantiqueira, and flows north-west and west across the Minas plateau, receiving several large tributaries from the south. North and parallel with its course is a low watershed, which separates its drainage basin both from that of the Sao Francisco and from that of the Parnahyba, the northern confluent of the Parana. The latter rises on the western slopes of the Serra da Matta da Corde, and one of its northern tributaries has its source in a " knot " of the Serra dos Pyreneos, from which streams flow eastward to the Sao Francisco and northward to the Tocantins. The central and greater part of the state, however, is included in the drainage basin of the upper Sao Francisco. Its source is in the Serra da Canastra, and its general course across the state is north by east, during which it receives the Paracatu, Urucuia, Pardo and Carinhanha from the west and the Verde Grande and das Velhas from the east. Part of these rivers are navigable for small steamers, and the Sao Francisco must some day be of great importance in the development of Central Brazil. All these rivers of. the Brazilian plateau are interrupted by falls and rapids. The climate of Minas Geraes is characterized by high sun tempera- tures and cool nights, the latter often dropping below the freezing point on the higher campos. The mean annual temperature is about 85° in the Sao Francisco valley, 77° on the campos of the S.E., and 70 on the campos of the W. The year is divided into two seasons — wet and dry — the former lasting from November to May. This division is not so clearly marked in the south, especially in the " matta " (forest) regions, where the rainfall ranges from 59 to 65 in. There is much malaria in the wooded districts of the east and on the higher campos, where the daily extremes of temperature are great, lung and bronchial diseases are common. Some of the high plains, however, as at Barbacena, serve as health resorts for the coast districts. Minas Geraes is a mining state, though the mining industry has lost much of its importance through the decline in the output of gold and diamonds. Gold is widely diffused, and abandoned " washings " all over the state show how general the industry was at one time. There were in 1908 five deep mines worked by English companies and one by a French company. One of these, the Morro Velho mine, belonging to an English company, is not only the deepest gold-mine in existence" (over 2000 ft.), but it has been worked since 1725, and since 1835 by its present owners. Silver is not mined by itself, but is found in combination with gold. In 1008 a rich goldfield was discovered in the northern part of the state, 5 m. from Montes Claros, in the valley of the Verde Grande River, and attracted large numbers of miners. There are many rich deposits of iron ores in the state, but they only produce a small quantity of charcoal iron for local con- sumption. Manganese ore is mined for export, and bismuth is reported to have been discovered. Minas Geraes is most widely known for its diamonds, which are found in widely separated parts of the state. The largest and most productive field is that of Diamantina (q.v.) on the head-waters of the Jequitinhonha River, where diamonds were discovered about 1725, and where the celebrated " diamond reservation " — an oval-shaped territory 8 leagues wide by 16 leagues long (Mawe), with Tejuco, now Diamantina, very nearly in the centre — was established in 1 730. The mines became crown property, gold-mining was forbidden, and no one was permitted to enter the reservation without a licence. The state monopoly was abolished in 1832, and mining has since been carried on by private enterprise. John Mawe estimates that the annual product was 1000 oz. during the first twenty years, and Castelnau estimates the value of the total output down to 1849 at 300,000,000 fr. No estimate can be made of the contraband, which must have been large. A great decline in the output occurred during the last half of the 19th century; but a new field was discovered in 1908 at Abbadia dos Dourados, in the western part of the state. Other valuable stones, the topaz, chrysolite, aquamarine amethyst and tourmaline are found. Agriculture and grazing have become the main dependence of the population — the former in the lower, forested region of the south-east, where coffee and sugar-cane are the principal pro- ducts, and the latter on the higher campos and river valleys, and on the mountain slopes, where large herds of cattle are to be found, and milk, butter and cheese are produced. The shipping of fresh milk to Rio de Janeiro and butter-making are compara- tively new industries. The river valleys of the campo region are also cultivated to some extent. Among the general products are Indian corn, tobacco, mandioca, beans, pork and cotton. Wheat has been produced in some localities, but not on a paying basis, and experiments have also been made with tea. There is a large variety of fruits, and the cultivation of grapes for wine- making is developing into a profitable industry. Railway com- munication with Minas Geraes includes the following lines: the Central do Brazil (formerly known as the Dom Pedro II.), which starts from Rio de Janeiro and penetrates nearly to Pirapora (its objective point), at the head of navigation of the Sao Francisco River, with branches into neighbouring districts; the Leopoldina, from Rio de Janeiro into the forested region of eastern Minas; the Minas and Rio, from Cruzeiro, on the Sao Paulo branch of the Central do Brazil, into southern Minas; the Mogyana, from Campinas, Sao Paulo, and runs to Uberaba in western Minas, and is intended to cross into Goyas; and the Bahia & Minas, from the port of Caravellas, in southern Bahia, which runs a short distance into Minas Geraes, and is planned to extend to Phila- delphia and beyond. Another line from the port of Victoria, Espirito Santo, northward to Diamantina, Minas Geraes, was under construction in 1908. River transport has some local value on the upper Sao Francisco and its larger tributaries, and this will be greatly increased when the Central do Brazil railway reaches the head of navigation on that river. The population of Minas Geraes is chiefly of Portuguese origin, which has been constantly strengthened by immigrants from the mother country. A considerable admixture from other nationalities has resulted from the influx of mining adventurers, and some German colonies have been established in the state. The negro population is large, and there is a still larger contingent of mixed races. The capital is Bello Horizonte (q.v.) , or Cidade de Minas; other important cities and towns are: the former capital, Ouro Preto, Barbacena, Diamantina, Baependy (pop. 22,817 m 1890), on the head-waters of the Rio Verde, the centre of a rich tobacco-producing district; Curvello (8071), north of Sahara in the Rio das Velhas Valley, the centre of a cotton- growing district and cotton manufactures; Entre Rios (7681), in the coffee district of south-east Minas; Januaria (5888), a river port of the Sao Francisco in northern Minas; Juiz de Fora; Marianna (4751), an episcopal town east of Ouro Preto, Mar de Hespanha (18,712), the centre of a productive and populous agricultural municipality of south-east Minas; Paracatu (21,418), an important commercial centre of western Minas near the Goyaz frontier; Queluz (12,600), on the Central do Brazil railway; Congonhas do Campo (10,902), in the municipality of Queluz, celebrated for its miracle-working image, its great church and chapels, and the pilgrimages to its shrine; Sahara (4959), a rail- way junction on the Central do Brazil, and port on the Rio das Velhas; Congonhas de Sahara (14,066), in the municipality of Sahara, where the celebrated Morro Velho gold-mine is situated; Sao Joao d' El-Rei (15,820) an important commercial mining and pastoral centre, near the Rio das Mortes, connected with the Central do Brazil railway by a branch called the Oeste de Minas; and Uberaba (12,231), a commercial town of the western campos of Minas, connected with Sao Paulo by the Mogyana and Sao Paulo railways. Minas Geraes was first explored by Fernando Dias Paes Leme between 1664 and 1677, though he was not the first European to penetrate it. The discovery of gold in 1692-1695 by bands of adventurers from the Sao Paulo settlements, led to every occupation and profession being abandoned in the mad rush for the new mines. Minas Geraes at first formed part of the MINBAR— MINEHEAD 503 capitania of Sao Paulo, but in 1720 it became a separate govern- ment and was brought more directly under the Portuguese crown. The arbitrary restrictions imposed upon the colonists aroused dissatisfaction among them and eventually led to conspiracy in 1789, inspired by a fear that the Portuguese government was about to enforce the collection of its "fifths" of the mining output, which had largely fallen into arrears. Among the conspirators was one Jose Alves Maciel, who had just returned from France where he had met Thomas Jefferson and had become infected with French revolutionary ideas. A number of residents became involved, among them the poet Thomaz Antonio Gonzaga. Reckless talk in public places led to the arrest of the conspirators. Only one was executed, a poor, uneducated subaltern militia officer Joaquim Jose da Silva Xavier, nicknamed O Tiradentes (the Tooth-puller), the others being imprisoned or banished. Tiradentes has since been glorified as the pro-martyr of Brazilian independence. In 1822 Minas became a province of the empire created by Dom Pedro I., though a revolutionary outbreak had occurred in Ouro Preto the year before. In 1842 a long series of quarrels in Rio de Janeiro culminated in a revolution in Minas Geraes and Sao Paulo, which was suppressed at Santa Luzia, Minas Geraes, on the 20th of August of that year. The abolition of slavery in 1888 caused much discontent among the planters and in the following year Minas Geraes promptly adhered to the declaration of the republic in Rio de Janeiro. MINBAR, or Mimbar, a term in Mahommedan architecture for the pulpit in a mosque from which the Friday or Mahommedan Sabbath sermon is given (see Pulpit). MINBU, a district and division of Upper Burma. The district has an area of 3299 sq. m., and a population (1901) of 233,377, showing an increase of 8% in the decade and a density of 71 inhabitants to the sq. m. The district may be said to consist of low plain-land towards the Irrawaddy, and of undulating country inland rising higher and higher westwards towards the Arakan hills. Between the plain and the Arakan Yoma range is a distinct line of hills running north and south, and usually called the Nwa-Madaung hills. The submontane valleys are largely cultivated, but are deadly except to those born in them. The chief streams besides the Irrawaddy are the Mon, the Maw, and the Salin, which are largely used for irrigation. At Minbu town the Irrawaddy is 3 miles wide, with many islands and sand- banks. There are considerable fisheries along the Irrawaddy and on the Paunglin lake, which is a lagoon fed from the Irra- waddy. The rights are sold yearly by public auction, and realize an average of £1000. Oil has been discovered near the mud volcanoes of Minbu, but it seems to lie at too great a depth to be profitably worked. There is a large area of reserved forest in the district. The chief crops raised are rice, gram, millet, beans, peas, sesamum and tobacco. The betel-vine is largely cultivated along the Mon River. The district, which was in a chronically disturbed state before the annexation, was not reduced till two years afterwards, many officers losing their lives, among them Phayre, the first deputy-commissioner. The annual rainfall varies greatly over the district. It is very considerable on and under the Arakan Yomas, and very slight towards the Irrawaddy. The thermo- meter rises to over ioo° in the hot months, and the mean of minimum in December is about 49 . Minbu, the district head- quarters, stands on the Irrawaddy. It had a population of 5780 in 1901. The river steamers in the dry season can come no nearer than two miles to the south of the town. The division includes the districts of Thayetmyo, Pakokku, Minbu and Magwe. It has a total area of 17,172 sq. m. and a population (1901), of 1,076,280, showing an increase of 8% in the decade and giving a density of 63 inhabitants to the square mile. It bestrides the Irrawaddy. (J. G. Sc.) MINCHINHAMPTON, a town in the Stroud parliamentary division of Gloucestershire, England, 4 m. S.E. of Stroud. Pop. (1901), 3737. It lies high on a slope of the Cotswold Hills; Minchinhampton Common being a fine openupland. The church of Holy Trinity, largely reconstructed, contains many brasses and memorials. The manufacture of woollen cloth is the long- established staple of Minchinhampton. Prehistoric remains have been discovered on the common, and earthworks are also seen; while the name of Woeful Dane Bottom, a neighbouring valley, perhaps indicates the scene of a defeat of the Danes (c. 918). MINDEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, 44 m. by rail to the W.S.W. of Hanover, on the left bank of the Weser, which is spanned by two bridges. Pop. (1905), 25,428. The older parts of the town retain their narrow and crooked streets. The cathedral tower dating from the nth century, illustrates the first step in the growth of the Gothic spire in Germany. The nave was erected at the end of the 13th century, and the choir in 1377-1379. Among the chief edifices are the old church of St Martin; the town hall, with a Gothic facade; the law courts and the government offices, constructed, like many of the other buildings, of a peculiar veined brown sandstone found in the district. The town has a statue of Frederick William I., the great elector of Brandenburg. Minden contains a gymnasium and several hospitals, besides other charitable institutions. Its industries include linen and cotton weaving, dyeing, calico printing, brewing, ship-building and the manufacture of tobacco, glass, soap, chocolate, leather, lamps, chicory and chemicals. There is also some activity in the building of small craft. Minden (Mindun, Mindo), apparently a trading place of some importance in the time of Charlemagne, was made the seat of a bishop by that monarch, and subsequently became a flourishing member of the Hanseatic League. In the 13th century it was surrounded with walls. Punished by military occupation and a fine for its reception of the Reformation, Minden underwent similar trials in the Thirty Years' War. In 1648 the bishopric was converted into a secular principality under the elector of Brandenburg. From 1807 to 1814 Minden was included in the kingdom of Westphalia, and in the latter year it passed to Prussia. In 1816 the fortifications, which had been razed by Frederick the Great after the Seven Years' War, were restored and strengthened, and as a fortress of the second rank it remained the chief military place of Westphalia down to 1873, when the works were finally demolished. About 3 m. to the south of Minden is the so-called " Porta Westfalica," a narrow defile by which the Weser quits the mountains. The bishopric of Minden embraced an area of about 400 sq. m. and had about 70,000 inhabitants. The battle of Minden was fought on the 1st of August 1759 between the Anglo-Allied army commanded by duke Ferdinand of Brunswick and the French under Marshal Coutades, the latter being defeated. The most brilliant episode of the battle was the entire defeat of the French cavalry by the British infantry (with whom there were some Hanoverian troops) , but Minden, though it is one of the brightest days in the history of the British army, has its dark side also, for the British cavalry commander Lord George Sackville (see Sackville, Viscount) refused to obey the order to advance, several times sent by Duke Feidinand, and thereby robbed the victory of the decisive results which were to be expected from the success of the infantry. For an account of the battle and of the campaign of which it is the centre, see Seven Years' War. See Stoy, Kurzer Abriss der Geschichte Mindens (Minden, 1879); Bolische, Skizzen cms Mindens Vergangenheit (Minden, 1897); Holscher, Beschreibung des vormaligen Bistumes Minden (Munster, 1877). MINEHEAD, a market town and seaside resort in the Welling- ton parliamentary division of Somersetshire, England, 188 m. W. by S. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 2511. The town has three parts: the Upper, built on the sides of a lofty foreland known as North Hill; the Lower; and the Quay Town, with many ancient houses, stretching for about a mile beside the haroour. It is much visited for the sake of its mild climate, the grand cliffs, moors and hills of the neighbourhood, and the beach, admirably suited for bathing. St Michael's, the parish church, has a striking Perpen- dicular tower, an arch of carved oak dividing its nave and 5°4 MINEO— MINERAL DEPOSITS chancel, a magnificent rood-loft, and a 13th-century monument doubtfully described as the tomb of Bracton, the famous lawyer, whose birthplace, according to local tradition, was Bratton Court in the vicinity. Coaches for Porlock and Lynton start from the town. There is no evidence of the existence of Minehead (Mannheve, Manehafd, Mynneheved) in Roman or Saxon times. The town owed its origin and growth to its position on the shores of the Bristol Channel, and its good harbour developed an oversea trade with Bristol, South Wales and the Irish ports. The De Mohun family were overlords of the town from 1086 to the 14th century, when they were followed by the Luttrells, who are the present owners. It is possible that Minehead had a corporate existence during the 1 5th century, as certain documents executed by the portreeve and burgesses at that date are preserved, but no record of the grant of a charter has been found. A charter of incorporation given by Elizabeth in 1558 vested the government in a portreeve, a steward and twelve burgesses, the continuance of the corporation being subject to the port and harbour being kept in repair. This condition being unfulfilled, the charter lapsed in the reign of James I., and an attempt to obtain its renewal in the 18th century failed. The corporation was replaced by two constables chosen annually in the court leet of the manor until 1894, when an urban district council was appointed. The borough returned two members to parliament from 1558 until disfranchised by the Reform Act of 1832. A weekly market on Tuesdays and a fair (Sept. 29 to Oct. 2) were held by the lord of the manor from the 15th century, but the date of the grant has not been found. In 1465 a second annual fair on the 1st of May was granted by Edward IV., which is still held on the Wednesday in Whitsun week. The other fair has been dis- continued, and the market day has been changed to Wednesday. During the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries Minehead had a con- siderable coastwise trade in wool, grain and wine, but began to decline owing to the migration of the woollen industry to the north of England, and to the decay of the herring fishery. A renewal of prosperity began when it acquired a reputation as a watering-place. See Victoria County History: Somerset; F. Handcock, Parish and Borough of Minehead (1903). MINEO, a town of the province of Catania, Sicily, 34 m. S.W. of Catania by rail. Pop. (1901), 9828. It occupies the site of the ancient Menaenum, founded by Ducetius in 459 B.C. There is some doubt as to whether this town was also the birthplace of Ducetius, owing to confusions in nomenclature (see E. A. Free- man, History of Sicily, ii. 361). Remains of ' ancient fortifica- tions still exist, though it seems uncertain whether they are of Greek or of Byzantine origin (Notizie degli Scam, 1899, p. 70). Four miles to the north is the Lacus Palicorum, a small lake in a crater, which still sends up carbonic acid gas. By ijt was the temple of the Palici, twin Sicel gods, the most holy place in Sicily, where an oath taken was especially binding, and an inviolable asylum for fugitive slaves. There is now nothing to suggest twin deities; in ancient times there were probably two craters, whereas now there is only one. It was here that Ducetius, a few years later, founded a new seat for his power, the city of Palica. MINERAL DEPOSITS. The subject of mining (q.v.) can only be properly understood after the general features of mineral deposits have been elucidated. In this article deposits of all kinds of useful minerals are included, whether they are metalli- ferous or earthy. In general practice it is customary to treat the former under the name " ore-deposits " and the latter as the " non-metallics." This is warranted because in a large degree different geological problems are presented and different methods of mining are pursued. Nevertheless there are other important similar or common features and they may be classed together without great disadvantage. The word " ore " is used in several meanings, each of which depends for its special significance upon the connexion. In purely scientific applications " ore " implies simply a metalliferous mineral, and in this sense it appears in works on mineralogy and petrology. In former years and in Ore. connexion with practical mining an ore was defined as a com- pound of metal or of metals with one or more non-metallic elements, called mineralizers, of which oxygen and sulphur were the chief. The ore must, in addition, be sufficiently rich to be mined at a profit. Native metals not being compounds were not considered ores. The product of the copper mines on Keweenaw Point, Lake Superior, was, and to a great extent is still, called copper rock rather than copper ore, and native gold in quartz is often described as gold quartz rather than gold ore, but these restrictions are gradually disappearing. An ore may therefore be defined as a metalliferous mineral or aggregate of metalliferous minerals mingled with a greater or less amount of barren materials called the " gangue," and yet rich enough to be mined at a profit. When not proved to be sufficiently rich to be remunerative, the aggre- gate is called " mineral." The " mineral " of to-day may be changed by the advent of a railway or the rise in the price of metal into the " ore " of to-morrow. The question has re- peatedly appeared in litigation involving contracts or property rights. Since the greater number of the ores are believed to have been precipitated from aqueous solution, or to have been otherwise formed through the agency of water, the term " ore-deposit " has resulted; and inasmuch as nearly all the other useful minerals owe their origin to the. same agent, the term " mineral deposit " is equally well justified. A few, however, have been produced in a different way, such as certain iron ores of igneous origin; certain igneous rocks used for building stone, as in the case of granite; and the accumulations of vegetable material in coal beds. These latter, the igneous masses and the vegetable accumula- tions, being placed in two divisions by' themselves, we may group the larger number into two main classes, depending on their precipitation from solution or from suspension. In the case of solution we will further subdivide on the place, and there- fore in large part on the cause, of precipitation, since these are the questions chiefly involved in actual development. Especially in connexion with ore-deposits widening experience has modified the older conceptions of relative values in the several types. In the early days of geology, Cornwall and Saxony were the two regions where the most active and influential students of ore-deposits were trained and where the principal books relat- ing to mining originated. The pronounced and characteristic fissure veins of England and Germany became the standards to which the phenomena met elsewhere were referred, and by means of which they were described. This particular form, the fissure vein along a fault, assumed a predominating importance, both in the thought and in the literature of the day. Widening experience, however, especially in the Cordilleran region of North America, in the Andes of South America, in Australia and in South Africa, has brought other types into equally great and deserved prominence. Comprehensive treatment to-day there- fore departs somewhat from earlier standards. As far as analyses and estimates permit, the common useful metals occur in the earth's crust in approximately the following percentages : — occurrence. 1. Aluminium 8-13 2. Iron . 4-71 3. Manganese 0-07 4. Nickel . o-oi 5. Cobalt . 0-0005 6. Tin . . o-ooox— 00c By the letter * is meant some undetermined digit in the corre- sponding place of decimals. Apart from aluminium, iron, manganese and nickel, the figures show how small is the con- tribution made by even the commoner metals to that portion of the mass of the globe which is open to observation and investigation. As compared with the earth's crust at large certain of the metals are known to be locally present in favourable, usually igneous, rocks in richer amounts, according to the following determinations which have been made upon large samples of carefully selected materials. Copper, 0-009%; lead. 7- Copper o-ooooa; 8. Lead O-OOOOiC 9- Zinc . o-ooooa; 10. Silver o- 000000* 11. Gold . o-ooooooocc 12. Platinum o-oooooooox MINERAL DEPOSITS 505 0-0011-0-008; zinc, 0-0048-0-009; silver,, o- 000c 7-0-0001 6; gold, 0-00002-0-00004. I ron and aluminium .seldom fail, and vary from 1 to 2% as a minimum, up to 25% as a maximum. In order that the several metals may constitute ores, their percentages must be the following — the percentages of each vary with favourable or unfavourable conditions at the mine, and can therefore be expressed only in a general way; ores favourable to milling and concentration may go below these limits, and the mingling of two metals of which one facilitates the extraction of the other may also reduce the percentages: — Aluminium . 30 Nickel . . 2-5 Copper . . 2-10 Platinum . 0-00005 Gold . . . 0-003—00016 Silver . . 0-03-0-16 Iron . . . 35-65 Tin . . . 1-5-3 Lead. . . 2-25 Zinc. . . 5-25 Manganese . 40-50 Cobalt is a by-product in the metallurgy of nickel and is usually in much inferior amount to the latter. When we compare the first and second tabulations with the third it is at once apparent that with the possible although only occasional exception of iron the production of an ore-body from the normal rocks which constitute the outer mass of the earth requires the local concentration of each of the metals by one or several geological processes, and to a degree that is only occasion- ally developed in the ordinary course of nature. It is, therefore, an instance of somewhat exceptionally good fortune when one is discovered, and it is only the part of ordinary prudence to develop and utilize it as one would treat a resource which is limited and subject to exhaustion. The minerals which constitute ore-bodies are divided into two Classes of great classes: the ores proper, which contain the Mineral. metals; and the barren minerals or gangue, which reduce the yield. The ores are generally and naturally subdivided into two groups: first, the sulphides and related compounds containing arsenic, antimony, tellurium and selenium; and, second, the oxidized compounds embracing oxides, carbonates, sulphates, silicates, phosphates, arsenates, chromates, &c. With the oxides are placed, because of related geological occurrence, a few rare compounds with chlorine, bromine and iodine into which silver more than any other metal enters, and to the same group we may add a few metals which occur in the native state. Iron, manga- nese, aluminium and tin differ from the rest of the metals in their original occurrence in the oxidized form, whereas the others with the exception of gold, platinum, and possibly copper, in their first precipitation in ore-bodies are in the form of sulphides or related compounds. Only by subsequent changes, characteristic of the upper parts of the deposits, do they pass by oxidation into the minerals of the second group. With regard to the nature and source of the water which serves to gather up the widely disseminated metals and concentrate them in ore-bodies two contrasted views are now current, not necessarily antagonistic but applied in different degrees by different observers. The older view attributes the water primarily to the lainfall, and therefore it is called meteoric water. After falling upon the surface the meteoric water divides into three parts. The first, and smallest, evaporates; the second, the largest portion, joins the surface drainage and is called the run-off: while the third, intermediate in amount, sinks into the ground and mingles with the ground-waters. The ground-waters rise in springs, usually fed from no great depth, and themselves pass into the surface drainage after a small subterranean journey. While as a rule the ground-water level is fairly definite, yet it sometimes displays even in the same mining district great irregularity. The section of active circulation and work of the descending meteoric waters between the surface and the ground-water level was called by Franz Posepny (1836-1895) the vadose or shallow region (" Genesis of Ore-deposits," Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., xxiii., xxiv., 1893; reprinted as a book, 2nd ed., 1902). It has been long recognized by miners as the home of the oxidized ores, and the, place of the work of the descending waters. The deep-waters are relatively motionless and their movements as far as visible are comparatively slow. But the really important feature of the ground-water as regards the filling of veins is the depth to which it extends. This remained a somewhat indefinite matter until L. M. Hoskins showed mathematically that cavities in the firmest rocks became impossibilities at about 10,000 metres. Down to some such limiting depth as an extreme the ground- water was believed by many to descend; to migrate laterally; to experience the normal increase of temperature with depth; the effect of pressure; the increased efficiency as a solvent peculiar to the conditions; and finally with a burden of dissolved gangue and ore to rise again, urged on by the " head " of the descending column. In its ascent it was supposed to fill the veins. Mining experience has, however, indicated that the known ground- waters are comparatively shallow and seldom extend lower than 500-600 metres. It is conceivable that during faulting and the formation of great dislocations this upper reservoir might be tapped into greater depths and set in limited circulations through deeper-seated rocks. But so far as these objections have weight they have greatly restricted the vertical range of the meteoric ground-waters as they were formerly believed to exist. In contrast with the meteoric waters outlined above, other waters are believed by many geologists to be given off by the deep-seated intrusive rocks, and are generally called magmatic. We are led to this conclusion by observing the vast quantities of steam and minor associated vapours which are emitted by vol- canoes; by the difficulty of accounting in any other way for the amount and composition of certain hot springs; and by the marked and characteristic association of almost all ore-deposits in the form of veins, with eruptive rocks. That igneous masses have been connected with the formation of veins is further brought out by the following general consideration, which has hitherto received too little attention. Aside from pegmatites, veins rich enough to be mined and even large veins of the barren gangue-minerals are exceptional phenomena when we compare the regions containing them with the vast areas of the earth which have been carefully searched for them and which have failed to reveal them. As components of the earth's crust the useful metals except iron and aluminium are extremely rare. Some sharply localized, exceptional, and briefly operative cause must have brought the veins into being. The universal circulation of the ground-water of meteoric origin fails to meet this test, since if it is effective we ought at least to find veins of quartz and calcite fairly universal in older rocks. In North America, moreover, by far the greater number of veins which have been studied date from the Mesozoic and Tertiary times. The ore deposits of older date are chiefly of iron and man- ganese and can be satisfactorily explained in many cases by the reactions of the vadose region, or by crystallization from molten masses. In summary it may be stated that the meteoric waters are of great importance and of unquestioned efficiency in the shallow vadose region, or, as named by C. R. van Hise, " the zone of weathering." In it the disintegration of rocks exposes them to the searching action of solutions, and the portions of ore-bodies already deposited undergo great modifications. The deeper and far more immovable ground- water probably extends to but moderate depth and is chiefly affected as regards movement by the head of waters entering heights of land and by local intrusions of igneous rocks. It is very doubtful if the normal increase of temperature with depth produces much effect. The meteoric waters are of altogether predominant importance in all surface concentrations of a mechanical character. The magmatic waters, on the other hand, seem to be of paramount importance and of great efficiency in producing the deposits of ores in the contact zones next eruptives, and in the formation of veins which are reasonably to be attributed to uprising heated waters in regions of expiring vulcanism. Tbey start with their burden of dissolved metals and minerals under great heat and pressure, amid conditions favouring solution, and migrate to the upper world into cooling and greatly contrasted conditions which favour precipitation. Undoubtedly they are responsible for many low-grade deposits 506 MINERAL DEPOSITS which have later been enriched by the action of descending meteoric waters. They are more copiously yielded, so far as we may judge, by acidic magmas than by basic ones. The natural waterways are furnished by the cavities in rocks. They vary in size from very minute pores, where movement is slow because of friction, but where solution takes place, through others of all dimensions up to great fault-zones. The smallest cavities are the natural pores of minerals; cleavage cracks; the voids along the contacts of different minerals; cracks from crush- ing during dislocation; cellular lavas; volcanic necks; voids among the grains, pebbles, or boulders of fragmental rocks; joints; caves, and faults. So far as waters have deposited ores and yielded ore-bodies by subterranean circulations the latter are guided by some such controlling influence as these in all cases, and they will be selected as the governing principle in a large part of the scheme of classification. The types will be reviewed in the following order: — I. — Of Igneous Origin. A. Eruptive masses of non-metalliferous rock. B. Basic segregations from fused and cooling magmas. C. Deposits produced in contact metamorphism, most commonly by the action of intrusive masses on limestones. D. Pegmatites. II. — Precipitated from Solution. A. Surface deposits. B. Impregnations in naturally open-textured rocks. C. Impregnations and replacements of naturally soluble rocks. D. Deposits along broken anticlinal summits and in synclinal troughs. E. Deposits in shear zones. F. Deposits in faults. G. Deposits in volcanic necks. III. — Deposited from Suspension. A. Placers. B. Residual deposits. IV. — Carbonaceous Deposits from Vegetation. I. Of Igneous Origin. — A. Eruptive Masses of Non-metalliferous Rock. — Among the non-metallic objects of mining and quarrying which are of igneous nature, building stone is the chief. Granites, syenites, and other light-coloured rocks are the most important. These rocks occur as intrusive masses called bosses when of limited extent and diameter, and bathyliths when of vast, irregular area. The main point of importaace is the jointing and cleavage, which should in each case yield blocks as nearly rectangular as possible so as to save tool treatment. Dark, basic igneous rocks in dikes, sills and surface flows are employed for macadam, and are often of excellent quality for this purpose. B. Basic Segregations from Fused and Cooling Magmas. — A few ore-bodies, of which the best-known involve iron, are believed to result directly in the igneous processes by which molten rock cools and crystallizes. Thus magnetite, one of the common iron ores, is a widely distributed component in the eruptive rocks, rarely if ever failing in any variety. It is one of the first minerals to crystallize, and it possesses a much higher specific gravity than the other con- stituents. There is reason, therefore, to believe that, forming in some molten magmas in relatively large quantity, it sinks to or toward the bottom of the mass until the latter is at least greatly enriched with it, if not actually changed to iron ore. If the molten rock, after passing through a stage of partial crystallization, moves toward the surface of the earth, the body of ore may occupy almost any position in it other than the bottom. The flowing of the magma in original movements or from pressure sustained in subsequent metamorphic processes, or both, may give the ore the lenticular shape which is quite characteristic of magnetite bodies the world over. Almost all iron ores of recognized eruptive origin contain titanium oxide in amounts from a few units to over 40%. They are most frequently found in dark basic rocks. These ores are not at present of much commercial value because of the difficulties of treating titaniferous varieties in the modern blast furnace practice, but there is little doubt that in the near future they will be extensively mined. Non-titaniferous magnetites, which often form lenses in gneissoid rocks of more acidic character than those with which the titaniferous are associated, are likewise believed by some observers to be of igneous origin, but there are equally positive believers in sedimentary deposition followed by metamorphism. Besides magnetite, chromite is a characteristically igneous mineral and is always found in the richly magnesian rocks. Whether the relatively large masses which appear in serpentine are direct crystal- lizations from fusion, or whether they have segregated from a finely disseminated condition during the change of the original eruptive to serpentine, is a matter of dispute, but the general trend of later opinion is toward an original igneous origin. Although not strictly an ore, corundum is another mineral which is the direct product of igneous action. A form of ore-body which marks a connecting and transitional member between those just treated and those of the next group is furnished by the sulphides of iron, nickel and copper which are found in the outer borders of basic igneous intrusions. Observers differ somewhat as to the relative importance to be attributed to reactions purely of the nature of crystallization from fusion or those brought about by the agency of gases or other highly heated solvents in the cooling stages. The most important example is afforded by the mingled ores of nickel and copper which are developed in their largest form in the region of Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, and are now the principal source of nickel for the world. 1 The ores are chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite, the latter containing throughout its mass at Sudbury the mineral pentlandite, a rich nickel-iron sulphide and the real source of the nickel. With the base metal there are also found minute traces of the metals of the platinum group. Wherever these ore-bodies have been observed they invariably occur in the borders of intrusive masses. The sulphides constitute an integral part of the rocky_ mass, which shows almost no signs of alteration or vein production in the ordinary sense. Only some slight rearrange- ments have subsequently taken place through the agency of water, but all this is a small factor in the total. C. Ore-Bodies produced by Contact Metamorphism. — Great bodies of igneous rock have often been forced in a molten and highly heated condition through other rocks when at a distance below the surface of the earth. After coming to rest they have remained during the cooling stages for long periods in contact with the surrounding walls. All molten igneous magmas are more or less richly charged with aqueous vapour, doubtless in a dissociated state; with carbonic acid and probably with other gases, especially those involving sul- phur. During the cooling stages the gases are emitted and carry with them silica, iron, alumina and metallic elements in less amount, of which copper is the commonest, but among which are also num- bered lead, zinc, gold and silver, if the rock standing next the intru- sive mass is limestone, the silica and iron, and to a less degree the alumina, combine with the lime to the elimination of the carbonic acid and produce extensive zones of lime silicates, of which garnet is the most abundant. Disseminated throughout these garnet-zones are large and small masses of pyrite and chalcopyrite, oftentimes in amounts sufficient to yield large ore-bodies. Again in the lime- stone outside the garnet-zones, but none the less closely associated with them, are bodies of sulphides containing copper. The copper ores of Bisbee and Morenci, Arizona, of Aranzazu near Concepcion del Oro, Mexico, and of many other parts of the world not yet studied in detail are of this type. The eruptive which most frequently produces contact zones is of a marked acidic or siliceous character, since among eruptives these are the ones most richly charged with gases. When the copper ores are of low-grade in their original deposition it often happens that processes of secondary enrichment, which are later described, are required to bring them up to a richness which warrants mining. Less often than copper appear lead, zinc or gold ores in the same relations. D. Pegmatites. — One other phase of eruptive activity needs also to be briefly mentioned before passing to the discussion of the ore- bodies, which have hitherto chiefly occupied students of the subject. In the regions surrounding intrusive masses of granite we almost always see dikes or veins of coarsely crystalline quartz, felspar and mica radiating outward, it may be, for very long distances. They are believed to be produced by emissions from the eruptive similar _ to those which yield the garnet-zones just mentioned. The veins are technically called pegmatites. They are character- istic carriers of tin and of minerals containing the rare earths, and less commonly are known to yield gold or copper. II. Precipitated from Solution. — A. Surface Deposits. — The chief ore-body under this type is furnished by iron. The peculiar chemical property possessed by this metal of having two oxides, a ferrous, which is relatively soluble, and a ferric, which is insoluble, leads to its frequent precipitation from bodies of standing or com- paratively quietwaters. Ferruginous minerals of all sorts, but more particularly pyrite and siderite, pass into solution in the descending oxidizing or carbonated surface waters, either as ferrous sulphate, or as salts of organic acids, or ferrous carbonate, the last-named dissolved in an excess of carbonic acid. On being exposed to the atmosphere when the solutions come to rest, or to the breaking up of organic acids, or to alkaline reagents, or sometimes to fresh-water algae, the hydrated sesquioxide 2Fe 2 3 , 3H2O is precipitated as the familiar beds of bog ore. The ore usually forms earthy aggregates or crusts and cakes, but may also, as in the interesting case of the Swedish lake deposits, yield small concretions. Bog ores are not very rich in iron and are apt to have much sand and clay intermingled. If subsequently buried under later sediments they may become dehydrated and changed to red hematite, as in the case of some of the Clinton iron ores of the eastern United States. These widely extended beds in the lower strata of the Upper Silurian are often oolitic red hematites, consisting of concentric shells of iron oxide and 'A. H. Barlow, "On the Sudbury Deposits," Geol. Survey of Canada Ann. Rept., vol. xiv., part H; A. P. Coleman, Ann. Report of the Ontario Bureau of Mines, vol. xiv., part iii. (1905). MINERAL DEPOSITS 5°7 chalcedonic silica, deposited around grains of sand. The most extensive of all ore-beds of this type and the mainstay of the German and Belgian smelting industry, are the Jurassic ores, locally called minette, of Luxemburg and the neighbouring territories. Three principal and several subordinate beds are distinguished, which furnish a product ranging from 30 to 40 % of iron and between I and 2 % of phosphoric oxide (P2O5). They are generally believed to have been deposited on the bottoms of embayments of the Jurassic sea. The iron was furnished by the drainage of the land and was preci- pitated, according to Van Werweke, as silicate, carbonate, sulphide and as several forms of oxide. More than two billions of tons are believed to be available. Very similar deposits occur in the Cleveland district, England, in the Middle Lias. In the presence of much organic matter which creates reducing conditions, concretions and even beds of spathic ore or black-band may result and afford the ores of this type extensively utilized in the Scottish iron industry and formerly of some importance in the eastern United States. The brown hematites often have more or less manganese, and manganese ores themselves may result by closely related reactions, since manganese is very similar to iron in its chemical properties. Aluminium is yielded by deposits of bauxite, the hydrated oxide, which in the states of Georgia and Alabama, of the United States, are the result of surface precipitations. In the depths it is believed that pyritous shales exist. The oxidation of the pyrite supplies sulphuric acid which takes into solution the alumina of the shales. Rising to the surface along a marked series of faults, the aluminium sulphate meets calcium carbonate in an overlying limestone, and the aluminium hydrate is precipitated as concretions at the vents of the springs. Of scientific importance but as yet not of commercial value are the siliceous sinters deposited around the vents of hot springs which yield appreciable amounts of both the precious and the base metals. While surface precipitations in every particular, they are yet chiefly important in casting light on the processes of vein formation in the depths. Non-metallic minerals which are deposited from solution on the surface of the earth are the salines, rock-salt, related potassium salts, gypsum and the rarer nitrates. The alkaline chlorides and gypsum are derived, in nearly all cases, from impounded bodies of sea-water, which, exposed to evaporation with or without constant renewal, finally yield beds of rock-salt and related minerals. Shallow estuaries cut off from the sea, it may be by the sudden rising of a bar during a heavy storm or brines impounded in deep bays with a shallow connexion as in the " bar theory " of Ochsenius, have given rise to the great stores of these minerals which are so ex- tensively mined. The potassium compounds have only been found as yet in large quantities in the Stassfurt region of Germany, and seem to be due to the fact that in this locality the mother-liquors of the rock-salt deposits failed to escape, and were evaporated to dryness. The nitrates are chiefly obtained in northern Chile and are the result of the reaction of nitrogenous organic matter, upon alkaline minerals and under conditions where there is enough but not too much water. Another very important mineral found in surface deposits formed from solution is asphalt. It has happened in various parts of the world, but especially in the island of Trinidad, in the Carribean Sea, that petroleum with an asphalt base has reached the surface, has evaporated, and has become oxidized so as to leave a residuum of asphalt suitable for street-paving or other purposes. _ So-called pitch-lakes are afforded which may be of great commercial value. Again, if large sheets, crusts, stalactites and stalagmites are deposited from calcareous water by the escape of the solvent carbonic acid, beautiful ornamental stones are afforded, generally known as Mexican onyx. B. Impregnations in Open-textured Rocks. — In a number of instances in various parts of the world naturally open-textured rocks have been discovered so richly impregnated with the metalliferous minerals as to be ores. The enriching minerals have been intro- duced in solution, and the solvent has found its way through the rock because of its natural character, and not because geological movements have opened it. Porous sandstones are one of the most common cases. Deposits of silver ores have been extensively mined at St George in southern Utah, consisting of films of argentite and cerargyrite, which have been precipitated upon fossil leaves, sticks, and in the sandstone itself. Over wide areas in the northern United States, copper in various minerals has been discovered in sandstones of Permian or Triassic age. At Silver Cliff, Colorado, silver ores have impregnated a volcanic tuff, while at the Boleo mines in Lower California tuffs yield copper ores. In at least two of the great copper mines on Lake Superior the native metal im- pregnates a conglomerate, and in a number of others it has enriched a cellular basalt, filling the blow-holes with shots and pellets. In the Commern district between Bonn and Aachen, sandstones of the Triassic Buntersandstein contain knots of galena, distributed over wide areas as impregnations. Organic matter is believed to have precipitated the galena by a reducing action upon percolating solutions of lead. All these porous rocks have been fed by solutions which have entered along waterways, clearly due to faults or some extensive breaks which have provided introductory conduits. The solutions have then been tapped off from the main passages by the porous rock. They are, therefore, closely connected with faults. Non-metallic minerals in the form of petroleum and asphalt may also impregnate sedimentary beds or other rocks of open texture. Many oil wells derive their supplies from lenticular beds of' sand- stone in the midst of impervious shales, and others, as those in the Mexican fields near Tampico, from volcanic tuffs. Asphalt may saturate both sandstones and limestones in such richness as to furnish a natural paving material when crushed, heated and laid. Brines are also yielded by porous strata and supply much of the salt of the world. C. Impregnations and Replacements of Naturally Soluble Rocks. — Ore-deposits of great importance appear in different regions which can only be interpreted as having been formed by the replacement of some or all of a rock with the metallic minerals. The most common rock to yield in this way is limestone, because of its soluble nature, but important cases occur of others composed of silicates. Replacement implies the precipitation of the ore and gangue, molecule by molecule, in the position of the original minerals but without, as in pseudomorphs, the necessary reproduction of crystal- line forms. Some waterway must of course introduce the ore- bearing solutions, but it may be slight compared with the great size of the resulting ore-bodies. Lead and zinc ores, often carrying some silver, are those most widely distributed, as they were also the earliest recognized in deposits of this character. More than any other metals their association with limestone is pronounced. The replacements may be found near the supply fissure as in the great zinc deposits near Aachen, or the supply fissures may be obscure as at Leadville, Colorado. While ores occur in the lime- stone, they are often close along its contact with some relatively impervious stratum, which seems partly to have directed the cir- culations, partly to have checked or stagnated them, while pre- cipitation took place. With the lead and zinc sulphides, pyrites and chalcopyrite are commonly associated in greater or less degree, the copper increasing locally. All the sulphides are exposed to oxidation above the ground-waters and mining in the upper levels' has been often directed against the carbonate and sulphate of lead, or the mingled carbonate and hydrated silicate of zinc. A non-metallic deposit formed by replacement and of much scientific interest is furnished by sulphur when derived from gypsum, as in the Sicilian and other localities of Europe. D. Deposits along Anticlinal Summits and in Synclinal Troughs. — When strata experience folding they are violently strained at the bends, and, if stiff or brittle like limestone, often crack in limited fissures, which in anticlines open upward and in synclines downward. They thus yield joints in relatively great numbers. Softer rocks, such as shales, are moulded by the strains without fracturing. Very gentle folds seem to have yielded such abundance of cracks in the lead and zinc district of the Upper Mississippi Valley as to cause the so-called " gash veins " which have been worked for many years. The crevices are not all vertical, but often run horizontally and are due to the parting and buckling of individual beds. The resulting ore-bodies are chiefly limited to a single great stratum, and are believed to have been formed by the infiltration of galena, blende and pyrite from overlying formations. When strata are stiff enough to buckle under violent folding and part so as to produce openings of a crescentic cross-section which afterwards become filled, there result the " saddle-reefs " so re- markably illustrated in the gold veins of Victoria, Australia, and in pitching anticlines of a much larger character in Nova Scotia. Of far the greatest importance of all the ore-bodies in troughs are the iron ores of the Lake Superior region, now the most pro- ductive of all the iron-mining districts. In a series of sedimentary formations, generally of Huronian age, and with associated eruptives, there occur strata consisting of a cherty iron carbonate, which were probably originally marine deposits akin to glauconite. They rest upon relatively impervious rocks, and are often penetrated by basaltic dikes. The entire series has been folded, so that the cherty carbonates, shattered by the strains, have come to rest in troughs of relatively tight, impervious rocks. The descending surface waters have next altered them, have taken the iron into solution, and have redeposited it in the troughs as a slightly hydrated red hematite. The silica has usually been precipitated elsewhere. The most important of the non-metallics which occur along anticlinal summits are petroleum and natural gas, but it is true only in a very limited sense that they are introduced in solution. The general cause of the accumulation is, however, the same as that of the metallic minerals, i.e. that storage cavities are afforded. In the most productive oil-fields it is the general experience to find the oil and gas impounded in porous rocks, either sandstones or limestones, at the crests of anticlines and beneath impervious shales which do not shatter or crack with gentle folding. E. Deposits in Shear-Zones. — It sometimes happens both in massive rocks and in sediments that strains of compression have been eased by local crushing along comparatively narrow belts without appreciable or measurable displacement of the sides such as would be required by a pronounced fault. The word shear-zone has become quite widely used in recent years as a descriptive term applicable to these cases. 5 o8 MINERAL DEPOSITS The gold-bearing reefs of the Transvaal present a good illustration. Beds of conglomerate consisting chiefly of quartz and quartzite pebbles have experienced crushing and shattering, and have had their natural porosity much enhanced by these after-effects. Solutions of gold, coming through, have encountered pyrites and have had the gold precipitated upon the pyrites, which is itself often broken and granulated. In other regions shearing has led to sheeting and opening of the rocks by many parallel cracks but almost always with such marked displacement that the next type most correctly describes them. From any point of view the shear- zone is a natural transition to the fault and closely related to it. F. Deposits^ in Faults. — This type of ore-body was one of the earliest established, and has always figured very prominently in the minds of students of the subject since the first systematic formula- tions of our knowledge. The dislocation of the earth's crust by faults has furnished either clean-cut fissure or else lines of closely set parallel fractures, whose combined displacement has been comparatively great. The faults go to relatively profound depths and they furnish therefore waterways of extended character, which may reach from regions of heat and pressure in depth to regions of cold and diminishing pressure above ; thus from conditions favour- able to solution below to conditions favouring precipitation toward the surface. Faults often occur, moreover, in connexion with eruptive outbreaks, and .therefore in circumstances especially favourable to ore deposition. From all these reasons it is not surprising that the " true fissure vein " based on a profound fault has been the ideal of the prospector's search in many parts of the world, and has often been his reward. The historic veins of Corn- wall and of Saxony are of this type, also the great silver veins of Mexico, the gold veins of California, the great silver-gold deposits of the Comstock lode, and many in South America. Faulting often leads to great shattering of the country rock, and instead of being a clean-cut open cavity, there results a brecci- ated belt which may then be cemented by infiltrating ore and gangue. In the midst of this the richer ore occurs as bonanzes or chutes, which are succeeded by leaner stretches. The movement of the walls produces the polished surfaces specifically called " slicken- sides," parallel to which the ore-chutes often run. The change in the character of the entering solu- tions from time to time gives a banded character to the deposit, so that from both walls toward the centre corresponding layers succeed one another. At the centre the last layers may meet as interlocking crystals in the familiar comb-in- comb structure or they may leave cavities called " vugs " into which beautiful and perfectly formed crys- tals project (see fig.). Fault fissures swell and pinch affording wide and narrow places in the resulting ore-body. They often intersect each other and one may throw or heave another, according to the me- chanics of faulting as set forth under the article on Geology. While fault-fissures have in no way failed in later years to be appreciated by mining geologists, yet they do not hold that pre- dominant place which in the days of more limited experience was theirs. On the contrary, other types such as contact zones, re- placements and impregnations are found to be of scarcely inferior importance. Nevertheless the last two, at least, must usually owe to the fault-fissure the waterway which has brought in the solutions. A very peculiar non-metallic deposit found in fault-fissures and imitating the ordinary veins in all essentials is furnished by the asphaltic minerals, often described as asphaltic coals and known in mineralogy as " grahamite," " albertite," " uintaite," " gil- sonite," &c. Petroleums with asphaltic bases have percolated into fault-fissures and have there deposited on evaporation and oxidation their dissolved burdens. The black coaly mineral presents all the geological relations of a fissure vein and is mined like so much ore. G. Volcanic Necks. — A very unusual ore-body is furnished by this type, which is only known in a few instances. In two mines, however, in Colorado, the Bassick and the Bull-Domingo, there occur chimneys of elliptical cross-section filled with rounded boulders, and believed with much reason to be the tubes of small explosive volcanoes. After brief periods of activity they became waterways for uprising heated solutions which filled the interstices with ore. III. Deposited from Suspension. — The ores which result from this process are all formed upon the surface of the earth and through the action of water. They are primarily the result of the weathering of rocks and of the removal of the loose products thus afforded in the ordinary processes of erosion. A. Placers. — Many useful minerals, including some of a metallic character, are very resistant to the agents of decomposition which cause the disintegration of the common rocks. Thus magnetite is a mineral present in a minor capacity in all eruptives and in fairly large percentage in many of the basic types. It is proof against protracted exposure to natural reagents, and it is heavy. Becoming freed by the disintegration of the containing rock it is mingled with the transported materials of running streams, and settles with other heavy minerals wherever the current slackens to a sufficient degree. Concentration may thus ensue and beds of black sand result. If again deposits of loose sand containing more or less magnetite are exposed to the surf of the ocean, or even to the waves of lakes, a similar sorting action takes place on the beach. The magnetite remains behind while the undertow removes the lighter materials. Iron sands of either of these varieties are usually too rich in titanium to be of commercial value, but with the magnet- ite may be gold or platinum in sufficient amount to be of value. While magnetite is the commonest of the ores to be found in placers, gold is the metal which usually gives them value. Wherever systems of drainage have eroded gold-bearing rocks, the gold has passed into the streams with the other detrital materials, and, even though in very fine flakes, being yet very heavy has sunk to the bottom in the slackened water and has there enriched the gravel. The gold tends to work its way through the gravels even to the bed-rock, or to some bed of interstratified and impervious clay, and thwe to be relatively rich. It favours also the insides of bends and the heads of quiet reaches. When a small tributary stream joins a larger one and is both checked itself and checks the current of the large one, the gold, as in the Klondike, tends to settle in relatively great abundance. Pot-holes, strangely enough, or related rock-cavities, often fail to yield the nuggets, apparently because the swirl of the water and grit has ground them to impalpable powder. The particles have then been washed elsewhere. When the gold-bearing gravels are panned down a small residue is obtained of all the heavy minerals in the gravel. Magnetite is the commonest and gives the technical name of " black sand " to the concentrate. With it, however, there are almost always found garnet and other less familiar minerals. If the stream valley has been hunted over by sportsmen with shot-guns or rifles, the lost shot and bullets are commonly caught in the pan. Even diamonds have been rarely noted and they may, indeed, be specially sought in gravels. Along sea-beaches where great beds of auriferous gravel have been attacked by the surf, concentrated bars carrying nuggets and flakes of gold in workable quantity have not infrequently resulted. Cape Nome, Alaska, is perhaps the most productive of all. The gold in the beach-placers is usually worn by the constant attrition into extremely fine particles, and the flakes or colours are more difficult to save than in the case of stream-placers. In some regions of gold-bearing rocks, as in the south-eastern United States, the products of superficial decay of rocks may remain in situ and be sufficiently charged with gold to be washed for the yellow metal. They are different from the usual placer deposit although hydraulicked in the same way. They might be properly considered residual deposits under the next head. Auriferous stream-gravels of ancient and long-abandoned systems of drainage may remain beneath lava flows or later sedimentary accumulations and be the objects of underground mining. Both in Australia, where they are called " deep leads," and in California, where they are called " buried channels " or " deep gravels," they have been for many years the objects of mining. In California the bed-rock is usually slate or schist and a series of technical terms have resulted descriptive of the rich streaks. The bed-rock is called the rim-rock; the pay-streaks which appear on its sides, bench-gravels, and the lowest one the channel-gravel. Tunnels are often very skilfully driven through the rim-rock to strike the channel-gravel and at the same time preserve the proper slope for drainage and extraction. The buried channels in California have proved of much scientific interest from the remains of prehistoric man, skulls, mortars and pestles which they have yielded. Among the non-metallic minerals sought from placers, phos- phates for fertilizers hold a position of great importance. B. Residual Deposits. — As contrasted with the placers whose materials are derived by transport from a distance, we sometimes find heavy and resistant minerals, once contained in the rock but freed by the process of decay and disintegration. The lighter loose materials are washed away and deposited elsewhere. The heavy remain behind in a concentrated condition. Iron ores of this character are known, and chromite is set free in the same way by the decomposition of serpentine. In the decay of ferruginous rocks like limestones the iron may be changed to the insoluble ferric hydrate, brown hematite, and remain as veinlets and crusts throughout a mantle of clay. The brown hematite may be freed by artificial washing and used as an iron ore. IV. Carbonaceous Deposits from Vegetation. — Farthe most important of the non-metallic minerals are those composing the coal series. They yield entire strata analogous to other sedimentary rocks, but in most cases from vegetation which has grown in situ. They are found in all stages from nearly carbonized leaves and woody tissue in peat, through much more altered materials in lignite and bituminous coal to extremes in anthracite and graphite. The prime necessity for their preservation from decay is furnished by water, in or near which they must grow, and beneath which they must be deposited, so that oxidation may be retarded. In instances they have been heaped together by rivers, especially when at flood. The method of origin is fully discussed under Coal and under MINERALOGY 509 Mining, but it may be remarked here that once formed they undergo all the foldings, faultings and disturbances which have affected the sedimentary rocks of other kinds. Bibliography. — The following are general works on the deposits of the useful minerals, in addition to Posepny's volume already mentioned: In English — J. A. Phillips, revised by Henry Louis, Treatise on Ore-Deposits (London, 1896); J. F. Kemp, Ore-Deposits of the United States and Canada (New York, 1900) ; Prime's translation of Von Cotta's Ore-Deposits (New York, 1870); H. Ries, Economic Geology of the United States (New York, 1906) ; W. H. Weed's trans- lation of Beck's The Nature of Ore-Deposits (New York, 1905) ; Genesis of Ore-Deposits (American Institute of Mining Engineers, 1901); G. P. Merrill, The Non-Metallic Minerals (New York, 1904). In German — B, von Cotta, Die Lehre von den Erzlagerstdlten (Frei- berg, 1859); A. von Groddeck, Die Lehre von den Lagerstatten der Erze (Leipzig, 1879); R. Beck, Lehre von den Erzlagerstdlten (Berlin, 1904) ; A. W. Stelzner and A. Bergeat, Die Erzlagersldtten (Leipzig, 1905-1906). In French — E. Fuchs and L. de Launay, Traite des gites mineraux et metalliferes (Paris, 1893); G. Moreau, Etude in- dustriette des giles metalliferes (Paris, 1S94). (J. F. K.) MINERALOGY, the science which describes and classifies the different kinds of mineral matter constituting the material of the earth's crust and of those extra-terrestrial bodies called meteor- ites. The study of minerals is thus a branch of natural history, but one in which certain of the exact sciences find an applica- tion. The determination of the composition and constitution of minerals is a chemical problem; their optical and other physical properties are determined according to the principles of physics; the study of their crystalline form and structure belongs to crystallography; their modes of occurrence, origins, associations and changes come within the province of geology and petrology; while a consideration of the localities at which they are found requires some acquaintance with geography. Finally, there is the economic side, dealing with the mining and application of useful minerals, the extraction of metals from their ores, and the uses of minerals for building, decoration and jewelry. In this article we shall treat only of the general characters of minerals; their special characters will be found in the articles on the individual minerals. After a brief historical sketch the subject will be treated under the following headings : — I. Characters of Minerals. 1. Morphological Characters. a. Crystalline Form. b. State of Aggregation : Structure. 2. Physical Characters. a. Optical Characters (Colour, &c). 6. Magnetic, Electrical and Thermal Characters. c. Characters depending on Cohesion (Hardness, &c). d. Specific Gravity. «. Touch, Taste and Smell. 3. Chemical Characters. Synthesis of Minerals. II. Occurrence and Origin of Minerals. Alteration of Minerals : Pseudomorphs. III. Nomenclature and Classification of Minerals. History. — Owing to their numerous applications for useful and decorative purposes, minerals have attracted the attention of mankind from the earliest times. The stone and bronze imple- ments of prehistoric man and many of his personal ornaments and charms were directly or indirectly of mineral origin. The oldest existing treatise on minerals is that written about 315 B.C. by Theophrastus (irepi ruiv Xiduv — On Stones, English version by John Hill, 1746), of which only a portion is now in existence. Minerals were then classed as metals, stones and earths. The last five books of Pliny's Historic, naturalis, written about a.d. 77, treat of metals, ores, stones and gems. Some of the Arabian philosophers devoted themselves to the study of minerals, and about 1262 Albertus Magnus wrote his De miner alihus. In the 1 6th century Georgius Agricola published several large volumes, dealing more especially with the mining and metallurgy of metalliferous minerals, in which more exact descriptions were given of the external characters: he mentioned several minerals by names (e.g. blende, fluor, quartz) which are now in common use. About the same period there appeared the systematic treatise on minerals of K. Gesner (1565), and that on precious stones by Anselm Boethius de Boodt (1609). The remarkable researches of Erasmus Bartholinus on Iceland-spar were published in 1669, and J. F. Henckel's Pyritologia in 1725. Later came the Sy sterna naturae of C. Linnaeus (1735). Although the, importance of chemical properties was recognized by the Swedish chemists — J. G. Wallerius (1747) and A. F. Cronstedt (1758)— the external characters of minerals formed the basis of the mixed systems of classification of A. G. Werner (1774) and of other authors, and even as late as the Natural History System of Mineralogy of F. Mohs (1820). It was not until the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century, when the foundations of crystallography were laid by Rome de ITsle and R, J. Haiiy, and chemistry had assumed its modern phase, that any real advance was made in scientific mineralogy. It was then recognized that chemical composition and crystalline form were characters of the first importance, and that external (natural history) characters were often more or less accidental. During this period numerous mineral sub- stances were analysed by Scheele, Klaproth, Charles Hatchett- Vauquelin, Kirwan, Berzelius, Rose and other chemists, and many new mineral-species and chemical elements discovered. After W. H. Wollaston's invention of the reflecting goniometer in 1809, exact measurements of the crystalline forms of many minerals were made. The principles of isomorphism and dimor- phism enunciated by E. Mitscherlich in 1819 and 1821 respec- tively cleared up many difficulties encountered in the definition of mineral-species. About the same time also the discovery by E. L. Malus of the polarization of light gave an impetus to the optical examination, by Sir David Brewster and others, of natural crystals. Later, the investigation of rocks in thin section under the microscope led to the exact determination r particularly by A. Des Cloizeaux (1867), of the optical constants of rock-forming minerals. For a detailed account of the history of mineralogy (including crystallography), see F. von Kobell, Geschichte der Mineralogie von 1650-1860 (Miinchen, 1864). The recent history of mineral-specie! may be well traced in the six editions of J. D. Dana's System <% Mineralogy (1837-1892). I. — Characters of Minerals. A distinction is to be made between essential and non-essentiai characters. Essential characters are those relating to chemical composition, crystalline form, crystallo-physical properties and specific gravity; these are identical, or vary only within certain defined limits, in all specimens of the same mineral-species. Non-essential characters — such as colour, lustre, hardness, form and structure of aggregates — depend largely on the presence of impurities, or on the state of aggregation of imperfectly formed crystalline individuals. In an absolutely pure* and perfectly developed crystal all the characters may be said to be essential, but such crystals are of exceptional occurrence in nature, and certain of the characters are subject to modification under different conditions of growth. For example: a well- formed crystal of haematite (" specular iron ore "), with its smooth black faces and brilliant metallic lustre, is strikingly different in appearance from a piece of massive haematite (" red iron ore "), which is dull and earthy and bright red in colour; the former is so hard that it can only with difficulty be scratched with a knife, while the latter is quite soft and soils the fingers. Both specimens will, however, be found on analysis to have the same chemical composition (Fe 2 3 ), the same crystalline structure (as determined by the optical characters under the microscope in the case of the massive variety), and very nearly the same specific gravity (especially if this be determined upon finely powdered material, the effect of cavities being thus eliminated). The essential characters being identical, the difference between the two specimens lies in the state of aggre- gation of the material: with "specular iron ore" we have a single crystal, while with the " red iron ore " we are dealing with a confused aggregate of minute crystalline individuals,, which have interfered with each other's growth to such an extent that no crystal-faces have been developed. Such differences do 5io MINERALOGY not therefore depend on the nature of the material, but only on the conditions which prevailed during its growth. (See e.g. Quartz and Calcite.) In the following enumeration of the more salient characters of minerals it is to be noted that many of the terms used for non-essential characters are purely descriptive and have no exact definition; on the other hand, essential characters can be expressed numerically and are therefore perfectly definite. i. Morphological Characters. . a. Crystalline Form. — This most important character of minerals can, of course, be determined only when the material available is in the form of crystals (i.e. crystallized), which is not always the case. Massive aggregates of crystalline material are of much more frequent occurrence; when small fragments or thin sections of such material are transparent, the crystalline symmetry may be determined, within certain limits, by the help of the optical characters (see below). External crystalline form must not, however, be considered alone apart from all other characters, for crystals of substances quite different chemically, e.g. silver iodide, zinc oxide and zinc sulphide, are sometimes almost identical in crystalline form; further, in groups of iso- morphously related minerals the degree of symmetry will usually be the same and the angles vary only slightly, and unless the crystals are perfectly developed and suitable for exact gonio- metric measurement no crystallographic distinction can be made between two such species. All the six systems of crystals and most of the thirty-two symmetry-classes are represented amongst minerals (see Crystal- lography). Crystals of the same mineral-species may differ very widely in general form or habit; e.g. crystals of calcite (q.v.) may be rhombohedral, prismatic, scalenohedral or tabular in habit. Other descriptive terms of the habit of crystals are pyramidal, acicular or needle-shaped (from the Lat. acicula, a needle), capillary or hair-like (from the Lat. capillus, hair), &c; and these peculiarities of habit may sometimes be character- istic of certain minerals. Sometimes also there are characteristic kinds of groupings of crystals: thus parallel, divergent or radiating (e.g. scolecite), rosette-shaped (e.g. haematite — Eisenrosen), reticulated (e.g. rutile), or matted. The faces of natural crystals may be smooth, rough, striated, curved or drusy, 1 i.e. studded with small crystal faces and angles. 6. State of Aggregation: Structure. — According to the par- ticular state of aggregation of a number of imperfectly developed crystals, which have grown together, various kinds of structure may be presented even by the same mineral species. The descriptive terms applied to these structures are almost self- explanatory: thus the structure may be granular (e.g. marble), fibrous (asbestos), radio-fibrous or stellated (wavellite), columnar (beryl), laminar or lamellar (talc), bladed (cyanite), &c, ac- cording to the relative shape and sizes of the individual crystals composing the aggregate. When the constituent crystals are invisible to the unaided eye the material is described as compact; incoherent aggregates are powdery or earthy. Minerals which are really amorphous, i.e. without any crystalline structure, are comparatively few in number (e.g. opal) ; many which are apparently amorphous are really microcrystalline (e.g. turquoise). The term massive is often used loosely for a crystalline mineral not showing crystal-faces. Crystal-aggregates often assume more or less accidental and imitative external forms to which the following descriptive terms are applied : dendritic cr arborescent (e.g. copper, pyrolusite), mossy (copper), leafy (gold), wiry or filiform (silver), capillary (millerite), coralloidal (aragonite), globular (aragonite, with concentric structure; wavellite, with radiated structure), mamillary or with breast-like protuberances (arsenic), nodular (malachite), warty (menilite), botryoidal or resembling a bunch of grapes (from /36rpus, a bunch of grapes) (dolomite), reniform or kidney-shaped (menilite), amygdaloidal or almond-shaped (agate), stalactitic (calcite, chalcedony), &c. 1 This is from a German word, druse, originally meaning " brush,'' and applied by miners to hollow stones, lined with minute pro- jecting crystals. 2. Physical Characters. a. Optical Characters. — The action of crystallized matter on transmitted light is a character of the highest importance in mineralogy. Even when the substance is opaque in large masses, it may be sufficiently transparent when in small splinters or in thin sections for the determination of the optical characters. The refractive indices, strength of the double refraction, optic axial angle, extinction angles on certain faces, &c, are characters capable of exact measurement and numerical expression, and are constant for each mineral-species. (See Crystallography.) In their "diaphaneity," or degree of transparency, minerals differ very widely even in the same species. Some, such as metals and most metallic sulphides are always opaque; while others may vary in different specimens from perfect transparency to perfect opacity (in the latter case, however, minute fragments will, as a rule, still be transparent). A good example of this is afforded by the varieties of quartz: rock-crystal is water-clear, chalcedony is translucent, and jasper opaque. The " colour " of minerals is the character which first arrests attention; but being a character which may vary almost in- definitely in one and the same kind of mineral, it affords a typical example of a non-essential character. Thus, fluor-spar and quartz, when in well-formed and chemically pure crystals, are quite colourless and transparent; but it would be easy to collect a series of each of these minerals in which almost every shade of colour is represented. Crystals of fluor-spar of an emerald-green, purple, golden-yellow, bright pink or other colour are at first sight very different in appearance, and yet the difference is due solely to the presence of traces of colouring matters so small in amount that their exact nature is difficult or impossible to determine. The value of diamond, corundum and other gem- stones depends largely on these accidental differences in colour. Such substances, which are essentially colourless and owe their colour to the presence of colouring matter as an impurity, are said to be " allochromatic ": any colour they may possess is non- essential. In some other substances, known as " idiochromatic," the colour is a definite and essential character; for example, the yellow colour of gold, the red of cinnabar, &c; but even here, owing to differences in the state of aggregation and the presence of various impurities, they may be wide variations in colour. Colour is thus a character of little determinative value, especially in minerals which are allochromatic; but it is sometimes a useful guide when taken in conjunction with other characters. An elaborate list of colour-names for descriptive use was drawn up by A. G. Werner in 1774. An important character of transparent crystals is that of unequal absorption in different directions; so that light will, as a rule, be differently coloured according to the direction in which it has travelled through the crystal: this is known as dichroism or pleochroism (see Crystallography). Certain minerals (e.g. zircon, almandine and those containing cerium) when examined with a spectroscope by transmitted light exhibit characteristic absorption spectra. The colours of minerals may also be due to the interference of rays of white light at the surfaces of thin crevices or minute inclusions, either tabular or fibrous in form, in the mineral; for example, the play of colours of opal; the change of colours of labradorite; the bands of rainbow colours (Newton's rings) seen along cleavage cracks and irregular in- ternal fractures (e.g. in quartz); the iridescent tarnish due to a superficial film of a decomposition product (e.g. " peacock copper ore ") ; or the bluish opalescence of moon-stone and cat's-eye. The true colour of a mineral is best revealed by its " streak," i.e. the colour of its powder. This is obtained by scratching the mineral, or by crushing a fragment of it on a sheet of white paper, or rubbing it upon unglazed porcelain. The streak of allochromatic minerals is white, while that of idiochromatic minerals is coloured and is often of determinative value. Ores of iron may, for example, generally be distinguished by their streaks: that of magnetite being black; haematite, blood-red; MINERALOGY 5" Iimonfte, yellow; and chalybite, white. The streak of a mineral may be either shining (e.g. argentite) or dull. Another character depending on light is that of lustre, which is often very characteristic in certain minerals, though it may be considerably modified by the state of aggregation. For example, the usual adamantine lustre of diamond is not exhibited by the compact aggregate known as carbonado; while earthy masses of any mineral will be devoid of lustre. Descriptive terms applied to the kinds of lustre are: metallic (e.g. pyrites), adamantine (diamond), vitreous (quartz), resinous (pyromor- phite), greasy (elaeolite), waxy (chalcedony), pearly (talc, heulandite and other minerals with a perfect cleavage), silky (satin-spar) , &c. The degrees of intensity of lustre are described as splendent, shining, glistening, glimmering and dull, and depend usually on the smoothness of the crystal-faces. The phenomena of phosphorescence (q.v.), fluorescence (q.v.) and radio-activity (q.v.) are strikingly exhibited by some minerals. (See Fluor-spar, Diamond, &c.) b. Magnetic, Electrical and Thermal Characters. — These, as far as related to crystalline form, are discussed under crystallography (q.v.). Magnetite (" lode-stone ") is the only mineral which is strongly magnetic with polarity; a few others, such as pyrrhotite and native platinum, possess this character to a much less degree. Many minerals are, however, attracted by the pole of a strong electro-magnet, while a few (diamagnetic) are repelled. Most minerals with a metallic lustre are good conductors of heat and electricity; others are bad conductors. For example, graphite is a good conductor, while diamond is a bad conductor. Non-conductors of electricity become electrified by friction, some positively (e.g. quartz and topaz), others negatively (e.g. sulphur and amber). The length of time during which different gem-stones retain their charge of frictional electricity was made use of by R. J. Haiiy as a determinative character. For the pyro-electrical and thermo-electrical characters of crystals see Crystallography. Some minerals — for example, salt, sylvite and blende — are highly diathermanous, i.e. transparent for heat-rays. The specific heat and melting point of minerals are essential characters capable of exact measurement and numerical expres- sion, but they are not often made use of. Different minerals differ widely in their "fusibility": the following scale of fusi- bility was proposed by F. von Kobell: — 1. Stibnite . (525 C.) 5. Orthoclase . (1175 C.) 2. Natrolite . (965 C.) 6. Bronzite . (1300 C.) 3. Almandine (1265 C.) 7. Quartz . (1430 C.) 4. Actinolite . (1296° C.) The melting points given above in parentheses were determined by J. Joly. Stibnite readily fuses to a globule in a candle-flame, while quartz is infusible even on the thinnest edges before the ordinary blowpipe. c. Characters depending on Cohesion. — Some minerals (e.g. a sheet of mica) are highly elastic, springing back to their original shape after being bent. Others (e.g. talc) may be readily bent, but do not return to their original form when released; these are said to be pliable or flexible. Sectile minerals (e.g. chlorar- gyrite) may be cut with a knife without being fractured : related characters are malleability (e.g. argentite) and ductility (e.g. silver). The tenacity, or degree of frangibility of different minerals varies widely: they may be brittle, tough, soft or friable. The fractured surface produced when a mineral is broken is called the " fracture," and the kind of fracture is often of determinative value; descriptive terms are: conchoidal (e.g. quartz, which may often be recognized by its glassy conchoidal fracture), sub-conchoidal, uneven, even, splintery (e.g. jade), hackly or with short sharp points (e.g. copper), &c. In many cases when a crystallized mineral is broken it separates in certain definite directions along plane surfaces. This property of " cleavage " (see Crystallography) is an important essential character of minerals, and one which is often of considerable assistance in their recognition. For example, calcite, with its three directions of perfect cleavage parallel to the faces of a rhombohedron, may always be readily distinguished from aragonite or quartz; or again, the perfect cubical cleavage of galena renders this mineral always easy of recognition. "Hardness," or the resistance which a substance offers to being scratched by a harder body, is an important character of minerals, and being a test readily applied it is frequently made use of. It must, however, be remembered that the hardness of an incoherent or earthy aggregate of small crystals will be very different from that of a single crystal. A comparative " scale of hardness " was devised by F. Mohs in 1820 for the purpose of giving a numerical statement of the hardness of minerals. Mohs's Scale of Hardness. 1. Talc. 6. Orthoclase. 2. Gypsum. 7. Quartz. 3. Calcite. 8. Topaz. 4. Fluor-spar. 9. Corundum. 5. Apatite. 10. Diamond. These minerals, arbitrarily selected for standards, are suc- cessively harder from talc the softest, to diamond the hardest of all minerals: a piece of talc is readily scratched by gypsum, and so on throughout the scale. A mineral which is capable of scratching calcite and itself be as easily scratched by fluor-spar is said to have a hardness of 35. Some care is required to avoid error in the determination of hardness: it is best to select a smooth crystal-face, cleavage-surface or fracture on which to rub a sharp corner of the scratching mineral; the powder should be wiped off and the surface examined with a lens to see if a scratch has really been produced or only powder rubbed off the corner of the mineral with which the scratching Was attempted. With a little practice a fair idea of the hardness of a mineral may be obtained with the use of a knife or file, which will scratch all minerals with a hardness of 6 or less. Thus iron-pyrites (H. = 6%) and copper-pyrites (H. = 3D, apatite (H. = 5) and beryl (H. = 7J), or gem-stones and their paste imitations may be readily distinguished by this test. Talc and gypsum can be readily scratched with the finger-nail. Planes of parting, etching figures, pressure- and percussion- figures are sometimes characters of importance in describing and distinguishing minerals. (See Crystallography.) d. Specific Gravity. — The density or specific gravity of minerals is an essential character of considerable determinative yalue. In minerals of constant composition it has a definite value, but in isomorphous groups it varies with the composition: it also, of course, varies with the purity of the material. It is a character which has the advantage of numerical expression: minerals range in specific gravity from i-oi for copalite to 22-84 for iridium. The exact determination of the specific gravity of minerals is therefore a matter of some importance. Three methods are in common use, viz. hydrostatic weighing, the pyenometer, and the use of heavy liquids. The first two methods are only applicable when a weighable amount of pure material can be selected or picked out; this is, however, generally a laborious operation, since impurities are often present and usually several species of minerals are closely associated, and in selecting material it is often necessary to determine some other character to make certain that only one kind is being selected. For exact determinations the pyenometer method is usually to be recommended, using for material the pure fragments which have been selected for quantitative chemical analysis. With a single pure crystal or a faceted gem-stone the method of hydrostatic weighing is usually applicable, providing the stone is not too small. The most ready method, however, is that afforded by the use of a heavy liquid, and the most convenient liquid for this purpose is methylene iodide. This is a clear, mobile liquid with a specific gravity of 3-33, and by the addition of benzene, drop by drop, the specific gravity may be reduced to any desired amount. With such a liquid the specific gravity of the minutest fragment, the purity of which has previously been scrutinized under the microscope, may be rapidly determined. The liquid is diluted with benzene until the fragment just remains suspended, neither floating nor sinking; the specific gravity of the fragment will then be the same as that of the liquid, and the latter may be determined by hydrostatic weighing or, more conveniently, by 512 MINERALOGY means of indicators. Small recognizable crystals of the following minerals may be kept at hand as a set of indicators: gypsum (sp. gr. 2-32), colemanite (2-42), orthoclase (2-56), quartz (2-65), calcite (2-72), aragonite (2-93), rubellite (3-02), apatite (3-20), dioptase (3-32), &c. With a series of tubes containing mix- tures of methylene iodide and benzene of different densities and suitable indicators, specific gravities may be rapidly and ac- curately determined. Values intermediate between those of the indicators may be estimated by a diffusion column of the liquid, or by noting the rate at which the benzene evaporates and the specific gravity of the liquid increases. For use with minerals of specific gravity greater than 3-33 various other heavy liquids have been suggested; the best being thallium silver nitrate (TlAg(N03) 2 ), which melts at 75° C. to a clear liquid with a density of 4-8, and is miscible with water. e. Touch, Taste and Smell. — In their action on the senses of touch, taste and smell a few minerals possess distinctive char- acters. Talc is unctuous or soapy to the touch; tripolite and trachyte are respectively meagre and harsh. Some porous minerals (e.g. clays and hydrophane) adhere to the tongue. Gem-stones may often be distinguished from their glass imitation by the fact that they feel colder, since they are better conductors of heat. Bitumen and clays, when moistened, have a character- istic smell; pyrites and some other sulphides when rubbed emit a sulphurous odour. Minerals which are soluble in water have taste: e.g. saline (salt), alkaline (natron), bitter (epsomite), astringent (chalcanthite) , &c. 3. Chemical Characters. Chemical composition is the most important character of minerals, and on it all modern systems of classification are based. A mineral-species cannot, however, be defined by chemical composition alone, since many instances are known in which the same chemical element or compound is dimorphous or poly- morphous (see Crystallography). Thus both the minerals diamond and graphite consist of the element carbon; both calcite and aragonite consist of calcium carbonate; and rutile, anatase and brookite consist of titanium dioxide. In such cases a knowledge of some other essential character, preferably the crystalline form, is necessary, before the mineral can be determined. All the known chemical elements have been found in minerals; and of many of them minerals are the only source. On the other hand, nitrogen, which is frequently present in organic substances, is rare in minerals; carbon has a wide distribution in mineral carbonates. It is estimated that the minerals of the earth's crust consist of about 47% by weight of oxygen, 27 of silicon and 8 of aluminium; silicates, and especially alumino- silicates, therefore predominate, these being the more important rock-forming minerals. The chemical composition of minerals is determined by the ordinary methods of analytical chemistry. Since, however, minerals of different kinds usually occur intimately associated, it is often a matter of some difficulty to select a sufficiency of pure material for analysis. For this reason the exact composi- tion and the empirical formulae of several minerals, particularly amongst the silicates, still remain doubtful. There are even cases on record in which the chemical composition and the crystalline form have been determined on different materials in the ,belief that they were the same. Whenever possible, therefore, the chemical analysis should be made on small pure crystals which have been previously determined crystallographi- cally. For the qualitative chemical examination of minerals, when only a small amount of material is available, the methods of blowpipe analysis and microchemical analysis are often con- venient. (See G. J. Brush, Manual of Determinative Mineralogy, 16th ed., by S. L. Penfield, New York, 1903 ; H. Behrens, Manual of Microchemical Analysis, London, 1894.) The principle of isomorphism (see Crystallography) is of the highest importance in mineralogy, and on it the classification of minerals largely depends. In some minerals (e.g. quartz) isomorphous or vicarious replacement is not known to occur; but in the majority of minerals one or other of the predominating elements (generally the base, rarely that of the acid radicle) may be isomorphously replaced by equivalent amounts of other chemically-related elements. In some isomorphous groups of minerals replacement takes place to only a limited extent, and the element which is partly replaced always predominates; while in other groups the replacement rray be indefinite in extent, and between the ends of the series the different members may vary indefinitely in composition, with no sharp demarcation between species. Thus in the group of rhombohedral carbonates the different species are usually sharply defined. In well-formed crystals of calcite the calcium is replaced by only small amounts of magnesium, iron, lead, &c; in chalybite, however, iron is often more largely replaced by calcium, magnesium, manganese, &c, and the " hrown spars " are not always readily distin- guishable. In the dimorphous group of orthorhombic carbonates isomorphous replacement is less frequent, and the different species (aragonite, cerussite, &c.) are quite sharply defined. In other groups of minerals, particularly amongst the silicates, isomorphous replacement of the basic elements is so general that the several members of the series vary almost indefinitely in chemical composition, and will scarcely be the same for any two specimens, though it may be reduced to the same type of formula. For example, the formula of all varieties of garnet may be expressed generally as R"3R"'2(Si0 4 )3, where R" = Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, and R"' = Al, Fe, Mn, Cr, Ti. Tourmaline affords another good example. In the plagioclase felspars (see Plagioclase) we have an example of the isomorphous mixing of two end- members, albite (NaAlSi 3 8 ) and anorthite (CaAl 2 (Si04) 2 ) in all proportions and with no sharp line between the several sub- species. In some other similar cases the end-members of the series are purely hypothetical: e.g. in the scapolite group (mixtures of Ca4Al 6 Si60 2 5 and Na4Al 3 Si 9 2 4Cl) and in the micas and chlorites. In such instances, where the formulae of the two end-members differ in type, " mass effect " may have some influence on the isomorphism. In addition to isomorphous series, there are amongst minerals several instances of double salts, which contain the same con- stituents as the members of isomorphous series: e.g. dolomite (q.v.) and barytocalcite (q.v.). The manner in which water enters into the composition of minerals is often difficult to determine. In some cases, e.g. in the zeolites {q.v.), it is readily expelled at a low temperature, even at the ordinary temperature over sulphuric acid, and may be reabsorbed from a moist atmosphere or replaced by some other substances: it is then regarded as " water of crystalliza- tion." In other cases, when expelled only at a higher tempera- ture, it is to be regarded as " water of constitution," forming either a basic salt (e.g. malachite, Cu(OH) 2 C0 3 ) or. an acid salt (e.g. dioptase, H 2 CuSi0 4 , and mica, q.v.). When present as hydroxyl it is often isomorphously replaced by fluorine (e.g. topaz, [Al(F,OH)] 2 Si04). Sometimes the water is partly water of crystallization and partly water of constitution. As to the actual chemical constitution of minerals the little that is at present known is mainly speculative. Dimorphous minerals, which have the same empirical formula may be expected to differ in constitution; and experiments have been made, for example on pyrites and marcasite, with the object of discovering a difference, but the conclusions of various investigators are not in agreement. More promising results have been obtained (by F. W. Clarke and others) by the action of various reagents on silicates, particularly on the more readily decomposed zeolites, and several substitution-derivatives have been prepared. Synthesis of Minerals. — The production of minerals by artificial means is a branch of chemical mineralogy which has been pursued with considerable success, especially by French chemists. Most minerals have been obtained artificially in a crystallized condition, and many related compounds, not as yet found in nature, have also been prepared. Crystals of artificially pre- pared minerals, though usually quite small in size, possess all the essential characters of natural crystals, differing from these only in origin. The following are the principles of some of the MINERALOGY 5 i: 3 methods which have been used: simple sublimation (e.g. arseno- lite); interaction of gases (e.g. haematite, from steam and ferric chloride; cassiterite, from steam and stannic chloride or fluoride) ; action of gases on liquids and solids; slow cooling of fused masses, either with or without the presence of agents miner alisaUurs (e.g. minerals in furnace slags) ; from aqueous solution sometimes at a high temperature and under pressure (e.g., quartz); electro- lysis; or even by subjecting dry amorphous material to enormous pressure. The chemical reactions by which various minerals have been obtained are often of considerable help in speculating as to their mode of origin in nature, though it must be born in mind that the same mineral may have been formed, both naturally and artificially, by more methods than one. In this direction important results have been obtained experimentally by J. H. van't Hoff and his pupils on the formation of oceanic salt deposits, and by J. H. L. Vogt with slags. Many minerals used as gem-stones have been prepared artificially, e.g. diamond and ruby (see Gems: Artificial). II. — Occurrence and Origin of Minerals. While some minerals are of rare and sporadic occurrence in rock-cavities and mineral-veins, others are widely distributed as important constituents of rocks. The same mineral species may have several distinct modes of occurrence and origin, and be associated with different minerals in each case; facts which are well illustrated by quartz (q.v.). Minerals of Igneous Rocks. — The rock-forming minerals of primary origin in igneous rocks have crystallized out from the magma, or fused silicate-mass, which on consolidation gave rise to the rock-mass. Magmas sometimes contain a considerable amount of water and are then in a state of aqueo-igneous fusion, rather than of dry fusion: in such cases very coarsely crystalline rocks (pegmatites) often result, and under these conditions minerals of many kinds are formed as well-developed crystals. Those minerals which are present in large amount in igneous rocks are distinguished as essential constituents, since it is on these that the classification of igneous rocks is largely based: the most important are quartz, felspars, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas and olivines. Felspars of different composition are present in almost all kinds of igneous rocks, while quartz and olivine are characteristic of acid (e.g. granite, rhyolite) and basic (e.g. basalt, peridotite) rocks respectively. When the magma contains alkalies in relatively large amount the " felspathoid " minerals, nepheline and leucite, are formed (e.g. in nepheline- syenite, leucite-basalt, &c). Other minerals occurring as pri- mary constituents, but only in small amounts, are distinguished as accessory; thus small crystals of magnetite, apatite, zircon, &c, are of frequent occurrence disseminated in igneous rocks (see. Petrology). Sometimes these accessory constituents are concentrated by magmatic differentiation, important ore- deposits sometimes resulting in this manner (e.g. of chromite, or nickel-bearing pyrrhotite). The alteration of igneous rocks by weathering and other processes results in the alteration of some or all of the primary minerals with the production of others, which are spoken of as secondary minerals: thus felspars are often partly or wholly altered to kaolin, olivine to serpentine, pyroxene and mica to epidote, chlorite, &c. Minerals are also formed by the vapours given off by igneous magmas. The gases emitted by volcanoes and solfataras may deposit directly by sublimation, or by their chemical interaction, such minerals as sulphur, sal-ammoniac, haematite, which occur, for instance, as incrustations on Vesuvian lava: the boric acid of the Tuscan lagoons has also originated in this way. The effects produced by the exhalations of deep-seated magmas are more complex in character, since the vapours, being more confined, have more opportunity of acting chemically not only on the surrounding rocks but also on the igneous rock-mass itself before its final consolidation. A good example of the " pneumatolytic " action produced by the vapours from a mass of granitic magma is afforded by veins of tin-ore, in which the ore (cassiterite) is associated with minerals containing boron and fluorine, such as topaz, tourmaline, lepidolite, fluor-apatite xvin. 17 and fluor-spar. The production of such minerals may be accounted for by assuming the presence of stannic fluoride in the vapours, which by reacting on water vapour would deposit cassiterite with the liberation of hydrofluoric acid, and this would again react on other minerals. The topaz and tourmaline crystals often found in the cavities of granites and pegmatites have doubtless been formed in this manner. In a similar way the exhalations of basic magmas have- given rise to chlor-apatite with associated sphene and ilmenite, as, for example, in the extensive apatite veins in connexion with gabbro in southern Norway. Minerals of Metamorphic Rocks. — By the baking action of a deep-seated igneous mass on the surrounding rocks or on included rock-fragments, various new minerals are developed. By this process of thermal or contact-metamorphism well- crystallized examples of many minerals have often been formed; e.g. in calcareous rocks (limestones) , especially those containing some magnesia and silica, vesuvianite, garnet, diopside, tremolit€, wollastonite, &c, are developed; in argillaceous rocks (slates), chiastolite and staurolite are characteristic products; and in arenaceous rocks (sandstones), cordierite and sillimanite often result. The effects of pressure (dynamo-metamorphism) on rocks of various kinds, especially those of igneous origin, also result in the production of new minerals: e.g. pyroxene is trans- formed to amphibole, orthoclase to muscovite, plagioclase to zoisite, olivine to tremolite, &c. In gneisses and crystalline schists, quartz, felspar, mica, talc, amphibole, &c. are important constituents. Minerals of Sedimentary Rocks. — By the weathering and disintegration of igneous and metamorphic rocks the various minerals set free and the products of decomposition of others supply the material of sedimentary rocks; thus sandstones consist largely of quartz, shales of kaolin and other clay minerals. Those minerals (e.g. gem-stones and gold) which resist the action of weathering processes are found as water-worn pebbles and grains in detrital deposits. Other sedimentary rocks consist of minerals deposited from solution either by chemical or organic agencies, from sea-water, lakes or springs: e.g. the calcite of limestones, deposits of bog-iron -ore (limonite), gypsum, rock- salt, &c. Minerals Segregated in Veins and Rock-cavities. — Water per- colating through rock-masses takes up mineral matter in solution, and the solutions so formed may further react on the minerals composing the rocks. Such solutions will deposit some of their dissolved material in rock-cavities with the production of various minerals. For instance, the amygdaloidal cavities of basic volcanic rocks (e.g. basalt, melaphyre), especially when the rocks are somewhat weathered, are frequently partly or com- pletely filled with agate or beautifully crystallized zeolites, calcite, &c. The crevices and joint-planes of limestone become in this way coated with crystals of calcite, and those of siliceous rocks with quartz, giving rise to the abundantly occurring quartz- veins. In sedimentary rocks, pyrites, flint and other minerals become segregated round a nucleus of organic matter. The beautiful crystal-lined crevices in the crystalline rocks of the Alps have much the same origin, and so have the various types of ore-deposits, including metalliferous veins or lodes. In the latter cases, however, the solutions are no doubt sometimes of deep-seated origin and often connected with igneous and meta- morphic processes. Metalliferous veins are storehouses of crystallized minerals of almost every kind, some being the ores themselves and others, such as quartz, calcite, barytes, fluor- spar, being gangue minerals. By the weathering of the metallic minerals- of mineral- veins numerous other finely crystallized minerals result: for example, in the upper oxidized portion of veins of lead-ore (galena), crystals of anglesite, cerussite and pyromorphite are often met with; in veins of copper-ore the alteration of chalcopyrite gives rise to malachite, chessylite and cuprite. Alteration of Minerals: Pseudomorphs. — Crystals which have been formed under one set of conditions of temperature and pressure and in the presence of certain solutions, will in many 5i4 MINERALOGY cases be unstable under another set of conditions. The crystals may then be corroded or even completely redissolved, or the substance may undergo a chemical or physical change and give rise to the formation of other minerals which are stable under the new conditions. The results of such changes and alterations of minerals are very frequently to be observed in nature, and several instances have already been cited in the preceding section. A good example of the secondary products which may result by the decomposition of a mineral is afforded by pyrites (FeS 2 ), of which two types of alteration may be distinguished. By oxidation in the presence of pure water it gives rise to ferrous sulphate (melanterite), free sulphur and sulphuric acid; the melanterite by further alteration gives various basic ferric sulphates (copiapite, &c); and the sulphuric acid by acting on surrounding rocks (limestone, clay, &c.) gives rise to the formation of gypsum, aluminite and other sulphates. By the action of water containing oxygen and calcium carbon- ate in solution, pyrites suffers another kind of alteration: the sulphur is carried away in solution as gypsum and the iron is left behind as a ferric hydroxide (limonite) which preserves the original form of the crystals. We have then a pseu- domorph (from xj/evSris, false and juop^q, form) of limonite after pyrites; i.e. limonite with the external form of a crystal of pyrites. Pseudomorphs are frequently met with in nature, and they are of considerable importance in studying the changes which minerals undergo. Several kinds of pseudomorphs are to be distinguished. When the alteration has involved no change in chemical composition of the material, but only in the internal crystalline structure and physical properties, the altered crystal is called a " paramorph." For example, crystals of aragonite are often altered to a confused granular aggregate of crystalline individuals of calcite, the change being accompanied by an increase in specific gravity but without change in external form: such a change may be effected artificially by simply heating a crystal of aragonite. Other examples of paramorphs are rutile with the form of anatase, and hornblende with the form of augite. An " epimorph " results from the encrustation of one mineral by another; the first may be afterwards partly or wholly dissolved out, leaving the second as a hollow shell (e.g. chalybite after fluor-spar). As instances of pseudomorphs in which there has been some chemical change the following may be cited: by the gain of chemical constituents, e.g. malachite after cuprite; by the loss of material, e.g. native copper after cuprite; or by an interchange of constituents, e.g. galena after pyromorphite and limonite after pyrites. In other cases there may be no evident chemical relationship between the two minerals, as, for exarnple, in pseudomorphs of native copper after aragonite or quartz after calcite. Different minerals may also take the form of various organic remains. III.— Nomenclature and Classification of Minerals. A mineral species, or simple mineral, is completely defined by the statement of its chemical composition and crystalline form. When we are dealing with a definite chemical compound the limitation of species is easy enough; thus corundum, cassiterite, galena, blende, &c. are quite sharply defined mineral species. But with isomorphous mixtures the division into species, or into sub-species and varieties, must be to a certain extent arbi- trary, there being no sharp lines of demarcation in many iso- morphous groups of minerals. Thus in the mineral tourmaline the chemical composition varies indefinitely between wide limits, but no corresponding difference can be traced in the crystalline form or in the external characters save colour and specific gravity. Some authors have therefore questioned the advisability of separating minerals into species each with distinctive names, and they have attempted to devise chemical names for the different kinds of minerals. Owing, however, to the frequency of polymorphism and isomorphism amongst mineral substances such a system presents many practical difficulties. Thus the three modifications of titanium dioxide are more simply and conveniently referred to as rutile, anatase and brookite, while to give a purely chemical designation to such a mineral as tourmaline would be quite impracticable. Further, later investi- gations often show that such chemical names require revision, and hence confusion may arise. The practice of giving distinct names to different kinds' of minerals dates from very early times (e.g. diamond). The common termination ite (originally itis or ites) was adopted by the Greeks and Romans for the names of stones, the names themselves indicating some character, constituent, or use of the stone, or the locality at which it was found. For example, haematite, because of the blood-red colour; siderite, containing iron; alabaster (originally alabastritis), a stone from which a vessel called an alabastron was cut; magnesite, from-the locality Magnesia. The custom of naming minerals after persons is of modern origin; e.g. prehnite, biotite, haiiyne, zoisite. Un- fortunately there is a lack in uniformity in the termination of mineral names, many long-established names being "without the termination tie, e.g. beryl, blende, felspar, garnet, gypsum, quartz, zircon, &c. The termination ine is also often used, e.g. nepheline, olivine, serpentine, tourmaline, &c; and many others were introduced by R. J. Haiiy without much reason, e.g. anatase, dioptase, epidote, analcime, sphene, &c. (see A. H. Chester, A Dictionary of the Names of Minerals, New York, 1896). The number of known mineral species differs, of course, according to different authors; roughly there may be said to be about a thousand. The total number of mineral names (apart from chemical names), many of them being applied to trivial varieties or given in error, amount to about 5000. Minerals may be classified in different ways to suit different purposes; thus they may be classified according to their uses, modes of occurrence, system of crystallization, &c. The earlier systematic classifications, being based solely on the external characters of minerals, were on natural history principles and too artificial to be of any value. J. J. Berzelius, in 181 5, was the first to propose a purely chemical system of classification: his primary divisions depended on the basic (electro-positive) element and the sub-divisions on the acid (electro-negative) element. Such a method of classification, though still in use for metallic ores, must be quite arbitrary or give rise to much duplication; since, apart from isomorphous replacement, many minerals contain more than one metal. The systematic classi- fications in use at the present day are modifications in detail of the crystallo-chemical system published by G. Rose in 1852. Here there are four main divisions, viz. elements; sulphides, arsenides, &c; halogen compounds; and oxygen compounds: the last, and largest, division is subdivided into oxides and according to the acid (carbonates, silicates, sulphates and chromates, phosphates and arsenates, &c); in each section isomorphous minerals are grouped together. The classifications adopted by different authors differ much in detail, especially in the large section of the silicates, which presents many difficulties and for which no satisfactory classification has yet been devised. As an example of a systematic classification of minerals the following may be given. Except in a few details it is the classification of Dana's System of Mineralogy (6th ed., 1892). Only those minerals which are described under their respective headings in these volumes are included : the list therefore serves, at the same time, as an enumeration of the more common and important species and varieties of minerals, and as a system of classification it is necessarily incomplete. Species belonging to the same isomorphous group are bracketed together: varieties are given in parentheses after the species to which they belong. The chemical composition of each species is given by the formula; and the crystal-system by the initial letters C (cubic), T (tetra- gonal), O (orthorhombic), M (monoclinic), A (anorthic), H (hexa- gonal) and R (rhombohedral) : when the crystal class is definitely known to be some other than the holosymmetric this is indi- cated by a number corresponding to those used in the article Crystallography, e.g. C2 for the tetrahedral class of the cubic system. MINERALOGY 5*5 I— NATIVE ELEMENTS. 1. Non-Metals. Diamond . . . C (Bort, Carbonado) Graphite . C Sulphur . . . . S 2. Semi-Metals. ("Arsenic . . . .As ■\ Antimony . Sb [Bismuth . . . . Bi 3. Metals. fGold . . . . Au J Silver . . . . Ag "] Copper .... Cu [Platinum . . . Pt II.— SULPHIDES, ARSENIDES, TELLURIDES, ETC. 1. Of the Semi-Metals. C2 R O R R R C C C C Realgar j Stibnite J Bismuthite Tetradymite Molybdenite 2. Of the Metals. A. Monosulphides, &c. J Argentite . ( Galena Copper-glance Blende Cinnabar . Covellite . Greenockite ("Millerite . . . i Niccolite . [_ Pyrrhotite B. Intermediate Division. Erubescite Chalcopyrite . C. Disulphides, &c. f Pyrites -J Smaltite [ Cobaltite . Marcasite . Mispickel Sylvanite . AsS M Sb 2 S 3 O Bi 2 S 3 . ■ .- . . . ■■ . .0 Bi 2 Te 2 S R MoSj Ag 2 S . PbS . Cu 2 S . ZnS . HgS . CuS . CdS . NiS . NiAs . FenS, 2 . R C C O C2 R3 H R2 R R R m.- Freieslebenite Bournonite Pyrargyrite Proustite . Tetrahedrite Stephanite Stannite Argyrodite 1. Anhydrous. Salt _ . . Sylvite Cerargyrite Fluor-spar Cryolite 2. OXYCHLORIDES. Atacamite Cu 5 FeS4 C CuFeS 2 T2 FeS 2 C 3 CoAs 2 C3 CoAsS C3 . . FeS 2 O . . FeAsS O . . AuAgTe 4 M SULPHO SALTS. (Pb,Ag 2 ) 6 Sb4Sn . . . . M PbCuSbS 3 O Ag 3 SbS 3 R2 Ag 3 AsS 3 R2 Cu 3 SbS 3 C2 Ag 5 SbS 4 O2 Cu 2 FeSnS4 T2 Ag 8 GeS 6 C IV.— HALOIDS. NaCl C KC1 C4 Ag(Cl,Br,I) C CaF 2 C Na 3 AlF 6 M Cu 2 Cl(OH) 3 O V.— OXIDES. 1. Oxides of Silicon. Quartz .... Si0 2 R3 (Agate, Amethyst, Avanturine, Bloodstone, Cairngorm, Carnelian, Cat's-eye, Chalcedony, Chrysoprase, Heliotrope, Jasper, Mocha-stone, Onyx, Rock-crystal, Sard, Sardonyx.) Tridymite . . . Si0 2 . 0(?) Opal Si0 2 +wH 2 Oxides of the Semi-Metals. Oxides of the Metals. A. Anhydrous Oxides. a. Monoxides. Cuprite .... Cu 2 . Zincite .... ZnO Melaconite . . . CuO . b. Sesquioxides. C Corundum . . . A1 2 3 . J (Asteria, Emery, Ruby, Sapphire.) I Haematite . . . Fe 2 3 . Amorphous Lllmenite 1 . . R2 . . M . . R . . R FeTi0 3 R4 1 Often classed with the titanates. c. Intermediate Oxides. 2 ( Spinel . J Magnetite 1 Franklinite [ Chromite . Chrysoberyl d. (Alexandrite, Cymophane) Dioxides. MgAl 2 4 C FeFe 2 4 C (Fe,Zn,Mn)(Fe,Mn)ii04 . . C (Fe,Mg)(Cr,Fe) 2 4 . . . C BeAl 2 04 O S Cassiterite } Rutile . . Anatase Brookite Pyrolusite . Pitchblende 3 B. Hydr us Oxides. fDiaspore . J. Goethite [Manganite Limonite . Bauxite Brucite Psilomelane (Wad) Sn0 2 Ti0 2 Ti0 2 Ti0 2 MnQ 2 T T T O ? (U,Th)0 2 C AIO(OH) O FeO(OH) O MnO(OH) O Fe 2 3 .3H 2 . . Amorphous A1 2 3 .2H 2 0? . . Mg(OH) 2 R aMn0 2 -(->'BaO-r-H 2 Amorphous VI.— OXYGEN SALTS. Carbonates. A. Anhydrous. Calcite .... CaC0 3 . (Satin-spar) Dolomite . Ankerite Magnesite Chalybite . Rhodochrosite . .. Calamine . (Aragonite . Alstonite . Witherite . . Strontianite Cerussite . Barytocalcite Parisite Phosgenite B. B a sic Carbon Malachite Azurite 2. Silicates. A. Anhydrous Silicates, a. Disilicates, R"Si 2 0, R d c u c3 Bt cU a O < fa a) Oh b. Petalite Orthoclase (Moon-stone) Microcline (Amazon-stone) Albite NaAlSi 3 0: .. CaMg(C0 3 ) 2 R 4 . Ca(Mg,Fe)(C0 3 ) 2 . . . R . MgC0 3 R . FeC0 3 .... : R . MnC0 3 ... .' . R . ZnCO, R . CaC0 3 O . (Ca,Ba)C0 3 O . BaC0 3 O . SrC0 3 O . PbC0 3 O . CaBa(C0 3 ) 2 M . (CeF) 2 Ca(C0 3 ) 3 . . . . H . (PbCl) 2 C0 3 T ates. . Cu 2 (OH) 2 C0 3 . . . . M . Cu 3 (0H) 2 (C0 3 ) 2 . . . M Poly silicates, R'SisOs. LiAl(Si 2 6 ) 2 M KAlSi 3 8 M KAlSi 3 8 A Oligoclase (Sun-stone) Andesine . . Labradorite Bytownite Anorthite . . . . Metasilicates, R"Si0 3 . Leucite .... Ab 6 Ani to Ab 3 Ani Ab 3 Ani to AbiAni AbiAni to AbiAn 3 AbiAn 3 to AbiAn 6 CaAl 2 Si 2 8 . . A A A A A A KAl(Si0 3 ) 2 Pollux . . . . . H 2 Cs 4 Al4(Si0 3 ) 9 Pseudo-C C O a fEnstatite . . . MgSi0 3 O Bronzite .... (Mg,Fe)Si0 3 O Hypersthene . . . (Fe,Mg)Si0 3 O Diopside .... CaMg(Si0 3 ) 2 M Augite .... J Ca(Mg,Fe)(SiO s ) 2 . . )■., (Diallage) } with(Mg,Fe)(Al,Fe) 2 SiO, J M Acmite .... NaFe"'(Si0 3 ) 2 . . . . M Spodumene . . . LiAl(Si0 3 ) 2 M (Hiddenite, Kunzite) J3 O a >; so < Jadeite . _ . . . . NaAl(Si0 3 ) 2 . . Wollastonite . . . CaSi0 3 Rhoddnite . . . MnSiOs . . . Tremolite .... CaMg 3 (Si0 3 )4 [Actinolite] . . . Ca(Mg,Fe) 3 (Si0 3 ) 4 (Asbestos, Nephrite) Hornblende rCa(Mg,Fe) 3 (Si0 3 ) 4 . . J. with NaAl(Si0 3 ) 2 . [and (Mg,Fe)(Al,Fe) 4 (SiO,)i . NaFe(Si0 3 ) 2 .FeSi0 3 M M A M M M M Crocidolite Beryl ..... Be 3 Al 2 (Si0 3 ) 6 H (Aquamarine, Emerald) Intermediate. Iolite H 2 (Mg,Fe)4Al 8 Si 10 O 3 7 . . O 2 Often classed as aluminates. 3 Usually classed as a uranate. 516 MINERALOGY d. Orlhosilicates, R'&iOi. Nepheline . Sodalite [Lazurite] . (Lapis-lazuli) - [Grossularite] (Cinnamon-stone) Pyrope Almandine [Andradite] (Demantoid) Olivine (Mg,Fe) 2 Si0 4 . . . . O (Chrysolite, Peridot) . Be 2 SiO„ R4 . Zn 2 Si0 4 R4 . H 2 CuSi0 4 R4 J 7wCa 4 Al 6 Si 6 2 5 1 Tn t reNa 4 Al 3 Si 9 24 Cl f * - * . H 2 Ca 5 (Al,Fe) s Si 5 0i 8 . . . T . ZrSi0 4 T Jacinth, Jargoon) ThSi0 4 T CaB 2 (Si0 4 ) 2 O [Al(F,OH)] 2 S:0 4 . . . . O Al 2 Si0 6 O Al 2 Si0 5 O AUSiOs A {Phenacite Willemite . Dioptase . Scapolite . Vesuvianite C Zircon . -J (Hyacinth [Thorite {Danburite . Topaz Andalusite , Sillimanite . Cyanite J Datolite . "^ Euclase Zoisite Epidote Axinite Prehnite e. Subsilicates. Humite Hemimorphite Tourmaline (Rubellite Staurolite . B. Hydrous Si Apophyllite Heulandite Phillipsite . Harmotome Stilbite . Chabazite . Analcite 3 . (PbCl)Pb 4 (As0 4 ) 3 . (PbCl)Pb 4 (V0 4 ) 3 . Li(AlF)P0 4 . . ates, &c. . Cu 2 (OH)As0 4 . . (Pb,Zn) 2 (OH)V0 4 Cu 3 (OH) 3 As0 4 . . O M O H2 H2 H2 H2 A O O M Fe 8 (P0 4 ) 2 +8H 2 . . . M Co 3 (As0 4 ) 2 +8H 2 . . . M . Ni 3 (As0 4 ) 2 +8H 2 . . . M . Al,(OH) s (P0 4 ) 2 +4lH 2 0. . O [A!(OH) 2 ,Cu(OH),H] 3 P0 4 Amorph. . Fe 3 (OH)3As0 4 +5H 2 . . £2 (Fe,Mn)Al(OH) 2 P0 4 +H 2 O Cu 3 Al 4 (OH)i 5 (As0 4 ) 5 +2oH 2 M Cu(U0 2 ) 2 (P0 4 ) 2 +i2H 2 0. . T Ca(U0 2 ) 2 (P0 4 ) 2 +i2H 2 0. . O Pseudo-C2 . . M . . M O Childrenite Liroconite . ( Torbernite ( Autunite . 5. Borates. Boracite .... Mg 7 Cl 2 Bi 6 O 30 Colemanite . . . Ca 2 B 6 0n +5H5O . Borax Na 2 B 4 7 + ioH 2 0. 6. Nitrates. Nitre KN0 3 .... 7. Sulphates and Chromates. A. Anhydrous Sulphates, &c. f Barytes .... BaS0 4 O -{ Celestite .... SrS0 4 O [Anglesite .... PbS0 4 O Anhydrite CaS0 4 O Crocoite .... PbCr0 4 M B. Basic Sulphates. Brochantite . . . Cu 4 (OH) 6 S0 4 .... O C. Hydrous Sulphates. Gypsum .... CaS0 4 +2H 2 . . . . M Alunite .... KA1 3 (S0 4 ) 2 (0H) 6 . . . . R Jarosite .... KFe 3 (S0 4 ) 2 (OH) 6 . . . R D. Sulphates with Chlorides, Carbonates, &c. Connellite .... Cui 6 (Cl,OH) 4 S0 16 + i5H 2 . H Leadhillite . . . Pb 4 S0 4 (C0 3 ) 2 (OH) 2 . . . O 8. Tungstates, Molybdates. Wolframite . . . (Fe,Mn)W0 4 M < Scheelite .... CaW0 4 T3 I Wulfenite .... PbMo0 4 T4 VH.— HYDROCARBON COMPOUNDS. 1. Simple Hydrocarbons. Hatchettine, Ozocerite. 2. Oxygenated Hydrocarbons. Amber, Retinite, Copaline, Bathvillite, Dopplerite. 3. Appendix to Hydrocarbons. Petroleum, Asphaltum, Bitumen, Elaterite, Albertite, Coal, Anthracite, Jet, Lignite. References. — Elementary introductions to the study of minerals are: E. S. Dana, Minerals and how to study them (New York, 1895); A. J. Moses and C. L. Parsons, Elements of Mineralogy, Crystal- lography and Blowpipe Analysis from a Practical Standpoint (4th ed., New York, 190:)); L. Fletcher, An Introduction to the Study of Minerals (British Museum Guide-book). A larger work on popular lines is: R. Brauns, The Mineral Kingdom, Eng. trans, by L. J. Spencer (Stuttgart, 1908, &c). Textbooks for students are: H. A. Miers, Mineralogy, an Introduction to the Scientific Study of Minerals (London, 1902) ; E. S. Dana, Textbook of Mineralogy (3rd ed.j New York, 1898): and in German: C. F. Naumann, Elemente der Mineralogie (15th ed., by F. Zirkel, Leipzig, 1907); G. Tschermak, Lehrbuch der Mineralogie (6th ed., Vienna, 1905). The standard works of reference for descriptive mineralogy are: J. D. Dana, System of Mineralogy (6th ed., by E. S. Dana, New York, 1892); C. Hintze, Handbuch der Mineralogie (Leipzig, 1898, &c), the latter gives full details respecting the localities of minerals; P. Groth, Chemische Krystallographie (Leipzig, 1906, &c). For special branches of mineralogy reference may be made to the following works: R. Brauns, Chemische Mineralogie (Leipzig, 1896); H. Rosenbusch, Mikroskopische Physiographie der Miner alien und Gesteine, Band I, Die petrographisch-ivichtigen Miner alien, 4th ed. by H. Rosenbusch and E. A. Wulfing (Stuttgart, 1904-1905) J. P. Iddings, Rock Minerals (New York, 1906); P. Groth, Tabel- larische (jbersicht der Mineralien (4th ed., Braunschweig, i~_~~. G. P. Merrill, The Non-metallic Minerals, their Occurrence and Uses (New York, 1904); G. J. Brush, Manual of Determinative Mineralogy (16th ed., by S. L. Penfield, New York, I903); M. Bauer, Edelstein- kunde (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1909), and Eng. trans. Precious Stones, by L. J. Spencer (London, 1904). The more important topographical works are: R. P. Greg and W. G. Lettsom, Manual of the Mineralogy of Great Britain and Ireland (London, 1858) ; J. H. Collins, Handbook to the Mineralogy of Cornwall and Devon (Truro, 1871); M. F. Heddle, Mineralogy 'if Scotland (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1901); A. Lacroix, Mineralogie de la France et de ses colonies (3 vols., Paris, 1893, &c); O. Luedecke, Die Minerale dss Harzes (Berlin, 1896) ; A. Frenzel, Miner alogisches Lexicon fur das Konigreich Sachsen (Leipzig, 1874); A. Kenngott, Die Minerale der Schweiz (Leipzig, 1866); V...von Zepharovich, Mineralogisches Lexicon fur das Kaiserthum Osterreich (3 vols., Vienna, 1 859-1 893); N. von Koksharov, Materalien zur Mineralogie Russlands (11 vols., St Petersburg, 1853-1882); T. Wada, Minerals of Japan (Tokyo, 1904) ; A. Liversidge, The Minerals of New South Wales, &c. (London, 1888); O. B. Boggiid, Mineralogia Groenlandica (Copenhagen, 1905);^ Catalogue of American [U.S.A. and Canada] Localities of Minerals is given in Dana's System of Mineralogy. The following scientific journals are devoted to mineralogy: Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie, &c. (Stuttgart, since 1807); Tschermaks Mineralogische und petrographische Mitteilungen (Vienna, since 1872); The Mineralogical Magazine and Journal of the Mineralogical Society (London, since 1 876); Zeitschrift fur MINERAL WATERS 5i7 Krystallographie uni Mineralogie, ed. by P. Groth (Leipzig, since 1877) ; Bulletin de la societe frangaise de mineralogie (Paris, since 1878) ; Rivista di mineralogia e cristallografia (Padova, since 1887). (L. J. S.) MINERAL WATERS. No absolute line of demarcation can be drawn between ordinary and mineral waters. There is usually in the latter an excess of mineral constituents or of temperature, but some drinking waters contain more mineral constituents than others that are called mineral waters, and many very pure waters, both cold and warm, have been regarded for ages as mineral springs. As to the origin of mineral waters, there is much in what the elder Pliny said, that waters are such as the soil through which they flow. Thus in limestone and chalk districts an excess of lime is usually present; and the waters of a particular district have much resemblance to each other — as in the Eifel, in Auvergne, and in the Pyrenees. But this is only a partial explanation, for waters are by no means necessarily uniform throughout a particular geological formation. We do not know with any certainty the depth from which various mineral waters proceed, nor the various distances from the surface at which they take up their different mineral constituents. The source of the temperature of thermal waters remains a subject of much uncertainty. Among the assigned causes are the internal heat of the globe, or the development of heat by chemical or electrical agencies in the strata through which they arise. Their occasional intermittence is doubtless often dependent on the periodical generation of steam, as in the case of the Geysers. A few geological facts are certain, which bear on the origin of mineral waters. Such springs are most abundant in volcanic districts, where many salts of soda and much carbonic acid are present. They occur most frequently at meetings of stratified with unstratified rocks, in saddles, and at points where there has been dislocation of strata. The diffusion of mineral waters is very extended. Pliny was quite correct in observing that they are to be found on alpine heights and arising from the bottom of the ocean. They are found at the snow in the Himalayas and they rise from the sea at Baiae and Ischia. They are to be found in all quarters of the globe, but more particularly in volcanic regions, as in the Eifel and Auvergne, in the Bay of Naples, and parts of Greece, in Iceland, New Zealand and Japan. But there are few countries in which they are not to be found, except in very flat ones, and in deltas of rivers — for instance, in the north of France, where they are very few, and in Holland, from which they are absent. France, Germany, Italy and Spain, as well as Greece, Asia Minor, and the Caucasus, are all rich in mineral waters. The British Isles have a fair though not very large proportion of them. There are a few in Sweden and Norway. They are abundant in the United States, less so in Canada. They are found in the Azores and in the West India Islands. Of their occurrence in the interior of Africa or of Australia we know little; and the same is true of South America. But they are met with in Algiers, in Egypt, and in the Holy Land. The vast Indian peninsula has for its size a comparatively small supply. Mineral waters, when analysed, are found to contain a great many substances, although some of them occur only in very minute quantities: soda, magnesia, calcium, potash, alumina, iron, boron, iodine, bromine, arsenic, lithium, caesium, rubidium, fluorine, barium, copper, zinc, manganese, strontium, silica, phosphorus, besides extractive matters, and various organic deposits known under the name of glairin or baregin. Of gases, there have been found carbonic acid, hydrosulphuric acid, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen and ammonia. Of all these by far the most important in a therapeutic point of view are sodium, magnesia and iron, carbonic acid, sulphur, and perhaps hydro- sulphuric acid. These substances, detected separately by chemists, are in, their analyses combined by them into various salts, if not with absolute certainty, undoubtedly with a close approximation to it. Those combinations are very numerous, and some waters contain ten to twenty of them; but there are always some predominating ones which mark their character, while many of them, such as caesium, rubidium, or fluorine, occur in mere traces, and cannot be assumed to be of any real importance. Mineral waters therefore resolve themselves into weaker or stronger solutions of salts and gases in water of higher or lower temperature. For medical purposes they are used either externally or internally. As the quantity of salts present commonly bears but a very small proportion to that of the fluid containing them, water becomes a very influential agent in mineral-water treatment, about which it is therefore necessary to say something. For the action of mineral- water baths see Balneothera- peutics. According to the most generally received opinion, the cutaneous surface does not absorb any portion of the salts in a mineral- water bath, although it may absorb a little gas (and alkaline water, for instance, at most acting as a slight detergent on the skin), and that neither salts nor gases have any action on the system, except as stimulants of the skin, with partial action on the respiratory organs. It seems to be ascertained that drinking considerable amounts of cold water reduces the temperature of the body, diminishes the frequency of the pulse, and increases the blood pressure temporarily. Water when introduced into the stomach, especi- ally if it be empty, is quickly absorbed; but, although much of the water passes into the veins, there is no proof that it ever produces in them, as is sometimes supposed, a state of fluidity or wateriness. Therapeutically, the imbibition of large quantities of water leads to a sort of general washing out of the organs. This produces a temporary increase of certain excretions, aug- mented diuresis, and a quantitative increase of urea, of chloride of sodium, and of phosphoric and sulphuric acids in the urine. Both the sensible and the insensible perspirations are augmented. A draught of cold water undoubtedly stimulates the peristaltic action of the intestines. On the whole water slightly warm is best borne by the stomach, and is more easily absorbed by it than cold water; and warm waters are more useful than cold ones when there^ is much gastric irritability. In addition to the therapeutic action of mineral waters, there are certain very important subsidiary considerations which must not be overlooked. An individual who goes from home to drink them finds himself in a different climate, with possibly a considerable change in altitude. His diet is necessarily altered, and his usual home drinks are given up. There is change in the hours of going to bed and of rising. He is relieved from the routine of usual duties, and thrown into new and probably cheerful society. He takes more exercise than when at home, and is more in the open air, and this probably at the best season of the year. So im- portant has this matter of season and climate been found that it is an established axiom that waters can be used to the greatest advantage during the summer months and in fine weather, and during the periods most convenient for relaxation from business. Summer is therefore the bath season, but of late years provision has been made in many places, with the aid of specially con- structed rooms and passages, for carrying out cures satisfactorily during the winter season, e.g. at Aix-la-Chapelle, Wiesbaden, Baden Baden, Baden in Switzerland, Dax, Vichy and Bath. The ordinary bath season extends from the 15th of May to the 20th or 30th of September. The season for baths situated at con- siderable elevations commences a month later and terminates some ten days earlier. Mineral waters may be employed at home, but patients seldom so use them; and this necessarily limits the time of their use. It is common to declare that the treatment should last for such or such a period. But the length of time for which any remedy is to be used must depend on its effect, and on the nature of the particular case. It is found, however, that the continued use of mineral waters leads to certain disturbances of the system, which have been called crises, such as sleeplessness, colics and diarrhoea, and to skin eruptions known as la poussee. This cause, and also certain peculiarities of the female constitution, have led to the period of three weeks to a month being considered the usual period for treatment. A certain after-treatment is often prescribed — such as persistence 5 i8 MINERAL WATERS in a particular diet, visiting springs or climates of a different and usually of a tonic character, or continuing for a certain time to drink the waters at home. It may be added that the advantage of having recourse to mineral waters is often felt more after than during treatment. Since improved methods of bottling have been discovered, and the advantage of an additional supply of carbonic acid has been appreciated, the export of waters from their sources has increased enormously, and most of the principal waters can now be advantageously used at home. It may be added that many of the artificial imitations of them are excellent. The history of the use of mineral waters can only just be a good deal of nitrogen in some of them; the quantity of hydro- sulphuric acid, even in strong sulphuric waters, is wonderfully small; but the volume of carbonic acid present is often very large — for instance, in the case of Kissingen, Schwalbach and Selters. The immediate effect of the carbonic acid which they contain is that of pleasant stimulation to the stomach and system. Extremely little appears to be known of its actual operation on the system: a part of what is swallowed is returned by eructation, and a part passes on to the intestines; whether any appreciable quantity reaches the blood is doubtful. There is no question that carbonic acid increases diuresis. Practically it is found to aid digestion, helping the functions of the stomach, and in Table I — Typical Mineral Waters. Indifferent. Earthy. Salt. Salt. Sulphur. Iron. Alkaline. Alkaline- Table Purging Gastein. 95°-li8°. Leuk. 123-8°. Kissingen. Sea-Water. Aix-Ia- Chapelle. U3°-i40°. Schwalbach. Vichy. 105 -8°. Saline. Carlsbad. ii9°-i38°. Water. Seltzers. Water. Hunyadi Janos. Solids. Bicarbonate of soda . — — ■ — 0-6449 0-0206 4-883 I-92 1-2 . „ potash . — ■ — — — — — 0-352 — — „ magnesia 0-0017 0-013 0-017 o-45 0-0506 0-2122 0-303 0-18 — „ calcium . 0-0195 O-0I2 1-06 2-38 0-157 0-2213 0-434 0-428 — . Sulphate of soda . O-02O8 0050 — — ■ 0-2831 O-O079 0-292 2-37 15-9 „ potash . 0-0135 0-038 — ■ — 0-1527 0-0037 — 0-16 — . „ magnesia — 0-308 0-588 2-96 — — — — 0-46 16-0 „ calcium . — . 1-520 0-389 0-25 — — — — . Sulphide of sodium . — 0-0136 — — — — Chloride of sodium . 0-0428 5-52 25-21 2-616 — 0-534 1-03 2-2 I- 3 „ potash — 0-286 — — — — „ magnesia — ■ 0-303 3-39 — — — — . — Carbonate of iron 0-0005 0-023 0-277 — — 0-0837 — 0-003 0-01 . — . Silicic acid .... 0-0496 0-036 — — — 0-0320 — — — Gases. Carbonic acid — ■ 3-19 — ■ — 5-35 2-6 0-76 2-24 °-45 Hydrosulphuric acid ■ trace — — alluded to. They have been employed from the earliest periods, and traces of Roman work have been found at most of the European baths which are now in favour — at almost all the thermal ones. Occasionally new springs are discovered in old countries, but the great majority of them havet>een long known. Warm waters, and those containing small quantities of mineral constituents, appear to have remained more steadily in favour than any other class within the appropriate sphere of mineral waters, which is limited to the treatment of chronic disease. The attempt has been made to range mineral waters according to their therapeutic action, according to their internal or external use, but most generally according to their chemical constituents so far as they have been from time to time understood; and a judicious classification undoubtedly is a help towards their rational employment. But their constituents are so varied, and the gradations between different waters are so finely shaded off, that it has been found impossible to propose any one definite scientific classification that is not open to numberless objections. Thus a great many of the sulphur waters are practically earthy or saline ones. Yet because they contain very minute amounts of such a gas as hydrosulphuric acid, an ingredient so palpable as always to attract attention, it is considered necessary to class them under the head of sulphur. The general rule is to attempt to class a water under the head of its predominant element; but if the amount of that be extremely small, this leads to such waters as those of Mont Dore being classified as alkaline or arseniated, because they contain a very little soda and arsenic. The classification in the following table, which is that usually adopted in Germany, has the merit of comparative simplicity, and of freedom from theoretical considerations which in this matter influence the French much more than the German writers. The more important constituents only are given. The amount of solid constituents is the number of parts to one thousand parts of the water; the temperature of thermal springs is added. The waters are classified as indifferent, earthy, salt, sulphuretted, iron, alkaline, alkaline-saline — with subvarieties of table waters and purging waters. In addition to their solid constituents, gas is present in many waters in considerable quantity. There is a little oxygen and a slight degree the peristaltic action of the intestines. The increased flow of urine may be caused by its favouring the absorption of water by the stomach. In some baths carbonic acid is so abundant that precautions have to be taken to prevent Table II.' — Indifferent Waters. Locality. Evian, Lake of Geneva Badenweiler, Baden . Buxton, England . Schlangenbad, Nassau Sacedon, Spain . Wildbad, Wiirttem- ) berg . . . J Pfeffers, Switzerland Ragatz, do. Panticosa, S. Pyrenees Teplitz, Bohemia. Gastein, Austria . Height in Ft. 1425 980 800 1500 1320 2115 1570 51 10 648 3315 Temp. °Fahr. 82 80-87 85 90-101 99 95 85-95 101-120 95-118 For what prescribed. Nervous cases, dyspep- sia, urinary affections. For mild rheumatic treatment ; a health resort. Gout and rheumatism (nitrogen present). Nervous cases, female disorders, skin. Rheumatism, gout, cu- taneous affections. Gout and rheumatism, neuralgia, thickenings. Do. do. do. Do. do. do. Do. (nitrogen present) ; special action in phthisis. Gout, rheumatism, old injuries, joints or bones. Do. do. ; soothes nervous system. its tendency to accumulate on account of its heavy specific gravity. Carbonic acid gas, used as a bath, proves stimulating to the skin and to the general system; but its employment has not answered the expectations formed of it. Indifferent Waters scarcely vary in chemical qualities from ordinary drinking water ; but they are usually of higher temperature. Their therapeutic action, which is mainly exercised through baths, 1 In this and the following tables a selection is given of some of the best-known mineral waters in various European countries that possess establishments. Their chief peculiarities of elevation, of temperature and constituents are briefly noted. The curative effects, necessarily alluded to very generally, are those usually attributed to them. MINERAL WATERS 5^9 has been explained on the theory of peculiarities of their electric or thermal condition, about which we know nothing definite, and on the presence in some of them of a large quantity of nitrogen. It has also been ascribed to the various organic substances in some of them, such as glairin, which when collected is sometimes useful as a cataplasm. These waters are not often much drunk, but any efficiency they may have in dyspepsia and perhaps in neuralgic diarrhoeas must be attributed to the favourable action of hot water on the digestion. The waters of this class, especially the hotter ones in the form of baths, are extremely useful in resolving the effects of inflammation, in thickenings of the joints and in chronic rheumatism and gout. They also are often effective, especially the cooler ones, in neuralgia and in some hysterical affections. They are sometimes prescribed in urinary affections, in which case they probably assist by dilution. The effects of many of these waters are aided by the baths often being situated at considerable elevations and in out-of-the-way spots, whence the Germans called them Wildbader. They are very widely diffused, being found in all quarters of the globe, especially in volcanic districts. There are many in New Zealand; in America the hottest are in the west and in California. Earthy Waters. — These differ chiefly from the indifferent waters in containing an appreciable quantity of salts, among which sul- phate or carbonate of -lime or of magnesia predominates. The great majority of them are of high temperature. They produce the same effects as the indifferent waters, but are perhaps less efficacious in neuralgic affections, while they are more employed in some of the chronic scaly eruptions. There was formerly a tendency to consider these waters useful in urinary affections; but at the present day it is only the colder ones that have come into repute for the expulsion of gravel and biliary calculi and in the treat- ment of affections of the bladder generally. Some of them have also of late years been considered to exercise a favourable influence on scrofula, and to be useful in the early stages of pulmonary phthisis. This has been attributed to the salts of lime present in them, although it is known that most of its salts pass through the system unaltered. Many of these baths, such as Leuk and Bormio, enjoy the advantages of great elevation, but Bath, otherwise one of the best of them, lies low. Table III. — Earthy Waters. Locality. Contrexdville, Vosges Lippspringe, N. 1 Germany . . . $ Wildungen, do. Weissenberg, Swit- ) zerland . . . ) Pougues, France . Baden, Switzerland . Leuk, do. Bormio, North Italy Lucca, Italy . Bath, England . Dax, south of France B. de Bigorres, Pyr- { enees • i Height in Ft. 1050 2600 600 1 180 4400 4400 1400 1800 Temp. Fahr. 1 17-122 93-123 86-104 108-122 108-122 139 64-123 Therapeutic Action. j Special action in cal- / culous affections. ( Supposed to be use- / f ul in phthisis. ("Special use in urin- ■j ary complaints ; ( contains iron. j Resorted to for pul- ( monary affections. ( Dyspepsia.diabetes, •j hepatic and urin- ( ary concretions. (Rheumatism, gout, •j paralysis, scaly ( eruptions. (Do., some female J complaints. Do. do. ; old sprains. Do. do. do. Do. do. do. Do. do. ( Do. ; chlorosis, neu- ( ralgia. Salt Waters are so called from containing a predominant amount of chloride of sodium. They also generally contain chlorides of magnesia and of lime, and occasionally small amounts of lithium, bromine and iodine. They further often contain a little iron, which is an important addition. The great majority of the drinking wells have a large supply of carbonic acid. There are cold and hot salt springs. Sometimes they are used for drinking, sometimes for bathing ; and the double use of them is often resorted to. The normal quantity of common salt consumed daily by man is usually set down at about 300 grains. The maximum quantity likely to be taken at any well may be 225 grains, but commonly not more than naif of that amount is taken. The increase to the usual daily amount is therefore probably not much more than one-third. Still it may be presumed that the action of a solution of salt on an empty stomach is different from that of the same amount of salt taken with food. Salt introduced into the stomach excites the secretion of gastric juice and favours the peristaltic actions, and when taken in considerable quantity is distinctly aperient. We thus see how it is useful in dyspepsia, in atony of the stomach and intestines, and sometimes in chronic intestinal catarrh. Salt when absorbed by the stomach appears again in the urine, of which it increases the amount both of fluid and of solid constituents, especi- ally of the urea. It seems, therefore, to be pretty certain that considerable quantities of salt taken into the circulation increase the excretion of nitrogenous products through the urine, and on the whole accelerate the transformation of tissue. Salt is thus useful in scrofula by stimulating the system, and also in anaemia, especially when iron is also present. In some German stations, as at Soden, carbonated salt waters are considered to be useful in chronic laryngitis or granular pharyngitis. Baths of salt water, as usually given, rarely contain more than 3 % of chloride of sodium, some of the strongest perhaps from 8 to 10%. Their primary action is as a stimulant to the skin, in which action it is probable that the other chlorides, especially that of calcium, and still more the carbonic acid often present, co-operate. In this way, and when aided by various processes of what may be termed water poultices and packing, they are often useful in remov- ing exudations, in chronic metritis and in some tumours of the uterus, and generally in scrofula and rachitis, and occasionally in some chronic skin affections. The French accord high praise to some of their thermal salt waters in paralysis, and some German ones are used in a similar way in spinal affections. The salt waters are sometimes so strong that they must be diluted for bathing. In other cases concen- trated solutions of salt are added to make them sufficiently strong. These waters are widely diffused, but on the whole Germany is richest in them, especially in such as are highly charged with salt. The Kissingen springs may be considered as typical of the drinking wells, and sea-water of bathing waters. The air of salt-works and pulverization of the water are employed in German baths as remedial agents. Salt springs are found in many quarters of the world, but the chief carbonated groups for drinking purposes occur in Germany, and at Saratoga in America, where very remarkable wells indeed are to be found. France and England have no springs of this class. The stronger wells, used chiefly for bathing, occur where Table IV. — Salt Springs. Locality. S u 11 "Soden, near J Frankfort . . ) Homburg, do. Kissingen, Bavaria Pyrmont, North Germany . Kreuznach, near Bingen . Wiesbaden, Nassau Baden-Baden . . Botrrbonne, Haute-Marne . Balaruc, South France . Salins, Moutiers, Savoy (1480 ft.) Brides, Savoy ) (1700 ft.) . . 5 Acqui, North Italy Abano, do Caldas de Mom- buy, near Bar- celona . Cestona, Guipuz- coa, Spain . Temp. Fahr. 155 156 1 14-149 116-6 96 95 169 185 153-158 88-94 Therapeutic Action. Dyspepsia, anaemia, scrofula, special for throat and phthisis. S Dyspepsia, slighter hepatic ( affections, chlorosis, gout. In all essentials the same. 5 Better known for its iron ; has ( a good salt drinking spring. iA salt well without carbonic acid; used in scrofula and anaemia; bathing more important. (Used in dyspepsia and gout, j the bathing is most import- ( ant. S Still milder water; uses simi 1 lar; gout. J Rheumatism, neuralgia, effects ( of malaria. S Do. ; special for treatment of I paralysis. S Scrofula, anaemia, loss of ( power, sexual disorders. S Act on liver and digestive ( canal ; used for obesity. ( Rheumatism ; special treat- } ment with the bath deposit. Chiefly as baths; mud of bath used for poultice. (Rheumatism, sciatica, old in- ( juries. J Rheumatism, indigestion, bron- ) chitis. Almost all the above stations have several springs of various strengths: the cold may be said to vary from 14 to 5-8 % of chloride of sodium; the warm are generally weaker, perhaps varying from 6-8 to i-6. there are salt-bearing strata, as in Germany, Galicia, Italy, Switzer- land, France and England. Very powerful waters of this class are those of St Catherines in Canada. The presence of minute portions of iodine or bromine in salt waters is by no means infrequent, and they appear in considerable quantity in some few. It is, however, extremely doubtful whether any known spring contains a sufficient quantity of iodine, still more of bromine, to act specially on the system, even if that action were not necessarily superseded by the presence of the large quantity of $20 MINERAL WATERS other salts with which they are associated. Some of the best- known springs of the kind are: Challes, Wildegg, Castrocaro, Hall, Adelheid's Quelle, Krankenheil, Kreuznach, Woodhall Spa. Iron or Chalybeate Waters. — Iron usually exists in waters in the state of protoxide or its carbonate, less frequently as sulphate or crenate, and very rarely, if at all, as chloride. The quantity present is usually extremely small. It may be said to vary from o- 12 to 0-03 in the iooq parts of water. Some wells considered distinct chaly- beates contain less than 0-03. Many wells, especially in Germany, have a rich supply of carbonic acid, which is unfortunately wanting in French and English ones. It has long been the prevalent idea that want of iron in the blood is the main cause of chlorosis and of other anaemic conditions, and that these conditions are best relieved by a supply of that metal. Since the detection of it in haemoglobuline this view has been still more popular. It is pretty certain that the blood contains 37 to 47 grains and the whole system 70 to 74 grains of iron ; and it has been calculated that in normal conditions of the system somewhat more than one grain of iron is taken daily in articles of food, and that the same amount is passed in the faeces; for although the stomach takes the iron up it is excreted by the alimentary canal mainly, it being doubtful whether any is excreted in the urine. It Table V '.—Stronger Salt Waters. Locality. Rheinfeld, Aargau, Switzer- land Salzungen, North Germany Ischl, Austria (1440 ft.) . Hall, Tyrol (1700 ft.) . . Reichenhall, near Salzburg (1800 ft.) ... . Bex, Rhone Valley (1400 ft.) Castrocaro, Tuscany. Droitwich, near Worcester . Sea Water Rehme, Westphalia (92 F.). Nauheim, Wetterau (80 °- 103 F.) 3ii 256 256 255 224 156 36 233-6 30-4 24-85 29 Therapeutic Application. Scrofula, effects of inflam- mation, chronic exuda- tions, some chronic ex- | anthemas, rheumatism, uterine infiltrations. Do. do. Do. do. Do. do. Do. do. Do. Do. Do. do. do. do. Do. ; special use motor ataxia. in loco Do. do. Table VI. — Iron Waters. Locality. Rippoldsau, Black Forest Homburg, near Frankfort Elster, Saxony . Liebenstein, North Ger- many Schwalbach, Nassau Bocklet, near Kissingen Griesbach, Black Forest Franzensbad, Bohemia Pyrmont, Germany Spa, Belgium Petersthal, Black Forest St Moritz, Engadine, ) Switzerland . . . ) Forges-les-Eaux, France La Malou.Herault, France (temp. 88°) . . . Recoafo, North Italy . Tunbridge Wells, England Muspratt Spring, Harro- gate (chloride) Height in Ft. 1886 1465 911 900 600 1614 1293 1000 1333 5464 1943 600 Carb. of Iron. 0-12 o-io 0-08 0-08 0-08 0-08 0-07 0-07 0-07 0-06 0-04 0-03 0-06 0-08 0-04 0-06 0-15 Therapeutic Use. For anaemic condi- tions; laxative. Do. do. Do. do. Do. ; much of ladies' bath. Do. Do. ; laxative ; ladies' bath. do. laxative, sought for its Do. Do. Do. Do.; Do.; air. Do. Do. Do. Do. ; deficient carbonic acid. is possible by drinking several glasses to take in more than a grain of carbonate of iron in the day, equivalent to half that amount of metallic iron. It has further been ingeniously reckoned from practice that 10 to 15 grains of metallic iron suffice to supply the deficiency in the system in a case of chlorosis. It is thought probable that a portion of the iron taken up in water is in certain patho- logical states not excreted, but retained in the system, and goes towards making up the want of that metal. But whether this or any other explanation be satisfactory, there is no question as to the excellent effects often produced by drinking chalybeate waters (especially when they are carbonated), and by bathing in those which are rich in carbonic acid after they have been artificially heated. As regards the drinking cure we must not, however, forget that carbonate and chloride of sodium, and also the sulphate, are often present and must be ascribed a share in the cure. Thus chloride of sodium is a powerful adjuvant in the strong Stahl Quelle of Homburg and in the Putnam Well at Saratoga. A whole category of female complaints is treated successfully with these waters. Indeed, anaemia from any source, as after fever or through loss of blood, and enlargements of the spleen, are benefited by them. The stimulating action of the copious supply of carbonic acid in steel baths is a very important adjuvant; »o one now believes in direct absorption of iron from the bath. Irrin waters are scarcely ever thermal. They are extremely common in all countries — frequently along with sulphuretted hydrogen in bogs and near coal-measures. But such springs and non-carbonated wells gener- ally are weak, and not now held in much esteem. It may be added that some of the strongest known iron wells are sidphated or aluminated. They are styptic and astringent, and can only be used diluted. They are sometimes useful as an application to ulcers and sores. Such springs have often been brought into notice, but never retain their popularity. They are known in the Isle of Wight, in Wales, in Scotland, as well as in Elba, &c. ; and of late years the Bedford Alum and Oak Orchard Springs, U.S., have been brought into notice, the latter containing 10 grains of free sulphuric acid in the pint. All such springs have been con- sidered useful in scrofula, anaemia and chronic diarrhoeas. Sulphur Springs. — Waters having the odour of hydrosulphuric acid, however slightly, are usually called sulphur ones. They owe their smell sometimes to the presence of the free acid, sometimes to sulphides of sodium, calcium or magnesia, and sometimes to both. Sulphuretted hydrogen is absorbed more freely by cold than by hot water, and is therefore most abundant in cold springs. The sulphides decompose and give off the gas. Most of these springs occur near coal or shale measures, or strata containing fossils, or in moors and in places generally where organic matter is present in the soil or strata. Many of them contain so little mineral impreg- nation that they might as well be classed among the indifferent or earthy waters. One group contains a considerable amount of chloride of sodium, another of sulphate of lime, while a third has little mineral impregnation, but contains sulphides. Sulphuretted hydrogen is a strong poison, and its action on the system has been pretty well ascertained. It has been assumed that the gas in mineral waters acts similarly, though in a modified degree ; but there is next to nothing absolutely known of the action of the small quantities of the gas that are present in mineral waters, and which certainly have no toxic effect. It has been assumed that this gas has some special action on the portal system and so on the liver. On the connexion of metallic poisoning with the liver has been founded the idea that sulphur waters are useful in metallic intoxication. Drinking large quantities of these waters, especially of such as contain sulphates or chlorides of sodium or magnesia, combined with hot baths and exercise, may help to break up albuminates, but there is no proof of the action of the sulphur. For similar reasons, and primarily to counteract mercurial poison, sulphur waters have been considered useful in syphilis. But it may be well to remember that at most baths mercury is used along with them. No doubt they are frequently, like other warm waters, useful in bringing out old eruptions, acting in this way as a test for syphilitic poison, and in indicating the treatment that may be Table VII. — Cold Sulphur Springs. Locality. Sulphuretted Hydrogen dissolved in Water. Sulphide of Sodium. Eilscn, Schaumburg-Lippe . Meinberg, Lippe-Detmold . Gurnigel, Switzerland (3600 ft.) Leuk, do. (3593 ft.) Enghien, near Paris .... Uriage, Isere, France (1500 ft.) . Harrogate, England .... Strathpeffer, Scotland Lisdoonvarna, Clare, Ireland 42-3 231 44-5 7-34 0-008 0-478 0-106 0-207 0-026 required. Sulphur waters, both hot and cold, are used in gout and rheumatism, in dyspepsia, in hepatic and cutaneous affections; and of late years inhalation of them has been popular in phthisis and in laryngeal affections. They have long been popular remedies in cutaneous affections. While so much doubt has been cast on the action of the sulphur of these waters, it may be admitted that the sulphides are probably decomposed in the stomach and sulphur- etted hydrogen generated. That gas is probably a slight stimulant MINERAL WATERS 52i to the intestine. What sulphuretted hydrogen reaches the blood is eliminated by the lungs. There seems to be no doubt that the gas is absorbed in small quantities by the skin. It is in sulphur waters chiefly that glairin and baregin occur. This peculiar organic substance has been found both in American and in European springs. Cold sulphur springs are very widely diffused throughout the world. Thermal ones are not so common. Perhaps the largest though not the strongest group of the latter is to be found in the Pyrenees. We may remark again how very little Table VIII- -Warm Sulphur Springs. Locality. Height in Ft. Temp. Fahr. Hydrosul- phuric Acid absorbed in Water. Sulphide of Sodium. Aix-la-Chapelle, Germany 534 131-140 o-3 o-oi Baden, near Vienna . — 95-H5 2-5 0-052 Schinznach, Switzerland . 1060 80-92 37-8 — Lavey, Rhone Valley . 1350 92-113 3-5 — Hercules Bad, Banat . 500 'no 42-6 — Aix-les-Bains, Savoy . 765 108-5 27-2 — Luchon, Pyrenees ... 2000 135-5 — 0-07 Bareges, do. 4100 113 — 0-04 Amelie-les-Bains,Pyrenees 810 87-147 — - O-OI Cauterets, do. 3254 7I-I34 — 0-02 Eaux Bonnes, do. 2400 9°-5 — 0-02 ■ Archena, Murcia, Spain . — 126 — — "- hydrosulphuric acid there is in many of the most favourite sulphur springs, including the very popular White Sulphur ones of Virginia. There seems to be something peculiarly unsatisfactory in the analysis of sulphur waters, and there has been difficulty in constructing the following imperfect tables. Some of the most powerful cold wells are those of Challes (with its very peculiar water), Leuk and Harrogate. Uriage has a very large amount of chloride of sodium in its springs. Cold_ sulphur waters are on the whole more used in liver and indigestion than warm ones. The general effects of warm sulphur waters differ so little at the various baths as to make it difficult to mention anything special to particular localities. Schinznach has a reputation in skin complaints, Cauterets, Eaux Bonnes and Challes in laryngeal affections, the two Aix, Luchon and Archena in syphilis. Alkaline Waters are such as contain carbonate (chiefly bicarbon- ate) of soda, along with an excess of carbonic acid. Of the action of those carbonates it is known that when taken into the stomach they are neutralized by the gastric juice, and converted into chloride of sodium. On their introduction into the stomach they produce an increased flow of gastric juice. If given during or immediately after meals in any quantity, they impede digestion. They slightly increase peristaltic action, but only feebly, unless assisted by other salts. They act slightly as diuretics. Of the connexion between the biliary system and alkalies, which undoubtedly exists, not much i,s known with certainty. The alkalization of the blood by them is assumed by many, but not proved. It is very doubtful whether they reduce the quantity of fibrine in the blood, and thus induce a lowered state of the system, or whether they have any direct ten- dency to combine with fat and carry off a portion of superfluous adipose tissue. Their excess of carbonic acid, through its action on the stomach, favours the operation of alkaline waters. They have been classed as follows: (1) simple alkalines, where carbonate of soda is the main agent; (2) waters containing in addition some chloride of sodium; (3) waters containing sulphates of soda or of magnesia. All these classes may be said to be used in gout, lithiasis, affections of the liver, catarrh and obstructions of the gall ducts, in dyspepsia, chronic catarrh of the stomach and diarrhoea, in obesity and in diabetes. Some of the waters of the_ second class are supposed to influence bronchial catarrhs and incipient phthisis, while the more powerful sulphated waters of the third class are especially useful in catarrh of the stomach, and in affections of the biliary organs; of these only one of importance (Carlsbad) is thermal. The rival cold waters of Tarasp contain twice as much carbonate of soda. The cold ones are chiefly used internally, the thermal ones both internally and externally. The latter, besides acting as warm water, slightly stimulate the skin when the carbonic acid is abundant, and the carbonate of soda has some slight detergent effect on the cutaneous surface like soap. These waters are un- known in England. They are most abundant in countries of extinct volcanoes. Classes I. and II. of alkaline waters may be said to have a sub- variety in acidulated springs or carbonated waters, in which the quantity of salts is very small, that of carbonic acid large. These table waters are readily drunk at meals. They have of late years been so widely exported as to be within the reach almost of every one. Their practical importance in aiding digestion is in reality much greater than one could expect from their scanty mineraliza- tion. They are drunk by the country people, and also largely exported and imitated. They are very abundant on the Continent, and, although some of the best-known ones enumerated below are German and French, they are common in Italy and elsewhere: Heppingen, Roisdorf, Landskro, Apollinaris, Selters, Bruckenau, Gieshtibel, all German; St Galmier, Pougues, Chateldon, French. Associated with Class III. is that of the strongly sulphated waters known in Germany as bitter or purging waters, which have of late deservedly come into use as purgative agents. They are almost wanting in France and in America, and there are no very good ones in England. The chief supply is from Bohemia and Hungary^ The numerous waters of Ofen are the best known, and some of Table IX. — Alkaline Waters. Class I. — Simple Alkaline. Locality. Vals, South France . Bilin, Bohemia Vichy, France (105° F.) . Neuenahr, Rhineland(92°- 97° F.) ..... La Malou, France (97 F.) Vidago, Portugal . Carb. Soda. 7-1 4-2 5-i Therapeutic Uses. ( Catarrh of stomach, gout, j renal and biliary calculi, ( liver complaints, diabetes. Do. do. do. Do. do. do. ( Mucous catarrh; diabetes ( specially. ( Do.; sedative effect on ( nervous system. Do., gout, urinary affec- tions — "The Portuguese Vichy." Class II. — With Chloride of Sodium varying from 4'j to 1 in amount. Locality. Luhatschowitz, \ Moravia . J Tonnistein, ) Rhine Valley \ Ems, Nassau Ischia, Italy Royat, Auvergne Mont Dore, do.] Bourboule, do. Height in Ft. 1600 1400 3300 2800 Temp. Fahr. 85-115 up to 170 80-95 100-114 107-125 Carb. Soda. 8-4 2-5 1-3 Therapeutic Uses. ( Springs rich both j in carb. soda ( and chl. sodium. I Light antacid j tonic to stom- ( ach. {Special in female complaints and mucous mem- brane. (Specially matism female com- plaints. (Do. and some ( skin affections. ( Asthma, chronic / laryngitis. i Scrofula, rachitis, cutaneous affec- rheu- and Class III.- — With Sulphate of Soda varying from 5-2 to 2 in amount and Carbonate of Soda varying from 3-55 to o-$l in amount. Locality. Elster, Saxony Marienbad, Bohemia. Franzensbad, do. Tarasp, Lower Engadine Carlsbad, Bohemia (121° ) -164 F.) . . . . \ Height in Ft. 1460 1012 1293 4000 1200 Therapeutic Uses. Action on abdominal organs, female complaints. Do. ; special use in obesity. Do. ; specially a ladies' bath. Powerful action on abdomi- nal viscera. Gout, liver affections, biliary and renal calculi, diabetes. them are stronger than the Hunyadi, of which an analysis has been given in Table I. They are easily imitated. Some of the best- known are Ofen, Pullna, Saidschiitz, Friedrichshall, Birmerstorff, Kissingen. Two other classes of waters demand a few words of notice. The French have much faith in the presence of minute quantities of arsenic in some of their springs, and trace arsenical effects .in those who drink them, and some French authors have established a class of arsenical waters. Bourboule in Auvergne is the strongest of them, and is said to contain t \th of a grain of arseniate of soda in 7 oz. of water. Baden-Baden, according to Bunsen's latest analysis, has a right to be considered an arsenical water. It is, however, extremely doubtful whether the small amounts of. arseni- ate of soda which have been detected, accompanied as they are by preponderating amounts of other salts, have any actual operation on the system. The following are among the most noted spring.?: 522 MINERVA Bourboule, Mont Dore, Royat, Salies (Bigorres), Plombieres, Baden-Baden. Of late years lithium has been discovered in the waters of Baden- Baden; and various other places boast of the amount of that sub- stance in their springs. Indeed a new bath has been established at Assmannshausen on the Rhine in consequence of the discovery of a weak alkaline spring containing some lithium. Not very much is known of the action of lithium in ordinary medicine, and it un- doubtedly does not exist in medicinal doses even in the strongest Designation and Locality. c a in >> O V.- U 3 J3 a M a o . p^ §^ U 13 Lebanon, Columbia co., N.Y. (73° F.) Healing, Bath co., Va. (88" F.) Warm, Bath co., Va. (98* F.) Hot, Bath co., Va. (no F.) Paso Robles, San Luis Obispo ) co., Cal. (122° F.) . . . \ Hot, Garland co.,Ark. (93-150' F.) Gettysburg, Adams co., Penn. Sweet, Monroe co., W. Va.(74°F.) Berkeley, Morgan co., W. Va. (74° F.) Alleghany, Montgomery co., Va Bethesda, Waukesha co., Wis. Lower Blue Lick, Nicholas co., Ky Sharon, Schoharie co., N.Y. White Sulphur, Greenbrier co., Va Salt Sulphur, Monroe co., W. Va. Bedford, Bedford co., Penn. St Catharines, Ontario, Canada Caledonia, Ontario, Canada . Hathorne, Saratoga, N. Y. . l_ Ballston, Saratoga co., N. Y. Oak-Orchard Acid, Genesee co., N.Y Rawley, Rockingham co., Va. . Sweet Chalybeate, Alleghany ) co., Va 5 Rockbridge Alum, Rockbridge ? co., Va 5 Cooper's Well, Hinds co., Miss. Crab Orchard, Lincoln co., Ky. Midland, Midland Co., Mich. Bladen, Choctaw co., Ala. (car- bonated alkaline) .■ Congress, Santa Clara co., Cal. (saline-alkaline) St Louis, Gratiot co., Mich, (simple alkaline) Therapeutic Application. Scrofulous ulcers and oph- thalmia, ozoena, chronic diarrhoea and dysen- tery, secondary and tertiary syphilis. rChronic and subacute I rheumatism, gout, neur- algia, nephritic and calculous diseases. (Chronic rheumatism, gout, diseases of liver, neur- algia, contractions of joints. iDartrous diseases of skin, functional diseases of uterus, chronic mer- curial and lead poison- ing. f Calculus, gravel, catarrh -{ of stomach or bladder, I. dyspepsia. 5 Gravel, dyspepsia (diu- ( retic, diaphoretic). J Neuralgia (restorative). Purgative, diuretic. 1 Diabetes mellitus, gravel, inflammation of blad- der, dropsy, albumin- uria (diuretic). Aperient and alterative. Do. do. [Dartrous skin diseases, -j diseases of the bladder, I jaundice, dyspepsia. Do.; scrofula and syphilis. J Anaemia, gravel, calculus 1 (strongly diuretic). J Rheumatism, gout, scro- ( fula, neuralgia. Rheumatism, gout. ( Dyspepsia, jaundice, } dominal plethora. Do. do. do. Ulcers, diseases of skin, passive haemor- rhages, atonic diarrhoea (has 10 grains of free sulphuric acid in the pint). Chlorosis and anaemia generally; tonic. Do. do. do. Scrofula, chronic diar- rhoea. Anaemia, chlorosis, chronic diarrhoea, dropsy. .b- the [Dyspepsia, neuralgia, ■I chronic and subacute L rheumatism. springs. Among these springs are those of Baden-Baden, Assmanns- hausen, Elster, Royat, Ballston Spa, and Saratoga (U.S.). American Mineral Waters. — The number of springs in the United States and Canada to which public attention has been called on account of their supposed therapeutic virtues is very large, amounting in all to more than three hundred. Of this number comparatively few are in Canada, and of these not more than six (St Catharines, Caledonia, Piantagenet, Caxton, Charlottesville and Sandwich) have attained general celebrity. The first three belong to the saline class, the Caxton is alkaline-saline, and the last two are sulphur waters. The St Catharines is remarkable for the very large amounts of sodium, calcium and magnesium chlorides which it contains, its total salts (450 grains in the pint) being more than three times the quantity contained in the brine-baths of Kreuznach in Prussia. The Charlottesville and Sandwich springs likewise surpass the noted sulphur-waters of Europe in their excessive per- centages of sulphuretted hydrogen, the former containing more than 3 and the latter 4-72 cub. in. of this gas in the pint. The mineral springs in the United States are very unequally dis- tributed, by far the larger number of those which are in high medical repute occurring along the Appalachian chain of mountains, and more especially on or near this chain where it passes through the States of Virginia, West Virginia and New York. The Devonian and Silurian formations which overlie the Eozoic rocks along the course of the Appalachian chain have been greatly fissured— the faulting of the strata being in some places of enormous magnitude — by the series of upheavals which gave rise to the many parallel mountain ridges of the Appalachians. In many places the springs occur directly along the lines of fault. The various classes of mineral waters are likewise very unequally represented, the alkaline springs, and those containing Glauber and Epsom salts, being much inferior to their European representatives. On the other hand, the very numerous and abundant springs of Saratoga compare very favourably with the Selters and similar saline waters, and among the many American chalybeate springs the subclass represented by the Rockbridge Alum is unequalled in regard to the very large percentages of alumina and sulphuric acid which it contains. Besides its greater amount of mineral constituents (135 grains per pint), the Ballston spring surpasses the similar saline waters of Homburg, Kissingen, Wiesbaden and Selters, in its percentage of carbonic acid (53 cub. in.). It is also remarkable for the very large proportion of carbonate of lithia, amounting to 0-701 grains. Thermal springs are specially numerous in the territories west of the Mississippi and in California. Those in the east mostly occur in Virginia along the southern portion of the Appalachian chain; in the middle and New England States Lebanon is the only important thermal spring. Subjoined is a list of thirty American springs, the design being to represent as many of the more noted spas as possible, while at the same time enumerating the best representa- tives of the classes and subclasses into which mineral waters are divided according to the German method of classification. Bibliography. — (1) German: E. Osann, Darstellung der Heil- quellen Europas (3 vols., Berlin, 1839-1843); J. Seegen, Handbuch der Heilquellenlehre (Vienna, 1862); B. M. Lersch, Hydrochemie (1870), and many other works; Helfft, Handbuch d. Balneotherapy (8th ed., Berlin, 1874) ; Valentiner, Handbuch d. Balneotherapie (Berlin, 1876); L. Lehmann, Bader u. Brunnen Lehre (Bonn, 1877); J. Braun, System. Lehrbuch d. Balneotherapie, 4th ed., by Fromm (Berlin, 1880); O. Leichtenstern, Balneotherapie (Leipzig, 1880). (2) French: Dictionnaire des eaux minkrales, &c, by MM. Durand- Fardel, &c. (2 vols., Paris, i860); J. Lefort, Traite de chemie hydro- lologique (2nd ed., Paris, 1873); C. James, Guide pratique aux eaux minerales (Paris), many editions; Mac<5, Guide aux villes d'eaux, &c. (Paris, 1881); Joanne and Le Pileur, Les Bains d' Europe (Paris). (3) Swiss: Meyer Ahrens, Heilquellen der Schweitz (Zurich, 1867); Gsell Fels, Die Bader und Kurcrte der Schweitz (Zurich, 1880). (4) Italian: G. Jervis, Guida alle acque minerali d' Italia (Turin, 1876, &c); E. F. Harless, Die Heilquellen und Kurbader Italiens (Berlin, 1848). (5) Spanish: Rubio, Tratado de las fuenles miner- ales de Espana (Madrid, 1853); Don J. de Antelo y Sanchez has recently published a work on Spanish waters. (6) English: T. Short, History of the Mineral Waters (London, 1734); J. Rutty, Methodical Synopsis of Mineral Waters (London, 1757); Granville, Spas of England (1841) ; E. Lee, Mineral Springs of England (London, 1841) ; J. Macpherson, Our Baths and Wells (1871) ; id., Bathsand Wells of Europe (1873); and H. Weber's Eng. ed. of Braun (London, 1875). A great portion of the literature is to be found in monographs on particular places. (7) American: J. Bell, The Mineral and Thermal Springs of the United States and Canada (1855); J. J. Moorman, The Mineral Waters of the United States and Canada (1867); C. F. Chandler, Lecture on Water (1871) ; G. E. Walton, The Mineral Springs of the United States and Canada (1875) ; I. Burney Yeo, The Therapeutics of Mineral Springs (1904). MINERVA, an Italian goddess, subsequently identified with Athena. She presided over all handicrafts, inventions, arts and sciences. Her oldest sanctuary at Rome was in the temple built by Tarquin on the Capitol, where she was worshipped with Jupiter and Juno. She had also a temple on the Aventine, MINGHETTI— MINIATURE 523 which was the meeting-place for dramatic poets and actors, whose organization into gilds under her patronage dated from the time of Livius Andronicus (q.v.). The dedication day of the temple was the 19th of March, the great festival of Minerva, called quinquatrus, because it fell on the fifth day after the ides. All the schools had holidays at this time, and the pupils on reassembling brought a fee (minerval) to the teachers. In every house also the quinquatrus was a holiday, for Minerva (like Athena Ergane) was patron of the women's weaving and spinning and the workmen's craft. At a later time the festival extended over five days, the last four being chiefly occupied with gladiatorial shows — because Minerva was the goddess of war (Ovid, Fasti, iii. 809-834; Juvenal x. 115, with Mayor's note). The erection of a temple to her by Pompey out of the spoils of his eastern conquests shows that she was the bestower of victory, like Athena Nike, and the dedication of a vestibule in the senate house by Augustus recalls Athena the goddess of counsel (fiovKaia). Under Domitian, who claimed her special protection, the worship of Minerva attained its greatest vogue in Rome. The emperor Hadrian founded an educational institution, named after her the Athenaeum. The 23rd of March had always been the day of the tubilusirium, or purification of the trumpets used in the sacred rites, so that the ceremony came to be on the last day of Minerva's festival, but it is very doubtful whether it was really connected with her. There was another temple of Minerva on the Caelian Hill, where she was worshipped under the name of Capta, the " captive," the origin of which is unknown. Here a festival called the lesser quinqua- trus was celebrated on the i3th-i4th of June, chiefly by the flute-players (Livy ix. 30; Ovid, Fasti, vi. 651). As the Romans learnt the use of the flute from the Etruscans, the fact of Minerva being the patron goddess of flute-players is in favour of her Etruscan origin, although it may merely be a reminiscence of the Greek story which attributed the invention of the flute to Athena. A carved image of the goddess called the Palladium, said to have been brought from Troy to Lavinium, and thence to Rome by the family of the Nautii, was kept in the temple of Vesta and carefully guarded as necessary to the prosperity of the city. The older form of the name Minerva is Menerva ( = Menes-va, Gr. fievos); it probably means " thinker." MINGHETTI, MARCO (1818-1886), Italian economist and statesman, was born at Bologna on the 18th of November 1818. In 1846 he signed the petition to the Conclave for the election of a Liberal pope, and was appointed member of the state council summoned to prepare the constitution for the papal states. With Antonio Montanari and Rodolfo Audinot he founded at Bologna a paper, II Felsineo. In the first constitu- tional cabinet, presided over by Cardinal Antonelli, Minghetti held the portfolio of public works, but after the allocution by Pius IX. against the Italian war of independence he resigned, and joined the Piedmontese army as captain on the general staff. Returning to Rome in September 1848, he refused to form a cabinet after the assassination of Pellegrino Rossi, and spent the next eight years in study and travel. Summoned to Paris by Cavour in 1856 to prepare the memorandum on the Romagna provinces for the Paris congress, he was in 1859 appointed by Cavour secretary-general of the Piedmontese Foreign Office. In the same year he was elected president of the assembly of the Romagna after the rejection of pontifical rule by those pro- vinces, and prepared their annexation to Piedmont. Appointed Piedmontese minister of the interior, he resigned office shortly after Cavour's death, but was subsequently chosen to be minister of finance by Farini, whom he ■succeeded as premier in 1863. With the help of Visconti-Venosta he concluded (Sept. 15, 1864) the " September Convention " with France, whereby Napoleon agreed to evacuate Rome, and Italy to transfer her capital from Turin to Florence. The convention excited violent opposition at Turin, in consequence of which Minghetti was obliged to resign office. He took little part in public life until 1869, when he accepted the portfolio of agriculture in the Menabrea Cabinet. Both in and out of office he exercised his influence against an Italo-French alliance and for an immediate advance upon Rome, and in 1870 was sent to London and Vienna by the Lanza-Sella Cabinet to organize a league of neutral powers on the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War. In 1873 he overthrew the Lanza-Sella Cabinet and regained the premier- ship, which, with the portfolio of finance, he held until the fall of the Right from power on the 18th of March 1876. During his premiership he inaugurated the rapprochement between Italy, Austria and Germany, and reformed the naval and military administration; and before his fall he was able, as finance minister, to announce the restoration of equilibrium between expenditure and revenue for the first time since i860. After the advent of the Left, Minghetti remained for some years in Opposition, but towards 1884 joined Depretis in creating the " Trasformismo," which consisted in bringing Conservative support to Liberal cabinets. Minghetti, however, drew from it no personal advan- tage, and died at Rome on the 10th of December 1886 without having returned to power. His writings include : Delia economia pubblica e delle sue attinenze con la morale e col diritto (Bologna, 1859), and La Chiesa e lo Stato (Milan, 1878). MINGRELIA, a former principality of Transcaucasia, which became subject to Russia in 1804, and since 1867 has belonged to the government of Kutais. The country corresponds to the ancient Colchis; and Sukhum Kaleh on the Black Sea coast, which was the capital under the Dadian dynasty (1323-1694), is to be identified with the ancient Dioscurias, a colony of Miletus. The Mingrelians, who are closely akin to the Georgians, numbered 241,000 in 1902, and belong to the Orthodox Greek Church (see further Kutais and Caucasia). MINIATURE. The word "miniature," derived from the Latin minium, red lead, has been technically employed, in the first instance, to describe a picture in an ancient or medi- eval manuscript; the simple decoration of the early codices having been " miniated " or delineated with that pigment. The generally small scale of the medieval pictures has led secondly to a pseudo-etymological confusion of the term with " minute- ness " and to its application to " paintings in little "; it is now used mainly in this sense, and is ordinarily applied to a painting on a very small scale, usually a portrait, and by analogy to anything on a very small scale. 1. Miniatures in Ancient and Medieval MSS. — The part played by the miniature in the scheme of the ornamentation of MSS., in the early centuries of the Christian era and in the middle ages, is dealt with in the article on Illuminated MSS. In the present article will be discussed the development and changes which it underwent, in different ages and in different countries, both in its technical treatment and in its leading characteristics. The subject divides itself into two distinct portions, the classical and the medieval, between which there lies the great separating space of the early middle ages, which affords but scanty material to connect them. When, however, we have advanced into the middle ages, we are no longer at a loss; and we can follow the later development of the miniature through all its changes in the various schools of western Europe down to its transition into the modern picture. The importance of the study of the miniature has perhaps hardly received in the past the recognition which it merits. The history of painting cannot be perfectly understood without a knowledge of the rise and progress of the art of miniature- painting in MSS; and examples of the art still survive in an abundance which frescoes and paintings in the large cannot rival. Modern methods of photography have brought within the reach of the student material which in earlier generations was not accessible; and consequently a juster conception can be formed of the position which the miniature holds in the history of art than was possible before. The earliest examples that have descended to us are closely connected in style and treatment with the pictorial art of the later Roman classical period. In fact they are separated from that period by only two or three centuries, and they still follow its traditions. The oldest specimens of all are the series of coloured drawings or miniatures cut from an illustrated MS. 524 MINIATURE of the Iliad and now in the Ambrosian Library at Milan, which there is good reason for placing as early as the 3rd century. In these pictures there is a considerable variety in the quality of the drawing, but there are many notable instances of fine figure-drawing, quite classical in sentiment, showing that the earlier art still exercised its influence. Such indications, too, of landscape as are to be found are of the classical type, not conventional in the sense of medieval conventionalism, but still attempting to follow nature, even if in an imperfect fashion; just as in the Pompeian and other frescoes of the Roman age. Of even greater value from an artistic point of view are the miniatures of the Vatican MS. of Virgil, known as the " Schedae Vaticanae," of the 4th century. They are in a more perfect condition and on a larger scale than the Ambrosian fragments, and they therefore offer better opportunity for examining method and technique. The drawing is quite classical in style, and the idea is conveyed that the miniatures are direct copies from an older series. The colours are opaque: indeed, in all the miniatures of early MSS. the employment of body colour was universal. The method followed in placing the different scenes on the page is highly instructive of the practice followed, as we may presume, by the artists of the early centuries. It seems that the background of the scene was first painted in full, covering the whole surface of the page; then, over this background were painted the larger figures and objects; and over these again the smaller details in front of them were superimposed. Again, for the purpose of securing something like perspective, an arrangement of horizontal zones was adopted, the upper ones containing figures on a smaller scale than those below. It was reserved for the Byzantine school to break away more decidedly from the natural presentment of things and to develop convention. Yet in the best early examples of this school the classical sentiment still lingers, as the relics of the miniatures of the Cottonian Genesis, in the British Museum, and the best of the miniatures of the Vienna Dioscorides testify; and in the miniatures of the later Byzantine MSS., which were copied from earlier examples, the reproduction of the models is faithful. But on comparing the miniatures of the Byzantine school generally with their classical predecessors, one has a sense of having passed from the open air into the cloister. Under the restraint of ecclesiastical domination Byzantine art became more and more stereotyped and conventional. The tendency grows to paint the flesh-tints in swarthy hues, to elongate and emaciate the limbs, and to stiffen the gait. Browns, blue-greys and neutral tints are in favour. Here we first find the technical treatment of flesh-painting which afterwards became the special practice of Italian miniaturists, namely the laying on of the actual flesh-tints over a ground of olive, green or other dark hue. Landscape, such as it was, soon became quite conventional, setting the example for that remarkable absence of the true representation of nature which is such a striking attribute of the miniatures of the middle ages. And yet, while the ascetic treatment of the miniatures obtained so strongly in Byzantine art, at the same time the Oriental sense of splendour shows itself in the brilliancy of much of the colouring and in the lavish employment of gold. In the minia- tures of Byzantine- MSS. are first seen those backgrounds of bright gold which afterwards appear in such profusion in the productions of every western school of painting. The influence of Byzantine art on that of medieval Italy is obvious. The early mosaics in the churches of Italy, such as those at Ravenna and Venice, also afford examples of the dominating Byzantine influence. But the early middle ages provide but few landmarks to guide the student; and it is only when he emerges into the 12th century, with its frescoes and miniatures still bearing the impress of the Byzantine tradition, that he can be satisfied that the connexion has always existed during the intervening centuries. When we turn to the farther-west of Europe, there also we find under the Carolingian monarchs a school of painting obviously derived from classical models, chiefly of the Byzantine type, but whether derived directly from the East, or, what is more probable, transmitted through Italian channels, must remain doubtful. The interest of that school for our present purpose is that it was the parent of the later miniature-painting in the countries of the West. For in the native schools of those countries decoration only was the leading motive. In the MSS. of the Merovingian period, in the school which connected Frankland and northern Italy, and which is known as Lombardic or Franco-Lombardic, in the MSS. of Spain, in the productions of the Celtic school of our own islands, figure-drawing was scarcely known, and where it was practised it was of a barbarous character, serving rather as a feature of decoration than as a representation of the human form. Hence in those native schools the miniature, in its true sense of a picture, may be regarded as non-existent. From these native schools we exclude the Anglo-Saxon school, developed especially at Canterbury and Winchester, which probably derived its characteristic free-hand drawing from classical Roman models, scarcely influenced by the Byzantine element. The highest qualities of the miniatures of the 10th and nth centuries of this school lie in fine outline drawing, which had a lasting influence on the English miniature of the later centuries. But the southern Anglo-Saxon school rather stands apart from the general line of development of the western medieval miniature. How far it was affected by Continental influence will be presently noticed. Turning to the productions of the Carolingian school, which owed its origin to the encouragement of Charlemagne, it is seen that the miniature appears in two forms. First, there is the truly conventional miniature following the Byzantine model, the subjects being generally the portraits of the Evangelists, or portraits of the emperors themselves: the figures stiff and formal; the pages brilliantly and often coarsely coloured and gilded, generally set in architectural surroundings of a fixed type, and devoid of landscape in the real sense of the word. On the other hand, there is also the miniature in which there is an attempt at illustration, as, for example, the depicting of scenes from Bible history. Here there is more freedom; and we trace the debased classical style which copies Roman, as distinguished from Byzantine, models. The figure-drawing is sufficiently clumsy, but the type is Roman, or debased Roman, and the costumes are clearly derived from the same source. Here, too, there is a better attempt at landscape, which is not of the absolutely conventional deadness of the Carolingian- Byzantine type. But this second style of illustrative miniature appears only occasionally. The other was the characteristic miniature of the Carolingian school, and, accompanied as it was with profuse decoration in border and initial, it set the pattern for the later Continental schools of the West. The influence which the Carolingian school exercised on the miniatures of the southern Anglo-Saxon artists shows itself in the extended use of body-colour and in the more elaborate employment of gold in the decoration. Such a MS. as the Benedictional of Aethelwold, bishop of Winchester, 963 to 984, with its series of miniatures drawn in the native style but painted in opaque pigments, exhibits the influence of the foreign art. But the actual drawing remained essentially national, marked by its own treatment of the human figure and by the peculiar disposition of the drapery with fluttering folds. Its fault was over-refinement, tending to an affected exaggeration and disproportion of the limbs. With the Norman Conquest this remarkable native school passed away. The period immediately succeeding the Carolingian school in western Europe was one of extreme decadence in the minia- tures of MSS. In the 10th and nth centuries they were mere lifeless copies of earlier types. But with the awakening of art in the 12th century the decoration of MSS. received a powerful impulse. Although the artist of the time excels in the border and the initial, still in the miniature also there is vigorous drawing, with bold sweeping lines and careful study of the draperies. The artist now grows more practised in figure- drawing, and while there is still the tendency to repeat the same subjects in the same conventional manner, individual effort MINIATURE 525 produced in this century many miniatures of a very noble character. The Norman Conquest had brought England directly within the fold of Continental art; and now began that grouping of the French and the English and the Flemish schools, which, fostered by growing intercourse and moved by common impulses, resulted in the magnificent productions of the illuminators of north-western Europe from the latter part of the 12th century onwards. But of natural landscape there is nothing, unless rocks and trees of a stereotyped character can be so regarded. Hence the background of the miniature of the 1 2th and immediately succeeding centuries became the field for decoration to throw into stronger relief the figures in the scene. And thus arose the practice of filling in the entire space with a sheet of gold, often burnished: a brilliant method of ornament which we have already seen practised in the Byzan- tine school. We have also to notice the conventional treatment of the sacred figures, which continue henceforward, from a sense of veneration, to be clad in the traditional robes of the early centuries, while the other figures of the scene wear the ordinary dress of the period. It will be convenient, at this point, to follow the development of the miniature in the northern schools of England and France and the Low Countries, occasionally glancing at Germany, during the next three centuries, and to leave aside for the moment consideration of the Italian school and the schools allied therewith. Entering the 13th century, we reach the period when the miniature may be said to justify the modern false etymology which has connected the title with minuteness. The broad, bold style of the 12 th century gives place to the precise and minute. Books in general exchanged their form from the large folio to the octavo and smaller sizes. There was a greater demand for books; and vellum was limited in quantity and had to go further. The handwriting grew smaller and lost the roundness of the 12th century. Contractions and abbreviations in the texts largely increased in number. Everywhere there is an effort to save space. And so with the miniature. Figures were small, with delicate strokes in the features and with neat slim bodies and limbs. The backgrounds blaze with colour and burnished gold; and delicate diaper patterns of alternate gold and colour abound. Frequently, and especially in English MSS., the drawings are merely tinted or washed with transparent colours. In this century, too, the miniature invades the initial. Whereas in the earlier periods bold flowering scrolls are the fashion, now a little scene is introduced into the blank spaces of the letter. To compare the work of the three schools, the drawing of the English miniature, at its best, is perhaps the most graceful; the French is the neatest and the most accurate; the Flemish, including that of western Germany, is less refined and in harder and stronger lines. As to colours, the English artist affects rather lighter tints than those of the other, schools: a partiality is to be observed for light green, for grey-blue, and for lake. The French artist loved deeper shades, especially ultra- marine. The Fleming and the German painted, as a rule, in less pure colours and inclined to heaviness. A noticeable feature in French MSS. is the red or copper-hued gold used in their illuminations, in strong contrast to the paler metal of England and the Low Countries. It is remarkable how the art of the miniature throughout the 13th century maintains its high quality both in drawing and colour without any very striking change. Throughout the century the Bible and the Psalter were in favour; and natur- ally the same subjects and the same scenes ran through the period and were repeated by artist after artist ; and the very character of those sacred books would tend to restrain innovation. But towards the close of the period such secular works as the romances were growing in popularity, and afforded a wider field for the invention of the illustrating artist. Therefore with the opening of the 14th century a palpable change of style supervenes. We pass to more flowing lines; not to the bold sweeping strokes and curves of the 12th century, but to a graceful, delicate, yielding style which produced the beautiful swaying figures of the period. In fact the miniature now begins to free itself from the r61e of an integral member of the decorative scheme of illumination and to develop into the picture, depending on its own artistic merit for the position it is [to hold in the future. This is shown by the more prominent place that the miniature now assumes, and by its growing independence of the decorative border and initial. But, at the same time, while the miniature of the 14th century thus strives to dissociate itself from the rest of the illuminated details of the MS., within itself it flourishes in decoration. Besides the greater elasticity of the figure- drawing, there is a parallel development in the designs of the backgrounds. The diapers become more elaborate and more brilliant; the beauty of the burnished gold is enhanced by the stippled patterns which are frequently worked upon it; the gothic canopies and other architectural features which it became the practice to introduce naturally followed the development of the architecture of the period. In a word, the great expansion of artistic sentiment in decoration of the best type, which is so prominent in the higher work of the 14th century, is equally conspicuous in the illuminated miniature. In the early part of the century, English drawing is very graceful, the figures bending with a waving movement which, if they were not so simple, would be an affectation. Both in the outline specimens, washed with transparent colour, and in the fully . painted examples, the best English work of this time is unsurpassed. French art still maintains its neat precision, the colours more vivid than those of England and the faces delicately indicated without much modelling. The productions of the Low Countries, still keeping to the heavier style of drawing, appear coarse beside the works of the other schools. Nor does German miniature art of this period hold a high position, being generally mechanical and of a rustic character. As time advances the French miniature almost monopolizes the field, excelling in brilliancy of colouring, but losing much of its purity of drawing although the general standard still remains high. The English school gradually retrogrades and, owing no doubt to political causes and to the wars with France, appears to have produced no work of much value. It is only towards the end of the century that there is a revival. This revival, which is referred to in the article on Illuminated MSS., has been attributed, with some reason, to a connexion with the flourishing school of Prague — a school which in the scheme of colouring suggests a southern influence — following on the marriage of Richard II. with Anne of Bohemia in 1382. The new style of English miniature painting is distinguished by richness^f colour, and by the careful modelling of the faces, which compares favourably with the slighter treatment by the contemporary French artists. Similar attention to the features also marks the northern Flemish or Dutch school at this period and in the early 15th century; and it may therefore be regarded as an attribute of Germanic art as distinguished from the French style. The promise of the new development in English miniature painting, however, was not to be fulfilled. In the first quarter of the 1 5th century, examples of great merit were produced, but at a standstill in drawing and fettered by medieval convention. The native art practically came to a close about the middle of the century, just when the better appreciation of nature was breaking down the old conventional representation of landscape in European art, and was transforming the miniature into the modern picture. Whatever miniature painting was to be produced in England after that time was to be the work of foreign artists or of artists imitating a foreign style. The condition of the country during the Wars of the Roses suffi- ciently accounts for the abandonment of art. Thus the history of the miniature in the 15th century must be sought in the manuscripts of the Continental schools. First we have to consider northern France and the Low Countries. As it passes out of the 14th and enters the 15th century, the miniature of both schools begins to exhibit greater freedom in composition; and there is a further tendency to aim rather at general effect by the colouring than neatness in drawing. This was encouraged by the wider field opened to 526 MINIATURE the miniaturist. Books of all kinds were illustrated, and sacred books, Bibles and Psalters and liturgical books, were no longer the chief, if not the only, MSS. which were illuminated. And yet there was one class of MSS. which came into the greatest promi- nence and which was at the same time liturgical. This was the Horae, or Hours of the Virgin, &c, devotional books for individual use, which were multiplied in vast numbers and contained some of the finest work of the miniaturists. The decoration of these little volumes escaped in great measure from the con- ventional restraints which their religious character might have imposed. Futhermore, the demand for illuminated MSS. had by this time established a regular trade; and their production was not confined, as formerly, to the cloister with its narrow and limited views. Early in the century the old conventional treatment of land- scape still held its own; nor did the diapered and gilded back- ground pass out of use. Indeed, in some of the finest French specimens of the time the diapered patterns are more brilliant than ever. But natural scenery in the second quarter of the century asserts itself more decidedly, although with faults in perspective. It was not until another generation had arisen that there was a true appreciation of the horizon and of atmospheric effect. The miniatures of the French and Flemish schools run fairly parallel for a time, but after the middle of the century national characteristics become more marked and divergent. The French miniature began to deteriorate, though some very fine ex- amples were produced by the more gifted artists of the school. The figure-drawing was more careless, and the painting tended to hardness without depth, which the artist endeavoured to relieve by an excess of gilt shading. The close of the century brought with it the end of the French miniature; for the ex- travagant productions of the 16th century cannot be counted as worthy of consideration. The French miniature went down before the Flemish school, which in the latter part of the 15th century attained to its highest excellence. The Flemish miniature affected extreme softness and depth of colour; also an ever-increasing carefulness in the treatment of details, of the draperies, of the expression of the features: the Flemish type of the Virgin's face, for ex- ample, with its full, high forehead, can never be mistaken. In the best Flemish miniatures of the period the artist succeeds in presenting a wonderful softness and glow of colour; nor did the high standard cease with the 15th century, for many excellent specimens still remain to attest the favour in which it was held for a few decades longer. In the foregoing remarks what has been said in regard to the careful treatment of details applies still more to the miniatures executed in grisaille, in which the absence of colour invited an even stronger accentuation of that treatment. This is perhaps most observable in the grisaille miniatures of northern Flanders, which often suggest, particularly in the strong angular lines of the ■ draperies, a connexion with the art of the wood- engraver. The Flemish miniature did not, however, hold the favour of western Europe without a rival. That rival had arisen in the south, and had come to perfection concurrently with the miniature of the Low Countries in the 15th century. This was the Italian miniature; and the history of its development now claims a brief notice. We return to the 13th century, where we suspended examination of the work of the school of the miniature painters of Italy; but we are not in a position, from lack of material, to follow so closely the development of the Italian miniature. Yet there is enough to show that it passed through the same stages as the miniatures of England and France and the Low Countries. Intercommunication between the countries of Europe was too well established for the case to be otherwise. In Italian MSS. of the normal type the influence of Byzantine art is very manifest during the 13th and 14th centuries. The old system of painting the flesh tints upon olive green or some similar pigment, which is left exposed on the lines of the features, thus obtaining a swarthy complexion, continued to be practised in a more or less modified form into the 15th century. As a rule, the pigments used are more opaque than those employed in the northern schools; and the artist trusted more to colour alone to obtain the desired effect than to the mixture of colour and gold which gave such brilliant results in the diapered patterns of France. The vivid scarlet of the Italian miniaturists is peculiarly their own. The figure- drawing does not bear comparison with the contemporary art of English and French MSS., the human form being often stunted and thick-set. In general, the Italian miniature, before its great expansion in the 14th century, is far behind the miniatures of the north. But with the 15th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, it advanced into the front rank and rivalled the best work of the Flemish school. The use of thicker pig- ments enabled the miniaturist to obtain the hard and polished surface so characteristic of his work, and to maintain sharpness of outline, without losing the depth and richness of colour which compare with the same qualities in the Flemish school. The Italian style was followed in the MSS. of Provence in the 14th and 15th centuries. It had its effect, too, on the school of northern France, by which it was also influenced inUurn. In the MSS. of southern Germany it is also in evidence. But the principles which have been reviewed as guiding the develop- ment of the miniature in the more important schools apply equally to all. Like the miniature of the Flemish school, the Italian miniature was still worked to some extent with success, under special patronage, even in the 16th century; but with the rapid displacement of the manuscript by the printed book the miniaturist's occupation was brought to a close. For Authorities see under Illuminated MSS. (E. M. T.) 2. Miniatures as separate Small Pictures. — In Europe the later development of the miniature, applied almost exclusively to portraits, is to a large extent English, and the greater number of the chief masters in the art have been Englishmen or have lived in England. Several great portrait painters are said to have worked occasionally in miniature, and there are paintings, small in size attributed with good reason to Holbein, Antonio Moro, John Shute, Cleef, Stretes, Teerlinck, Zucchero, John and T. Betts, and with less probability even to Van Dyck. There is a fine signed work by Shute (see Lomazzo's Trattato dell' arte della pittura, trans. Heydock, 1 598) in the Pierpont Morgan collec- tion; examples by Betts at Montagu House and Madresfield Court, and portraits, by Lavina Teerlinck in the collections of Mr George Salting and Mr J. Pierpont Morgan. The first portrait miniaturist about whom anything definite is known was Nicholas Hilliard (c. 1547-1610), whose work partakes of the characteristics of illuminated manuscripts. The colours are opaque; gold is used to heighten the effect; while the paintings are on card. They are often signed, and have frequently also a Latin motto upon them. It has recently been proved that Hilliard worked for a while in France, and he is probably identical with the painter alluded to in 1577 as " Nicholas Belliart." Nicholas Hilliard was succeeded by his son Lawrence (d. 1640), some works by whom are in the Pierpont Morgan and Madresfield Court collections. His technique was similar to that of his father, but bolder, and his miniatures richer in colour. Isaac and Peter Oliver succeeded Hilliard. Isaac (c. 1 567-161 7) is said to have been the pupil of Hilliard and Zucchero. Peter (1594-1647) was the pupil of Isaac. The two men were the earliest to give roundness and form to the faces they painted. They signed their best works in monogram, and painted not only very small miniatures, but larger ones measuring as much as 10 in. by 9 in. They copied for Charles I. on a small scale many of his famous pictures by the old masters. Several of these copies are at Windsor and at Montagu House. At about the same date Gerbier, Poelemberg, Jamesone, Penelope Cleyn and her brothers, were workers in the art. John Hoskins (d. 1664) was the master of Samuel Cooper, the greatest English miniaturist. The work of Cooper can best be studied in the collection at Ham House. He was followed by a son of the same name, who was known to have been living in 1700, since a miniature signed by him and bearing that date is in the Pierpont MINIATURES Plate 1. CoUeclim of Mr J. Pierponl Morgan. Fig. i. —MRS PEMBERTON. By Holbein. Collection of the Duke of Portland, KG- Fig. 2.— A YOUNG MAN IN DEEP MOURN- ING (i 6 i 6). By Nicolas Hilliard. Collection of Win^ld Digby, Esq. Fig. 3.— LADY LUCY STANLEY. By Isaac Oliver. Collection of .he. Duke oj Buoleuch and Queensbeery. KG. Fig. 4.— OLIVER CROMWELL (unfinished). By Samull Cooper. Collection of the Duke of Pottland, K.G. Fig. 6.— COL. HENRY SIDNEY (1665). By Samuel Cooper. Collection 0/ B.M. the King. Fig. 5.— SIR PHILIP SIDNEY. By Isaac Oliver. Collection of the Duke of Portland, K.G. Fig. 7— INIGO JONES. By David Des Granges. Collection of the Marquis of Exeter. Fig. 8.— CHARLES II. AS A BOY, By John Hoskins. Collection of the Duke of Portland, K.G. Fig. 9-— "MR SYMPSON, MASTER OF MUSIC K." By Thomas Flatman. Plate H MINIATURES Collection aj the Dttke of Portland, K.G. Fig. i.— BERNARD LENS. By himself, 1718. Fig. 4.— MRS PARSONS. By Richard Cosway, R.A. Fig. 3.— UNKNOWN LADY (1781). By John Smart. Fig. 2.— SIR CHARLES OAKELEY. By John Smart. Fig. 5.— MISS FREE. By Andrew Plimer. Collation o\ Mr E. M. Bodgkins. Fig. 7- KITTY FISHER. By Ozias Humphry. Marshall Ball Collection. _ „ . „, t- T ,r.,, n TT CoUectionoj lite Kingof Sweden. * Fig. 8. —A BOY. Fig. 9.— LADY. By Horace Fig . I0 ._THE COUNTESS D'EGMON*. By J. H. Feagonard. Hone. By p. a. Hall Nos. 2, 3, 4, s, 6 and 8 arc al! from the Collection of Mr J. Pierpont Morgan. 18 MINIATURE 527 Morgan collection. It represents the duke of Berwick. Samuel Cooper (1600-1672) was a nephew of Hoskins. He spent much of his time in Paris and Holland, and very little is known of his career. His work has a superb breadth and dignity, and has been well called " life-size work in little." His portraits of the men of the Puritan epoch are remarkable for their truth to life and strength of handling. He painted upon card, chicken skin and vellum, and on two occasions upon thin pieces of mutton bone. The use of ivory was not introduced until long after his time. His work is frequently signed with his initials, generally in gold, and very often with the addition of the date. Flatman (d. 1688); Alexander Cooper (d. 1660), who painted a series of portraits of the children of the king and queen of Bohemia, now belonging to the German emperor, and several of whose best miniatures are in the collections of the queen of Holland and the king of Sweden; David des Granges (1611-1675) whose work can be seen at Ham House and Windsor Castle; R. Gibson (1615-1690); Mrs Rosse, his daughter, who so cleverly imitated the work of Samuel Cooper, and Charles and Mary Beale, deserve notice at this period. They are followed by such artists as Lawrence Crosse (d. 1724), Gervase Spencer (d. 1763), Lens, Nathaniel Hone and Jeremiah Meyer, the latter two notable in connexion with the foundation of the Royal Academy. The workers in black lead (plumbago, as it was called at that time) must not be overlooked, especially David Loggan, Faithorne, White, Forster and Faber. They drew with exquisite detail and great effect on paper or vellum. The 1 8th century produced a great number of miniature painters, of whom Richard Cosway (1742-1821) is the most famous. His works are of great beauty, and executed with a dash and brilliance which no other artist equalled. His best work was done about 1799. His portraits are generally on ivory, although occasionally he worked on paper or vellum, and he produced a great many full-length pencil drawings on paper, in which he slightly tinted the faces and hands, and these he called " stayned " drawings. Cosway's finest miniatures are signed on the back; there is but one genuine signed on the face; very few bear even his initials on the front. George Engleheart (1750-1829) painted 4900 miniatures, and his work is stronger and more impressive than that of Cosway; it is often signed " E " or " G.E." Andrew Plimer (1763-1837) was a pupil of Cosway, and both he and his brother Nathaniel produced some lovely portraits. The brightness of the eyes, wiriness of the hair, exuberance of colour, combined with forced chiaroscuro and often very inaccurate drawing, are characteristics of Andrew Plimer's work. John Smart (1741-1811) was in some respects the greatest of the 18th-century miniaturists. His work excelled in refinement, power and delicacy; its silky texture and elaborate finish, and the artist's love for a brown background, distinguish it. Other notable painters were Ozias Humphry (1 742-1810), Nixon (1741-1812), Shelley (c. 1750-1808), whose best pictures are groups of two or more persons, William Wood, a Suffolk artist (1768-1808), Edridge (1760-1821), Sullivan, Sheriff, Crosse, Bogle, Daye. In the 19th century J. C. D. Engleheart (1784-1862), nephew of George: Andrew Robertson (1777-1845), Beaumont, Behnes, Harlow, Heaphy and Mrs Mee must be mentioned. Sir Thomas Lawrence painted a few miniatures, and Raeburn some in his early days; but the art may be said to have died out with Sir William Ross, the Chalons and Newtori, although some works by Landseer in this form are in existence, some small paintings of flowers by George Lance, and one portrait by Rossetti. Towards the end of the 19th century came a revival of miniature painting, but without producing any masters of the same calibre. Alyn Williams and Lloyd amongst Englishmen, J. W. von Rehling-Quistgaard, the talented Danish miniature painter, and Bess Norris, an Australian artist, deserve mention. From about 1650 onwards many fine miniatures were executed in enamel. Petitot (1 607-1 691) was the greatest worker in this material, and painted his finest portraits in Paris for Louis XIV. His son succeeded him in the same profession. Other artists in enamel were Boit (d. 1727), Zincke (d. 1767), Hurter (1734- 1790), Thouron (1 737-1 789), Liot, Prieur, Spicer, Dinglinger, Vouquer, Bain and Thienpondt. Many of these artists were either Frenchmen or Swiss, but most of them visited England and worked there for a while. The greatest English enamel portrait painter was Henry Bone (1755-1839), the finest of whose productions are now at Kingston Lacy. A great collection of his small enamel reproductions of celebrated paintings is in Buckingham Palace. The earliest French miniature painters were Jean Clouet (d. c. 1540), his son Francois, Jean Fouquet, Jean Perreal and others; but of their work in portraiture we have little trace at the present day, although there are many portraits and a vast number of drawings attributed to them with more or less reason. The seven portraits in the manuscript of the Gallic War (Bibliotheque Nationale) are assigned to the elder Clouet; and to them may be added a fine work, in the Pierpont Morgan collection, representing the Mareschal de Brissac. Following these men we find the two Stresors, St Andre, Cotelle and Masse; the fine draughtsmen Picart, Vauthier and Cheron; and then, later on, we know of miniatures by Largilliere, Boucher, Nattier, Montpetit, Desfosses, Drouais, Charlier, Thouron, Perrin and Dubourg; but the greatest names are those of Hall the Swede, Dumont the Frenchman, and Fiiger the Austrian. The tiny pictures painted by the von Blarenberghe family are by many persons grouped as miniatures, and some of the later French artists, as Prud'hon, Constance Meyer and Dubois, executed miniature portraits, while others whose names might be mentioned were Werner (1637-1710), Rosalba (1675-1757), Chatillon, Pasquier, Marsigli, Garriot, Sicardi and Festa. The most popular artists in France, however, were Augustin (d. 1832) and Isabey (d. 1855). Their portraits of Napoleon and his court are exceedingly fine, and perhaps no other Frenchman painted miniatures so well as did Augustin. The Spanish painter Goya is known to have executed a few miniatures. Miniatures are painted in oil, water-colour and enamel, but chiefly in water-colour. Many Dutch and German minia- tures were painted in oil, and as a rule these are on copper; and there are portraits in the same medium, and often on the same material, attributed to many of the great Italian artists, notably those of the Bologna school. Samuel Cooper is said to have executed a few paintings in oil on copper, but we know little about the artists who prepared the numerous oil portraits in foreign collections. The work of the 18th century on ivory is, of course, in water- colour. The use of ivory came into general adoption in the early part of the reign of William III., miniatures previous to that time having been painted on vellum, chicken-skin or card- board, a few on the backs of playing cards, and many more on very thin vellum closely mounted on to playing cards. The most important collections of miniatures in England in 1907 were those in the possession of the king, the duke of Buccleuch, Mr j. Pierpont Morgan, the duke of Rutland, the earls of Exeter, Ilchester, Dysart, Dartrey (notable for enamel work, some examples of which are of the greatest rarity) and Ancaster (especially notable for works by Cosway), of Earl Beauchamp, the late Baroness Burdett-Coutts, Sir Gardner Engleheart (remarkable for containing almost exclusively works by the Engleheart family), Lord Weardale, and Messrs Drake, Digby, Williams, Whitehead, and Usher of Lincoln. There is a remarkable collection, principally of works in enamel, in the University Gallery, Oxford, a few fine miniatures at South Kensington, and in the same museum in the Jones collec- tion some splendid works by Petitot, and there are also some famous foreign portrait and picture miniatures in the Wallace Collection, Hertford House, London. The collection at the Louvre is of importance, especially as regards the works of Petitot; that belonging to the queen of Holland of very high merit, and includes some choice works by Holbein and Alexander Cooper; and there is also a very fine collection at Amsterdam, including some of the largest works by Samuel Cooper and the largest known by Hoskins; some very fine ones belong to the Crown of Sweden, and there is a superb but very mixed collection in Peter the Great's Gallery in St Petersburg, unfortunately in great confusion and needing re- arrangement. Many fine miniatures, including some very scarce enamel work by Prieur, are at the Rosenborg Palace in Copen- hagen; the German emperor and the Crown of Prussia both own some remarkable examples, and there are important collections at Vienna, Florence and Stockholm, and in private hands in Berlin, Moscow and Helsingfors. 528 MINIM— MINING For fuller information see also J. L. Propert, History of Miniature Art (London, 1887) ; G. C. Williamson, History of Portrait Miniatures (2 vols., folio, 1904), Portrait Miniatures (London, 1897); Richard Cosway (London, 1897); George Engleheart (London, 1902); Andrew Plimer, &c. (London, 1902) ; How to Identify Miniatures (London, 1904); Richard Cosway (London, 1905), and the privately printed catalogue of the Pierpont Morgan Collection (1906, 1907, 1908) ; Les £maux de Petitot du Louvre (Paris, 1 862-1 864); catalogues of the Buccleuch Gallery, Welbeck Gallery, Ward Usher Collection, Bemrose Collection, Woburn Abbey Collection, all privately printed, the catalogue of the collection exhibited at South Ken- sington, and the privately issued catalogue at the Burlington Fine Arts Club, with illustrations. (G. C. W.) MINIM (adapted from Lat. minimus, the smallest; a super- lative formed from the Indo-Germanic root min-, small), the smallest possible part of a thing, a particle. In music the name " minim " (nota minima) was given by medieval musicians to a note whose value was half a semibreve. It was, as its name implies, the note of the shortest duration then in use. In modern music several notes of lesser value, as the " crotchet " and " quaver," have been added, and the minim is now about half- way in the scale of " values." According to Thomas Morley {A Plaine and Easie Introduction to Practical Music, 1597), its introduction into manuscript music is ascribed to Phillipus de Vitriaco, a musician of the 14th century. In medicine a minim is the smallest fluid measure, being equal to one drop. Sixty minims make a fluid drachm. For the religious Order known as " Minims " see Francis of Paola, St. MINING, the general term for the working of deposits of valuable mineral. The term 1 is not limited to underground operations, but includes also surface excavations, as in placer mining and open-air workings of coal and ore deposits by methods similar to quarrying, and boring operations for oil, natural gas or brine. Mining may be subdivided into the operations of prospecting or search for minerals, exploration and develop- ment, work preparatory to active operations, and working. The latter includes not only the actual excavation of the mineral, but also haulage and hoisting by which it is brought to the surface, timbering and other means of supporting the excava- tions, and the drainage and ventilation of mines. Finally, under the heads of administration, mine valuation, mining education, accidents, hygiene and mining law, will be discussed matters having important bearing on mining operations. Special methods of mining are dealt with in the separate articles on Coal, Gold, and other minerals and metals. Quarrying and Ore-dressing, which may be considered as branches of mining, are also discussed in separate articles. Prospecting.— -In the article on Mineral Deposits (q.v.) the distribution and mode of occurrence of the useful minerals and ores are fully discussed. The work of prospecting is usually left to adventurous men who are willing to undergo privation and hardship in the hope of large reward though the chances of success are small. The prospector is guided in his search by a knowledge of the geological conditions under which useful minerals occur. When the rocks are concealed by detrital material he looks for outcroppings on steep hillsides, on the crests of hills or ridges, in the beds of streams, in landslides, in the roots of overturned trees, and in wells, quarries, road- cuttings and other excavations. When the solid rock is not exposed the soil sometimes furnishes an indication of the character of the underlying rock. Sometimes the vegetation, shrubs, trees, &c, as characteristic of certain soils, may furnish evidence as to rock or minerals below. Search should be made in the beds of streams and on the hillsides for " float mineral " or " shoad stones," fragments of rocks and minerals known to be associated with and characteristic of the deposits. Frag- ments of coal, or soil stained black with coal, will be found near the outcrop of coal beds. Grains of gold or particles of ore may be detected by washing samples of gravel in a prospector's 1 Of doubtful origin. " Mine," both verb and substantive, come from the Fr., and is usually connected with Lat. minare, to drive or lead; but this would normally result in Fr. mener, not miner. Skeat, following Thurneysen, accepts a Celtic origin (cf. Irish mein, ore), but the New Eng. Diet, doubts this. pan. By tracing such indications up the stream or up the hill- side the outcrop may sometimes be found, or at least approxi- mately located. The outcrop of a metalliferous vein frequently manifests itself as a line of rocks stained with oxide of iron, often honeycombed and porous, the " gossan " or " eisen-hut," the iron oxide of which results from the decomposition of the pyrites, usually present as a constituent of such veins. Other metals, such as manganese, copper, nickel, may show their presence by characteristic colours. Finally, the surface topo- graphy will often throw much light on the underground structure. The shape of the hills and ridges is necessarily influenced by the inclination of the strata, by the relative hardness of different rock-beds, and by the presence of folds and fissures and other lines of weakness. A quartz vein or bed of hard rock may show itself as a sharp ridge or as a well-defined bench; a stratum of soft rock or the line of a great fissure, or the weakening of the strata by an anticlinal fold, may produce a ravine or a deep valley. The bed of fire-clay under a coal seam, being impervious to water, frequently determines the horizon of numerous springs issuing from the hillsides. As the coal and the associated rocks usually contain pyrites, these springs are often chalybeate. When the location of the deposit has been determined approxi- mately, further search is made by trenches or pits or borings through the surface soil. Exploratory Work. — Before opening and working a mine it is necessary to have as full and accurate information as possible as to the following:— 1. The probable extent and area of the deposit, its average thickness, and the probable amount and value of the mineral; 2. The distribution of the workable areas of mineral in the deposit; 3. Conditions affecting the cost of opening, developing and working the mine or determining the methods to be adopted. Work undertaken to secure this information must be dis- tinguished from prospecting, which is the search for mineral deposits and from development, work undertaken to prepare for actual mining operations. Exploratory work is associated intimately both with prospecting and with development, but the purpose is quite distinct from either prospecting, develop- ment or working, and it is of importance that this should be clearly recognized. It must be remembered that the line between a workable deposit and one that cannot be profitably worked is often very narrow and that the majority of mineral deposits are not workable. The money that is spent in prospecting and in development is therefore liable to prove a loss. This is a recognized and legitimate business risk, differing only in degree from the risks attending all business operations. The risk of failure in mining enterprises is offset by the chances of more than ordinary profits. If the property proves valuable the returns may be very great. While the risk of loss of capital is not to be avoided, it is of the utmost importance to limit the amount of money expended while the extent and value of the deposit are still uncertain and to do the necessary work by the cheapest methods consistent with thoroughness. As the information as to the character and extent of the deposit becomes more definite, and as the prospects of success become more favourable, money may be spent more freely. The risk will vary with the character of the deposit. In the case of the cheaper and more abundant minerals, such as coal and iron ore, and of large deposits of low-grade ores, the extent and character of the deposit can generally be determined by surface examina- tions at comparatively small expense. On the other hand, in the case of less regular deposits, including most metalliferous veins, and especially those of the precious metals, the uncertainty is often very great, and it is sometimes necessary to work on a small scale for months before any considerable expenditure of money is justified. The quickest and cheapest method is by surface explorations. The work of the prospector frequently furnishes much of the information required. By sinking additional pits or by ex- tending the costeaning trenches and uncovering the outcrop of the deposit more fully it is sometimes possible to obtain all the MINING 5?9 information required for the most extensive and important mining operations. Even when the outcrop is oxidized, and Surface the mineral character and richness of the deposit is Explore- altered thereby, it is possible to determine variations tioB ' in thickness and the extent and distribution of the rich and barren areas by outcrop measurements. Information of this sort obtained by surface exploration is often as conclusive as similar information obtained from underground workings. If the deposit shows great variations in thickness in its outcrop along the surface it is probable that a drift or a slope would show the same thing in depth. If the workable areas are poor, and appear only at long intervals along the outcrop, the chances of discovering richer areas by a shaft are very small. In many cases underground exploration is necessary. For example, the deposit does not outcrop as in the case of blind Borlaz ve,ns an< i A at deposits below the general level of the country; or the outcrop lies beyond the limits of the property or under water or water-bearing formations, or is covered by quicksand, or is deeply buried. For such buried deposits boring is cheaper than sinking. In the case of coal, salt, iron ore, pyrite and other homogeneous minerals, boring may give all the information required. With a number of holes the average thickness and probable extent of the deposit may be determined, at least approximately. When the deposit is vertical or steeply inclined, horizontal or inclined bore-holes will be necessary. This will increase the cost of boring and will render the holes more likely to swerve from the true direction. In the case of metalliferous deposits of varying thickness or irregular distribution the information from bore-holes is less satisfactory. A large number of holes must be bored to obtain, even approximately, the average thickness and value of the ore and the shape and size of the ore bodies. In extreme cases the results from boring are likely to be untrustworthy and misleading unless the work is done on such a scale that the cost becomes prohibitory. While the information obtained by surface explorations is always valuable, and sometimes conclusive, as to the value Under- °f the deposit, it is usually necessary to supplement ground Ex- and confirm it by underground work. The outcrop Proration. f a metalliferous vein is generally more or less altered by oxidation, and often a part of the valuable mineral has been converted into a soluble form and leached out. These conditions sometimes extend to a considerable depth. Below the oxidized outcrop the vein is often increased in value by secondary enrichment, sometimes to a depth of several hundred feet. In the case of such altered deposits surface exploration alone is likely to be misleading, and it is important to push the underground exploration far enough to reach the unaltered part of the deposit, or at least deep enough to make it certain that there is a sufficient quantity of altered or enriched ore to form the basis of profitable mining operations. As the sinking of shafts or the driving of narrow entries or drifts is expensive, and as the mineral extracted rarely pays more than a small fraction of the cost, it is usual to plan this exploratory work so that the openings made shall serve some useful purpose later. The mistake is often made of sinking large and expensive shafts, or driving costly tunnels, before it is fully proved that the deposit can be worked on a scale to warrant such developments, and, indeed, too often before it is known that the deposit can be worked at all; and in too many cases large amounts of money are thus unnecessarily lost by over-sanguine mine managers. It is, however, often advisable that the money spent in surface or underground exploration should at the beginning be spent for information alone. The information so gained not only determines the value of the deposit, but also serves to indicate the best methods of development and of working. The money so spent, if judiciously used, insures the undertaking against loss by diminishing the mining risk, and is thus analogous to premiums paid to insure against fire or other sources of loss. Development. — As soon as it appears reasonably certain that the property is workable the mine will be opened by one or more shafts, drifts or tunnels, and the underground passages for active mining operations will be started. A drift or entry is a horizontal passageway starting from the outcrop and following the deposit. The former term is used in metal-mines and the latter in coal-mining. A tunnel differs from a drift in that it is driven across the strata to intersect the deposit Either may be used for drainage of the mine workings, in which case it becomes an adit. A mine should always be opened by drift or entry if practicable, as thereby the expense of hoisting and pumping is avoided. Drifts, entries and tunnels find their chief application in mining regions cut by deep valleys. When, however, the deposit lies below the surface the mine must be opened by a shaft. If the outcrop of the vein or bed is accessible the shaft may be inclined and sunk to follow the deposit. This is in general a cheaper and quicker method of development for inclined deposits than by a vertical shaft, and it has the added advantage that much information as to the character of the deposit is obtained as the shaft is sunk. When the deposit lying below the surface is horizontal, or nearly so, or when the outcrop of an inclined deposit is not accessible, a vertical shaft will be necessary. Vertical shafts are better adapted to rapid hoisting, and have therefore somewhat greater capacity, than inclined shafts. They are to be preferred also for very deep shafts, or for sinking in difficult ground. Drifts and inclined shafts following the deposit may prove difficult of maintenance when the workings become large and settle- ment of the overlying strata begins. Large pillars of mineral should be left for the protection of the main openings, whether these be shafts or adits. In the case of very thick beds and mass deposits the main shaft or tunnel will preferably be located in the foot-wall. Figs. 1 and 2 illustrate the development of a metal-vein by two adits, two inclined shafts in the lode, and by a deep vertical shaft connected with Solml . 'li- the lode by horizontal cross • - '"- cuts. The stippled areas represent the ore shoots and the white areas the barren portions of the lode. The levels are supposed to be 10 fathoms (60 ft.) apart. As the mine is opened the deposit is subdivided into blocks of convenient size by parallel passages, which form later the main haulage roads, and by transverse openings for ventilation. In metal- -/ s* \ ,- . mines the mam passages are ^ * ' ' known as levels, and these Fig. 1. are connected at intervals by winzes or small shafts. In coal mines, entries and headings, bords and walls serve similar purposes. The size of the blocks or the distance between the Fig. 2. main passages is determined mainly by considerations of convenience and economy in excavating and handling the 53° MINING mineral, and by the possibility of supporting the roof long enough to permit the excavation of the mineral without unnecessary risk or expense. In metal mining, when the workable portions of the deposit are small and separated by unworkable areas, the levels serve also the purpose of explora- tion, and in such cases must not be so far apart as to risk missing valuable mineral. In coal-mines main entries are often ioo yds. apart, while in metal-mines the distance between levels rarely exceeds 50 yds. and sometimes is but 50 or 60 ft. In irregular and uncertain deposits this work of development should be kept at all times so far in advance of mining opera- tions as to ensure a regular and uniform output. In some cases, where the barren areas are large, it may be necessary to have two or three years' supply of ore thus blocked out in advance. A mine, however, may be over-developed, which results in loss of interest on the capital unnecessarily locked up for years by excessive development, and involves additional cost for the maintenance of such openings until they are needed for active mining operations. Working. — When the . development of a mine has advanced sufficiently the operation of working or extracting the mineral begins. The method to be adopted will vary with the thickness and character of the deposit, with its inclination, and to some extent with the character of the enclosing rocks, the depth below the surface, and other conditions. The safety of the men must be one of the first considerations of the mine operator. In most civilized countries the safety of mine workers is guarded by stringent laws and enforced by the careful supervision of mine inspectors on behalf of the government. The method of mining adopted must secure the extraction of the mineral at a minimum cost. The principal item in mining cost is that of labour, which is expended chiefly in breaking down the mineral, either by the use of hand tools or with the aid of powder. Labour is also expended in handling the mineral in the working- places and in bringing it to the mine-cars in which it is brought to the surface. Narrow and contracted working-places are to be avoided, as in such places the cost of breaking ground is always large. Economy in handling makes it desirable to bring the mine-cars as near as may be to the point where the mineral is broken. This can be done in inclined deposits, it can often be done by the aid of mechanical appliances, though sometimes at an expense not warranted in the saving in the labour of loading. In steeply inclined beds the working-place can be so arranged that the mineral will fall or slide from the place where it is broken down to the main haulage road. The greatest difficulty is found where the inclination of the deposit is too great to permit the mine-cars to be brought into the working-place and yet not great enough to allow the mineral to fall or slide to a point where it can be loaded. While it is always desirable to provide large working-places, the size of .the working-place is limited by the thickness and size of strength of the overlying beds forming the roof Working- or hanging wall of the mine. With thick and strong Places. rocks the working-places may sometimes exceed 100 or even 200 ft. in width. Indeed in metal-mines 100 ft. is the usual distance from one level to the next. With weak and thin beds forming the roof the working-places are often not wider than 20 or 30 ft. as in most coal-mines. While the width of the working-place is thus limited by the strength of the roof, its length is determined by other considera- tions — namely, the rapidity with which the mining work can be conducted and the length of time it is practicable to keep the working-place open, and also by the increased difficulty of handling the minerals sometimes experienced when the workings reach undue length. In long-wall and in the work of mining pillars the roof will be supported on one side only, the over- hanging beds acting as cantilevers. The working-place in such case is considerably narrower than in rooms or stopes, and there is also greater difficulty in supporting the roof because the projecting beds tend to break close to the point of support where the strain is greatest. This tendency is overcome by the use of timber supports so disposed as to ensure the breaking of the overhanging roof at a safe distance from the working- face and prevent the interruption of the work that might otherwise result. While it is always desirable to work the deposit so as to extract the mineral completely, it frequently happens that this can only be done at greatly increased cost. In complete the case of cheap and abundant minerals and low- Extraction grade ore deposits it is sometimes necessary to of Mineral. sacrifice a considerable proportion of the mineral, which is left for the support of the overlying strata. A similar sacrifice in the shape of pillars is often necessary to support the surface, either to avoid injury to valuable structures or to prevent a flooding of the mine. As already noted large pillars must always be left to protect shafts, adits and the more important mine-passages necessary for drainage, ventilation and the haulage of mineral. In the early history of mining there was but little attempt at systematic development and working, and the mines were often irregular and tortuous. Fig. 3 is Fig. 3. an old Mexican silver-mine of this type. In such mines the mineral was carried out on the backs of men, and the water was laboriously raised by a long line of suction-pumps, operated by hand, each lifting the water a few feet only. With but slight modifications permitting the use of pumps and hoisting- machinery equally simple methods of mining may be seen to-day when the deposit is of small extent. Fig. 4 is a portion of a mine which consists of a series of irregular chambers with the roof sup- ported on small pillars left at intervals for the purpose. In the systematic mining of larger deposits, the simplest plan consists in mining large areas by means of numerous working-places under the protection of pillars of mineral left for the purpose, and later mining these pillars systematically, allowing the ' **" overlying rock beds to fall and fill the abandoned workings. In shallow mines the pillars are small and the saving of the mineral of minor importance. In deep mines the pillars may furnish the bulk of the product, and the control of the fall of the roof, so as to permit the successful extraction of the mineral, demands a well-schemed plan of operation. In the robbing of pillars, timber is necessary for the support oi MINING 53i the roof in the working-places, and later to control the fall of the roof while the pillars are mined. More effective support and control of the roof may be secured by the use of rock-filling alone or with timber. By the use of rock-filling it is even possible to dispense with pillars of mineral; or, if pillars are left, the use of rock-filling greatly facilitates sub- sequent robbing operations. Rock-filling will be used whenever a large proportion of barren material must be mined with the ore. If rock-filling must be brought from the surface its use will generally be confined to mines in which it is difficult to support the roof in any other way. Rcck-filling yields and becomes consolidated under heavy pressure, and therefore does not furnish a rigid support of the overlying strata, but rather a cushion to control and equalize the subsidence. With soft material, pillars must be large, even at moderate depths below the surface, and it involves less labour to leave Room- and long rectangular pillars than to form numerous Pillar- square ones. This leads to the adoption of the Mining. r00m anc [ pillar system so common in coal-mining. Fig. 5 is a mine in a bed of soft iron ore worked by a series Fig. 5. of inclined shafts, from which long horizontal rooms branch off right and left. The usual method of working metal-mines is by overhand and underhand stoping, using rock-filling! or pillars of mineral _., . to support the roof. Fig. 6 represents a portion Stoping. r *i. t 1 e • • i J of one of the Lake Superior copper-mines worked by overhand stoping. A stope is that portion of the working assigned to a party of miners, and the block of ground is usually W//W/////AW////////////A V///A !^m^%%m% Fig. 6. divided into three or four stopes at varying heights above the main level, the lowest being known as the cutting-out stope, the others as the first and second back stopes in ascending order. In steep pitching beds sufficient excavated material is allowed to remain in the stope for the support of the machines and men, the excess being drawn out from time to time and loaded into cars. The rest of the mineral is allowed to remain until the stope has so far advanced that its support is no longer needed. This method of mining requires but little timbering, only a single line of timber and lagging over the level, called the stull. When the roof is weak, or when it is undesirable to leave so much ore in the stopes, false stulls are sometimes erected in the upper part of the stope. The ore below the false stulls can then be drawn out without waiting for the completion of the top stope. When the mineral does not stand well in the pillar it will be necessary to erect a line of timbers with lagging so as to sheathe the under-side of the pillar and prevent Fig. 7 its falling. It is not desirable to leave large areas standing upon pillars in the mine, and as soon as the work on any level i.5 completed the pillar below should be mined out as far as is safe, and the abandoned portion of the mine allowed to cave in and lessen the weight on the pillars elsewhere. The block or ground between levels is sometimes mined by underhand stoping (fig. 7.). In this case the advanced drift is run under- neath the pillar, and the ground below is mined in descending steps. This plan has the advantage of requiring little or no timbering when the mineral is strong enough to stand well in the pillars and when the hanging wall is good. The main haulage tracks are laid at the bottom of the stope, which thus forms the level. In this method of mining the different stopes must be kept close together; otherwise there is much added labour in shovelling the broken ore down to the main level. This method has the advantage of permitting the ore to be sent to the surface as fast as it is mined instead of being left for some months in the stopes for the men to stand upon. It has the disadvantage that the distance from one level to the next cannot usually be more than fifty feet without increasing greatly the chances of injury to the men from falling rock. The method is then practicable and safe only with exceptionally strong mineral and roof. In metal-mines producing abundant rock-filling the overhand method of stoping, illustrated in fig. 8, is used. In this the stoping contracts run vertically, and each party of contractors has one or more mills or timbered chutes through which the rich ore is conveyed to the level below and loaded in cars. The ore as mined is hand-picked and the barren material allowed to remain in the stope where it 532 MINING falls. In this method of mining no pillars need be left under the levels, as the rock-filling gives sufficient support to the roof. This method of mining affords the maximum of safety to the miners. In the working of thick deposits the block of ground between two levels is divided into horizontal sections or floors which Working are worked either from above downward or from at Thick the bottom upward; in the first case the separate Deposits, floors are worked by one of the caving systems; in the second, generally with the aid of filling. Fig. 9 illustrates the working of a block of ground by the top-slice caving system. Above, the ground has been completely worked out from the surface, and the space formerly occupied by ore is now filled with the debris of the overlying strata which has caved in above the block of ore now being worked. There is considerable thickness of old timber left from the working of the upper levels. This mat of timber forms a roof under the protection of which the mining of the ore proceeds downward floor by floor. The working-floors are connected by winzes with the main haulage roads below. These winzes serve for ventilation, for the passage of the workmen, and for chutes through which the ore is dumped to the level below. The working out of each floor is conducted much as if it were a bed of corresponding thickness. Haulage roads are driven in the ore so as to divide the floor into areas of convenient size. These separate areas are then mined in small rooms, each room being timbered as in mining under a weak roof rock. The room is driven in this way from one haulage road to another or to the boundary of the ore body. On completion of any room the timbers are withdrawn and the overlying mass of timber and rock is allowed to fall and a new room is started immediately alongside of the one just completed. In this way the whole floor is worked out and the mat of timber and overlying rock is gradually lowered and rests upon the top of the ore forming the floor below. Before abandoning a room it is usual to cover the bottom of the working-place with lagging- poles, which facilitate the mining of the floor below. In this manner one floor after another is worked until the floor contain- ing the main haulage roads of the level below is reached. In the meantime a new level and a system of haulage roads have been driven a hundred feet belowj and winzes have been driven upward to connect with the old level which is to be abandoned. The floor containing these old haulage roads now becomes the top slice of the one hundred-foot block of ground below and is mined out as described. Several floors may be mined simultaneously, Fig. 9. the workings in the upper floor being kept in advance of those below, so as to allow the broken mass above to become con- solidated before it is again disturbed by the working places of the next floor. This system permits the complete extraction of the ore at moderate cost and without danger to the men. The subdrift caving system, fig. 10, differs from the top-slice system mainly in the greater thickness given to the working floors, which may be from 12 to 40 ft. in thickness, whereas in the top-slice system the height of the floor is limited by the length of the timbers used in the working-rooms, rarely over 8 or 10 ft. The subdrift system requires a smaller amount of narrow work in excavating the necessary haulage roads, and is therefore better adapted to hard ores in which such narrow work is expensive. The mining of each floor is carried on in sections with small working-places which are first driven of moderate height to their full length and width, leaving a back of ore above and pillars of ore between to support the upper portion of the upper layer or floor. These pillars and the "1 Fig. 10. back of ore above are then mined in retreating back towards the haulage road. The subdrift system is somewhat cheaper than the top-slice system, the output per man being greater. The bottom-slice caving system of mining begins at the bottom of a hundred-foot block of ground, a floor being excavated under the whole area, leaving pillars of sufficient size to support the ground above. These pillars are then filled with blast holes which are fired simultaneously, permitting the whole block of ground to the level above to drop. A floor is then reopened in this fallen ore, leaving pillars for temporary support which are blasted out as before. This is the cheapest of the three caving systems, but is applicable only when the deposit lies between walls of very solid rock, as otherwise wall rock is liable to cave with and become mixed with ore, which adds greatly to the expense of handling. When rock filling is available, as when the ore contains much barren material to be left behind in mining, the ore body is divided into blocks of convenient height as above, and these blocks are divided into floors, the bottom floor of each block however being attacked. Each floor is opened up by subsidiary haulage roads and worked out in small rooms which are timbered and filled with broken rock when completed. An adjoining room is next excavated and filled, and thus the whole floor is worked out and replaced with rock-filling. Work is then, started on the floor above, the upper floors being connected with the main haulage roads by winzes which are maintained through the filled ground. Several floors can be mined simultan- eously, the work in the lower floors being kept well in advance. Instead of mining in horizontal floors the filling method permits the ore to be mined in vertical chambers or slices which extend from one level to the next above and from one wall of the deposit to the other. When a chamber has been excavated and completely filled the slice adjoining is mined out, or at times a block of ground may be left untouched between two filled chambers and then mined out. In the latter case the top-slice caving method will usually be employed for the working of such intervening pillars. In order to lessen the cost of handling the rock-filling, the excavation sometimes takes the form of inclined working-places, parallel to the slope naturally taken by the rock when dumped from above into the working MINING 533 place. This method of mining and filling can be used when the work is done in horizontal floors or in transverse chambers. In the United States the Nevada square set system of timbering is used in connexion with rock filling (fig. n). The use of the heavy timbers and continuous framing which ' characterize this system facilitates greatly the work of mining and maintain- ing the haulage roads on the different floors, and gives more rigid support to the unmined portions of the block of ground above. These advantages compensate for the greater first cost. Where each floor is timbered by itself with light timbers, as is the practice on the continent of Europe, the consolidation of the rock-filling under pressure gives rise to considerable subsidence of the unmined ore, which has frequently settled 20 ft. or more before the upper part of the block is reached. This occasions much added expense in the maintenance and retimbering of the haulage roads on the upper floors. The shrinkage of the rock-filling and the settlement of the workings Fig. 11, can be greatly lessened by the use of hard rock with a minimum of fine stuff; but even so the advantage lies with the American System of timbering. The cost of filling has been greatly reduced by the system of flushing culm, sand, gravel and similar material, through pipes leading from the surface into mine work- Flushlag. m S s - Material as coarse as 1 in. in diameter may be carried long distances underground with the use of little more than an equal volume of water. This method originated in the Pennsylvania anthracice mines in 1887, but has been employed in recent years on a large scale in Silesia, Westphalia and other European coalfields. In some cases it has been found advantageous to quarry and crush rock for the purpose of using it in this way. Examples of other mining methods will be found under Coal. Where mineral deposits lie near the surface underground mining may be replaced by open excavations, and the reduced cost of mining makes it possible to remove the Workings, overlying soil and rock to considerable depths. The depth to which open working can be pushed depends upon the size and value of the mineral- deposit and upon the expense of removing the over-burden. Open excava- tions several hundred feet in depth are not uncommon. Where practicable steam shovels are employed, even when it is neces- sary to break up the material beforehand by blasting. Steam shovels are not well adapted to deep excavation unless provision is, made for the rapid handling of the cars when filled. For deep workings the milling method is usually employed, in which the ore is excavated in funnel-shaped pits, each of which connects with underground haulage roads by a shaft. The ore is mined in the ordinary way, by pick and shovel if soft, or by the aid of powder if necessary, and the funnel-shaped bottom of the pit is maintained at such an angle that little or no shovelling is required to bring the excavated material to the shaft. Before the bottom of these pits reaches the level of the haulage roads below, a new set of roads will have been driven at a lower level and connected with the excavations above by the shafts. The cost of mining by the milling method does not greatly exceed the cost of steam-shovel work. For the special methods by which placer deposits are mined see Gold. Underground Haulage. — The excavated material is brought to the hoisting shaft, or sometimes directly to the surface, in small mine cars, moved by men or by animals, or by locomotives or wire-rope haulage. The size, shape and design of the cars depend on the size of the mine passage and of the hoisting compartments of the shafts; on whether the cars are to be trammed by hand or hauled in trains; whether they are loaded by shovel or by gravity from a chute; and whether they are to be hoisted to the surface or used only for underground trans- port. The cost of underground haulage is lessened, by the use of cars of large capacity. In the United States cars in the coal and iron mines hold from 2 to 4 tons. In Europe the capacity ranges from 1000 to 15001b, though the tendency is to increase the size of the cars used. In mines of copper, lead and the precious metals, in which the cars are moved by hand, the usual load is from 1200 to 3000 lb. These small cars are constructed so that the load may be dumped by pivoting the car bodies on the trucks. Larger cars are usually dumped by means of rotating or swinging cradles, the car bodies being rigidly attached to the axles or trucks. When loaded by shovel the car is made low to economize labour. Wooden rails, protected by iron straps, are sometimes used on underground roads for temporary traffic; but steel rails, similar to, though lighter than, those employed for. railways are the rule. For hand tramming, animal and rope haulage, the rails weigh from 8 to 24 lb per yard, for locomotive haulage 30 to 40 lb. Grades are made, whenever possible, in favour of the load, and of such degree that the power required to haul out the loaded cars shall be approximately equal to that for hauling back the empties, viz. about 5 of 1 %. Sharp curves should be avoided, especially for mechanical haulage. Switches for turnouts and branches, &c, are similar to but simpler than those for railways. In metal mines, where, as a rule, mechanical haulage is inapplicable, the cars are moved by men (trammers). This is expensive, but is made necessary by the small Man and amount of material to be handled at any given Animal point. The average speed is about 200 ft. per Haulage. minute, and the distances preferably but a few hundred feet. Animal haulage is employed chiefly in collieries and large metal mines; sometimes for main haulage lines, but oftener for dis- tributing empty cars and making up trains for mechanical haulage. In mines .operated through shafts the animals are stabled underground, and when well fed and cared for, thrive notwithstanding their rather abnormal conditions of life. Mine cars are sometimes run long distances, singly or in trains, over roads which are given sufficient grade to impart consider- able speed by gravity, say from 1 to 2§%. The grades must not be too great for brake control nor for the hauling back of the empty cars. Cars may thus be run through long adits or through branch gangways to some central point for making up into trains. Near the top and bottom of hoisting shafts the tracks are usually graded to permit the cars to be run to and from the shaft by gravity. Locomotive haulage is applicable to large mines, where trains of cars are hauled long distances on flat or undulating roads of moderate gradients. Steam locomotives have been largely superseded by compressed air or electric locomotives. Compressed air locomotives are provided with cylindrical 534 MINING steel tanks charged from a special compressor with air at a pressure of 500 to 700 lb per sq. in. The capacity of. the tank depends on the power required and the dis- Hauiage.™ tance to be traversed by a single charge of air. The air passes through a reducing valve from the main to an auxiliary tank, in which the pressure is, say, 125 lb, and thence to the driving cylinders. By using compressed air vitiation of the mine air is avoided, as well as all danger of fire or explosion of gas. Electric locomotives usually work on the trolley system, though a few storage battery locomotives have been successfully employed. Trolley haulage lacks the flexibility of steam or compressed air haulage, and is limited to main lines because the wires must be strung throughout the length of the line. By adopting modern non-sparking motors there is but little danger of igniting explosive gas. Electric and compressed air locomotives are durable, easily operated, and can be built to run under the low roofs of thin veins. Their power is proportioned to requirements of load and maximum gradient; the speed is rarely more than 6 or 8 m. per hour. Electric locomotives are in general more economical then either steam or compressed air. For heavy gradients rope haulage has no rival, though for moderate grades it is often advantageously replaced by electric and compressed air haulage. Gravity or self-acting Haulage. pl anes are f° r lowering loaded cars, one or more at a time, from a higher to a lower level. The minimum grade is that which will enable the loaded cars in travelling down the plane to pull up the empty cars. At the head of the plane is mounted a drum or sheave, and around it passes a rope, one end of which is attached to the loaded cars at the top, the other to the empty cars at the foot. The speed due to the excess of weight on the loaded side is controlled by a brake on the drum. The rope is carried on rollers between the rails. There may be two complete lines of track or three lines of rails, one being common to both tracks, and the cars passing on a middle turnout or " parting "; or a single track with a parting. An engine plane is an inclined road, up which loaded cars are hauled by a stationary engine and rope, the empty cars running down by gravity, dragging the rope after them. This is similar to shaft hoisting, except that the grades are often quite flat. In the tail-rope system of haulage, best adapted for single track roads, there are two ropes — a main and a " tail " rope — winding on a pair of drums operated by an engine. The loaded train is coupled to the main rope, and to the rear end is attached the tail-rope, which reaches to the end of the line, passing there around a large grooved sheave and thence back to the engine. By winding in the main rope the loaded cars are hauled towards the engine, dragging behind them the tail-rope, which unwinds from its drum. The trip being completed, the empty train is hauled back by reversing the engine. The ropes are supported between the rails and guided on curves by rollers and sheaves. High speeds are often attained. Branches, operated from the main line, are readily installed. In the endless rope system the rope runs from a grip wheel on the driving engine to the end of the line, round a return sheave, and thence back to. the engine. Chains are occasionally used. The line is double track and the rope constantly in motion, the cars being attached at intervals through its length by clips or clutches; the loaded cars move in one direction, the empties in the other. There are two modes of installing the system: either the rope passes above the cars and is carried by them, resting in the clips, or it is carried under the cars on rollers, the cars being attached by clips or a grip- carriage. (For details see Hughes, Text-book of Coal Mining, pp. 236-272; Hildenbrand, Underground Haulage by Wire Rope.) Rope haulage is widely used in collieries, and sometimes in other mines having large lateral extent and heavy traffic. With the tail-rope system, cars are run in long trains at high speed, curves and branches are easily worked, and gradients may be steep, though undulating gradients are somewhat disadvantageous. In the endless-rope systems cars run singly or in short trains, curves are disadvantageous, unless of long radius, speed is relatively slow, and branch roads not so easily operated as with tail-rope. The tail-rope plant is the more expensive, but for similar conditions the cost of working the two systems is nearly the same. An advantage of the endless system is that the cars may be delivered at regular intervals. Hoisting. — When the mine is worked through shafts, hoisting plant must be installed for raising the ore and handling- men and supplies. On a smaller scale hoisting is also necessary for sinking shafts and winzes and for various underground services. As ordinarily constructed, a pair of horizontal cylin- ders is coupled to a shaft on which are mounted either one or two drums (fig. 12). The diameter of the cylinders is such that each alone is capable of starting the Engine* load. As the cranks are set 90° apart, there is no dead centre, and the engine is able to start under full load from any point of the stroke. This is important in mine hoisting, Fig. 12. — Plan of direct-acting hoisting engines, compound Corliss engines and conical drums. Wellman-Seaver-Morgan Co., Cleveland, Ohio, makers. which is intermittent in character and variable as to power and speed required. The cylinders are generally single-expan- sion, though compound engines are occasionally used for heavy work. The engine is direct-acting, the drums making one revolution for each double stroke. In geared hoists the drums are.on a separate shaft, driven from the crank-shaft by tooth or friction gearing, and make one revolution for, say, 4 or 5 double strokes. The hoisting speed is therefore slower, and as less engine power is required for a given load the cylinders are smaller, though making more strokes per minute. Large and powerful- geared hoists are not uncommon. The dimensions of the drum depend on the hoisting speed desired and the depth of shaft or length of rope to be wound. Drums are either cylindrical or conical. Conical drums (fig. 12) tend to equalize the varying load on the engine due to the winding and unwinding of the rope. On starting to hoist, the rope winds from the small towards the large end of the drum, the lever arm, or radius of the coils, increasing as the weight of MINING 535 rope decreases. A similar equalizing effect is obtained by the use of flat rope and reel, the rope winding on itself like a ribbon. Tapering ropes, tail-ropes suspended from the cages, and other means of equalization, are also employed. If, for a two- compartment shaft, a pair of drums (or a single wide drum) be keyed to the engine shaft, with the ropes wound in opposite directions, the hoisting is " in balance," that is, the cages and cars counterbalance each other, so that the engine has to raise only the useful load of mineral, plus the rope. This arrangement allows no independence of movement: when the loaded cage is being, hoisted the y'' empty must be lowered. Independent drums, on the contrary, are loose upon their shaft, and are thrown on or off by tooth or friction clutches. The maximum load on the engine is thus greater and more .. power is required than for fixed drums. ' Steam consumption is economized, when- ever possible, by throwing in the clutches of both drums and hoisting in balance. Fixed drums are best for mines in which the hoisting is done chiefly from one level; independent drums when there are a number of different levels. Hoisting engines are provided with powerful brakes and fre- quently with reversing gear. In deep shafts hoisting speeds of 3000 or 3500 ft. per minute are often attained, occasionally as much as 5000 ft. Formerly hemp and also fibre ropes were commonly used. Except in a few instances these were long ago superseded by Kopes° g iron-wire ropes, which in turn have been replaced by steel because of its greater strength. For hoisting in deep shafts, and to reduce the weight of rope, tempered-steel wire of very high tensile strength (up to 250,000 or 275,000 lb ultimate strength per sq. in.) is advantageously em- ployed. A i-in. ordinary steel rope has a breaking strength of about 32 tons, which, with a factor of safety of six gives a safe working load of si tons. A i-in. plow-steel rope has breaking and working strengths respectively of at least 48 and 8 tons. Standard round rope (fig. 13) has six strands of 19 wires each and a hemp "core. Flat rope is in favour in some districts. It is composed of several four- stranded ropes, without hemp centres, laid side by side, and sewed together by wire (fig. 14). It is not as durable as round rope and is heavier for the same working strength. As the sewing wires soon begin to break, a flat rope must usually be ripped apart and resewed every six or eight months. Numerous patent ropes, some having wires and strands of special shapes, have been introduced with the idea of improving the wearing properties. Such, for example, are the Lang-lay, locked-coil and flattened strand rope. Hoisting ropes are weakened by deterioration and breakage of the wires, due to corrosion and repeated bend- ing, and should be kept under careful inspection. To prevent excessive bending stresses the diameter of drum and sheave must bear a proper ratio to that of the rope. A ratio of 48 to 1 is the minimum allowable; better 60 to 75 to 1, and for highly- tempered steel ropes ratios of 150 to 1 or more are desirable- To prevent corrosion the rope should be treated at intervals with hot lubricant. With proper care a steel rope should last from two to three years. A frame of wood or steel, erected at the shaft mouth, and Head-gear. Fjg. 13. — Standard round Rope. Fig. 14. — Flat Rope. (From The Colliery Engineer, May 1897.) Fig. 15. — Head-gear. carrying the grooved sheaves over which the hoisting ropes pass, is known as the head-gear (fig. 15). In Great Britain and her colonies it is also called the poppet-head or pit- head frame; in the United States head-frame or gallows-frame. Though it is small and simple in construction for light work, for heavy hoisting at high speeds massively framed towers, often 80 to 100 ft. in height, are built. Steel frames are more durable than those of wood, and have become common in nearly all mining countries, especially where timber is scarce. A German design is shown in fig. 16. The head-gear is often combined with ore-bins and machinery for breaking and sizing the lump ore previous to shipment to the reduction works. Cages, running in guides in the shaft, are used for raising the cars of mineral to the surface (fig. 17),. They may have one, two or more decks, usually carrying one or two cars on each deck. Multiple-deck cages are rarely employed except for deep shafts of small cross-section or when the mine cars (tubs) are small, as in many parts of Europe. In many mines the mineral is raised in skips (fig. 18), filled from cars underground and dumping automatically on reaching the surface. Skips are sometimes of very large capacity, holding 5, 7, and even 10 tons of ore; such are used, for example, in several shafts at Butte, Montana, in the Lake Superior copper district, and in South Africa. Fig. 18 is a small skip; the upper illustration showing position for dumping. The lower cut is of a skip for either ore or water; note valve in bottom. Hoisting buckets or kibbles are employed for small Cages and Skips. 53^ MINING scale work or temporary service, such as raising the material blasted in sinking shafts. They hold from a few hundred pounds up to i ton. In hoisting from great depths the weight of the rope, which may exceed that of the cage and Fig. i 6. — Steel head-gear, modern German type, constructed by Aug. Klonne, Dortmund. contents, produces excessive variations in the load on the engine difficult to deal with. Moreover, the limit of vertical depth at which rope of even the best quality will support its own weight only, with a proper margin of safety, is, say, 10,000 to 12,000 ft.; and with the load the safe working limit of depth would be reached at 7000 to 8000 ft. A number of Fig. 17. — Light steel safety FIG. 18. — Ore and water skips mining cage and car for gold for inclined shaft. Allis- and silver mines. Wellman- Chalmers Co., Milwaukee, Seaver-Morgan Co., Cleveland, Wisconsin, makers. Ohio, makers. shafts in South Africa, the United States and elsewhere, are already approximating depths of 5000 ft., a few being even deeper. Ropes of tapering section may be used for great depths, but are not satisfactory in practice. 1 Stage hoisting is applicable to any depth. Instead of raising the load in one lift from the bottom of the shaft, one or more intermediate 1 A full discussion of this subject is given in Trans. Ins. Min. and Met., vol. xi. dumping and loading stations are provided. Each stage has its own engine, rope and cage. The variations in engine load are thus reduced, and incidentally hoisting time is saved. In shallow mines the men use the ladder-way in going to and from their work. This is sometimes the case also for considerable depths. It is more economical leering to save the men's strength, however, by raising Men. and lowering them with the hoisting engines. At mines with vertical shafts this is a simple operation. Cages of the size generally used in metal mines will hold from ten to fifteen and occasionally twenty men. The time consumed in lowering the men is shortened by the use of cages having two or more decks. These are common in Europe, and are sometimes employed in the United States and elsewhere in mines where the output is large and the shafts deep and. of small cross section. While a shift of men is being lowered the miners of the preceding shift are usually raised to the surface in the ascending cages, the entire shift being thus changed in the time required for lowering. Nevertheless, in very deep and large mines the time consumed in handling the men may make serious inroads on the time available for hoisting ore. At a few mines special man-cages are operated in separate compartments by their own engines for handling part of the men, and for tools, supplies, &c. For inclined shafts, where the mineral is hoisted in skips, the operation of raising and lowering men may not be so simple. Even a large skip will hold but a few men, the speed is slower, and more time is required for the men to get into and out of the skip than to step on and off a cage. Moreover, skips are rarely provided with safety attachments, so that the danger is greater. When the shafts are deep and the number of miners large man-cars are sometimes employed. These are long frames on four wheels, with a series of seats like a section of a theatre gallery. Ordin- arily 4 or 5 men occupy each seat, the car accommodating from 20 to 36 men. Such cars are in use at a number of deep inclined shafts in the Lake Superior copper district, where the depths range from 3000 to 5000 ft. or more. At a few mines (since safety catches cannot be successfully applied to man-cars) these conveyances are raised and lowered by separate engines and ropes. To replace the ore-skip expeditiously by the man-car when the shifts are to be changed a crane is often erected over the shaft mouth. At the end of a shift the ore-skip is lifted from the shaft track — the hoisting rope being uncoupled — and the man-car put in its place and attached to the rope. This change may be made in a few minutes. Formerly, at many deep European mines, and at a few in the United States, men were raised by means of "man-engines." A man-engine consists of two heavy wooden rods (like the rods of a Cornish pumping plant), placed Bagines. parallel and close to each other in a special shaft compartment, and suspended at the surface from a pair of massive walking beams (or " bobs "). The rods are caused to oscillate slowly by an engine, one rising while the other is falling. Thus they move simultaneously in opposite directions through a fixed length of stroke, say from 10 to 12 ft. At intervals on the rods are attached small horizontal platforms, only large enough to accommodate two men at a time. As the rods make their measured strokes one of the miners, starting from the surface, steps on the first platform as it rises to the surface landing ind is then lowered on the down stroke. At the end of the stroke, when his platform comes opposite to a correspond- ing platform on the other rod, he steps over on to the latter during the instant of rest prior to the reversal of the stroke, descends with the second rod on this down stroke, steps again' at the proper time to a platform of the first rod and so on to the bottom. The men follow each other, one by one, so that in a few minutes all the rod platforms in a deep shaft may be simultaneously occupied by men stepping in unison but in opposite directions from platforms of one rod to the other. Meantime, the men quitting work are ascending in a similar way, as there is room on each platform for two men at a time when passing each other. Man-engines were long used, MINING 537 but are now practically abandoned in both Great Britain and the United States, and few remain in any of the mining regions of the world. Their first cost is great and they are dangerous for new men, as they require constant alertness, presence of mind, and a certain knack in using them. See Trans. Inst. Min. and Met. xi. 334, 345, 380, &c; also Eng. and Min. Jour. (April 4, 1903), pp. 517 and 518. Surface Handling, Storage and Shipment of Minerals. — To mine ore or coal at minimum cost it is necessary to work the mine plant at nearly or quite its full capacity and to avoid interrup- tion and delays. When the mineral is transported by rail or water to concentration or metallurgical works for treatment, or to near or distant markets for sale, provision must be made for the economical loading of railway wagons or vessels, and for the temporary storage of the mineral product. For short periods the mineral may remain in the mine cars, or may be loaded into railway wagon's held at the mine for this purpose. Cars, however, are too valuable to be used in this way for more than a few hours, and it is usual to erect large storage bins at the mine, at concentration works and metallurgical establish- ments, in which the mineral may be stored, permitting cars, wagons and vessels to be quickly emptied or loaded. In mining regions where 'water transportation is interrupted during certain months of the year the mineral must be stored underground, or in great stock -piles on the surface. In coal mining the market demand varies in different seasons, and surface storage is sometimes necessary to permit regular work at the mines. For coal, iron ore and other cheap minerals, mechanical handling by many different methods is used in loading and unloading railway wagons and vessels, and in forming the stock-piles and reloading the mineral therefrom. (See Conveyor and Docks; also G. F. Zimmer, Mechanical Handling of Materials, and Engineering Magazine, xiv. 275, xx. 157 and xxi. 657.) Mine Drainage. — A mine which has been opened by an adit tunnel or drift drains itself, so far as the workings above the adit level are concerned. In many mining regions long tunnels have been driven at great expense to secure natural drainage. Under modern mining conditions drainage tunnels have lost much of their former importance. Taking into account the risk attending all mining operations, which make necessary large interest and amortization charges on the cost of a tunnel, it will in most cases be advisable to raise the water to the sur- face by mechanical means. Drainage channels are provided, usually along the main haulage roads, by which the water flows to a sump excavated at the pump shaft. In driving mine passages that are to be used for drainage, care is taken to maintain sufficient gradient. Siphons are sometimes used to carry the water over an undulating grade and thereby save the expense of a deep rock cutting. As the larger part of the water in a mine comes from the surface, the cost of drainage may be reduced by intercepting this surface water, and collecting it at convenient points in the pump shaft from which it may be raised at less cost than if permitted to go to the bottom. Water may be raised from mines by buckets, tanks or pumps. Wooden or steel buckets, holding from 35 to 200 gallons, are employed only for temporary or auxiliary service or for small quantities of water in shallow shafts. Tanks operated by the main hoisting engines, and of capacities up to 1500 gallons or more, are applicable under several conditions: (j) When the shaft is deep, the quantity of water insufficient to keep a pump in regular operation, and the hoisting engine not constantly employed in raising mineral, the tank is worked at intervals, being attached temporarily to the hoisting rope in place of the cage. (2) For raising large volumes of water from deep shafts pairs of tanks are operated in balance in special shaft compartments by their own hoisting engine. With an efficient engine the cost per gallon of water is often less than for pumping. (3) For clearing flooded mines. As the water level falls the tanks readily follow it while at work, whereas pumps must be lowered to new positions to keep within suction distance. Self-acting tanks are occasionally built underneath the platforms of hoisting cages. Mine pumps are of two classes: (1) those in which the driving engine is on the surface and operates the pumps by a long line of rods passing down the shaft, commonly known as the Cornish system; (2) direct-acting pumps, in which the engine and pumping cylinders form a single unit, placed close to the point underground from which the water is to be raised. Cornish pumps are the oldest of the machines for draining mines; in fact, one of the earliest applica- tions of the old Woolf and Newcomen engines in the 18th century was to pumps for deep mines. The engine works a massive counter-balanced walking-beam from which is suspended in the shaft a long wooden (or steel) rod, made in sections and spliced together. Attached to the rod by offsets are one or more plunger or bucket pumps, set at intervals in the shaft. All work simultaneously, each raising the water to a tank or sump above, whence it is taken by the next pump of the system, and finally discharged at the surface. The individual pumps are placed several hundred feet apart, so that a series is required for a deep shaft. The speed is slow — from 4 to 10 strokes per minute — but the larger sizes, up to 24 in. or more in diameter by 10 or 12 ft. stroke, are capable of raising millions of gallons per day. Cornish pumps are economical in running expenses, provided the driving engine is of proper design and the dis- advantages incurred in conveying steam underground are avoided. Their first cost, however, is high and the cumbeisome parts occupy much space in the shaft. Direct-acting pumps, first introduced (1841) by an American, Henry R. Worthington, are made of many different designs. Typically they are steam pumps, the steam and water cylinders being set tandem on the same bed frame, generally without fly-wheel or other rotary parts; they may be single cylinder or duplex, simple, compound or triple expansion, and having a higher speed of stroke are smaller in all their parts than Cornish pumps. For high heads the water cylinders, valves and valve chambers are specially constructed to withstand heavy pressures, water being sometimes raised in a single lift to heights of more than 2000 ft. Con- densers are always required for underground pumps. Sinking pumps, designed for use in shafts in process of sinking, are suspended by wire ropes so as to be raised before blasting and promptly lowered again to resume pumping. Electrically driven pumps, now widely used, are convenient and economical. Mine pumps of ordinary forms may be operated by compressed air, and air-lift pumps have been successfully employed. Hy- draulic pumping engines, while not differing essentially from steam pumps, must have specially designed valves in the power cylinder on account of the incompressibility of water. They can be used only when a supply of water under sufficient pressure is available for power. Centrifugal pumps, constructed with Several stages or sets of vanes, and suitable for high lifts, have been introduced for mine service. When mine water is acid the working parts of the pump must be lined with or made of bronze or other non-corrosive material; Or the acid may be neutralized by adding lime in the sump. Ventilation.— The air of a mine is vitiated by the presence of large numbers of men and animals and of numerous lights, each of which may consume as much air as a number of men. In mining operations explosives are used on a large scale and the powder gases contain large quantities of the very poisonous gas, carbon monoxide, a small percentage of which may cause death, and even a minute percentage of which in the air will seriously affect the health. In addition to these sources of contamination the air of the mine is frequently charged with gas issuing from the rocks or from the mineral deposit. For example, carbon dioxide occurs in some mines, and hydrogen sulphide, which is a poisonous gas, in others. In coal-mines we have to deal with " fire-damp " or marsh gas, and with inflammable coal dust, which form explosive mixtures with air and frequently lead to disastrous explosions resulting in great loss of life. The gases produced by such fire-damp or dust explosions contain carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide in large proportion, and the majority of the deaths from such explosions are due to this " after-damp " rather than to the 538 MINING Natural Ventilation. explosion itself. The terrible effects of fire-damp have led to the adoption of elaborate systems of ventilation, as the most effective safeguard against these explosions is the dilution and removal of the fire-damp as promptly and completely as possible. Very large volumes of air are necessary for this purpose, so that in such mines other sources of vitiation are adequately provided against and need not be considered. In metal mines, however, artificial ventilation is rarely attempted, and natural ventilation often fails to furnish a sufficient quantity of air. The examination of the air of metal mines has shown that in most cases it is much worse than the air of crowded theatres or other badly ventilated buildings. This has a serious effect on the health and efficiency of the workmen employed, and in extreme cases may even result in increased cost of mining operations. The ventilation of a mine must in general be produced artificially. In any case whether natural or artificial means be employed, a mine can only be ventilated properly when it has at least two distinct openings to the surface, one an intake or " downcast," the other a chimney serving as an " upcast." Two compartments of a shaft may be utilized for this purpose, but greater safety is ensured by two separate openings, as required by law in most mining countries. The air underground remains throughout the year at nearly the same temperature, and is warmer in winter and cooler in summer than the outside air. If the two openings to the mine are at different levels the difference in weight of the inside and outside air due to differ- ence in temperature causes a current, and in the winter months large volumes of air will be circulated through the mine from this cause alone. In summer there will be less movement of air and the current will frequently be reversed. In a mine with shafts opening at . the same level, natural ventilation once established will be effective during cold weather, as the down- cast will have the temperature of the outside air, while the upcast will be filled with the warm air of the mine. In summer this will occur only on cool days and at night. When the temperature of outside and inside air becomes equal or nearly so natural ventilation ceases or becomes insignificant. In a mine with two shafts a ventilating current may result from other conditions creating a difference in the temperature of the air in either shaft — for example, the cooling effect of dropping water or the heating effect of steam pipes. Natural ventilation is impracticable in flat deposits worked by drifts and without shafts. Ventilation may be produced by heating the air of the mine, as for example, by constructing a ventilating furnace at the bottom of an air shaft. The efficiency of such p e ° n '^'° g ventilating furnaces is low, and they cannot safely be used in mines producing fire-damp. They are sometimes the cause of underground fires, and they are always a source of danger when by any chance the ventilating current becomes reversed, in which case the products of combustion, containing large quantities of carbon dioxide, will be drawn into the mine to the serious danger of the men. On account of their dangerous character furnaces are prohibited by law in many countries. Positive blowers and exhausting apparatus of a great variety of forms have been used in mines for producing artificial ventilation. About 1850, efficient ventilators of the Ventilators centr i lu f? a l typ e were first introduced, and are now 'almost universally employed where the circulation of large volumes of air is necessary, as in collieries. The typical mine fan consists of a shaft upon which are mounted a number of vanes enclosed in a casing; the air entering a central side inlet is caught up by the revolving vanes and thrown out at the periphery by the centrifugal force thus generated. " Open- running " fans have no peripheral casing, and discharge freely throughout their entire circumference; in " closed " fans the revolving part is completely enveloped by a spiral casing opening at one point into a discharge chimney. Fans either force air into or exhaust it from the mine. The inlet opening of the pressure fan is in free communication with the outside air, the discharge connecting with the mine air- way; in the more generally used exhaust fan the inlet is connected with the air- way, the fan discharging into the atmosphere. Among the exhaust fans most widely employed is the Guibal. Many others have been introduced, such as the Capell (fig. 19), Rateau, i (From Mines and Minerals, March, 1005.) Fig. 19. — Capell Fan. Schiele, Pelzer, Hanarte, Ser, Winter, Kley, and Sirocco fans. The Waddle may be instanced as an example of the open fans. Slow-speed fans are sometimes of large dimensions, up to 3c and even 45 ft. diameter, discharging hundreds of thousands of cubic feet of air per minute. Occasionally, at very gassy and dangerous collieries, two fans and driving engines are erected at the same air shaft, and in case of accident to the fan in operation the other can be started within a few minutes. Opposed to the motive force producing the air current is the frictional resistance developed in passing through the mine workings. This resistance is equal to the square of ., T m r it. 4. • r 4 -4. Circulation the velocity of the current m feet per minute, otAlr multiplied ' by the total rubbing or friction surface of the air-ways in square feet and by the coefficient of friction. The latter, determined experimentally, varies with different kinds of surfaces of mine workings, whether rough or smooth, timbered or unlined; it ranges from 0-000000001872 to 0-0000000217 lb per sq. ft., the latter being the value usually adopted. A certain pressure of air is required to main- tain circulation against the resistance, and for a given volume per minute the smaller and more irregular the mine openings the greater must be the pressure. The pressure is measured by a " water-gauge " and the velocity of flow by an " anemometer." The power required to circulate the air through a mine increases as the cube of the velocity of the air current. To decrease the velocity, when large volumes of air are required, the air passages are made larger, and the mine is divided into sections and the air current subdivided into a corresponding number of indepen- dent circuits. This splitting of the air not only lessens the cost of ventilating, but greatly increases its efficiency by permitting the circulation of much larger volumes, and has the added advantage that the effect of an explosion or other accident vitiating the air current is often confined to a single division of the mine, and affects but a small part of the working force. The adjust- ment of the air currents in the different splits is affected by regulators which are placed in the return air-ways, and act as throttle valves to determine the volume of air in each case. The circulation of air in any given division of the mine is further controlled and its course determined by temporary or permanent partitions (" brattices "), by the erection of stoppings, or by the insertion of doors in the mine passages and by the use of special air-ways (see Coal). In devising a system of ventilation it is customary to subdivide the workings so that the resistance to the ventilating current in each split shall be nearly equal, or so that the desired amount of air shall be circulated in each without undue use of regulating appliances which add to the friction and increase the cost of removing the air. In addition to this it is desirable to take advantage of the natural ventilation, that is, to circulate the air in the direction that it goes naturally, as otherwise the resistance to the movement of the air may be MINING 539 greatly increased. So far as possible, vitiated air is led directly to the shaft instead of passing through other workings; for example, mine stables when used are placed near the upcast shaft and ventilated by an independent split of the ventilating current. Deep Mining. — There has been much speculation as to the depth to which it will be practicable to push the work of mining. The special difficulties which attend deep mining, in addition to the problems of hoisting ore and raising water from great depths, are the increase of temperature of the rocks and the pressure of the overlying strata. The deepest mine in the world is No. 3 shaft of the Tamarack mine in Houghton county, Michigan, which has reached a vertical depth of about 5200 ft. Three other shafts of the Tamarack Company, and three of the neighbouring Calumet and Hecla mine, have depths of between 4000 and 5000 ft. vertical. The Quincy mine, also in Houghton county, has reached a vertical depth of nearly 4000 ft. In England are several collieries over 3000 ft., and in Belgium two are nearly 4000 ft. deep. In Austria three shafts in the silver mines at Prizbram have reached the depth of over 1000 metres. At Bendigo in Australia are several shafts between 3000 and 4000, and one, the Victoria Quartz mine, 4300 ft. deep. In the Transvaal gold region (South Africa), a number of shafts have been sunk to strike the reef at about 4000 ft. In most cases the deposits worked are known to extend to much greater depths than have been reached. The possibility of hoisting and pumping from great depths has been discussed, and it remains now to consider the other conditions which will tend to limit mining operations in depth — namely, increase of temperature and increase of rock pressure. Observations in different parts of the world have shown that the increase of temperature in depth varies: in most localities the rise being at the rate of one degree for 50 to 100 feet of depth; while in the deep mines of Michigan and the Rand, an increase as low as one degree for each 200 ft. or more has been observed. In the Comstock mines at Virginia City, Nevada, it is possible to continue mining operations at rock temperatures of 130 F. In these mines a constant supply of pure air, about 1000 cub. ft. per minute, was blown into the hot working places through light iron pipes. The air issuing from these pipes was dry and warm, and served to keep the temperature of the air below 120°, at which temperature it was possible for men to work continuously for half an hour at a time, and for four hours in the day. In some places work was conducted with rock temperatures as high as 158 F., with air 135 F. In these very hot drifts the fatality was large. In the Alpine tunnels, where the air was moist and probably not as pure as in the Comstock mines, great difficulty was experienced in prosecuting the work at temperatures of 90° F. and less. The mortality was large, and it was believed by the engineers that temperatures over 104 would have proved fatal to most of the workmen. Deep mines, however, are generally dry, so that in most cases it will be possible to realize the more favourable conditions of the Comstock mines. Assuming an initial mean temperature of 50° F., and increments of one degree for 100 and for 200 ft., a rock tem- perature of 130 will be reached at 8000 to 16,000 ft. In many deep mines to-day " explosive rock " has been encoun- tered. This condition manifests itself, for example, in mine pillars which are subjected to a weight beyond the limit of elas- ticity of the mineral of which they are composed. Under such conditions the pillar begins to yield, and fragments of mineral fly off with explosive violence, exactly as a specimen of rock will splinter under pressure in a testing machine. The flying frag- ments of rock have frequently injured and sometimes killed miners. A similar condition of strain has been observed in deep mines in different parts of the world — perhaps due to geological movements. Assuming a weight of 13 cub. ft. to the ton, then at 6500 ft. the pressure per sq. ft. will be 500 tons, and at 13,000 ft. 1000 tons; and as the mineral is mined the weight on the pillars left will be proportionately greater. At such pressures all but the strongest rocks will be strained beyond their limit of elasticity. At depths of 1000 ft. and less some of the softer rocks show a tendency to flow, a& exhibited by the under-clay in deep coal-mines, which not infrequently swells up and closes the mine passages. In the Mont Cenis tunnel a bed of soft granite was encountered that continued to swell with almost irresistible force for some months. The pressure developed was sufficient to crush an arched lining of two-foot granite blocks. Similar swelling ground is not infrequently met with in metal mines, as, for example, in the Phoenix copper mine in Houghton county, Michigan, where the force developed was sufficient to crush the strongest timber that could be used. In very deep mines this flowing of soft rock will doubtless add greatly to the difficulty of maintaining openings. What may happen in some cases is illustrated by the curious form of accident locally known as a " bump," which occurs in some of the deep coal-mines of England. In one instance (described by F. G. Meacham, Trans. Fed. Inst. M.E. v. 381), the force developed by the swelling under-clay broke through and lifted with the force and suddenness of an explosion a lower bench of coal 8 ft. thick in the bottom of a gangway 12 ft. wide for a length of 200 ft., throwing men and mine cars violently against the roof and producing an air-wave which smashed the mine doors in the vicinity. It is apparent that the combined effect of internal heat and rock pressure will greatly increase the cost of mining at depths of 8000 or 10,000 ft., and will probably render mining impracticable in many instances at depths not much greater. Mine Administration. — In organizing a mining company it must be recognized that mining is of necessity a temporary business. When the deposit is exhausted the company must be wound up or its operations transferred to some other locality. Mining is also subject to the risks of ordinary business enterprises, and to addi- tional risks and uncertainties peculiar to itself. The vast majority of mineral deposits are unworkable, and of those that are developed a large proportion prove unprofitable. In addition mining opera- tions are subject to interruption and added expense from explosions, mine fires, flooding, and the caving-in of the workings. To provide for the repayment from earnings of the capital invested in a mining property and expended in development, and to provide for the depreciation in value of the plant and equipment, an amortization fund must be accumulated during the life of the mine; or, if it be desired to continue the business of mining elsewhere, a similar fund must be created for the purchase, development and equipment of a new property to take the place of the original deposit when that shall be exhausted. If, for example, we assume the life of a given mine at ten years and the rate of interest at 5 % it will be neces- sary that the property shall earn nearly 13% annually — viz., 5% interest and 8 % for the annual payment to the amortization or the reserve fund. To cover the special risks of mining, capital should earn a higher interest than in ordinary business, and if we assume that the sinking-fund be safely invested, we must compute the amortization on a lower basis than 5 %. Assuming, for example, the life of the mine at ten years as before, and taking the interest to be earned by the amortization fund at 3%, and that on the investment at 10%, we shall find that the annual income should amount to 18-7% per year. These simple business principles do not seem to be generally recognized by the investing public, and mines, whose earning capacity is accurately known, are frequently quoted on the stock markets at prices which cannot possibly yield enough to the purchaser to repay his investment during the probable life of the mine. Mine Valuation. — The value of any property is measured by its annual profits. In the case of mining properties these profits are more or less uncertain, and cannot be accurately determined until the deposit has been thoroughly explored and fully developed. In many instances, indeed, profits are more or less uncertain during the whole life of the mine, and it is evident that the value of the mining property must be more or less speculative. In the case of a developed mine its life may be predicted in many cases with abso- lute certainty— as when the extent of the mineral deposit and the volume of mineral can be measured. In other cases the life of the mine, like the value of the mineral, is more or less uncertain. Further, both time and money are required for the development of the mining property before any profit can be realized. Mathemati- cally we have thus in all cases to compute present value on the basis of a deferred as well as a limited annuity. The valuation of mines then involves the following steps: (1) The sampling of the deposit so far as developed, and assaying of the samples taken; (2) The measurement of the developed ore ; (3) estimates of the probable amount of ore in the undeveloped part of the property ; (4) estimates of probable profits, life of the mine, and determination of the value of the property. Where the deposit is a regular one and the mineral is of fairly uniform richness, the taking of. a few samples from widely separated parts of the mine will often furnish sufficient data to ■549 MINING determine the value of the deposit. On the other hand in the case of uncertain and irregular deposits, the value of which varies between very wide limits, as, for example — in most metal mines and especially mines of gold and silver — a very large number of samples must be taken — sometimes not more than two or three feet apart — in order that the average value of the ore may be known within reasonable limits of error. The sampling of a large mine of this character may cost many hundreds of pounds. This applies with even greater force to estimates of undeveloped portions of the property. If the deposit is regular and uniform, the value of undeveloped areas may sometimes be predicted with confidence. In the majority of instances, however, the estimates of undeveloped ore contain a large element of uncertainty. In order to determine the probable profit and life of the mine a definite scale of operations must be assumed, the money required for development and plant and for working capital must be estimated, the methods of mining and treating the ore determined, and their probable cost estimated. Where the deposit is uncertain and the element of risk is large, we must adopt a high rate of interest on investments of capital in our computations of value — in some cases as high as 10, 15 or even 20%. Where the deposit is regular and the future can be predicted with some degree of certainty, we may be justified in adopting in some cases possibly as low as 5 %. The interest on the annual contribu- tion to the sinking-fund or its equivalent should be reckoned at a low rate of interest, for such funds are assumed to be invested in perfectly safe securities. Allowance must be made for the period of development during which there are no contributions to the sinking- fund and within which no interest is earned on invested capital. Mining Education. — It is necessary to have the work directed by men thoroughly familiar with the characteristics of mineral deposits, and with wide experience in mining. For the purpose of training such men special schools of mining engineering (ecoles des mines, Bergakademie) have been established in most mining countries. A student of mining must receive thorough instruction in geology; he must study mining as practised in different countries, and the metallurgical and mechanical treatment of minerals; and he should have an engineering education, especially on mechanical and electrical lines. As he is called upon to construct lines of transport, both underground and on the surface, works for water-supply and drainage, and buildings for the handling, storage and treatment of ore, he must be trained to some extent as a civil engineer. As a foundation his education must be thorough in the natural and physical sciences and mathematics. In addition there have beeri established in many countries schools for the education of workmen, in order to fit them for minor positions and to enable them to work intelligently with the engineers. These miners' schools {Bergschule, ecoles des mineurs) give elementary instruction in chemistry, physics, mechanics, mineralogy, geology and mathematics and drawing, as well as in such details of the art of mining as will best supplement the practical information already acquired in underground work. The training of a mining engineer merely begins in the schools, and mining graduates should serve an apprenticeship before they accept responsibility for important mining operations. It is especially necessary that they should gain experience in management of men, and in the conduct of the business details, which cannot well be taught in schools. Accidents. — Mining is an extra-hazardous occupation, and the catastrophes, which from time to time have occurred, have caused agencies to enforce their authority. While in some cases these lawl are unnecessarily stringent and tend to restrict the business of mining yet on the whole they have had the effect of reducing greatly the loss of life and injuries of miners where they have been well enforced. This is evident from fig. 20, which shows the number of men killed in the coal and metal mines of Great Britain for a series of years. As will be seen from this diagram the most serious source of death and injury is not found in mine explosions, but in the fall of rocks and mineral in the working places. This danger can be reached only in small degree by laws and inspection; but the safety of the men must depend upon the skill and care of the miners themselves and the officers in charge of the underground work. Great loss of life and injury occur through the ignorance, carelessness and reck- lessness of the men themselves, who fail to take the necessary precautions for their own safety, even when warned to do so. Mining laws have proved chiefly serviceable in securing the introduc- tion of efficient ventilation, the use of safety-lamps, and of proper explosives, to lessen the danger from fire-damp and coal-dust in the coal-mines, the inspection of machinery for hoisting and haulage, and prevention of accidents due to imperfection in design or in working the machinery. Fire-damp and dust explosions are caused by the presence of marsh-gas in sufficient quantity to form an explosive mixture, or by a mixture of small percentages of marsh-gas Q xp i os j ons , and coal-dust, and in some cases by the presence of coal-dust alone in the air of the mine. Explosive mixtures of marsh-gas and air may be fired by an unprotected light. But when coal-dust is present, and little or no marsh-gas, an initial explosion —such as is produced by a blown-out shot — is required. To guard against explosions from this cause it is necessary to use explosives in moderate quantities and to see that the blast- holes are properly placed, so that the danger of blown-out shots may be lessened. In dry and dusty mines the danger may be greatly lessened by sprinkling the working places and passages, and the removal of the accumulated dust and fine coal. Where large quantities of fire-damp are present, safety-lamps of approved pattern must be used and carefully inspected daily. The use of matches and naked lights of any kind must be prohibited. To lessen the danger from blasting operations the use of special safety explosives is required in Great Britain and some European countries. The use of such explosives decreases to some extent the danger from dust explosions; but experiment shows that no efficient explosive is absolutely safe, if used in excessive quantity, or in an improper manner. Absolute security is impossible, as is proved by the many and serious disasters under the most stringent laws and careful regulations that can be devised. Mine fires may originate from ordinary causes, but in addition they may result from the explosion of fire-damp or from the acci- dental lighting of jets of fire-damp issuing from the coal. jtfj ne /3/ res . In some mining districts the coal is liable to spontaneous combustion. A fire underground speedily becomes formidable, not only in coal but also in metal mines, on account of the large quantity of timber used to support the excavations. Underground fires may sometimes be .extinguished by direct attack with water. The difficulty of extinguishing an underground fire in this way is, however, very great, as on account of the poisonous products 0/ combustion it is impossible to attack it except in the rear, and even there the men are always in great danger from the reversal of the I II IS 1 ill ill! Ill ill III I'll 1 1 111 III 111 llllllll •a O E B f EE I K£€i^' °"i MLLS "^^^ Q 0N SURMCE , ,E J £ B ; E;, TE J IJ ^ ; •oo 'ALL ACCIDENTS. IN AND ABOUT MINES. Fig. 20. — Death-rate from various classes of accidents in and about all mines in the United Kingdom from 1873 to 1900. the enactment of laws to protect the lives of the men engaged in underground work. These laws are enforced by mine inspectors who are empowered to call upon the courts and other government air current, or back-draught from the fire. Further, the burning of the timber produces falls of ground, making necessary the excava- tion and removal at times of hundreds of tons of heated rock and MINING 5+i burning coal, in order to reach the fire. When direct attack is no longer practicable, it is possible to extinguish the fire by sealing the mine workings, and exhausting the supply of oxygen. It is necessary, however, to keep the mine sealed until the burning timbers, or coal, and the red-hot rocks have become cool, or the fire will again break out. This sometimes requires two or three months. Where an effective sealing of the mine is impracticable it is sometimes possible to extinguish the fire from the outside of the mine by constructing a large reservoir or tank in the upper part of the mine-shaft and suddenly releasing a large volume of water by opening discharge- doors. The mass of water falling down the shaft is converted into spray, which is carried by the force of the fall long distances into the workings. Where the fire is in or near the shaft this method has proved very effective. Mine fires may sometimes be reached by bore-holes sunk for the purpose from the surface, and the burning workings below filled by flushing with culm and water. As a last resort the mine may be flooded with water. This is an expensive operation as it entails the cost of pumping the water out again and repairing the resulting damage. If the fire is in working places to the rise the water may not reach the burning portions of the mine, but will effectually seal them. But sufficient time must be allowed to elapse before pumping out the water, as otherwise the fire may break out again. Mines may become flooded by the inrush of surface waters in times of great rainfall or sudden floods, or by the undermining of surface waters. The mine workings may also be flooded Flooding of ^ [ ar g e bodies of underground water. The surface Mines. floods must be provided with channels of sufficient size to carry them safely past the mine openings, and intercepting ditches should be excavated for this purpose, and dams and embank- ments constructed to divert the flood waters. That it is possible to work with safety beneath rivers, lakes and even the ocean has been proved in numerous instances; mines in different parts of the world having been extended long distances under the sea. In such cases preliminary surveys should be made to determine the thickness of rock over the proposed workings. Under favourable conditions mining may be conducted under the protection of a few yards of solid rock only, as in the submarine work for the removal of reefs in the harbours of San Francisco and New York. At Silver Islet, Lake Superior, mining was successfully carried on for years under the protection of a coffer dam and an arch of rich silver ore less than 20 ft. thick. At Wheal Cock near St Just in Cornwall the protecting roof was so thin that holes bored for blasting more than once penetrated to the bed of the ocean, and wooden plugs were kept on hand to drive into such holes when this occurred. In storms the boulders could be heard striking each other overhead. When large areas are undermined, as in submarine coal mining, it is best to have several hundred feet of protecting rock. In Great Britain the iaw requires that the workings shall be protected by 120 ft. of solid strata. When the presence of underground bodies of water is known or suspected, advance bore-holes should radiate from the end of the advancing working place so as to give warning of the position of the body of water, these holes being of such length as to ensure a safe thickness of solid rock. The caving in of mine workings results from the excavation of large areas supported upon pillars of insufficient size. While the mine workings are small the overlying rocks support themselves Caviar of an< ^ ^e ^ u ^ P ressure d° es n °t come upon the mine „._ pillars. As the workings increase in size the pillars w rkl support an increasing weight until finally they are strained o ngs. beyond the limit of elasticity. When this occurs, the pillars begin to crack and splinter with a noise like musketry firing, and the roof of the mine shows signs of subsidence. This may con- tinue for weeks before the final crash takes place. At first a fall of the roof occurs locally, here and there throughout the mine, and these falls may succeed one another until the settlement of portions of the roof has so far relieved the strain that the remaining areas are sup- ported by the stronger pillars, and by the fallen rock masses. While abundant warning of the caving-in of the workings is thus given in advance it may happen that men are unexpectedly imprisoned by the closing of the main passage ways. The caving-in of the mine, however, is rarely so complete that avenues of escape are not open. In many cases, however, it has been found necessary to reopen the mine through the fallen ground, and even to excavate openings through the solid mineral. The history of mining is full of dramatic episodes of this character. Accidents from the misuse and careless handling of explosives are unfortunately too frequent in mines. The conditions under Accidents wn ' c h explosives may be stored, handled and used are ton, carefully formulated in the mining laws of most states, Explosives. DUt '* ' s a ' m ost impossible to secure obedience to these regulations on the part of the miners, who are, as a rule, both careless and reckless in their use of powder. In some states it has become necessary to provide for fines and even imprisonment of men disobeying the regulations regarding explosives. Mine Hygiene. — While mining is not necessarily an unhealthy occupation, miners are subject to certain diseases resulting from vitiated air, and from unusual or special conditions under which at times they are forced to work. Recent investigations have shown ah alarming increase in mortality from miners" phthisis in Cornwall, South Africa and elsewhere. This seems to be due to the dust abundantly produced in mining operations, and especially by machine drills when boring " dry " (rising) blast holes. Drill runners, Who are compelled to breathe this dusty air daily, furnish most of the sufferers from phthisis. The increased mortality seems to be due to the general tendency toward forced speed in development work, which is secured by rapid drilling, and by an increase in the number of machine drills used in a single working-place. The miners, to save time, often return to their work after blasting before the powder- smoke and dust have been sufficiently removed. It is probable that the carbon monoxide seriously affects the general health and vitality of the men, and renders them more likely to succumb to phthisis. More effective ventilation will materially lessen the death- rate. In the metal mines of Cornwall and Devon special rules are now in force requiring the use of water in drilling, and other pre- cautions, to lessen this danger from dust. In sonfe mines dust seems to have but little effect on the health of the miners; indeed it is even claimed by some that coal dust decreases the mortality from phthisis. On the other hand, as in mining ores containing jead, arsenic and mercury, the dust may be poisonous. The climb- ing of ladders from deep mines not only lessens the efficiency of the men by reason of fatigue, but often tends to increase the mortality from diseases of the heart. In cold climates men coming from the warm atmosphere of a mine, often in wet clothing, are liable to suffer in health unless proper provision is made for the necessary change of clothing. In such cases the establishment of dressing- rooms, properly heated, and connected with the mine by covered passages will be necessary. These " change-houses " are provided with washing and bathing facilities, and arrangements for drying wet clothing. Ankylostomiasis (q.v.) is a disease which finds a congenial habitat in the warm damp atmosphere of mines, and has become a veritable scourge in some mining regions. The disease yields readily to treatment, but is difficult to eradicate from a mine without stringent sanitary regulations to prevent its spread. The care of the health of the working force should be entrusted to com- petent mine physicians, thoroughly familiar with the conditions under which the miners work, and with the special diseases to which they are subject. The men should be instructed in the laws of sanitation, and in the proper care of injured men. Mine Law. — Mine law is that branch of the law of real property relating to mineral and mining rights as distinct from rights pertain- ing to the surface of the ground. Under the common law the owner of the surface possesses all mining rights as well, unless these have been reserved by some previous owner of the property. From very ancient times deposits of gold and silver have in most countries been held as the property of the crown. In public or government land the minerals as well as surface belong to the state, and not infrequently these rights have been separated by law and granted or otherwise disposed of to different owners. It is to the public interest that deposits of mineral should not be permitted to remain idle and undeveloped. This has been recognized from the earliest times, and laws have been framed in all countries for the encourage- ment of mining enterprise. In many cases the state or the ruler has sought to obtain a share in the profits of mining, or even to work mines for the individual profit of the ruler or of the state. But in most cases it has been found better policy for the state to divest itself of all interest in mining property, and to extend all possible encouragement to those who undertake the development of the mineral wealth of the nation. The mining laws of most civilized states grant the right of free prospecting over the public lands, protect the rights of the discoverer of the mineral deposit during the period of exploration, and provide for the acquisition of mineral property on favourable terms. Striking examples of the far-reaching effect of such laws is shown in the history of the Rocky Mountain region and western coast of the United States, the colonization and development of Australia, and the development of Alaska. Bibliography. — See C. Le Neve Foster's Ore and Stone Mining (6th ed., London, 1905), or G. Kohler's Lehrbuch der Bergbaukunde (6th ed., Leipzig, 1903). The following works may also be consulted : Books — Bertolio, Coltivazione delle minere (Milan, 1902) ; Brown, The Organization of Gold Mining Business (Glasgow, 1897); Brough, Mine Surveying (12th ed., London, 1906); Bulman and Redmayne, Colliery Working and Management (London, 1 896) ; Colomer, Ex- ploitation des mines (Paris, 1899) ; Curie, The Gold Mines of the World (2nd ed., London, 1902); Demanet, Traiti d' exploitation des mines de houille (2nd ed., Brussels, vols, i and ii. 1898, vol. iii. 1899); Denny, Deep Level Mines of the Rand (London, 1902) ; Galloway, Lectures on Mining (Cardiff, 1900) ; Habets, Cours d' exploitation des mines (2nd ed., Li£ge, vol. i., 1906, vol. ii. 1904); Hatch and Chalmers, The Gold Mines of the Rand (London, 1895) ; Haton de la Goupillifere, Cours a" exploitation des mines (2nd ed., Paris, vol. i. 1896, vol. ii. 1897); Hoefer, Taschenbuch fur Bergmanner (Leoben, 1897) ; Hughes, Coal Mining (4th ed., London, 1900) ; M. C. Ihlseng, A Manual of Mining (4th ed., New York, 1905) ; Kirschner, Grundriss der Erzaufbereitung (Leipzig and Vienna, vol. i. 1898, vol. ii. 1899); Lawn, Mine Accounts and Mining Book-keeping (London, 1897) ; Lup- ton, Mining (yd ed., London, 1899); T. A. Rickard, The Sampling and Estimation of Ore in a Mine (New York, 1904); Truscott, The Witwatersrand Goldfields — Banket and Mining Practice (London, 1 898 ; G. F. Williams, The Diamond Mines of South Africa (New York, 542 MINION— MINISTRY 1902) ; Periodical Publications — Annates des mines de Belgique (Brus- sels, quarterly); Australian Mining Standard (Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane, weekly) ; Engineering and Mining Journal (New York, weekly); Gliickauf (Essen, weekly); Mines and Quarries; General Report and Statistics (London, annually); with details from official reports of colonial and foreign mining departments ; Mines and Minerals (monthly, Scranton, Pennsylvania) ; The Mineral Industry (New York, annually) ; Transactions of the American Institute of Min- ing Engineers (New York) ; The Mining and Scientific Press (weekly, San Francisco) ; Transactions of the Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (London) ; Transactions of the Institution of Mining Engineers (New- castle-on-Tyne). (H. S. M.) MINION, a favourite, pet or spoiled person. The word is adapted from the Fr. mignon (Ital. mignone), of which the origin is doubtful. Connexions with the O.H. Ger. minna, love, and with a Celtic root min-, meaning small, have been suggested. " Minion " is chiefly applied in a derogatory sense to the " creatures " of a royal court, and thus has been used of the favourites of Edward II. and James I. of England, and of Henry III. of France. In the sense pretty, delicate, dainty, the French form mignon or mignonne is often used in English. During the. 17th century "minion" was the name of a type of cannon with a small bore. In typography, it is still used for the type which comes between " nonpareil " and " brevier." MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant), an official title both civil and ecclesiastical. The word minister as originally used in the Latin Church was a translation of the Greek Slclkovos, deacon; thus Lactantius speaks of presbyteri et ministri, priests and deacons (De mort. persecutorum, No. 15), and in this sense it is still technically used; thus canon vi., Sess. xxiii. of the council of Trent speaks of the hierarchy as consisting " ex episcopis, presbyteris et ministris." But the equivocal character of the word soon led to the blurring of any strictly technical sense it once possessed. Bishops signed themselves minister in the spirit of humility, priests were "servants of the altar" (ministri altaris), while sometimes the phrase ministri ecclesiae was used to denote the clergy in minor orders (see Lex Bajwar. tit. 8, quoted in Du Cange). A similar equivocal character attaches to the word minister as used in the Anglican formularies: " Oftentimes it is made to express the person officiating in general, whether priest or deacon; at other times it denoteth the priest alone, as contradistinguished from the deacon " (Burn's Eccl. Law, ed. Phillimore, iii. 44). Thus the 33rd canon of 1603 orders that " no bishop shall make any person a deacon and minister both together upon one day." Generally, however, it may be said that in the use of the Church of England " minister " means no more than executor officii, a sense in which it was used long before the Reformation. As the most colourless of all official ecclesiastical titles, it is easy to see how the word minister has come to be applied to the clergy of Protestant denominations. The phrase " minister of religion " is wide enough to embrace any evangelical office, and has about it more of the savour of humility than " pastor." The civil title of minister originates in the same exact sense of servant, i.e. servants of the royal household (ministri aulae regis). This origin is still clearly traceable in the titles of some ministers in Great Britain, e.g. chancellor of the exchequer, first lord of the treasury, and in the official style of " his majesty's servants " applied to all. Practically, however, the word minister has in modern states come to be applied to the heads of the great administrative departments who as such are members of the government. On the continent there are, besides, " ministers without portfolio," i.e. ministers who, without being in charge of any special department, are members of the government. In general it is distinctive of constitutional states that any public act of the sovereign must bear the countersignature of the minister responsible for the department concerned. (See the articles Ministry and Cabinet. For the history and meanings of the word " minister " in diplomacy, see Diplomacy.) (W. A. P.) MINISTRY, the office of a minister (q.v.), in all its meanings, political and religious, or the body of persons holding such an office and performing its duties; more particularly the body of persons who, in theory the servants at the head of the state, act as the responsible executive over the whole sphere of government, as in the United Kingdom. On the continent of Europe, on the other hand, the word " ministry " is most usually applied to the responsible head of a particular department together with his subordinates, including the permanent officials or staff. In England, ever since the introduction of monarchical institutions the sovereign has always been surrounded by a select body of confidential advisers to assist the crown in the government of the country. At no period could a king of England act, accord- ing to law, without advice in the public concerns of the king- dom; the institutions of the crown of England and the institution of the privy council are coeval. At the Norman Conquest the king's council, or as it is now called, the privy council, was composed of certain members of the aristocracy and great officers of state, specially summoned by the crown, with whom the sovereign usually advised in matters of state and government. In the earlier stages of English constitutional history the king's councillors, as confidential servants of the monarch, were present at every meeting of parliament in order to advise upon matters judicial in the House of Lords; but in the reign of Richard II. the privy council dissolved its judicial connexion with the peers and assumed an independent jurisdiction of its own. It was in the reign of Henry VI. that the king's council first assumed the name of privy council, and it was also during the minority of this sovereign that a select council gradually emerged from the larger body of the privy council, which ultimately became the modern cabinet. Since the Revolution of 1688, and the develop- ment of parliamentary government, the privy council has dwindled into comparative insignificance. The, power once swayed by the privy council is now exercised by that unrecog- nized select committee of the council known as the cabinet (q.v.). The practice of consulting a few confidential advisers instead of the whole privy council had been resorted to by English monarchs from a very early period; but the first mention of the term cabinet council in contradistinction to privy council occurs in the reign of Charles I., when the burden of state affairs was entrusted to the committee of state which Clarendon says was enviously called the " cabinet counciL" At first government by cabinet was as unpopular as it was irregular. Until the for- mation of the first parliamentary ministry by William III. the ministers of the king occupied no recognized position in the House of Commons; it was indeed a moot point whether they were entitled to sit at all in the lower chamber, and they were seldom of one mind in the administration of matters of importance. Before the Revolution of 1688 there were ministers, but no ministry in the modern sense of the word; colleague schemed against colleague in the council chamber, and it was no uncom- mon thing to see ministers opposing one another in parliament upon measures that in modern times would be supported by a united cabinet. As the change from government by prerogative to government by parliament, consequent upon the Revolution of 1688, developed, and the House of Commons became more and more the centre and force of the state, the advantage of having ministers in the legislature to explain and defend the measures and policy of the executive government began to be appreciated. The public authority of the crown being only exercised through the medium of ministers, it became absolutely necessary that the advisers of the sovereign, who were respon- sible for every public act of the Crown as well as for the general policy they had been called upon to administer, should have seats in both Houses of Parliament. Still nearly a century had to elapse before political unanimity in the cabinet was recognized as a political maxim. From the first parliamentary ministry of William III. until the rise of the second Pitt, divisions in the cabi- net were constantly occurring, and a prime minister had more to fear from the intrigues of his own colleagues than from the tactics of the opposition. In 181 2 an attempt was made to form a ministry consisting of men of opposite political principles, who were invited to accept office, not avowedly as a coalition govern- ment, but with an offer to the Whig leaders that their friends should be allowed a majority of one in the cabinet. This offer MINISTRY 543 was declined on the plea that to construct a cabinet on " a system of counteraction was inconsistent with the prosecution of any uniform and beneficial course of policy." From that date it has been an established principle that all cabinets are to be formed on some basis of political union agreed upon by the members when they accept office together. It is now also dis- tinctly understood that the members of a cabinet are jointly and severally responsible for each other's acts, and that any attempt to distinguish between a particular minister and his colleagues in such matters is unconstitutional. During the ioth century the power of ministers was greatly extended, and their duties became more distinctly marked out. As now interpreted, the leading principles of the British constitu- tion are the personal irresponsibility of the sovereign, the respon- sibility of ministers, and the inquisitorial and controlling power of parliament. At the head of affairs is the prime minister (q.v.), whose duties are more general than departmental; and the other members of the administration, whose work is exemplified by the titles of their offices (the more important of which are treated separately), are the lord high chancellor, the lord president of the council, the lord privy seal, the first lord of the treasury, the five secretaries of state (home, foreign affairs, colonies, war, India), the chancellor of the exchequer, the secretary for Scot- land, the chief secretary to the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, the postmaster-general, the presidents of the board of trade, the local government board, the board of agriculture and the board of education (all of which were originally committees of the privy council), the chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster and the first lord of the admiralty. These are the more impor- tant members of the administration, and they are generally in the cabinet. The subordinate members of the administration, some of whom are occasionally invited to join the cabinet, while others are never in it, are the parliamentary and financial secretary to the admiralty, the parliamentary under-secretaries of the home, foreign, war, colonial and India offices, the board of trade, local government and board of education, the junior lords of the treasury (assistant " whips "), the financial secretary and patronage secretary to the treasury (the senior " whip "), the first commissioner of works, the paymaster-general, and the attorney-general and solicitor-general. There are in addition the lord advocate and the solicitor-general for Scotland, the lord- lieutenant and lord chancellor of Ireland (who are sometimes members of the cabinet), and the attorney-general and solicitor- general for Ireland. Table of Lord Treasurers or First Lords of the Treasury [The title was at first lord treasurer, except when the treasury was put in commission. Ultimately special rank was given to one of the commissioners as first lord of the treasury. From the time of the earl of Essex (1679) the name given is that of the first lords, with the exception of the three printed in italics. In modern times the first lord of the treasury has usually, but not invariably, been the head of the government or prime minister. A list of the Prime Ministers is given in the article Prime Minister. 1603. Lord Buckhurst, cr. Earl 1649. Interregnum. of Dorset 1604. Earl of Salisbury. Earl of Northampton and others. (Commissioners.) Earl of Suffolk. 1618. Archbishop Abbot and others. (Commissioners.) 1620. Sir H. Montagu, cr. Vis- count Mandeville 1620. Lord Cranfield, cr. Earl of Middlesex 1622. Sir J. Ley, cr. Lord Ley 1625, and Earl of Marl- borough 1626. 1628. Lord Weston, cr. Earl of Portland 1633. 1635. Archbishop Laud and others. (Commissioners.) 1636. W. Juxon, Bishop of Lon- don. 1641. Sir E. Littleton and others. (Commissioners.) 1643. Lord Cottington. 1608 1612 1614. 1621. 1624. 1660. Sir E. Hyde and others. (Commissioners.) 1660. Earl of Southampton. 1667. Duke of Albemarle and others. (Commissioners.) 1672. Lord Clifford. 1673. Viscount Dunblane, cr. Earl of Danby 1674. 1679. Earl of Essex. 1679. Lord Hyde, cr. Earl of Rochester 1682. 1684. Lord Godolphin. 1687. Lord Bellasyse. 1689. Earl of Monmouth. 1690. Viscount Lonsdale. 1690. Lord Godolphin. 1697. C. Montagu, cr. Earl of Halifax 1700. 1699. Earl of Tankerville. 1700. Lord Godolphin. 1 70 1. Earl of Carlisle. 1702. Lord Godolphin. 1710. Earl Poulett. 711. Earl of Oxford. 714. Duke of Shrewsbury. 714. Earl of Halifax. 715. Earl of Carlisle. 715. Sir R. Walpole. 717. Lord Stanhope. 718. Earl of Sunderland. 721. Sir R. Walpole. 742. Earl of Wilmington. 743. H. Pelham. 754. Duke of Newcastle. 756. Duke of Devonshire. 757. Duke of Newcastle. 762. Earl of Bute. 763. G. Grenville. 765. Marquess of Rockingham. 766. Duke of Grafton. 770. Lord North. 782. Marquess of Rockingham. 782. Earl of Shelburne. 783. Duke of Portland. 783. W. Pitt. 801. H. Addington. 804. W. Pitt. 806. Lord Grenville. 807. Duke of Portland. 807. S. Perceval. 812. Earl of Liverpool. 827. G. Canning. 827. Viscount Goderich. 828. Duke of Wellington. 830. Earl Grey. 834. Viscount Melbourne. 834. Sir R. Peel. Table of Lord Chancellors 603. Sir T. Egerton, L.K., cr. Lord Ellesmere 1603, and Viscount Brackley 1616. 617. Sir F. Bacon, L.K., cr. Lord Verulam 16 18, and Viscount St Albans 162 1. 1621. J. Williams, Bishop of Lincoln, L.K. 1625. Sir T. Coventry, L.K., cr. Lord Coventry 1628. 1640. Sir J. Finch, L.K., cr. Lord Finch 1640. 1641. Sir E. Littleton, L.K., cr. Lord Lyttelton 1641. 1645. Sir R. Lane, L.K. 1649. Interregnum. 1660. Sir E. Hyde, C, cr. Lord Hyde 1660, and Earl of Clarendon 1661. 1667. Sir O. Bridgeman, L.K. 1672. Earl of Shaftesbury, C. 1673. Sir H. Finch, L.K.,cr. Lord Finch .1674, C. 1675, cr. Earl of Nottingham 1681. 1682. Sir F. North, L.K., cr. Lord Guilford 1683. 1685. Lord Jeffreys, C. 1690. Sir J. May nard and others. (Commissioners.) 1690. Sir J. Trevor and others. (Commissioners.) 1693. Sir J. Somers, L.K., C, cr. Lord Somers 1697. 1700. Sir N. Wright, L.K. 1705. W. Cowper, L.K., cr. Lord Cowper 1706, C. 1707, 1 710. Sir T. Trevor and others. (Commissioners). 1710. Sir S. Harcourt, L.K., cr. Lord Harcourt 1711, C. I7I3- 1 7 14. Lord Cowper, C. 1718. Sir R. Tracy and others. (Commissioners.) 1718. Lord Parker, C, cr. Earl of Macclesfield 1721. 1725. Sir J. Jekyll and others. (Commissioners.) 1725. Lord King, C. r 733- Lord Talbot of Hensol, C. !737- Lord Hardwicke, C, cr. Earl of Hardwicke 1754. 1835. 1841. 1846. 1852. 1852. 1855- 1858. 1859- 1865. 1866. 1868. 1868. 1874. 1880. 1885. 1886. 1886. 1887. 1891. 1892. 1894. i895- Viscount Melbourne. Sir R. Peel. Lord J. Russell, cr. Earl Russell 1 861. Earl of Derby. Earl of Aberdeen. Viscount Pa'merston. Earl of Derby. Viscount Palmerston. Earl Russell. Earl of Derby. B. Disraeli. W. E. Gladstone. B. Disraeli, cr. Earl of Beaconsfield 1876. W. E. Gladstone. Sir Stafford Northcote, cr. Earl of Iddesleigh 1885 (prime minister, Marquess of Salisbury). W. E. Gladstone. Marquess of Salisbury. W. H. Smith (prime minis- ter, Lord Salisbury). A. J. Balfour (prime minis- ter, Lord Salisbury). W. E. Gladstone. Earl of Rosebery. A J. Balfour (prime minis- ter, Lord Salisbury till 1902). Sir H. Campbell-Banner- 1905 man. 1908. H. H. Asquith. (C.) or Lord Keepers (L.K.) 1756. Sir J. Willes and others. (Commissioners.) 1757. Sir R. Henley, L.K., cr. Lord Henley and C. 1760, Earl of Northington 1764. 1766. Lord Camden, C. 1770. Charles Yorke, C. 1770. Sir S. S. Smythe and others. (Commissioners.) 1 77 1 . Lord Apsley , C. , succeeded as Earl Bathurst 1775. 1778. LordThurlow, C. 1783. Lord Loughborough and others. (Commissioners.) 1783. Lord Thurlow, C. 1792. Sir J. Eyre and others. (Commissioners.) 1793. Lord Loughborough, C, cr. Earl of Rosslyn 1801. 1801. Lord Eldon, C. 1806. Lord Erskine, C. 1807. Lord Eldon, C. 1827. Lord Lyndhurst, C. 1830. Lord Brougham, C. 1834. Lord Lyndhurst, C. 1835. Sir C. C. Pepys and others. (Commissioners.) 1836. Lord Cottenham, C. 1 841. Lord Lyndhurst, C. 1846. Lord Cottenham, C. 1850. Lord Langdale and others. (Commissioners.) 1850. Lord Truro, C. 1852. Lord St Leonards, C. 1852. Lord Cranworth, C. 1858. Lord Chelmsford, C. 1859. Lord Campbell, C. 1861. Lord Westbury, C. 1865. Lord Cranworth, C. 1866. Lord Chelmsford, C. 1868. Lord Cairns, C. 1868. Lord Hatherley, C. 1872. Lord Selborne, C. 1874. Lord Cairns, C, cr. Earl Cairns 1878. 1880. Lord Selborne, C, cr. Earl of Selborne 1882. 1885. Lord Halsbury, C. 1886. Lord Herschell, C. 1886. Lord Halsbury, C. 1892. Lord Herschell, C. 1895. Lord Halsbury, C.,cr. Earl of Halsbury 1898. 1905. Lord Loreburn, C. 544 MINISTRY Table ok Secretaries of State [The substitution of two secretaries for one was the consequence of the increase of business. There was no distinction of departments, each secretary taking whatever work the king saw fit to entrust him with During the reigns of the first two Stuarts, however, there was a tendency to entrust one secretary with the correspondence with Protestant states and their allies, and the other with the correspondence with Catholic states. Probably in the reign of Charles II., and certainly as early as 1691, two departments, the Northern and the Southern, were instituted. In 1782 the departments were changed to Home and Foreign. A third secretary of state was appointed in 1794, and he was called the Secretary for War and the Colonies from 1801 to 1854, when the work was divided, and the War and Colonial Secretaryships were instituted. The Secretary of State for India was appointed in 1858.] 1603. Sir R. Cecil, cr. Lord Cecil 1603, Viscount Cranborne 1604, Earl of Salisbury 1605 1612. Vacant. 1614. Sir R. Win wood. 1615 1618. Sir R. Naunton. 1619. Sir G. Calvert. 1623. Sir E. Conway, cr. Lcrd Conway 1625. 1625. ..... 1625. 1628. Viscount Dorchester. 1632. Sir F. Windebank. 1640. ..... 1 64 1. Sir E. Nicholas. 1642. Viscount Falkland. 1643 Lord Digby. 1643. Interregnum. 1660. Sir E. Nicholas. . 1662. Sir H. Bennet, cr. Earl of Arlington 1665. 1668 1672. 1674. Sir J. Williamson. 1678. Earl of Sunderland. 1680 1 68 1. Lord Conway. 1683. Earl of Sunderland. 1684 1684 Earl of Middleton. 1688. Viscount Preston. 1689. Earl of Shrewsbury. . Earl of Nottingham. 1690. Viscount Sidney. 1692. Sir J. Trenchard. 1694. Earl of Shrewsbury. 1695. Sir W.Trumbull. 1697. J. Vernon. 1700. Sir C. Hedges. . . Earl of Jersey. 1701 Earl of Manchester. 1702 Earl of Nottingham. 1704 R. Harley.cr. Earlof Oxford 171 1 1 706. Earl of Sunderland. 1708. H. Boyle, cr. Baron Carleton 1714- 1710. Lord Dartmouth, cr. Earl H. St. John, cr. Viscount Boling- of Dartmouth 1711. broke 1712. 1713. W. Bromley. 1714. J. Stanhope, cr. Earl Stan- Viscount Towrishend. hope 1718 Sir T. Lake. Sir A. Morton. Sir J. Coke. Sir H. Vane. Sir W. Morrice. Sir J.Trevor. Henry Coventry Sir L. Jenkins. S. Godolphin. 1717. Earl of Sunderland. . J.Addison. 1718. Earl Stanhope. . . . J. Craggs. 1721. Viscount Townshend. . Lord Carteret. 1724 Duke of Newcastle. 1730. Lord Harrington. 1742. Lord Carteret, became Earl Granville 1744. 1744. Earl of Harrington. 1746. Earl Granville. 1746. Earl of Harrington. 1746. Earl of Chesterfield. 1748. Duke of Bedford. 1 75 1 . Earl of Holderness. 1754- Sir T. Robinson, cr. Baron Grantham 1761 H. Fox. W. Pitt. 1755 1756 1 76 1. Earl of Bute. 1 76 1 ' . . Earl of Egremont. 1762. G. Grenville. 1763. Earl of Halifax. . . Earl of Sandwich. 1765. Duke of Grafton. . . H. S. Conway. 1766. Duke of Richmond. 1766. Earl of Shelburne. 1768. . . . . . Viscount Weymouth. 1768. Earl of Hillsborough, Colo- nies. 1768. Earl of Rochford. 1770 Earl of Sandwich. 1 77 1 Earl of Halifax. 1771- ...... Earl of Suffolk. 1772. Earl of Dartmouth, Colonies. 1775. Viscount Weymouth, cr. Marquess of Bath 1789. 1776. Lord G. S. Germaine, Colo- nies. 1779 Viscount Stormont. 1779. Earl of Hillsborough, cr. Marquess of Downshire 1789 1782. W. Ellis, cr. Baron Mendip, 1794, Colonies. Home Department. 1782. Earl of Shelburne. 1782. Lord Grantham. 1783. Lord North. 1 783. Marquess of Carmarthen. 1783 Lord Sydney. 1789. W. W. Grenville, cr. Baron Grenville 1790. 1 79 1. H. Dundas. . . . Lord Grenville. Foreign Department. C. J. Fox. [1783 T. Townshend, cr. Baron Sydney C. J. Fox. Earl Temple. 1794 1801 1803 1804 1805 1806, 1807 1809 1809 1812 1822 1827 1827 1828, 1830, 1833 1834 1834 1835 1839 1839 1841 1845 1846, 1852 1852 Home Department. Duke of Portland .... Lord Pelham, aft. Earl of Chichester C. P. Yorke Lord Hawkesbury Earl Spencer Lord frawkesbury, aft. Earl of R. Ryder .... Viscount Sidmouth (H. Addington) R. Peel . ^ . W. S. Bourne . * . Marquess of Lansdowne . R. Peel .... Viscount Melbourne . Liverpool Viscount Duncannon,aft.Earl of Bessborough H. Goulburn Lord J. Russell . . . . Marquess of Normanby .... Sir J. Graham, Bart. .... Sir G. Grey Spencer H. Walpole Viscount Palmerston Foreign Department. Lord Grenville Lord Hawkesbury Lord Harrowby Lord Mulgrave C. J. Fox G. Canning . Earl Bathurst Marquess Wellesley Viscount Castlereagh, G. Canning Earl of Dudley aft. Marquess of [Londonderry Earl of Aberdeen . Viscount Palmerston Duke of Wellington Viscount Palmerston Earl of Aberdeen Viscount Palmerston Earl of Malmesbury Lord J. Russell War and Colonial Department. H. Dundas, cr. Visct.Melvillei862. Lord Hobart, aft. Earl of Buckinghamshire. Earl Camden. Viscount Castlereagh. W. Windham. Viscount Castlereagh. Earl Bathurst. Viscount Goderich. W. Huskisson. Sir G. Murray. [Ripon. Viscount Goderich, aft. Earl of E. G. S. Stanley ,aft. Lord Stanley and Earl of Derby. T. Spring-Rice, aft. Lord Mont- Earl of Aberdeen. [eagle. Lord Glenelg. Marquess of Normanby. Lord J. Russell. Lord Stanley. W. E. Gladstone. Earl Grey. [Hampton. Sir J. S. Pakington, aft. Lord Duke of Newcastle. MINK 545 1855- 1855- 1855- 1858. Home Department. Sir G. Grey S. H. Walpole Foreign Department. Earl of Clarendon Earl of Malmesbury Colonial Department. Sidney Herbert . Lord J. Russell. [Taunton H. Labouchere, aft. Lord Lord Stanley War Department. Lord Panmure. Jonathan Peel. 1858. 1859- 1859- 1861. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866. 1867. 1868. 1870. 1874. 1878. 1880. 1882. 1885. 1886. 1886. 1886. 1887. 1892. 1804. 1895- 1900. 1902. 1903. 1905. 1908. 1910. Home Department. S. H. Walpole T. H. S. Sotheron- Estcourt. Sir G. Cornewall Lewis Sir G. Grey S. H. Walpole H. A. Bruce, cr. Baron Aberdare 1873 Sir R. A. Cross Sir W. Vernon Har- court Sir R. A. Cross, cr. Viscount Cross 1886 H. C. E. Childers . H. Matthews, cr. Viscount Llandaff 1895 H. H. Asquith Sir M.White Ridley, cr. Viscount Rid- ley 1900 C. T. Ritchie, cr. Baron Ritchie of Dundee 1905 A. Akers-Douglas. H. J. Gladstone, cr. Viscount Glad- stone 1910 Winston S. Churchill. Foreign Department. Earl of Malmesbury Lord J. Russell, cr. Earl Russell 1 86 1 Earl of Clarendon. Lord Stanley, aft. Earl of Derby Earl of Clarendon Earl Granville Earl of Derby Marquess of Salisbury Earl Granville Marquess of Salisbury . Earl of Rosebery. Earl of Iddesleigh Marquess of Salisbury . Earl of Rosebery. Earl of Kimberley Marquess of Salisbury. Marquess of Lansdowne Sir E. Grey . Colonial Department. Sir E. G. E. L. Bulwer Lytton, cr. Baron Lytton 1866 Duke of Newcastle E. Cardwell Earl of Carnarvon Duke of Buckingham Earl Granville Earl of Kimberley. Earl of Carnarvon Sir M. Hicks Beach, cr. Viscount St Aldwyn 1906 Earl of Kimberley Earl of Derby Sir F. A. Stanley, cr. Baron Stanley of Preston 1886, aft. Earl of Derby Earl Granville E. Stanhope SirH.T.Holland.cr. Vis- count Knutsford 1895. Marquess of Ripon J. Chamberlain Hon. A. Lyttelton Earl of Elgin Earl of Crewe. War Department. Jonathan Peel S. Herbert, cr. Lord Herbert of Lea 1861 Sir G. C. Lewis. Earl de Grey and Ripon, aft. Marquess of Ripon Jonathan Peel Sir J. S. Pakington, aft. Baron Hampton E. Cardwell, cr. Vis- count Cardwell 1874 G. Hardy F. A. Stanley H. C. E. Childers Marquess of Hartington, aft. D. of Devonshire W. H. Smith . . Viscount Cranbrook. H. Campbell-Bannerman W. H. Smith. . E. Stanhope. H. Campbell-Bannerman Marquess of Lansdowne Hon. W. St J. Brodrick, aft. Viscount Midleton H. O. Arnold-Forster . R. B. Haldane . India Department. Lord Stanley. Sir C.Wood.cr. Viscount Halifax 1866. Viscount Cranborne. Sir S. H. Northcote, cr. Earl of Iddesleigh 1885 Duke of Argyll. Marquess of Salisbury. G. Hardy, cr. Viscount Cranbrook 1878. Marquess of Hartington. Earl of Kimberley. Lord R. Churchill. Earl of Kimberley. Viscount Cross. Earl of Kimberley. H. H. Fowler, cr. Vis- count Wolverhamp- ton 1908. Lord G. Hamilton. Hon. W. St J. Brodrick. J. Morley, aft. Viscount Morley of Blackburn. MINK, a name for certain large species of the zoological genus Putorius (Polecat), distinguished by slight structural modifica- tions and semi-aquatic habits. The two best-known species, so much alike in size, form, colour and habits that, although they are widely separated geographically, some zoologists question their specific distinction, are P. luireola, the Nbrz or Sumpfotter (marsh-otter) of eastern Europe, and P. vison, the mink of North America. The former inhabits Finland, Poland and the greater part of Russia, though not found east of the Ural Mountains. Formerly it extended westward into central Germany, but it is now very rare, if not extinct, in that country. The latter is found in places which suit its habits throughout the whole of North America. Another form, P. sibiricus, from eastern Asia, of which much less is known, appears to connect the true minks with the polecats. The name may have originated in the Swedish maenk applied to the European animal. Captain John Smith, in his History of Virginia (1626), at p. 27 speaks of " Martins, Powlecats, Weesels and Minkes," showing that the animal must at that time have been distinguished by a vernacular appellation from its xviii. 18 congeners. By later authors, as Lawson (1709) and Pennant (1784), it is often written " Minx." For the following descrip- tion, chiefly taken from the American form (though almost equally applicable to that of Europe) we are mainly indebted to Dr Elliott Couts'sFur-bearing Animals of N orth America, 1877. In size it much resembles the English polecat — the length of the head and body being usually from 15 to 18 in., that of the tail to the end of the hair about 9 in. The female is considerably smaller than the male. The tail is bushy, but tapering at the end. The ears are small, low, rounded, and scarcely project beyond the adjacent fur. The pelage consists of a dense, soft, matted under fur, mixed with long, stiff, lustrous hairs on all parts of the body and tail. The gloss is greatest on the upper parts; on the tail the bristly hairs predominate. Northern specimens have the finest and most glistening pelage; in those from southern regions there is less difference between the under and over fur, and the whole pelage is coarser and harsher. In colour different specimens present a considerable range of varia- tion, but the animal is ordinarily of a rich dark brown, scarcely or not paler below than on the general upper parts ; but the back 11 54-6 MINNEAPOLIS is usually the darkest, and the tail is nearly black. The under jaw, from the chin about as far back as the angle of the mouth, is generally white. In the European mink the upper lip is also white, but, as this occasionally occurs in American specimens, it fails as an absolutely distinguishing character. Besides the white on the chin, there are often other irregular white patches on the under parts of the body. In very rare instances the tail is tipped with white. The fur is important in commerce. The principal characteristic of the mink in comparison with its congeners is its amphibious mode of life. It is to the water what the other weasels are to the land, or martens to the trees, being as essentially aquatic in its habits as the otter, beaver, or musk-rat, and spending perhaps more of its time in the water than it does on land. It swims with most of the body Submerged, and dives with perfect ease, remaining long without coming to the surface to breathe. It makes its nest in burrows in the banks of streams, breeding once a year about the month of April, and producing five or six young at a birth. Its food consists of frogs, fish, fresh-water molluscs and crustaceans, as well as mice, rats, musk- rats, rabbits and small birds. In common with the other animals of the genus, it has a very peculiar and disagreeable effluvium, which, according to Dr Coues, is more powerful, penetrating and lasting than that of any animal of the country except the skunk. (W.H.F.) MINNEAPOLIS, the largest city of Minnesota, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Hennepin county, situated on both banks of the Mississippi river at the Falls of St Anthony and imme- diately above St Paul. Pop. (1870), 13,066; (1880), 46,887; (1890), 164,738; (1900), 202,718; (1910 census) 301,408. Of the total population in 1900, those of foreign parentage (both parents foreign-born) numbered 118,946, and there were 61,021 of foreign birth, including 20,035 Swedes, 11,532 Norwegians, 7335 Germans, 5637 English-Canadians, 3213 Irish, 2289 English, 1929 Russians, 1706 French-Canadians and 1133 Austrians. Minneapolis is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, Great Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the Chicago & Northwestern, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Great Northern, the Minneapolis & St Louis, the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Sainte Marie, and the Northern Pacific railways. It has also three terminal switching lines and the belt line of the Minnesota Transfer Company, serving both Minneapolis and St Paul. With St Paul, which is served by the same system of railways, Minneapolis is the chief railway centre of the Northwest and one of the greatest in the United States, being the principal gateway to the commerce of the Canadian and Pacific north- west. There are a Union passenger station, and separate stations for the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the Chicago, Great W es tem and the Minneapolis & St Louis railways. The city is situated on a high plateau (800-850 ft. above sea- level) above the river, and covers an area of about 53 sq. m. It has an extensive system of boulevards, parkways and parks (aggregating 2465 acres in 1908). Among the parks are Loring, near the centre of the city, in which is a statue of Ole Bull; Lyndale, in the south-west part of the city; Interlachen, just north-west of Lyndale; Glen wood, in the west of the city; Van Cleve, Logan, Windom and Columbia in the part of the city east of the Mississippi river; Riverside, on the south-west bank of the Mississippi; and Minnehaha Park, in which are the Minne- haha Falls, a beautiful cascade of the Minnehaha Creek (the out- let of Lake Minnetonka), near the Mississippi, with a fall of 50 ft., well known from Longfellow's poem " Hiawatha." The numerous small lakes in the city (there are about '200 lakes in Hennepin county) have been incorporated in the park system; among them are Lake Harriet (353 acres; in Lake Harriet Park), Lake Calhoun (on which are extensive public baths), Lake Amelia (295 acres), Lake of the Isles (100 acres), Cedar Lake, Powder Horn Lake (in the park of that name) and Sandy Lake (in Columbia Park). Adjoining Minnehaha Park are the grounds (51 acres, given to the state by the city) and buildings of the Minnesota state soldiers' home (1887); and 2 m. beyond the Falls, at the junction of the Minnesota and Mississippi rivers, is the Fort Snelling Military Reservation (1819). Seven miles south-west of the limits of the city is Lake Minnetonka, one of the most famous summer resorts in the Northwest, a beautiful body of water 15 m. long, with a shore line of 150 m. encircled by undulating wooded hills. Among the most fashionable streets are Mount Curve, Clifton and Park avenues, all in the " West Division " or south-western quarter of the city. The streets in all parts of the city are of exceptional width and heavily shaded in the residential districts. There are handsome resi- dential suburbs. The court-house and city-hall, constructed of red Minnesota granite and completed in 1902 at a cost of about $3,500,000, is one of the finest municipal buildings in America. Other prominent buildings are the Masonic Temple, the Chamber of Commerce, the Lumber Exchange, the Bank of Commerce, the Auditorium; the buildings of the Metropolitan Life (formerly the Guaranty), the Security Bank, the North- western National Bank, the First National Bank, the Andrus, the New York Life, and the Young Men's Christian Association; Hotel Radisson and West Hotel. Minneapolis is the see of a Protestant Episcopal bishopric. On the east side of the river are the buildings of the university of Minnesota (q.v.). In Minneapolis are the Minneapolis College of Physicians and Sur- geons (1883), the medical school of Hamline University; Augs- burg Seminary (Norwegian Lutheran, 1869), the United Church Seminary (1890), the Minnesota College (Swedish, 1905), the Minneapolis Normal School for Kindergartners, the Froebellian Kindergarten Normal School, Graham Hall and Stanley Hall, the Minneapolis School of Music, Oratory and Dramatic Art, and the Northwestern Conservatory of Music. Between Minneapolis and St Paul are the main buildings of Hamline; University (Methodist Episcopal, co-educational, 1854). The public library (more than 180,000 volumes in 1908) grew out of a private library, the Athenaeum (i860), was reorganized by Herbert Putnam (librarian from 1887 to 1 891), and has several branches, the most notable of which is the Pillsbury Library (1904) on the east side; in its main building (Hennepin Avenue and 10th Street) are the offices of the Minnesota Academy of Natural Sciences (1873), which, with the Society of Fine Arts, assisted in erecting the building in 1884. Among the hospitals and charitable institutions are the Minneapolis city hospital, the state hospital for crippled and deformed children, and Asbury Methodist, the Northwestern, the Deaconess', the Swedish, the St Mary's, the Maternity and the St Barnabas hospitals, Bethany Home, the Catholic orphan asylum, the Washburn orphans' home, the Pillsbury House (1906) where settlement work is carried on by the Plymouth Congregational Church, and several free dispensaries. The first newspaper in the city was the St Anthony Express, which began publication in 1851; it is no longer in existence. In 1906 the city had, in addition to numerous weekly and monthly periodicals (English, Norwegian- Danish, Swedish, German, French), four dailies, the Tribune (1867), the Journal (1878), and the News (1903), all in English, and the Tidende (Norwegian-Danish), established as a weekly in 1851. The Mississippi river, which here has an average width of about 1200 ft., is crossed by 17 bridges (9 highway and 8 railway bridges). The Federal government undertook to deepen the channel by dredging and by making two dams and two locks between the Chicago, St Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha railway bridge in St Paul and the Washington Avenue bridge in Minne- apolis — a distance of 11-4 m.— from 2 or 3 ft. to 6 ft., and to make the river regularly navigable as far as the Washington Avenue bridge, Minneapolis; the project, first adopted in 1894 and modi- fied in 1907, was 70% completed in July 1908, and up to that time $1,061,397 had been spent on the work. The enormous water-power of the Falls of St Anthony, yielding about 40,000 h.p., has been the principal factor in making Minnea- polis a great manufacturing centre. The rapid erosion of the soft limestone bed at one time threatened the destruction of the power, but this has been prevented by an enormous apron and an artificial concrete floor (completed in 1879). Additional water- power (25,000 h.p.) is derived from Taylor's Falls on the St Croix MINNESINGERS 547 river. The proximity of the rich wheatfields of the north- west, and the extensive timber forests, have made Minneapolis the greatest lumber and flour centre in the world. The impor- tance of the flour manufacturing industry was originally due to the excellent water-power available, and dates from the intro- duction of improved roller-mill methods in the early 'seventies, although there were successful mills in operation twenty years earlier. The enormous flour-mills of Minneapolis (22 in 1907) are perhaps the most interesting sights of the city. Their aggre- gate daily capacity is over 80,000 barrels, the largest of them having a capacity of 15,000 to 16,500 daily. In 1905 the value of the city's flour and grist mill products was $62,754,446, 51-6 % of the total value of the city's factory product, and 8-8 % of the value of the flour and grist mill products of the entire United States. Food preparations were valued in 1905 at $1,361,492. Minneapolis is also the greatest primary wheat market in the world, its 40 or more elevators (of which those of the Washburn-Crosby Company, erected in 1907, are the largest) having a net capacity of about 35,000,000 bushels, and handling more than 90,000,000 bushels in 1908. Its commerce in other grains is also extensive; in the amount of barley received and shipped Minneapolis surpasses any other city in the United States, and in receipts and shipments of rye is second only to Chicago. The Mississippi river above Minneapolis is made to serve, by means of a series of extensive log-booms, as the princi- pal source of supply to the great saw-mills, of which there are here some of the largest in the world, with a combined capacity of 3,500,000 ft. a day, and with an average annual cut of 575,000,000 ft. The total value of the lumber products in 1905 was $9,960,842 (lumber and timber, $5,816,726; planing- mill products, including sash, doors and blinds, $4,144,116). Other important manufactures with the product-value of each in 1905 were malt liquors ($1,185,525), foundry and machine shop products ($2,820,697), structural iron-work ($1,991,771), steam railway car construction and repairing ($2,027,248), patent medicines ($1,715,889), furniture ($1,238,324), cooperage ($1,415,360), and hosiery and knit goods ($957,455). The total value of the factory product was $94,407,774 in 1900, and $121,593,120 in 1905, an increase of 28-8 %; in 1905 the value of the factory product was 39-5 % of that of the entire state. Minneapolis is governed under a charter adopted in 1872 (when St Anthony and Minneapolis were consolidated) and frequently amended. It provides for the election of a mayor, treasurer and comptroller for two-years terms; for elected boards of control for library, parks and education, and for a unicameral city council, half of which is chosen every two years for a term of four years. The mayor, whose veto may be nullified by an adverse vote of two-thirds of the council, has very limited appointing powers, the head of the police department being the most important of his appointees. The city council elects the city clerk, city attorney, city engineer, chief of the fire depart- ment and most of the minor officers. Under a provision of the charter adopted in 1887 saloons are not permitted outside the "patrol limits of the business district"; so that there are no saloons in the residential districts of the city. The municipality owns the waterworks system, the water supply being obtained from the Mississippi river. History. — The first recorded visit of a European to the site of Minneapolis was that of Father Louis Hennepin, the French Jesuit missionary, who discovered and named the Falls of St Anthony in 1680; but it is almost certain that he was preceded by some of the adventurous coureurs des bois, few of whom left records of their extensive wanderings, and Radisson and Grose- illiers seem to have visited this region two decades before Henne- pin. The land on which the city lies, being divided by the Mississippi river, was for many years under different sovereignties, the east side becoming United States territory at the close of the War of Independence, while the west side, after being under Spanish and French rule, did not become a part of the United States until the purchase of Louisiana in 1803. In 1766 the site was visited by the American traveller, Jonathan Carver, 1 and in 1805 by Lieut. Zebulon M. Pike; the military reserve which Pike bought from the Indians included a greater portion of the west side of the present city. After the erection of Fort St Anthony (1819; later called Fort Snelling), a water-power saw-mill was erected (1822) to saw lumber for the fort on the east bank of the river at the Falls of St Anthony. Later flour was also ground in this mill, which thus became the forerunner of the greatest of the city's industries. Gradually as the Indian land titles became extinguished the east bank was settled. The first settlement on the west bank was made by Colonel John H. Stevens in 1850, but the land was not opened to settlers until 1855. The village of St Anthony, on the east side of the river, was incorporated in 1855; Minneapolis, on the west bank, was incorporated in 1856. St Anthony became a city in i860, and Minneapolis, which then had only 2564 inhabitants, soon outstripped its neighbour after the Civil War, and received a city charter in 1867. In 1870 Minneapolis alone had 13,066 inhabitants (18,079 vvith St Anthony), and in 1872 the two cities were united under the name of Minneapolis. The Republican National Convention met in Minneapolis in 1 89 2 and renominated President Benjamin Harrison. Authorities. — Isaac Atwater, History of the City of Minneapolis (2 vols., New York, 1893) ; G. E. Warner and C. M. Foote, History of Hennepin County and the City of Minneapolis (Minneapolis, 1881); Hudson's Dictionary of Minneapolis and Vicinity (Minneapolis, annually) ; A. Morrison, The Industries of Minneapolis (Minneapolis, 1885); S. P. Snyder and H. K. Macfarlane, Historical Sketch of St Anthony and Minneapolis (Philadelphia, 1856); and C. B. Elliott's " Minneapolis-St Paul " in L. P. Powell's Historic Towns of the Western States (New York, 1901). , A MINNESINGERS (Ger. Minnesanger from Minne, love), the name given to the German lyric poets of the 12th and 13th centuries. The term Minnesang, strictly applicable to the poems expressing the homage {Mivnedienst) rendered by the knight to his mistress, is applied to the whole body of lyric poetry of the period, whether dealing with love, religion or politics. The idea of amour courtois, with its excessive worship of woman, its minute etiquette and its artificial sentiment, was introduced into German poetry from Provencal literature; but the German Minnesang was no slavish imitation of the poetry of the trouba- dours. Its tone was, on the whole, far healthier and more sin- cere, reflecting the difference between the simple conditions of German life and the older and corrupt civilization of Provence. The minnesinger usually belonged to the lower ranks of the nobility, and his verses were addressed to a married woman, often above him in rank; consequently the commonest lyric themes are the lover's hopeless devotion and complaints of the lady's cruelty, expressed with a somewhat wearisome iteration. That real passion was sometimes present may be safely assumed, but it was not within the rules of the game, which corresponded fairly closely to the later sonneteering conventions. The poet was not permitted to give the lady's name, or to betray her identity; and a direct expression of passion would also have contravened the rules. The poems were from the first sung in open court to a melody (Weise) of the poet's own composing, with the accompaniment of a fiddle or small harp. That the minnesinger was no improvisatore is evident from the complicated forms of his verse, which were partly borrowed from the Provencal, but possibly owed something to the Latin rhymed verse 1 of the wandering scholars. The older songs consisted of a single strophe cast in three divisions, two (known as Stollen or doorposts) identical in form, stating and developing the argument, the third (Abgesang) of different form, giving the con- clusion. Later oil, two or more strophes were used in a single poem, but the principle of their structure was retained. In this form were cast the Tagelied, a dialogue describing the parting of lovers at dawn; and the crusading song. Side by side with these existed the Spruch, written in a single undivided stanza, destined for recitation and often cast in the form of a fable. The lay (Leich) was written in unequal strophes, each formed of two equal divisions. It was applied in the first instance to sacred lyrics, 1 See the Carmina Burana, ed. J. A. Schmeller, 4th ed., Breslau, 1904. 54 8 MINNESOTA and was first used in love poems by the .Alsatian minnesinger Ulrich von Gutenberg. The origin of the native lyric, which flourished especially in Austria and Bavaria, is perhaps to be sought in the songs which accompanied dancing. These were not necessarily love songs, but celebrated the coming of spring, the gloom of winter &c, the commonplaces of Minnesang throughout the two centuries of its existence. The older lyrics, which date from the middle of the 1 2th century, are simple in form and written in the ordi- nary epic metres. The earliest minnesinger whose name has come down to us is Der von Kiirenberg (fl. c. 1160), a scion of an Austrian knightly family whose castle lay on the Danube, west of Linz. These songs, however, contradict the root idea of Minnedienst, since the lady is the wooer, and the poet, at the most, an acquiescent lover. They take the form of laments for an absent lover, complaints of his faithlessness and the like. Among the other Austrian and south German lyrists who show small trace of foreign influence was Dietmar von Aist (d. c. n 71), though some of the songs attributed to him seem to be of later date. While the love-song remained in the hands of noble singers, the Spruch was cultivated by humbler poets. The elder of the two or three poets concealed under the name of Spervogel was a wandering singer who found patronage at the court of the burgraves of Regensburg, one of whom himself figures among the earlier minnesingers. The characteristic period of German Minnesang begins at the close of the 12th century with the establishment of the Provencal tradition in western Germany through the poems of Heinrich von Veldeke and Friedrich von Hausen. National elements abound in Veldeke's songs, although the amour courtois dominates the whole; Friedrich von Hausen (d. n 90) followed Provencal models closely. The long crusading song Sie darf mich des Zlhen niel, is a good example of his powers. A close disciple of the troubadours Peire Vidal and Folquet de Marseille was the Swiss Co'unt Rudolf von Fenis. 1 The greatest name among the earlier minnesingers is that of Heinrich von Morungen, a Thuringian poet who lived on in popular story in the ballad of " The Noble Moringer." He brought great imaginative power to bear on the common subjects of Minnesang, and his poetry has a very modern note. The formal art and science of Minnesang reached full development in the subtle love-songs of Reinmar, the Alsatian " nightingale of Hagenau." Uhland aptly called him the " scholastic philosopher of unhappy love." As a metrist he developed a greater correctness of rhyme, and a better handling of German metres. He became a member of the court of Duke Leopold V. (d. 1194) of Austria, and there Walther von der Vogelweide (q.v.) was first his disciple, and then perhaps his rival. Walther, the greatest of medieval German lyric poets, had Reinmar's technical art, but in feeling was more nearly allied to Morungen. He raised the Spruch to the dignity of a serious political poem, which proved a potent weapon against the policy of Innocent III. In 1202 at the court of Hermann, landgrave of Thuringia, he met Wolfram von Eschen- bach, who is said to have taken part in the tourney of poets known as the Wartburgskrieg, made world-famous through Wag- ner's Tannhauser. The Tagelieder of Wolfram give him a high place in Minnesang, although his fame, like that of Heinrich von Veldeke and Hartmann von Aue, chiefly rests on his epics. A new style — called by Lachmann hofische Dorfpoesie — was marked out by Neidhart von Reuental (d. c. 1240), who be- longed to the lesser Bavarian nobility. He wrote songs to accompany the dances of the village beauties, and comic and realistic descriptions of village life to please the court. He was acknowledged by the Meistersinger as one of the twelve masters of song. Nevertheless, with him the decadence may be said to have begun. The Styrian poet Ulrich von Lichtenstein (d. c. 1275) uncon- sciously caricatured chivalry itself by his Frauendienst, in which he relates the absurd feats which he had undertaken at his lady's command, while Steinmar (fl. 1276) deliberately parodied 1 Rudolf II., count of Neuenburg (d. 1196), or, according to some, a nephew of his who died in 1257. court poetry in his praises of rustic beauty and good living. In the lays, songs and proverbs of Tannhauser something of both elements, of the court and the village, is to be found. He seems to have lived as a wandering singer until 1268, and there very soon grew up round his name the Tannhauser myth which has so little foundation in his life or poetry. The Austrian poet Reinmar von Zweter (d. c. 1260) left some hundreds of Sprilche political or social in their import. Among the princes who practised Minnesang were the emperor Henry VI., though the two songs preserved under his name are of doubtful authenticity, Duke Henry IV. of Breslau (fl. 1270-1290), King Wenceslaus II. of Bohemia, the margrave Otto IV. of Brandenburg, Wizlaw IV., prince of Riigen and the unhappy Conradin, the last of the house of Hohenstaufen, beheaded by the order of Charles of An jou before he reached his seventeenth year. The didactic motive came more and more to the front in the 13th century. The wandering Swabian poet Marner (d. c. 1270) cultivated especially the Spruch, laughed at the Provencal arid courtly tradition, and there is no very great step from his learning and his feuds to the conditions of Meistersang. Heinrich von Meissen (1250-1319), known as " Frauenlob"(" ladies' praise"), was one of the last minnesingers, and his pedantry and virtuosity entitle him to be called the first meistersinger. Bibliography. — The chief MSS. containing the work of the 300 or more minnesingers whose work has been partially preserved, are the old Heidelberg MS. (13th century), the Weingarten — Stuttgart MS. (14th century) and the Great Heidelberg MS. (14th century), formerly known as the Manasse MS. This last is the most compre- hensive of all. The collection on which it is based was made by Riidiger Manasse (d. 1304.) and his son "Johannes at Zurich. It is quaintly illustrated with imaginary portraits of the poets (that of Hartmann von Aue in full armour with closed vizor!), and pictures of their coats of arms. It was printed by F. Pfaff (Heidelberg, 1899). The completest collection of the minnesingers' verses is F. H. von der Hagen, Deutsche Liederdichter des zwolften, dreizchnten und vierzehnten Jahrhunderts (4 vols., Leipzig, 1838), vol. iv. of which contains biographical matter and a discussion of the music ; K. Lachmann and M. Haupt, Des Minnesangs Friihling (3rd ed., edited F. Vogt, Leipzig, 1882) is a collection of the minnesingers earlier than Walther von der Vogelweide; there is a comprehensive selection of 97 minnesingers by Karl Bartsch, Deutsche Liederdichter des zwolften bis vierzehnten Jahrhunderts (ed. W. Golther, Berlin 1901) with bio-bibliographical account of individual minnesingers ; see also F. Pfaff, Der Minnesang der 12 bis 14 Jahrhunderts, pt. i. (Stuttgart, 1892). English trans- lations of early German lyrics are F. C. Nicholson, Old German Love Songs, translated from the minnesingers of the 12th to 14th centuries (London, 1907). See also Walther v. d. Vogelweide. Of historical and critical work on the minnesingers, see K. Goedeke, Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung, vol. i. (Dresden, 1881); H. Paul, Grundriss der germanischen Philologie, vol. ii. (Strassburg, 2nd ed., 1901), where further references will be found; also A. E. Schonbach, Die Anfdnge des .deutschen Minnesanges (Graz, 1898); F. Grimme, Geschichte der Minnesdnger, vol. i. (Paderborn, 1892); K. Burdach, Reinmar der Alte und Walther von der Vogelweide (Leipzig, 1880); A. Schultz, Das hofische Leben zur Zeit der Minnesdnger (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1889); J. Falke, Die ritterliche Gesellschqft im Zeitalter des Frauencultus (Berlin, no date). MINNESOTA, a North Central State of the United States of America. It is bounded on the S. by Iowa, on the W. by South and North Dakota — the Red River (commonly called the Red River of the North) separating it from the latter state — on the N. by the Canadian provinces of Manitoba and Ontario, being separated from the latter by the Lake of the Woods, Rainy River and Rainy Lake, and certain of their tributaries and outlets, and on the E. by Lake Superior and by Wisconsin, from which it is separated for the greater part of the distance by the Missis- sippi and St Croix rivers. It is the tenth state in size in the Union, with a total area of 84,682 sq. m., of which 3824 sq. m. are water surface. 2 From north to south it is about 400 m. in length, extending from 43 30' to 49 23' 55" N. lat., and from east to west its width is about 354 m., lying between long. 89° 29' and 97° 15' W. The north-east part of the state is included in the Great Lakes Province, and the southern and western parts are in the Prairie Plains Province. The whole area of the state was formerly a complexly folded mountainous region of strong relief, which was s In addition the state contains approximately 2514 sq. m. of Lake Superior. MINNESOTA 549 afterwards worn down to a more nearly level surface, except in the extreme north-east corner, where ridges of harder rock resisted erosion. Marine deposits were laid down over the south of|the state after a submergence of the region; an uplift afterwards made of these deposits a coastal plain. The rather level surface of the " worn down mountains " of the north of the state and the coastal plain beds of the southern and western parts are now dissected by rivers, which make most of the state a rolling or hilly country, without strong relief. The average elevation is about 1275 ft. above sea-level or 600 ft. above the surface of Lake Superior. An extensive water-parting in the north central part of the state, an elevation whose inclination is almost imperceptible, determines the course of three great continental river systems. From this central elevation the land slopes off in all directions, rising again in the extreme north-east corner, where the rugged granite uplift in Cook county, known as the Misquah Hills, reaches an altitude of 2230 ft., the highest point in the state; and in the south-west corner, where an altitude of 1800 ft. is reached in the Coteau des Prairies. Only in the valleys of the Red, Minnesota and Mississippi rivers does the elevation fall below 800 ft. In the southern and central portions of the state open rolling prairies interspersed with groves and belts of oak and other deciduous hard- wood timber predominate. A little north of the centre the state is traversed from north- west to south-east by the extensive forest known as the " Big Woods," in which also oak occurs most frequently. In the northern part of the state the great pine belt stretches from the head of Lak'e Superior westward to the confines of the Red River Valley, while along the north border and in the north-east the forest growth is almost exclusively tamarack and dwarf pine. More than three-fourths of the area of the state is arable, the small percentage of non-arable land lying principally in the north-eastern regions, which afford compensation in the form of rich mineral deposits. Of the three great continental river systems above mentioned, the Red River and its tributaries drain the western and west central slope northward through Lake Winnipeg into Hudson Bay; the other two being the St Lawrence system, to which the St Louis River and its branches and several smaller streams flowing into Lake Superior con- tribute their waters by way of the Great Lakes and the Missis- sippi, which with its tributaries drains about two-thirds of the state into the Gulf of Mexico. A few rivers in the south drain into the Mississippi through Iowa, while a smaller area in the extreme north is drained through the Lake of the Woods and Rainy Lake into Hudson Bay. These river systems serve the threefold purpose of drainage, providing water communications (there being about 3000 m. of navigable waters in the state), and, by falls and rapids caused by glacial displacement of rivers, furnishing a magnificent volume of water-power. The Missis- sippi river, which flows for about 800 m. within or along the borders of the state, has its principal sources in and near Lake Itasca. It affords facilities for the transport of logs by means of booms above Minneapolis, and is navigable below St Paul; being half a mile broad where it reaches the border of the state at Hastings. At the Falls of St Anthony, St Cloud, Little Falls and other places, it provides ample water-power for manufac- turing purposes. Its two principal tributaries are the St Croix and the Minnesota. The first, after having for about 135 m. (about 50 being navigable) formed the boundary between Wis- consin and Minnesota, enters the Mississippi at Hastings; the second, rising in Big Stone Lake on the western border, but 1 m. from Lake Traverse, the source of the Red River, enters the Mississippi from the south-west between St Paul and Minne- apolis after a course of about 430 m., about 240 of which are navigable at high water. Both furnish valuable water-power, which is true also of the Cannon and Zumbro rivers flowing into the Mississippi below Hastings. The Red River, which forms the western boundary of the state for more than half its distance, has its source in Lake Traverse. Its most important branch is the Red Lake River, and both are navigable for vessels of light draught at high water. In the south the western fork of the Des Moines River, flowing for 125 m. through the state, is navigable for 20 m. Glacial action determined the direction and character of the rivers, made numerous swamps, and, by scouring out rock basins, damming rivers and leaving morainal hollows, determined the character and formation of the lakes, of which Minnesota has upwards of 10,000, a number probably exceeding that of any other state in the Union. The general characteristics of the lakes in the north differ from those of the south, the former being generally deep, with ragged rocky shores formed by glacial scouring which caused rock basins, the latter being mostly shallow. The most interesting feature of the glacial epoch is the extinct Lake Agassiz, which the receding ice of the later glacial period left in the Red River Valley of Minnesota, North Dakota and Manitoba. This lake drained southward into the Gulf of Mexico via the Minnesota and Mississippi rivers, until the ice sheet which had prevented its natural drainage to the north had melted sufficiently to allow it to be drained off into Hudson Bay by way of the Nelson River. The remarkably level character of the Red River district is due to horizontal deposits in the bottom of this lake, which have been little dis- sected by river erosion. The largest of the present lakes, Red Lake, in Beltrami county, has an area of 342 sq. m. Other large lakes are Mille Lacs (198 sq. m.) in Mille Lacs and Aitkin counties; Leech Lake (184 sq. m.) in Cass county; Lake Winnibigashish (82 sq. m.) in Itasca county; and Vermilion Lake (66 sq. m.) in St Louis county. On the northern boundary are the Lake of the Woods (612 sq. m.) and Rainy Lake (148 sq. m.), draining northwards into Hudson Bay. The beautiful " Park Region," centring in Ottertail county, contains several thousand lakes. Several large lakes such as Pepin, Traverse and Big Stone are river expansions. The state supports three parks — Itasca state park (22,000 acres, established in 1891), about the sources of the Mississippi, in Clearwater, Becker and Hubbard counties; the St Croix (established in 1895), in Chicago county, across the St Croix from the Wisconsin state park of the same name, and including the beautiful Dalles of the St Croix; and the Minneopa state park (established in 1905), containing Minneopa Falls, near Mankato. Flora and Fauna. — The flora and fauna are similar to those of the other states of the same latitude. The rapid settling of the state drove its native fauna, which comprised buffalo, deer, moose, bear, lynx and wolves, in great numbers into the northern sections, v/estward into Dakota, or across the Canadian border. Deer and moose are still found in the state. The preservation of game is now enforced by stringent game laws, administered by an efficient state Game and Fish Commission. The fisheries, which are of great value, are care- fully supervised and systematically replenished from, the State Fish Hatchery at St Paul, and the Federal Fish Hatchery maintained at Duluth, in which particular attention is devoted to the fish of Lake Superior. Minnesota ranked third among the states of the Union in 1900 in the production of lumber, but in 1905 was fifth, the supply having diminished and the industry having been developed in the states of Washington and Louisiana. The danger of loss from forest fires, such as that of 1894, emphasized the necessity of forest preser- vation, and resulted (1895) in the creation of a special state depart- ment with a forest' commissioner and five wardens with power to enforce upon corporations and individuals a strict observance of the forestry laws, the good effects of the law being evidenced by the fact that the fire losses in forest lands for the first twelve years of its operation averaged only $31,000 a year. Furthermore, in order to encourage the growth and preservation of the forests, and to create systematically forest reserves, the legislature established in 1899 a State Forestry Board. There are two national forest reserves, with an aggregate area of 1882 sq. m. Climate. — Minnesota has the characteristic climate of the North Central group of states, with a low mean annual temperature, a notably rarefied atmosphere that results in an almost complete absence of damp foggy weather, and an unusual dryness which during the rather long winters considerably neutralizes the excessive cold. The cold increases not only from south to north, but to some extent from east to west. The mean annual temperature, according to the reports of the U.S. Weather Bureau, varies from 45 ° F. at St Paul and points in the south of the state to 37 ° F., at points in the north-east and as far south-west as Moorhead, Clay county. In the south the season is usually without killing frost from early in May to late in September, but in the north it is not uncommon late in May or early in September. The amount of rain decreases from east to west, the mean annual rainfall being 32-7 in. at Grand Meadow in the south-east and 33-3 in. at Mount Iron in the north-east, but less than 25 in. at several points of obser- vation in the western half of the state. In all sections about as 55o MINNESOTA much, or even more, rain falls in summer as in both autumn and winter, and the summer rains, together with the long summer days, are very favourable to a rapid growth and early maturity of crops. Nearly the whole state is usually covered with snow during the greater part of winter, and the mean annual fall of snow varies from about 52 in. at points in the north-east to less than 25 in. in the south-west. In most localities the prevailing winds are north- west in winter and southerly in summer, but at Duluth, on the shore of Lake Superior, they are south-west during November, December and January and north-east during all other months. Soil and Minerals. — The surface drifts of the greater part of the state, which are almost wholly of glacial origin, have provided Minnesota with a remarkably fertile soil. It consists largely of a dark brown or black sandy loam, finely comminuted, the richness of which in organic matter and mineral salts induces rapidity of growth, and the strength and durability of which render it capable of a long succession of crops. This soil prevails throughout the southern counties and the Minnesota and Red River valleys, in which sections cereal crops predominate. Toward the east central part of the state there is a somewhat less fertile sandy soil, which is devoted more largely to potatoes and similar crops. The non-arable north-east portion of the state is covered with a coarse granite drift. Underneath the surface are beds of sand, gravel and clays, the last affording material for the manufacture of brick, tiles and pottery. The rock formations of the state furnish building stones of great value. Minnesota ranked first among the states in 1902 in the production of iron ore. Although the iron ranges in the north-east had been explored about i860 and were known to contain a great wealth of ore, it was not until 1884 that mining was actually begun on the Vermilion Range. Since that date the development of iron mining in Minnesota has been remarkable, and the increase both in volume and value of the output has been practically uninterrupted. Eight years later (1892) the much richer Mesabi Range, the most produc- tive iron range in the world, was opened up; it soon surpassed the Vermilion in its output, and by 1902 the product was nearly ten times greater. The ore, which in many places is found in an almost pure state, is at or near the surface and the process of mining is one of great simplicity and ease. The quality of ore in the two ranges differs somewhat, that mined from the Vermilion Range being a hard specular or red haematite, while that taken from the Mesabi Range, largely red haematite, is much softer and in many localities quite finely comminuted. Agriculture. — The principal industry of Minnesota is agriculture. Large areas of swamp lands in the central and north central parts of the state once counted non-arable have been drained and re- claimed. There were in 1900 154,659 farms aggregating 26,248,498 acres, of which 70-3 % was improved land ; the total value of farm property was $788,684,642, an increase in value of $373,983,016, or more than 90%, for the decade 1 890-1900. The value of domestic animals on farms and ranges was $86,620,643. The total value of farm products for the year 1899 (census of 1900) was $161,217,304. Geographically the wheat-raising area extends across the entire south of the state — the Minnesota Valley and the Red River Valley — the rich glacial loam of which renders it one of the most productive wheat regions in the world. Other important crops in the order of their value are oats, hay and forage, Indian corn, barley, flax-seed, potatoes, rye, grass seeds, wild grass, clover, beans, peas, and mis- cellaneous vegetables and orchard products. Both fruit-raising and dairying interests are centred principally in the southern half of the state. Manufactures and Commerce. — The extraordinary numbers of utilizable water-powers, the unusual transport facilities affording ample means of reaching the great markets, and finally the proximity to the raw materials of manufacture, have made Minnesota of great importance as a manufacturing state. The federal census showed for the decades 1880-1890 and 1890-1900 an increase in the number of manufacturing establishments from 3493 in 1880 to 7505 in 1890, and 11,114 ' n 1900. During the same period the capital invested increased from $31,004,811 in 1880 to $127,686,618 in 1890 and $165,832,246 in 1900, and the value of the manufactured products increased from $76,065,198 in 1880 to $192,033,478 in 1890 and $262,655,881 in 1900. The wonderful development of Minnesota as a flour-producing state began with the introduction of improved roller processes after 1870. Minneapolis is the chief flour-making centre of the world, and the cities at the " Head of the Lakes " (Duluth, Minnesota, and Superior, Wisconsin, considered industrially as one place) constitute the second largest centre. The towns of the Red River Valley, which are nearer to the great wheat belt, give promise of developing into great flouring cities. Next to flour, lumber and timber products rank in importance. Other manufac- tures of importance are butter, cheese and condensed milk, packed meats and other slaughter-house products, steam railway cars, foundry and machine-shop products, linseed oil, malt liquors, planing-mill products, sash, doors and blinds, boots and shoes, and agricultural implements. As compared with other states of the Union Minnesota ranked third in 1900 and fifth in 1905 in lumber; sixth in 1900 and fifth in 1905 in cheese, butter and condensed milk; eighth in 1900 and in 1905 in agricultural implements; and four- teenth in 1900 and eighth in 1905 in planing-mill products. For an inland state Minnesota is exceptionally well situated to play a chief part in the commercial life of the country, and various causes combine to make it important in respect to its interstate and foreign trade. It is the natural terminal of three great northern transcontinental railway lines — the Northern Pacific, the Great North- ern, and the Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound (the extension of the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul system) ; and the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy and the connecting lines of the Canadian Pacific form lines of communication with the middle Northwest and the Pacific provinces of Canada. Seven navigable rivers within or on the borders of the state — the Red River of the north, the Red Lake River, Rainy River, the Minnesota, the Mississippi, the St Croix and the St Louis 1 — give facilities for transport by water that exert an important competing influence on freight charges; and at the " Head of the Lakes " (Duluth-Superior) many lines of steamships on the Great Lakes, providing direct or indirect connexion with the Eastern and Southern states, make that port in respect to tonnage the first in the United States. This combination of natural and artificial highways of commerce derives an additional importance from the character of the regions thus provided With transport facilities, which renders its cities the principal distributing centres both for the entire Northwest for coal shipped via the Great Lakes, and also for the eastern and middle Western states for the great staples, wheat and lumber, derived either from Minnesota itself or by means of its great transcontinental railways from the neighbouring North- western states and Canadian provinces. Iron shipments from the Mesabi and Vermilion ranges, cereals from the Northwest, fruits and vegetables from the Pacific coast, and Oriental products obtained via the great northern railways, are also elements of great importance in the state's commerce., There were on the 31st of December 1908 8 438'73 m. of railway within the state. St Paul and Duluth are ports of entry. Population. — The population of Minnesota at the first Federal census (i860) after its admission into the Union was 172,023, and by the succeeding Federal enumerations it was: (1870), 439,706; (1880), 780,773; (1890), 1,301,826, excluding Indians (10,096); (1900), 1,751,394; (1910) 2,075,708.2 Of the total population in 1900, 932,490, or 53-2 %, were males, and 818,904, or 46-8 %, females; 1,246,076 were native-born; 505,318, or 28-9 %, were foreign-born, and 1,312,019 were of foreign parentage {i.e. having either one or both parents foreign-born). Of the 14,358 coloured inhabitants, 4959 were negroes and 9182 Indians, 8457 of whom lived on reserva- tions. The urban population {i.e. inhabitants of cities of 8000 or over) was 26-8 % of the total population, as compared with 28-2 % in 1890. By the state census of 1905 the population of the principal cities was as follows: Minneapolis, 261,954; St Paul, 197,023; Duluth, 64,942; Winona, 20,334; Stillwater, 12,435; and Mankato, 10,996; by the same census four other cities, all in the mining region in the north-east, had passed the 5000 limit, viz. Hibbing, 6566; Cloquet, 6117; Virginia, 5056; and Eveleth, 5332. The density of population increased from i6'5 per sq. m. in 1890 to 22-1 in 1900. The largest religious denomination in the state in 1906 was the Roman Catholic, with 378,288 communicants out of a total of 834,442 members of all religious denominations; there were 267,322 Lutherans, 47,637 Methodists, 27,569 Presbyterians, 24,309 Baptists, 22,264 Congregationalists, and 18,763 Protestant Episcopalians. Government.— The state is governed under the constitution adopted on the 13th of October 1857 and frequently amended. By an amendment of 1898 an amendment may be suggested by a majority of both houses of the legislature and comes into effect if approved by a majority of all electors voting at the general election at which the amendment is voted upon; if two or more amendments are submitted at the same election voters shall vote for or against each amendment separately. For the re- vision of the constitution it is necessary that two-thirds of the members elected to each house of the legislature vote for the call of a constitutional convention, that a majority of all electors voting at the next general election approve the call for the con- vention, and that the convention consist of as many members as the house of representatives, who shall be chosen in the same manner, and shall meet within three months after the general 1 At International Falls on Rainy River and at Duluth on the St Louis immense water-power is utilized for manufacturing. 2 By the state census of 1905 the total population was 1,979,912 (1,060,412 males and 909,275 females — excluding Indians from the sex classification), of whom 537,041 were foreign-born, 10,929 were Indians, 51 13 were negroes, 171 were Chinese, and 50 were Japanese. A ijWhitemouth i. I T\p B A •:,\«? jStrathcona Sficfce *S'.""'"\D <*«£..: «. QJ /4 ■- M A» ^ v4 W I L K rNpkO>" w~'Wab|3etoiip, W V Q Fairmou!; 5 > tC 94° D 93° MINNESOTA Scale, 1:1,830,000 English Miles o 10 20 30 40 50 60 Railways j— ~— County Seats , ® County Boundaries •■••••• Indian Reservations S13 F f J J li ,_« K _E*a*e£s v "Sxiw- fc> Northome i ~~^^^\^ nk n "^3T I _ Js \ "; J^ >K ffi * "^ ' Continuation East Same Scale TliMc? gO Foxhomsl <<^«Lfi,stf'o"*rE! >/ 4« ^ Uf, c ..in j^" % A \ ° & \ V^-.SacredHeart ^ \R E *N ton wood j d 1 if j, :Be!vi ii^ Holiatidj ^.^.^^75^«..„ t . Zio Warner'; illey ?"* b : ° Howard Lafce .'inirrt WA "^SKaymond C>ft : n > J K# > * *> o Howard La £T 1 Ciirrie <$ f}L Crl £ . > .^r-^r >?Wt ^S:>\ ,e iA r>- Environs of ST.PAUL and MINNEAPOLIS S'oliS |amptorf]\ OTrie Randolph ., Mi SrON'fLN 6 ^W.Corfcord : /\>JC Oronoco ; j6El g jn„ ? B s Ro*Lline,^ -' — ™ ' ' ^ "- * .,..j;..._..„...j.... r Stone-L^ _ ., ,„ i I ~-4 °..b: U.L..lit-„ '/Houston^ (2 Longitude West 94 of Greenwich Yj EmerjrWdJkcr sc* MINNESOTA 55 1 election at which it is voted. The executive department consists of a governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, treasurer and attorney-general, elected biennially in November of the even-numbered years, and an auditor elected at the same time every four years. The veto power of the governor (since 1876) extends to separate sections of appropriation bills. The judicial department comprises a supreme court consisting of a chief justice and (since 1881) four associate justices elected for terms of six years, and lower courts consisting of district courts with original jurisdiction in civil cases in law and equity, and in criminal cases upon indictments by grand juries; justices' courts, in which the. amount in litigation cannot exceed $100, or the punishment cannot exceed three months' imprisonment or a fine of $100; and of municipal and probate courts with the usual jurisdictions. The legislative department consists of a senate of sixty-three members elected for four years, and a house of representatives of one hundred and nineteen members, elected for two years, the remuneration being mileage and $500 a year. The reapportionment of congressional, senatorial and representa- tive districts is made in the first legislative session after the state census, which has been taken in every tenth year since 1865. The legislature meets biennially in odd-numbered years, the session being limited to ninety days by a constitutional amend- ment of 1888. A majority of all the members elected to each house is required for the passage of a bill, and a two-thirds majority is necessary to pass a bill over the governor's veto. All bills for raising revenue must originate in the House of Representatives, but the senate may propose and concur with amendments as on other bills. Expenditures from the fund known as " The Internal Improvement Land Fund," derived from the sale of state lands, can be made only after the enactment for that purpose has been approved by the voters of the state; in 1 88 1 the legislature, and in 1884 the popular vote, pledged the proceeds of this fund to the payment of Minnesota state railway adjustment bonds. Taxation must be uniform only within classes of property prescribed by the legislature. An Australian ballot law was enacted in 1891; the qualifications for electors (adopted in 1896) require that the voter be at least twenty-one years old, that he shall have been a full citizen of the United States for three months prior to the election, and shall have lived in the state six months and in the election district thirty days. Women (since 1898) may vote for school officers and members of library boards, and are eligible for election to any office pertaining to the management of schools or libraries. A constitutional amendment in regard to local government adopted in 1898 provides that any city or village, by a four- sevenths vote of its electors, may adopt a charter drawn by a commission (appointed by the local district judges) and proposed by such commission within six months of its appointment. An amendment to the constitution adopted in November 1888 declares that any combination or pool to affect the markets for food products is a " criminal conspiracy, and shall be punished in such manner as the legislature may provide." A homestead which is owned and occupied by a debtor as his dwelling place is exempt from seizure or sale for debts other than taxes, those secured by a mortgage on it, or those incurred for its improvement or repair, or for services performed by labourers or servants. But a homestead so exempted may not be larger than one-fourth of an acre if it is in an incorporated place haying a popu- lation of 5000 or more, than half an acre if it is in an incorporated place having a population of less than 5000, or than eighty acres if it is outside an incorporated place. In case the owner is married the homestead cannot be sold or mortgaged, except for an unpaid portion of the purchase money, without the joinder of husband and wife, and if the owner dies leaving a spouse or minor children, the homestead with its exemptions descends to the surviving member or members of the family. If the owner is a husband and he deserts his family, the wife and minor children may retain the homestead. Under the laws of the state the legal existence and legal personality of a woman are not affected by marriage, and the property rights of a husband and wife are nearly equal. A husband may, however, convey his real estate, other than a homestead, by his separate deed, whereas a wife's deed for her real estate is void without the joinder of her husband. If either husband or wife dies intestate and there are no descendants the whole of the estate passes to the survivor; if there are descendants the surviving spouse has the use of the homestead for the remainder of his or her life, an absolute title to one-third of the other real estate of the deceased, and to personal property limited to $1000 besides wearing apparel. The grounds for an absolute divorce in Minnesota are adultery, impotence, cruel and inhuman treatment, sentence to state prison or state reformatory subsequent to the marriage, desertion or habitual drunkenness for one year next preceding the application for a divorce. Before applying for an absolute divorce the plaintiff must have resided in the state for the year next preceding, unless the cause of action is adultery committed while the plaintiff was a resident of the state. A wife may at any time sue for a limited divorce from her husband on the ground of cruel and inhuman treatment, of such conduct as to render life with him unsafe and improper, or of aban- donment and refusal or neglect to provide for her, if both parties are inhabitants of the state or their marriage took place in the state. A law of 1909 provides for a women's and children's department in the state bureau of labour. The sale of intoxicating liquors is for the most part regulated by licences, but the granting of licences may be prohibited within any town or incorporated village by its legal voters, and the question must be submitted to popular vote upon the request of ten legal voters. Penal and Charitable Institutions. — The charitable and correctional institutions of Minnesota have been since 1901 under the supervision of a State Board of Control consisting of three paid members ap- pointed by the governor and serving for terms of six years ; this board supplanted an unpaid Board of Corrections and Charities established in 1883, and the boards of managers of separate institutions (except the schools for the deaf and the blind at Faribault, and the state public school at Owatonna) and of groups of institutions were abolished. The state institutions consist of state hospitals for the insane at St Peter (1866), at Rochester (1877), established originally as a state inebriate asylum under a law taxing liquor dealers for that purpose, which was subsequently held to be uncon- stitutional, at Fergus Falls (1887), at Anoka (1900) and at Hastings (1900); the state institute for defectives at Faribault, consisting of the schools for the deaf (1863), blind (1874) and feeble-minded (1879) ; the state public school for dependent and neglected children at Owatonna (1886); a sanatorium for consumptives at Walker; a hospital for indigent, crippled or deformed children (1907) at St Paul; the state training school for boys near Red Wing; a similar industrial school for girls (established separately in 1907) at Sauk Center; the state reformatory at St Cloud (1887), inter- mediate between the training school and the state prison, for first offenders between the ages of sixteen and thirty years, in which indeterminate sentences and a parole system are in operation; the state prison at Stillwater (1851), in which there is a parole system and a graded system of diminution of sentence for good conduct, and in which, up to 1895, prisoners were leased under contract (especially to the Minnesota Thresher Company), and since 1895 have been employed in the manufacture of shoes and of binding twine, and in providing for the needs of the prison population ; and the state soldiers' home occupying fifty-one acres adjoining Minnehaha Park in Minneapolis. By an act of 1907 the Board of Control was empowered to establish a hospital for inebriates. Education. — The state supports a highly efficient public school system, organized through all the grades from the primary district and rural schools to the state university. At the head of the system stands the state superintendent of public instruction, appointed by the governor; there are also county superintendents; and a state high school board, consisting of the governor, state superintendent and the president of the state university, has general supervision of the schools and apportions the state aid. The schools are sup- ported by a state tax, and by the proceeds of a permanent school fund amounting (in 1908) to $19,709,383; in the same year the total value of all public school property was $28,297,420, with an aggregate debt of $6,329,794, and $13,463,211 was spent for public educa- tional purposes. There are state normal schools at Winona (i860), Mankato(i868), St Cloud (1869), Moorhead (1888) and Duluth (1902). The university of Minnesota at Minneapolis was projected by the Territorial Legislature of 1 85 1. Some ground was purchased for its campus in 1854, but it was actually founded by an act of 1864, amended in 1866, 1868 and 1872. It is governed by a board of twelve regents, of whom the president of the university, the governor of the state and the state superintendent of public instruction are members ex officio, and the other nine, holding office for six years, are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of the senate. The university is supported by a state tax of 0-23 mills per dollar on the taxed property of the stale, by special appropria- tions from the state (for " deficiency," for School of Mines, and for salaries of teachers in the department of mines and engineering), by the interest on state bonds and land contracts purchased with the proceeds of Federal land grants under the Morrill Act of 1862, by Federal appropriations under the Morrill Act of 1890 and the Hatch Act, and by students' fees, &c. ; the total of this income was estimated in 1906-1907 at $628,500. The Act of 1872 provided for five or more colleges or departments: a college of science, literature and the arts, which offers (for the degree of Bachelor of Arts) a four-years course, is entirely elective (except that a certain number of " long courses " must be selected) after the first year, and in which the 552 MINNESOTA only restriction is upon the range of subjects from which the student's choice may be made; a college of agriculture (including military tactics), which is now a " department," including a college and a school of agriculture, a short course for farmers, a dairy school, the Crookston school of agriculture, a main experiment station at St Anthony Park, between Minneapolis and St Paul, and sub-stations i m. north of Crookston and 2 m. east of Grand Rapids; a college of mechanic arts, now called the college of engineering and the mechanic arts, which offers four-year courses in civil, mechanical, electrical and municipal engineering, a four-year course in science and technology, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science, and graduate work leading to the degree of Master of Science; the college of law, a three-years course, with evening classes and graduate courses; a college of medicine, which is now the college of medicine and surgery (1888), and the college of homoeopathic medicine and surgery (1889), each with four-year courses, and each (since 1903) with a course of six years partly in the college of science, literature and the arts, and partly in the medical college and leading to the degrees of Bachelor of Science and Doctor of'Medicine. In addition to these departments provided for in the organic act, the university included in 1909 colleges of dentistry (three-year course), pharmacy (two-year and three-year courses), a school of mines (1891 ; four-year course, leading to the degree of Engineer of Mines or Metallurgical Engineer), a school of analytical and applied chemistry (four-year courses, leading to the degree of Bachelor in Science in Chemistry or in Chemical Engineering), a college of education (1906; three-year course, after two years of college work, leading to a Master's degree), a graduate school (with courses leading to the degrees of Master of Arts, of Science and of Laws, and of Doctor of Philosophy, of Science and of Civil Law), and a university summer school. The growth and development of the university have been almost entirely under the administration of Cyrus Northrop (b. 1834), who graduated at Yale College in 1857 and at Yale Law School in 1859, and was professor of rhetoric and English literature at Yale from 1863 until 1884, when he became president of the university of Minnesota. The university is one of the largest in the country. In 1907 there were twenty-three buildings valued at more than $1,475,000. The university library of 110,000 volumes is supplemented by the libra- ries of Minneapolis and St Paul. In 1 908-1909 the faculty numbered about 325 and the total enrolment of students was 4421. Other higher educational institutions in Minnesota are Hamline University (Methodist Episcopal), with a college of liberal arts at St Paul, and a college of medicine at Minneapolis; Macalester College (Presby- terian) at St Paul; Augsburg Seminary (Lutheran) at Minneapolis; Carleton College (non-sectarian, founded in 1866) and St Olaf College (Lutheran, founded in 1874) at Northfield; Gustavus Adolphus College (Lutheran) at St Peter; Parker College (Free Baptist, 1888) at Winnebago City; St John's University (Roman Catholic) at Collegeville, Stearns county; and Albert Lea College for women (Presbyterian, founded 1884) at Albert Lea. History. — The first European visitors to the territory now embraced in the state of Minnesota found it divided between two powerful Indian tribes, the Ojibways or Chippewas, who occupied the heavily wooded northern portion and the region along the Mississippi river, and the Sioux or Dakotas, who made their homes on the more open rolling country in the south and west and in the valley of the Minnesota. The first known white explorers were Radisson and Groseilliers, who spent the winter of 1658-1659 among the Sioux in the Mille Lacs region. At Sault Sainte Marie in 1671, before representatives of fourteen Indian nations, the Sieur de St Lusson read a proclamation asserting the French claim to all the territory in the region of the Great Lakes. Two years afterwards the upper course of the Mississippi was explored by Joliet and Marquette. In 1679 Daniel Greysolon, Sieur du Lhut (Duluth) , as agent for a company of Canadian merchants which sought to establish trading posts on the Lakes, explored the country from the head of Lake Superior to Mille Lacs and planted the arms of Louis XIV. in a large Sioux village. In the following year the Franciscan friar Father Louis Hennepin, acting as an agent of the Sieur de la Salle, discovered and named the Falls of St Anthony; and in 1686 Nicholas Perrot, the commandant of the west, built Fort St Antoine on the east bank of Lake Pepin, in what is now Pepin county, Wisconsin, and in 1688 formally took possession of the region in the name of the French king. A few years later (1694) Le Sueur, who had as early as 1684 engaged in trade along the upper Mississippi, established a trading post on Isle Pelee (Prairie Island) in the Mississippi between Hastings and Red Wing, and in 1700 he built Fort L'Huillier at the confluence of the Blue Earth and the Le Sueur rivers. In 1762 the Sieur de la Perriere, acting as an agent of the French government, estab- lished on the west bank of Lake Pepin a fortified post (Fort Beauharnois), which was to be a headquarters for missionaries, a trading post and a starting-point for expeditions in search of the " western sea." But none of the French posts was perma- nent, and in 1763 French rule came to an end, the Treaty of November (1762) and the Treaty of Versailles (1763) trans- ferring respectively the western portion of the state to Spain and that part east of the Mississippi river to Great Britain. In 1766 the region was visited by the Connecticut traveller Jonathan Carver (1732-1780). Great Britain surrendered its title to the eastern portion by the Treaty of Paris (1783), and after the surrender of Virginia's colourable title had been accepted by Congress in 1784, this eastern part was made a part of the Northwest Territory by the ordinance of 1787, although the British held possession and did some trading there until 1796. The western part remained under Spanish control until 1803, when it, too, after being retransferred to France, became a part , of the United States with the rest of the Louisiana Purchase. In 1805-1806, at the instance of President Thomas Jefferson, Lieut. Zebulon M. Pike led an exploring expedition as far north as Leech Lake and took formal possession of the Minnesota region for the United States. He obtained from the Sioux for military reservations one tract 9 m. square at the mouth of the St Croix River and another containing about 100,000 acres at the confluence of the Minnesota and Mississippi rivers. On the latter tract a military post was established by Lieut.-Colonel Henry Leavenworth (1783-1834) in 1819, and in the following year the construction was begun of a fort at first named Fort St Anthony but renamed Fort Snelling in 1824 (two years after its completion) in honour of its builder and commander Colonel Josiah Snelling (1782-1829). In 1819 Michigan Territory was extended west- ward to the Mississippi river, and in 1820 General Lewis Cass, its governor, conducted an exploring expedition in search of the source of the Mississippi, which he was satisfied was in the body of water named Lake Cass in his honour. Further search for the true source of the Mississippi was made in 1823 by Giacomo Constantio Beltrami (1 779-1855), an Italian traveller and political refugee, and in 1832 by Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, who had accompanied Cass's expedition and traced the Mississippi from Lake Cass to Lake Itasca. In 1823 extensive explorations of the Minnesota and Red River valleys were conducted by Major Stephen Harriman Long (1784-1864), and subsequently (1834- 1836) knowledge of the region was extended by the investigations of the artist George Catlin (1796-1872), the topographer George William Featherstonhaugh (1780-1866), and the geologist Jean Nicholas Nicollett (1786-1843). Meanwhile, the country was slowly being settled. In 1823 the first river steamboat reached St Paul; the Mississippi was soon afterwards opened to continu- ous if irregular navigation; and in 1826 a party of refugees from Lord Selkirk's colony on the Red River settled near Fort Snelling. On the erection of Wisconsin Territory in 1836 the whole of Minnesota, which then extended westward to the Missouri river, was incorporated with it, but on the erection of Iowa Territory in 1838 Minnesota was divided and the part west of the Missis- sippi became a part of Iowa Territory. In 1 83 7 , by two important treaties, the one (July 29) between the Chippewas and Governor Henry Dodge of Wisconsin at St Peters, and the other (Sept. 29) between some Sioux chiefs and Joel R. Poinsett at Washington, the Indian titles to all lands east of the Mississippi were practi- cally extinguished. The first county, St Croix, was established in 1839, and in the succeeding years thriving settlements were established at St Paul and Stillwater. The admission of Wis- consin as a state in 1848 left that part of the former territory west of the St Croix and north of the Mississippi rivers, which was not included in the new state, practically without a government. On the 26th of August a convention met at Stillwater, where measures were taken for the formation of a separate territorial government, and Henry Hastings Sibley (1811-1891) was sent to Congress as a delegate of " Wisconsin Territory." Upon his admission to a seat the curious situation was presented of representatives of the state and of the territory of Wisconsin sitting in the same body. This situation did not last long, however, for on the 3rd of March 1849 the bill organizing the territory of Minnesota was passed, MINNESOTA :53 and on the 19th President Zachary Taylor appointed Alexander Ramsey of Pennsylvania the first territorial governor. The territorial boundaries extended to the Missouri river, including a greater part of the present North and South Dakota. The first territorial legislature met at St Paul on the 3rd of September following. By the Federal census of 1850 the territory had a population of 6077, most of whom lived east of the Mississippi, or along the Red river in the extreme north-west. Two treaties negotiated with the Sioux by Luke Lea, commissioner, and Governor Alexander Ramsey in 1851 opened to settlement the greater part of the land within the territory west of the Missis- sippi, and such an unparalleled rush to the new lands took place that a census taken in 1857 showed a population of i5°>°37- I n July 1857 a convention chosen to form a state constitution was found on assembling to be so evenly divided between the Republican and Democratic parties that organization was impossible, and the members proceeded to their work in two separate bodies. By means of conference committees, however, identical constitutions were formed, which in the following October were adopted by an almost unanimous popular vote. The state was admitted to the Union with its present boundaries on the 12th of May 1858, and the federal census of i860 showed that the population had increased to 172,023, despite the fact that the financial panic of 1857 had severely checked the state's growth. Minnesota furnished more than 25,000 troops for the Federal armies during the Civil War. But even more pressing than the call of the nation was the need of defending her own homes against the uprisings of the Indians within her borders. The settlements bordering on the Indian reservations had ex- perienced more or less trouble with the Sioux for several years, the most serious outbreak having occurred in March 1857, when Ink-pa-du-ta led his band to massacre the settlers at Spirit Lake. The absence of a large proportion of the able-bodied young settlers in the northern armies was taken advantage of by the Indians, and in the summer of 1862 there was delay in paying them their yearly allowance. Suddenly towards the end of August, as if by previous understanding (although nothing of the sort was ever proved), small bands of Sioux scattered along the frontier for 200 m. and began a systematic massacre of the white settlers. Beginning with the first outbreak at Acton, Meeker county (Aug. 17), the attacks continued with increasing fury (nearly 1000 whites losing their lives) until the 23rd of September, when hastily-raised volunteer forces under Colonel H. H. Sibley decisively defeated Little Crow, the principal leader of the Kapo- sia band, at Wood Lake. Three days later more than 2000 of the Indians were surrounded and captured, Little Crow with a few of his companions alone escaping beyond the Missouri. A military commission tried 425 of the captives for murder and rape, of whom 321 were found guilty and 303 were condemned to death. Of these 38 were hanged at Mankato on the 26th of December 1862. Little Crow and his followers kept up desultory raids from the Dakota country, during one of which in July 1863 he lost his life. Expeditions of Sibley in 1863, and General Alfred Sully (1821-1879) in 1864, eventually drove the hostile Indians beyond the Missouri and terminated the war, which in two years had cost upwards of a thousand lives of settlers and volunteers. The opening of the Chippewa lands in the north- west and the coming of peace marked the beginning of a new period of rapid growth, the Federal census of 1870 showing a population of 439,706, or a gain of 75-8 % in five years. During the same half-decade railway construction, which had begun with the opening of the railway between St Paul and Minneapolis in 1862, reached a total of more than 1000 m. For a period of five years after the financial panic of 1873 the growth was com- paratively slow, but in the succeeding two years the recuper- ation was rapid. During the decade, 1880-1890, more than 2300 m. of railway were completed and put in operation. In September 1894 disastrous forest fires, starting in the neighbour- hood of Hinckley in Pine county, destroyed that village and several neighbouring towns, causing the death of 418 people, rendering 2200 others homeless, and devastating about 350 sq. m. of forest land, entailing a loss of more than $1,000,000. The state furnished four regiments (a total of 5313 officers and men) to the volunteer army during the Spanish-American War (1898), the service of the 13th Regiment for more than a year in the Philippines being particularly notable. In October 1898 there ■ was an uprising of the Pillager band of Chippewa Indians at Leech Lake, which was quelled by the prompt action of Federal troops. Since the first state election, which was carried by the Democratic party, the state has been generally strongly Republi- can in politics; but the Republican candidate for governor was defeated in 1898 by a " fusion " of Democrats and Populists, and in 1904, 1906 and 1908 a Democratic governor, John Albert Johnson, was elected, very largely because of his personal popularity. Governors of Minnesota. Territorial. Alexander F.amsey Whig . 1849-1853 Willis Arnold Gorman .... Democrat . 1853-1857 Samuel Medary „ . 1857-1858 State. Henry Hastings Sibley .... Democrat . 1858-1860 Alexander Ramsey Republican . 1860-1863 Henry A. Swift „ . 1863-1864 Stephen Miller „ . 1864-1866 William Rogerson Marshall ... „ . 1866-1870 Horace Austin „ . 1870-1874 Cushman Kellogg Davis ... „ . 1874-1876 John Sargent Pillsbury .... „ . 1876-1882 Lucius Fairchild Hubbard ... „ . 1882-1887 Andrew Ryan McGill .... „ . 1887-1889 William Rush Merriam .... „ . 1889-1893 Knute Nelson ...... „ . 1893-1895 David Marston Clough .... „ . 1895-1899 John Lind . Democrat-Populist 1899-1901 Samuel R. Van Sant .... Republican 1901-1905 John Albert Johnson . . .Democrat (died in office) 1905-1909 Adolph Olson Eberhart . . . Republican 1909- Bibliography. — There is a well-arranged Bibliography of Minne- sota by John Fletcher Williams in the Collections of the Minnesota Historical Society, vol. iii. (St Paul, 1880). Consult also Materials for the Future History of Minnesota, published by the State Historical Society (St Paul, 1856), and Isaac S. Bradley's bibliography of North- western institutional history in the Proceedings of the Wisconsin State Historical Society (Madison, Wis., 1896). Of the many interesting and valuable narratives and descriptions of Minnesota in the early days, those especially worthy of mention are Beltrami's La Decouverte des sources des Mississippi et de la Riviere Sanglante (New Orleans, 1824) and the same author's A Pilgrimage in Europe and America, leading to the Discovery of the Sources of the Mississippi and Bloody Rivers (2 vols., London, 1828); William H. Keating, Narrative of an Expedition to the Sources of the St Peter (Minnesota) River, Lake Winnepeek, Lake of the Woods, &c. . . .in 1823 (2 vols., London, 1825), an account of the explorations of Major Long; Henry R. Schoolcraft, Narrative of an Expedition through the Upper Missis- sippi to Itasca Lake . . . in 1832 (New York, 1834); G. W. Feather- stonhaugh, A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor (2 vols., London, 1847); Laurence Oliphant, Minnesota and the Far West (Edinburgh, 1855) ; and Frederika Bremer, The Homes of the New World: Impres- sions of America (2 vols., New York, 1864). For the territorial period consult also E. S. Seymour, Sketches of Minnesota, the New England of the West (New York, 1850) ; J. Wesley Bond, Minnesota and its Resources (New York, 1853) ; C. A. Andrews, Minnesota and Dacotah (Washington, 1857) ; an d C. E. Flandreau, The History of Minnesota and Tales of the Frontier (St Paul, 1901). The Collections of the Minnesota State Historical Society contain much valuable material on the history of the state, notably E. D. Neill's " French Voyageurs to Minnesota during the Seventeenth Century " (1872); E. D. Neill's " Early French Forts" (1889); T. F. Moran's "How Minnesota became a State " (1898); H. L. Moss's " Last Days of Wisconsin Territory and Early Days of Minnesota Territory " (1898) ; C. E. Flandreau's " Reminiscences of Minnesota during the Territorial Period " (1901); C. D. Gilfillan's " Early Political History of Minne- sota " (1901) ; and James H. Baker's Lives of the Governors of Minnesota (1908). For the Sioux uprising consult Isaac V. D. Heard, History of the Sioux War and the Massacres of 1862 and 1863 (New York, 1864) ; Charles S. Bryant and Abel B. Murch, A History of the Great Massacre by the Sioux Indians in Minnesota (Cincinnati, 1864) ; and S. R. Foot, " The Sioux Indian War," in Iowa Historical Record, vols. x. and xi. (1894-1895). Consult also Minnesota in the Civil and Indian Wars, 1861-1865 (2 vols., St Paul, 1890-1893). The best general account of the state's history is W. W. Fol well's Minne- sota, the North Star State (Boston, 1908), in the " American Common- wealth series "; E. D. Neill's Concise History of Minnesota (Minne- apolis, 1887) ; and T. H. Kirk's Illustrated History of Minnesota (St Paul, 1887) may also be consulted. For an account of the ad- ministration consult Frank L. McVey, The Government of Minnesota 554- MINNOW— MINOS (New York, 1901) ; Sanford Niles, History and Civil Government of Minnesota (Chicago, 1897); and the Legislative Manual, published biennially by the state at St Paul. MINNOW (Leuciscus phoxinus), the smallest British fish of the Cyprinoid family, readily distinguished by its very minute scales. The ordinary name is derived from the common Indo-European word for " little " (cf. Lat., minor), and " minnow " is popularly identified with any tiny fish; in America it is given to small forms of the Gambusia and Notropis genera, &c. The British minnow abounds in lakes, rivers and brooks, swimming in schools, and shifting its ground in search of food, in the shape of every kind of animal and vegetable substance. It ranges from Scandinavia to south Europe, and from Ireland to north-east Asia, attaining an elevation of nearly 8000 ft. in the Alps. Its size varies from between 2 and 3 in. to as much as 4 or 5 in. The minnow is commonly used by anglers for bait, and is useful in ponds as food for trout, perch or pike. MINO DI GIOVANNI (1431-1484), called Da Fiesole, Italian sculptor, was born at Poppi in the Casentino. He had property at Fiesole. Vasari's account of him is very inaccurate. Mino was a friend and fellow-worker with Desiderio da Settignano and Matteo Civitale, all three being about the same age. Mino's sculpture is remarkable for its finish and delicacy of details, as well as for its spirituality and strong devotional feeling. Of Mino's earlier works, the finest are in the duomo of Fiesole, the altarpiece and tomb of Bishop Salutati, executed before 1466. In the Badia of Florence are an altarpiece and the tombs of Bernardo Giugni (1466) and the Margrave Hugo (1481), all sculptured in white marble, with life-sized recumbent effigies and attendant angels. The pulpit in Prato Cathedral, in which he collaborated with Antonio Rossellino, finished in 1473, is very delicately sculptured with bas-reliefs of great minuteness, but somewhat weakly designed. Soon after the completion of this work Mino went to Rome, where he executed the tomb of Pope Paul II. (now in the crypt of St Peter's), the tomb of Francesco Tornabuoni in S. Maria sopra Minerva, and a beautiful little marble tabernacle for the holy oils in S. Maria in Trastevere. There can be little doubt that he was also the sculptor of several monuments in S. Maria del Popolo, especially those of Bishop Gomiel and Archbishop Rocca (1482), and the marble reredos given by Pope Alexander VI. Some of Mino's portrait busts and profile bas-reliefs are preserved in the Bargello at Florence; they are full of life and expression, though without the extreme realism of Verrocchio and other sculptors of his time. See Vasari, Milanesi's ed. (1 878-1 882) ; Perkins's Italian Sculptors, Winckelmann and D'Agincourt, Storia delta scultura (1813); Hans Semper, Architekten der Renaissance (Dresden, 1880) ; Wilhelm Bode, Die italienische, Plastik (Berlin, 1893). MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904), American artist, was born in New York city on the 30th of April 1839, and re- ceived his art training in Paris under Diaz, and in Antwerp under Joseph Van Luppen. His paintings are characteristic of the Barbizon school, and he was particularly happy in his sunset and twilight effects; but it was only within a few years of his death that he began to have a vogue among collectors. In 1897 he was elected a member of the National Academy of Design, New York. After 1900 he lived at Waterford, Connecticut, where he died on the 4th of August 1904. MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser), a word used both as an adjective and as a substantive for that which is less than or inferior to another, and often correlatively opposed to that to which " major " is applied in the same connotation. Among the numerous special uses of the word the following may be mentioned: " Minor Friars," sometimes known as " Minorites," i.e. the name (fratres minores, lesser brothers) given by St Francis to the order he founded (see Franciscans) ; " minor canons " are clergymen attached to a cathedral or collegiate church who read and sing the daily service. In some cathedrals they are known as " vicars choral "; they are not members of the chapter. (For the distinction between holy and minor orders in Christian hierarchy see Orders.) The name " Minor Prophets " is used collectively of the twelve prophetical books of the Old Testament from Hosea to Malachi inclusive. (For the distinction in music between major and minor intervals, and for other applications of the correlative term, see Music and Harmony.) In the categorical syllogism (q.v.) in logic, the minor term is that term which forms the subject of the conclusion, the minor premiss is that which contains the minor term. In law, a " minor " is a person under legal age (see Infant). In mathematics, the " minor of a determinant " is the deter- minant formed by erasing an equal number of the rows and columns of the original determinant. If one column and row be erased there is formed the first minor; if two rows and columns the second minor, and so on. The minor axis of a central conic section is the shorter of the two principal axes; it may also be regarded as the line joining the two imaginary foci. In astro- nomy, the term minor planets is given to the members of the solar system which have their orbits between those of Mars and Jupiter (see Planets, Minor). MINORCA(Menorca), the second in size of the group of Spanish islands in the Mediterranean Sea, known as the Balearic Islands (q.v.), 27 m. E.N.E. of Majorca. Pop. (1900), 371,512; area, 260 sq. m. The coast is deeply indented, especially on the north, with numerous creeks and bays — that of Port Mahon (17,144) being one of the finest in the Mediterranean, if not the best of them all, according to the popular rhyme — " Junio, Julio, Agosto y puerto Mahon Los mejores puertos del Mediterraneo son " — " June, July, August and Port Mahon are the best harbours of the Mediterranean " (see Port Mahon). The ports Addaya, Fornelle, Ciudadela and Nitja may also be mentioned. The surface of the island is uneven, flat in the south and rising irregu- larly towards the centre, where the mountain El Toro — probably so called from the Arabic tor, a height, though the natives have a legend of a tor or bull — has an altitude of 1 207 ft. The climate is not so equable as that of Majorca, and the island is exposed in autumn and winter to the violence of the north winds. Its soil is of very unequal quality; that of the higher districts being light, fine,- and fertile, and producing regular harvests without much labour, while that of the plains is chalky, scanty, and unfit for pasture or the plough. Some of the valleys have a good alluvial soil; and where the hills have been terraced they are cultivated to the summit. The wheat and barley raised in the island are sometimes sufficient for home consumption; there is rarely a surplus. The Hedysarum coronarium, or zulla, as it is called by the Spaniards, is largely cultivated for fodder. Wine, oil, potatoes, hemp and flax are produced in moderate quantities; fruit of all kinds, including melons, pomegranates, figs and almonds, is abundant. The caper plant is common throughout the island, growing on ruined walls. Horned cattle, sheep and goats are reared, and small game abound. Stone of various kinds is plentiful. In the district of Mercadal and in Mount Santa Agueda are found fine marbles and porphyries; lime and slate are also abundant. Lead, copper and iron might be worked were it not for the scarcity of fuel. There are manufactures of the wool, hemp and flax of the island; and formerly there was a good deal of boat-building; but agriculture is the chief industry. An excellent road, constructed in 1713-1715 by Brigadier- General Richard Kane, to whose memory a monument was erected at the first milestone, runs through the island from south-east to north-west, and connects Port Mahon with Ciudadela. Ciudadela (861 1), which was the capital of the island till Port Mahon was raised to that position by the English, still possesses considerable remains of its former importance. MINOS, a semi-legendary king of Crete, son of Zeus and Europa. By his wife, Pasiphae, he was the father of Ariadne, Deucalion, Phaedra and others. He reigned over Crete and the islands of the Aegean three generations before the Trojan War. He lived at Cnossus for periods of nine years, at the end of which he retired into a sacred cave, where he received instruction from Zeus in the legislation which he gave to the island. He was the author of the Cretan constitution and the founder of its naval MINOT— MINSK 555 supremacy (Herodotus iii. 122; Thucydides i. 4). In Attic tradition and on the Athenian stage Minos is a cruel tyrant, the heartless exactor of the tribute of Athenian youths to feed the Minotaur (q.v.). It seems possible that tribute children were actually exacted to take part in the gruesome shows of the Minoan bull-rings, of which we now have more than one illustration (see Crete: Archaeology). To reconcile the contra- dictory aspects of his character, two kings of the name of Minos were assumed by later poets and mythologists. Since Phoenician intercourse was in later times supposed to have played an important part in the development of Crete, Minos is sometimes called a Phoenician. There is no doubt that there is a considerable historical element in the legend; recent dis- coveries in Crete (q.v.) prove the existence of a civilization such as the legends imply, and render it probable that not only Athens, but Mycenae itself, was once subject to the kings of Cnossus, of whom Minos was greatest. In view of the splendour and wide influence of Minoan Crete, the age generally known as " Mycenaean " has been given the name of " Minoan " by Dr Arthur Evans as more properly descriptive (see Crete). Minos himself is said to have died at Camicus in Sicily, whither he had gone in pursuit of Daedalus, who had given Ariadne the clue by which she guided Theseus through the labyrinth. He was killed by the daughter of Cocalus, king of Agrigentum, who poured boiling water over him in the bath (Diod. Sic. iv. 79). Subsequently his remains were sent back to the Cretans, who placed them in a sarcophagus, on which was inscribed: " The tomb of Minos, the son of Zeus." The earlier legend knows Minos as a beneficent ruler, legislator, and suppressor of piracy (Thucydides i. 4). His constitution was said to have formed the basis of that of Lycurgus (Pausanias iii. 2, 4). In accordance with this, after his death he became judge of the shades in the under-world {Odyssey, ix. 568); later he was associated with Aeacus and Rhadamanthus. The solar explanation of Minos as the sun-god has been thrown into the background by the recent discoveries. In any case a divine origin would naturally be claimed for him as a priest-king, and a divine atmosphere hangs about him. The name of his wife, Pasiphae (" the all-shining "), is an epithet of the moon-goddess. The name Minos seems to be philo- logically the equivalent of Minyas, the royal ancestor of the Minyans of Orchomenus, and his daughter Ariadne (" the ex- ceeding holy ") is a double of the native nature-goddess. (See Crete: Archaeology.) On Cretan coins Minos is represented as bearded, wearing a diadem, curly-haired, haughty and dignified, like the traditional portraits of his reputed father, Zeus. On painted vases and sarco- phagus bas-reliefs he frequently occurs with Aeacus and Rhadaman- thus as judges of the under-world and in connexion with the Minotaur and Theseus. MINOT, LAURENCE (fl. 1333-1352), English poet, the author of eleven battle-songs, first published by Joseph Ritson in 1 795 as Poems on Interesting Events in the reign of King Edward III. They had been discovered by Thomas Tyrwhitt in a MS. (Cotton Galba, E. IX., British Museum) which bore on the fly- leaf the misleading inscription: " Chaucer, Exemplar emendate scriptum." It dates from the beginning of the 15th century. The authorship of Laurence Minot's eleven songs is fixed by the opening of the fifth: " Minot with mowth had menid to make," and in VII. 20, " Now Laurence Minot will begin." The poems were evidently written contemporaneously with the events they describe. The first celebrates the English triumph at Halidon Hill (1333), and the last the capture of Guines (1352). The writer is animated by an ardent personal admiration for Edward III. and a savage joy in the triumphs of the English over their enemies. The technical difficulty of his metres and the comparatively even quality of the work led to the inference that Minot had written other songs, but none have come to light. Nothing whatever is known of his life, but the minuteness of his information suggests that he accompanied Edward on some of his campaigns. Though his name proves him to have been of Norman birth, he writes vigorous and idiomatic English of the northern dialect with some admixture of midland forms. His poems are instinct with a fierce national feeling, which has been accepted as an index of the union of interests between the Norman and English elements arising out of common dangers and common successes. There are excellent editions of Minot's poems by Wilhelm Scholle (Quellen und Forschungen, vol. Iii., Strasburg, 1884), with notes on etymology and metre, and by Mr J. Hall (Clarendon Press, 2nd ed., 1897). Mr Hall is inclined to include as his work the " Hymn to Jesus Christ and the Virgin " (Religious Pieces, Early English Text Society, No. 26, p. 76), on the grounds of similarity of style and language. See also T. Wright, Political Poems and Songs (Rolls series, 1859). MINOTAUR (Gr. Mivwravpos, from MLvws, and ravpos, bull), in Greek mythology, a fabulous Cretan monster with the body of a man and the head of a bull. It was supposed to be the offspring of Pasiphae, the wife of Minos, and a snow-white bull, sent to Minos by Poseidon for sacrifice. Minos, instead of sacrificing it, spared its life, and Poseidon, as a punishment, inspired Pasiphae with an unnatural passion for it. The monster which was born was shut up in the Labyrinth (q.v.). Now it happened that Androgeus, son of Minos, had been killed by the Athenians, who were jealous of the victories he had won at the Panathenaic festival. To avenge the death of his son, Minos demanded that seven Athenian youths and seven maidens should be sent every ninth year to be devoured by the Minotaur. When the third sacrifice came round Theseus volunteered to go, and with the help of Ariadne (q.v.) slew the Minotaur (Plutarch, Theseus, 15-19; Diod. Sic. i. 16, iv. 61; Apollodorus iii. 1, 15). Some modern mythologists regard the Minotaur as a solar personification and a Greek adaptation of the Baal-Moloch of the Phoenicians. The slaying of the Minotaur by Theseus in that case indicates the abolition of such sacrifice by the advance of Greek civilization. According to A. B. Cook, Minos and Minotaur are only different forms of the same personage, representing the sun-god Zeus of the Cretans, who represented the sun as a bull. He and J. G. Frazer both explain Pasiphae's monstrous union as a sacred ceremony (iepos Yd/ios), at which the queen of Cnossus was wedded to a bull-formed god, just as the wife of the apxav fiaaikivs in Athens was wedded to Dionysus. E. Pottier, who does not dispute the historical personality of Minos, in view of the story of Phalaris (q.v.) considers it probable that in Crete (where a bull-cult may have existed by the side of that of the double axe) victims were tortured by being shut up in the belly of a red-hot brazen "bull. The story of Talos, the Cretan man of brass, who heated himself red-hot and clasped strangers in his embrace as soon as they landed on the island, is probably of similar origin. The contest between Theseus and the Minotaur was frequently represented in Greek art. A Cnossian didrachm exhibits on one side the labyrinth, on the other the Minotaur surrounded by a semicircle of small balls, probably intended for stars ; it is to be noted that one of the monster's name, was Asterius. See A. Conze, Theseus und Minotaur os (1878); L. Stephani, De> Kampf zwischen Theseus und Minotauros (1842), with plates and history of the legend; L. Preller, Griechische Mythologie; Helbig in Roscher's Lexicon der Mythologie; F. Durrbach in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites; A. B. Cook in Classical Review, xvii. 410; J. G. Frazer, Early History of the Kingship (i9°5) ; E. Pottier in La Revue de Paris (Feb. 1902) ; the story is told in Kingsley's Heroes. MINSK, a government of western Russia, bounded by the governments of Vilna, Vitebsk, Mogilev and Chernigov on the N. and E. and by Kiev, Volhynia and Grodno on the S. and W. It has an area of 35,283 sq. m. The surface is undulating and hilly in the north-west, where a narrow plateau and a range of hills (800-1000 ft.) of tertiary formation separate the basin of the Niemen, which flows into the Baltic, from that of the Dnieper, which sends its waters into the Black Sea. The remainder of the government is flat, 450 to 650 ft. above Sea-level, and covered with sands and clays of the glacial and post-glacial periods. Two broad shallow depressions, drained by the Berezina and the Pripet, cross the government from north to south and from west to east; and these, as well as the triangular space between them, are occupied by immense marshes (often as much as 200 to 600 sq. m. each), ponds and small lakes, peat-bogs and moving sands, intermingled with dense forests. This country, and especially its south-western part, is usually known under the name of Polyesie (" The Woods "). Altogether, marshes and moors 556 MINSK— MINSTREL take up 22% and marshy forests no less than 405% of the entire area of the province. It is only in the north-west that the forests consist of full-grown trees; those which grow on the marshy ground are small, stunted pine, birch and aspen. The climate of the Polyesie is extremely unhealthy; malarias and an endemic disease of the hair (plica Polonica) are the plagues of these tracts. Communication is very difficult. The railway from Poland to Moscow has taken advantage of the plateau above mentioned; but still it has to cross the broad marshy depression of the Berezina. A successful attempt was made to drain the marshes of the Polyesie by a system of canals, and more than 4,500,000 acres have thus been rendered suitable for pasture and agriculture. Two tributaries of the Dnieper — the Berezina and the Pripet — both navigable, with numberless subtributaries, many also navigable, are the natural outlets for the marshes. The Dnieper flows along its south-eastern border for 160 m. and the Niemen on the north-western for 130 m. The affluents of the Baltic, the Dvina and the Vistula, are connected by canals with tributaries of the Dnieper. The estimated population in 1906 was 2,581,400. The peasants constitute 65% of the population, who are mostly White Russians (71%); there are also Poles (12%), Jews (16%), Little Russians and Great Russians. About 70,000 are considered to be Lithuanians; there are also 4500 Tatars and 2000 Germans. The principal occupation of the inhabitants is agriculture, which is very unproductive in the lowlands; in the Polyesie the peasants rarely have pure bread to eat. Only 23-5 % of the area is under crops. Cattle-breeding is very imperfectly developed. Hunting and bee-keeping are sources of income in the Polyesie, and fishing gives occupation to about 20,000 persons. Gardening is carried on in some parts. The chief source of income for the inhabitants of the lowlands is the timber trade. Timber is floated down the rivers, and tar, pitch, various products of bark, potash, charcoal and timber-ware (wooden dishes, &c.) are manufactured in the villages to a great extent; and ship-building is carried on along the Dnieper, Pripet and Niemen. Shipping is also an important source of income. The industrial arts are almost entirely unde- veloped, but there are several distilleries, flour-mills, saw-mills and tanneries, and woollen-stuffs, candles, tobacco, matches and sugar are manufactured. The great highway from Warsaw to Moscow crosses the government in the south, and its passage through the Berezina is protected by the first-class fortress of Bobruisk. The government is divided into nine districts, of which the chief towns and populations in 1897 are: Minsk, capital of the government (q-v.), Bobruisk (35,177), Igumen (4579), Mozyr (10,762), Novogrudok (7700), Pinsk (27,938), Ryechitsa (10,681) and Slutsk (14,180). This region was originally inhabited by Slavs. That portion of it which was occupied by the Krivichi became part of the Polotsk principality, and so of White Russia; the other portion, occupied by the Dregovichi and Drevlyans, became part of Black Russia; whilst the south-western portion was occupied by Yatvyags or Lithuanians. During the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries it was divided among several principalities, which were successively incorporated with Lithuania, and. later annexed to Poland. Russia took possession of this country in 1793. In 1812 it was invaded by the army of Napoleon I. Archaeological finds of great value, dating from the Neolithic and subsequent ages, have lately been made. (P.A.K.; J.T.Be.) MINSK, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, on the Svisloch, a tributary of the Berezina, at the intersection of the Moscow-Warsaw and Libau-Kharkov rail- ways, 430 m. by rail W. from Moscow. It had, in 1897, 91,494 inhabitants, of whom one-third were Jews of the poorest class; the others were White Russians, Poles and Tatars. Amongst its public buildings is a cathedral, built in 161 1. Minsk is the headquarters of the IVth Army Corps and the see of a bishop of the Orthodox Greek Church, and from 1798 to 1853 it was a see of the Roman Catholic Church. The manufactures are few and insignificant. Since the introduction of railways the com- mercial importance of the place, which formerly was slight, has begun to increase. Minsk is mentioned in Russian annals in the nth century under the name of Myen'sk, or Menesk. In 1066 and 1096 it was devastated, first by Izyazlav and afterwards by Vladimir, prince of Kiev. It changed rulers many times until the 13th century, when it became a Lithuanian fief. In the 15th century it was part of Poland, but as late as 1505 it was ravaged by Tatars, and in 1508 by Russians. In the 18th century it was taken several times by Swedes and Russians. Russia annexed it in 1793. Napoleon I. took it in 18 12. MINSTER, two towns of Kent, England. 1. Minster-in-Thanet, in the Isle of Thanet parliamentary division, lies on the southern slope of the isle, above the Minster marshes, in the low, flat valley of the river Stour, 4 m. west of Ramsgate, on the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901), 2338. Its church, dedicated to St Mary, is cruciform, with a western tower, the nave a fine example of Norman work, the transepts and chancel a beautiful Early English addition. The carved choir-stalls are a notable feature. The church belonged to a nunnery, founded at the close of the 7th century. The abbey, a residence close to the church, incorporates portions of the ancient buildings. Fruit- growing is largely carried on in the neighbourhood. 2. Minster-in-Sheppey, in the north-eastern, parliamentary division, lies in the Isle of Sheppey, near the north coast. Pop. (1901), 1306. It is served by the Sheppey light railway from Sheerness, 2 m. west. The village has in modern times become a seaside resort. It has a fine church, dedicated to St Mary and St Sexburga, originally attached to a convent of the 7th century, founded by Sexburga, widow of Erconberht, king of Kent. The building as it stands is only a portion of the conventual church founded in the early part of the 12th century by William de Corbeuil, archbishop of Canterbury; it retains also traces of pre-Norman work. It contains some interesting early monu- ments. The abbey gatehouse remains, and other fragments may be traced. There are oyster beds in the neighbouring shallow sea. MINSTER (from Lat. monasterium; cf. German Miinster), the church of a monastery, or one to which a monastery has been attached. In the 10th century the name was applied to the churches of outlying parishes, and is now given to some of the English cathedrals, such as York, Lincoln, Ripon and Southwell, and to large churches or abbeys, like those of Sherborne, Wim- borne or Westminster. MINSTREL. The word " minstrel," which is a derivative from the Latin minister, a servant, through the diminutives ministellus, ministr -alius (Fr. menestrel), only acquired its special sense of household entertainer late in the 13th century. It was the equivalent of the Low Latin joculator x (Prov. joglar, Fr. jougleur, Mid. Eng. jogclour), and had an equally wide significance. The minstrel of medieval England had his forerunners in the Teutonic scdp (O.H.G. scopf or scof, a shaper or maker), and to a limited extent in the mimus of the later Roman empire. The earliest record of the Teutonic scdp is found in the Anglo-Saxon poem of Widsith, which in an earlier form probably dates back before the English conquest. Widsith, the far-traveller, belonged to a tribe which was neighbour to the Angles, and was sent on a mission to the Ostrogoth Eormanric (Hermanric or Ermanaric, d. 375), from whom he received a collar of beaten gold. He wandered from place to place singing or telling stories in the mead- hall, and saw many nations, from the Picts and Scots in the west to the Medes and Persians in the east. Finally he received a gift of land in his native country. The Complaint of Deor and Beowulf give further proof that the Teutonic scdp held an honour- able position, which was shaken by the advent of Christianity. The scdp and the gleeman (the terms appear to have been practi- cally synonymous) shared in the general condemnation passed by the Church on the dancers, jugglers, bear-leaders and tumblers. Saxo Grammaticus (Historia danica, bk. v.) condemns the Irish king Hugleik because he spent all his bounty on mimes and jugglers. That the loftier tradition of the scdpas was preserved in spite of these influences is shown by the tales of Alfred and Anlaf disguised as minstrels. With the Normans came the joculator or jogleur, who wore gaudy-coloured coats and the flat 1 Used by John of Salisbury (Polycraticus, i. 8) as a generic term to cover mimi, salii or saliares, balatrones, aemiliani, gladiatores, palaestritae, gignadii, praestigiatores. MINT 557 shoes of the Latin mimes, and had a shaven face and close-cut hair. Jogleurs were admitted everywhere, and enjoyed the freedom of speech accorded to the professional jester. Their impunity, however, was not always maintained, for Henry I. is said to have put out the eyes of Luc de la Barre for lampoon- ing him. A fairly denned class distinction soon arose. Those minstrels who were attached to royal or noble households had a status very different from that of the motley entertainers, who soon came under the restrictions imposed on vagabonds generally. A joculator regis, Berdic by name, is mentioned in Domesday Book. The king's minstrels formed part of the royal household, and were placed under a rex, a fairly common term of honour in the craft (cf. Adenes li rois). Edward III. had nineteen minstrels in his pay, including three who bore the title of waits. The large towns had in their pay bodies of waits, generally designated in the civic accounts as histriones. A wait under Edward III. had to " pipe the watch " four times nightly between Michaelmas and Shere Tuesday, and three times nightly during the remainder of the year. In spite of the repeated prohibitions of the ' Church, the matter was compromised in practice. Even religious houses had their minstrels, and so pious a prelate as Robert Grosseteste had his private harper, whose chamber adjoined the bishop's. St Thomas Aquinas (Summa iheologia) said that there was no sin in the minstrel's art if it were kept within the bounds of decency. Thomas de Cabham, bishop of Salisbury (d. 1313), in a Penitential distin- guished three kinds of minstrels {histriones) — buffoons or tum- blers; the wandering scurrae, by whom he probably meant the goliardi (see Goliard) ; and the singers and players of instruments. In the third class he discriminated between the singers of lewd songs and those joculatores who took their songs from the deeds of princes and the lives of saints. The performances of these joculatores were permissible, and they themselves were not to be excluded from the consolations of the Church. The Parisian minstrels were formed into a gild in 13-21, and in England a charter of Edward IV. (1469) formed the royal minstrels into a gild, which minstrels throughout the country were compelled to join if they wished to exercise their trade. A new charter was conferred in 1604, when its jurisdiction was limited to the city of London and 3 m. round it. This corporation still exists, under the style of the Corporation of the Master, Wardens and Commonalty of the Art or Science of the Musicians of London. During the best time of minstrelsy — the 10th, nth and 12th centuries — the minstrel, especially when he composed his own songs, was held in high honour. He was probably of noble or good bourgeois birth, and was treated by his hosts more or less as an equal. The distinction between the troubadour and the jogleur which was established in Provence probably soon spread to France and England. In any case it is probable that the poverty which forms the staple topic of the poems of Rutebeuf (q.v.) was the commonest lot of the minstrel. Entries of payments to minstrels occur in the accounts of corporations and religious houses throughout the 16th century; but the art of minstrelsy, already in its decline, was destroyed in England by the introduction of printing, and the minstrel of the entertainments given to Elizabeth at Kenilworth was little more than a survival. The best account of the subject is to be found in E. K. Chambers's Medieval Stage (1903), i. 23-86 and ii. 230-266. See also L. Gautier in Epopees francaises (vol. ii., 2nd ed., 1892); A. Schultz, Das hofische Leben zur Zeit der Minnesinger (2nd ed., 1889) ; T. Percy, Reliques of English Poetry (ed. H. B. Wheatley, 1876); J. Ritsori, Ancient English Metrical Romances (1802); J. J. Jusserand, English Wayfaring Life in the Middle Ages (4th ed., 1892). MINT, botanically Mentha, a genus of labiate plants, com- prising about twenty species of perennial herbs, widely distributed throughout the temperate and sub-tropical portions of the globe, but chiefly in the temperate regions of the Old World. The species have square stems, opposite, aromatic leaves, and a stoloniferous creeping rootstock. The flowers are arranged in axillary clusters (cymes), which either form separate whorls or are crowded together into a terminal spike. The corolla is usually small and of a pale purple or pinkish colour; it has four nearly equal lobes, and encloses two long and two short stamens. Nearly three hundred intermediate forms have been named and described. Many of these varieties are permanent, in con- sequence of being propagated by stolons. In Britain ten species are indigenous or naturalized. Mentha viridis, or spearmint, grows in marshy meadows, and is the species commonly used for culinary purposes; it is distinguished by its smooth, sessile leaves and lax tapering flower-spikes. It is probably a cultivated race of the next species, Mentha sylvestris, or horsemint, which chiefly differs from the above in its coarser habit and hairy leaves, which are silky beneath, and in its denser flower-spikes. This plant is supposed to be the mint of Scripture, as it is extensively cultivated in the East; it was one of the bitter herbs with which the paschal lamb was eaten. M. rotundifolia resembles the last in size and habit, but is distinguished by its rounded wrinkled leaves, which are shaggy beneath, and by its lanceolate bracts. The last two species usually grow on damp waste ground. M. aquatica grows in ditches, and is easily recognized by its rounded flower-spikes and stalked hairy leaves. M. piperita, or peppermint (q.v.), has stalked smooth leaves and an oblong obtuse terminal spike of flowers; it is cultivated for its volatile oil. M. pratensis belongs to a group which have the flowers arranged in axillary whorls and never in terminal spikes; it otherwise bears some resemblance to M. viridis. M. saliva grows by damp roadsides, and M . arvensis in cornfields; they are distinguished from M . pratensis by their hairy stalked leaves, which in M. arvensis are all equally large, but in M. saliva are much smaller towards the apex of the stem. M. Pulegium, commonly known as pennyroyal, more rarely as fleamint, has small oval obtuse leaves and flowers in axillary whorls, and is remarkable for its creeping habit and peculiar odour. It differs from all the mints above described in the throat of the calyx being closed with hairs. It is met with in damp places on grassy commons, and was formerly popular for medicinal purposes. All the genus Mentha abound in a volatile oil, contained in resinous dots in the leaves and stems. The odour of the oil is similar in several species, but is not distinctive, the same odour occurring in varieties of distinct species. Thus the peppermint flavour is found in M . piperita, in M. incana, and in Chinese and Japanese varieties of M. arvensis. Other forms of the last- named species growing in Ceylon and Java have the flavour of the common garden mint, M. viridis, and the odour is found in M. sylvestris, M. rotundifolia and M. canadensis. A bergamot scent is met with in a variety of M. aquatica and in forms of other species. Most mints blossom in August. The name mint is also applied to plants of other genera, Monarda punctata being called horsemint, Pycnanthemum linifolium mountain mint, and Nepeta cataria catmint. MINT (Lat. moneta; Mid. Eng. mynt), a place where coins are manufactured with the authority of the state. Coins are pieces of metal, of weight and composition fixed by law, with a design upon them, also fixed by law, by which they are identified, their value made known and their genuineness certified. The origin of the word " mint " is ascribed to the manufacture of silver coin at Rome in 269 B.C. at the temple of Juno Moneta. 1 This goddess became the personification of money, and her name was applied both to money and to its place of manufacture. Metals were used for money at an early stage of civilization, and are well suited to the purpose, owing to their great intrinsic value and their durability, indestructibility, divisibility and rarity. The best metals for coinage are gold, silver, platinum, copper, tin, nickel, aluminium, zinc, iron, and their alloys; certain alloys of gold, silver, copper and nickel have the best combination of the required qualities. History of Minting. — The earliest metallic money did not consist of coins, but of unminted metal in the form of rings and other ornaments or of weapons, which were used for thousands of years by the Egyptian, Chaldean and Assyrian Empires (see Numis- matics). According to Herodotus, the first mint was probably that established by Gyges in Lydia towards the end of the 8th century B.C. for the coining of gold, silver and electrum, an 1 Lenormant, La Monnp,ie dans I'antiquite, i. 82. 558 MINT alloy of gold and silver found in a natural state. 1 Silver was coined in the island of Aegina soon afterwards. The art of coining was introduced by the Greeks into Italy and other countries bordering on the Mediterranean and into Persia and India. Subsequently the Romans laid the foundations of modern minting. Coining originated independently in China at a later date than in the western world, and spread from China to Japan and Korea. Coins may be made by casting in moulds or by striking between engraved dies. The Romans cast their larger copper coins, in clay moulds carrying distinctive markings, not because they knew nothing of striking, but because it was not suitable for such large masses of metal. Casting is now used only by counterfeiters. The most ancient coins were cast in bullet- shaped or conical moulds and marked on one side by means of a die which was struck with a hammer. The " blank " or un- marked piece of metal was placed on a small anvil (ambos), and the die was held in position with tongs. The reverse or lower side of the coin received a rectangular mark made by the sharp edges of the little anvil. Subsequently the> anvil was marked in various ways, and decorated with letters and figures of beasts, and later still the ambos was replaced by a reverse die. The spherical blanks soon gave place to lenticular-shaped ones. The blank was made red-hot and struck between cold dies. One blow was usually insufficient, and the method was similar to that still used in striking medals in high relief, except that the blank is now allowed to cool before being struck. With the substitution of iron for bronze as the material for dies, about a.d. 300, the practice of striking the blanks while they were hot was gradually discarded. 2 In the middle ages bars of metal were cast and hammered out on an anvil. Portions of the flattened sheets were then cut out with shears, struck between dies and again trimmed with shears. A similar method had been used in Egypt under the Ptolemies (c. 300 B.C.) but had been forgotten. Square pieces of metal were also cut from cast bars, converted into round disks by hammering and then struck between dies. In striking, the lower die was fixed into a block of wood, and the blank piece of metal laid upon it by hand. The upper die was then placed on the blank, and kept in position by means of a holder round which was placed a roll of lead to protect the hand of the operator while heavy blows were struck with a hammer. An early improvement was the introduction of a tool resembling a pair of tongs, the two dies being placed one at the extremity of each leg. This avoided the necessity of readjusting the dies between blows, and ensured greater accuracy in the impression. Minting by means of a falling weight (monkey press) intervened between the hand hammers and the screw press in many places. In Birmingham in particular this system became highly developed and was long in use. A. Olivier introduced screw -presses for striking coins, together with rolls for reducing the cast bars and machines for punching-out round disks from flattened sheets of metal, in Paris in 1553. After being discarded in 1585, except for making medals, they were reintroduced by J. Varin in 1640 and the practice of hammering was forbidden in 1645. 3 In England the new machinery was tried in London in 1561, but abandoned soon afterwards; it was finally adopted in 1662, although the old pieces continued in circulation until 1696. At first the rolls were driven by workmen by means of cranks, but later they were worked by horses, mules or water-power. Steam-power was applied to them by Matthew Boulton and Watt in Birmingham in 1788, and was adopted by the Royal Mint, London, in 1810. Recently the practice of driving rolls by electricity has been growing, the advantage being that each pair of rolls can be driven independently without the intervention of cumbrous shafting. Boulton and Watt's screw press, invented in 1788 and used at the Royal Mint until 1881, was worked by atmospheric pressure applied to a piston. The piston was in communication with a vacuum vessel from which the air had been pumped by steam power. History of British Mints. — In Britain there are evidences of 1 Op. cit. i. 136. Herodotus i. 94. 2 E. Dumas, L'lLmission des monnaies decimates de bronze, p. 14. 3 Ibid. p. 19. the existence of mints before the arrival of the Romans. The Romans at first imported their coins, and no Roman mints were established until about the end of the 3rd century, when coins were being struck at London and Colchester. 4 In Anglo-Saxon times Athelstan appears to have been the first monarch who enacted regulations for the mints. 6 He promulgated laws about, the year 928, appointing a large number of " moneyers " 01 " mynteres," London being assigned eight, Canterbury seven, other important towns various numbers and all smaller boroughs one moneyer each. The necessity for so many mints lay in the imperfect means of communication. At an early period, probably about a.d. iooo, the dies were made in London and issued to the other mints. The moneyers, who were elected by the burgesses, were responsible for the manufacture of the coin, and according to Madox were, liable at the time of Henry II. to be summoned to Westminster to take part in the trials of the pyx. 6 If there was any deficiency in the weight of the fineness of the coin the moneyers were punished as traitors. These moneyers appear to have been abolished about n 80/ when officers were appointed to supervise the coinage on behalf of the king, and the name " moneyer " was applied to contractors who manufactured the coin under superintendence and were not responsible to the king for its weight and fineness. The moneyers continued to manufacture the coin of the realm until the year 1850, when the work was entrusted to civil servants. In the reign of Henry III. the principal officers of the Mint were the master, who manufactured the coin under a contract, the warden or paymaster who acted on behalf of the Crown, the assay master (also a king's officer) who was responsible for the fineness of the coin, the cuneator or superintendent of the engravers of the dies, and the moneyer. One of the most important duties of the warden was the collection from the contractor of the seigniorage which was claimed by the sovereign by virtue of his prerogative as a source of revenue to the Crown. In 17 18 Sir Isaac Newton was made master of the Mint, and in that capacity as contractor for the coinage he amassed a considerable fortune. 8 As the work of the Mint became more extensive and more complicated other officers were added and their duties were varied from time to time. The present administration of the English Mint is based on arrangements made in 1870, when the establishment was re- organized. The office of master of the Mint is held by the chan- cellor of the exchequer for the time being, without salary, but the actual administrative work of the department is entrusted to the deputy master and comptroller. The receipt of bullion and the delivery of coin from the Mint is under the charge of the chief clerk, the manufacture of coin is in the hands of the superinten- dent of the operative department, and the valuation of the bullion by assay, and matters relating to the fineness of the coin are entrusted to the chemist and assayer. The date of the establishment of the Mint in the Tower of London is unknown. There is a reference to it dated 1229 and a clear reference dated 1329. 9 According to Ruding, there were over fifty mints in the reign of Edward the Confessor. After the Norman Conquest the mints increased to about seventy, a greater number than now exists in the world, but they were gradually reduced and in the reign of Edward I. there were only twelve. Ruding enumerates 128 mints operated at various times in the United Kingdom, including some established by usurpation, as in the reign of Stephen by certain barons, and also mints estab- lished by grants to ecclesiastics to be worked for their own profit. The provincial mints were all closed just before the reign of Mary, who coined in London only. Charles I. set up small mints in various towns, and for the great re-coinage in the reign of William III. mints were established at York, Chester, Exeter, Bristol and Norwich, but were soon abandoned. Wood's copper money for Ireland and America was coined at Wolverhampton (1700-1722), and the tradesmen's tokens were struck at various towns. Copper coins were struck by Boulton at Soho, Birmingham, 4 H. A. Grueber, Coins of Great Britain and Ireland, p. viii. 6 Rogers Ruding, Annals of the Coinage, 3rd ed. ii. 135. ■ 6 Grueber, op. cit. p. xxv. 8 Ruding, op. cit. i. 35. 7 Ibid. p. xxvi. 9 Ibid. ii. 192, 194. MINT 559 in 1788, and a colonial bronze coinage was executed at this establishment as recently as the year 1875. There is another mint in Birmingham worked by a private company (" The Mint, Birmingham, Limited "), where coinages for foreign governments are executed and in addition silver and bronze colonial coins are occasionally manufactured under the supervision of the London Mint. The existing London Mint was erected on Tower Hill in 1810. Minting in Scotland began in the reign of David I. (1124-1153) and ceased in 1709, two years after the Act of Union, in which it had been expressly stipulated that a mint should be continued in Scotland. l Coinage in Dublin began in Anglo- Saxon times and came to an end in the reign of William III. 2 The other Irish mints were of little importance. British Dominions. — Turning to mints in British Dominions beyond the Seas, Ruding enumerates twenty-six mints in France and Flanders used by British monarchs between 1186 and 1513, and Anglo-Hanoverian coins were struck at Clausthal, Zellerfeld and Hanover in the period 17 14-183 7. In India 3 the earliest English mint was that at Madras which was bought by the East India Company in 1620, reorganized more than once and finally closed in 1869. The Calcutta mint was established by the East India Company in 1757, but other mints in Bengal continued to be used till about 1835, when the Calcutta mint was rebuilt. The Bombay mint was set up about the year 1671, but the coins were made by hammer and anvil until 1800. The Calcutta and Bombay mints are still in operation. A mint was opened in Hong-Kong in 1866 but was closed in 1868 and the machinery sold to Japan. In Australia there are three mints, Sydney, opened in 1855, Melbourne, opened in 1872, and Perth, opened in 1899. Up to 1909 only sovereigns and half-sovereigns were struck at these establishments, but in 1910 arrangements were made for a Commonwealth silver coinage. A mint at Ottawa was opened in 1908 for the manufacture of all Canadian coins as well as English sovereigns. Other Countries. — In the United States the Philadelphia mint was opened in 1792, but only manual or horse power was used until 1836, when steam was introduced. Other mints are now in operation at New Orleans, San Francisco and Denver. In most European countries a single mint situated at the capital is found to be sufficient, but there a^e six mints in the German Empire and two in Austria-Hungary. In China 26 mints were at work in 1906. There are also mints at Osaka, Bangkok and Teheran, and the Seoul mint was at work in 1904. In Mexico n mints formerly existed, but one only, in the city of Mexico, remained open in 1907. In South America there are mints at Lima, Santiago, Buenos Ayres and Tegucigalpa. No mints are in operation in Africa. In all there are nearly 70 mints in the world. The Supply of Bullion to Mints. — In England, in the middle ages, the king was accustomed to send in to the mint the produce of his own silver mines, and claimed the exclusive privilege of purchasing the precious metals. The right of levying seigniorage, however, was sometimes waived by the king to encourage his subjects to bring gold and silver to the mint, and several instances are recorded in which the aid of alchemists was called in to effect the transmutation of baser metals into gold. Seigniorage was abolished for both gold and silver in 1666, when it was provided that no charge should be made at the Mint for coining and assay- ing. Finally in 1816 the free coinage of silver was brought to an end. At present all gold bullion brought to the Mint is weighed and portions are cut off for assay. The amount of gold in standard ounces (916-6 fine) corresponding to the " imported " bullion is thus ascertained, and on the application of the im- porter the gold is coined and delivered to him in the form of sovereigns and half-sovereigns at the rate of £3, 17s. iojd. per standard ounce troy, no deduction being made for wastage, seigniorage, the purchase of alloy metal, or the expense of manu- facture. As a considerable time elapses between the receipt of bullion by the Mint and the delivery of the coin, it is generally 1 Grueber, op. cit. p. liv. 2 Ruding, op. cit. ii. 245. 3 W. J. Hocking, Catalogue of Coins in the Royal Mint, i. 272, 275 and 279. more profitable for the holder of gold bullion to sell it to the Bank of England or dispose of it in some other way. The result is that the gold presented for coinage is almost always sent from the Bank of England, which suffers no loss of interest during the coinage of the bullion, because bank-notes have already been issued against it. Silver bullion, and the copper, tin and zinc required to make up bronze, are bought by the Mint and manu- factured into coin, which is kept in stock and issued as it may be required. One ounce of standard silver, which contains 925 parts of silver and 75 of copper per 1000, is converted into 5s. 6d. in silver coin, whatever may be the market price of silver bullion. This seldom exceeded 3od. per ounce in the years 1 893-1 907. Coinage bronze consists of copper 95 parts, tin 4 parts and zinc 1 part, and a ton yields £448 in pence or £373, 6s. 8d. in halfpence or farthings. The difference between the nominal value of silver and bronze coin and its intrinsic value is retained by the state to cover the expenses of manufacture and as a source of profit. It corresponds to the seigniorage levied by the king on all coinages down to the reign of Charles II. In return, the Mint receives at its nominal value for recoinage the worn gold and silver coin which is withdrawn from circulation by the Bank of England and some other banks. In spite of the cost of this recoinage, however, the profit on the issue of new silver and bronze usually exceeds in each year the total expenditure of the Mint. Gold and silver are delivered in a refined state suitable for immediate conversion into coin. In general, only old coin, ingots resulting from the melting of coin, and " fine " ingots are received. Fine gold ingots (the " bar gold " of commerce) are usually about 400 oz. troy in weight, and contain from 990 to 999-5 parts of gold per 1000, the remainder being chiefly silver. Fine silver ingots usually weigh from 1000 to 1200 oz. troy and contain from 995 to 999 parts of silver per 1000. The ingots are valued by weighing and assaying, and a calculation is made as to the amount of copper required for melting with them to produce the standard alloy. The two standard alloys consist respectively of gold 916-6, copper 83-3 and of silver 925, copper 75. All gold coins received at the Bank are weighed on automatic balances (see below) and those below the lowest legal current weight are separated. The lowest current weight is 122-5 grains for sovereigns and 61-125 grains for half-sovereigns corresponding to losses by wear of about o-6% and o-8% respectively. The average age on withdrawal is about 24 years for sovereigns and 15 years for half-sovereigns. Silver coins are not weighed but are selected for withdrawal when they present a worn appearance. The average deficiency in weight of worn silver coin received at the Mint is from 8 to 10%, and the mean age somewhat less than 50 years. In European mints generally little difficulty is experienced in procuring refined gold and silver for coinage. In Australia, the United States, Japan and some other countries, the Mints receive unrefined gold from the mines and refine it before it is coined. A charge for refining is made in all cases. A refinery was attached to the London Mint from 1816 to 1 85 1, but was then let on lease and left to private enter- prise. The operations employed in the manufacture of gold and silver coin are as follow: — (1) Melting the metal and casting it into bars. (2) Rolling the bars into strips or " fillets." (3) Cutting out disks or blanks from the fillets. (4) Adjusting the weight of the blanks (this is omitted in some mints). (5) " Marking " or edge-rolling the blanks to produce a raised rim or to impress a design on the edge. (6) Annealing the blanks and (in some mints) cleaning them in acid. (7) Striking the blanks between dies surrounded by a collar. (8) Weighing each coin. Among the incidental operations are (a) the valuation of the bullion by weighing and assaying it; (b) " rating " the bullion, or calculating the amount of copper to be added to make up the standard alloy; (c) recovering the values from ground-up crucibles, ashes and floor sweepings (the Mint "sweep"); (d) assaying the melted bars; (e) "pyxing" the finished coin or selecting specimens to be weighed and assayed; (J) " telling " or counting the coin. Melting. — Formerly bullion was melted in crucibles made of refrac- tory clay, but they are liable to crack and require careful handling 56° MINT These were succeeded by iron crucibles, especially for melting silver, and these have now been generally replaced by graphite (plumbago) crucibles made of a mixture of clay and graphite. Good graphite crucibles can be used many times in succession if they are heated gradually each time, but they are usually discarded after about fifteen or twenty meltings. At the Royal Mint gold is melted in crucibles about 10 in. in height and 8j in. in diameter at the widest part. The charge is from 1200 to 1300 02. (37-3 to 40-5 kilograms) of metal. The furnace is 12 in. square and 2 ft. deep from the fire-bars to the cover. An old crucible is cut off about 2 in. from the bottom and the bottom piece is inverted and placed on the fire-bars as a support for the crucible. The " muffle," a graphite cylinder 6 in. in height, is placed on the crucible to allow room for long bars to be melted in the crucible and to prevent the surrounding and C is the flue, common to two furnaces and leading to the stack; The handle D, acting through the gear wheels E, F, G and H, turns the cogwheel K, which moves the curved rack of the cradle and tips the crucible M. The molten metal is poured into the moulds N, which are carried on wheels running on rails Q. The parts of the range of moulds are brought tightly together and held in position by the bars O and the screw P, and when one mould is filled the carrier is moved forward on its rails by wheels worked by a handle also shown in the figure. In some other mints still larger crucibles are used, containing various amounts up to about 1000 kilograms or over 30,000 oz. In foreign mints the molten metal is generally transferred from the crucible to the moulds by dipping crucibles or iron ladles covered with clay. Gas is used as fuel for the melting furnaces at Philadelphia. It is cleaner than coke and is said to Fig. 1. — Furnace Apparatus. coke from falling into it. The flue, of about 5 in. square, communi- cates with a stack 60 ft. high. In many mints the flues pass into condensing chambers where volatilized gold and silver are recovered. The crucible is at a red heat when the gold is charged in, the copper being added last, and a graphite lid put on the crucible to check loss by volatilization. The charge is completely melted in about half an hour, and it is then thoroughly mixed by stirring with a graphite rod. The crucible is then lifted out by circular tongs suspended in such a way that two men can take part in the' operation. The contents are poured by hand into moulds which are contained side by side in an iron carriage running on wheels, fig. I, OP. The niolten gold, which is of a pale green colour, solidifies at once in the iron moulds, and the bars can be taken out immediately. Bars from which sovereigns are to be coined are 22 in. long, if in. wide and 5 in. thick, and about seven such bars are cast from one pot. The rough edges of the bars are removed by a circular revolving file, and the hollow ends are cut off. Pieces are cut out for assay, and the bars are then ready for rolling. The amount of gold melted in an ordinary day's work is two tons to two and a half tons, of the value of £250,000 to £300,000. For silver larger crucibles are used, containing 'about 5000 oz. troy (155 kilograms). They are heated in circular furnaces 21 in. in diameter and lifted out with circular tongs suspended from a travelling crane which is worked by elec- tricity. The crucible is placed in the pouring cradle, which has been in use since 1816, and is shown in fig. I. Here A is the iron cover surrounding the furnaces, B is the revolving lid of a furnace, save time and to reduce the loss of the precious metals. At Denver and Ottawa the fuel used is " first distillate " oil, which is found to be cheaper than either naphtha or gas. The oil is pumped from buried tanks and warmed to about 90 F. before it reaches the burners at the furnaces. At the Denver mint the crucibles are used for from twelve to fifteen meltings with oil fuel, whereas they were soon destroyed when gas was employed. A charge of 6000 oz. of gold is melted in about an hour. The melting losses amount to about 0-2 per 1000 of gold and o-6 per 1000 of silver in the Royal Mint. The losses are caused by volatilization, by the absorption of metal by the crucible, stirring rod, &c, and by occasional projection of particles from the pot into the furnace. The ash-pit is lined with iron plates to facilitate the recovery of metal accidentally spilt. All crucibles and other materials which might contain precious metal are ground up and washed in a pan, and the pannings together with a selection from the floor sweepings are remelted. The residues (the Mint " sweep ") are sold to refiners or ore-smelters. Rolling. — The cast bars are reduced to the thickness of the coin by repeated passages between rolls. These are cylinders of cast iron or steel from 6 in. to 15 in. in diameter set parallel to one another with a small interval between, and revolved by electric or steam power. They are divided into breaking-down and finishing rolls, the latter being of smaller diameter than the former. The power is usually transmitted through toothed wheels, each roll being driven independently in some cases, while sometimes power is ap- plied to the lower roll only, the upper roll being coupled to it. The MINT 561 power required f jr breaking down mint bars amounts to from 25 to 35 h. p. The bars are fed to the rolls by hand. Heavy pinches are applied at first, the space between the rolls being diminished by a hand-screw after each passage of the bars through them. When the bars are nearly to gauge, light pinches are given, the power required by finishing rolls being about 5 h.p. only. The reduction in thickness of the bars is accompanied by a slight increase in their width and a very great increase in their length, so that it is generally necessary to cut partly rolled bars into two parts to keep them of convenient dimensions. By repeated passages through the rolls the bars are hardened, and to facilitate further reduction they are usually softened by annealing before being passed to the finishing rolls. In some mints the fillets are annealed frequently, the fillets for one-mark pieces at the Berlin mint, for example, being annealed four times in the course of rolling. In this case the bars are reduced from 5J mm. in thickness to I \ mm. by being passed thirteen times through the rolls. At the Vienna mint the practice has been to anneal silver bars after each passage through the rolls. On the other hand, in the United States mints, the use of very carefully refined metal has made it possible to discontinue the annealing of partly rolled bars. In the Royal Mint silver bars are annealed once during rolling by passing through a Bates & Peard gas furnace. The fillets are placed on an endless chain which moves slowly through the furnace, returning, underneath. At each end of the furnace is a trough of water which covers the furnace mouth, so that air is pre- vented from entering the furnace. The chain dips below the water, then rises into the furnace and passes down into the other trough on its way out. The result is that so long as the fillets are hot they are kept from contact with the air and blackening of the metal is prevented. In some mints the drag-bench or draw-bench is used after the rolls to equalize the thickness of the fillets. The fillet is drawn between two little steel cylinders which do not revolve and are held rigidly in position. The principle resembles that used in wire drawing. It was introduced by Sir John Barton at the Royal Mint in 1816 and was abandoned there in 1905. The thickness of the Fig. 2. — Gauge Plate. fillets is measured by the gauge-plate shown in fig. 2. When they have been reduced to the correct thickness they are examined by the " tryer," who cuts out one or two blanks from each fillet with a hand machine and weighs them on a delicate balance. If the weight of the blank is slightly below the standard weight, a somewhat larger cutter is used, so that the blanks may be of correct weight. If the blank is too heavy the fillet may of course be passed through the rolls again. Remedy.— The degree of accuracy required is indicated by the " remedy " allowance for weight, which is different for each coin, and is the maximum difference from the standard weight which is allowed by law. In the sovereign it is o-2 grain or about 1-62 per 1000. As the mean thickness of a sovereign is 0-0466 in., the remedy for weight corresponds to a difference of less than miro in- in the thickness of the fillet. The remedy for English silver coins varies from 2 grains or 4-58 per 1000 in the case of the crown', to 0-087 grain or 11-97 P er 1000 in the case of the silver penny. The reme- dies for weight on foreign coins are in general greater than those allowed in the British Empire, averaging 2 per 1000 for gold coins. Reference may here be made to the similar working margin allowed in respect of the fineness of gold and silver. In England the remedy for fineness is 2 per 1000 on gold coins and 4 per 1000 on silver coins above and below the legal standard. Thus gold coins would be within the limits if they contained between 914-6 and 918-6 parts of gold per 1000. Remedies are intended to cover accidental variations from the exact standard and are now generally used only in this way. In former times, however, advantage was sometimes taken of the remedy as a means of profit. In the reign of Queen Elizabeth, the master of the Mint, finding the allowance under his contract to be insufficient, availed himself of the remedy on the silver coinage, which amounted to 6jd. on the pound troy, or about 8-7 per 1000. Cutting Blanks. — The cutting machine used in the Mint is shown in fig. 3. The revolution of an eccentric A causes two short steel cylinders or cutters mounted on a block of iron B, suitably guided, to enter two holes in a plate fixed to the bed of the machine. When the fillet FF is brought above the holes, the cutters descend and force disks of metal through the holes. After each descent of the cutters, the fillet is advanced by small gripping rolls C C C" worked by a ratchet wheel E driven from the shaft which bears the eccentric A. The disks fall down the tube G to a receptacle on the floor. The cutters are so placed as to remove blanks in the manner shown in fig. 4, this arrangement leaving less " scissel " or residual metal than any other. In the case of very large silver coins only one blank is cut in the width of the fillet, but bronze fillets are made wider so that three penny blanks are cut out at each stroke of the machine. The cutting machines at the Mint work at 160 revolutions per minute, so that each of the eleven machines would . be capable of cutting 19,200 blanks in an hour if it could be fed continuously. The scissel, which amounts to about 30% of the metal operated on, is returned in bundles to the melting house. Marking. — The blanks are then passed to an edge rolling machine, by which they are thickened at the edge so as to form a rim to protect the finished coin from wear. This operation is called marking, because originally the edges I o°oWo o o q Fig. 3. — Cutting Machine. Fig. 5. Fig. 4. were not only thickened but were also marked with an inscription. This is still done in the case of many foreign coins. The letters are some- times sunk and sometimes raised. Like the graining or " milling " on the edge of many coins, the inscriptions were intended to put a stop to the practice of clipping and filing coins, which was preva- lent in the 16th and 17th centuries. They also render the manufacture of counterfeit coin more difficult. At the Royal Mint the blanks are passed between the parallel faces of a revolving steel plate and fixed block. The plate has a circular groove in its face and the block has a corresponding curved groove. The blank passes between these grooves. The distance between the block and the plate is adjusted so as to be slightly less than the diameter of the blank, and the result is that the edge of the blank is thickened and its diameter reduced before it escapes from the machine. About 720 blanks are passed through this machine per minute. In marking machines in some foreign mints the groove is in the peri- phery of the revolving wheel, and the grooved block is curved (fig. 5). Annealing and Blanching the Blanks. — The blanks are next softened by annealing, and are then thoroughly cleaned before being passed to the coining presses. In England gold and copper blanks are protected from oxidation, and after their passage through the furnace are merely washed in colanders with water and dried with sawdust in a rotating drum. Silver blanks, however, are passed through rotary gas furnaces in which no attempt is made to exclude the air. The blanks are charged into a hopper at one end of the furnace and conveyed towards the other end by a revolving Archimedean screw. The blanks fall through an aperture after having been heated for a few minutes. They are at a dull red heat and are allowed to cool gradually in the air and become blackened by the formation on the surface of a film of oxide of copper. This is removed by solution in hot dilute sulphuric acid and a layer of pure frosted silver is left on the surface, which appears dead white in colour, and has lost its metallic lustre. The operation is called " blanching." A similar method was formerly used for gold coins in England and is still employed in some mints. The removal of part of the copper from the blank raises the percentage of silver contained in them and this is allowed for by adding an equivalent amount of copper to the metal when it is melted. The amount of copper removed from silver blanks containing 900 to 925 parts of silver pei 1000 is from o-6 to I-o per 1000. The process will probably be abandoned as soon as the tarnishing of the metal during rolling and annealing can be avoided. Coining Press. — The blanks are converted into coin by receiving an impression from engraved dies. Each blank is placed on the lower of two dies and the upper die is brought down forcibly upon it. The pressure causes the soft metal to flow like a viscous solid, but its lateral escape is prevented by a collar which surrounds the blank while it is being struck. The collar may be plain, or crenated ("■ milled "), or engraved with some device. In the last case the collar must be made in two or more pieces, as otherwise the coin could not be removed without injury. The collar for striking English crown pieces is made in three sections now that raised lettering is put on the edge of the coin. Sunk letters, such as occur on the edges 562 MINT of many foreign coins, are put on by the marking machine, and a plain collar is used in striking. The coining presses now used are all modifications of the lever press invented by Uhlhorn of Grevenbroich near Cologne in 1839. The at the Mint strike from 90 to 125 coins per minute, most of them working at the rate of no coins per minute. There are 19 presses and it is possible with these to strike between 700,000 and 800,000 pieces in an ordinary working day. Fig. 6. press in use at the Royal Mint since 1882 is shown in figs. 6 and 7. The lever M worked from the front of the machine causes the fly- wheel to be connected with the driving-wheel and the machine starts. The blanks are placed in the slide J and the lowest one is carried forward to the die in two successive movements of the " layer-on " K, a rod working backwards and forwards on a horizontal plate and actuating the finger L, fig. 8. The lower die is firmly fixed Fig. 8. to the bed of the machine, and the blank is placed exactly upon it. The collar A' is then raised by the lever G so as to encircle the blank, and the upper die which is held at A is brought down. This is done by the little crank B on the axle of the fly-wheel, acting through the rod C, and the bent lever D, which forms a toggle-joint at E with the vertical piece of metal below it. The straightening of the_ toggle- joint when C is pushed forward forces A down to strike the coin. The reverse movement of D lifts up the upper die and the collar drops simultaneously so that its upper surface is level with the face of the lower die on which the finished coin lies. Another blank moved on by the finger L pushes off the finished coin which falls down the tube N. The diagram, fig. 9, shows the relative position of the dies and levers more clearly. The dies and collar are shaded. The presses £2 ^ y Fig. 7. Weighing the Coins. — Gold and silver coins are examined and tested by ringing, and each coin is then weighed separately by being passed over delicate automatic balances. The first automatic balance for weighing single coins was introduced at the Bank of England in 1843, and was designed by William Cotton, the deputy governor of the Bank. In 1851 these balances, improved by Richard Pilcher, were introduced at the Royal Mint, and modifications of them are now used at most foreign mints. For mint use it is necessary that they shall distinguish between " light," " heavy " and " good " coins which do not differ from standard by more than the small weight known as the " remedy " (see above). The balances used in the Royal Mint were further improved by J. T. Butler in the year 1889. The balance consists essentially of a beam with two scale pans, one for the coin and the other for the counterpoise. The beam is released and in the course of a second or so takes up a certain position dependent on the relative weights of the coin and counterpoise. Its position is then fixed by an automatic grip, and the coin falling down a shoot enters one of three compartments of a box, according to the position of the beam when it is arrested. The chief working parts are shown in fig. 10. The beam A is of steel made in one piece, Fig. 9. <^= Fig. 10 about 11 in. long. Its centre and end knife edges are shown in fig. II. The scale pan for the coin is shown in fig. 12. B is the pan on which the coin rests, at a point above the beam. The coins are placed in a rouleau in the hopper C and the lowest one is pushed on to the pan B by a slide not shown in the figure. While the coin is being moved the hanger D is held firmly by the forceps E to prevent the pan from being pushed sideways. The forceps are then opened and the beam released, but at this moment the levelling bar F is allowed to drop momentarily by a bent lever G acting on the pin G', until the ends of F press down on a stirrup in each hanger at H, H. This brings the beam to a horizontal position. The lever G at once MINTO, EARLS OF 5 6 3 lifts the bar F again by acting on the pin G' so that the bar F does not touch the stirrups at H and the beam and hangers are free to move. The coin is balanced by the brass counterpoise J on the left- hand hanger and by little weights made of wire attached to the right-hand hanger at K. If the coin is heavier than the lowest legal weight (that is, the standard weight less the remedy) the right- hand side of the beam begins to fall and the left-hand one is raised. This movement proceeds until the stirrup L below the left-hand hanger is raised far enough to touch the rod M, which is equal in weight to twice the remedy. The movement is then stopped provided that the weight of the coin is not greater than the standard weight plus the remedy. If it is heavier than this, it raises the Fig. ii. weight M, and the movement of the beam and its hangers proceeds farther in the same direction. After about a second from the time of the final release of the beam, the forceps E again close and the hanger D is held firmly in its new position. The rod N is then lowered and allows the indicating finger O, which is pivoted at P, to fall until it rests on the stirrup R, which is part of the hanger D. The extension of O holds down the right-hand end of the rod S which is also pivoted at P, and enables its end to fit into one of the three inverted steps on the bottom of the shoot Q. The position of the shoot is thus determined. It stops over one of three orifices in the bottom plate of the balance. If the coin is light the rod S fits into the uppermost step and the shoot stops over the right-hand slot. If the coin is heavy, S fits into the lowest step and the shoot stops over the left-hand slot. The middle step and slot are for coins within the remedy. The movement of the slide now pushes another coin forward, and the weighed coin is displaced by it and falls down the shoot, through one of the slots. Each slot leads into a separate compartment and the coins are consequently sorted into three classes, light, correct weight and heavy. The balance turns to o-oi grain. The driving power is applied by shafting through a number of cams. In the Royal Mint both light and heavy coins are returned to the melting pot. The proportion of rejected gold coin varies with the quality of the bullion, and frequently exceeds 10%. The percentage of rejected silver is often no more than I %. In most foreign mints the blanks are weighed by the automatic balances before being struck, and those which are too heavy are reduced by filing or planing. A workman sitting at a balance files the edges of the piece and weighs it until it is within the remedy. The blank is then again passed through the automatic balance and is sent forward to the coining press if the correctness of the weight is confirmed. Since 1870 no adjusting of the weight of coins has been attempted at the Royal Mint. Heavy blanks have also been reduced chemically by making them part of the anode in a cyanide bath through which a current of electricity is passed. Some metal from the surface of each blank then passes into solution, and the blanks are reduced in weight with remarkable uniformity. This system was introduced into the Indian mints in 1873. ., Telling. — The coin is counted and packed into bags for despatch from the Mint. The counting or telling is now carried out in the case of bronze and silver coins by ingenious machines introduced in 1891. The coins are spread on an inclined table by hand. They slide down the table and enter a narrow passage where only one can pass at a time, jamming being prevented by the joggling action of an eccentric rotating disk at the entrance to the passage. The coins are then gripped by a pair of india-rubber driving wheels, which force them past the rim of a thin disk with notches in its edge to fit the coins. As the disk is thus made to revolve, the coins are pushed forward, and falling down a shoot are received in a bag. The machine can be set to deliver a certain number of coins, after which the counting wheel stops automatically. Trial of the Pyx. — Periodical examinations of the coins issued by the Mint have been made from very early times in England by per- sons appointed by the Crown. Specimens are selected from the finished coin and are put into a box or " pyx." At intervals these coins are weighed and assayed by a jury of skilled persons and the results reported to the Crown. A trial of the pyx is mentioned in the Lansdowne MSS. as having taken place in the reign of Henry II., but the practice had probably originated much earlier. The trial is now held annually by a jury consisting of freemen of the Company of Goldsmiths. Coins from the London and Australian mints are examined. The Company has been entrusted with the duty since the time of James I. Coins of foreign mints are generally submitted to examination by a committee of eminent chemists and metal- lurgists whose report is published in the official journals. A full account of the work of the Mint, with valuable tables giving the amount of the coinage of gold and silver and bronze in the United Kingdom and the colonies in detail, and a resume of the coinages of foreign countries, will be found in the Annual Reports of the Deputy Master and Comptroller of the Mint, which have been published since 1870. (T. K. R.) MINTO, EARLS OF. The Scottish border family of Elliot which has held the earldom of Minto since 1813 has had many distinguished members. Sir Gilbert Elliot, bart. (1651-1718), and his son and successor, another Sir Gilbert Elliot (1693-17 66), were both celebrated Scottish judges and both took the official title of Lord Minto. The elder Sir Gilbert was sentenced to death for his share in the rising of the earl of Argyll in 1685, but was afterwards pardoned; the younger Sir Gilbert was a scholar and an agriculturist. Among the children of the latter were John Elliot (d. 1808), a naval officer, who served as governor of New- foundland and was made an admiral; Andrew Elliot, the last English governor of New York; and the poetess Jean, or Jane, Elliot (c. 1727-1805), who wrote the popular ballad " Flowers of the Forest." The eldest son, Sir Gilbert Elliot (1722-1777), who became the third baronet in April 1766, was a member of parlia- ment from 1753 to 1777, and a friend and follower of the earl of Bute. He filled several public offices, and Horace Walpole said he was " one of the ablest members of the House of Commons." His second son was the diplomatist, Hugh Elliot (1752-1830), who represented his country at Munich, at Berlin, at Copenhagen and at Naples. He was governor of Madras from 1814 to 1820, and he died on the 10th of December 1830. See the Memoirs of the Right Hon. Hugh Elliot, by the countess of Minto (Edinburgh, 1868).' The third baronet's eldest son was Gilbert Elliot, 1st earl of Minto (1751-1814). About 1 763 Gilbert and his brother Hugh were sent to Paris, where their studies were supervised by David Hume and where they became intimate with Mirabeau. Having passed the winters of 1766 and 1767 at Edinburgh University, Gilbert entered Christ Church, Oxford, and on quitting the university he was called to the bar. In 1776 he entered parliament as an independent Whig. He became very friendly with Burke, whom he helped in the attack on Warren Hastings and Sir Elijah Impey, and on two occasions was an unsuccessful candidate for the office of speaker. In 1794 Elliot was appointed to govern Corsica, and in 1797 he assumed the additional names of Murray-Kynyn- mond and was created Baron Minto. From 1799 to 1801 he was envoy-extraordinary to Vienna, and having been for a few months president of the board of control he was appointed governor- general of India at the end of 1806. He governed with great success until 1813. He was then created Viscount Melgund and earl of Minto. He died at Stevenage on the 21st of June 1814 and was buried in Westminster Abbey. The earl's second son was Admiral Sir George Elliot (1784- 1863), who as a youth was present at the battles of Cape St Vincent and the Nile, and who was secretary to the admiralty from 1830 to 1834. A nephew of the earl was Sir Charles Elliot (1801-1875) also an admiral, who took a prominent part in the war with China in 1840. Afterwards he was governor of Bermuda, of Trinidad and of St Helena. Gilbert Elliot-Murray-Kynynmond, 2nd earl of Minto (1782-1859), eldest son of the 1st earl, was ambassador to Berlin from 1832 to 1834, first lord of the admiralty from 1835 to 1841 and lord privy seal from 1846 to 1852. His influence in the Whig party was partly due to the fact that his daughter, Frances, was the wife of Lord John Russell. 5 6 4 MINTO, W.— MINUSINSK His son William Hugh, the 3rd earl (1814-1891), was the father of the 4th earl, Gilbert John Elliot-Murray-Kynyn- mond (1845- ), who joined the Scots Guards in 1867. In 1874, in the capacity of a newspaper correspondent, he witnessed the operations of the Carlists in Spain; he took service with the , Turkish army in the war with Russia in 1877 and served under Lord Roberts in the second Afghan War (1878-70), having narrowly escaped accompanying Sir Louis Cavagnari Kabul. He acted as private secretary to Lord Roberts during his mission to the Cape in 188 1; as military secretary to Lord Lansdowne during his governor-generalship of Canada from 1883 to 1885; and as chief of the staff to General Middleton in the Riel Rebellion in Canada (1885). Having succeeded to the earldom in 1891 he was appointed governor-general of Canada in 1898. His term of office (1898-1904) was distinguished by a visit of the prince and princess of Wales to the colonies. In 1905, on the resig- nation of Lord Curzon, Lord Minto was appointed viceroy and governor-general of India, retiring in 1910. The 4th earl's brother, the Hon. Arthur Ralph Douglas Elliot (b. 1846) , editor of the Edinburgh Review, was a member of parlia- ment from 1880 to 1892 and again from 1898 to 1906, and from 1903 to 1906 he was financial secretary to the treasury. Sir Francis Edmund Hugh Elliot (b. 1851), a grandson of the 2nd earl, became British minister at Athens in 1903. See Hon. G. F. S. Elliot, The Border Elliots and the Family of Minto (Edinburgh, 1897); the article India; History; also the Life and Letters of the first Earl of Minto, 1751-1806 (1.874) and Lord Minto in India, 1807-18 14 (1880), both edited by the countess of Minto; and Sir J. F. Stephen, The Story of Nuncomar and the Impeachment of Sir E. Impey (1885). MINTO, WILLIAM (1845-1893), Scottish man of letters, was born at Auchintoul, Aberdeenshire, on the 10th of October 1845. He was educated at Aberdeen University, and spent a year at Merton College, Oxford. He was assistant professor under Alexander Bain at Aberdeen for some years; from 1874 to 1878 he edited the Examiner, and in 1880 he was made full professor of logic and English at Aberdeen. In 187 2 he published a Manual of English Prose Literature, which was distinguished by sound judgment and sympathetic appreciation; and his Characteristics of English Poets from Chaucer to Shirley (1874) showed the same high qualities. His other works include: The Literature of the Georgian Era (1894) edited with a bio- graphical introduction by W. Knight a monograph on Defoe in the English Men of Letters series (1879) ; three novels of small importance, and numerous articles on literary subjects in the 9th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. He died on the 1 st of March 1893. MINTURNAE, an ancient city of the Aurunci, in Italy, situated on the N.W. bank of the Liris with a suburb on the opposite bank 1% m. from its mouth, at the point where the Via Appia crossed it by the Pons Tiretius. It was one of the three towns of the Aurunci which made war against Rome in 314 B.C., the other two being Ausona (see Sessa Atjrunca) and Vescia; and the Via Appia was made two years later. It became a colony in 295 B.C. In 88 B.C. Marius in his flight from Sulla hid himself in the marshes of Minturnae. The ruins consist of an amphitheatre (now almost entirely demolished, but better preserved in the 1 8th century), a theatre, and a very fine aqueduct in opus reticulatum, the quoins of which are of various colours arranged in patterns to produce a decorative e"ffect. Close to the mouth of the river was the sacred grove of the Italic goddess Marica. It is still mentioned in the 6th century, but was probably destroyed by the Saracens, and its low site, which had become unhealthy, was abandoned in favour of that of the modern town of Minturno (known as Traetto until the 19th century), 459 ft. above sea-level. A tower at the mouth of the river, erected between 961 and 981, commemo- rates a victory gained by Pope John X. and his allies over the Saracens in 915. It is built of Roman materials from Minturnae, including several inscriptions and sculptures. See T. Ashby in Melanges de V Acole francaise deRome (1903), 413; R. Laurent- Vibert and A. Piganol, ibid. (1907), p. 495; G. Q. Giglioli, Notizie degli Scavi (1908) p. 396. (T. As.) MINUCIUS, FELIX MARCUS, one of the earliest if not the earliest, of the Latin apologists for Christianity. Of his personal history nothing is known, and even the date at which he wrote can be only approximately ascertained. Jerome (De vir. ill 58) speaks of him as " Romae insignis causidicus," but in this he is probably only improving on the expression of Lactantius (Inst. div. v. 1) who speaks of him as " non ignobilis inter causidicos loci." He is now exclusively known by his Octavius, a dialogue on Christianity between the pagan Caecilius Natalis 1 and the Christian Octavius Januarius, a provincial lawyer, the, friend and fellow-student of the author. The scene is pleasantly and graphically laid on the beach al Ostia on a holiday afternoon, and the discussion is represented as arising -out of the homage paid by Caecilius, in passing, to the image of Serapis. His arguments for paganism (possibly modelled on those of Celsus) are taken up seriatim by Octavius, with the result that the assailant is convinced. Minucius. himself plays the part of umpire. The form of the dialogue is modelled on the De natura deorum and De divinatione of Cicero and its style is both vigorous and elegant if at times not exempt from something of the affectation of the age. Its latinity is not of the specifically Christian type. If the doctrines of the Divine unity, the resur- rection, and future rewards and punishments be left out of account, the work has less the character of an exposition of Christianity than of a philosophical and ethical polemic against the absurdities of polytheism. While it thus has much in common with the Greek Apologies it is full of the strong common sense that marks the Latin mind. Its ultimate appeal is to the fruits of faith. The Octavius is admittedly earlier than Cyprian's Quod idola dii non sint, which borrows from it ; how much earlier can be determined only by settling the relation in which it stands to Tertullian's Apologeticum. Since A. Ebert's exhaustive argument in 1868, repeated in 1889, the priority of Minucius has been generally ad- mitted; the objections are stated in the Diet. Chr. Biog. article by G. Salmon. Editions: F. Sabaeus-Brixianus, as Bk. viii. of Arnbbius (Rome, 1543); F. Balduinus, first separate edition (Heidel- berg, 1560); Migne, Patrol. Lat. iii. 239; Halm in Corp. Scr. Eccl. Lat. (Vienna, 1867); H. A. Holder). Translations: R. E. Wallis, in Ante-Nic. Fathers, vol. iv. ; A. A. Brodribb's Pagan and Puritan. Literature: In addition to that already cited see H. Boenig's art. in Hauck-Herzog's Realencyk. vol. 13, and the various histories of early Christian Literature by A. Harnack, G. Kriiger, A. Ehrhard and O. Bardenhewer. MINUET (adapted, under the influence of the Italian minuetto, from Fr. menuet, small, pretty, delicate, a diminutive of menu, from Lat. minutus; the word refers probably to the short steps, pas menus, taken in the dance), a dance for two persons, in } time. At the period when it was most fashionable it was slow, ceremonious, and graceful (see Dance). The name is also given to a musical composition written in the same time and rhythm, but when not accompanying an actual dance the pace was quicker. An example of the true form of the minuet is to be found in Don Giovanni. The minuet is frequently found as one of the movements in the Suites of Handel and Bach. Haydn introduced it into the symphony, with little trace of the slow grace and ceremony of the dance. In the hands of Beethoven it becomes the scherzo. MINUSINSK, a town of Russia, in East Siberia, and the government of Yeniseisk, 180 m. S.S.W. of Krasnoyarsk railway station, and 5 m. from the right bank of the Yenisei, in a fertile prairie region. Pop. (1897), 10,255. It is a centre for. trade with the native populations of the Sayan Mountains and north- western Mongolia. It has an excellent natural history, ethnor graphical and archaeological museum (1877), with a library and a meteorological station. Coal and iron abound in the vicinity. 1 This name occurs in six inscriptions of the years 21 1-2 17 foundat Constantine (Cirta), North Africa (C.I.L. vol. viii.). Like the other North African fathers Tertullian, Cyprian, Arnobius and Lactantius, he was a lawyer. Some use may have been made. of rhetorical expressions of M. Cornelius Fronto of Cirta (d. c. a.d. 170). MINUTE— MIOT DE MELITO 565 MINUTE (Lat. minutus, small; minuere, to make less), an adjective meaning of very small size, petty or trifling; also extremely precise. In this sense the word is pronounced mi-nute. As a substantive and pronounced minnit the word (usually in the plural) is applied to a written summary of the transactions of a meeting of a public or other body, or to a memorandum of instructions, &c. A Treasury minute in the United Kingdom is an official memorandum authorizing certain procedure. " To minute " is to draw up such a summary or memorandum. More particularly, " minute " is used of the sixtieth part of any unit); in time, of an hour; and in astronomy, geometry, geography, &c, of a degree in the measurement of a circle. The sexagesimal system of division was originally used by the ancient Babylonian astronomers, was adopted by Ptolemy; and the sixtieth part of a degree, and its further subdivision into sixty parts, was called in Latin pars minutae primae, and pars minutae secundae respectively, hence the English " minute " and " second." MINUTE MEN: in the American War of Independence, militia- men who had undertaken to turn out for service at a minute's notice. In Massachusetts the minute men were enrolled by an act of the provincial congress of the 23rd of November 1774, and in Boston alone they numbered 16,000 prior to the outbreak of the war. The Americans who fought in the opening action of Lexington were " minute men." MIOCENE, in geology, the system of strata which occurs between the Oligocene and the Pliocene. The term, derived from the Greek fieiov, less, and k of the purse possessed by the representatives of the people" would, as in England in 1688, bring about a bloodless revolution. He saw also that much of the inefficiency of the Assembly arose from the in- experience of the members and their incurable verbosity; so, to establish some system of rules, he got his friend Romilly to draw up a detailed account of the rules and customs of the English House of Commons, which he trans- lated into French, but which the Assembly, puffed up by a belief in its own merits, refused to use. On the great subject of peace and war he supported the king's authority, and with some success. Again Mirabeau almost alone of the Assembly held that the soldier ceased to be a citizen when he became a soldier; he must submit to be deprived of his liberty to think and act, and must recognize that a soldier's first duty is obedi- ence. With such sentiments, it is no wonder that he approved of the vigorous conduct of Francois Claude Amour, marquis de Bouille, at Nancy, which was the more to his credit as Bouille was the one hope of the court influences opposed to him. Lastly, in matters of finance he showed his wisdom: he attacked Necker's " caisse d'escompte," which was to have the whole control of the taxes, as absorbing the Assembly's power of the purse; and he heartily approved of the system of assignats, but -with the reservation that they should not be issued to the extent of more than one-half the value of the lands to be sold. Of Mirabeau's attitude with regard to foreign affairs it is necessary to speak in more detail. He held it to be just that the French people should conduct their Revolution as they would, and that no foreign nation had any right to interfere with them while they kept themselves strictly to their own affairs. But he knew also that neighbouring nations looked with unquiet eyes on the progress of affairs in France, that they feared the influence of the Revolution on their own peoples, and that foreign monarchs were being prayed by the French emigres to interfere on behalf of the French monarchy. To prevent this interference, or rather to give no pretext for it, was his guiding thought as to foreign policy. He had been elected a member of the comite diplomatique of the Assembly in July 1790, and became its reporter at once, and in this capacity he was able to prevent the Assembly from doing much harm in regard to foreign affairs. He had long known Armand Marc, comte de Mont- morin, the foreign secretary, and, as matters became more strained from the complications with the princes and counts of the empire, he entered into daily communication with the minister, advised him on every point, and, while dictating his policy, defended it in the Assembly. Mirabeau's exertions in this respect are not his smallest title to the name of statesman; and how great a work he did is best proved by the confusion which ensued in this department after his death. For indeed in the beginning of 1791 his death was very near; and he knew it to be so. The wild excesses of his youth and their terrible punishment had weakened his strong constitution, and his parliamentary labours completed the work. So surely did he feel its approach that some time before the end he sent all his papers over to Sir Gilbert Elliot, who kept them under seal until claimed by Mirabeau's executors. In March his illness was evidently gaining on him, to his great grief, because he knew that he alone could yet save France from the distrust of her monarch and the present reforms, and from the foreign interference, which would assuredly bring about catastrophes unparalleled in the history of the world. Every care that science could afford was given by his friend and physician, Cabanis, to whose brochure on his last illness and death the reader may refer. The people kept the street in which he lay quiet; but medical care, the loving solicitude of friends, and the respect of all the people could not save his life. When he could speak no more he wrote with a feeble hand the one word " dormir," and on the 2nd of April 1791 he died. No man ever so thoroughly used other men's work, and yet made it all seem his own. " Je prends mon bien ou je le trouve " is as true of him as of Moliere. His first literary work, except the bombastic but eloquent Essai sur le despotisme (Neufchatel, 1775). was a translation of Robert Watson's Philip II., done in Holland with the help of Durival ; his Considerations sur I'ordre de Cincinnatus (London, 1788) was based on a pamphlet by Aedanus Burke (1743-1802), of South Carolina, who opposed the aristocratic tendencies of the Society of the Cincinnati, and the notes to it were by Target; his financial writings were suggested by the Genevese exile, Claviere. During the Revolution he received yet more help; men were proud to labour for him, and did not murmur because he absorbed all the credit and fame. Etienne Dumont, Claviere, Antoine Adrien Lamourette and Etienne Salomon Reybaz were but a few of the most distin- guished of his collaborators. Dumont was a Genevese exile, and an old friend of Romilly's, who willingly prepared for him those famous addresses which Mirabeau used to make the Assembly pass by sudden bursts of eloquent declamation; Claviere helped him in finance, and not only worked out his figures, but even wrote his financial discourses; Lamourette wrote the speeches on the civil constitution of the clergy ; Reybaz not only wrote for him his famous speeches on the assignats, the organization of the national guard, and others, which Mirabeau read word for word at the tribune, but even the posthumous speech on succession to the estates of intestates, which Talleyrand read in the Assembly as the last work of his dead_ friend. Yet neither the gold of the court nor another man's conviction would make Mirabeau say what he did not himself believe, or do what he did not himself think right. He took 57° MIRABEAU— MIRACLE other men's labour as his due, and impressed their words, of which he had suggested the underlying ideas, with the stamp of his own individuality; his collaborators themselves did not com- plain — they were but too glad to be of help in the great work of controlling and forwarding the French Revolution through its greatest thinker and orator. As an orator his eloquence has been likened to that of both Bossuet and Vergniaud, but it had neither the polish of the old 17th century bishop nor the flashes of genius of the young Girondin. It was rather parliamentary oratory in which he excelled, and his true compeers are rather Burke and Fox than any French speakers. Personally he had that which is the truest mark of nobility of mind, a power of attracting love and winning faithful friends. (H. M. S.) Authorities. — The best edition of Mirabeau's works is that published by Blanchard in 1819-1822, in ten volumes, of which the first two contain his CEuvres oratoires; from this collection, however, many of his less important works and the De la monarchie prussienne are omitted. For details of his life consult Peuchet, Mirabeau: Memoires sur sa vie litter aire et privee (1824); and the Memoires biographigues, litteraires et politiques de Mirabeau, Merits par lui-mtme, par son pere, son oncle et son fils adoptif, which was issued by his adopted son, Lucas de Montigny (8 vols., Paris, 1834-1835). See also Etienne Dumont, Souvenirs sur Mirabeau (1832), a work which has been translated into English by Lady E. R. Seymour as The Great Frenchman and the Little Genevese (1904); Louise Colet, La Jeunesse de Mirabeau (1841); and Alfred Begis, Mirabeau, son interdiction judiciaire (1895). The publica- tion of the Correspondence entre Mirabeau et le comte de la Marck, by A. de Bacourt (2 vols., 1851) marks an epoch in our exact knowledge of Mirabeau and his career; some additional letters appeared in the German edition (3 vols., Leipzig, 1851-1852). Other published correspondence is Lettres de Mirabeau a Chamfort (1796); Lettres du comte de Mirabeau a Jacques Mauvillon (Bruns- wick, 1792); Lettres originates de Mirabeau, icrites du donjon de Vincennes, 1777-1780, published by L. P. Manuel (4 vols., 1792); and, on the same subject, Paul Cottin, Sophie de Monnier et Mirabeau d'apres leur correspondence inedite (1903) ; Lettres d, Julie, edited by D. Meunier and G. Selois (Paris, 1903) ; Lettres inedites (1806), edited by J. F. Vitry. The Hisloire secrete forms the basis of H. Welschin- ger's La Mission secrete de Mirabeau d, Berlin (Paris, 1900). The most useful modern books are Louis and Charles de Lomenie, Les Mirabeau (5 vols., 1878 and 1889); Alfred Stern, Das Leben Mirabeaus (1889). See also E. Rousse, Mirabeau (1891) in the Grands Ecrivains Francais series ; P. Plan, Un Collaborateur de Mira- beau (Paris, 1874), treating of Reybaz and throwing infinite light on Mirabeau's mode of work; and H. Reynald, Mirabeau et la constitu- ante (1873). On his eloquence and the share his collaborators had in his speeches see F. A. Aulard, Orateurs de Vassemblee constituante (1882). For his death see the curious brochure of his physician, Cabanis, Journal de la maladie et de la mart de Mirabeau (Paris, 1791, ed. H. Duchenne, Paris, 1890). There is a good sketch sum- marizing modern opinion by E. Charavay in La Grande Bncyclopedie. English works include P. F. Willert, Mirabeau (1898) in the " Foreign Statesman" series; C. F. ; Warwick, Mirabeau and the French Revolution (1905) ; W. R. H. Trowbridge, Mirabeau, the demi-god (1907) ; H. E. von Hoist, The French Revolution Tested by Mirabeau's Career (Chicago, 1894); and F. Fling, Mirabeau and the French Revolution (London and New York, 1908). Other works are Victor Hugo, TLtude sur Mirabeau (1834); Jules Barni, Mirabeau (1882); Albert Sorel, " Mirabeau " in Essais d'histoire et de critique (1883) ; G. Leloir, Mirabeau a Pontarlier (1886); Ferdinand Schwartz, Mirabeau und Marie Antoinette (Basel, 1891) ; and Alfred Mezieres, Vie de Mirabeau (1892). MIRABEAU, VICTOR RIQUETI, Marquis de (1715-1789), French author and political economist, father of the great Mirabeau, was born at Pertuis, near the old chateau de Mirabeau, on the 4th of October 1715. He was brought up very sternly by his father, and in 1728 joined the army. He took keenly to campaigning, but never rose above the rank of captain, owing to his being unable to get leave at court to buy a regiment. In 1737 he came into the family property on his father's death, and spent some pleasant years till 1743 in literary companionship with due Clapiers, marquis de Vauvenargues and the poet Lefranc de Pompignan, which might have continued had he not deter- mined to marry — not for money, but for landed estates. The lady whose property he fancied was Marie Genevieve, daughter of a M. de Vassan, a brigadier in the army, and widow of the marquis de Saulveboef, whom he married without previously seeing her on the 21st of April 1743. While in garrison at Bordeaux Mirabeau had made the acquaintance of Montesquieu, and after retiring from the army he wrote his first work, his Testament Politique (17 47), which demanded for the prosperity of France a return of the French noblesse to their old position in the middle ages. This work was followed in 1750 by a book on the Utiliti des Stats provenciaux, which was attributed to Montesquieu himself. In 1756 Mirabeau made his first appearance as a political economist by the publication of his Ami des hommes cu traite de la population. This work has been often attributed to the influence, and in part even to the pen, of Quesnay, the founder of the economical school of the physiocrats, but was really written before the marquis had made the acquaintance of the physician of Madame de Pompadour. In 1 760 he published his Thiorie de I'impdt, in which he attacked with all the vehemence of his son the farmers-general of the taxes, who got him imprisoned for eight days at Vincennes, and then exiled to his country estate at Bignon. At Bignon the school of the physiocrats was really established, and the marquis in 1765 bought the Journal de F agriculture, du commerce, et des finances, which became the organ of the school. He was recognized as a leader of political thinkers by Prince Leopold of Tuscany, afterwards emperor, and by Gustavus III. of Sweden, who in 1772 sent him the grand cross of the order of Vasa. But his marriage had not been happy; he had separated from his wife in 1762, and had, he believed, secured her safely in the provinces by a lettre de cachet, when in 1772 she suddenly appeared in Paris, and commenced proceedings for a separation. One of his own daughters had encouraged his wife to take this step. He was determined to keep the case quiet, if possible, for the sake of Mme de Pailly, a Swiss lady whom he had loved since 1756. But his wife would not let him rest; her plea was rejected in 1777, but she renewed her suit, and, though the great Mirabeau had pleaded his father's case, was successful in 1781. This trial quite broke the health of the marquis, as well as his fortune; he sold his estate at Bignon, and hired a house at Argenteuil, where he lived quietly till his death on the nth of July 1789. The marquis's younger brother, Jean Antoine Riqueti, " the bailli " (d. 1794), served with distinction in the navy, but his brusque manners made success at court impossible. In 1763 he became general of the galleys of Malta. In 1767 he returned to France and took charge of the chateau de Mirabeau, helping the marquis in his disastrous lawsuits. See Louis de Lomenie's Les Mirabeau (2 vols., 1879). Also Henri Ripert, Le Marquis de Mirabeau, ses theories politiques et economiques, [these pour le doctorat] Paris (1901); Oncken, Der altere Mirabeau und die pekonomische Gesellschaft in Bern (Berne, 1886) ; De Lavergne, Les Economistes francais du 18"" siecle. MIRACLE (Lat. miraculum, from mirari, to wonder), anything wonderful, beyond human power, and deviating from the common action of the laws of nature, a supernatural event. The term is particularly associated with the supernatural factors in Christianity. To the Lat. miraculum correspond Gr. r&pas in the New Testament, and Heb. n^b (Exod. xv. 11; Dan. xii. 6) in the Old Testament. Other terms used in the New Testament are 8vva/ju.s " with reference to the power residing in the miracle worker " (cf . nrps Deut. iii. 24 and rona Num. xvi. 30), and crjixtiov " with reference to the character or claims of which it was the witness and guar- antee " (cf. ni'K Exod. iv. 8) ; t]jat the power is assumed to be from God is shown by the phrases irvevnari deov (Matt. xii. 28; cf. Luke iv. 18) and 8o.ktv\c^ deov (Luke xi. 20). While Augustine describes miracles as " contra naturam quae nobis est nota," Aquinas without qualification defines them as " praeter naturam," " supra et contra naturam." Loscher affirms in regard to miracles that " solus Deus potest turn supra naturae vires turn contra naturae leges agere " ; and Buddaeus argues that in them a " suspensio legum naturae " is followed by a restitutio. Against the common view that miracles can attest the truth of a divine revelation Gerhard maintained that " per miracula non possunt probari oracula " ; and Hopfner returns to the qualified position of Augustine when he describes them as " praeter et supra naturae ordinem." The two conceptions, once common in the Chris- tian church, that on the one hand miracles involved an interference with the forces and a suspension of the laws of nature, and that, on the other hand, as this could be effected only by divine power, they served as credentials of a divine revelation, are now generally abandoned. As regards the first point, it is now generally held that miracles are exceptions to the order of nature as known in our common experience; and as regards the second, that miracles are constituent elements in the divine revelation, deeds which display MIRACLE 57i the divine character and purpose ; but they are signs and not merely seals of truth. Some of the theories regarding miracles which have been formulated may be mentioned. Bonnet, Euler, Haller, ochmid and others " suppose miracles to be already implanted in aature. The miraculous germs always exist alongside other germs in a sort of sheath, like hidden springs in a machine, and emerge into the light when their time comes." Similar is the view of Paracelsus and Jerome Cardan, who " suppose a twofold world, existing one in the other; beside or behind the visible is an inner, ideal world, which breaks through in particular spots " (Dorner's System of Christian Doctrine, [ii. 155, 156). The 8th duke of Argyll (Reign of Law) maintains that " miracles may be wrought by the selection and use of laws of which man knows and can know nothing, and which, if he did know, he could not employ." These theories endeavour to discover the means by which the exceptional occurrence is brought about; but the explanation is merely hypothetical, and we are not helped in conceiving the mode of the divine activity in the working of miracles. The important consideration from the religious standpoint is that God's activity should be fully recognized. An attempt has been made to discover a natural law which will explain some at least of the miracles of Jesus. " In one respect alone," says Matthew Arnold, " have the miracles recorded by the evangelists a more real ground than the mass of miracles of which we have the relation. Medical science has never gauged, perhaps never enough set itself to gauge the intimate connexion between moral fault and disease. To what extent or in how many cases what is called illness is due to moral springs having been used amiss, whether by being over-used, dr by not being used sufficiently, we hardly at all know, and we too little inquire. Certainly it is due to this very much more than we commonly think, and the more it is due to this the more do moral therapeutics rise in possibility and importance " (Literature and Dogma, pp. 143-144). The moral therapeutics consists in the influence of a powerful will over others. Harnack accepts this view. " We see that a firm will and a con- vinced faith act even on the bodily life and cause appearances which appeal to us as miracles. Who has hitherto here with cer- tainty measured the realm of the possible and the real? Nobody. Who can say how far the influences of one soul on another soul and of the soul on the body reach? Nobody. Who can still affirm that all which in this realm appears as striking rests only on deception and error? Certainly no miracles occur, but there is enough of the wonderful and the inexplicable " (Das Wesen des Christentums, p. 18). As regards the theory, it may be pointed out: (1) that the nature or cosmical miracles — feeding of the five thou- sand, stilling of the storm, withering of the fig-tree — are as well- attested as the miracles of healing; (2) that many of the diseases, the cure of which is reported, are of a kind with which moral thera- peutics could not effect anything; l (3) that Christ's own insight regarding the power by which He wrought His works is directly challenged by this explanation, for He never failed to ascribe His power to the Father dwelling in Him. The divine agency is recognized as combining and controlling, but not as producing, in the teleological notion of miracles. " In miracle no new powers, instituted or stimulated by God's creative action, are at work, but merely the general order of nature "; but " the manifold physical and spiritual powers in actual existence so blend together as to produce a startling result " (Dorner's System of Christian Doctrine, ii. 157). While we cannot deny, we have no ground for affirming the truth of this theory. Whether God's action is creative, or only [selective and directive in miracles, is beyond our knowledge; we at least do not know the powers exercised, whether new or old. An attempt is made to get rid of the distinctive nature of miracle when the exceptionalness of the events so regarded is reduced to a new subjective mode of regarding natural phenomena. H. E. G. Paulus dismisses the miracles as " exaggerations or misappre- hensions of quite ordinary events." A. Ritschl has been unjustly charged with this treatment of miracles. But what he emphasizes is on the one hand the close connexion between the conception of miracles and the belief in divine providence, and on the other the compatibility between miracles and the order of nature. He de- clines to regard miracles as divine action contrary to the laws of nature. So for Schleiermacher "miracle is neither explicable from nature alone, nor entirely alien to it." What both Ritschl and Schleiermacher insist on is that the belief in miracles is inseparable from the belief in God, and in God as immanent in nature, not only directing and controlling its existent forces, but also as initiating new stages consistent with the old in its progressive development. We may accept Dorner's definition as adequate and satisfactory. " Miracles are sensuously cognizable events, not comprehensible on the ground of the causality of nature as such, but essentially on the ground of God's free action alone. Such facts find their possi- bility in the constitution of nature and God's living relation to it, their necessity in the aim of revelation, which they subserve " (p. 161). By the first clause, inward moral and religious changes due to the operation of the Spirit of God in man are excluded, and 1 See also R. J. Ryle, " The Neurotic Theory of the Miracles of Healing," Hibbert Journal, v. 586. rightly so (see Inspiration). The negative aspect is presented in the second clause. This is prominent in J. S. Mill's definition of miracles: " to constitute a miracle, a phenomenon must take place without having been preceded by any antecedent phenomenal conditions sufficient again to reproduce it. . . . The test of a miracle is, were there present in the case such external conditions, such second causes we may call them, that wherever these conditions or causes reappear the event will be reproduced. If there were, it is not a miracle; if there were not, it is" (Essays, p. 224). The positive aspect is presented in the third clause. When the existence of God is denied (atheism), or His nature is declared unknowable (agnosticism), or He is identified with nature itself (pantheism), or He is so distinguished from the world that His free action is excluded from the course of nature (deism), miracle is necessarily denied. Thus Spinoza, identifying God and nature, declares " nothing happens in nature which is in contradiction with its universal laws." The deists, compelled by their view of the relation of God to nature to regard miracles as interventions, disposed of the miracles of the Bible either as " mistaken allegory " or even as conscious fraud on^the part of the narrators. It is only the theistic view of God as personal power — that is as free-wil! ever present and ever active in the world, which leaves room for miracles. The possibility of miracles is often confidently denied. " We are of the unalterable conviction," says Harnack, " that what happens in time and space is subject to the universal laws of move- ment; that accordingly there cannot be any miracles in this sense, i.e. as interruptions of the continuity of nature " (Das Wesen des Christentums, p. 17). Huxley expresses himself much more cau- tiously, as he recognizes that we do not know the continuity of nature so thoroughly as to be able to declare that this or that event is necessarily an interruption of it. " If a dead man did come to life, the'fact would be evidence, not that any law of nature had been violated, but that these laws, even when they express the results of a very long and uniform experience, are necessarily based on incomplete knowledge, and are to be held only on grounds of more or less justifiable expectation " (Hume, p. 135). Lotze has shown how the possibility of miracle can be conceived. " The whole course of nature becomes intelligible only by sup- posing the co-working of God, who alone carries forward the reci- procal action of the different parts of the world. But that view which admits a life of God that is not benumbed in an unchangeable sameness will be able to understand his eternal co-working as a variable quantity, the transforming influence of which comes forth at particular moments and attests that the course of nature is not shut up within itself. And this being the case, the complete con- ditioning causes of the miracle will be found in God and nature together, and in that eternal action and reaction between them which perhaps, although not ordered simply according to general laws, is not void of regulative principles. This vital, as opposed to a mechanical, constitution of nature, together with the con- ceptions of nature as not complete in itself — as if it were dissevered from the divine energy — shows how a miracle may take place without any disturbance elsewhere of the constancy of nature, all whose forces are affected sympathetically, with the consequence that its orderly movement goes on unhindered " (Mikrokosmos, iii. 364). The mode of the divine working in nature is in another passage more clearly defined. " The closed and -hard circle of mechanical necessity is not immediately accessible to the miracle-working fiat, nor does it need to be; but the inner nature of that which obeys its laws is not determined by it but by the meaning of the world. This is the open place on which a power that commands in the name of this meaning can exert its influence; and if under this command the inner condition of the elements, the magnitudes of their relation and their opposition to each other, become altered, the necessity of the mechanical cause of the world must unfold this new state into a miraculous appearance, not through suspension but through strict maintenance of its general laws " (op. cit. ii. 54). If we conceive God as personal, and His will as related to the course of nature analogously to the relation of the human will to the human body_, then the laws of nature may be regarded as habits of the divine activity, and miracles as unusual acts which, while consistent with the divine character, mark a new stage in the fulfilment of the purpose of God. The doctrine of Evolution, instead of increasing the difficulty of conceiving the possibility of miracle, decreases it; for it presents to us the universe as an uncompleted process, and one in which there is no absolute continuity on the phenomenal side; for life and mind are inexplicable by their physical antecedents, and there is not only room for, but need of, the divine initiative, a creative as well as conservative co-operation of God with nature. Such an absolute continuity is sometimes assumed without warrant; but Descartes already recognized that the world was no continuous process, " Tria mirabilia fecit Dpminus; res ex nihilo, liberum arbitrium et hominem Deum." That life cannot be explained by force is recognized by Sir Oliver Lodge. " Life may be something not only ultra-terrestrial, but even immaterial, something outside our present categories of matter and energy; as real as they are, but 572 MIRA DE AMESCUA, A. different, and utilizing them for its own purpose " {Life and Matter, p. 198). The theory of psychophysical parallelism recognizes that while there is a correspondence between mental and material phenomena, changes in the mind and changes in the brain, the former cannot be explained by the latter, as the transition from the one to the other is unthinkable. William James distinguishes the transmissive function of the brain from the productive in relation to thought, and admits only the former, and not the latter (Human Immortality, p. 32). Thus as life is transcendent and yet immanent in body, and mind in brain, and both utilize their organs, so God, transcendent and immanent, uses the course of nature for His own ends; and the emergence both of life and mind in that course of nature evidences such a divine initiative as is assumed in the recognition of the possibility of miracles. For such an initiative there must be adequate reason ; it must be prepared for in the previous process, and it must be necessary to further progress. The proof of the possibility of miracle leads us inevitably to the inquiry regarding the necessity of miracle. The necessity of miracles is displayed in their connexion with the divine revelation; but this connexion may be conceived in two ways. The miracles may be regarded as the credentials of "the agents of divine revelation. "It is an acknowledged historical fact," says Butler, " that Christianity offered itself to the world, and demanded to be received, upon the allegation — i.e. as unbelievers would speak — upon the pretence of miracles, publicly wrought to attest the truth of it, in such' an age ; and that it was actually received by great numbers in that very age, and upon the professed belief of the reality of miracles ' (Analogy, part ii. ch. vii.). This view is now generally abandoned, for it is recognized that acts of superhuman power, even if established by adequate historical evidence, do not necessarily certify their divine origin. Their moral quality must correspond with the character of God; and they must be connected with teaching which to reason and conscience approves itself divine. " Miracula sine doctrina nihil valent " is the principle now generally recog- nized. The miracle and the doctrine mutually illuminate one another. " Les miracles discernent la doctrine, et la doctrine discerne les miracles " (Pascal's Pensees des miracles). Accordingly, the credentials must also be constituents of the revelation. Of the miracles of Jesus, Bushnell says, " The character of Jesus is ever shining with and through them, in clear self -evidence leaving them never to stand as raw wonders only of might, but covering them with glory as tokens of a heavenly love, and acts that only suit the proportions of His personal greatness and majesty " (Nature and the Supernatural, p. 364). If it be asked why the character may not be displayed in ordinary acts instead of miracles, the answer may be given, "Miracle is the certificate of identity between the Lord of Nature and the Lord of Conscience— the proof that He is really a moral being who subordinates physical to moral interests" (Lidden's Elements of Religion, p. 73). As God is the Saviour, and the chief end of the revelation is redemption, it is fitting that the miracles should be acts of divine deliverance from physical evil. This congruity of the miracle with divine truth and grace is the answer to Matthew Arnold's taunt about turning a pen into a pen-wiper or Huxley's about a centaur trotting down Regent Street. The miracles of Jesus — the relief of need, the removal of suffering, the recovery of health and strength — reveal in outward events the essential features of His divine mission. The divine wisdom and goodness are revealed in the course of nature, but also obscured by it. The existence of physical evil, and still more of moral evil, forbids the assumption without qualification that the real is the rational. God in nature as well as history is fulfilling a redemptive as well as perfective purpose, of which these miracles are appropriate signs. It is an unwarranted idealism and optimism which finds the course of nature so wise and so good that any change in it must be regarded as incredible. On the problem of evil and sin it is impossible here to enter; but this must be insisted on, that the miracles of Jesus at least express divine benevolence just under those conditions in which the course of nature obscures it, and are therefore, proper elements in a revelation of grace, of which nature cannot give any evidence. Having discussed the possibility and necessity of miracles for the divine revelation, we must now consider whether there _ is sufficient historical evidence for their occurrence. Hume maintains that no evidence, such as is available, can make a miracle credible. Mill states the position with due care. " The question can be stated fairly as depending on a balance of evidence, a certain amount of positive evidence in favour of miracles, and a negative presumption from the general course of human experience against them " (Essays on Religion, p. 221). The existence of " a certain amount of positive evidence in favour of miracles " forbids the sweeping statement that miracles are " contrary to experience." The phrase itself is, as Paley has pointed out, ambiguous. If it means all experience it assumes the point to be proved ; if it means only common experience then it simply asserts that the miracle is unusual — a truism. The probability of miracles depends on the conception we have of the free relation of God to nature, and of nature as the adequate organ for the fulfilment of God's purposes. If we believe in a divine revelation and redemption, transcending the course of nature, the miracles as signs of that divine purpose will not seem improbable. For the Christian Church the miracles of Jesus are of primary importance; and the evidence — external and internal— in their favour may be said to be sufficient to justify belief. The Gospels assumed their present form between a.d. 60 and 90. Their repre- sentation of the moral character, the religious consciousness, the teaching of Jesus, inspires confidence. The narratives of miracles are woven into the very texture of this representation. In these acts Jesus reveals Himself as Saviour. " The Jesus Christ pre- sented to us in the New Testament would become a very different person if the miracles were removed " (Temple's Relations between Religion and Science). In His sinless perfection and filial relation to God He is unique, and His works are congruous with His Person. Of the supreme miracle of His resurrection there is earlier evidence than of any of the others (1 Cor. xv. 3-7, before A.D. 58). His con- quest of death is most frequently appealed to in the apostolic teaching. The Christian Church would never have come into existence without faith in the Risen Lord. The proof of the supernaturalness of His Person sets the seal to the credibility of His supernatural works. In Christ, however, was the fulfilment of law and prophecy. This close connexion invests the antecedent revelation in some degree with the supernaturalness of His Person: at least, we are prepared to entertain without prejudice any evidence that may be presented in the Old Testament. That this evidence is not as good as that for the miracles of Jesus must be conceded, as much of it is of much later date than the events recorded. The miracles connected with the beginnings of the national history — the period of the Exodus — appear on closer inspection to have been ordinarily natural phenomena, to which a supernatural character was given by their connexion with the prophetic word of Moses. The miracles recorded of Elijah and Elisha lie somewhat apart from the main currents of the history, the narratives themselves are distinct from the historical works in which they have been in- corporated, and the character of some of the actions raises serious doubts and difficulties. In some cases suspense of judgment seems necessary even from the standpoint of Christian faith. The supernatural element that is prominent in the Old Testament is God's providential guidance and guardianship of His people, and His teaching and training of them by His prophets. The Apostolic miracles, to which the New Testament bears evidence, were wrought in the power of Christ, and were evidences to His church and to the world of His continued presence. When the Church had estab- lished itself in the world, and possessed in its moral and religious fruits evidence of its claims, these outward signs appear gradually to have ceased, although attempts were made to perpetuate them. It is true that in Roman Catholicism, in medieval as in modern times, the working of miracles has been ascribed to its saints; but the character of most of these miracles is such as to lack the o priori probability which has been claimed for the Scripture miracles on account of their connexion and congruity with the divine revela- tion. The a posteriori evidence as regards both its moral and religious quality and its date is altogether inferior to the evidence of the Gospels. Further, these records are imitative. As Christ and the apostles worked miracles, it is assumed that those who in the Church were distinguished for their sanctity would also work miracles; and there can be little doubt that the wish was often father to the thought. There may be cases which cannot be ex- plained in this way; but " whatever may be thought about them, it is plain that even if these and their like are really to be traced to the intervention of the divine mercy which loves to reward a simple faith (and it does not seem to us that the evidence is sufficient to establish such a conclusion), yet they do not serve as vehicles of revelation as the miracles of the Gospel did " (H. J. Bernard in Hastings's Bible, Dictionary, hi. 395). (A. E. G.*) MIRA, DE AMESCUA, ANTONIO (1578 7-1636 ?), Spanish dramatist, was born at Guadix (Granada) about 1578. He is said, but doubtfully, to have been the illegitimate son of one Juana Perez; he took orders, obtained a canonry at Guadix, and settled at Madrid early in the 17th century. He is mentioned as a prominent dramatist in Rojas Villandrando's Loa (1603), which v/as written several years before it was published. In 1 6 10, being then arch-dean of Guadix, he accompanied the count de Lemos to Naples, and on his return to Spain was appointed (1619) chaplain to the cardinal Infante Ferdinand of Austria; he is referred to as still alive in Montalban's Para todos (1632), and he collaborated with Montalban and Calderon in Polifemo y Circe, printed in 1634. The date of his death is not known. Mira de Amescua's plays are dispersed in various printed collections, and the absence of a satisfactory edition has pre- vented his due recognition. He has an evenness of execution which indicates an artistic conscience uncommon in Spanish playwrights; he resisted the temptation to write too much, and he unites a virile dignity of expression to impressive conception of character. Two of his plays — La Adversa fortuna de Don Bernado de Cabrera MIRAGE— MIRANDA 573 and El ejemplo mayor de la desdicha—axe respectively the sources of Rotrou's Don Bernardo de la Cabrere and Belisaire ; Moreto's Caer para levantar is simply a recast of Mira's El Esclavo del demonio, a celebrated drama which clearly influenced Calder6n when com- posing La Devocion de la cruz; and there is manifestly a close relation between Mira's La Rueda de la fortuna on the one hand and Corneille's Heraclius and Calderon's En esta vida todo es verdad y todo es mentira. A few of Mira de Amescua's plays are reprinted in the Biblioteca de autores espanoles, vol. xlv. MIRAGE (a French word, from mirer, to look at, se mirer, to be reflected), an optical illusion due to variations in the refractive index of the atmosphere. It embraces the phenomena of the visionary appearance of lakes in arid deserts, the images of ships and icebergs, frequently seen as if inverted and suspended in the atmosphere in the Polar Regions, the Fata Morgana, and " looming " as witnessed in mists or fogs. In the article Refraction it is shown that a ray of light traversing a homogeneous medium is deviated from its rectilinear path when it enters a medium of different refractive index; it is therefore readily seen that the path of a ray through con- tinuously varying media is necessarily curvilinear, being com- pounded of an infinite number of infinitesimally small rectilinear deviations. Our atmosphere is a medium of continuously vary- ing refractive index. Meteorological optical phenomena, due to variations in the refractive index of the atmosphere, may be divided into groups: (i) those due to the permanent or normal variation experienced as one ascends in the atmosphere, and (2) those due to sporadic variations occasioned by irregular heating. The first variation must be taken into account in correcting geodetic observations of heights and astronomical observations of the heavenly bodies; it also has a considerable bearing on the phenomena of the twilight and the afterglow (see Refraction: § Astronomical; and Twilight). The second (or temperature) variation gives rise to phenomena which we proceed to discuss. A common type of mirage is the appearance of an isolated lake frequently seen in hot sandy deserts, as in the Sahara, Turkestan, &c. The explanation is as follows: The sand, being abnormally heated by the solar rays, causes the neighbour- ing air to expand, consequently its density, and therefore its refractive index, is diminished, and attains a minimum value in the lowest layers. It increases as we ascend and reaches a maximum at a certain height, and then decreases according to the normal variation. Any object viewed across such an area is seen by two sets of rays: one set passing near the earth and assuming a curved path convex to the horizon, the second set more remote from the earth and concave to the horizon. The object thus appears double, an image being seen mirrored in the sand. The sky appears as a shining lake; mountains or palms may be similarly reflected, but it is to be noted that the images are inverted (see fig.). Similar atmospheric conditions sometimes prevail in the air over large, bodies of water on cold autumn mornings. These phenomena have been experimentally realized by R. W. Wood (Phil. Mag., 1899, vol. xlvii.), who viewed objects over a series of heated slate slabs. Another type of mirage, frequently observed at sea in the northern latitudes, is presented in the appearance of ships and icebergs as if inverted and suspended in the clouds. This is due to a stratum of hot air at some distance above the sea level, the rays of light near the horizon being practically hori- zontal, while those at greater elevations are fairly concave. It may happen that the change in density is so great that only the upper rays reach the eye; we are then met with the curious illusion of seeing inverted ships in the clouds, although nothing is visible on the ocean. The Fata Morgana, frequently seen in the Straits of Messina, consists of an apparent vertical elongation of an object situated on the opposite shore. The distribution of density is similar to that attending a desert mirage, but the transition is not so abrupt. The object is really viewed through a horizontally stratified medium consisting of a central sheet of maximum refractive index, over- and under-laid by sheets of decreasing refractive power. The system consequently acts as a continuous lens, magnifying the object in a vertical direction. If, in addition to this horizontal stratification, the atmosphere varies similarly in vertical planes, then the object would be magnified both horizontally and vertically. These conditions sometimes prevail in misty or foggy weather, more particularly at sea, and thus give rise to the phenomena known as " looming." A famous example is the Brockengespenst or " spectre of the Brocken." The chromatic halos which frequently encircle these images are due to diffraction. (See Corona.) It is interesting to note that lenses formed on non-homogeneous material, having the maximum refractive index along the central axis, have been prepared, and reproduce the effects caused by abnormal distribution of the density of the atmosphere. The mathematical investigation of this subject was worked out by Gaspard Monge. For this aspect and further details, both descriptive and experimental, see J. Pernter, Meteorologische Optik (1906); E. Mascart, Traite d'optique (1899-1903); R. W. Wood, Physical Optics (1905) ; R. S. Heath, Geometrical Optics. MIRAJ, a native state of India, in the Deccan division of Bombay, forming part of the southern Mahratta Jagirs. Since 1820 it has been subdivided between a senior and a junior branch. The territory of both is widely scattered among other native states and British districts. Area of the senior branch, 339 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 81,467; revenue £23,000; tribute £800. Area of the junior branch, 211 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 35,806; revenue £27,000, tribute £400. The chiefs are Brahmans of the Patwardhan family. The town of Miraj, at which the chief of the senior branch resides, is situated near the river Kistna; it is a junction of the Southern Mahratta rail- way for the branch to Kolhapur. Pop. (1901), 18,425. The chief of the junior branch has his residence at Bhudgaon (pop. 359i)- MIRAMON, MIGUEL (1832-1867), Mexican soldier of French extraction, was born in the city of Mexico, on the 29th of Septem- ber 1832, and shot with the Emperor Maximilian at Queretaro on the 19th of June 1867. While still a student he helped to defend the military academy at Chapultepec against the forces of the United States; and, entering the army in 1852, he rapidly came to the front during the civil wars. It was largely due to Miramon's support of the ecclesiastical party against Alvarez and Comonfort that Zuloaga was raised to the presidency; and in 1859 he was called to succeed him in that office. Decisively beaten by the Liberals in i860, he spent some time in Europe advocating foreign intervention in Mexican affairs; and returned as a partisan of Maximilian. His ability as a soldier was shown by his double defence of Puebla in 1856. MIRANDA, FRANCESCO (c. 1754-1816), Spanish-American soldier and adventurer, was born at Caracas, Venezuela, about 1754. He entered the army, and served with the French in the American War of Independence. The success of that war inspired him with a belief that the independence of Spanish America would increase its prosperity. He began to scheme a revolution, but was discovered and had only just time to escape to the United States. Thence he went to England, where he was introduced to Pitt, but chiefly lived with the leading members of the opposition — Fox, Sheridan and Romilly. Finding no help, he travelled through Austria and Turkey to Russia, where he was warmly received, but was dismissed with rich presents, at the demand of the Spanish ambassador, backed up by France. The news of the dispute between England and Spain about Nootka Sound in 1790 recalled him to England, where he saw a good deal of Pitt, but the peaceful arrangement of the dispute again destroyed his hopes. In April 1792 he went to Paris,- with introductions to Petion and the leading Girondists, hoping for aid in South America. France had too much to do to help others; but Miranda's friends sent him to the front as general of brigade. He distinguished himself under Dumouriez, was entrusted in February 1793 with the siege of Maestricht, and commanded the left wing of the French army at the disastrous 574 MIRANDE— MIRKHOND battle of Neerwinden. Although he had given notice of Dumou- riez's treachery, he was put on his trial on the 12th of May, unanimously acquitted, but again imprisoned, and not released till after the 9th Thermidor. He was sentenced to be deported after the struggle of Vendemiaire, yet he continued in Paris till the coup d'etat of Fructidor caused him to take refuge in England. He now found Pitt and Dundas ready to listen, but, as neither of them would or could give him substantial help, he went to the United States, where President Adams only gave him fair words. Addington might have done something for him but for the peace of Amiens in 1802. Though in no way amnestied, he returned to Paris, but was expelled by the First Consul, who was eager to be on good terms with Spain. Disappointed in England and the United States, he decided to make an attempt at his own expense. Aided by two American citizens, Colonel W. S. Smith and Mr S. G. Ogden, he equipped the " Leander," in 1806, and with the help of the English admiral Sir A. Cochrane made a landing near Caracas, and proclaimed the Colombian republic. He had some success, but a false report of peace between France and England caused the English admiral to withdraw his support. At last, in 18 10, the events in Spain which brought about the Peninsular War had divided the authorities in Spanish America, some of whom declared for Joseph Bonaparte, others for Ferdinand VII., others for Charles IV., and Miranda again landed, and got a large party together who declared a republic both in Venezuela and New Granada or Colombia. But Miranda's desire — that all the South American colonies should form a federal republic — awoke the selfishness of provincial administrations, and the cause was believed to be hateful to heaven owing to a great earthquake on the 26th of March 181 2. The count of Monte Verde, the Bourbon governor, had little difficulty in defeating Miranda, and on the 26th of July the general capitulated on condition that he should be deported to the United States. The condition was not observed; Miranda was moved from dungeon to dungeon, and died on the 14th of July 1816 at Cadiz. There are allusions to Miranda's early life in nearly all memoirs of the time, but they are not generally very accurate. For his trial see Buchez et Roux, Histoire parlementaire, xxvii. 26-70. For his later life see J. Biggs, History of Miranda's Attempt in South America (London, 1809); and Veggasi, Revolution de la Colombia. Prof. William S. Robertson has recently devoted considerable research in the Spanish archives and elsewhere to Miranda, his monograph on F. de M. and the revolutionizing of Spanish America being awarded a prize of the American Historical Association in 1908. See also Marques de Rojas, El General Miranda (Paris, 1884), and his Miranda dans la revolution francaise (Caracas, 1889); and R. Becerra, Ensayo hislorico documentado de la vida de Don F. de M. (Caracas. 1896). MIRANDE, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Gers, on the left bank of the Grande Baise, 17 m. S.S.W. of Auch by the Southern railway. Pop. (1906), 2368. Mirande is laid out on the uniform plan typical of the bastide. Its church, built at the beginning of the 15th century, is chiefly remarkable for its porch which bestrides the Rue de l'Eveche and is surmounted by two flying buttresses supporting a belfry of Flemish appearance. The remains of ramparts are still to be seen and the principal street is bordered by ancient arcades. The town has a sub-prefecture and a tribunal of first instance. The trade is in live-stock and agricultural products. Tanning and wood-turning are carried on. Mirande was founded in 1286 by the monks of Berdones and the seneschal of Toulouse acting on behalf of Philip IV. During the 14th century it was the capital of the counts of Astarac. MIRANDOLA, a town of Emilia, Italy, in the province of Modena, 195 m. N. by E. of it by rail, 59 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 15,162 The Palazzo del Commune is a 15th- century edifice of Gothic style. The castle of the Pico family, who held the town from the 14th century to 1710, when the last member was deprived of his dominions by Joseph I. of Austria, is almost entirely destroyed. The height of the fortunes of this family was from about 1450 to 1550, Giovanni (b. 1463, d. 1494) being its ablest and most learned member (see Pico). The cathedral, dating from the end of the 16th century, has been restored S. Francesco is a fine Gothic church. MIRANZAI VALLEY, or Hangu, a mountain valley on the Kohat border of the North- West Frontier Province of India. Miranzai comprises two valleys draining S.W. into the Kunam and N.E. into the Kohat Toi. It is thus divided into upper and lower Miranzai, and extends from Thai to Raisan, and from the Zaimukht and Orakzai hills to those of the Khattaks. Its length is about 40 m., and its breadth varies from 3 to 7 m. Area, 546 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 43,901. The portion of Miranzai east of Hangu village consists of numerous small and well-cultivated valleys, in which orchard trees flourish abundantly. To the west of Hangu, including the whole of Upper Miranzai, the coun- try is a broad, open, breezy valley. The plain is bare of trees, but the hills are generally covered with scrub. The country is full of ravines towards Thai. The wealth of the inhabitants consists principally in cattle, goats and sheep ; of these the cows are of a lean and dwarf breed, and give but little milk. Miranzai forms the meeting place of many different tribes; but its chief inhabitants are the Bangash and Orakzais. Disturbances have necessitated British expeditions in 1851, 1855, and twice in 1891. MIRBEAU, OCTAVE HENRI MARIE (1850- ), French dramatist and journalist, was born at Trevieres (Calvados) on the 16th of February 1850. He was educated in a Jesuit school dt Vannes, and studied law in Paris. He began his journalistic career as dramatic critic of the Bonapartist paper, L'Ordre. For a short time before 1877 he was sous-prefet and then prejet of Saint-Girons, but from that time he devoted himself to literature. He was one of the earliest defenders of the Impressionist painters. His witty articles in the anti- republican papers, and his attacks on established reputations, involved him in more than one duel. He gradually developed extreme individualist views. In 1890 he began to write for the Revolte, but his anarchist sympathies were definitely checked by the murder of President Carnot in 1894. He was one of the early and consistent defenders of Captain Alfred Dreyfus. He married in 1887 the actress Alice Regnault. His first novel, Jean Marcellin (1885), attracted little attention, but he made his mark as a conteur with a series of tales of the Norman peasantry, Lettres de ma chaumiere (1886). Le Calvaire (1887), a chapter of which on the defeat of 1870 aroused much discussion, was followed by L'Abbi Jules (1888), the story of a mad priest; by Sebastien Roch (1890), a bitter picture of the Jesuit school in which his own early years were spent; Le Jardin des supplices (1899), a Chinese story; Les Memoires d'une femme de chambre (1901); and Les Vingt-et-un jours d'un neurasthinique (1902). In 1897 his five-act piece, Les Mauvais Bergers, was played at the Renaissance by Sarah Bernhardt, and he followed this up with Les Affaires sont les affaires (Theatre Francais, 1903), which was adapted by Sydney Grundy for Sir H. Beerbohm Tree in 1905. Some of his short pieces are collected as Farces et moralites (1904). MIRFIELD, an urban district in the Morley parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 3 m. S.W. of Dewsbury, on the Lancashire & Yorkshire and London & North- Western railways. Pop. (1901), 11,341. The church of St Mary was completed in 1874, from designs of Sir Gilbert Scott. The tower of the ancient church remains. The large industrial population is employed in woollen, cotton, carpet and blanket manufactures, and in the numerous collieries in the vicinity. MIRKHOND (1433-1498). Mohammed bin Khawandshah bin Mahmud, commonly called Mlrkhwand or Mirkhawand, more familiar to Europeans under the name of Mirkhond, was born in 1433, the son of a very pious and learned man who, although belonging to an old Bokhara family of Sayyids, or direct descendants of the Prophet, lived and died in Balkh. From his early youth he applied himself to historical studies and literature in general. In Herat, where he spent the greater part of his life, he gained the favour of that famous patron of letters, Mir 'Alishir (1440-1501), who served his old schoolfellow, the reigning sultan Husain (who as the last of the Timurides in Persia ascended the throne of Herat in 1468), first as keeper of the seal, afterwards as governor of Jurjan. At the request of MIRROR 575 Mir 'Allshlr, himself a distinguished statesman and writer, Mirkhond began about 1474, in the quiet convent of Khilasiyah, which his patron had founded in Herat as a house of retreat for literary men of merit, his great work on universal history, Rauzat-ussafa fi slrat-ulanbia walmuluk walkhulafd or Garden of Purity on the Biography of Prophets, Kings and Caliphs. He made no attempt at a critical examination of historical traditions, and wrote in a flowery and often bombastic style, but in spite of this drawback, Mirkhond's Rauzat remains one of the most marvellous achievements in literature. It comprises seven large volumes and a geographical appendix; but the seventh volume, the history of the sultan Husain (1438-1505), together with a short account of some later events down to 1523, cannot have been written by Mirkhond himself, who died in 1498. He may have compiled the preface, but the main portion of this volume is probably the work of his grandson, the historian Khwandamlr (1475-1534), to whom also a part of the appendix must be ascribed. For accounts of Mirkhond's life see De Sacy's " Notice sur Mirkhond " in his Memoires sur diverses antiquites de la Perse (Paris, 1793); JOurdain's "Notice de l'histoire universelle _ de Mirkhond " in the Notices et extraits, vol. ix. (Paris, 1812); Elliot, History of India, iv. 127 seq. ; Morley, Descriptive Catalogue (London, 1854), p. 30 seq.; Rieu, Cat. of Persian MSS. of the Brit. Mus. (vol. i. London, 1879), p. 87 seq. Besides the lithographed editions of the whole work in folio (Bombay, 1853, and Teheran, 1852- 1856) and a Turkish version (Constantinople, 1842), the following portions of Mirkhond's history have been published by European Orientalists: Early Kings of Persia, by D. Shea (London, 1832) (Oriental Translation Fund) ; L'Histoire de la dynastie des Sassanides, by S. de Sacy (in the above-mentioned MSmoires); Histoire des Sassanides (texte Persari), by Jaubert (Paris, 1843); Historia priorum regum Persarum, Persian and Latin, by Jenish (Vienna, 1782); Mirchondi historia Taheridarum, Persian and Latin, by Mitscherlik (Gottingen, 1814, 2nd ed., Berlin, 1819); Historia Samanidarum, Persian and Latin, by Wilken (Gottingen, 1808); Histoire des Samanides, translated by Defremery (Paris, 1845); Historia Ghaznevidarum, Persian and Latin, by Wilken (Berlin, 1832) ; Geschichte der Sultane aus dem Geschlechte Bujeh, Persian and German, by Wilken (Berlin, 1835); followed by Erdmann's Erlauterung und Ergdnzung (Kazan, 1836); Historia Seldschuckidarum, ed. Vullers (Giessen, 1837); and a German trans, by the same; Histoire des Sultans du Kharezm, in Persian, by Defremery (Paris, 1842) ; History of the A tabeks of Syria and Persia, in Persian, by W. Morley (London, 1848) ; Historia Ghuridarum, Persian and Latin, by Mitscherlik (Frankfort, 1818) ; Histoire des Sultans Ghurides, trans, into French by Defremery (Paris, 1844); Vie de Djenghiz-Khan, in Persian, by Jaubert (Paris, 1841) (see also extracts from the same 5th vol. in French trans, by Langles in vol. vi. of Notices et extraits, Paris, 1799. P- l 9 2 seq.), and by Hammer in Sur les origines russes, St Petersburg, 1825, p. 52 seq.); " Timflr's Expedition against Tukta- mish Khan," Persian and French, by Charmoy, in Memoires de Vacad. imper. de St Petersbourg (1836), pp. 270-321 and 441-471. (H. E.) MIRROR (through O. Fr. mirour, mod. miroir, from a sup- posed Late Lat. miratorium, from mirari, to admire), an optical instrument which produces images of objects by reflection. In its usual forms it is simply a highly polished sheet of metal or of glass (which may or may not be covered, either behind or before, with a metallic film); a metallic mirror is usually termed a speculum. The laws relating to the optical properties of mirrors are treated in the article Reflection of Light. Ancient Mirrors. — The mirror (kotottpov, 'io-awrpov, evowrpov, speculum) of the Etruscans, Greeks and Romans consisted of a thin disk of metal (usually bronze) slightly convex and polished on one side, the other being left plain or having a design incised upon it. A manufactory of mirrors of glass at Sidon is mentioned by Pliny (Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 66, 193), but they appear to have been little used (one has been found at San Remo). Glass mirrors were coated, but with tin; some silver mirrors have also been found. They are said to have been in use as early as the time of Pompey, and were common under the empire. Homer knows nothing of mirrors, but they are frequently mentioned in the tragedians and onwards. The usual size was that of an ordinary hand-mirror, but in imperial times some appear to have been large enough to take in the whole figure (Seneca, Nat. quaest., i. 17, 8), being either fixed to the wall or working up and down like a window sash. The first specimen of a Greek mirror was not discovered till 1867, at Corinth, and the number extant is comparatively small. They are usually provided with a handle, which sometimes took the form of a statuette (especially of Aphrodite) supported on a pedestal, or consist of two metallic circular disks (the " box " mirrors) fitting in to each other, and sometimes fastened together by a hinge. The upper disk or cover was ornamented on the outside with a design in low relief; inside it was polished to reflect the face. The lower disk was decorated inside with engraved figures. The best specimens of both kinds of mirrors date from a little before 400 B.C. and last for some time after that. Of the reliefs, one of the best examples is " Ganymede carried away by the eagle "; amongst the incised mirrors may be mentioned one representing Leucas and Corinthus, inscribed with their names (both the above in Collignon, L'Archeologie grecque, 1907, figs. 212, 213); the Genius of the Cock-fights (Revue arcMologique, new ser. xvii., 1868, PI. 13). A bronze mirror-case, found at Corinth, has attached on the outside a relief representing an Eros with two girls; on the inside is incised a design of a nymph seated on a bench and play- ing with Pan at a game resembling the Italian mora (Classical Review, Feb. 1889, p. 86). On the back of another mirror in the British Museum (Gazette archeologique, ii. PI. 27) is a figure of Eros which has been silvered over. With this was found the bronze case used to contain it, on the back of which is a group of Aphrodite and Eros in repousse. It was found in Crete; but most of the Greek mirrors and mirror-cases having designs are from Corinth. The principal feature of the Etruscan mirrors, the extant examples of which far outnumber the Greek, is the design incised on the back. Belonging chiefly to the 4th and 3rd centuries, they mostly resemble the Greek disk-mirrors in form, box-mirrors being rare. As a rule the subjects incised are taken from Greek mythology and legend (Trojan War, birth of Athena, Aphrodite and Adonis), the names of the persons represented being frequently added in Etruscan letters and orthography (Apul = Apollo, Achle = Achilles, Achmemrum = Agamemnon). Scenes from daily life, the toilet, the bath, the palaestra, also occur. In most cases the style of drawing, the types of the figures, and the manner of composing the groups are true to the characteristics of Greek art. Some may have been imported from Greece, but the greater number appears to have been more or less faithfully imitated from such designs as occurred on the Greek vases which the Etruscans obtained from Greece. Even where distinctly Etruscan figures are introduced, such as the heroes Aelius and Caelius Vibenna on a mirror in the British Museum, Greek models are followed. Although the work is frequently rough and careless, certain very fine and beautiful specimens have been found: the famous Semele-mirror, and the healing of Telephus, in which Achilles is shown scraping the healing rust from the lance with a crescent-shaped knife (Baumeister, Denkmaler, figs. 557, 1774)- Roman mirrors are usually disk-mirrors, the back of the disk, if engraved, being generally ornamented with decorative patterns, not with any subject design. Plain mirrors are found wherever Greek and Roman civiliza- tion spread, and a specimen found in Cornwall (now in the British Museum) shows that the Celtic population of England had adopted the form and substance of the mirror from their con- querors. This specimen is enriched with a Celtic pattern incised. The shape of the handle exhibits native originality. Mirrors were sometimes used in Greece for purposes of divination (Pausanias vii. 21, 5). The mirror was let down into a well by means of a string until it grazed the surface of the water with the rim; after a little while it was pulled up, and when looked into showed the face of the sick person, alive or dead, on whose behalf the ceremony had been performed. This took place at Patrae. See J. J. de Witte, " Les miroirs chez les anciens," in Extrait des annates de I'academie, xxviii. (Antwerp, 1872) ; Mylonas, 'EXXtji'ikA K&ToTrpa. (Athens, 1876); M. Collignon, L'Archeologie grecque (new ed., 1907; Eng. tr. by J. H. Wright, 1886); E. Gerhard, Etruskische Spiegel ( 1 840-1 867), continued by K. Klugmann and G. Korte ( 1 884-1 897); article in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (3rd ed., 1891). (J. H. F.) 576 MIRROR Medieval and Modem Mirrors. — Small metallic mirrors with a highly polished surface were largely used during the middle ages: pocket mirrors or small hand mirrors carried at the girdle being indispensable adjuncts to ladies' toilets. The pocket mirrors consisted of small circular plaques of polished metal, usually steel or silver, fixed in a shallow circular box covered with a lid. Mirror-cases were chiefly made of ivory, carved with relief representations of love or domestic scenes, hunting and games, and sometimes illustrations of popular poetry or ro- mance. Gold and silver, enamels, ebony and other costly materials were likewise used for mirror cases, on which were lavished the highest decorative efforts of art workmanship and costly jewelling. The mirrors worn at the girdle had no cover, but were furnished with a short handle. In 625 Pope Boniface IV. sent Queen Ethelberga of Northumbria a present of a silver mirror; and in early Anglo-Saxon times mirrors were well known in England. It is a remarkable fact that on many of the sculp- tured stones of Scotland, belonging probably to the 7th, 8th or 9th century, representations of mirrors, mirror-cases and combs occur. The method of backing glass with thin sheets of metal for mirrors was well known in the middle ages, at a time when steel and silver mirrors were almost exclusively employed. Vincent of Beauvais, writing about 1 250, says that the mirror of glass and lead is the best of all, " quia vitrum propter transparentiam melius recipit radios " ; and a verre d mirer is mentioned in the inventories of the dukes of Burgundy, dating from the 15th century. A gild of glass-mirror makers existed at Nuremberg in 1373, and small convex mirrors were commonly made in southern Germany before the beginning of the 16th century; and these continued to be in demand, under the name of bull's- eyes (Ochsen-Augen), till comparatively modern times. They were made by blowing small globes' of glass into which while still hot was passed through the pipe a mixture of tin, antimony and resin or tar. When the globe was entirely coated with the metallic compound and cooled it was cut into convex lenses, which formed small but well-defined images. As early as 13 17 a " Magister de Alemania," who knew how to work glass for mirrors, broke an agreement he had made to instruct three Venetians, leaving in their hands a large quantity of mixed alum and soot for which they could find no use. It was, however, in Venice that the making of glass mirrors on a commercial scale was first developed; and the republic enjoyed a much- prized monopoly of the manufacture for about a century and a half. In 1507 two inhabitants of Murano, representing that they possessed the secret of making perfect mirrors of glass, a knowledge hitherto confined to one German glass-house, obtained an exclusive privilege of manufacturing mirrors for a period of twenty years. In 1564 the mirror-makers of Venice, who enjoyed peculiar privileges, formed themselves into a corporation. The products of the Murano glass-houses quickly supplanted the mirrors of polished metal, and a large and lucrative trade in Venetian glass mirrors sprang up. They were made from blown cylinders of glass, which were slit, flattened on a stone, carefully polished, the edges frequently bevelled, and the backs " silvered " by an amalgam. The glass was remarkably pure and uniform, the " silvering " bright, and the sheets sometimes of considerable dimensions. In the inventory of his effects, made on the death of the French minister Colbert, a Venetian mirror, 46 by 26 in., in a silver frame, is valued at 8016 livres, while a picture by Raphael is put down at 3000 livres. The manufacture of glass mirrors, with the aid of Italian workmen, was practised in England by Sir Robert Mansel early in the 17th century, and about 1670 the duke of Buckingham was concerned in glass-works at Lambeth where flint glass was made for looking-glasses. These old English mirrors, with bevelled edges in the Venetian fashion, are still well known. The Venetians guarded with the utmost jealousy the secrets of their manufactures, and gave exceptional privileges to those engaged in such industries. By their statutes any glass-maker carrying his art into a foreign state was ordered to return on the pain of imprisonment of his nearest relatives, and should he disobey the command emissaries were delegated to slay him. In face of such a statute Colbert attempted in 1664 to get Venetian artists transported to France to develop the two great industries of mirror-making and point-lace working. The ambassador, the bishop of Beziers, pointed out that this was to court the risk of being thrown into the Adriatic, and, further, that Venice was selling to France mirrors to the value of 100,000 crowns and lace to three or four times that value. Nevertheless, twenty Venetian glass-mirror makers were sent to France in 1665, and the manu- facture was begun in the Faubourg St Antoine, Paris. But previous to this the art of blowing glass for mirrors had been practised at Tour-la- Ville, near Cherbourg, by Richard Lucas, Sieur de Nehou, in 1653; and by the subsequent combination of skill of both establishments French mirrors soon excelled in quality those of Venice. The art received a new impulse in France on the introduction of the making of plate glass in 1601. The St Gobain Glass Company attribute the discovery to Louis Lucas of Nehou, and over the door of the chapel of St Gobain they have placed an inscription in memory of " Louis Lucas qui inventa en 1601 le methode de couler les glaces et installa la manufacture en 1695 dans le chateau de Saint Gobain." Manufacture. — The term " silvering," as applied to the formation of a metallic coating on glass for giving it the properties of a mirror, was till quite recently a misnomer, seeing that till about 1840 no silver, but a tin amalgam, was used in the process. Now, however, a large propor- tion of mirrors are made by depositing on the glass a coating of pure silver, and the old amalgamation process is comparatively little used. The process of amalgamation consists in applying a thin amalgam of tin and mercury to the surface of glass. A sheet of thin tin-foil, somewhat larger than the glass to be operated on, is spread out on a flat table, and after all folds and creases have been completely removed a small quantity of mercury is rubbed lightly and quickly over the whole surface, and the scum of dust, impure tin and mercury is taken off. Mercury is then poured upon the " quickened " foil until there is a body of it sufficient to float the glass to be silvered (about I in. deep), and the glass (scrupulously cleaned simultaneously with the above operations) is slid over the surface of the mercury. Weights are placed over the surface until the greater part of the amalgamated mercury is pressed out, and the table is then tilted so that all superfluous mercury finds its way to the gutter. The glass is left twenty-four hours under weights; it is then turned over, silvered side up and removed to a drainer, where it dries and hardens. This process, when, elaborated, yields excellent results, producing a brilliant silver-white metallic lustre, which is only subject to altera- tion by exposure to high temperatures or by contact with damp surfaces; but the mercurial vapours to which the workmen are exposed give rise to the most distressing and fatal affections. The " silver on glass " mirror may be regarded as a discovery of J. von Liebig, who in 1835 observed that by heating aldehyde with an ammoniacal solution of silver nitrate in a glass vessel a brilliant deposit of metallic silver was formed on the surface of the glass. In practice the process was introduced about 1840; and it is now carried on, with several modifications, in two distinct ways, called the hot and the cold process respectively. In the former method there is employed a horizontal double-bottomed metallic table, which is heated with steam to from 35° to 40° C, and the reduction of the ammoniacal silver solution is effected with tartaric acid. In silvering by the cold process advantage is taken of the power of sugar to reduce the silver nitrate. This method has been gener- ally adopted for the silvering of mirrors for astronomical telescopes. G. W. Ritchey (" The Modern Reflecting Telescope," Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, xxxiv. 40) used the process devised by Brashear in 1884. The glass disk is mounted on a rocking-table, and most carefully cleaned with nitric acid, potash, and finally with distilled water. The reducing solution (which improves on keeping) is made up from 200 parts of water, 20 of loaf sugar, 20 of alcohol and I of nitric acid (commercial pure). The silver solution is prepared as follows: 2 parts of silver nitrate are dissolved in 20 parts of water, and strong ammonia added until the brown solution becomes clear. A solution of 1 1 parts of potash (pure by alcohol) in 20 of water is now added, and then ammonia until the solution is again clear. A solution of J part of silver nitrate in 16 of water is added until the liquid is straw-coloured ; it is then filtered. Quantities of the solu- tions, such that the sugar equals one half the nitrate, are taken, then diluted, mixed, and poured on to the plate, which is gently rocked. The liquid goes muddy-brown, and in 3 to 4 minutes it begins to clear, a thick deposit being formed in about 5 minutes. The solution is poured off, and water run on, the streaks of precipitate being removed by lightly held cotton wool. The washing is repeated, and then water is allowed to remain on the film for one hour. The water is then run off, and the plate is washed several times with alcohol, and then dried by an air fan. The film is now burnished with a chamois leather pad, and finally with the finest jewellers' rouge, the silver surface being the reflecting surface of the mirror. MIRZAPUR— MISDEMEANOUR 577 The deposit of silver on glass is not so adherent and unalterable under the influence of sunlight and sulphurous fumes as the tin- mercury amalgam, and, moreover, real silvered glass has in many cases a slightly yellowish tinge. These defects have been overcome by a process introduced by Lenoir, which consists of brushing over the silvered surface with a dilute solution of cyanide of mercury, which, instantaneously forming a kind of amalgam, renders the deposit at once much whiter and more firmly adherent than before. To protect the thin metallic film from mechanical injury and the chemical action of gases and vapours it is coated with shellac or copal varnish, over which, when dry, are applied two coatings of red-lead paint or an electrolytically-deposited film of copper. This precaution only applies when the silver forms the back of the mirror. Platinum Mirrors. — A cheap process of preparing mirror glass was to some extent prosecuted in France, whereby a thin but very adherent deposit of platinum is formed on the glass. A solution of chloride of platinum with a proportion of litharge and borate of lead dissolved in essential oil of spike is applied with a brush to well- cleaned glass, which is then placed on edge in a muffle furnace, and the platinum is thus burned in, forming an exceedingly thin but brilliant metallic backing having a somewhat grey lustre. It was used only for the lids of cheap boxes, toys, ornamental letters, &c. Magic Mirrors. — Hand mirrors of metal are still in common use in Oriental countries, and in Japan bronze mirrors possess a religious significance. They have been known and used from the most remote period, mention of them being found in Chinese literature of the 9th century. The (reputed) first made Japanese mirror, preserved at Is6, is an object of the highest veneration in Japan, and an ancient mirror, connected with which is a tradition to the effect that it was given by the sun-goddess at the foundation of the empire, is a princi- pal article of the Japanese regalia. The mirrors of Japan in general consist of thin disks, from 3 to 12 in. in diameter, of speculum metal with handles, cast in one piece. The polished face of the mirror is slightly convex in form, so that a reflected image is seen proportionately reduced in size; the back of the disk is occupied with ornamentation and inscriptions in bold relief, and its rim is also raised to the back. Much attention has been attracted to these mirrors by a singular physical peculiarity which in a few cases they are found to possess. These are known as magic mirrors from the fact that when a strong beam of light is reflected from their smooth and polished surface, and thrown on a white screen, an image of the raised ornaments and characters on the back of the mirror is formed with more or less distinctness in the disk of light on the screen. This peculiarity has at no time been specially observed by the Japan- ese, but in China it attracted attention as early as the nth century, and mirrors possessed of this property sell among the Chinese at ten or even twenty times the price sought for the ordinary non- sensitive examples. The true explanation of the magic mirror was first suggested by the French physicist Charles Cleophas Person in 1847, who observed that the reflecting surface of the mirrors was not uniformly convex, the portions opposite relief surfaces being plane. Therefore, as he says, " the rays reflected from the convex portion diverge and give but a feebly illuminated image, while, on the con- trary, the rays reflected from the plane portions of the mirror preserve their parallelism, and appear on the screen as an image by reason of their contrast with the feebler illumination of the rest of the disk." Such differences of plane in the mirror surface are accidental, being due to the manner in which it is prepared, a process explained by W. E. Ayrton and J. Perry (Proc. Roy. Soc, 1878, vol. xxviii.), by whom ample details of the history, process of manufacture and composition of Oriental mirrors have been published. A preliminary operation in polishing the surface consists of scoring the cast disk in every direction with a sharp tool. The thicker portions with relief ornament offer more resistance to the pressure of the tool than the thin flat portions, which tend to yield and form at first a concave surface, but this by the reaction of its elasticity rises after- wards and forms a slightly convex surface, while the more rigid thick, portions are comparatively little affected. This irregularity of surface is inconspicuous in ordinary light, and does not visibly distort images ; but when the mirror reflects a bright light on a screen the unequal radiation renders the minute differences of surface obvious. . MIRZAPUR, a city and district of British India, in the Benares division of the United Provinces. The city is on the right bank of the Ganges; a station on the East Indian railway, about half- way between Allahabad and Benares, 509 m. N. W. from Calcutta. Pop. (1901), 79,862. The river front, lined with stone ghats or flights of stairs, mosques, Hindu temples and dwelling-houses of the wealthier merchants, is handsome; but the interior of the town is mainly composed of mud huts. Formerly it was the emporium of trade between central India and Bengal, which has now been diverted to the railways. It has European and native lace factories, and manufactures brass vessels and woollen carpets. The London Mission manages a high school and an orphanage. The municipal limits include the town of Bind- hachal, an important centre of pilgrimage, with the shrine of Vindhyeshwari. The District of Mirzapur extends into the Sone valley. Area, 5238 sq. m. It is crossed from east to west by the Vindhya and Kaimur ranges. A central jungly plateau connects these and separates the valley of the Ganges from that of the Sone. The part north of the Vindhyas is highly cultivated and thickly peopled, but the rest of the district consists largely of ravines and forests with a sparse population. The population in 1901 was 1,082,430, showing a decrease of 6-8% in the decade. The district comprises a large part of the hereditary domains of the raja of. Benares, which are revenue-free. It is traversed, near the Ganges, by the main line of the East Indian railway. The Great Southern road used to start from the city. MISCARRIAGE, in its widest sense a going astray, a failure. In law, the word is used in several phrases; thus, a miscarriage of justice is a failure of the law to attain its ends. In the Statute of Frauds (29 Car. II., c. 3) in the expression " debt, default or miscarriage of another," the word has sometimes been inter- preted as equivalent in meaning to default, but it is more usually considered to mean a species of wrongful act for the consequence of which the law makes a party civilly responsible. The term is also used (see Abortion) for the premature expulsion of the contents of the womb before the period of gestation is complete. MISCEGENATION (from Lat. miscere, to mix, and genus, race), a mixture or blending of two races, particularly of a white with a black or negro race. MISCELLANY, a term applied to a single book containing arti- cles, treatises or other writings dealing with a variety of different subjects. It is a common title in the literature of the 17th and 18th centuries. The word is an adaptation of Lat. miscellanea (from tniscellaneus, mixed, miscere, to mix), used in this sense by Tertullian, Miscellanea Ptolemaei (Tert. adv. Val. 12); the ordi-. nary use of the word in Latin was for a dish of broken meats, applied by Juvenal (xi. 20) to the coarse food of gladiators. The Lat. miscellaneus has affected the form of a word which is now usually spelled " maslin," applied to a mixture of various kinds of grain, especially rye and wheat. This, however, is really from the 0. Fr. mesteillon; Late Lat. mistilio, formed from mistus, past participle of miscere, to mix, mingle. MISCHIEF, a term meaning originally calamity, trouble; now used particularly of annoying injuries or damage done in play or through petty spite. The word is derived through O. Fr. meschef, mod. mechef, from meschever, to do wrong, mes-, amiss, and chever, bring to a head (chef, Lat. caput). MISDEMEANOUR (from O. Fr. mes- and demener, to conduct oneself ill), the generic term used in English law to include all those offences against the criminal law which are not by common law or statute made treason or felony. In Russell on Crimes it is defined as a crime for which the law has not provided a particular name (6th ed., i. 193). The term misprision, at one time applied to the more heinous offences of this class, is now almost obsolete. The term misdemeanour includes not only all indict- able offences below the degree of felony, some of them grave crimes, such as sedition, riot and perjury, but also the petty misdemeanours, which may be dealt with summarily by justices of the peace, and the most trifling breaches of local by-laws. As a matter of legal history, many misdemeanours now repre- sent what were originally described as trespasses against the peace, a phrase which is equivalent to a " tort " or delict, accom- panied by circumstances calling for prosecution in the interest of the Crown and the public as well as for civil proceedings by the injured parties. Such acts as riot, public nuisance, sedition and the different forms of libel naturally came to be regarded as wrongs against the king's peace. Many of the early statutes anent justices are particularly concerned with the punishment of rioters; and some offences now treated as misdemeanours belonged to the spiritual and not to the temporal courts, e.g. perjury. While it is true that almost all crimes which in the middle ages were considered heinous fall into the categories of treason or felony, many statutory misdemeanours differ so little, if at all, 57« MISE— MISHAWAKA from felony in character or in the mode of punishment that, in the absence of a code, no logical line of division can now be drawn, inasmuch as few felonies are now capital and none involve the forfeitures of land or goods, which at one time afforded an appreciable distinction between the two categories of crime. The result is that it is impossible to distinguish without enumera- ting the specific crimes falling under each head. Among the chief misdemeanours are: (i) Assault on the sovereign; (2) unlawful assembly; (3) riot and sedition; (4) for- cible entries; (5) perjury, which until 1563 was mainly, if not solely, cognizable by the spiritual courts; (6) blasphemy; (7) ex- tortion; (8) bribery; (9) obtaining property by false pretences (which is nearly cognate to the felony of larceny); (10) assault; (11) public nuisance; (12) libel; (13) conspiracy to defraud, &c; (14) attempts to commit other crimes. Numerous acts or omissions are punishable as " misdemean- ours by interpretation." In other words, disobedience to the command or prohibition of a statute as to a matter of public concern is indictable as a misdemeanour, even if the statute does not so describe it, unless the terms of the statute indicate that some other remedy alone is to be pursued. For some misde- meanours penal servitude may be imposed by statute. But as a rule the appropriate punishment is by fine or imprisonment without hard labour or both, at the discretion of the court unless limited by a particular statute. The offender may also be put under recognizance to keep the peace and be of good behaviour. Theoretically, whipping may be imposed; but this is not now done except under specific statutory authority: and the like authority is necessary to authorize the addition of hard labour to a sentence of imprisonment. At the present time the practical difference in English law between misdemeanour and felony lies in matters of procedure, in which a trial for misdemeanour closely resembles an ordinary civil trial. 1. An arrest for misdemeanour may not be made without judicial authority except under specific statutory authority. 2. A person charged with misdemeanour is entitled to bail (see Arrest), i.e. to release on the obtaining of sureties, or even on his own recognizance without sureties to appear and take his trial. Bail is obligatory in all misdemeanours, with the exception of mis- demeanours where the costs of the prosecution are payable out of the county or borough rate or fund. 3. A misdemeanour may be tried on an information filed by the attorney-general or by leave of the high court without the indictment essential in cases of treason and felony. 4. The same indictment or information may include a number of charges of misdemeanour committed at different times and even against different persons. See Indictment. 5. A trial for misdemeanour may proceed in the absence of the defendant, who is not " given in charge " to the jury, as in the case of felony. 6. On a charge of misdemeanour a trial by special jury may be ordered. 7. There is no right to challenge peremptorily any of the jurors summoned to try the case; any challenge made must be for cause. The jury is sworn collectively (four men to a book), and not poll by poll as in felony, and their oath is to try the issues joined between the king and the defendant. They may separate during adjournments of the trial, like a jury in a civil case. 8. The costs of prosecuting certain misdemeanours are recoverable out of public funds under specific statutory provisions; but in very few cases can the court make the misdemeanant himself pay them. 9. There are no accessories after the fact to misdemeanour. (See Accessory.) Under French law and systems based thereon or having a common origin a distinction is drawn between crime (verbrechen) , delit (vergehen) and contravention. The English term misde- meanour roughly corresponds to the two classes of delit and contravention but includes some offences which would be quali- fied as " crime." In the criminal code of Queensland the term " misdemeanour " is retained, whilethat of " felony " is abol- ished; and offences are classified as crimes, misdemeanours and simple offences, the two former punishable on indictment, the latter on summary conviction only; the more serious offences described in English law as misdemeanours are in that code described as crimes (e.g. perjury). In the United States the English common law as to misdemeanour is generally followed, but in New York and other states a statutory distinction has been made between misdemeanour and felony by defining the latter as a crime punishable by death or by imprisonment in a state prison. (W. F. C.) MISE, an Anglo-French term (from Fr. meltre, to place) signi- fying a settlement of accounts, disputes, &c, by agreement or arbitration. As an English legal term it was applied to the issue in a writ of right; and in history to the payment, in return for certain privileges, made by the county palatine of Chester to each hew earl, and by the Welsh to each new lord of the Marches, or to a prince or king on his entry into the country. In its more general sense of agreement the term is familiar in English history in the " Mise of Amiens," in January, and that of Lewes, in May of 1264, made between Henry III. and the barons. MISENUM, an ancient harbour town of Campania, Italy, about 3 m. S. of Baiae (q.v.) at the western extremity of the Gulf of Puteoli (Pozzuoli). Until the end of the Republic it was dependent on Cumae, and was a favourite villa resort. Agrippa made the fine natural harbour into the main naval station of the Mediterranean fleet, and founded a colony there probably in 31 B.C. The emperor Tiberius died in his villa here. Its importance lasted until the decline of the fleet in the 4th century a.d. It was at first an independent episcopal see: Gregory the Great united it with that of Cumae. In 890 it was destroyed by the Saracens. The name was derived from one of the companions of Ulysses, or from Aeneas' trumpeter, an account of whose burial is given in Virgil, Aeneid, vi. 232. The harbour consisted of the outer basin, or Porto di Miseno f protected by moles, of which remains still exist, and the present Mare Morto, separated from it by a comparatively modern embankment. The town lay on the south side of the outer harbour, near the village of Miseno, where remains of a theatre and baths and the inscriptions relating to the town have been found. Remains of villas can also be traced, and to the largest of these, which occupied the summit of the promontory, and belonged first to Marius, then to Lucullus, and then to the imperial house, probably belongs the subterranean Grotta Dragonara. Roads ran north to Baiae and north-west past the modern Torre Gaveta to Cumae: along the line of both are numerous columbaria. See J. Beloch, Campanien, ed. ii. (Breslau, 1890), 190 sqq. (T. As.) MISER, a term originally meaning (as in Latin) miserable or wretched, but now used for an avaricious person who hoards up money and who spends the smallest possible sum on necessities. MISERERE (the imperative of Lat. misereri, to have mercy or pity), the name of one of the penitential psalms (li.), from its opening words, Miserere mei, Deus. The word is frequently used in English as equivalent to "Misericord" (Lat. misericordia, pity, compassion) for various forms in which the rules of a monastic order or general discipline of the clergy might be relaxed; thus it is applied to a special chamber in a monastery for those members who were allowed special food, drink, &c, and to a small bracket on the under side of the seat in a stall of a church made to turn up and afford support to a person in a position between sitting and standing. " Misericord " and " miserere " are also used of a small dagger, the " dagger of mercy," capable of passing between the joints of armour, with which the coup de grace might be given to a wounded man. MISHAWAKA, a city of St Joseph county, Indiana, U.S.A., on the St Joseph river of Michigan, about 80 m. E. by S. of Chicago. Pop. (1900), 5560 (821 foreign-born); (1910) 11,886. It is served by the Grand Trunk and the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern railways, and by inter-urban electric lines. It has an extensive trade in grain and other agricultural products. Two miles up the river is the Hen Island dam, which, with the Mishawaka hydraulic dam nearer the city, is the source of much of the power used by the city's manufactories. St Joseph Iron Works was laid out on the south side of the river, in 1833, and in 1835 was organized as a village and two additions were platted. In 1836 Indiana City was laid out on the north side of the river; MISHMI— MISPRISION 579 and in 1839 St Joseph Iron Works, with its two additions, and Indiana City were incorporated as one town named Mishawaka — the name of an Indian village formerly occupying a part of the present site. Mishawaka was chartered as a city in 1899. MISHMI, a hill-tribe on the frontier of Eastern Bengal and Assam. The Mishmis occupy the hills from the Dihong to the Brahmakund, in the north-eastern corner of the Brahmaputra valley. In 1854 M. Krick and M. Bourry, two French mission- aries, were murdered in the Mishmi country, but their death was avenged by a small expedition which took the murderer prisoner. In 1899 another British expedition was sent against the Mishmis, owing to the murder of some British subjects. MISIONES, a territory of northern Argentina, bounded N. by Paraguay and Brazil, E. and S. by Brazil and W. by Paraguay and the Argentine province of Corrientes. Its boundary lines are formed by the upper Parana and Iguassti rivers on the N., the San Antonio and Pequiry-guassu streams on the E. and the Uruguay River on the S. Area, 11,282 sq. m.; pop. (1904, esti- mate), 38,755, chiefly Indians and mestizos. The territory is a region of roughly-broken surfaces, divided longitudinally by low mountains, called the Sierra Iman and Sierra Grande de Misiones, which form the water-parting for many small streams flowing northward to the Parana and southward to the Uruguay. The greater part of the country is covered with forest and tropical jungle. The climate is sub-tropical, the temperature ranging from 40 to 95° F. The soil, is described as highly fertile, but its products are chiefly confined to yerba mate or Paraguay tea {Ilex paraguayensis) , tobacco and oranges and other fruits. Communication with the capital is maintained by two lines of steamboats running to Corrientes and Buenos Aires, but a rail- way across Paraguay from Asuncion is planned to Encarnacion, opposite Posadas. Some of the Jesuit missions of the 17th and 1 8th centuries were established in this territory, and are to-day represented by the lifeless villages of Candelaria, Santa Ana, San Ignacio and Corpus along the Parana River, and Apostoles, Conception, and San Javier along the Uruguay. Posadas (estimated pop. in 1905, 8000), the capital, on the Parana, officially dates from 1865. It was also a Jesuit settlement called Itapua, though the large mission of that name was on the Paraguayan side of the river. It is at the extreme west of the territory, and is the terminal port for the steamers from Corrientes. MISKOLCZ, capital of the county of Borsod, Hungary, 113 m. N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 40,833. It is situated in a valley watered by the Szinva in the east of the Biikk moun- tains, and opens towards the south to the plain of the Sajo, an affluent of the Hernad. Miskolcz is a thriving town, and among its buildings are a Roman Catholic church of the 13th century in Late Gothic style, a Minorite convent, and Greek Catholic, Lutheran and Calvinist churches. It manufactures snuff, por- celain, boots and shoes, and prepared leather, and has both steam and water mills. It trades in grain, flour, wine, fruit, cattle, hides, honey, wax and agricultural products, while four well- attended fairs are held annually. About 5 m. west of the town in the Szinva valley is Diosgyor (pop. 11,520), which possesses important iron-works, and the ruined castle of Diosgyor, for- merly a shooting residence of the kings of Hungary. About 4 m. to the south-west of Miskolcz are the baths of Tapolcza, contain- ing warm springs. To the south-west of the town lies Onod (pop. 2087), to the south of which, on the banks of the Sajo, is the heath of Mohi or Muhi, famous as the scene of the great defeat of the Hungarians by the Mongols in 1241. About 85,000 Hungarians fell, and the whole country was devastated for the next two years by the Mongolian hordes. During the 1 6th and 17 th centuries Miskolcz suffered much from the Ottomans, and from the troops of George Rakoczy and Emeric Tokolyi. In 1781, 1843 and 1847 it was devastated by fire, and on the 30th of August 1878 a great portion of the town was ruined by a terrific storm. MISPICKEL, a mineral consisting of iron sulpharsenide, FeAsS; it contains 46% of arsenic, and is of importance as an ore of this element. It is known also as arsenopyrite or arsenical pyrites (Ger. Arsenikkies) : mispickel is an old name of German origin, and in the form Mistpuckel was used by G. Agricola in 1546. The crystals are orthorhombic, with angles similar to those of marcasite; they are often prismatic in habit, and the prism M is usually terminated by the deeply striated faces of an obtuse dome r. Twinning is not uncommon, the twin- planes- M (no) and g (101) being the same as in marcasite. The colour of the mineral is silver-white or steel-grey, with a metallic lustre, but it is often tarnished yellow; the streak is greyish-black. The hardness is 5§-6, and the specific gravity 5-9-6-2. Mispickel occurs in metalliferous veins with ores of tin, copper, silver, &c. It is occasionally found as embedded crys- tals, for example, in serpentine at Reichenstein, Silesia. In Cornwall and Devon it is associated with cassiterite in the tin- lodes, but is also found in the copper-lodes: well crystallized specimens have been obtained from the neighbourhood of Tavis- tock, Redruth and St Agnes. Mispickel is the principal source of arsenious oxide or the " white arsenic " of commerce (see Arsenic) . The chief supplies are from Cornwall and Devon, and Freiberg in Saxony, and from Canada and the United States. Danaite is a cobaltiferous variety of mispickel, containing up to 9% of cobalt replacing iron; it was first noticed by J. F. Dana in 1824 at Franconia in New Hampshire. This variety forms a passage to the species glaucodote, (Co,Fe)AsS, which is found as well-developed orthorhombic crystals in copper ore at Hakansboda in Ramberg parish, Vestmanland, Sweden. Other species belonging to this isomorphous group of orthorhombic minerals are marcasite (FeS 2 ), lollingite (FeAs 2 ), safflorite (CoAs 2 ) and rammelsbergite (NiAs 2 ). (L. J. S.) MISPRISION (from O. Fr. mesprendre, mod. meprendre, to misunderstand), a term in English law, almost obsolete, used to describe certain kinds of offence. Writers on criminal law usually divide misprision into two kinds (a) negative, (b) positive. (a) Negative misprision is the concealment of treason or felony. By the common law of England it was the duty of every liege subject to inform the king's justices and other officers of the law of all treasons and felonies of which the in- formant had knowledge, and to bring the offender to justice by arrest (see Sheriffs Act 1887, s. 8). The duty fell and still falls primarily on the grand jurors of each county borough or fran- chise, and is performed by indictment or presentment, but it also falls in theory on all other inhabitants (see Pollock and Maitland, Hist. Eng. Law, ii. 505). Failure by the latter to dis- charge this public duty constitutes what is known as misprision of treason or felony (see 3 Co. Inst., 139). Misprision of Treason, in the words of Blackstone, " consists in the bare knowledge and concealment of treason, without any degree of assent thereto, for any assent makes the party a principal traitor." According to Bracton, de Corona, seq. 118, failure to reveal the trea- son of another was in itself high treason, but statutes of 1551-1552 and 1 554-1 555 made concealment of treason misprision only. Most of the statutes regulating procedure on trials for treason also apply to misprision of treason. The punishment is loss of the profit of the lands of the offender during life, forfeiture of all his goods and imprisonment for life. These punishments are not affected by the Forfeiture Act 1870. Misprision of Felony is the concealment of a felony committed by another person, but without such previous concert with, or subse- quent assistance of the offender, as would make the concealer an accessory before or after the fact. The offence is a misdemeanour punishable on indictment by fine and imprisonment. (b) Positive misprision is the doing of something which ought not to be done; or the commission of a serious offence falling short of treason or felony, in other words of a misdemeanour of a public character (e.g. maladministration of high officials, con- tempt of the sovereign or magistrates, &c). To endeavour to dissuade a witness from giving evidence, to disclose an examina- tion before the privy council, or to advise a prisoner to stand mute, used to be described as misprisions (Hawk. P. C. bk. I. c. 20). 5 8o MISRULE— MISSAL The old writers say that a misprision is contained in every felony and that the Crown may elect to prosecute for the misprision instead of the felony. This proposition merely affirms the right of the Crown to choose a more merciful remedy in certain cases, and has no present value in the law. Positive misprisions are now only of antiquarian interest, being treated as misdemeanours. In the United States, misprision of treason is defined to be the crime committed by a person owing allegiance to the United States, and having knowledge of the commission of any crime against them, who conceals and does not, as soon as may be, disclose and make known the same to the president or to some judge of the United States, or to the governor, or to some judge or justice of a particular state. The punishment is imprisonment for not more than seven years and a fine of not more than one thousand dollars. MISRULE, LORD OF, in medieval times the master of the Christmas revels. Probably J. G. Frazer {Golden Bough III.) is right in suggesting that the lord or abbot of misrule is the successor of the king of the ancient Roman Saturnalia, who personated Saturn and suffered martyrdom at the end of the revels. Compare, too, the burlesque figure at the carnival, which is finally destroyed. Stow {Survey) writes: " In the feast of Christmas there was in the King's House, wheresoever he lodged, a Lord of Misrule or Master of merry disports, and the like had ye in the house of every nobleman of honour or good worship, were he spiritual or temporal." The mayor and sheriffs of London also had Lords of Misrule. These mock-monarchs began their reign on Allhallows Eve, and misruled till Candlemas. In Scot- land they were known as "Abbots of Unreason," and in 1555 a special act suppressing them was passed. In Tudor times their reign was marked by much display and expense. In Henry VIII.'s reign an order for a fool's coat is signed by six of the Privy Council. By an Act of Common Council (1555) the city expenses of the Lords of Misrule were severely curtailed. Machyn speaks of a Lord of Misrule who in 1561 rode through London followed by a hundred gentlemen on horseback hung with gold chains (see also Revels, Master or). MISSAL, the book containing the liturgy, or office of the mass {missa), of the Roman Catholic Church. This name {e.g. Missale gothicum, francorum, gallicanum vetus) began to supersede the older word Sacramentary (sacramentarium, liber sacramentorum) from about the middle of the 8th century. 1 At that period the book so designated contained merely the fixed canon of the mass or consecration prayer (actionem, precem canonicam, canonem actionis), and the variable collects, secretae or orationes super oblata, prefaces, and post-communions for each fast, vigil, festival or feria of the ecclesiastical year; for a due celebration of the Eucharist they required accordingly to be supplemented by other books, such as the Antiphonarium, afterwards called the Graduate, containing the proper antiphons (introits), responsories (graduals), tracts, sequences, offertories, communions and other portions of the communion service designed to be sung by the schola or choir, and the Lectionarium (or epistolarium and evangelistarium) with the proper lessons. 2 1 It first occurs in Ecgbert of York's De remediis peccatorum, where it refers to the sacramentary of Gregory the Great. 2 One of the most celebrated of early missals is the Stowe missal of the 6th century in the British Museum. It contains the litany of the saints, the gloria with the collects, the part of the Epistle to the Corinthians relating to the Eucharist, the credo and the conse- cratio and memento corresponding exactly to the Roman canon. After the daily mass follow the missa apostolorum, missa sanctorum, missa pro poenitentibus vivis and the missa pro mortuis. To the 7th century belong the Missale francorum and the Missale gothicum, originally in the abbey of Fleury. In the 8th century we find in Ecgbert of York's De remediis peccatorum, i., that those who devote their lives to sacred orders are supposed to furnish themselves with a psalter, lectionary, antiphonary, missal, baptismal office and mar- tyrology. The adoption of the Roman liturgy by Charlemagne explains the great quantity of missals within this period; e.g. the missal of Worms in the library of the Arsenal at Paris. From the 10th century we have the missal of St Vougay, although badly mutilated, and several others. From the 12th century missals became common, and more so with the invention of printing. Afterwards missals contained more or less fully the antiphons and lessons as well as the prayers proper to the various days, and these were called missalia plenaria. All modern missals are of this last description. The Missale romanum ex decreto ss. concilii tridentini restitutum, now in almost exclusive use throughout the Latin obedience, owes its present form to the council of Trent, which undertook the preparation of a correct and uniform liturgy, and entrusted the work to a committee of its members. This committee had not completed its labours . when the council rose, but the pope was instructed to receive its report when ready and to act upon it. The " reformed missal " was promulgated by Pius V. on the 14th of July 1570, and its universal use enjoined, the only exceptions being churches having local liturgies which had been in unbroken use for at least two centuries. 3 It has subsequently undergone slight revisions under Clement VIII. (1604), Urban VIII. (1634) and Leo XIII. (1884), and various new masses, both obligatory and permissive, universal and local, have been added. Although the Roman is very much larger than any other liturgy, the communion office is not in itself inordinately long. The greater part of it is contained in the " ordinary " and " canon "of the mass, usually placed about the middle of the missal, and occupies, though in large type, only a few pages. The work owes its bulk and complexity to two circumstances. On the one hand, in the celebration of the sacrifice of the mass practically nothing is left to the discretion of the officiating priest; everything — what he is to say, the tone and gestures with which he is to say it, the cut and colour of the robe he is to wear — is carefully pre- scribed in the rubrics. 4 On the other hand, the Roman, like all the Western liturgies, is distinguished from those of the Eastern Church by its flexibility. A distinctive character has been given to the office for each ecclesiastical season, for each fast or festival of the year, almost for each day of the week; and provision has also been made of a suitable communion service for many of the special occasions both of public and of private life. The different parts of the Roman communion office are not all of the same antiquity. Its essential features are most easily caught, and best understood, by reference to the earliest Sacra- mentaries (particularly the Gregorian, which was avowedly the basis of the labours of the Tridentine committee), to the Gregorian Antiphonary, and to the oldest redaction of the Ordo romanus? The account of the mass (qualiter Missa Romana celebratur) as given by the sacramentarium gregorianum is to the effect that there is in the first place " the Introit according to the time, whether for a festival or for a common day; there- after Kyrie eleison. (In addition to this Gloria in excelsis Deo is said if a bishop be [the celebrant], though only on Sundays and festivals; but a priest is by no means to say it, except only at Eastertide. When there is a litany (quando letania agitur) neither Gloria in excelsis nor Alleluia is sung.) Afterwards the Oratio is said, whereupon follows the Apostolus, also the Gradual and Alleluia. Afterwards the Gospel is read. Then comes the OJferlorium, 6 and the Oratio super oblata is said." Then follow the Sursum corda, the Preface, Canon, Lord's Prayer and " embolism "(eju/SoXio^a or insertion, Libera nos, Domine), given at full length precisely as they still occur in the Roman missal. 3 The English missal consequently continued to be used by English Roman Catholics until towards the end of the 17th century, when it was superseded by the Roman through Jesuit influence. The Gallican liturgy held its ground until much more recently, but has succumbed under the Ultramontanism of the bishops. 4 In all the older liturgies the comparative absence of rubrics is conspicuous and sometimes perplexing. It is very noticeable in the Roman Sacramentaries, but the want is to some extent supplied by the very detailed directions for a high pontifical mass in the various texts of the Ordo Romanus mentioned below. That there was no absolutely fixed set of rubrics in use in France during the 8th century is shown by the fact that each priest was required to write out an account of his own practice (" libellum ordinis ") and present it for approbation to the bishop in Lent (see Baluze, Cap. Reg. Franc, i. 824, quoted in Smith's Diet, of Chr. Antiq. ii. 1521). 6 For the genealogical relationships of the Roman with other liturgies, see Liturgy. For the doctrines involved in the " sacrifice of the mass," see Eucharist. 6 Some editions do not mention the Offertory here. MISSAL 58i In every liturgy of all the five groups a passage similar to this occurs, beginning with Sursum corda, followed by a Preface and the recitation of the Sanctus or Angelic Hymn. The " canon " or consecration prayer, which in all of them comes immediately after, invariably contains our Lord's words of institution, and (except in the Nestorian liturgy) concludes with the Lord's Prayer and " embolism." But there are certain differences of arrangement, by which the groups of liturgies can be classified. Thus it is distinctive of the liturgy of Jerusalem that the " great intercession " for the quick and the dead follows the words of institution and an Epiklesis (eirLn\r)o-Ls rov ■wvtbjj.aTOs ayiov) or petition for the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the gifts; in the Alexandrian the "great intercession" has its place in the Preface; in the East Syrian it comes between the words of restitution and the Epiklesis; in the Ephesine it comes before the Preface; while in the Roman it is divided into two, the commemoration of the living being before, and that of the dead after, the words of institution. Other distinctive features of the Roman liturgy are (1) the position of the " Pax " after the consecration, and not as in all the other liturgies at a very early stage of the service, before the Preface even; and (2) the absence of the Epiklesis common to all the others. 1 The words of its " canonical prayer " are of unknown antiquity; they are found in the extant manuscripts of the Sacramentarium gelasianum, and were already old and of forgotten authorship in the time of Gregory the Great, who, in a letter to John, bishop of Syracuse {Registr. Epist. vii. 64), speaks of it as " the prayer composed by a ' scholastic ' " (precem quam scholasticus composuerat). The same letter is interesting as containing Gregory's defence, on the ground of ancient use, of certain parts of the Roman ritual to which the bishop of Syracuse had taken exception as merely borrowed from Constantinople. Thus we learn that, while at Constantinople the Kyrie eleison was said by all simultaneously, it was the Roman custom for the clergy to repeat the words first and for the people to respond, Christe eleison being also repeated an equal number of times. Again, the Lord's Prayer was said immediately after the consecration aloud by all the people among the Greeks, but at Rome by the priest alone. The meagre liturgical details furnished by the Sacramentarium gregorianum are supplemented by the texts of the Ordo romanus, the first of which dates from about the year 730. The ritual they enjoin is that for a pontifical high mass in Rome itself; but the differences to be observed by a priest " quando in statione facit missas " are comparatively slight. Subjoined is a precis of Ordo Romanus I. It is first of all explained that Rome has seven ecclesiastical regions, each with its proper deacons, subdeacons and acolytes. Each region has its own day of the week for high ecclesiastical functions, which are celebrated by each in rotation. [This accounts for the Statio ad S. Mariam Majorem, ad S. Crucem in Jerusalem, ad S. Petrum, &c, prefixed to most of the masses in the Gregorian Sacramentary, and still retained in the " Proprium de Tempore " of the Roman missal.] The regulations for the assembling and marshalling of the procession by which the pontiff is met and then escorted to the appointed station are minutely given, as well as for the adjustment of his vestments " ut bene sedeant," when the sacristy has been reached. He does not leave the sacristy until the Introit has been begun by the choir in the church. Before the Gloria he takes his stand at the altar, and after the Kyrie Eleison has been sung (the number of times is left to his discretion) he begins the Gloria in excelsis, which is taken up by the choir. During the singing he faces eastward; at its close he turns round for a moment to say " Pax vobis," and forthwith proceeds to the Oratio. 1 This finished, all seat themselves in order while the subdeacon ascends the ambo and reads [the epistle}. After he has done, the cantor with his book (cantatorio) ascends and gives out the response (Responsum) with the Alleluia and Tr actus in addition if the season calls for either. The deacon then silently kisses the feet of the pontiff and receives his blessing in the words " Dominus sit in corde tuo et in labiis tuis." Preceded by acolytes with lighted candles and subdeacons burning incense, he ascends the ambo, where he reads the Gospel. At the close, with the words " Pax tibi " and 1 This was one of the points discussed at the council of Florence, and Cardinal Bessarion for a time succeeded in persuading the Greeks to give up the Epiklesis. 2 Quam collectam dicunt, Ord. Rom. II. " Dominus vobiscum," the pontiff, 3 after another Oratio, descends to the " senatorium " accompanied by certain of the inferior clergy, and receives in order the oblations of the rulers (oblationes princi- pum), the archdeacon who follows taking their " amulas " of wine and pouring them into a larger vessel ; similar offerings are received from the other ranks and classes present, including the women. This concluded, the pontiff and archdeacon wash their hands, the offerings being meanwhile arranged by the subdeacons on the altar, and water, supplied by the leader of the choir (archiparaphonista), being mingled with the wine. During this ceremony the schola have been engaged in singing the Offertorium ; when all is ready the pontiff signs to them to stop, and enters upon the Preface, the subdeacons giving the responses. At the Angelic Hymn (Sanctus) all kneel and continue kneeling, except the pontiff, who rises alone and begins the Canon. At the words " per quern haec omnia " the archdeacon lifts the cup with the oblates, and at " Pax Domini sit semper vobiscum " he gives the peace to the clergy in their order, and to the laity. The pontiff then breaks off a particle from the consecrated bread and lays it upon the altar; the rest he places on the paten held by the deacon. It is then distributed while Agnus Dei is sung. The pontiff in communicating puts the particle into the cup, saying, " Fiat commixtio et consecratio corporis et sanguinis Domini nostri Jesu Christi accipientibus nobis in vitam aeternam." Those present communicate in their order under this species also. As the pontiff descends into the senatorium to give the communion, the schola begins the communion Antiphon, and continues singing the Psalm until, all the people having communicated, they receive the sign to begin the Gloria, after which, the verse having been again repeated, they stop. The celebrant, then, facing eastward, offers the Oratio ad complendum, which being finished the archdeacon says to the people, " Ite, missa est," they responding with " Deo gratias." To complete our idea of the Roman communion office as it was prior to the end of the 8th century we must now turn to the Gregorian Antiphonarius sive gradualis liber ordinatus per circulum anni, which as its name implies contains those variable portions of the mass which were intended to be sung by the schola or choir. It gives for each day for which a proper mass is provided: (1) the Antiphona (Antiphona ad Litroitum) and Psalmus; (2) the Responsorium and Versus, with its Alleluia and Versus; (3) the Ojferlorium and Versus; (4) the Communio and Psalmus. Some explanation of each- of these terms is necessary. (1) The word Antiphon (o.vtL4>covov , O.Eng. Antefn, Eng. Anthem) in its ecclesiastical use has reference to the very ancient practice of relieving the voices of the singers by dividing the work between alternate choirs. In one of its most usual meanings it has the special signification of a sentence (usually scriptural) constantly sung by one choir between the verses of a psalm or hymn sung by another. According to the Roman liturgiologists it was Pope Celestine who enjoined that the Psalms of David should be sung (in rotation, one presumes) antiphonally before mass; in process of time the antiphon came to be sung at the beginning and end only, and the psalm itself was reduced to a single verse. In the days of Gregory the Great the introit appears to have been sung precisely as at present — that is to say, after the antiphon proper, the Psalmus with its Gloria, then the antiphon again. (2) The Responsorium, intro- duced between the epistle and gospel, was probably at first an entire psalm or canticle, originally given out by the cantor from the steps from which the epistle had been read (hence the later name Graduate), the response being taken up by the whole choir. (3) The Offertorium and Communio correspond to the " hymn from the book of Psalms " mentioned by early authorities (see, for example, Augustine, Retr. ii. 11; Ap. Const, viii. 13) as sung before the oblation and also while that which had been offered was being distributed to the people. A very intimate connexion between these four parts of the choral service can generally be observed; thus, taking the first Sunday in the ecclesi- astical year, we find both in the Antiphonary and in the modern Missal that the antiphon is Ps. xxv. 1-3, the psalmus Ps. xxv. 4, the responsorium (graduale) and versus Ps. xxv. 3 and xxv. 4, the offertorium and versus Ps. xxv. 1-3 and xxv. 5. The communio is Ps. lxxxv. 12, one of the verses of the responsorium being Ps. lxxxv. 7. In the selection of the introits there are also traces of a certain rotation of the psalms in the Psalter having been observed. The first pages of the modern Roman missal are occupied with the Calendar and a variety of explanations relating to the 3 After singing " Credo in unum Deum," Ord. Rom. II. 582 MISSAL year and its parts, and the manner of determining the movable feasts. The general rubrics (Rubricae generates missalis) follow, explaining what are the various kinds of mass which may be celebrated, prescribing the hours of celebration, the kind and colour of vestments to be used, and the ritual to be followed (ritus celebrandi missam), and giving directions as to what is to be done in case of various defects or imperfections which may arise. The Praeparatio ad missam, which comes next, is a short manual of devotion containing psalms, hymns and prayers to be used as opportunity may occur before and after celebration. Next comes the proper of the season {Proprium missarum de tempore), occupying more than half of the entire volume. It contains the proper introit, collect (one or more), epistle, gradual (tract or sequence), gospel, offertory, secreta (one or more), communion and post-communion for every Sunday of the year, and also for the festivals and ferias connected with the ecclesias- tical seasons, as well as the offices peculiar to the ember days, Holy Week, Easter and Whitsuntide. Between the office for Holy Saturday and that for Easter Sunday the ordinary of the mass {Ordo missae), with the solemn and proper prefaces for the year, and the canon of the mass are inserted. The proper of the season is followed by the proper of the saints {Proprium sanctorum), containing what is special to each saint's day in the order of the calendar, and by the Commune sanctorum, containing such offices as the common of one martyr and bishop, the common of one martyr not a bishop, the common of many martyrs in paschal time, the common of many martyrs out of paschal time, and the like. A variety of masses to be used at the feast of the dedication of a church, of masses for the dead, and of votive masses (as for the sick, for persons journeying, for bridegroom and bride) follow, and also certain benedictions. Most missals have an appendix also containing certain local masses of saints to be celebrated " ex indulto apostolico." Masses fall into two great subdivisions: (i) ordinary or regular (secundum ordinem officii), celebrated according to the regular rotation of fast and feast, vigil and feria, in the calendar; (2) extraordinary or occasional (extra ordinem officii), being either " votive " of " for the dead," and from the nature of the case having no definite time prescribed for them . Festival masses are either double, half-double or simple, an ordinary Sunday mass being a half -double. The difference depends on the number of collects and secretae; on a double only one of each is offered, on a half-double there are two or three, and on a simple there may be as many as five, or even seven, of each. Any mass may be either high (missa solennis) or low (missa privata) . The dis- tinction depends upon the number of officiating clergy, certain differences of practice as to what is pronounced aloud and what inaudibly, the use or absence of incense, certain gestures and the like. Solitary masses are forbidden; there must be at least an acolyte to give the responses. The vestments prescribed for the priest are the amice, alb, cingulum or girdle, maniple, stole and chasuble (planeta). There are certain distinctions of course for a bishop or abbot. The colour of the vestments and of the drapery of the altar varies according to the day, being either white, red, green, violet or black. This last custom does not go much further back than Innocent III., who explains the symbolism intended (see Vestments). Subjoined is an account of the manner of celebrating high mass according to the rite at present in force. I. The priest who is to celebrate, having previously confessed (if necessary) and having finished matins and lauds, is to seek leisure for private prayer (fasting) and to use as he has opportunity the " prayers before mass " already referred to. How the robing in the sacristy is next to be gone about is minutely prescribed, and prayers are given to be used as each article is put on. The sacramental elements having previously been placed on the altar or on a credence table, the celebrant enters the church and takes his stand before the lowest step of the altar, having the deacon on his right and the subdeacon on his left. After invoking the Trinity (In nomine Patris, &c.) he repeats alternately with those who are with him the psalm " Judica me, Deus," which is preceded in the usual way by an antiphon (Introibo ad altare Dei), and followed also by the Gloria and Antiphon. 1 The versicle " Adjutorium nostrum," with its 1 This antiphon is not to be confounded with the Antiphona ad response " Qui fecit," is followed by the " Confiteor," 2 said alter- nately by the priest and by the attendants, who in turn respond with the prayer for divine forgiveness, " Misereatur." The priest then gives the absolution (" Indulgentiam "), and after the versicles and responses beginning " Deus, tu conversus " he audibly says, " Ore- mus," and ascending to the altar silently offers two short prayers, one asking for forgiveness and liberty of access through Christ, and another indulgence for himself, " through the merits of the saints whose relics are here." Receiving the thurible from the deacon he censes the altar, and is thereafter himself censed by the deacon. He then reads the Introit, which is also sung by the choir; the Kyrie eleison is then said, after which the words Gloria in excelsis 3 are sung by the celebrant and the rest of the hymn completed by the choir. 2. Kissing the altar, and turning to the people with the formula " Dominus vobiscum," the celebrant proceeds with the collect or collects proper to the season or day, which are read secretly. The epistle for the day is then read by the subdeacon, and is followed by the gradual, tract, alleluia or sequence, according to the time. 4 This finished, the deacon places the book of the gospels on the altar, and the celebrant blesses the incense. The deacon kneels before the altar and offers the prayer " Munda cor meum," afterwards takes the book from the altar, and kneeling before the celebrant asks his blessing, which he receives with the words " Dominus sit in corde tub." Having kissed the hand ot the priest, he goes accompa- nied by acolytes with incense and lighted candles to the pulpit, and with a '_' Dominus vobiscum " and minutely prescribed crossings and censings gives out and reads the gospel for the day, at the close of which " Laus tibi, Christe " is said, and the book is brought to the celebrant and kissed with the words " Per evangelica dicta deleantur nostra delicta." The celebrant then standing at the middle of the altar sings the words " Credo in unum Deum," and the rest of the Nicene creed is sung by the choir. 5 3. With " Dominus vobiscum " and " Oremus " the celebrant proceeds to read the offertory, which is also sung by the choir. This finished he receives the paten with the host from the deacon, and after offering the host with the prayer beginning " Suscipe, Sancte Pater " places it upon the corporal. The deacon then ministers wine and the subdeacon water, and before the celebrant mixes the water with the wine he blesses it in the prayer " Deus qui humanae." He then takes the chalice, and having offered it _(" Offerimus tibi, Domine ") places it upon the corporal and covers it with the pall. Slightly bowing over the altar, he then offers the prayer " In spiritu humilitatis," and, lifting up his eyes and stretch- ing out his hands, proceeds with " Veni sanctincator." After blessing the incense (" Per intercessionem beati Michaelis archan- geli ") he takes the thurible from the deacon and censes the bread and wine and altar, and is afterwards himself censed as well as the others in their order. Next going to the epistle side of the altar he washes his fingers as he recites the verses of the 26th Psalm beginning " Lavabo." Returning and bowing before the middle of the altar, with joined hands he says, " Suscipe, sancta Trinitas," then turning himself towards the people he raises his voice a little and says, " Orate, fratres " (" that my sacrifice and yours may be acceptable to God the Father Almighty "), the response to which is " Suscipiat Dominus sacrificium de manibus tuis," &c. He then recites the secret prayer or prayers, and at the end says, with an audible voice, " Per omnia saecula saeculorum " (R. " Amen "). 4. Again saluting with a " Dominus vobiscum," he lifts up his hands and goes on to the Sursum corda and the rest of the Preface. A different intonation is given for each of the prefaces. 6 At the Sanctus the handbell is rung. If there is a choir the Sanctus is sung while the celebrant goes on with the canon. 7 After the words of consecration of the wafer, which are said " secretly, dis- tinctly and attentively," the celebrant kneels and adores the host, rising elevates it, and replacing it on the corporal again adores Introitum further on. This use of the 43rd Psalm goes as far back at least as the end of the 1 ith century, being mentioned by Micrologus (1080). It is omitted in masses for the dead and during Holy Week. 2 A form very similar to the present is given by Micrologus, and it is foreshadowed even in liturgical literature of the 8th century. 3 During Lent and Advent, and in masses for the dead, this is omitted. In low masses it is of course said, not sung (if it is to be said). It may be added that this early position of the Gloria in excelsis is one of the features distinguishing Roman from Ephesine use. 4 The tract is peculiar to certain occasions, especially of a mournful nature, and is sung by a single voice. By a sequence is understood a more or less metrical composition, not in the words of Scripture, having a special bearing on the festival of the day. See, for example, the sequence, " Lauda Sion Salvatorem," on Corpus Christi day. 5 On certain days the Credo is omitted. 6 Now eleven ; they were at one time much more numerous. 7 The approved usage appears to be in that case that it is sung as far as " Hosanna in excelsis " before the elevation, and " Benedictus qui venit " is reserved till afterwards. In France it was a very com- mon custom, made general for a time at the request of Louis XII., to sing " salutaris hostia " at the elevation. MISSI DOMINICI— MISSIONS 583 it (the bell meanwhile being rung). 1 The same rite is observed when the chalice is consecrated. Immediately before the Lord's Prayer, at the words " per ipsum et cum ipso et in ipso," the sign of the cross is made three times over the chalice with the host, and towards the close of the " embolism " the fraction of the host takes place. After the words " Pax Domini sit semper vobiscum " the emission of the particle into the cup takes place with the words " Haec commixtio et consecratio," &c. The celebrant then says the Agnus Dei three times. . 5. While the choir sings the Agnus Dei and the Communion, the celebrant proceeds, still " secrete," with the remainder of the office, which though printed as part of the canon is more conveniently called the communion and post-communion. After the prayer for the peace and unity of the Church (" Domine Jesu Christe, qui dixisti ") he salutes the deacon with the kiss of peace, saying, " Pax tecum "; the subdeacan is saluted in like manner, and then conveys the " pax " to the rest of the clergy who may be assisting. The celebrant then communicates under both species with suitable prayers and actions, and afterwards administers the sacrament to the other communicants if there be any. Then while the wine is poured into the cup for the first ablution he says, " Quod ore sumpsimus "; having taken it he says, " Corpus tuum, Domine." After the second ablution he goes to the book and reads the Communion. Then turn- ing to the people with " Dominus Vobiscum " he reads the post- communion (one or more) ; turning once more to the congregation Jie uses the old dismissal formula " Dominus vobiscum " {R. " Et cum spiritu tuo "), and " Ite, missa est " or " Benedicamus Domino," in those masses from which Gloria in excelsis has been omitted (R. " DeoGratias"). Bowing down before the altar he offers the prayer " Placeat tibi, sancta Trinitas," then turning round he makes the sign of the cross over the congregation with the words of the bene- diction (" Benedicat "). 2 He then reads the passage from the gospel of John beginning with " In principio erat Verbum," or else the proper gospel of the day. 3 (J. S. Bl.) MISSI DOMINICI, the name given to the officials commissioned by the Frankish kings and emperors to supervise the administra- tion of their dominions. Their institution dates from Charles Martel and Pippin the Short, who sent out officials to see their orders executed. When Pippin became king in 754 he sent out rnissi in a desultory fashion; but Charlemagne made them a regular part of his administration, and a capitulary issued about 802 gives a detailed account of their duties. They were to execute justice, to enforce respect for the royal rights, to control the administration of the counts, to receive the oath of allegiance, and to supervise the conduct and work of the clergy. They were to call together the officials of the district and explain to them their ^duties, and to remind the people of their civil and religious' obligations. In short they were the direct representatives of the king or emperor. The inhabi- tants of the district they administered had to provide for their subsistence, and at times they led the host to battle. In addition special instructions were given to various missi, and many of these have been preserved. The districts placed under the missi, which it was their duty to visit four times a year, were called missatici or legationes. They were not perma- nent officials, but were generally selected from among persons at the court, and during the reign of Charlemagne personages of high standing undertook this work. They were sent out in twos, an ecclesiastic and a layman, and were generally complete strangers to the district which they administered. In addition there were extraordinary missi who represented the emperor on special occasions, and at times beyond the limits of his dominions. Even under the strong rule of Charlemagne it was difficult to find men to discharge these duties impartially, and after his death in 814 it became almost impossible. Under the emperor Louis I. the nobles interfered in the appointment of the missi, who, selected from the district in which their duties lay, were soon found watching their own interests rather than those of the central power. Their duties became merged in the ordinary work of the bishops and counts, and under the emperor Charles the Bald they took control of associations 1 The history of the practice of elevating the host seems to have arisen out of the custom of holding up the oblations, as mentioned in the Ordo Romanus (see above). The elevation of the host, as at present practised, was first enjoined by Pope Honorius III. The use of the handbell at the elevation is still later, and was first made general by Gregory XI. 2 The benediction is omitted in masses for the dead. 3 The reading of the passage from John on days which had not a proper gospel was first enjoined by Pius V. for the preservation of the peace. About the end of the 9th century they disappeared from France and Germany, and during the 10th century from Italy. It is possible that the itinerant justices of the English kings Henry I. and Henry II., the itinerant baillis of Philip Augustus king of France, or the royal enqulteurs of St Louis originated from this source. See G. Waitz, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte (Kiel, 1844) ; E. Bourgeois, Le Capitulaire de Kiersy-sur-Oise (Paris, 1885) ; V. Krause, Geschichte des Institutes der missi dominici in the Mittheilungen des Institutsfur osterreichische Geschichtsforschung, Band XI. (Innsbruck, 1880). E. Dobbert, Uber das Wesen und den Gesckaftskreis der missi dominici (Heidelberg, 1861); N. D. Fustel de Coulanges, Histoire des institutions politiques de Vancienne France (Paris, 1889-1890); L. Beauchet, Histoire de V organization judiciaire en France, epoque franque (Paris, 1865). MISSIONS (Lat. missio, a sending) the term used specially for the propagandist operations of the Christian Church among the heathen, the executants of this work being missionaries. Both " mission " and " missionary " have hence come to be used of similar works in other spheres. The history of Christian missions may, for practical purposes, be divided into three chief periods: (1) the primitive, (2) the medieval and (3) the modern. The Primitive Period There can be little doubt that the Christian Church derived its missionary impulse from the teaching of its founder. Even though we may .feel some hesitancy, in the light of modern criticism, about accepting as authentic the specific injunctions ascribed to Jesus by Matthew (ch. xxviii. 19) and Luke (ch. xxiv. 47; Acts i. 8), it must be admitted that the teaching of Jesus, in the emphasis which it laid on the Fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man, was bound sooner or later to break away from the trammels of Judaism, and assert itself in the form of Christian missions. The triumph of this " universalistic " element in the teaching of Christ is vividly portrayed in the Acts of the apostles. At the beginning of the Acts the Christian Church is a little Jewish sect; long before the end is reached it has become a world-conquering spiritual force. The transfor- mation was due in its initial stages to broad-minded men like Stephen, Philip and Barnabas who were the first pioneers of missionary work. Their efforts, however, were soon completely eclipsed by the magnificent achievements of the apostle Paul, who evangelized a large part of Asia Minor and the most impor- tant cities of Greece. The success which attended the work of the great apostle to the Gentiles stamped Christianity as a missionary religion for ever. From this point onwards Chris- tianity pushed its way into all the great centres of population. We know very little about the missionaries of the first three centuries. We suddenly find province after province chris- tianized though there is nothing to show how and by whom the work was done. The case of Bithynia is an excellent illustration of this. When Pliny wrote his famous letter to Trajan (a.d. 112), Christianity had taken such a firm hold of the province that its influence had penetrated into remote country districts, pagan festivals were almost entirely neglected, and animals for sacrifice could scarcely find purchasers. Yet the history of the conver- sion of Bithynia is absolutely buried in oblivion. By the time of Constantine, Christianity had practically covered the whole empire. Harnack has tabulated the results which our scanty data allow us to reach in his Expansion of Christianity. He divides the countries which had been evangelized by the close of the 3rd century into four groups: (1) Those countries in which Christianity numbered nearly one-half of the population and represented the standard religion of the people, viz. most of what we now call Asia Minor, that portion of Thrace which lay over against Bithynia, Armenia, the city of Edessa. (2) Those districts in which Christianity formed a very material portion of the population, influencing the leading classes and being able to hold its own with other religions, viz. Antioch and Coele-Syria, Cyprus, Alexandria together with Egypt and the Thebais, Rome and the lower parts of Italy, together with certain parts of middle Italy, Proconsular Africa and Numidia, Spain, the maritime parts of Greece, the southern coasts of Gaul. sU MISSIONS [MEDIEVAL (3) Those districts in which Christianity was sparsely scattered, viz. Palestine, Phoenicia, Arabia, certain parts of Mesopotamia, the interior districts of Greece, the provinces on the north of Greece, the northern districts of middle Italy, the provinces of Mauretania and Tripolis. (4) Those districts in which Christi- anity was extremely weak or where it was hardly found at all : the districts to the north and north-west of the Black Sea, the western section of upper Italy, middle and upper Gaul, Belgica, Germany, Rhaetia, the towns of ancient Philistia. It is not possible to obtain even an approximate estimate of the numbers of the Christians at the time of Constantine. Friedlander, for instance, does not think that they exceeded by much Gibbon's estimate for the reign of Decius, viz. one-twentieth of the population. La Bastie and Burckhardt put the ratio at one-twelfth, Matter at a fifth and Staudlin even at a half (see Harnack ii. 453). After the end of the 3rd centur}' missionary enterprise was mainly concentrated on the outlying borders of the empire. . In the 4th and 5th centuries may be mentioned Gregory the Illuminator, the " apostle of Armenia " (about 300), Ulfilas, the "apostle of the Goths," about 325; Frumentius, 1 a bishop of Abyssinia, about 327; Nino, the Armenian girl who was the means of converting the kingdom of Iberia (now Georgia) , about 330; 2 Chrysostom, who founded at Constantinople in a.d. 404 an institution in which Goths might be trained to preach the Gospel to their own people; 3 Martin of Tours, who evangelized the central districts of Gaul; Valentinus, the " apostle of Noricum," about 440; Honoratus, who from his monastic home in the islet of Lerins, about 410, sent missionaries among the masses of heathendom in the neighbourhood of Aries, Lyons, Troyes, Metz and Nice; and St Patrick, who converted Ireland into " the isle of saints " (died either in 463 or 495). The Medieval Period With the 5th century the Church was confronted with number- less hordes, which were now precipitated over the entire face of Europe. Having for some time learnt to be aggressive, she girded herself for the difficult work of teaching the nations a higher faith than a savage form of nature-worship, and of fitting them to become members of an enlightened Christendom. (a) The Celtic Missionaries. — The first pioneers who went forth to engage in this difficult enterprise came from the secluded Celtic Churches of Ireland and the Scottish Highlands. Of many who deserve mention in connexion with this period, the most prominent were: Columba, the founder of the famous monastery of Iona in 563 and the evangelizer of the Albanian Scots and northern Picts; Aidan, the apostle of Northumbria; Columbanus, the apostle of the Burgundians of the Vosges (590); Callich or Gallus (d. 646), the evangelizer of north-eastern Switzerland and Alemannia; Kilian, the apostle of Thuringia; and Trudpert, the martyr of the Black Forest. The zeal of these men seemed to take the world by storm. Travelling generally in companies, and carrying a simple outfit, these Celtic pioneers flung themselves on the continent of Europe, and, not content with reproducing at Annegray or Luxeuil the willow or brushwood huts, the chapel and the round tower, which they had left behind in Derry or in the island of Hy (Iona) , they braved the dangers of the northern seas, and penetrated as far as the Faroes and even far distant Iceland. 4 " Their zeal and success," to quote the words of Kurtz, " are witnessed to by the fact that at the beginning of the 8th century, throughout all the district of the Rhine, as well as Hesse, Thuringia, Bavaria and Alemannia, we find a network of flourishing churches bearing the impress of Celtic institutions." (b) The English Missionaries. — Thus they laid the foundations, aweing the heathen tribes by their indomitable spirit of self- sacrifice and the sternness of their rule of life. But, marvellous as it was, their work lacked the element of permanence; and it 1 Socrates, H.E. i. 15; Sozomen ii. 24; Theodoret i. 22. 2 Socrates, H.E. i. 20 ; Sozomen ii. 7 ; Theodoret i. 24. 8 Theodoret, H.E., v. 30. 4 See A. W. Haddan, " Scots on the Continent," Remains, p. 256. became clear that a more practical system must be devised and carried out. The men for this work were now ready, and the sons of the newly evangelized English Churches were ready to go forth. The energy which warriors were accustomed to put forth in their efforts to conquer was now " exhibited in the enterprise of conversion and teaching " 5 by Wilfrid on the coast of Fries- land, 6 by Willibrord (658-715) in the neighbourhood of Utrecht, 7 by the martyr-brothers Ewald* or Hewald amongst the " old " or continental Saxons, 8 by Swidbert the apostle of the tribes between the Ems and the Yssel, by Adelbert, a prince of the royal house of Northumbria, in the regions north of Holland, by Wursing, a native of Friesland, and one of the disciples of Willibrord, in the same region, and last, not least, by the famous Winfrid or Boniface, the " apostle of Germany " (680-755), wno went forth first to assist Willibrord at Utrecht, then to labour in Thuringia and Upper Hessia, then with the aid of his kinsmen Wunibald and Willibald, their sister Walpurga, and her thirty companions, to consolidate the work of earlier missionaries, and finally to die a martyr on the shore of the Zuider Zee. (c) Scandinavian Missions. — Devoted, however, as were the labours of Boniface and his disciples, all that he and they and the emperor Charlemagne after them achieved for the fierce untutored world of the 8th century seemed to have been done in vain when, in the 9th " on the north and north-west the pagan Scandinavians were hanging about every coast, and pouring in at every inlet ; when on the east the pagan Hungarians were swarming like locusts and devastating Europe from the Baltic to the Alps; when on the south and south-east the Saracens were pressing on and on with their victorious hosts. It seemed then as if every pore of life were choked, and Christendom must be stifled and smothered in the fatal embrace." 9 But the devoted Anskar (801-865) went forth and sought out the Scandinavian viking, and handed on the torch of self-denying zeal to others, who saw, after the lapse of many years, the close of the mono- tonous tale of burning churches and pillaged monasteries, and taught the fierce Northman to learn respect for civilized institutions. 10 The gospel was first introduced into Norway in the 10th century by an Englishman named Hacon, though the real conversion of the country was due to Olaf Tryggvason. About the same time, and largely owing to the exertions of Olaf , Iceland, Greenland and the Orkney and Shetland islands we're also'evangelized. (d) Slavonic Missions. — Thus the " gospel of the kingdom" was successively proclaimed to the Roman, the Celtic, the Teutonic and the Scandinavian world. A contest still more stubborn remained with the Slavonic tribes, with their triple arid many-headed divinities, their powers of good and powers of evil, who could be propitiated only with human sacrifices. Mission work commenced in Bulgaria during the latter part of the 9th century; thence it extended to Moravia, where in 863 two Greek missionaries — Cyril and Methodius — provided for the people a Slavonic Bible and a Slavonic Liturgy; thence to Bohemia and Poland, and so onwards to the Russian kingdom of Ruric the Northman, where about the close of the 10th century the Eastern Church " silently and almost unconsciously bore into the world her mightiest offspring." u But, though the baptism of Vladimir (c. 956-1015) was a heavy blow to Slavonic idolatry, mission work was carried on with but partial success; and it taxed all the energies of Adalbert, bishop of Bremen, of Vicilin, bishop of Oldenburg, of Bishop Otto of Bamberg the apostle of the Pomeranians, of Adalbert the martyr-apostle of Prussia, to spread the word in that country, in Lithuania, and in the territory of the Wends. It was not till n 68 that the gigantic four-headed image of Swantevit was destroyed at Arcona, the capital of the island of Riigen, and this Mona of Slavonic superstition was included in the advancing circle of Christian 6 Church, Gifts of Civilization, p. 330. 6 Bede, H.E. v. 19. 7 " Annal. Xantenses," Pertz, Mon. Germ. ii. 220. 8 Bede, H.E. v. 10. 9 See Lightfoot, Ancient and Modern Missions. 10 See Hard wick, Middle Ages, pp. 1 09- 1 1 4. 11 Stanley, Eastern Church, p. 294. - . , MODERN] MISSIONS 585 civilization. As late as 1230 human sacrifices were still being offered up in Prussia and Lithuania, and, in spite of all the efforts of the Teutonic Knights, idolatrous practices still lingered amongst the people, while amongst the Lapps, though successful missions had been inaugurated as early as 1335, Christianity cannot be said to have become the dominant religion till at least two centuries later. (e) Moslem Missions. — The mejvtion of the order of the Teu- tonic Knights reminds us how the crusading spirit had affected Christendom. Still even then Raimon Lull protested against propagandism by the sword, urged the necessity of missions amongst the Moslems, and sealed his testimony with his blood outside the gates of Bugiah in northern Africa (June 30, 1315). Out of the crusades, however, arose other efforts to develop the work which Nestorian missionaries from Bagdad, Edessa and Nisibis had already inaugurated along the Malabar coast, in the island of Ceylon, and in the neighbourhood of the Caspian Sea. In 1245 the Roman pontiff sent two embassies — one, a party of four Dominicans, sought the commander-in-chief of the Mongol forces in Persia; the second, consisting of Franciscans, made their way into Tartary, and sought to convert the successor of Oktai-Khan. Their exertions were seconded in 1253 by the labours of another Franciscan whom Louis IX. of France sent forth from Cyprus, 1 while in 1274 the celebrated traveller Marco Polo, accompanied by two learned Dominicans, visited the court of .Kublai-Khan,, and at the commencement of the 14th century two Franciscans penetrated as far as Peking, even translating the New Testament and the Psalter into the Tatar language, and training youths for a native ministry. 2 (J) Missions to India and the New World. — These tentative missions were now to be supplemented by others on a larger scale. In 1488 the Cape of Good Hope was rounded by Diaz, and in 1 508 the foundations of the Portuguese Indian empire were laid by Albuquerque. Columbus also in 1492 had landed on San Salvador, and the voyages of the Venetian Cabot along the coast of North America opened up a new world to missionary enterpriser Thus a grand opportunity was given to the churches of Portugal and Spain. But the zeal of the Portuguese took too often a one-sided direction, repressing the Syrian Christians on the Malabar coast, and interfering with the Abyssinian Church, 3 while the fanatic temper of the Spaniard consigned, in Mexico and Peru, multitudes who would not renounce their heathen errors to indiscriminate massacre or abject slavery. 4 Las Casas has drawn a terrible picture of the oppression he strove in vain to prevent. 6 Some steps indeed were taken for disseminating Christian principles, and the pope had induced a band of mission- aries, chiefly of the mendicant orders, to go forth to this new mis- sion field. 6 But only five bishoprics had been established by 1520, and the number of genuine converts was small. However, every vestige of the Aztec worship was banished from the Spanish settlements. 7 (g) The Jesuit Missions. — It was during this period that the Jesuits came into existence. One of the first of Loyola's asso- ciates, Francis Xavier, encouraged by the joint co-operation of the pope and of John III. of Portugal, disembarked at Goa on the 6th of May 1542, and before his death on the Isle of St John (Hiang-Shang) , on the 2nd of December 1552, roused the European Christians of Goa to a new life, laboured with singular success amongst the Paravars, a fisher caste near Cape Comorin, gathered many converts in the kingdom of Travancore, visited Malacca, and fqunded a mission in Japan. The successor of Xavier, Antonio Criminalis, was regarded by the Jesuits as the first martyr of their society (1562). Matteo Ricci, an Italian by birth, was also an indefatigable missionary in China for twenty-seven years, while the unholy compromise 1 Neander vii. 69; Hakluyt 171 ; Hue i. 207. 2 Neander vii. 79; Gieseler iv. 259, 260; Hardwick, Middle Ages, p. 337. 3 Geddes, History of the Church of Malabar, p. 4; Neale, Eastern Church, ii. 343. * Prescott, Conquest of Mexico, i. 318, iii. 218. * Relation de la destruction de las Indias. 6 Prescott, Mexico, iii. 218 n. ' Prescott iii. 219. with Brahminfsm in India followed by Robert de' Nobili was fatal to the vitality of his own and other missions. Others of the same order evangelized Paraguay in 1582, while the Hugue- nots sent forth under a French knight of Malta a body of devoted men to attempt the formation of a Christian colony at Rio Janeiro. By the close of the 16th century a committee of cardinals was appointed under the name of the " Congregatio de propaganda fide," to give unity and solidity to the work of missions. The scheme originated with Gregory XIII., but was not fully organized till forty years afterwards, when Gregory XV. gave it plenary authority by a bull dated the 2nd of June 1622; Gregory's successor, Urban VIII., supplemented the establish- ment of the congregation by founding a great missionary college, where Europeans might be trained for foreign labours, and natives might be educated to undertake mission work. At this college is the missionary printing-press of the Roman Church, and its library contains an unrivalled collection of literary treasures bearing on the work. Modern Missions Missionary Societies. — Modern missionary activity is. dis- tinguished in a special degree by the exertions of societies for the development of mission work. As contrasted with the colossal display of power on the part of the Church of Rome, it must be allowed that the churches which in the 16th century broke off from their allegiance tothfe Latin centre at first showed no great anxiety for the extension of the gospel and the salvation of the heathen. The causes of this are not far to seek. The isolation of the Teutonic churches from the vast system with which they had been bound up, the conflicts and troubles among themselves, the necessity of fixing their own principles and defining their own rights, concentrated, their attention upon themselves and their own home work, to the neglect of work abroad. 8 Still the development of the maritime power of England, which the Portuguese and Spanish monarchies noted with fear and jealousy, was distinguished by a singular anxiety for the spread of the Christian faith. Edward VI. in his instructions to the navigators in Sir Hugh Willoughby's fleet, Sebastian Cabot in those for the direction of the intended voyage to Cathay, and Richard Hakluyt, who promoted many voyages of discovery in addition to writing their history, agree with Sir Humphrey Gilbert^ chronicler that " the sowing of Christianity must be the chief intent of such as shall make any attempt at foreign discovery, or else whatever is builded upon other foundation shall never obtain happy success or continuance." When on the last day of the year 1600 Queen Elizabeth granted a charter to George, earl of Cumberland, and other "adventurers," to be a body-corporate by the name of " The Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading with the East Indies," the expressed recognition of higher duties than those of commerce may by some be deemed a mere matter of form, and, to use the words of Bacon, " what was first in God's providence was but second in man's appetite and intention." Yet a keen sense of missionary duty marks many of the chronicles of English mariners. Notably was this the case with the establishment of the first English colony in America, that of Virginia, by Sir Walter Raleigh. The philosopher Thomas Harriot (1560-1621), one of his colleagues, laboured for the conversion of the natives, amongst whom the first baptism is recorded to have taken place on the 13th of August 1 s87. 9 Raleigh himself presented as a part- ing gift to the Virginian Company the sum of £100 "for the pro- pagation of the Christian religion " in that settlement. 10 When James I. granted letters patent for the occupation of Virginia it was directed that the " word and service of God be preached, 8 We must not, however, overlook the remarkable appeal made by Erasmus in the first book of his treatise on the art of preaching (Ecclesiastes sive concionator evangelicus) . The salient passages are quoted in G. Smith, Short History of Christian Missions, pp. 1 16-1 18 ; Gustavus Vasa in 1559 made an effort to educate and evangelize the Lapps. 9 Hakluyt, Voyages, iii. 345. 10 Oldy, Life of Raleigh, p. 1 18. 5 86 MISSIONS [MODERN planted and used as well in the said colonies as also as much as might be among the savages bordering among them "; and the honoured names of Nicolas Ferrar, John Ferrar, John Donne and Sir John Sandys, a pupil of Hooker, are all found on the council by which the home management of the colony was conducted. In the year 1618 was published The True Honour of Navigation and Navigators, by John Wood, D.D., dedicated to Sir Thomas Smith, governor to the East India Company, and about the same time appeared the well-known treatise of Hugo Grotius, De veritate religionis christianae, written for the ex- press use of settlers in distant lands. Grotius also persuaded seven law students of Liibeck to go to the East as missionaries; the best known of them was Peter Heiling, who worked for 20 years in Abyssinia. A good deal of work was done by Dutch evangelists in Java, the Moluccas, Formosa and Ceylon, but it was not permanent. The wants, moreover, of the North American colonies did not escape the attention of Archbishop Laud during his official connexion with them as bishop of London, and he was developing a plan for promoting a local episcopate there when his troubles began and his scheme was interrupted. During the Protectorate, in 1649, an ordinance was passed for " the promoting and propa- gating of the gospel of Jesus Christ in New England " by the erection of a corporation, to be called by the name of the Presi- dent and Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in New England, to receive and dispose of moneys for the purpose, and a general collection was ordered to be made in all the parishes of England and Wales; and Cromwell himself devised a scheme for setting up a council for the Protestant religion, which should rival the Roman Propaganda, and consist of seven councillors and four secretaries for different provinces. 1 On the restoration of the monarchy, through the influence of Richard Baxter with Lord Chancellor Hyde, the charter already granted by Cromwell was renewed, and its powers were enlarged. For now the cor- poration was styled " The Propagation of the Gospel in New England and the parts adjacent in America," and its object was defined to be " not only to seek the outward welfare and pros- perity of those colonies, but more especially to endeavour the good and salvation of their immortal souls, and the publishing the most glorious gospel of Christ among them." On the list of the corporation the first name is the earl of Clarendon, while the Hon. Robert Boyle was appointed president. Amongst the most eminent of its missionaries was the celebrated John Eliot, the Puritan minister of Roxbury, Massachusetts, who, encouraged and financially assisted by Boyle, brought out the Bible in the Indian language in 1661-1664. Boyle displayed in other ways his zeal for the cause of missions. He contributed to the expense of printing and publishing at Oxford the four Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles in the Malay language, and at his death left £5400 for the propagation of the gospel in heathen lands. The needs of the colonial church soon excited the attention of others. George Fox, the Quaker, wrote to " All Friends every- where that have Indians or blacks, to preach the Gospel to them and their servants." Great efforts were made by William Beveridge (1637-1708), bishop of St Asaph, William Wake (1657-1737), archbishop of Canterbury, John Sharp (1645-1714), archbishop of York, Edmund Gibson (1669-1748), bishop of London, and afterwards by the philosophic Bishop Berkeley, and Bishop Butler, the famous author of the Analogy, to develop the colonial church and provide for the wants of the Indian tribes. In 1696 Dr Thomas Bray, at the request of the governor and assembly of Maryland, was selected by the bishop of London as ecclesiastical commissary; and, having sold his effects, and raised money on credit, he sailed for Maryland in 1699, where he promoted, in various ways, the interests of the Church. Return- ing to England in 1 700-1 701, and supported by all the weight of Archbishop Tenison and Henry Compton, bishop of London, he was graciously received by William III., and received letters 1 Neale, History of New England, i. 260; Burnet, History of his own Times, i. 132 (" Everyman's Library " ed., p. 27). patent under the great seal of England for creating a corporation by the name of the " Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts " on the 16th of June 1701. Meanwhile, in 1664, Von Welz, an Austrian baron, issued a stirring appeal to the Church at large for a special association devoted to extending the evangelical religion and converting the heathen. He was told that each Christian country should be responsible for its non-Christian neighbours, e.g. the Greeks for the Turks, and that as for the heathen it was no good casting pearls before swine. Finding no better response, he went him- self as a missionary to Dutch Guiana. The opening of the 18th century saw other movements set on foot. Thus in 1705 Frederick IV. of Denmark founded a mission on the Coromandel coast, and inaugurated the labours of Bartholomew Ziegenbalg, Henry Plutschau and C. F. Schwartz, whose devotion and success told with such remarkable reflex influence on the Church at home. Again in 1731 the Moravians (q. v.) illustrated in a signal degree the growing consciousness of obligation towards the heathen. Driven by persecution from Moravia, hunted into mountain-caves and forests, they had scarcely secured a place of refuge in Saxony before, " though a mere handful in numbers, yet with the spirit of men banded for daring and righteous deeds, they formed the heroic design, and vowed the execution of it before God, of bearing the gospel to the savage and perishing tribes of Greenland and the West Indies, of whose condition report had brought a mournful rumour to their ears. " And so, literally with " neither bread nor scrip," they went forth on their pilgrimage, and, incredible as it sounds, within ten years they had established missions in the islands of the West Indies, in South America, Surinam, Greenland, among the North Ameri- can tribes, in Lapland, Tartary, Algiers, Guinea, the Cape of Good Hope and Ceylon. 2 Up till this time all missionary enter- prises had been more or less connected with the state. The era of modern missions, based on associate organizations, begins with William Carey (q.v.), and is closely connected with the great evangelical revival of the latter part of the 18th century. That revival had intensified the idea of the worth of the individual soul, whether Christian or heathen, and " to snatch even one brand from the burning " became a dominant impulse. In 1792, Carey, a Baptist, who was not only a cobbler, but a linguist of the highest order, a botanist and zoologist, published his Enquiry into the Obligations of Christians to use Means for the Conversion of the Heathens, and the book marks a distinct point of departure in the history of Christianity. Under its influence twelve minis- ters at Kettering in October 1792 organized the Baptist Society for Propagating the Gospel among the Heathen, and subscribed £13, 2s. 6d. In June 1793 Carey was on his way to India. Letters from him quickened interest outside his own communion, and in the autumn of 1794 a meeting of Evangelical ministers of all denominations resolved to appeal to their churches, especi- ally with a view to work being started in the South Sea Islands. The chief movers in the enterprise were the Congregationalist, David Bogue of Gosport, and the Episcopalian, Thomas Haweis, rector of Aldwinkle, Northamptonshire. With them were associated Wesleyan and Presbyterian divines, and in September 1795 the London Missionary Society, emphasizing no one form of church government, was formed. £10,000 was subscribed by June 1796, and in August 29 missionaries sailed for Tahiti. Societies formed in Glasgow and Edinburgh in the spring of the same year gave their attention to the continent of Africa. The need of this continent was also the means of creating the distinctively Anglican organization known as the Church Missionary Society. The evangelical movement had produced philanthropists like Wilberforce and Granville Sharp, and the Eclectic Society, a group of clergy and laymen who fell to dis- cussing the new missionary movements. In April 1 799, under the guidance of John Venn and Thomas Scott, was established the Church Missionary Society, originally known as the " Society for Missions to Africa and the East." Its promoters declared their intention of maintaining cordial relations with Nonconformist 2 J. B. Holmes, Hist. Sketches of the Missions of the United Brethren, p. 3; A. Grant, Bampton Lectures (1843), p. 190. MODERN] MISSIONS 587 missionary societies, and this has largely been done, the older Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, manned by " High " Churchmen, standing more aloof. In 1814 the Wes- leyan Missionary Society was formed, Methodist effort of this kind having previously been left to the individual enterprise of Dr Thomas Coke. Thus shorn of two chief bodies of sup- porters, and Presbyterians in England being then comparatively few, the London Missionary Society became in effect a Congre- gationalist organization, though it has never departed from the broad spirit of its founders. In Scotland Robert Haldane sold his estate and devoted £25,000 to the cause; with others he would have gone to India himself but for the prohibition of the East India Company, one of whose directors said he would rather see a band of devils in India than a band of missionaries. What Carey did for England was largely done for Scotland by Alex- ander Duff, who settled in Calcutta in 1830, and was a pioneer of higher education in India. On the Continent the Basel Mission (1815) grew out of a society founded in 1780 to discuss the general condition of Christianity; " Father " Janicke, a Bohemian preacher in Berlin, founded a training school which supplied many men to the Church Missionary Society and the London Missionary Society; and Van der Kemp, who pioneered the London Missionary Society work in South Africa, organized in 1797 the Netherland Missionary Society, which turned its attention chiefly to Dutch Colonial possessions. In America as in England the sense of individual responsibility had been developed. In 1796 and 1797 respectively the New York and the Northern societies were formed for work among Indians by Presbyterians, Baptists and Reformed Dutch, acting in concert. News of the London Society stimulated interest in New England, and in 1806 Andover Seminary was founded as a missionary training college. In the same year Samuel J. Mills, Gordon Hall and James Richards, three students at Williams College, Massachusetts, formed themselves into a mission band which ultimately became the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (June 1810), an organization which, like the London Mission, originally undenominational and still catholic, has become practically Congregational. The first offshoot from it was the American Baptist Missionary Union in 1814. The following chronological lists illustrate the growth of missionary societies in Britain and the United States : — Great Britain and Ireland. 1691. Christian Faith Society for the West Indies. 1698 Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. 1 701 Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. 1732. Moravian Missions. 1792. Baptist Missionary Society. 1795. London Missionary Society. 1796. Scottish Missionary Society. 1799. Church Missionary Society. 1799. Religious Tract Society. 1804. British and Foreign Bible Society. 1808. London Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews. 1813. Wesleyan Missionary Society. 1817. General Baptist Missionary Society. 1823. Colonial and Continental Church Society. 1825. Church of Scciiand Mission Boards. National Bible Society of Scotland. 1 83 1. Trinitarian Bible Society. 1832. Wesleyan Ladies' Auxiliary for Female Education in Foreign Countries. 1835. United Secession (afterwards United Presbyterian) Foreign Missions. 1836. Colonial Missionary Society. 1840. Irish Presbyterian Missionary Society. 1840. Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Missionary Society. 1841. Colonial Bishoprics Fund. 1 841. Edinburgh Medical Missionary Society. 1843. British Society for the Propagation of the Gospel among the Jews. (843. Free Church of Scotland Missions. /843. Primitive Methodist African and Colonial Missions. Methodist New Connexion in England Foreign Missions. 1844. South American Missionary Society. 1847. Presbyterian Church in England Foreign Missions. 1858. Christian Vernacular Education Society for India. i860. Central African Mission of the English Universities. *862. China Inland Mission. 1865. Friends' Foreign Mission Association. 1866. Delhi Female Medical Mission. 1867. Friends' Mission in Syria and Palestine. 1876. Cambridge Mission to Delhi. 1880. Church of England Zenana Missionary Society. 1884. Presbyterian Mission to Korea. 1892. Student Volunteer Missionary Union. United States of America. 1 733- Corporation for the Propagation of the Gospel in New England. 1787. Society for Propagating the Gospel among the Indians at Boston. 1795. Friends' Missionary Society. 1800. New York Missionary Society. Connecticut Missionary Society for Indians. 1803. United States Mission to the Cherokees. 1806. Western Missionary Society for Indians. 1810. Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. 1 8 14. Baptist Missionary Union. 1819. Methodist Episcopal Church Missionary Society. 1833. Free-will Baptist Foreign Missionary Society in India. 1835. Foreign Missions of the Protestant Episcopal Church. 1837. Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church (North). 1837. Evangelical Lutheran Foreign Missionary Society. 1842. Seventh Day Baptist Missionary Society. Strict Baptist Missionary Society. 1843. Baptist Free Missionary Society. 1845. Methodist Episcopal Church (South). 1845. Southern Baptist Convention. 1846. American Missionary Association. 1857. Board of Foreign Missions of (Dutch) Reformed Church; 1859. Board of Foreign Missions of United Presbyterian Church. 1862. Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Churc ,p > (South). 1878. Evangelical Association Missionary Society. 1886. Student Volunteer Missionary Union. It is not possible to follow in detail the history of the hundred or more organized societies of some size that have thus come into being since the end of the 1 8th century, still less that of the three or four hundred smaller agencies. 1 It may be noted, however, that the enter- prise has followed certain more or less clearly defined lines. These are described as follows by Dr E. M. Bliss, editor of the Encyclopaed-H of Missions. 1. The Denominational. — The course of denominational work may be seen in the way in which the London Society and the American Board were gradually left to the Congregationalists, it being recog- nized that while fraternity was maintained, the widest tesults could only be obtained as appeal was made directly to the members of each separate denomination. To some extent a similar development is traceable m other lands. In Germany the Rhenish Society (1825) became independent of the Basel Mission, but like it and the Berlin Society founded by Neander and Tholuck has preserved a broad basis and inclades both Lutheran and Reformed constituents. The North German or Bremen Society split into a strict Lutheran or Leipzig agency and the Hermannsburg Mission, which aimed at a more primitive and apostolic method. In Denmark, the Danish Missionary Society, founded by Pastor Bone Falck Ronne in 182I, worked through the Moravian and Basel societies until 1862, when it began independent work and concentrated on the Tamil population of South India. In Norway and Sweden missionary activity kept pace with the development of the national life ; in the former country the Free Church, in the latter the State Church has been the most successful agency. In Holland a religious revival in 1846 led to the foundation of several organizations which supplemented the work of the original Netherland Missionary Society. In France protestant missionary effort began after the overthrow of the empire, and in 1822 several isolated committees united to form the Soci£te des Missions Evange- liques, better known as the Paris Evangelical Society. In Tahiti, Madagascar and other fields this society has largely taken over work begun by the London Society, whose operations were viewed with suspicion by the French government. 2. Collateral Aid. — Side by side with the founding of the great missionary societies, Bible and Tract societies sprang up. The dates are significant: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. (1698), Religious Tract and Book Society of Scotland (1793), Religious Tract Society in London (1799), British' and Foreign Bible Society (1804), American Bible Society (1816), American Tract Society (1823). (See further Bible Societies.) Medical Missions have not been so much collateral organizations as departments of the work of the general societies, and the same is generally true of women's missions. Both of these will be discussed in more detail. 3. Independent and Special Agencies. — The individual element that was so marked a feature in Carey's generation has never vanished, in spite of the tendency to central control. J. Hudson Taylor in 1853 went to China as the agent of a number of folk in England who feared that missionary work was becoming too mechanical. His aim was to push inland and to work through native evangelists. Out of his endeavours sprang a new organization, the China Inland 1 For complete directory see Statistical Atlas of Foreign Missions (1910). 5 88 MISSIONS [MODERN /. British. Mission; and similar undenominational societies, e.g. the Regions Beyond Missionary Union in England, and the Christian and Missionary Alliance in America, have since been founded. Other individual enterprises have been launched by persons or single churches, but such have not usually flourished for any length of time, their workers gradually attaching themselves to the larger associations. Protestant Missions. — It is generally agreed that the period since 1885 has witnessed a very marked increase of missionary zeal and interest in Great Britain, both in the Church of England and among the Nonconformists. The improvement, indeed, dates back somewhat earlier. So far as the Church of England is concerned it may fairly be said to have started afresh in the year following the first observance of the Day of Intercession for Missions, on the 20th of December 1872. Both the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel and the Church Missionary Society were at that time suffering from a general coldness which, in the case of the latter society, had led in that very year to the committee reporting " a failing treasury and a scanty supply of men." The observance of that first Day of Intercession was followed by an immediate change, and unquestionably there has been progress ever since. Then, less than five months afterwards, David Livingstone died at Ilala; and no event of the whole century did so much to wake up Protestant Christendom. Most of the missions in Central Africa owe their origin to the spirit it aroused. But the year 1884 was also an epoch to be marked. In that year Bishop Hannington went to Africa; and his murder in 1885 (first reported in England on New Year's Day, 1886) deeply touched the Christian conscience. The speedy publication of E. C. Dawson's biography of him worked a revolution in the circulation of mis- sionary literature. Another event of 1884-1885 was the going forth to China of " The Cambridge Seven," in connexion with the China Inland Mission. All were men of good family; some of them went at their own charges; and among them were the stroke-oar of the University Eight (Mr Stanley Smith) and the captain ofithe University Eleven (Mr C. T. Studd). Probably no event of recent years has exercised a wider influence in the cause of missions. In particular, university graduates have since then gone out as missionaries in much larger numbers than before. There are now five missions definitely linked with the universities. The Central African Mission (1858), indeed, is not for the most part manned by graduates, though it is led by them ; but the Cambridge Mission at Delhi (1878), the Oxford Mission at Calcutta (1880), and the Dublin Missions in Chota Nagpur (Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, 1891) and the Fuh-Kien Province of China (Church Missionary Society, 1887) consist of university men. Moreover, the older and larger societies have much increased the proportion of graduates on their staffs. The cause of missions in the universities has been fostered greatly by the Student Volunteer Missionary Movement, initiated in America in 1886, and organized in England in 1892. The Union has over 3000 members (of whom 1400 have gone to the field), and has adopted as its watchword, " The Evangelization of the World in this Generation"; and this motto has been approved by several bishops and other Christian leaders. An- other influence upon university men and others who have taken holy orders is that of the Younger Clergy Union of the Church Missionary Society (1885) and the Junior Clergy Association of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (1891). At the same time there has been a great accession of men to the mission- ary ranks from among other classes of society. The Anglican societies and the regular and older Nonconformist societies (Methodist, Baptist, Presbyterian and the London Missionary Society, which is virtually Congregationalist) have shared in these humbler recruits; but a large proportion of them have joined several younger " non-denominational " or " inter- denominational " missions. Of these the China Inland Mission is the largest and most influential; and while it has sent forth many of this class, it has also enrolled not a few men and women of considerable wealth, education and social status. The South Africa General Mission, the North Africa Mission, and the Congo Balolo Mission come next in importance; but there are several smaller bodies working in different countries. The Salvation Army also has missions in India, Ceylon and Japan; but these cannot be called " non-denominational," because the Army has gradually become a very strict denomination itself. There is one Anglican society working, like some of those just men- tioned, in one particular field, viz. the South American Missionary Society, founded in 1844. Many foreign dioceses also have associations in England for their lielp and support. Medical men have come forward in increasing numbers for mis- sionary service, and medical missions are now regarded as a very important branch of the work of evangelization. They are especially valuable in Mahommedan countries, where open preaching is difficult and sometimes impossible, and also in works of mercy among barbarous tribes; while in China, which comes under neither of these two categories, they have been largely developed. There are 980 doctors (most of them fully qualified) labouring in British and American missions; and in 1910 it was calculated that the in-patients in mission hospitals exceeded 160,000, while the visits of out-patients in a year were about 5,000,000. In several of the great London hospitals there are missionary associations, the members of which are medical students; but a chief source of supply in the past has been the Edinburgh Medical Mission, founded in 1841, which, while* working among the poor in that city, has trained many young doctors for missionary service. The most remarkable development of missionary enterprise has been the employment of women. From an early date many of the wives of missionaries have done good service; but the going forth of single women in any appreciable number has only been encouraged by the societies in the last quarter of the 19th century. The Society for Promoting Female Education in the East (now absorbed by others, chiefly by the Church Missionary Society) was founded in 1834; the Scottish Ladies' Association for the Advancement of Female Education in India (which subsequently became two associations, for more general work, in connexion with the Established and Free Churches of Scotland respectively) in 1837; the Indian Female Normal School Society (now the Zenana Bible and Medical Mission) in 1861 (taking over an association dating from 1852) ; the Wesleyan Ladies' Auxiliary in 1859; the Women's Association of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, and the Baptist Zenana Mission, in 1867; The London Society's Female Branch, in 1875; the Church of England Zenana Society (an offshoot from the Indian Female Society) in 1880. But the earlier of these organi- zations only contemplated employing women for educational work on a very small scale. Out of it grew the visitation oi Indian zenanas. The employment of women in general evan- gelistic work, such as village itineration, house-to-house visiting in towns, classes for female inquirers, training of native female workers, &c, although recent, has rapidly extended. The Church Missionary Society, besides relying on the above-named Zenana Bible and Medical Mission and Church of England Zenana Missionary Society for women's work at several of its stations in India and China, sent out 500 single women in the fifteen years ending 1900; and the non-denominational missions above referred to have (including wives) more women than men engaged in their work — especially the China Inland Mission, which has sent out several hundreds to China. Women's work and medical work are combined in the persons of nearly 300 fully-qualified lady doctors in various missions. Although nearly half the male missionaries (Protestant) are unmarried, these are exceeded in number by the unmarried women; and consequently, the husbands and wives being equal, the aggregate of women in the Missions is greater than the aggregate of men. The home organization of missions is a subject that has been much considered. The bulk of the work has been done by volun- tary societies, membership in which depends upon a pecuniary subscription, and the administration of which is entrusted to elected committees. These committees comprise not only real experts, such as retired veteran missionaries, and retired civil and military officers who have been active friends of missions while on foreign service, but also leading clergyman and laymen MODERN] MISSIONS 589 who, though not personally acquainted with the mission fields, become almost equal experts by continuous attendance and care- ful study. In the case of the two leading Church of England societies, the bishops (being members) axe ex officio on all execu- tive committees; but their labours in other directions prevent their ordinarily attending. The numerous non-denominational missions previously referred to are differently worked. There is no membership by subscription, nor any elected committee. The " mission " consists of the missionaries themselves, and they are governed by a " director," with possibly small advisory councils in the field and at home, the latter undertaking the duty of engaging missionaries and raising funds. On the other hand, there is a growing sense that missions should be the work of the Church in its corporate capacity, and not of voluntary associations. This is the system of the Presby- terian Churches, the missions of which are entirely controlled by the General Assemblies in Edinburgh, Belfast and London respectively. The Wesleyan Society also is under the authority of the Conference. In the Church of England the question was broached in Convocation, shortly after the revival of that body, in 1859; and during the next few years many suggestions were p Sis >; w^w4t ,! „ l\°.V'»v : \ i? pniversityBusfrVo \ \Jj^../L_£\ :% \ fit 'oaitiutLSl U-; ^ V. PUnltrsv *fSta art Oil »:\ , r Amory_yiJ OLU vU fi M /v5« w JfA?'!?".: ^fic-ona'- o • & Cbhti^)^^ i*S& ' :.B%.?.?Br.'S«.o"6' b/. ifeiftompellctt; 5 M/Jifon?^?..".?;' ■ li. fclc.cSSo H^«" ll "*%Al.i B y(/ . iblitto i 1 .../. . J -Jefferson • "SfYV^J?-~4i- , »Sfe;o ^"^o " op.lC'Vk .1/ VIA' J Si«»ni i SU&hV t i , i nS^^uWb^ \Stari5afej«#« : ^TsuuTHEBtiran-^ntond Mi" -1 .-•' jCA R,R L L" fSt_ ' jDuMnt 'fg --. ^Kosciusko June; /Eden-" ' ' l*'?A j'?t$ pYXi Z ^W/»- i V^fiVrt>A" i LVE\»SJSi^tA ■■;'& ■^S^^^^-kAX^mmmA ..sir: j i*^««?si-k D ' if ""'iVWrooiyHl* .Cliftonvitl^ 'SIT 0(K_ ; i" o i!? a c^ I > Y v „ i Hake ?fovi /^Flpyd^ J Fieri" •■^ ; -J "• '-"""'Ai L ■ "- Wahalak^ BihnsSGlle ; ° Preston I ' . — . « . : \. 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JWhistl^ ., _ ^ E' i S i \W A \Yv^ -S S ^ve^ i ^fr^Dcn^ CO t VIN ¥ OH ^ aybelI >^\^ t oi Wincfertt ' - l " ^S :. ^„.„}^„. „Tjo Estabutchic W^ # _ : <^/f.„..f^ State.Ufie.^ rrv : i »-"7T>^¥* \^lAtiAiVi H i , T i,,e '\)lt^' lieaf^ County Seats s County Boundaries, .• ••. Railways ***~ ■^Luinberjsri' *" , / , i/HilfsSaVi^'^V f OrvisbiTrg JS { i : .TS.\... .^.X^ - PSpfcyilli j (SMl"",* \ v #y,E\RA.^\ /;'«< * } \ Mc. Henry '^f representatives, and a majority of both the electoral and the popular vote is required. If no one has such a majority, the house of representatives chooses one of the two who have received the highest number of popular votes; but this is really a provision never executed, as the Democratic nominees are always elected without any serious opposition. The governor is empowered to call extraordinary sessions of the legislature, to grant pardons and reprieves, and to exercise a power of veto which extends to items in appropriation bills; a two-thirds majority of the legislature is necessary to pass a bill over his veto. His appointing power is not very extensive, as nearly all officials, except judges, are elected by popular vote. The legislature consists of a senate and a house of represen- tatives, chosen every four years. It meets in regular session quadrennially, in special sessions in the middle of the interval to pass the appropriation and revenue bills, and in extraordinary session whenever the governor sees fit to call it. Revenue mea- sures may originate in either house, but a three-fifths vote in each is necessary to their enactment. The constitution goes into minute detail in prohibiting local, private and special legislation. The judiciary consists of a supreme court of three judges, thirteen (1908) circuit courts, seven (1908) chancery courts, county courts and justice of the peace courts. Under the con- stitution of 1890 the governor, with the consent of the senate, appoints supreme court judges for a term of nine years, and circuit and chancery judges for four years. The local judicial authorities are the County board of supervisors of five members and the justices of the peace. The other county officials are the sheriff, coroner, treasurer, assessor, surveyor and superintendent of education. The superintendent is chosen by the state board of education except in those counties (now all or nearly all) in which the legislature has made the office elective. The courts have interpreted this to mean that the manner of selection need not be uniform (Wynn v. State, 67 Miss. 312), a rule which would possibly apply to other local offices. The intention seemed to be to permit the appointment of officials in counties and districts where there was any likelihood of negro supremacy. Mississippi has taken a leading part in the movement to bring about the removal of the common law disabilities of married women, the first statute for that purpose having been passed in 1839. Under the present constitution they are " fully emancipated from all dis- ability on account of coverture," and are placed on an equality with their husbands in acquiring and disposing of property and in making contracts relative thereto. A divorce may be granted only to one who has lived for at least one year in the state ; among the recognized causes for divorce are desertion for two years, cruelty, insanity or physical incapacity at time of marriage, habitual drunkenness or excessive use of opium or other drugs, and the conviction of either party of felony. The homestead of a householder (with a family) who occupies it may be held exempt from sale for the collection of debts other than those for purchase-money, taxes, or improvements, or for the satisfaction of a judgment upon a forfeited recognizance or bail-bond, but a homestead so exempted is limited to $3000 in value and to 160 acres of land. A considerable amount of personal property, including furniture, a small library, provisions, tools, agri- cultural implements, livestock and the proceeds of a life insurance policy, is also exempt from seizure for the satisfaction of debts. Since 1909 the sale of intoxicating liquors has been prohibited by statute. Penal and Charitable Institutions. — The penitentiary at Jackson was established under an Act of 1836, was erected in 1838-1839, was Opened in 1840, was burned by the Federals in 1863, and was rebuilt in 1866-1867. The board of control is composed of the governor, attorney-general and the three railroad commissioners. The convict lease system was abolished by the constitution of 1890 (the provision to take effect on the 31st of December 1894), and state farms were purchased in Rankin, Hinds and Holmes counties. As these were insufficient to give employment to all the prisoners, some were put to work on Yazoo Delta plantations on partnership con- tracts. Under an act of 1900, however, 13,889 acres of land were purchased in Sunflower county; and there and at Tchula, Holmes county, and at Oakley, Hinds county, the negro convicts — the white convicts are on the Rankin county farm— are kept on several large plantations, with saw-mills, cotton gins, &c. Under a law of 1906 these farm penitentiaries are controlled by a board of three trustees, elected by the people; they are managed by a superintendent. 6o2 MISSISSIPPI appointed once every four years by the governor. The charitable institutions of the state are supervised by separate boards of trustees appointed by the governor. The state insane hospital, opened at Jackson in 1856 (act of 1848), in time became overcrowded and the East Mississippi insane hospital was opened, 2 m. west of Meridian in 1885 (act of 1882). The state institution for the education of the deaf and dumb (1854) and the state institution for the blind (1848) are at Jackson. State aid is given to the hospitals at Vicksburg and Natchez. Education. — Educational interests were almost entirely neglected during the colonial and territorial periods. The first school estab- lished in the state was Jefferson College, now Jefferson Military College, near Natchez, Adams county, incorporated in 1802. Charters were granted to schools in Claiborne, Wilkinson and Amite counties in 1809-1815, and to Port Gibson Academy and Mississippi College, at Clinton, in 1826. The public school system, established in 1846, never was universal, because of special legislation for various counties; public education was retarded during the Civil War and the Reconstruction period (when immense sums appropriated for schools were grossly mismanaged), but conditions gradually improved after 1875, especially through the concentration of schools. The sessions are still too short, teachers are poorly paid and attendance is voluntary. The long lack of normal training for white teachers (from 1870 to 1904 there was a normal school for negroes at Holly Springs) lasted until 1890, when a teacher's training course was introduced into the curriculum of the state university. There are separate schools for whites and blacks, and the equipment and service are approximately equal, although the whites pay about nine-tenths of the school taxes. The schools are subject to the supervision of a state superintendent of public education and of a board of education, composed of the superintendent, the secretary of state, and the attorney-general, and within each county to a county superintendent. The schools are supported by a poll-tax, by general appropriations, by local levies, and by the Chickasaw school fund. An act of Congress of the 3rd of March 1803 reserved from sale section sixteen of the public lands in each township for educational purposes. When the Chickasaws ceded their lands to the national government, in 1830 and in i832,thestatemadeaclaim to the sixteenth sections, and finally in 1856 received 174,550 acres — one thirty-sixth of the total cession of 6,283,804 acres. The revenue derived from the sales and leases of this land constitutes an endowment fund upon which the state as trustee pays 6 % interest. It is used for the support of the schools in the old Chickasaw territory in the northern part of the state. Among the institutions for higher education are the university of Mississippi (chartered 1844; opened 1848), at Oxford, which was opened to women in 1882; the Agricultural and Mechanical College (opened 1880), at Agricultural College, near Starkville, Oktibbeha county; the Industrial Institute and College for Girls (opened 1885), at Columbus; and the Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical College for negroes (1871; reorganized in 1878), at Westside. In 1819 Congress granted thirty-six sections of public land for the establish- ment of a university. This land was sold in 1833 for $277,332.52, but the entire sum was lost in the failure of the Planters' Bank in 1840. In 1880 the stace assumed liability for the full amount plus interest, and this balance, $544,061.23, now constitutes an endow- ment fund, upon which the state pays 6% interest. Congress granted another township (thirty-six sections) for the university in 1892, and its income is supplemented by legislative appropria- tions for current expenses and special needs. The two agricultural and mechanical colleges were founded by the sale of public lands given by Congress under the Morrill Act of 1862. An agricultural experiment station established in 1887 under the Hatch Act, is at Agricultural College; and there are branch experiment stations at McNeill, Pearl River county (1906), near Holly Springs, and at Stonevilie, near Greenville. Finance.— The chief sources of revenue are taxes on realty, personalty and corporations, a poll-tax, and licences. The more important expenditures are for public schools, state departments, educational and charitable institutions and pensions for Con- federate veterans. The early financial history of the state is not very creditable. The Bank of Mississippi, at Natchez, incorporated by the Territorial legislature in 1809, was rechartered by the state in 1818, and was guaranteed a monopoly of the banking business until 1840. In violation of this pledge, and in the hope that a new bank would be more tractable than the Bank of Mississippi, the Planters' Bank was established at Natchez, in 1830, with a capital of $3,000,000, two-thirds of which was subscribed by the state. During the wild era of speculation which followed (especially in 1832 — upon the open- ing of the Chickasaw Cession to settlement) a large number of banks and railroad corporations with banking privileges were chartered. The climax was reached in 1838 with the incorporation of the Union Bank. This, the most pretentious of all the state banks of the period, was capitalized at $15,500,000. The state subscribed $5,000,000, which was raised on bonds sold to Nicholas Biddle, president of the United States Bank of Pennsylvania. As the Union Bank was founded in the midst of a financial panic and was mismanaged, its failure was a foregone conclusion. Agitation for repudiation was begun by Governor A. G. McNutt (1801-1848), and that question became the chief issue in the gubernatorial campaign of 1841, Tilghman M. Tucker (1802-1859), the Democratic candidate, repre- senting the repudiators and David O. Shattuck, Whig, representing the anti-repudiators. The Democrats were successful, and the bonds were formally repudiated in 1842. In 1853 the High Court of Appeals and Errors of the state in the case of Mississippi v. Hezion Johnson (35 Miss. Reports, 625) decided unanimously that nothing could absolve the state from its obligation. The decision was disre- garded, however, and in the same year the Planters' Bank bonds were also repudiated by popular vote. These acts of repudiation were sanctioned by the constitution of 1890. The $7,000,000 saved in this manner has doubtless been more than offset by the additional interest charges on subsequent loans, due to the loss of public con- fidence. Mississippi suffered less than most of the other Southern states during the Reconstruction period; but expenditures rose from $463,219.71 in 1869 to $1,729,046.34 in 1871. At the close of the Republican regime in 1876 its total indebtedness was $2,631,704.24, of which $814,743 belonged to the Chickasaw fund (see above) and $718,946.22 to the general school fund. As ' the principal of these funds is never to be paid, the real debt was slightly over $1,000,000. On the 1st of October 1907 the payable debt was $1,253,029.07, the non-payable $2,336, 197. 58, 1 a total 01 $31589,226.65. Since the Civil War the banking laws have become more stringent and the national banks have exercised a wholesome influence. There were, in 1906, 24 national banks and 269 state banks, but no trust companies, private banks or savings banks. History. — At the beginning of the 16th century the territory- included in the present state of Mississippi was inhabited by three powerful native tribes: the Natchez in the south-west, the Choctaws in the south-east and centre, and the Chickasaws in the north. In addition, there were the Yazoos in the Yazoo valley, the Pascagoulas, the Biloxis, and a few weaker tribes on the borders of the Mississippi Sound. The history of Mississippi may be divided into the period of exploration (1540- 1699), the period of French rule (1699-1763), the period of English rule (1763-1781), the period of Spanish rule (1781- 1798), the territorial period (1798-1817), and the period of statehood (1817 seq.). Hernando de Soto (q.v.) and a body of Spanish adventurers crossed the Tombigbee river, in December 1540, near the present city of Columbus, marched through the north part of the state, and reached the Mississippi river near Memphis in 1541. In 1673 a French expedition organized in Canada under Jacques Mar- quette and Louis Joliet sailed down the Mississippi to the mouth of the Arkansas, and nine years later (1682) Rene Robert Cave- lier, sieur de la Salle, reached the mouth of the river, took formal possession of the country which it drains, and named it Louisiana in honour of Louis XIV. The first European settle- ment in Mississippi was founded in 1699 by Pierre Lemoyne, better known as Iberville, at Fort Maurepas (Old Biloxi) on the north side of Biloxi Bay, in what is now Harrison county. The site proving unfavourable, the colony was transferred to Twenty- seven Mile Bluff, on the Mobile River, in 1 702, and later to Mobile (1710). The oldest permanent settlements in the state are. (New ) Biloxi (c. 171 2), situated across the bay from Old Biloxi and nearer to the Gulf, and Natchez or Fort Rosalie (1716). During the next few years Fort St Peter and a small adjoining colony were established on the Yazoo River in Warren county, and some attempts at settlement were made on Bay St Louis and Pascagoula Bay. The efforts (1712-1721) to foster coloni- zation and commerce through trading corporations established by Antoine Crozat and John Law failed, and the colony soon came again under the direct control of the king. It grew very slowly, partly because of the hostility of the Indians and partly because of the incapacity of the French as .colonizers. In 1729-1730 the Natchez tribe destroyed Fort St Peter, and some of the small outposts, and almost destroyed the Fort Rosalie (Natchez) settlement. At the close of the Seven Years' W T ar (1763) France ceded to Great Britain all her territory east of the Mississippi except New Orleans, and Spain ceded Florida to Great Britain. By a royal proclamation (Oct. 7, 1763) these new possessions were divided into East Florida and West Florida, the latter lying S. of the 31st parallel and W. of the Chattahoochee and Apalachicola rivers. Crown orders of 1764 and 1767 extended the limits N. to 1 The increase is due mainly to the assumption of the university obligations in 1880. MISSISSIPPI 603 a line due E. from the mouth of the Yazoo at about 32 28' N. lat. Under English rule there was an extensive immigration into this region from England, Ireland, Georgia and South Carolina. A settlement was made on the Big Black, 17 m. froin its mouth, in 1774 by Phineas Lyman (1716-1774) of Connecticut and other " military adventurers," veterans of the Havana cam- paign of 1762; this settlement was loyal during the War of Independence. Spain took military possession in 1781, and in the Treaty of Paris (1783) both of the Floridas were ceded back to her. But Great Britain recognized the claims of the United States to the territory as far south as the 31st parallel, the line of 1763. Spain adhered to the line of 1 764-1 767, and retained possession of the territory in dispute. Finally, in the treaty of San Lorenzo el Real (ratified 1796) she accepted the 1763 (31°) boundary, and withdrew her troops in 1798. Missis- sippi Territory was then organized, with Winthrop Sargent as governor. The territorial limits were extended on the north to the state of Tennessee in 1804 by the acquisition of the west cessions of South Carolina and Georgia, and on the south to the Gulf of Mexico by the seizure of West Florida in 1810-1813, 1 but were restricted on the east by the formation of the Territory of Alabama in 1817. Just after the uprising of 1729-1730 the French, with the help of the Choctaws, had destroyed the Natchez nation, and the shattered remnants were absorbed by the neighbouring tribes. The Chickasaws ceded their lands to the United States in 1816 and the Choctaws theirs in 1830-1832; and they removed to the Indian Territory. The smaller tribes have been exterminated, absorbed or driven farther west. An Enabling Act was passed on the 1st of March 181 7, and the state was formally admitted into the Union on the 10th of December. The first state constitution (1817) provided a high property qualification for governor, senator and representative, and empowered the legislature to elect the judges and the more important state officials. In 1822 the capital was removed to Jackson from Columbia, Marion county. 2 The constitution of 1832 abolished the property qualification for holding office and provided for the popular election of judges and state officials. Mississippi thus became one of the first states in the Union to establish an elective judiciary. 3 The same constitution pro- hibited the importation of negro slaves from other states; but this prohibition was never observed, and the United States Supreme Court held that it was ineffective without an act of the legislature. On the death of John C. Calhoun in 1850 the state, under the leadership of Jefferson Davis, began to rival South Carolina as leader of the extreme pro-slavery States' Rights faction. There was a brief reaction: Henry Stuart Foote (1800-1880), Unionist, was elected governor in 1851 over Davis, the States' Rights candidate, and in the same year a Constitu- tional Convention had declared almost unanimously that " the asserted right of secession" . . . "is utterly unsanctioned by the Federal Constitution." But the particularistic sentiment continued to grow. An ordinance of secession was passed on the 9th of January 1861, and the constitution was soon amended to conform to the new constitution of the Confederate States. During the Civil War battles were fought at Corinth (1862), Port Gibson (1863), Ja.kson (1863) and Vicksburg (1863). In 1865 President Johnson appointed as provisional governor William Lewis Sharkey (1797-1873), who had been chief justice of the state in 1832-1850, and a convention which assembled on the 14th of August recognized the " destruction " of slavery and declared the ordinance of secession null and void. The first reconstruction legislature met on the 16th of October 1863, and at once proceeded to enact stringent vagrancy laws and other measures against the freedmen; these laws the North 1 South Carolina ceded its western lands to the United States in 1787 and Georgia in 1802. The government added them to Missis- sippi in 1804. The seizure of West Florida was supplemented by the treaty of 1819-1821, in which Spain surrendered all of her claims. 2 The seats of government have been Natchez (1 798-1 802), Wash- ington (1802-1817), Natchez (1817-1821), Columbia (1821-1822), Jackson (1822 seq.). 3 This system proved unsatisfactory, and in 1869 was aban- ' doned. interpreted as an-effort to restore slavery. Under the Recon- struction Act of the 2nd of March 1867 Mississippi with Arkansas formed the fourth military district, commanded successively by Generals E. O. C. Ord (1867), Alvan C. Gillem (1868) and Irvin McDowell (June-July 1868), and by Gillem (1868-1869) and Adelbert Ames (1869-1870). The notorious " Black and Tan Convention " of 1868 adopted a constitution which con- ferred suffrage upon the negroes and by the imposition of test oaths disfranchised the leading whites. It. was at first rejected at the polls, but was finally ratified in November 1869 without the disfranchising clauses. The fourteenth and fifteenth amend- ments to the Federal Constitution were ratified in 1870, and the state was formally readmitted into the Union on the 23rd "of February of that year. From 1870 to 1875 the government was under the control of " carpet-baggers," negroes and the most disreputable element among the native whites. Taxes were increased — expenditure increased nearly threefold between 1869 and 1871 — and there was some official corruption; but the state escaped the heavy burden of debt imposed upon its neighbours, partly because of the higher character of its reconstruction governors, and partly because its credit was already impaired by the repudiation of obligations contracted before the war. The Democrats carried the legis- lature in 1875, and preferred impeachment charges against Governor Adelbert Ames (b. 1835), a native of Maine, a graduate of the United States Military Academy (1861), a soldier in the Union army, and military governor of Mississippi in 1868-1870. The lieutenant-governor, A. K. Davis, a negro, was impeached and was removed from office; T. W. Cardoza, another negro, superintendent of education under Ames, was impeached on twelve charges of malfeasance, but was permitted to resign. Governor Ames, when the impeachment charges against him were dismissed on the 29th of March 1876, immediately resigned. The whites maintained their supremacy by very dubious methods until the adoption of the constitution of 1890 made it no longer necessary. The state has always been Democratic in national politics, except in the presidential elections of 1840 (Whig) and 1872 (Republican). The electoral vote was not counted in 1864 and 1868. Governors Territorial Period (1798-1817). Winthrop Sargent 1798-1801 William C. C. Claiborne 1801-1805 Robert Williams 1805-1809 David Holmes 1809-1817 Statehood Period (18 17 seq.). David Holmes Democrat 1817-1820 George Poindexter „ 1820-1822 Walter Leake .... Democrat (died in office) 1822-1825 Gerard C. Brandon (ad int.) . . Democrat 1825-1826 David Holmes .... Democrat (resigned) 1826 Gerard C. Brandon (ad int. 1826-1828) 1826-1832 Abram M. Scott . . . Democrat^ (died in office) . 1832-1833 Charles Lynch 4 (ad int.) Hiram G. Runnels John Anthony Quitman (ad int. Charles Lynch .... Alexander Gallatin McNutt. Tilghman M. Tucker Albert Gallatin Brown . Joseph W. Matthews John Anthony Quitman 5 John Isaac Guion 6 (ad int.). James Whitfield (ad int.) . Henry Stuart Foote John Jones Pettus 7 (ad int.) John J. McRae .... William McWillie ... John Jones Pettus •) Democrat Whig Democrat Unionist Democrat 1833 1833-1835 1835-1836 1836-1838 1838-1842 1842-1844 1 844-1 848 1848-1850 1850-1851 1851 1851-1852 1 852-1 854 1854 1854-1857 1857-1859 1859-1863 4 Under the constitution of 1832 the president of the senate suc- ceeded the governor in case of a vacancy. 5 Governor Quitman resigned because of charges against him of aiding Lopez's expedition against Cuba. 6 On the 4th of November the term for which Guion had been elected as a senator expired and he was succeeded in the governor- ship by Whitfield, elected by the senate to be its president. 7 Served from the 5th of January (when Foote resigned) to the 10th, when McRae was inaugurated. 604 MISSISSIPPI RIVER Charles Clark 1 Democrat 1 863-1 865 William Lewis Sharkey Provisional 1865 Benjamin Grubb Humphreys 2 . . . Republican 1865-1868 Adelbert Ames . . Republican (Military Governor) 1868-1870 James Lusk Alcorn 3 Republican 1 870-1 871 Ridgley Ceylon Powers (ad int.) . . ,, 1 871-1874 Adelbert Ames 4 ,, 1874-1876 John Marshall Stone (ad int. 1876-78) Democrat 1 876-1 882 Robert Lowry , 1882-1890 J. M. Stone „ 1890-1896 Anselm Joseph McLaurin 1896-1900 Andrew Houston Longino .... „ 1900-1904 Tames Kimble Vardaman 1 904-1 908 Edmund Favor Noel „ 1908 See T. A. Owen, " A Biography of Mississippi," in the Annual Report of the American Historical Association, 189Q, i. 633-828 (Washington, 1900) ; " Report of the Mississippi Historical Commis- sion " in the Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society, v. 52- 310 (Oxford, Miss., 1902). J. F. H. Claiborne's Mississippi as a Pro- vince, Territory and State (Jackson, 1880), gives the best account of the period before the Civil War. R. Lowry and W. H. McCardle, History of Mississippi (New York, 1893), is useful for local history. Of most value for the history are the writings of P. J. Hamilton, J. W. Garner and F. L. Riley. Hamilton's Colonial Mobile (Boston and New York, 1898), and the Colonization of the South (Philadelphia, 1904) are standard authorities for the French and English periods (1699-1781). Garner's Reconstruction in Mississippi (New York, 1902) is judicial, scholarly and readable. Most of Riley's work is in the Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society (Oxford, 1898 seq.), which he edited ; see his Spanish Policy in Mississippi after the Treaty of San Lorenzo, i. 50-66; Location of the Boundaries of Mississippi, iii. 167-184; and Transition from Spanish to American Rule in Mississippi, iii. 261-31 1. There is much material in the Encyclopaedia of Mississippi History (2 vols., Madison, Wisconsin, 1907), edited by Dunbar Rowland. There is a state Department of Archives and History. MISSISSIPPI 5 RIVER, the central artery of the river system which drains the greater part of the United States of America lying between the Appalachian Mountains on the east and the Rocky Mountains on the west. It rises in the basin of Itasca Lake, in northern Minnesota, and flows mostly in a southerly direction to the Gulf of Mexico. In the region of its headwaters are numerous lakes which were formed by glacial action, but the river itself was old before the glacial period, as is shown by the crumbling rocks on the edges of the broad and driftless valley through which it flows along the S.E. border of Minnesota and the S.W. border of Wisconsin, in contrast with the precipi- tous bluffs of hard rock on the edges of a valley that is narrow and steep-sided farther down where the river was turned from its ancient course by the glacier. So long as the outlet of the Great Lakes through the St Lawrence Valley was blocked by the icy mass, they were much larger than now and discharged through the Wabash, Illinois and other rivers into the Mississippi. Below the glaciated region, that is from southern Illinois to the Gulf, the river had carved before the close of the glacial period a flood-plain varying in width from 5 to 80 m., but this has been filled to a depth of 100 ft. or more with alluvium, and in the post- glacial period an inner valley has been formed within the outer one. The total length of the river proper from the source near Lake Itasca to its mouth in the Gulf of Mexico is 2553 m.; but the true source of the river is at the fountain-head of the Missouri, in the Rocky Mountains, on the S.W. border of Mon- tana, 8000 ft. above the sea, and from this source there is a con- tinuous stream to the Gulf which is 4221 m. long — the longest in the world. The Mississippi and its tributaries have more than 15,000 m. of navigable waterways and drain an area of approximately 1,250,000 sq. m. The system extends through the heart of the continent and affords a direct line of communica- tion between temperate and tropical regions. Certain physical and hydrographic features, however, make the regulation and 1 Removed from office by Federal troops, 22nd of May 1865; W. L. Sharkey was appointed provisional governor by President Johnson. 2 Removed from office by U.S. troops 15th of June 1868. 3 Resigned 30th of November 1 871. 4 Resigned 29th of March 1876; succeeded by the president of the senate. 5 The name is from the Algonkin missi-sepe, literally " father of waters." control of the Mississippi below the influx of the Missouri an exceedingly difficult problem. The Upper Mississippi, that is the Mississippi from its source to the mouth of the Missouri, drains 173,000 sq. m., over which the annual rainfall averages 34-7 in., and its discharge per second into the Lower Mississippi varies from 25,000 cub. ft. to 550,000 cub. ft. The Missouri drains 528,000 sq. m., over which the annual rainfall averages 19-6 in., and its discharge per second into the Mississippi varies from 25,000 cub. ft. to 600,000 cub. ft. The Ohio drains 214,000 sq. m., over which the annual rainfall averages 43 in., and its discharge per second varies from 35,000 cub. ft. to 1,200,000 cub. ft. The Arkansas drains 161,000 sq. m., over which the annual rainfall averages 28-3 in., and its discharge per second varies from 4000 cub. ft. to 250,000 cub. ft. The Red drains 97,000 sq. m., over which the annual rainfall averages 38-3 in., and its discharge per second varies from 3500 cub. ft. to 180,000 cub. ft. These and a few smaller tributaries produce a river which winds its way from Cape Girardeau, Missouri, to the passes through a flood plain averag- ing about 40 m. in width and having a general southern slope of 8 in. to the mile. The general lateral slope towards the foothills is about 6 in. in 5000 ft., but the normal fall in the first mile is about 7 ft. Thus the river sweeps onward with great velocity, eroding its banks in the bends and rebuilding them on the points, now forming islands by its deposits, and now removing them. Chief among the changes is the formation of cut-offs. Two eroding bends gradually approach each other until the water forces a passage across the narrow neck. As the channel distance between these bends may be many miles, a cascade perhaps 5 or 6 ft. in height is formed, and the torrent rushes through with a roar audible for miles. The checking of the current at the upper and lower mouths of the abandoned channel soon obstructs them by deposit, and forms in a few years one of the cres- cent lakes which are so marked a feature on the maps. At the mouth of the Red river, 316 m. above the passes, the water surface at the lowest stage is only 5J ft. above the level of' the Gulf, where the mean tidal oscillation is about ij ft. The river channel in this section is therefore a fresh-water lake. At the flood stage the surface rises 50 ft. at the mouth of Red river, but of course retains its level at the Gulf, thus giving the head necessary to force forward the increased volume of discharge. Above the mouth of the Red river the case is essentially different. The width increases and the depth decreases. Hence the general slope in long distances is here nearly the same at all stages. The effect of these different physical condi- tions appears in the comparative volumes which pass through the channel. At New Orleans the maximum discharge hardly reaches 1 ,200,000 cub. ft. per second, and a rising river at high stages carries only about 100,000 cub. ft. per second more than when falling at the same absolute level; but just below the mouth of the Ohio the maximum flood volume reaches 1,400,000 cub. ft. per second, and at some stages a rising river may carry one-third more water than when falling at the same absolute level. The river is usually lowest in October. It rises rapidly until checked by the freezing of the northern tributaries. It begins to rise again in February, as a consequence of the storms from the Gulf which traverse the basin of the Ohio, and attains its highest point about the 1st of April. It then falls a few feet, but the rains in the Upper Mississippi basin cause it to rise again and high water is maintained until some time in June by the late spring and early summer rains in the Missouri basin. As a rule the river is above mid-stage from January to August inclusive, and below that level for the remainder of the year. Engineering Works. — Below Cape Girardeau there are at least 29,790 sq. m. of rich bottom lands which require protection from floods, and this has been accomplished to a great extent by the erection of levees. The first levee was begun in 17 17, when the engineer, Le Blond de La Tour (d. about 1725) erected one a mile long to protect the infant city of New Orleans from over- flow. Progress at first was slow. In 1770 the settlements extended only 30 m. above and 20. m. below New Orleans; but in 1828 the levees, although quite insufficient in dimensions, had become continuous nearly to the mouth of the Red river. In 1850 a great impulse was given to systematic embankment by the United States government, which turned over to the several states all unsold swamps and overflowed lands within their limits, to provide a fund for reclaiming the districts liable to inundation. The action resulting from this caused alarm in Louisiana. The aid of the government was invoked, and Congress immediately ordered the necessary investigations and surveys. This work was placed in charge of Captain (later General) Andrew A. Humphreys (1810-1883), and an elaborate report covering the results of ten years of investigation was published, just after the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861. In this report it was demonstrated that the great bottom lands above the Red river before the construction of their levees did MISSISSIPPI RIVER 605 not, as had been supposed, in Louisiana, serve as reservoirs to diminish the maximum wave in great flood seasons. Further- more, the report argued that no diversion of tributaries was possible; that no reservoirs artificially constructed could keep back the spring freshets which caused the floods; that the making of cut-offs, which had sometimes been advocated as a measure of relief, was in the highest degree injurious; that outlets were impracticable from the lack of suitable sites; and, finally, that levees properly constructed and judiciously placed would afford protection to the entire alluvial region. During the Civil War (1861-65) the artificial embankments were neglected; but after its close large sums were expended by the states directly interested in repairing them. The work was done without concert upon defective plans, and a great flood early in 1874 inundated the country, causing terrible suffering and loss. Congress, then in session, passed an act creating a commission of five engineers to determine and report on the best system for the permanent reclamation of the entire alluvial region. Their report, rendered in 1875, endorsed the conclusions of that of 1861, and advocated a general levee system on each bank. This system comprised: (1) a main embankment raised to specified heights sufficient to restrain the floods; and (2) where reasonable security against caving required considerable areas near the river to be thrown out, exterior levees of such a height as to exclude ordinary high waters, but to allow free passage to great floods, which as a rule occur only at intervals of five or six years. An engineering organization was proposed for constructing and maintaining these levees, and a detailed topographical survey was recommended to deter- mine their precise location. Congress promptly approved and ordered the survey; but strong opposition on constitutional grounds was raised to the construction of the levees by the government. In the meantime complaints began to be heard respecting the low-water navigation of the river below the mouth of the Ohio. A board of five army engineers, appointed in 1878 to consider a plan of relief, reported that a depth of 10 ft. could probably be secured by narrowing the wide places to about 3500 ft. with hurdle work, brush ropes or brush dykes designed to cause a deposit of sediment, and by protecting caving banks by light and cheap mattresses. Experiments in these methods were soon begun and they proved to be effective. The bars at the efflux of the passes at the mouth of the Mississippi were also serious impediments to commerce. The river naturally discharges through three principal branches, the south-west pass, the south pass and the north-east pass, the latter through two channels, the more northern of which is called Pass a. l'Outre. In the natural condition the greatest depth did not exceed 12 or 13 ft. After appropriations by Congress in 1837, 1852 and 1856, a depth of 18 ft. was finally secured by dredging and scraping. The report of 1861 discussed the subject of bar formation at length, and the stirring up of the bottom by scrapers during the flood stages of the river (six months annually) was recommended by it. After the war this recommendation was carried into effect for several years, but experience showed that not much more than 18 ft. could be steadily maintained. This depth soon became insufficient, and in 1873 the subject was discussed by a board of army engineers, the majority approving a ship canal. In 1874 Congress consti- tuted a special board which, after visiting Europe and examining similar works of improvement there, reported in favour of con- structing jetties at the south pass, substantially upon the plan used by Pieter Caland (b. 1826) at the mouth of the Meuse; and in 1875 Captain James B. Eads (1820-1887) and his associates were authorized by Congress to open by contract a deep channel through the south pass upon the general plan proposed by this board. As modified in 1878 and 1879 the contract called for the maintenance for twenty years of a channel through the pass and over the bar not less than 26 ft. in depth throughout, a width of not less than 200 ft. and with a middle depth of 30 ft. The work was begun on the 2nd of June 1875. The required iepth was obtained in 1879, and with few interruptions has been maintained. In 1902 Congress authorized preparations for the construction of a deeper (35 ft.) and a wider channel through the south-west pass; the work was begun in 1903 and virtually completed in 1909. In the year in which Captain Eads opened the south pass of deep- water navigation Congress created a commission of seven members to mature plans for correcting and deepening the channel of the river, for protecting its banks and for preventing floods, and since then large expenditures for improvement between the head of the passes and the mouth of the Ohio have been under the control of this commis- sion. In protecting the banks, mattresses of brush or small trees, woven like basket-work, were sunk on the portion of the bank at the time under water, by throwing rubble stone upon them, an excess of stone being used. A common size of mattress was 800 ft. long, counted along the bank, by 250 ft. wide. Sometimes a width of 300 ft. was used, and lengths have reached 2000 ft. The depth of water was often from 60 to 100 ft. At first these mats were light structures, but the loss of large quantities of bank protection by the caving of the bank behind them, or by scour at their channel edges, forced the commission steadily to increase the thickness and strength of the mattress, so that the cost of the linear foot of bank protection, measured along the bank, rose from $8 or $10 to $30 in the later work. The contraction works adopted were systems of spurs or pile dykes, running out from the shore nearly to the line of the pro- posed channel. Each dyke consisted of from one to four parallel rows of piles, the interval between rows being about 20 ft. and be- tween piles in a row 8 or 10 ft. The piles and rows were strongly braced and tied together, and in many cases brush was woven into the upper row, forming a hurdle, in order further to diminish the velocity of the water below the spur. By 1893 it was evident that the cost,, which had been estimated at $33,000,000 in 1881, would really be several times that amount, and that the works would re- quire heavy expense for their maintenance and many years for their execution. Navigation interests demanded more speedy relief. The commission then began experimenting with hydraulic dredges, and in 1896 it adopted a project for maintaining a channel from the mouth of the Ohio to the passes that should be at least 9 ft. deep and 250 ft. wide throughout the year. Centrifugal pumps are used, the suction pipes being at the bow and the discharge at the stern through a line of pipes about 1000 ft. long, supported on pontoons. Water jets or cutters stir up the material to be dredged before it enters the suction pipes. The later dredges have a capacity of about 1000 cub. yds. of sand per hour, the velocity in the 32- to 34-in. dis- charge pipes being from 10 to 15 ft. per second. They cost from $86,000 to $120,000, and their working during a low-water season costs about $20,000. These dredges begin work on a bar where trouble is feared before the river reaches its lowest stage, and make a cut through it. A common cut is 2000 ft. long by 250 ft. wide, and 3 or 4 ft. deep. Since 1903 a channel of the proposed depth or more has been maintained. In 1882 occurred one of the greatest floods known on the Missis- sippi, and extensive measurements of it were made. A maximum flood of 1,900,000 cub. ft. per second crossed the latitude of Cairo. Much of it escaped into the bottom lands, which are below the level of the great floods, and flowed through them to rejoin the river below. The flow in the river proper at Lake Providence, 542 m. below Cairo, was thus reduced to about 1,000,000 cub. ft. per second, while if the river had been confined by levees the flow between them would have been double, or about 2,000,000 cub. ft. per second. The volume of the levees in 1882 was about 33,000,000 cub. yds., and by the 30th of June 1908 had been increased to 219,621,594 cub. yds., of which the United States had built about one-half, and has expended on them $22,562,544. The length of the levees is about i486 m., and they are continuous save where interrupted by tributaries or by high lands, from New Madrid, or 80 m. below Cairo, to Fort Jackson, 1039 m. below Cairo. The width of the interval between levees on the opposite banks of the river varies greatly ; in many places the levees are built much nearer the normal margin of the river than is consistent with keeping the flood heights as low as possible. This has arisen from two causes: firstly, to give protection to lands already cultivated, which lie usually near the bank of the river; secondly, to avoid the lower ground, which, owing to the peculiar formation, is found as one goes back from the river. Another bad result of this nearness of the levees to the bank of the river is the loss of levees by caving, which was nearly 5,000,000 cub. yds. in 1904-1905, and can only be prevented by bank protection, costing $ 1 50,000 per mile, to protect a levee perhaps 16 ft. high cost- ing about $30,000 per mile. The levees have top widths of 8 ft., side slopes of one-third, and banquettes when their heights exceed about 10 ft. The grades of the levees are usually 3 ft. above the highest water, and have to be raised from year to year as greater confinement of water gives greater flood heights. When this system is completed there will probably be hundreds of miles of levee with heights exceeding 14 ft. In 1899, after about $28,000,000 had been spent on levees by the United States and by the local authorities, the commission submitted an estimate for additional work on levees, amounting to 124,000,000 cub. yds. and costing $22,000,000. The effect of the levees has been to increase flood heights. Though the 6o6 MISSISSIPPI RIVER Mississippi River Commission was forbidden by Congress to build levees to protect lands from overflow, a majority of its members believed them useful for the purpose of navigation improvement. They have, however, effected no sensible improvement in the naviga- tion of the river at low stages, and at other stages no improvement was needed for the purposes of navigation. Neither did they prevent a destructive flood in 1897 and again in 1903. By the 30th of June 1908, $57,510,216.81 had been appropriated for the commission's work below the mouth of the Ohio. From the mouth of the Ohio to the mouth of the Missouri, a distance of about 210 m., the river is affected by back water from the Ohio which increases the deposit of sediment, and although the banks increase in height above Cape Girardeau the channel was in its natural state frequently a mile or more in width, divided by islands, and oostructed by bars on which the low-water depth was only 3J to 4 ft. The improvement was begun in 1872, and in 1881 a project was adopted for narrowing the channel to approximately 2500 ft. In 1896 dredging was begun and in 1905 the further execution of the original project of 1881 was discontinued, because of a new plan for a channel 14 ft. deep from the Great Lakes to the Gulf. The Upper Mississippi carries only a small amount of sediment and was navigable in its natural state to St Paul, although at low water the larger river boats could ascend no farther than La Crosse, Wisconsin. In 1879 Congress adopted a project for obtaining a channel with a minimum depth at low water of 4! ft., chiefly by means of contraction works. In 1907 Congress authorized further contrac- tion, dredging, the construction of a lateral canal at Rock Island Rapids, and the enlargement of that at Des Moines Rapids with a view to obtaining a channel nowhere less than 6 ft. in depth at low water. By means of two locks and dams, which were begun in 1894 and were about three-fourths complete in 1908, a navigable channel of the same depth will be extended from St Paul to Minneapolis. The United States government has constructed dams at the outlets of lakes Winnibigashish, Cass, Leech, Pine, Sandy and Pokegama, and thereby created reservoirs having a total storage capacity of about 95,000,000,000 cub. ft. This reservoir system, which may be much enlarged, is also beneficial in that it mitigates floods and regulates the flow for manufacturing purposes and for logging. Although the United States government has expended more than $70,000,000 on the Mississippi river between the mouth of the Missouri and the head of the passes, the improvement of navigation thereon has not been great enough to make it possible for river freighters to force down railway rates by competition. But it is no longer merely a question of competition. The productivity of this region has become so enormous that railways alone cannot meet the requirements of its commerce, and a persistent demand has arisen for a channel 14 ft. deep from the Great Lakes to the Gulf. The first great impetus to this demand was given in 1900, when a canal 24 ft. in depth, and known as the Chicago Drainage Canal, was opened from the Chicago river to Lockport, Illinois, on the Des Plaines river, 34 m. from Lake Michigan. Two years later Congress appropriated $200,000 for the Mississippi River Commission to make a survey and prepare plans, with estimates of cost, for a navigable waterway 14 ft. in depth from Lockport to St Louis. The commis- sion reported favourably in 1905, and in 1907 Congress provided for another commission, which in June 1909 reported against the 14 ft. channel, estimating that it would cost $128,000,000 for construction and $6,000,000 annually for maintenance, and considered a 9-ft. channel (8 ft. between Ohio and St Louis) sufficient for commercial purposes. The Ohio is commercially the most important tributary, and in flood time most of the commerce on the Lower Mississippi consists of coal and other heavy freight received from the mouth of this river. Its navigation at low water has also been improved by dredging, rock excavation and contraction works. In its upper reaches a channel 9 ft. in depth had been obtained before 1909 by the con- struction of a number of locks with collapsible dams which are thrown down by a flood. It is the plan of the government to extend this system to the mouth of the river, and it has been estimated that a channel 12 to 14 ft. in depth may ultimately be obtained by a system of mountain reservoirs. Furthermore, the government has given to a corporation a franchise for the connexion of the Ohio at Pittsburg with Lake Erie near Ashtabula, Ohio, by means of a canal 12 ft. in depth. The Missouri is navigable from its mouth to Fort Benton, a distance of 2285 m., and it had become a very important highway of commerce when the first railway, the Hannibal & St Joseph, reached it in 1859. Its commerce then rapidly disappeared, but regular navigation between Kansas City and St Louis was re-estab- lished in 1907 and a demand has arisen for a 12-ft. channel from the mouth of the river to Sioux City, Iowa. The Red, Arkansas, White, Tennessee, and Cumberland rivers, which are parts of the Mississippi system, have each a navigable mileage exceeding 600 m. History. — Although the Mississippi river was discovered in its lower course by Hernando de Soto in 1541, and possibly by Alonso Alvarez de Pineda in 1519, Europeans were not yet prepared to use the discovery, and two Frenchmen, Louis Joliet and Father Jacques Marquette, first made it generally known to the civilized world by a voyage down the river from the mouth of the Wisconsin to the mouth of the Arkansas in 1673. 1 In 1680 Louis Hennepin, sent by La Salle, who planned to acquire for France the entire basin drained by the great river and its tributaries, explored the river from the mouth of the Illinois to the Falls of St Anthony, where the city of Minneapolis now stands, and two years later La Salle himself descended from the mouth of the Illinois to the Gulf, named the basin " Louisiana," and took formal possession of it in the name of his king, Louis XIV. By the war which terminated (1763) in the Treaty of Paris, Great Britain wrested from France all that part of the basin lying east of the middle of the river (except the island of New Orleans at its mouth), together with equal rights of navigation; and the remainder of the basin France had secretly ceded to Spain in 1762. During the War of Indepen- dence the right to navigate the river became a troublesome question. In 1779 the Continental Congress sent John Jay to Spain to negotiate a treaty of commerce, and to insist on the free navigation of the Mississippi, but the Spanish government refused to entertain such a proposition, and new instructions that he might forego that right south of 31° N. latitude reached him too late. While the commissioners from Great Britain and the United States were negotiating a treaty of peace at Paris, Spain, apparently supported by France, sought to prevent the extension of the western boundary of the United States to the Mississippi, but was unsuccessful, and the United States acquired title in 1783 to all that portion of the basin east of the middle of the river and north of 31° N. lat. In 1785 Congress appointed John Jay to negotiate a commercial treaty with Don Diego de Gardoqui, the Spanish minister to the United States, but the negotiations resulted in nothing. For the next ten years the Spaniards imposed heavy burdens on the American commerce down the Mississippi, but in 1794 James Monroe, the United States minister to Prance, procured the aid of the French govern- ment in further negotiations, for which Thomas Pinckney had been appointed envoy extraordinary, and in 1795 Pinckney negotiated a treaty which granted to the United States the free navigation of the river from its source to the Gulf and the privi- lege of depositing American merchandise at the port of New Orleans or at some other convenient place on the banks. Spain retroceded Louisiana to France in 1800, but the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 left very little of the Mississippi basin outside of the United States. As the headwaters of the river were not definitely known, the United States government sent Zebulon M. Pike in 1805 to explore the region, and on reaching Leech Lake, in February 1806, he pronounced that the main source. In 1820 Lewis Cass, governor of Michigan territory, which then had the Mississippi for its western boundary, conducted an expedition into the same region as far as Cass Lake, where the Indians told him that the true source was about 50 m. to the W.N.W., but as the water was too low to proceed by canoe he returned, and it remained for Henry Schoolcraft, twelve years later, to discover Lake Itasca, which occupies a low depression near the centre of the basin in which the river takes its rise. Jean N. Nicollet, while in the service of the United States government, visited Lake Itasca in 1836, and traced its principal affluent, since known as Nicollet's Infant Mississippi river, a few miles S.S.W. from the lake's western arm. Jacob Vradenberg Brower (1844-1905), who was commissioned by the Minnesota Historical Society in 1889 to make a more detailed survey, traced the source from Nicollet's Infant Mississippi to the greater ultimate reser- voir, which contains several lakelets, and lies beyond Lake Itasca, 2553 m. by water from the Gulf of Mexico, and 1558 ft. above the sea. Soon after this survey the state of Minnesota created Itasca State Park, which contains both Itasca Lake and its affluents from the south. 1 It seems probable that Joliet and Marquette were preceded by two other Frenchmen, Pierre Esprit Radisson and Menard Chouart des Groseilliers, who apparently reached the Upper Mississippi in or about 1665; but their claim to priority has been the subject of considerable controversy, and, at all events, there was no general knowledge of the river until after the voyage of Joliet and Marquette. MISSOLONGHI— MISSOURI 607 From the close of the 17th century until the building of the first railways in the Mississippi basin, in the middle of the 19th century, the waterways of the Mississippi system afforded practically the only means of communication in this region. During the early years of the French occupancy trade with the Indians was the only important industry, and this was carried on almost wholly with birch canoes and a few pirogues; but by 1720 immigrants were coming in considerable numbers both by way of the Great Lakes and the mouth of the Mississippi, and to meet the demands of a rapidly expanding commerce barges and keelboats were introduced. The development of the Mississippi Valley must have been slow until the railways came had it not been for the timely application of the power of steam to overcome the strong current of the Lower Mississippi. Even without the steamboat, however, the Mississippi was indispensable to the early settlers, and the delay of the United States in securing for them its free navigation resulted in threats of separation from the Union. The most formidable movement of this kind was that of 1 787-1 788, in which James Wilkinson, who had been an officer in the War of Independence, plotted for a union with Spain. Steamboat navigation on this river system was begun in 181 1, when the " New Orleans," which had been built by Nicholas Roosevelt (1767-1854), made the trip from Pittsburg to New Orleans, but it was six years later before the steamboat was sufficiently improved to ascend to St Louis. In 181 7 the com- merce from New Orleans to the Falls of the Ohio, at Louisville, was carried in barges and keel-boats having a capacity of 60 to 80 tons each, and 3 to 4 months were required to make a trip. In 1820 steamboats were making the same trip in 15 to 20 days, by 1838 in 6 days or less; and in 1834 there were 230 steamboats, having an aggregate tonnage of 39,000 tons, engaged in trade on the Mississippi. Large numbers of flat boats, especially from the Ohio and its tributaries, continued to carry produce down stream; an extensive canal system in the state of Ohio, completed in 1842, connected the Mississippi with the Great Lakes; these were connected with the Hudson river and the Atlantic Ocean by the Erie Canal, which had been open since 1825. Before the steamboat was successfully employed on the Mississippi the population of the valley did not reach 2,000,000, but the population increased from approximately 2,500,000 in 1820 to more than 6,000,000 in 1840, and to 14,000,000 or more in i860. The well-equipped passenger boats of the period immediately preceding the Civil War were also a notable feature on the Ohio and the Lower Mississippi. In the Civil War the Lower Mississippi, the Ohio, and its two largest tributaries — the Cumberland and the Tennessee — being still the most important lines of communication west of the Appalachian Mountains, determined largely the movements of armies. The adherence of Kentucky to the Union excluded the Confederacy from the Ohio, but especially disastrous was the fall of Vicksburg and Port Hudson, whereby the Confederacy was cut in two and the entire Mississippi became a Federal high- way. Under Federal control it was closed to commerce, and when the war was over the prosperity of the South was tem- porarily gone and hundreds of steamboats had been destroyed. Moreover, much of the commerce of the West had been turned from New Orleans, via the Mississippi, to the Atlantic seaboard, via the Great Lakes and by new lines of railways, the number of which rapidly increased. There was, of course, some revival of the Mississippi commerce immediately after the war, but this was checked by the bar at the mouth of the south-west pass. Relief was obtained through the Eads jetties at the mouth of the south pass in 1879, but the facilities for the transfer of freight were far inferior to those employed by the railways, and the steamboat companies did not prosper. But at the beginning of the 20th century the prospects of communication with the western coast of North America and South America, and with the Orient by way of an isthmian canal, the inadequate means of transportation afforded by the railways, the efficiency of competing waterways in regulating freight rates, and the consideration of the magnificent system of inland waterways which the Mississippi and its tributaries would afford when fully developed, have created the strong demand for river improvement. Bibliography. — A. P. C. Griffin, The Discovery of the Mississippi: a Bibliographical Account (New York, 1883); J. G. Shea, The Dis- covery of the Mississippi, in Report and Collections of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin, vol. vii. (Madison, 1 876) ; J . V. Brower, The Mississippi River and its Sources: a Narrative and Critical History of the Discovery of the River and its Headwaters (Minneapolis, 1893); F. A. Ogg, The Opening of the Mississippi: a Struggle for Supremacy in the American Interior (New York, 1904) ; E. W. Gould, Fifty Years on the Mississippi; or, Gould's History of River Navigation (St Louis, 1889); J. W. Monette, The Progress of Navigation and Commerce on the Waters of the Mississippi River and the Great Lakes, in the Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society, vol. vii. (Oxford, Miss., 1903) ; R. B. Haughton, The Influence of the Mississippi River upon the Early Settlement of Its Valley, in the Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society, vol. iv. ; Mark Twain, Life on the Missis- sippi (Boston, 1883); A. A. Humphreys and H. L. Abbot, Report on the Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi River (Philadelphia, 1 861 ) ; A nnual Reports of the Mississippi River Commission (Washing- ton, 1880 sqq.) ; E. L. Corthell, A History of the Jetties at the Mouth of the Mississippi River (New York, 1881); J. A. Ockerson, The Mississippi River: Some of its Physical Characteristics and Measures employed for the Regulation and Control of the Stream (Paris, 1900) ; J. L. Mathews, Remaking the Mississippi (Boston, 1909) ; R. M. Brown, " The Mississippi River from Cape Girardeau to the Head of the Passes," in Bulletins of the American Geographical Society, vols, xxxiv. and xxxv. (New York, 1902 and 1903); J. L. Greenleaf, " The Hydrology of the Mississippi," in the American Journal of Science, vol. ii. (New Haven, 1896) ; L. M. Haupt, " The Mississippi River Problem," in Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, vol. xliii. (Philadelphia, 1904). MISSOLONGHI, or Mesolonghi (Meo-6Myyiov),the chief town of the monarchy of Acarnania and Aetolia, Greece. It is on the N. side of the Gulf of Patras, about 7 m. from the coast; pop., about 8300. The place is notable for the siege which Mavrocordato and Botzaris sustained in 1822 and 1823 against a Turkish army 11,000 strong, and for the more famous defence of 1825-26. Byron died here in 1824, and is commemorated by a cenotaph and a statue. MISSOULA, a city and the county-seat of Missoula county, Montana, U.S.A., on the Clark Fork of the Columbia (here called the Missoula river), about 125 m. W.N.W. of Helena. Pop. (1900), 4366 (1020 foreign-born) ; (1910), 12,869. It is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound railway, and by the Northern Pacific railway, which has shops here and of which Missoula is a division headquarters. There is an electric railway from Missoula to Hamilton, about 48 m. south. The Northern Pacific railway maintains a large hospital here, and St Patrick's hospital is maintained by sisters of charity. Missoula is about 3200 ft. above sea-level, with Mount Jumbo immediately north, and University Mountain immediately south of the Clark Fork, and the Bitter Root range to the west. The city is situated on the bed of a prehistoric lake. Missoula is the seat of the Sacred Heart academy (for girls), of a Christian Brothers' school (for boys), of the Garden City commercial college, and of the state university (founded in 1893, and opened in 1895), which occupies a campus of 40 acres. On the Bitter Root river, 4 m. distant, is the United States army post, Fort Missoula. Missoula has con- siderable trade with the surrounding country in farming, fruit- growing, lumbering and mining. The Clark Fork furnishes water power, and at Bonner, 6 m. east, is the Clark dam (28 ft.), which furnishes electric power. Missoula was founded in 1864, and chartered as a city in 1887. MISSOURI, a north-central state of the United States of America, and one of the greatest and richest, and economically one of the most nearly independent, in the Union, lying almost midway between the two oceans, the Gulf of Mexico and Canada. It is bounded N. by Iowa; E. by Illinois, Kentucky and Tennessee; S. by Arkansas; and W. by Oklahoma, Kansas and Nebraska. Its N. and S. limits are mainly coincident with the parallels of 40 35' and 36 30' N. lat.— the southernmost boundary, in the S.E. corner, is the meridian of 36 N. lat. — and much of the western- border is the meridian of 94 43' W. long, respectively; but natural boundaries are afforded on the extreme N.E. by the Des Moines river, on the E. by the Missis- sippi, on the S.E. by the St Francis and on the N.W. by the 6o8 MISSOURI Missouri. Altogether, about 850 m., or considerably more than half of the entire boundary, is water-front: about 560 m. along the Mississippi, about 208 m. along the Missouri, and about 100 m. along the St Francis and Des Moines. The length of the state from north to south, disregarding the St Francis projection southward, is 282 m., 1 the width from west to east varies from 208 to 308 m., and the total area is 69,420 sq. m., of which 693 sq. m. are water surface. Physical Features. — Missouri has three distinct physiographic divisions: a north-western upland plain, or prairie region; a lowland, in the extreme south-east; and, between these, the Missouri portion of the Ozark uplift. The boundary between the prairie and Ozark regions follows the Missouri river from its mouth to Glasgow, running thence south-westward, with irregular limits, but with a direct trend, to Jasper county at the south-east corner of Kansas; and the boundary between the Ozark and embayment regions runs due south-west from Cape Girardeau. 1. The prairie region embraces, accordingly, somewhat more than " northern " Missouri — i.e. the portion of the state north of the Missouri river — and somewhat more than a third of the state. It is a beautiful, rolling country, with a great abundance of streams; more hilly and broken in its western than in its eastern half. The elevation in the extreme north-west is about 1200. ft. and in the extreme north-east about 500 ft., while the rim of the region to the south-east, along the border of the Ozark region, has an elevation of about 900 ft. The larger streams have valleys 250 to 300 ft. deep and sometimes 8 to 10 m. broad, the country bordering them being the most broken of the region. The smaller streams have so eroded the whole face of the country that little of the original surface plain is to" be seen. The Mississippi river is skirted through- out the length of the state by contours of 400 to 600 ft. elevation. 2. The Ozark region is substantially a low dome, with local faulting and minor undulations, dominated by a ridge — or, more exactly, a relatively even belt of highland— that runs from near the Mississippi about Ste Genevieve county to Barry county on the Arkansas border; the contour levels falling with decided regularity in all directions below this crest. High rocky bluffs that rise precipitously on the Mississippi, sometimes to a height of 150 ft. or so above the water, from the mouth of the Meramec to Ste Genevieve, mark where that river cuts the Ozark ridge, which, across the river, is continued by the Shawnee Hills in Illinois. The elevations of the crest in Missouri (the highest portion of the uplift is in Arkansas) vary from 1100 to 1600 ft. This second physiographic region comprehends somewhat less than two-thirds of the area of the state. The Burlington escarpment, which in places is as much as 250 to 300 ft. in height, runs along the western edge of the Cambro-Ordovician formations and divides the region into an eastern and a western area, known respectively to physio- graphers as the Salem Upland and the Springfield Upland. 2 Super- ficially, each is a simple rolling plateau, much broken by erosion (though considerable undissected areas drained by underground channels remain), especially in the east, and dotted with hills; some of these are residual outliers of the eroded Mississippian lime- stones to the west, and others are the summits of an archaean topo- graphy above which sedimentary formations that now constitute the valley-floor about them were deposited and then eroded. There is no arrangement in chains, but only scattered rounded peaks and short ridges, with winding valleys about them. The highest points in the state are Tom Sauk Mountain (more than 1800 ft.), in Iron county and Cedar Gap Plateau (1683 ft.), in Wright county. Few localities have an elevation exceeding 1400 ft. Rather broad, smooth valleys, well degraded hills with rounded summits, and — despite the escarpments — generally smooth contours and sky-lines, characterize the whole of this Ozark region. 3. The third region, the lowlands of the south-east, has an area of some 3000 sq. m. It is an undulating country, for the most part well drained, but swampy in its lowest portions. The Mississippi is skirted with lagoons, lakes and morasses from Ste Genevieve to the Arkansas border, and in places is confined by levees. The drainage of the state is wholly into the Mississippi, directly or indirectly, and almost wholly into either that river or the Mis- souri within the borders of the state. The latter stream, crossing the state and cutting the eastern and western borders at or near St Louis and Kansas City respectively, has a length between these of 430 m. The areas drained into the Mississippi outside the state through the St Francis, White and other minor streams are relatively small. The larger streams of the Ozark dome are of decided interest to the physiographer. Those of the White system have open- trough valleys bordered by hills in their upper courses and canyons in their lower courses; others, notably the Gasconade, exhibit re- 1 Counting the St Francis projection the length is 328 m. 2 Both the Ozark region and the prairie region are divided by minor escarpments into ten or twelve sub-regions. markable differences in the drainage areas of their two sides, with interesting illustrations of shifting water-partings ; and the White, Gasconade, Osage and other rivers are remarkable for upland meanders, lying, not on flood-plains, but around the spurs of a highland country. 3 Caves, chiefly of limestone formation, occur in great numbers in and near the Ozark Mountain region in the south-western part of Missouri. More than a hundred have been discovered in Stone county alone, and there are many in Christian, Greene and McDonald counties. The most remarkable is Marble Cave, a short distance south-east of the centre of Stone county. The entrance is through a large sink-hole at the top of Roark Mountain, from which there is a passage-way to an open chamber. This extraordinary hall-like room is about 350 ft. long and about 125 ft. wide, has bluish-grey limestone walls, and an almost perfectly vaulted roof, rising from 100 to 195 ft. Its acoustic properties are said to be almost perfect, and it has been named " the Auditorium." At one end is a remarkable stalagmitic formation of white and gold onyx, about 65 ft. in height and about 200 ft. in girth, called ." the White Throne." Jacob's Cavern (q.v.), near Pineville, McDonald county, disclosed on exploration skeletons of men and animals, rude implements, &c. Crystal Cave, near Joplin, Jasper county, has its entire surface lined with calcite crystals and scalenohedron formations, from I ft. to 2 ft. in length. Knox Cave, in Greene county, and several caverns near Ozark, in Christian county, are also of interest. Other caves include Fried's Cave, about 6 m. north-east of Rolla, Phelps county, Hannibal Cave (in Ralls county, about 1 m. south of Hannibal), which has a deep pool containing many eyeless fish; and various caverns in Miller, Ozark, Greene and Parry counties. Geology. — The geological history of the state covers the period from Algonkian to late Carboniferous time, after which there is a gap in the record until Tertiary time, except that there was ap- parently a temporary depression of the north-western and south- western corners in the Cretaceous age. Northern Missouri is covered with a mantle of glacial deposits, generally thick, although in the stream valleys of the north-east the bed-rocks are widely exposed. The southern limit of these glacial deposits is practically the bluffs bordering the Missouri river, except for a narrow strip along the Mississippi below St Louis. These Pleistocene deposits include bouldery drift, loess, terrace deposits and alluvium. The till is generally less than 5 ft. and rarely more than 40 ft. deep, but in some localities it reaches a thickness of 200 ft., or even more. Modified drift and erratics were also widely deposited. The loess, however — reddish-brown, buff or grey in colour, according to the varying proportions of iron oxide — is almost everywhere spread above the drift. It is exposed in very deep cuts along the bluffs of the Missouri. Southern Missouri is covered, generally speaking, with residuary rocks. The embayment region is of Tertiary origin, containing deposits of both neocene and eocene periods. Regarding now the outcrops of bed-rock, there are exposures of Algonkian (doubtful, and at most a mere patch on Pilot Knob), Archean, Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, sub-Carboniferous and Carboniferous. The St Francois Mountains and the neighbouring portion of the Ozark region are capped with Archean rocks. All the rest of the Ozark region except the extreme south-western corner of the state is Cambro-Ordovician. Along the margin of this great deposit, on the Mississippi river below St Louis and along the northern shore of the Missouri near its mouth, is an outcrop of Silurian. Parallel to this in the latter locality, and lying also along the Mississippi near by to the north, as well as in the intervening country between the two rivers, are strips of Devonian. Both this and the Silurian are mere fringes on the great area of Cambro- Ordovician. Next, covering the north-eastern and south-western corners of the state, and connecting them with a narrow belt, are the lower Carboniferous measures (which also appear in a . very narrow band along the Mississippi for some distance below St Louis). The western edge of these follows an irregular line from Schuyler county, on the northern border, to Barton county, on the western border, of the state, but with a great eastward projection north of the Missouri river, to Montgomery county. This line defines the eastern limit of the Coal Measures proper, which cover a belt 20 to 80 m. in width. Finally, to the west of these, and covering the north-western corner of the state, are the upper coal measures. Thus the state is to be conceived, in geological history, as gradually built up around an Archean island in successive seas, the whole of the state becoming dry land after the post-Carboniferous uplift. Until the post-Mesozoic uplift of the Rocky Mountain region the north-western portion of the state drained westward. Fauna. — Excepting the embayment region, Missouri lies wholly within the Carolinian area of the Upper Austral life-zone; the 3 There has been some controversy as to whether this condition is due to the elevation and corrosion of original flood-plain meanders after their development in a past base-level condition — which theory is probably correct — or to the natural, simultaneous lateral and vertical cut of an originally slightly sinuous stream, under such special conditions of stream declivity and horizontal bed- strata (conditions supposed by some to be peculiarly fulfilled in this region) as would be favourable to the requisite balance of bank cutting and channel incision. MISSOURI 609 embayment lies in the Austro-riparian area of the same zone. Among wild animals, deer and bear are not uncommon. Opossums, raccoons, woodchucks, foxes, grey squirrels and fox-squirrels are common. The game birds include quail ( "Bob White ") and partridges. Prairie chickens (pinnated grouse), pheasants and wild turkeys, all very common as late as 1880, are no longer to be found save in remote and thinly-settled districts. A state fish commission has laboured to increase the common varieties of river fish. So far as these are an article of general commerce, they come, like frogs, terrapin and turtles, mainly from the counties of the embayment region. Mussel fisheries, an industry confined to the Mississippi river counties from Lincoln to Lewis, are economically important, as the shells are used in the manufacture of pearl buttons. There are state fish-hatcheries at St Louis and St Joseph. Flora. — The most valuable forests are in the southern half of the state, which, except where cleared for farms, is almost continuously wooded. An almost entire absence of underbrush is characteristic of Missouri forests. The finest woods are on the eastern upland and on the Mississippi lowlands. The entire woodland area of the state was estimated at 41,000 sq. m. by the national census of 1900. Ash, oaks, black and sweet gums, chestnuts, hickories, hard maple, beech, walnut and short-leaf pine are noteworthy among the trees of the Carolinian area; the tupelo and bald cypress of the embay- ment region, and long-leaf and loblolly pines, pecans and live oaks of the uplands, among those characteristic of the Austro-riparian. But the habitats overlap, and persimmons and magnolias of different species are common and notable in both areas. The heavy timber in the south-eastern counties (cypress, &c), and even scattered stands of such valuable woods as walnut, white oak and red-gum, have already been considerably exploited. Climate. — Missouri has a continental climate, with wide range of moisture and temperature. The Ozark uplift tempers very agreeably the summers in the south, but does not affect the climate of the state as a whole. The normal mean annual temperature for the entire state is about 54 F. ; the normal monthly means through the year are approximately 29-6, 30-3, 42, 55-4, 64-6, 73-2, 77-1, 75 - 7> 68-2, 57, 42-8 and 33-1° F. The south-eastern corner is crossed by an annual isotherm of 60°, the north-western by one of 50 ; and although in the former region sometimes not a day in the year may show an average temperature below freezing-point, at Jefferson' City there are occasionally two months of freezing weather, and at Rockport three. Nevertheless, the yearly means of the five districts into which the state is divided by the national weather service exhibit very slight differences: approximately 52-1, 52-7, 54-4, 56-1 and 55-7° F. respectively for the north-west, north-east, central, south-east and south-west. On the other hand, the range in any month of local absolute temperatures over the state is habitu- ally great (normally about 50 in the hottest and 100° or more in the coldest months), and likewise the annual range for individual localities (90 to 140 ). Temperatures as high as loo" to 105 and as low as -20 or -30 are recorded locally almost every year, and the maximum range of extremes shown by the records is from 116 at Marble Hill, Bollinger county, in July 1901, to -40° at Warsaw, Benton county, in February 1905. The average fall of snow, which is mostly within the months from November to March inclusive, ranges from about 8 in. in the south-east counties to 30 in. in the north-west counties. The Missouri river is often closed by ice, and the Mississippi at St Louis, partly because it is obstructed by bridges, sometimes freezes over so that for weeks together horses and wagons can cross on the ice. The average yearly rainfall for the state as a whole is about 39 in., ranging from 53-7 in. in 1898 to 25-3 in. in 1901. The prevail- ing winds are southerly, although west winds are common in winter. Winds from the north and west are generally dry, cool, clear and invigorating; winds from the south and east warm, moist and depressing. Rainfall comes from the Gulf of Mexico. The south-east winds blow from the arid lands and carry rising temperatures across the state; and the winter anti-cyclones from the north-west carry low temperatures even to the southern border. Missouri lies very frequently in the dangerous quadrant of the great cyclonic storms passing over the Mississippi valley — indeed, north- ern Missouri lies in the area of maximum frequency of tornadoes. Agriculture. — Few states have so great a variety of soils. This variety is due to the presence of different forms of glacial drift, and to the variety of surface rocks. The northern half of the state is well watered and extremely fertile. The south-eastern embay- ment is rich to an exceptional degree. Speaking generally, the Ozark region is characterized by reddish clays, mixed with gravels and stones, and cultivable in inverse proportion to the amount of these elements; northern Missouri by a generally black clay loam over a clay subsoil, with practically no admixture of stones; the southern prairies, above referred to, share the characteristics of those north of the Missouri. The Mississippi embayment is in parts predominantly sandy, in others clayey; it is mainly under timber. The state as a whole is devoted predominantly to agri- culture. Within its borders or close about them are the centres of total and of improved farm acreage, of total farm values, of gross farm income, of the growth of Indian corn, of wheat, and of oats. In 1900 agriculture absorbed the labour of 41-3% of the total working population of the state. Of the area of the state 77-3 % was XVIII. 20 included in that year in farm land (33,997,873 acres); and of this, 67-4% was improved. The average size of a farm was 119-3 acres; 39'9% of all farm tamilies owned a home clear of all incumbrance; -and the percentages of farms operated by owners, cash tenants and share tenants were respectively 69-5, Il-o and 19-5. Negroes worked 1-7% of the total acreage. The total value of farm- property was $1,033,121,897. The aggregate values of farm products in 1899 was $219,296,970, and this total consisted of $117,012,895 in crops (area in crops, 14,827,620 acres), $97,841,944 in animal products, and $4,442,131 of forest by-products of farm operations. Indian corn is the most prominent single crop; in 1899 it was valued at $61,246,305. Of other cereals none except wheat is produced in any quantity as compared with other states. Tobacco is grown over half the area of the state, but especially in the central and north-central counties, and cotton along the Arkansas border counties, but especially in the embayment lowlands. Orchard fruits, small fruits and grapes are produced in large quantities, and a fruit experiment station, the only institution of its kind in the country in 1900, is maintained by the state at Mountain Grove, in Wright county. To a slight extent it is possible to grow fruit of distinctively southern habitat, but even pears (a prominent and valuable crop) are uncertain in returns. Apples are grown to best advantage in the north-west quarter; peaches on the Arkansas border; pears along the Mississippi; melons in the sandy regions of the embayment ; small fruits in the south-west. Grapes are mainly grown in the Ozark region, and wine is produced in Gasconade and other central and north-central counties in amounts sufficient to place Missouri, California aside, in the front rank of wine states in the Union. Indian corn and abundant grasses give to Missouri, as to the other central prairie states, a sound basis for her live- stock interests. In 1900 the value of her live stock was $160,540,004. Two of the four remount purchasing stations of the United States Army are at St Louis and Kansas City. As a mule market Missouri has no rival. Sheep are herded in the southern Ozarks. Minerals. — Coal, lead, zinc, clays, building stones and iron are the most important minerals. Cobalt and nickel are associated with lead in the St Francois field ; but though the American ouput is almost exclusively derived from Missouri the production is small in comparison with the amount derived from abroad. Practically the whole comes from Mine La Motte, in Madison county. Mis- souri is also the largest producer in the Union of tripoli and of barytes. Copper occurs in various localities, but is of economic importance only in the Ozark uplift; it was first mined in small quantities in 1837. The value of the copper mined in 1906 (based on smelter returns) was $54,347. Mineral waters — muriatic, alkaline chalybeate and sulphuric — occur widely. Various mineral paint bases (apart from lead, zinc, baryta and kaolin) are produced in small quantities. Iron, once an extremely important product, has ceased since about 1880 to be significant in the general produc- tion of the country. But it is of great importance to the state, nevertheless, and its production has possibilities much beyond present realization. The ore occurs in two forms, haematites and limonites; the specular hematites often being grouped, for practical purposes, into two classes— those occurring in porphyry and those occurring in sandstone. The haematites are found not only in the archean porphyries but in Cambrian limestone and sandstone, and in the sub-Carboniferous formations; while the limonites are confined almost exclusively to the Cambrian. The bedded haema- tites and limonites have been little exploited. Mining was begun in Iron and Crawford counties in the second decade of the 19th century; at Iron Mountain in 1846, and at Pilot Knob in the next year. Since 1880 the output of the state has been falling, and the total production up to 1902 did not exceed 9,000,000 tons of ore; in 1906 the output was 80,910 tons. Iron pyrites, which occurs widely and abundantly, has become of value as material for the preparation of sulphuric acid. The limits of the coal belt have already been defined. The area of the Coal Measures is about 23,000 sq. m., and that of those classed by the National Geological Survey as probably productive is about 14,000 sq. m., or nearly the entire area of the lower measures. The coal is almost wholly bituminous, with very little cannelite. The seams are generally from one to five feet in thickness. Macon, Lafayette and Adair are the leading counties in output; Lexington and Bevier are the leading mining centres. The total output from 1840 to 1902 was about 78,500,000 short tons; the annual output first passed 1,000,000 tons in 1876, and 2,000,000 tons in 1882; and from 1901 to 1905 the yearly output, steadily increasing, aver- aged 4,196,688 tons, of a value at the mines of $6,266,154; the output in 1908 was 3,317,315 tons, with a spot value of $5,444,907. Superficial evidences of natural gas and petroleum are abundant in western and north-western Missouri, but these have not been found in commercially profitable quantities. The total value of natural gas from wells in Missouri in 1908 was $22,592. A few small oil wells are open near the Kansas line. Both crude oil and natural gas are drawn from Kansas for the supply of Kansas City and other parts of western Missouri. Lead occurs in three areas in southern Missouri. In the first, of which St Francois county is the centre, it occurs generally alone disseminated in Cambrian limestone; in the second, of which the counties immediately south-west of Jefferson City are the centre, U 6io MISSOURI it occurs with zinc in reticulated deposits and fissure veins in clays and clastic limestones; and in the third, of which Jasper county is much the most important county, the two metals occur in pockets and joints in the Burlington-Keokuk beds of the sub-Carboniferous.- The first is the great lead area, the third the great zinc area; the second is no longer of relative importance. The lead ores are galena and carbonate; the zinc ores, calamine, smithsonite and blende. The mines in the St Francois field were worked by the French from early in the 18th century. The oldest, Mine La Motte (Madison county), discovered in 1715 by De la Motte Cadillac, is still a heavy producer. St Francois county alone produces about nine-tenths the yield of the field; Madison, Washington, Jefferson and Franklin counties furnish most of the remainder. Large quantities of lead are also obtained from the zinc field of the south-west. Both the St Francois and Jasper ores yield from 70 to 75 % of metal in final product, and assay even higher. It has been estimated that down to 1893 1,100,000 tons of ore, yielding metal worth $74,000,000, had been taken from the state, fully half of this having been mined in the preceding twenty years. The total output for the state in 1908 was 114,459 tons, valued at $12,134,556; of this 116,531 tons came from the central and south- east field, and of the remainder 15,240 tons from the Webb City — Prosperity camp. Zinc was originally a hindering by-product of lead mining in the south-west, and was thrown away; but it long ago became the chief product in value in this field. The so-called " Joplin district " of south-western Missouri and south-eastern Kansas — three-fourths of it being in Missouri — produces nine- tenths of all the zinc mined in the United States. Mining in south- western Missouri began about 1851, but zinc was of no importance in the output until 1872. In the next thirty-one years the aggre- gate product was about 3,000,000 tons of ore, worth some $100,000,000. The output from 1894 to 1905 averaged 219,874 tons of ore yearly; in 1908 it was 107,404 tons. The history of the St Francois, Granby and Joplin districts has been sensational. The fortunes of the last have largely revolutionized the conditions and prospects of the south-western counties. Silver is found in connexion with lead and zinc mining; in 1908 the total output was 49,131 oz., valued at $26,039. Clays occur in amounts and varieties surpassed by the deposits in very few if any states of the Union. They are in every form from the rare to the common— glass pot clay, ball clays, kaolins, flint fireclays, plastic fireclays, stone-ware clays, paving-brick shales, building-brick and gumbo clays. Plastic fireclays, paving and brick clays are available in seemingly limitless quantities. The loess, the re-sorted residual clays, and the glacial clays are all used for the production of brick. Clays occur, in short, all over the state; and their use is almost as general. In 1905 and 1907 the rank of Missouri was sixth in the Union in the value of clay products — namely, $6,203,411 in 1905 and $6,898,871 in 1907. There has been no more than the slightest beginning made in the utilization of these resources. Stone resources are also large. Limestones are by far the most important; red and gray granites, sandstones and marble (Ste Genevieve county) being of little more than local importance. In 1908 the total value of stone quarried was $2,306,058. Tripoli is quarried particularly in Newton county, where it has been produced since 1872, and though not produced in great quantities has value from its general scarcity. This Missouri tripoli is a finely decomposed light rock, about 98 % silica, and is used for filter stones and as an abrasive. " Chat " — finely crushed flint and limestone yielded as tailings in the lead and zinc mines — finds many uses. Limestone is quarried all over the state (except in the embayment region). There are unlimited supplies of clay, shale and limestone, the three essential constituents of Portland cement, and the manufacture of this, begun in 1902, at once assumed im- portant proportions. Quicklime manufacture is also an important industry. In 1908 the product of quicklime was 167,060 tons. Manufactures. — Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits absorbed in 1900 the labours' of 19-5% of all persons engaged in gainful occupations, less than half as many as were engaged in agriculture. Though an agricultural state, Missouri had in 1900 three cities with populations of above 100,000, whose wealth is based on manu- factures and trade. Missouri is the leading manufacturing state west of the Mississippi. Between 1880 and 1900 the value of the product increased from $165,386,205 to $385,492,784, of which $316,304,095 was the value of products of the " factory system "; in 1905 the factory product was valued at $439,548,957. Of the total output in 1900, three-fourths were made up by the output of St Louis ($233,629,733; of which $193,732,788 was from estab- lishments under the " factory system "), Kansas City ($36,527,392; $23,588,653 being " factory product "), St Joseph ($31,690,736, including the product of some establishments outside the city limits; $11,361,939 being "factory product" within the city limits), and Springfield ($4,126,871; $3,433,800 being "factory product "); for the same four cities in 1905 the proportion of the state's total product ($439,548,957) manufactured under the " factory system " is smaller, and less than three-fourths was made up by the following seven cities: St Louis ($267,307,038), Kansas City ($35,573,049), St Joseph ($11,573,720), Springfield ($5,293,315), Hannibal ($4,442,099), Jefferson City ($3,926,632), and Joplin ($3,006,203). In 1905 the eleven municipalities with a population of at least 8000 each (including the seven above, and Carthage, Moberly, Sedalia and Webb City) produced, under the " factory system," goods valued at $335,431,978. Eighteen industries in 1905 employed nearly three-fifths of the wage-earners in factories and were represented by nearly two-thirds ($293,882,705) of the total product. The most prominent items in this were slaughtering and meat-packing products (value $60,031,133 in 1905); tobacco (in 1905, $30,884,182), flour and grist-mill products (in 1905, $38, 026,142)/ malt liquors (in 1905, $24,154,264), boots and shoes (in 1905, $23,493,552), lumber and timber products (in 1905, $10,903,783), men's factory-made clothing (in 1905, $8,872,831), and cars and general shop construction and repairs by steam rail- ways (1905, $8,720,433). The increase in the slaughtering industry between 1890 and 1900 (134-9%) was chiefly due to remarkable growth in St Joseph — or, to be more precise, just outside the city limits of St Joseph; between 1900 and 1905 the increase was 39-5%. Although Missouri is not a great tobacco state, St Louis is one of the greatest centres of the country in the output of tobacco products. It is also, for the state, the great centre of all the leading interests with the exception of slaughtering. The boot and shoe industry isnew west of the Mississippi, but Missouri holds in it a high and rising rank. In the Joplin mining region a considerable amount of ores is smelted, but the bulk of the ores is sent into Kansas for smelting. The finer clays, also, are mainly shipped from the state in natural form, but in the manufacture of sewer-pipe and fire-brick, Missouri is a very prominent state. St Louis and Kansas City are the centres of the clay industries. Communications. — In 1900 rather under a fifth of the working population were engaged in trade and transportation. In commerce as well as in manufactures St Louis is first among the cities of the state, but Kansas City also is one of the greatest railway centres of the country, and the trade with the south-west, which St Louis once held almost undisputed, has been greatly cut into by Kansas City, as well as by Galveston and other ports on the Gulf. There is still considerable commerce on the Mississippi from St Louis to New Orleans, and a few passenger steamers are still in service. In 1906-1907 there was a notable agitation for improve- ment, following trial voyages that proved the navigability of the Missouri up to Kansas City. For this part of the river the maxi- mum draft at mean low water was 4 ft. in 1908. In 1907 the amount of freight carried from the mouth of the Missouri to Sioux City, Iowa, was 843,863 tons, and river rates were about 60% of railway rates. In 1907 estimates were made for 6 ft. and 12 ft. channels from Sioux City to Kansas City, and from Kansas City to the mouth of the river. The improvement of the Missouri — which is far more difficult to navigate than the Mississippi — was begun by Congress in 1832, and (in addition to large joint appro- priations for the Missouri, Mississippi, Arkansas and Ohio rivers from 1832 to 1882) cost $11,130,560 between 1876 and 1900. Also $65,000 was expended from 1852 to 1876. In nothing except the freighting of bulky and imperishable products, like cotton, coal and cereals, was the river ever able to contest the monopoly of the railways. The mileage of these within the state rose from 3960 in 1880 to 6142 in 1890, and to 8023-94 in 1908; the Missouri Pacific being far the greatest system of the state. St Louis, Kansas City and St Joseph are ports of entry for foreign commerce. Population.— The total population of Missouri in 1900 was 3,106,665 and in 1910, 3> 2 93»33S- The population in 1810 was 20,845; in 1820, 66,586; in 1830, 140,455; in 1840, 383,702; in 1850, 682,044; in i860, 1,182,012; in 1870, 1,721,295; in 1880, 2,168,380; and in 1890, 2,679,184. Thus, even in the years of the Civil War, there was no apparent set-back. Of the aggregate of 1900, 63-7 % lived in "rural districts" {i.e. those outside all places of a population of 2500 or upwards), and 27-1 % in the three great cities of the state, St Louis (pop. 575,238), Kansas City (163,752) and St Joseph (102,979); S -2 % were negroes — their increase from 1890 to 1900 being less than half as rapid as that of the whites; and 7-0 % only were foreign-born. Slightly more than half of all foreigners are Germans; Irish, English and Scotch, French and English Canadians, Swiss and Scandinavians follow- ing. The German element is, and has been since about 1850, of great importance — an importance not indicated at all by its apparently small strength in the population to-day. The Ger- man immigration began about 1845, and long ago passed its maximum, so that in 1900 more than half of all the foreign-born (not only the Germans, but also the later-coming nationalities) had lived within Missouri for more than twenty years, and more than three-fourths of all had been residents of the state for ten 1 Omitting here printing and publishing, and foundry and machine- shop products, which (like carpentering, bakery products, &c, in cities) have little distinctive in them to set Missouri off from other states. But it is to be noted that St Louis is one of the leading producers of street-railway cars. MISSOURI 611 years or more. Thus the foreign element is an old one., and other statistics show that it is being effectively absorbed into the native mass by intermarriage. 1 The German influence has been felt in education and in the anti-slavery cause. The early settlers of the state were practically all from Kentucky, Tennes- see, Virginia and the old slave-states of the south-east, and their influence was easily dominant in the state until well after the Civil War (about 1875), when northerners first began to enter the state in large numbers. The south-western Ozarks were settled originally by mountaineers from Kentucky and Tennes- see, and retained a character of social primitiveness and indus- trial backwardness until after the Civil War. This region has been industrially regenerated by the mine development. In addition to St Louis, 2 Kansas City and St Joseph, the leading cities in 1900 were Joplin, Springfield, Sedalia, Hannibal, Jefferson City, Carthage, Webb City and Moberly. As Missouri was originally a French colony the Roman Catholic is its oldest church; and it is still the strongest with 382,642 communicants in 1906 out of a total of 1,199,239 for all denomi- nations. In the same year there were 218,353 Baptists, 214,004 Methodists, 166,137 Disciples of Christ, 71,599 Presbyterians, 45,018 Lutherans, and 32,715 members of the German Evangelical Synod of North America. Administration. — Three constitutions, framed by conventions in 1820, 1865 and 1875, have been adopted by the people of the state, and a fourth (1845) was rejected, principally because it provided for popular election of the state judiciary, which was then appointed. In addition to these four constitutional con- ventions, mention should be made of the special body chosen in 1 86 1 to decide the question of secession, which retained supreme though irregular control of the state during the Civil War, and some of whose acts had all the force of promulgated constitu- tional amendments. Universal manhood suffrage was estab- lished by the first constitution. The constitution of 1865 was a partisan and intolerant document, a part of the evil aftermath of war; it was adopted by an insignificant majority and never had any strength in public sentiment. 3 The present constitution (that of 1875) was a notable piece of work when framed. The term of the governor and other chief executive officers, which had been four years until the adoption of the constitution of 1865, under which it was two years, was restored to the long term (unusual in American practice). The legislature (or, as it is called in Missouri, General Assembly) had been permitted to hold adjourned sessions under the constitution of 1865. This expensive practice was abolished; various checks were placed upon legislative extravagance, and upon financial, special and local legislation generally; and among reform provisions, common enough to-day, but uncommon in 1875, were those forbidding the General Assembly to make irrevocable grants of special privileges and immunities; requiring finance officials of the state to clear their accounts precedent to further eligibility to public office; preventing private gain to state officials through the deposit of public moneys in banks, or otherwise; and permitting the governor to veto specific items in general appropriation bills. The grand jury was reduced to twelve members, and nine con- curring may indict. The township system may be adopted by county option, but has not been widely established, though purely administrative (not corporate) " townships " are an essential part of state administration. St Louis and Kansas City have adopted their own charters under constitutional provision. Up to 1909 37 constitutional amendments were submitted to the people for adoption or rejection, and 22 were adopted. Three of these (1900) restrict the calling of the grand jury, permit two-thirds of a petit jury to render verdicts in courts not of record, and three-fourths to give verdict in civil 1 In 1900 only one person in six had both parents of foreign birth. 2 St Louis was the capital in 1812-1820, St Charles in 1820-1826, and Jefferson City since 1826. 3 After the proscriptive features of this constitution were abolished by amendments in 1870, however, there was no great discontent, and the vote for holding a constitutional convention in 1875 was very close: 111,299 to 111,016. cases in courts of record. Cities have been allowed (1892), upon authorization by the General Assembly, to organize pension systems for disabled firemen, but not allowed (1904) to organize the same for police forces. An amendment which was adopted (177,615 for; i47> 2 9° against) in November 1908, and came in effect on the 4th of December 1908^ provides for initiative and referendum applying to statutory law and to constitutional amendments, but emergency measures, and appropriations for the state government, for state institutions, and for public schools are exempt from referendum. Initiative petitions, signed by at least 8 % of the legal voters in each of two-thirds (at least) of the congressional districts of the state, must be filed not later than four months before the election at which the measure is to be voted upon. The referendum may be ordered by the legislature or by a petition signed by at least 5% of the legal voters in each of two-thirds (at least) of the congressional districts of the state; such petition must be filed not more than 90 days after the final adjournment of the legislature; referred measures become law upon receiving a favourable majority of the popular vote. Among defeated amendments that are indi- cative of socio-political tendencies was one (1896) to authorize cities of a population of 30,000 or more to purchase, erect or maintain waterworks or lighting plants. There is nothing extraordinary in the general judicial system. The civil law seems to have had only a tacit, and as soon as American immigration began a limited, application. The common law was introduced with the American settler, and after 1804 was the explicitly declared basis of judicature. Practically no trace of French and Spanish administration was left except in the land registers. The metropolitan primacy of St Louis and Kansas City is reflected in the general organization of the courts. The Bureau of Labor Statistics maintains free employment-bureaus in St Louis, Kansas City and St Joseph. There is also a State Board of Media- tion and Arbitration to settle labour disputes. A Board of Rail- road and Warehouse Commissioners, elected by the people, was established in 1875, under a provision of the constitution requiring the General Assembly to establish maximum rates and provide against discriminations. 4 The homestead of a housekeeper or head of a family, together with the rents and products of the same, is exempt from levy and attachment except to satisfy its liabilities at the time he acquired it. A homestead so exempted is, however, limited to 18 sq. rods of ground and to $3000 in value if it is in a city having a population of 40,000 or more, to 30 sq. rods and $1500 in value if it is in a city having a population of 10,000 and less than 40,000, to 5 acres and $1500 in value if it is in an incorporated place having a popula- tion of less than 10,000, and to 160 acres apd $1500 in value if it is in the country. A husband owning a homestead is debarred from selling or mortgaging it without the joinder of his wife, and if the husband dies leaving a widow or minor children the homestead passes to either or to both jointly, and may be so held until the youngest child is twenty-one years of age or until the marriage or death of the widow. The principal grounds for divorce are im- potence, bigamy, adultery, conviction of felony or other infamous crime subsequent to the marriage or before the marriage if un- known to the other party, desertion or habitual drunkenness for one year, such cruel or barbarous treatment as to endanger the life of the other, such conduct as to render the condition of the other intolerable, and vagrancy of the husband; but before apply- ing for a divorce the plaintiff must reside in the state for one year immediately preceding, unless the cause of action was given within the state or while the plaintiff was a resident of the state. A married woman may hold and manage property as if she were single. She is entitled to the wages for her separate labour and that of her children, and is not liable for her husband's debts. A widow has a dower right to one-third of her husband's real estate and to the share of a child in his personal estate. If a hus- band dies without leaving children or other descendants, the widow is entitled to all the real and personal estate which came to him by marriage, to what remains of the personal property which came into his possession by the written consent of his wife, and to one- half his other real and personal property at the time of his death. If a husband dies leaving descendants only by a former marriage, the widow may take in lieu of dower the personal property that came to him by means of marriage, or if there be children by both marriages she may take in lieu of her dower right to his real estate an absolute right therein equivalent to the share of a child. Her dower is not lost by a divorce resulting from the fault or mis- conduct of the husband. A widower is entitled to a share in his wife's personal estate equal to the share of a child, and if there are 4 In 1907, in Missouri, as in various other states, passenger rates were reduced by law to 2 cents per mile ; but this law was declared unconstitutional in 1909. 6l2 MISSOURI no descendants he has an absolute right to one-half of her property, both real and personal. Finance. — Revenue is drawn mainly from a general property tax. In 1904 the gross valuation of all taxable wealth was put at $1,155,402,647, and taxation for state purposes aggregated $0.17 per $iooo. 1 In the years 1851-1857 a debt of $23,701,000 was incurred in aiding railways, and all the roads made default during the Civil War. The state could not meet its guarantee obligations (hence the strict bonding provisions of the constitution of 1875), and in 1865 had a bonded debt of above $36,000,000. This was reduced to $21,675,000 by 1869, and in 1903 was wholly extinguished, every obligation having been fully discharged. A small debt 2 (at the close "of 1906, $4,398,839) is carried in the form of non-negoti- able state certificates of indebtedness issued in exchange for money taken from the educational funds of the state, and is intended as a permanent obligation to those funds. An amendment to the constitution adopted in 1908 permitted counties to make an extra levy of 25 cents on each 100 dollars valuation for the construction and repair of roads and bridges. Charitable and Penal Institutions. — The charitable and penal institutions of the state include the penitentiary at Jefferson City, opened in 1836, which is self-supporting; a training school for boys at Boonville (opened 1889), an industrial home for girls at Chilli- cothe (established 1887), hospitals for the insane at Fulton (1847), St Joseph (opened 1874), Nevada (1887), and Farmington (1899); a school for the blind at St Louis (opened 1851); a school for the deaf at Fulton (opened 1851); a colony for the feeble-minded and epileptic at Marshall (established 1899) ; a state sanitorium, for consumptives, at Mount Vernon (established 1905, opened 1907.) ; a Federal soldiers' home at St James, and a Confederate soldiers' home at Higginsville (both established 1897). Education. — The expenditure upon public schools is much greater in Missouri than in any other of the old slave states. Most of the total expenditure (in 1908, $12,769,690) is made possible by local taxation. The percentage of the enumerated school-population (children 6 to 20 years of age) attending school in 1908 was 48, and the percentage of the total enumeration enrolled was about 71 ; the general showing being excellent, and that for negroes remark- ably so. Blacks and whites are segregated in all schools. Various high-schools scattered over the state are given over to the negroes ; and in 1904 the number of pupils attending these was exceeded only by the corresponding numbers in Texas and Mississippi — states with five- and sixfold the negro population of Missouri. Illiterate persons above 10 years of age constituted in 1900 6-4% of the total population — 28-1 % of the negroes, 7-1 % of the natives, 6-9% of the foreign-born. The idea of providing a university and free local schools as parts of a public school system occurs in the constitution of 1820 (and in the Acts of Congress that prepared the way for statehood), and the occurrence is noteworthy; but the real beginnings of the system scarcely go back further than 1850. Nor was very much progress made until a law was passed in 1853 requiring a quarter of the general yearly revenue of the state to be distributed among the counties for schools. This appropriation was made regularly after 1855 (save in 1861-1867), and since 1875 has rested on a constitutional provision. The maintenance of a free public school system was placed on a firm and broad foundation by the constitution adopted in that year. In the years after 1887 one-third of the total revenue was appropriated to the public common schools; and in 1908 the total appropriation for public schools, normal schools and the state university was about three- fifths of the entire state revenue. Local taxation is another source of the school funds. In 1908 the total school fund, including state, county, township and special district funds, was about $14,000,000, of which the state fund was nearly one-third. The schools of St Louis have a very high reputation. Among institutions of higher learning the university of Missouri at Columbia is the chief one maintained by the state. It was opened to students in 1 841, received aid for the first time from the state in 1867; women were first admitted to the mormal department in 1869, to the academic department in 1870, and soon afterwards to all departments. In addition to the academic department or college proper, the university embraces special schools of pedagogics (1868), agriculture and mechanic arts (1870), mines and metallurgy (1870, at Rolla), law (1872), medicine (1873), fine arts (1878), engin- eering (1877), military science, commerce, a graduate school of arts and sciences (1896), and a department of journalism (1908). An experiment station supported by the national government was established in 1888, and is part of the school of agriculture. The state Board of Agriculture organizes educational farmers' institutes ; and agriculture is taught, moreover, in the normal schools of the 'The constitutional provision requiring assessments at cash valuations is not at all observed; according to the State Revenue Commission of 1902 the average tax valuation was 40 to 50% of the real value. The national censuses of 1880 and 1890 (no estimate being made in 1900) put the total value of all property at $1,562,000,000 and $2,397,902,945 respectively. 2 In 1902 the bonded debts of counties and townships aggregated $8,066,878; that of towns and cities (mostly that of St Louis), fei. 193.87a state. Of these five are maintained as follows: at Kirksville (1870), at Warrensburg (established 1870), at Cape Girardeau (established 1873), at Springfield (established 1905), at Maryville (established 1905), and there is a normal department in connexion with the Lincoln Institute, for negroes, at Jefferson City. Lincoln Institute (opened in 1866) is for negro men and women. The basis of its endowment was a fund of $6379 contributed in 1866 by the 62nd and 65th regiments U.S. Colored Infantry upon their discharge from the service; it has agricultural, industrial, sub-normal, normal and collegiate departments. Among privately endowed schools the greatest is Washington University in St Louis; it is non-sectarian and was opened in 1857. Noteworthy, too, is the St Louis Uni- versity, opened in 1829, the oldest institution for higher learning west of the Mississippi; it is a Jesuit college and the parent school of six other Jesuit institutions in the states of the middle west. There are many minor colleges and schools, most of them co- educational, and special colleges or academies for women are main- tained by different religious sects. Finally, there are various professional schools, most of them in St Louis and Kansas City. History. — The early French explorers of the Mississippi valley left the first trace of European connexion in the history of Missouri. Ste Genevieve was settled in 1735; Fort Orleans, two-thirds of the way across the state up the Missouri river, had been temporarily established in 1720; the famous Mine La Motte, in Madison county, was opened about the same time; and before the settlement of St Louis, the Missouri river was known to trappers and hunters for hundreds of miles above its mouth. It was in 1764 that St Louis (q.v.) was founded. Two years before, the portion of Louisiana west of the Mississippi had secretly passed to Spain, and in 1763 the portion east passed to England. When the English took possession a large part of the people in the old French settlements removed west of the river. Not until 1770, after O'Reilly had established Spanish rule by force at New Orleans, did a Spanish officer at St Louis take actual possession of the upper country; another on the ground, in 1 768-1 769, had forborne to assert his powers in the face of the unfriendly attitude of the inhabitants. Spanish administration began in 17 71. French remained the official language, and administration was so little altered that the people quickly grew reconciled to their changed allegiance. Settlement was confined to a fringe of villages along the Mississippi. French-Canadian hunters and trappers, and soon the river boatmen, added an element of adventure and colour in the primitive life of the colony. Lead and salt and peltries were sent to Montreal, New Orleans, and up the Ohio river to the Atlantic cities. The Americans were hospitably received; the immigrants, even Protestant clergymen, enjoyed by official goodwill complete religious toleration; and after about 1796 lavish land grants to Americans were made by the authorities, who wished to strengthen the colony against anticipated attacks by the British, from Canada. Kentucky, Tennessee and Virginia furnished most of the new-comers. The French had lived in villages and main- tained considerable communal life; the Americans scattered on homesteads. With them came land speculation, litigiousness, the development of mines and mining-camp law, and. the passion of politics, of which duels were one feature of early days. In 1804 there were some 10,000 inhabitants in Upper Louisiana (mainly in Missouri), and of these three-fifths were Americans and their negroes. Racial antipathies were unimportant, and all parties were at least passively acquiescent when Louisiana became a part of the United States. On the 9th of March 1804, at St Louis, Upper Louisiana was formally transferred. In 1818, after passing meanwhile through four stages of limited self- government, 3 that portion of the Purchase now included in the state of Missouri made application for admission to the Union as a state. 4 In 1812-1813 a remarkable earthquake devastated the region about New Madrid. A large region was sunken, enormous fissures were opened in the earth, the surface soil was displaced 3 In 1804, the District of Louisiana, in the administrative system of the Territory of Indiana; in 1805, an independent government, renamed the Territory of Louisiana; in 1812, the Territory of Mis- souri; in 1816, another grade of territorial government. 4 Until 1836 the state boundary in the north-west was the meridian of the mouth of the Kansas river drawn due north to the Iowa line. The addition of the triangle west of that line — the so-called Platte Purchase — violated the Missouri Compromise. MISSOURI 613 and altered, and great lakes were formed along the Mississippi. One of these, Reelfoot Lake, east of the river, is 20 m. long and 7 wide, and so deep that boats sail over the submerged tops of tall trees. Indian troubles again disturbed the peace during the second war with Great Britain. By 1808 the Indian title was extinguished to two-thirds of the state, though actual settle- ment did not extend more than a few miles westward from the Mississippi; in 1825, by a treaty with the Shawnee made at St Louis on the 7th of November, the title to the rest of the state was cleared, and a general removal of the Indians followed. Meanwhile, after the peace of 181 5 a great immigration had set in, many settlers coming from the free states north of the Ohio. The application for statehood precipitated one of the most famous and significant episodes of national history — the Missouri Compromise (q.v.). In August 1821, after three years of bitter controversy, Missouri was formally admitted to statehood. In the four decades before the Civil War, two matters stand out as most distinctive in the history of the state: the trouble with the Mormons, and the growth of river and prairie trade. In 1 831-183 2 Joseph Smith, the Mormon leader, selected a tract at the mouth of the Kansas river as the site of the New Jerusa- lem, to which his followers came from Ohio in 1832. They were not welcome. Their " revelations " in their papers predicted dire things for the Gentiles; they were thrifty and well-to-do, and were rapidly widening their lands: they were accused of disregard for Gentile property titles, and they obstructed the processes of Gentile law within their lands. In 1833 the Missou- rians, in mass meeting, resolved to drive them from the country. The five years thereafter were marked by plunder and abuse of the sect. The militia and the courts gave them no protection. They were driven out, and went to Illinois, but continued to hold part of their abandoned lands. First St Louis, and then other towns on the Missouri river in succession westward, as they were settled and became available as depots, served as the outfit points for the Indian trade up the Missouri and the trade with Mexico through Santa Fe. The trail followed by the latter had its beginning about 1812, and (beginning in 1825) was surveyed by the national government. In early days Mexican and Ameri- can military detachments escorted the caravans on either side of the international line. Independence, Missouri (after about 183 1) and Kansas City (after 1844) were the great centres of this trade, which by i860 was of national importance. 1 After the Civil War the railways gradually destroyed it, the Atchison Topeka & Santa Fe railroad running along the old wagon trail. No steamer traversed the Mississippi above the Ohio until 181 7, nor was a voyage made between New Orleans and St Louis, nor the lower Missouri entered, until 1819. In 1832 a steamer ran to the mouth of the Yellowstone, and in 1890 the last commercial trip was made to old Fort Benton (Great Falls), Montana. The interval of years witnessed the growth of a river trade and its ■gradual decline as point after point on the river — Kansas City, St Joseph, Council Bluffs (Iowa), Sioux Falls (South Dakota) and Helena (Montana) — was reached and commanded by the railways. In 1906-1907 an active campaign was begun at Kansas City for improving the channel of the Missouri and stimulating river freighting below that point. Among events leading up to the Civil War, first the annexation of Texas and then the war with Mexico left special impress on Missouri history. Since 1828, when national political parties were first thoroughly organized in the state, the Democrats had been supreme, and carried Missouri on the pro-slavery side of every issue of free and slave territory. But there was always a strong body of anti-slavery sentiment, 2 nevertheless; and this 1 In 1855 its value was estimated at $5 000,000. In i860 it was much greater. In the latter year the trade employed 3000 wagons, 62,000 oxen and mules, and 7000 men. 2 Under the constitution of 1820 the General Assembly had fiower to emancipate the slaves with the consent of their masters. n 1828 Senator T. H. Benton and others prepared a plan tor educating the slaves and gradually emancipating them under state law; and undoubtedly a considerable party would have supported such a project, for the Whigs and Democrats were not then divided along party lines on the slavery issue; but nothing took organized form in 1849, when Senator Benton repudiated certain ultra pro-slavery instructions, breathing a secession spirit, passed by the General Assembly for the guidance of the representatives of the state in Congress. From that time until his death he organized and led the anti-disunion party of the state, Francis Preston Blair, jun., succeeding him as leader. The struggle over Kansas (q.v.) aroused tremendous passion in Missouri. Her border counties furnished the bogus citizens who invaded Kansas to carry the first territorial elections, and soon guerrilla forays back and forth gave over the border to a carnival of crime and plunder. Political conditions were chaotic. In the presidential election of i860, Douglas received the electoral vote of the state, the only one he carried in the Union. The Republicans had little strength outside St Louis, where the German element was strong. A party led' by Claiborne F. Jackson, the governor-elect, was resolved to carry the state out of the Union. Such secession, it was supposed, would-carry the other border states out also. With equal blindness the Secessionists favoured, and the Republicans opposed, the calling of a special state convention to decide the issue of secession. The election showed that popular sentiment was overwhelm- ingly hostile to secession; and the convention, by a vote of 80 to 1, resolved (March 4, 1861) that Missouri had " no adequate cause " therefor. Governor Jackson thereupon sought to attain his ends by intrigue, and the national arsenal at St Louis became the objective of both parties. It was won by the unconditional- union men, but a smaller arsenal at Liberty was seized by the Secessionists. Governor Jackson refused point-blank to con- tribute the quota of troops from Missouri called for by President Lincoln. Aggressive conflict really opened at St Louis on the 10th of May, and armed hostilities began in June. On the 10th of August 1 86 1 at Wilson's Creek, near Springfield, General Nathaniel Lyon was defeated by a superior Confederate force in one of the bloodiest battles of the war. After this the Confederates held much of southern Missouri until the next spring, when they were driven into Arkansas, never afterward regaining foothold in the state. In the autumn of 1864 Sterling Price led a brilliant but rather bootless Confederate raid across the state, along the Missouri River, and was only forced to retreat southward by defeat at Westport (Kansas City). The western border was rendered desolate and deserted by guerrilla forays throughout the war. Probably 25,000 or 30,000 soldiers served in the Confederate armies, and 109,111 were furnished to the Union arms. 3 This was a remarkable showing. There was more or less internecine conflict throughout the war, and local dis- affection under Union rule; and Confederate recruiting was carried on even north of the Missouri. Altogether, the state offered a difficult civil and military problem throughout the Civil War. An emancipation pro- clamation issued by General J. C. Fr6mont at St Louis in August 1 86 1, though promptly disavowed by President Lincoln, precipitated the issue. The state convention, after voting against secession, had adjourned, and after various sessions was dissolved in October 1863. Assuming revolutionary powers, it deposed Governor Jackson and other state officers, appointed their successors, declared vacant the seats of members of the Assembly, and abrogated the disloyal acts of that body. In October 1861 a rump of the deposed Assembly passed an act of secession, which the Confederate States saw fit to regard as legitimate, and under which they admitted Missouri to their union by declaration of the 28th of November. In 1862 the convention rejected the President's suggestion of gradual eman- cipation, disfranchised Secessionists, and prepared a strong oath of allegiance. In the summer of 1863 the convention decreed emancipation with compensation to owners. This did not satisfy the Radical Republicans, and on the issue of came of the plan, and the manner of its defeat proves that it could not possibly have been pushed to success The trouble over Lovejoy's printing office at St Louis (1833-1836) put an effectual end to the movement for emancipation. 3 Compare the vote of 1861. The Union death-roll of Massachu- setts (troops furnished, 159,165) was 13,942, that of Missouri 13,887. 614 MISSOURI COMPROMISE immediate and unconditional emancipation they swept the state in November 1864. By the constitution of 1865 slavery was abolished outright. 1 The convention of 1861, by maintaining continuous government, had saved the state from anarchy and from reconstruction by the national power; but an ironclad test oath (it required denial of forty-five distinct offences) was provided, to be taken by all voters, state, county and municipal officers, lawyers, jurors, teachers and clergymen. Its attempted enforcement was a grave error of judgment, and was attended by great abuses, and it was finally held unconstitu- tional by the United States Supreme Court. The legislature, however, maintained its ends by registration laws that reduced to impotence the Democratic electorate. The Radical Republi- cans held control until 1870, when they were defeated by a com- bination of Liberal Republicans and Democrats, 2 and the test- oath and the rest of the intolerant legislation of the war period were swept away. In 1872 the Democrats gained substantial control, and after 1876 their power was established beyond challenge. The constitution of 1875 closed the war period with blanket amnesties. Though in politics habitually Democratic, Missouri has generally had a strong opposition party — Whig in antebellum days, and since the war, Republican — which in recent years has made political conditions increasingly unstable. This instability is shown in congressional and local rather than in general state elections. In 1908 a Republican governor was elected, the first for more than thirty years. The Governors of Missouri since 1804 have been as follow: — Territorial Period. Party Affiliation. Service. James Wilkinson Appointed 1805-1806 Joseph Brown (acting governor) 1 806-1 807 Frederick Bates Meriwether Lewis Appointed Frederick Bates (acting governor) .... Benjamin Howard Appointed Frederick Bates (acting governor) .... William Clark Appointed Stale Period. Alexander McNair Democrat Frederick Bates (died in office) . . „ Abraham J. Williams (acting governor) 1825 John Miller (special election to fill out term) Democrat John Miller Daniel Dunklin (resigned office) . „ Lilburn W. Boggs (acting governor) Lilburn W. Boggs Democrat Thomas Reynolds (died in office) . ,, M. M.Marmaduke (acting governor) John C. Edwards Democrat Austin A. King ,, Sterling Price „ Trusten Polk (elected to United States Senate) ,, Hancock Jackson (acting governor) Robert M. Stewart (elected to serve out term) Democrat Claiborne F. Jackson (deposed by state convention) .... „ 1807 I 807- I 809 1809-1810 1810-1812 1812-1813 1 8 13-1820 1 820-1 824 s 1 824-1 825 1 825-1 828 1828-1832 1832-1836 1836 1 836-1 840 1 840-1 844 1844 1 844-1 848 1848-1853 1853-1857 1857 1857 1857-1861 1861 1 Thus liberating about 1 14,000 blacks, of a tax valuation of $40,000,000. 2 The Liberals were those who thought unjust the proscriptionary legislation passed against the Secessionists and Democrats; and to this issue of local politics were added the issues of national reform which- the course of President Grant's administration had forced upon his party. A convention of Liberals that met at Jefferson City in January 1872 issued to all Republicans favourable to reform within the party an invitation to meet at Cincinnati in May; and this was the convention of revolters against General Grant that nominated Horace Greeley of New York and B. Gratz Brown of Missouri as Liberal Republican candidates for the presidency and vice-presidency respectively. The first definite organization of the Liberal Republican party may therefore be said to have been made in Missouri in 1870. 3 From 1820-1844 the elections were in August and inaugurations in November; Governor King served from the 27th of December 1848 till January 1853; thereafter the inauguration was in January, and beginning with 1864 the election was in November. The term was four years except under the constitution of 1865. Hamilton R. Gamble (appointed by state convention; died in office), provisional governor Willard P. Hall (Lieut.- governor by same power, acting provisional governor) Thomas C. Fletcher .... Joseph W. McClurg .... B. Gratz Brown Silas Woodson Charles H. Hardin .... John S. Phelps Thomas T. Crittenden . John S. Marmaduke (died in office) Albert P. Morehouse (acting governor) David R. Francis .... William J. Stone ..... Lon V. Stephens .... Alexander M. Dockerey . Joseph W. Folk Herbert S. Hadley .... Party Affiliation. Republican Liberal Republican (and Democrat) Democrat Democrat Republican Service, 1861-1864 1 864-1 865 1 865- 1 869 1869-1871 1871-1873 1873-1875 1875-1877 1877-1881 1881-1885 1885-1887 1887-1889 1889-1893 1 893-1 897 1897-1901 1901-1905 1905-1909 1909 Bibliography.— For Physiography: See Surface Features of Missouri (in Missouri Geological Survey Reports, vol. x., Jefferson City, 1896) ; publications of the State Bureau of Geology and Mines, including bulletins and reports of the Missouri Geological Survey (1853 seq. ; new series, 15 vols., 1891-1904) ; publications of United States Geological Survey, particularly Bulletins 132, 213, 267, the 22nd Annual Report, part ii. pp. 23-227, &c.; and reports of state departments. On administration : the annual Official Manual of the State of Missouri (really private, Jefferson City) ; also F. N. Judson, Law and Practice of Taxation in Missouri (Columbia, 1900) ; M. S. Snow, Higher Education in Missouri (U.S. Bureau of Education, Washington, 1898). On History: Lucian Carr, Missouri ("American Commonwealths" Series, Boston, 1892); L. Houck, Spanish Regime in Missouri (3 vols., Chicago, 1910); T. L. Snead, The Fight for Missouri (New York, 1886); Wiley Britton, The Civil War on the Border (2 vols., New York, 1891-1899; 3rd ed. of vol. I, revised, 1899); H. M. Chittenden, History of Early Steamboat Navigation on the Missouri River (2 vols., New York, 1903) ; W. B. Davis and D. S. Durrie, An Illustrated History of Missouri (St Louis, 1876); Encyclopedia of the History of Missouri . . . ed. by H. L. Conrad (6 vols., New York, St Louis, 1901). MISSOURI COMPROMISE, an agreement (1820) between the pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions in the United States, involving primarily the regulation of slavery in the public territories. A bill to enable the people of Missouri to form a state government preliminary to admission into the Union came before the House of Representatives in Committee of the Whole, on the 13th of February 1819. An amendment offered by James Tallmadge (1778-1853) of New York, which provided that the further introduction of slaves into Missouri should be forbidden, and that all children of slave parents born in the state after its admission should be free at the age of twenty-five, was adopted by the committee and incorporated in the Bill as finally passed (Feb. 17) by the house. The Senate refused to concur in the amendment and the whole measure was lost. During the following session (1819-1820), the house passed a similar bill with an amendment introduced on the 26th of January 1820 by John W. Taylor (1784-1854) of New York making the admission of the state conditional upon its adop- tion of a constitution prohibiting slavery. In the meantime the question had been complicated by the admission in December of Alabama, a slave state (the number of slave and free states now becoming equal), and by the passage through the house (Jan. 3, 1820) of a bill to admit Maine, a free state. The Senate decided to connect the two measures, and passed a bill for the admission of Maine with an amendment enabling the people of Missouri to form a state constitution. Before the bill was returned to the house a second amendment was adopted on the motion of J. B. Thomas (1777-1850) of Illinois, excluding slavery from the " Louisiana Purchase " north of 36° 30' (the southern boundary of Missouri), except within the limits of the proposed state of Missouri. The House of Representatives refused to accept this and a conference committee was appointed. There was now a controversy between the two houses not only MISSOURI RIVER 615 on the slavery issue, but also on the parliamentary question of the inclusion of Maine and Missouri within the same bill. The committee recommended the enactment of two laws, one for the admission of Maine, the other an enabling act for Missouri without any restrictions on slavery but including the Thomas amendment. This was agreed to by both houses, and the measures were passed, and were signed by President Monroe respectively on the 3rd and on the 6th of March 1820. When the question of the final admission of Missouri came up during the session of 1820-1821 the struggle was revived over a clause in the new constitution (1820) requiring the exclusion of free negroes and mulattoes from the state. Through the influence of Henry Clay an act of admission was finally passed, to come into operation as soon as the state legislature would pledge itself not to pass any legislation to enforce this clause. This is sometimes known as the second Missouri Compromise. These disputes, involving as they did the question of the relative powers of Congress and the states, tended to turn the Democratic-Republicans, who were becoming nationalized, back again toward their old state sovereignty principles— to prepare the way for the Jacksonian-Democratic Party. On the other hand, the old Federalist nationalistic element was soon to emerge first as National Republicans, then as Whigs, and finally as Republicans. On the constitutional side the Compromise of 1820 was important as the first precedent for the congressional exclusion of slavery from public territory acquired since the adoption of the Constitution, and also as a clear recognition that Congress has no right to impose upon a state asking for admission into the Union conditions which do not apply to those states already in the Union. The compromise was specifically repealed by the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854. See J. A. Woodburn, " The Historical Significance of the Missouri Compromise " in the Annual Report of the American Historical Association for 1893 (Washington, D.C.); Dixon, History of the Missouri Compromise (Cincinnati, 1899) ; Schouler's and McMaster's Histories of the "United States. (W. R. S*.) MISSOURI RIVER, the principal western tributary of the Mississippi river, U.S.A. It is formed at Gallatin City, in the Rocky Mountain region of south-western Montana, by the confluence of the Jefferson, Madison and Gallatin forks; thence it flows N. into the plains, which it traverses in a course at first N.E., then E. Entering North Dakota, the river turns gradually to the S.E., then S., and again S.E., traversing both North and South Dakota. It forms the eastern boundary of Nebraska and in part of Kansas, and crosses Missouri in an easterly course td its junction with the Mississippi 20 m. above St Louis, and 2547 m. below the confluence of the three forks. The stream which is known as the Jefferson Fork in its lower course, Beaver Head River in its middle course, and Red Rock Creek in its upper course, is really the upper section of the Missouri; it rises on the border between Montana and Idaho, 20 m. west of the western boundary of the Yellowstone National Park, near the crest of the Rocky Mountains, 8000 ft. above the sea, and 398 m. beyond Gallatin City; and with this and the Lower Mississippi the Missouri forms a river channel 4221 m. in length, the longest in the world. The Madison and Gallatin forks rise within the Yellowstone Park, where the former is fed by geysers and hot springs and the latter by both hot springs and melting snow. The Yellowstone river, which is the principal tributary, of the Missouri, traverses the park. The Missouri drains a basin having an area of about 580,000 sq.m.; this includes the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains from the northern border of the United States to the middle of Colorado, and its larger tributaries take their rise in those mountains. Besides the Yellowstone and the three forks there are the Platte, which rises in two large branches in Colorado, and the Milk, which rises in north-western Montana. The Kansas in Kansas, the James and Big Sioux in the Dakotas, and the Niobrara in Nebraska, are the principal tributaries wholly of the plains. In the mountain region the Missouri flows through deep canyons and over several cascades. Below Great Falls the slower current is unable to carry all the silt brought down from the mountains and plains, and consequently a winding and unstable channel has been formed on deposits of silt 5° to 100 ft. or more in depth. Bends in the river continue to develop by erosion until the neck between two of them is cut off, and in the process numerous islands, sand-bars, and crescent-shaped lakes are formed. Cottonwood, willow, cedar and walnut trees grow upon the banks that are for a time left undisturbed, but years later the eroding current returns to undermine these banks, the trees fall in and are carried down stream as snags (or " sawyers "), which are especially dangerous to navigation. The variation of level is great and it varies greatly in different parts of the river's course: it is about 19 ft. at Kansas City, about 25 ft. at St Charles, Missouri, and about 8 ft. at Fort Benton, Montana. It is estimated that the Missouri's average discharge per second amounts to about 94,000 cub. ft., and that each year it carries into the Mississippi 550,000 tons of silt. The waters of the Missouri begin to rise in March, and a high- water stage is reached in April as a result of the spring rains and the melting snow on the plains; a second high stage is produced in June by the melting of snow on the mountains, and the river is navigable from early spring to midsummer as far as Fort Benton, within 40 m. of the Great Falls and 2285 m. above the mouth. Above Great Falls the river is navigable to Three Forks. The mouth of the Missouri was discovered in 1673 by Mar- quette and Joliet, while they were coming down the Mississippi. Early in the 18th century French fur-traders began to ascend the river, and in 1764 St Louis was established as a depot; but the first exploration of the river from its mouth to its head- waters was made in 1 804-1805 by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. Until many years later the commerce on the river was restricted to the fur trade #nd was carried on with such primitive craft as the canoe (made from the log of a cottonwood tree); the pirogue (usually two canoes side by side and with a floor over them on which to place the cargo) ; the bullboat (made by covering a framework of willow poles with the hides of bison bulls) ; the mackinaw boat (made of boards and having a flat bottom); and the keelboat (a vessel of some pretensions, with a keel from bow to stern, 60 to 70 ft. in length, with a breadth of beam from 15 to 18 ft., and drawing 20 to 30 in. of water). A canoe, pirogue, bullboat, or mackinaw boat was propelled by two or more men with paddles, poles, or oars; but to propel a keelboat up the river required 20 to 40 men who walked along the shore and pulled a corvette, a line about 1000 ft. long and fastened to the mast. An average of about 15 m. a day was made with a keelboat going up the river. The first attempt to navigate the Mis- souri with steamboats was made in the spring of 1819, when the " Independence " made a trip from St Louis to the mouth of the Chariton river and back. The American Fur Company began to use steamers in 1830, and from then until the advent of railways the steamboat on the Missouri was one of the most important factors in the development of the Northwest. The traffic was at its height in 1858, when no fewer than 60 regular packets were engaged in it, but its decline began in the following year with the completion of the Hannibal & St Joseph railway to St Joseph, Missouri, and 20 years later it had nearly disappeared. In an attempt to regulate railway rates, however, four boats were run between Kansas City and St Louis between 1890 and 1894 by the Kansas City & Missouri Transportation Company, and in 1906 the Missouri River Valley Improvement Association was formed at Kansas City. Congress began to make appropriation for the removal of snags about 1838, and forty years later appropriations were begun for a general improvement which in 1884 was placed under the charge of the Missouri River Commission. In 1890 its work was restricted to that part of the river below Sioux City and in 1902 the Commission was abolished. Up to the 30th of June 1908 the Federal government had expended $11,398,881 for the improve- ment of the river. See H. M. Chittenden, History of Early Navigation on the Missouri River (New York, 1903) ; P. E. Chappel, A History of the Missouri River (Kansas City, 1905); J. V. Brower, The Missouri River and 6i6 MISTAKE— MISTRAL, F. its Utmost Source (St Paul, 1896); J. M. Hanson, The Conquest of the Missouri (New York, 1909) ; L. M. Jones, " The Improvement of the Missouri River and its Usefulness as a Traffic Route," in Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science (Jan. 1908), and the Annual Reports of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army. MISTAKE {i.e. take amiss), a misconception or error in thought or action. In law, the word is often used in the sense of ignorance or error, as when it is said that mistake of law affords no excuse for crime. In the law of contract, mistake is of special importance, and may occur either in a matter of law or in a matter of fact. In general, a mistake of law cannot be alleged in avoidance of the consequences of contracts or acts, although there are exceptions in which relief may be given. Mistake of fact, however, may be ground for avoidance, pro- vided the mistake was not due to negligence. (See further Contract.) MISTLETOE 1 (Viscum album), a species of Viscum, of the botanical family Loranthaceae. The whole genus is parasitical, and contains about twenty species, widely distributed in the warmer parts of the old world; but only the mistletoe proper is a native of Europe. It forms an evergreen bush, about 4 ft. in length, thickly crowded with forking branches and opposite leaves, which are about 2 in. long, obovate-lanceolate in shape and yellowish-green; the dioecious flowers, which are small and nearly of the same colour but yellower, appear in February and March; the white berry when ripe is filled with a viscous semi- transparent pulp (whence bird-lime is derived). The mistletoe is parasitic both on deciduous and evergreen trees and shrubs. In England it is most abundant on the apple-tree, but rarely found on the oak. - Poplars, willows, lime, mountain-ash, maples, are favourite habitats, and it is also ffjund on many other trees, including cedar of Lebanon and larch. The fruit is eaten by most frugivorous birds, and through their agency, particularly that of the species which is accordingly known as missel-thrush or mistle-thrush, the plant is propagated. The Latin proverb has it that " Turdus malum sibi cacat"; but the sowing is really effected by the bird wiping its beak, to which the seeds adhere, against the bark of the tree on which it has alighted. The viscid pulp soon hardens, affording a protection to the seed; in germination the sucker-root penetrates the bark, and a connexion is established with the vascular tissue of the first plant. The growth of the plant is slow, and its durability proportionately great, its death being determined generally by that of the tree on which it has established itself. The mistletoe so extensively used in England at Christmas is largely derived from the apple orchards of Normandy; a quantity is also sent from the apple orchards of Herefordshire. Pliny {H. N., xvi. 92-95; xxiv. 6) has a good deal to tell about the viscum, a deadly parasite, though slower in its action than ivy. He distinguishes three " genera." " On the fir and larch grows what is called stelis in Euboea and hyphear in Arcadia." Viscum, called dryos hyphear, is most plentiful on the esculent oak, but occurs also on the robur, Prunus sylvestris and terebinth. Hyphear is useful for fattening cattle if they are hardy enough to withstand the purgative effect it produces at first; viscum is medicinally of value as an emollient, and in cases of tumour, ulcers and the like. Pliny is also our authority for the reverence in which the mistletoe when found growing on the robur was held by the Druids. Prepared as a draught, it was used as a cure for sterility and a remedy for poisons. The mistletoe figures also in Scandinavian legend as having furnished the material of the arrow with which Balder (the sun-god) was slain by the blind god Hoder. Most probably this story had its origin in a particular theory as to the meaning of the wore! mistletoe. MISTRAL, FREDERIC (1830- ), Provencal poet, was born at Maillane (Bouches-du-Rh6ne) on the 8th of September 1830. In the autobiographical sketch prefixed to the Isclo d'or (1876) he tells us, with great simplicity and charm, all that is worth knowing of his early life. His father was a prosperous farmer, 1 Gr. i&a or l£6s, hence Lat. viscum, Ital. vischio or visco, and Fr. gui. The English word is the O.E. misteltan, Icelandic mistel- teinn, in which tan or teinn means a twig, and mistel may be associ- ated either with mist in the sense of fog, gloom, because of the prominence of mistletoe in the dark season of the year, or with the same root in the sense of dung (from the character of the berries or the supposed mode of propagation). and his mother a simple and religious woman of the people, who first taught him to love all the songs and legends of the country. In these early days on the farm he received those first impressions which were destined to constitute one of the chief beauties of Mirbio. In his ninth year Mistral was sent to a small school at Avignon, where he was very wretched at first, regretting the free outdoor life of the country. Gradually, however, his studies attracted him, above all the poetry of Homer and Virgil; and he translated the latter's first eclogue, showing his efforts to a young schoolfellow, A. Mathieu, who was destined to play a part in the foundation of the Felibrige. When Roumanille (see Provencal Literature) became an usher at Mistral's school, the two, fired by the same love of poetry and of their native Provence, soon became close friends. " Voila. l'aube que mon ame attendait pour s'eveiller a. la lumiere," he exclaimed, on reading Rouman- ille's first dialect poems; and he goes on to say: " Embrases tous les deux du desk de relever le parler de nos meres, nous etudiames ensemble les vieux livres Provencaux, et nous nous proposames de restaurer la langue selon ses traditions et caracteres nationaux." On leaving school (1847) he returned to Maillane, where he sketched a pastoral poem in four cantos {Li Meissoun). With all his love for the country, he soon realized that life on a farm did not satisfy his ambition. So he went to study law at Aix, where he contributed his first published poems to Roumanille's Li Prouvencalo (1852). He had become licenciS en droit the year before, but now decided on a literary career. The Felibrige was founded in 1854, and five years later appeared Mirbio, the masterpiece not only of Mistral, but so far of the entire school. The tale itself was nothing — the old story of a rich girl and her poor lover, kept apart by the girl's parents. Mireille, in despair, wanders along a wide tract of country to the church of the Trois- Maries, in the hope that these may aid her. But the effort was too great: she sinks exhausted, and dies in the presence of her stricken parents and her frenzied lover. Into this simple web Mistral has woven descriptions of Provencal life, scenery, character, customs and legends that raise the poem to the dignity of a rustic epic, unique in literature. Nothing is forced : every detail is filled into the framework of the whole with a cunning which the poet was never again to attain. There is no deep psychology in the characters, but then the people depicted are simple rustic folk, who wear their hearts on their sleeve. Calendau (1867), the story of a princess held in bondage by a ruthless brigand, and eventually rescued by a youthful hero, is a comparative failure. The description of scenery is again masterly; but the old lore, which had charmed all readers in Mirbio, here becomes forced, not inevitable. The characters are mere symbols — indeed the whole poem is obviously an allegory, the princess standing for Provence, the brigand for France, and the young lover for the Felibrige. Mistral lavished enormous labour on this work, which probably accounts for its lack of spontaneity, as also for the love he bears it. In 1876 (the same year in which he married Mile Marie Riviere, of Dijon) was published the volume Lis Isclo d'Or — a collection of the shorter poems Mistral had composed from the year 1848 onwards. Here he is again at his very best. Old legends, sirventes (mostly, as in medieval times, poems with a tendency), and lyrics — all are admirable. Even the pibces oV occasion may be reckoned with the best of their kind. Two pieces, the Coupe and the Princesse, aroused violent controversy on their first appearance. They reproduce, in effect, the theme of Calendau, and Mistral was accused of trying to sow discord between the north and south of France. Needless to say he was altogether innocent of such a design. Nerlo (1884) is a charming tale of Avignon in the olden days, in which a girl's purity triumphs over her lover's base designs and leads him to nobler thoughts. There is little individuality in the characters, which should rather be regarded as types; and we feel no terror or pity at the tragic close. But we are carried along by Mistral's art and by the brilliancy of his espisodes; and he achieved the object he had in view: a pretty tale imbued with the proper touch of local colour and with the true spirit of romance. The play La Rbino Jano (1890) is a complete failure, if judged from the dramatic MISTRAL— MITCHELL, M. 617 standpoint: it is rather a brilliant panorama, a series of stage pictures, and the characters neither live nor arouse our sympathy. In the great epic on the Rhone (Lou Poulmo ddu Rouse, 1897) the poet depicts the former barge-life of that river, and inter- twines his narrative with the legends clustering round its banks, and with a graceful love episode. For the first time he employs blank verse, and uses it with great mastery, but again the ancient lore is overdone. A splendid piece of work is Lou Tresor ddu Filibrige (1886). In these two volumes Mistral has deposited with loving care every word and phrase, every proverb, every scrap of legend, that he had gathered during his many years' journeyings in the south of France. In 1904 he was awarded one of the Nobel prizes for literature. An excellent literary appreciation of the poet is that by Gaston Paris, " Frederic Mistral " (originally in the Revue de Paris (Oct. and Nov. 1894) ; then in Penseurs et Poites (Paris, 1896). More elaborate accounts are Welter, Frederic Mistral (Marburg, 1899) ; and Downer, Frediric Mistral (New York, 1901), with a full bibliography. (H. O.) MISTRAL, a local wind similar to the bora (q.v.), met with on the French Mediterranean coast. The warm Gulf of the Lion (Golfe du Lion) has to the north the cold central plateau of France, which during winter is commonly a centre of high barometric pressure, and the resulting pressure gradient causes persistent currents of cold dry air from the north-west in the intermediate zone. The mistral occurs along the coast from the mouth of the Ebro to the Gulf of Genoa, but attains greatest strength and frequency in Provence and Languedoc, i.e. the district of the Rhone delta, where it blows on an average one day out of two; the record at Marseilles is 175 days in the year. It is usually associated with cloudless skies and brilliant sun- shine, intense dryness and piercing cold. With the passage of a cyclone over the gulf, or a rapid rise of pressure following a fall of snow on the central plateau, the mistral develops into a stormy wind of great violence. MISTRESS (adapted from O. Fr. maistresse, mod. maitresse, the feminine of maistre, maltre, master), a woman who has authority, particularly over a household. As a form of address or term of courtesy the word is used in the same sense as " madam." It was formerly used indifferently of married or unmarried women, but now, written in the abbreviated form " Mrs " (pronounced " missis "), it is practically confined to married women and prefixed to the surname; it is frequently retained, however, in the case of spinster cooks or housekeepers, as a title of dignity; as the female equivalent of " master " the word is used in other senses by analogy, e.g. of Rome as " the mistress of the world," Venice " the mistress of the Adriatic," &c. From the common use of " master " as a teacher, " mis- tress " is similarly used. The old usage of the word for a lady- love or sweetheart has degenerated into that of paramour. " Miss " a shortened form of " mistress," is the term of address for a girl or unmarried woman; it is prefixed to the surname in the case of the eldest or only daughter of a family, and to the Christian names in the case of the younger daughters. MITAU (Russian, Mitava; Lettish, Yelgava), a town of Russia, capital of the government of Courland, 29 m. by rail S.W. of Riga, on the right bank of the river Aa, in a fertile plain which rises only 12 ft. above sea level, and has probably given its name to the town (Mitte in der Aue). Pop. (1897), .35,011 inhabitants, mainly Germans, but including also Jews (6500), Letts (5000) and Russians. At high water the plain and sometimes also the town are inundated. Mitau is surrounded by a canal occupying the place of former fortifications. It has regular, broad streets, bordered with the mansions of the German nobility, who reside at the capital of Courland. Mitau is well provided with educa- tional institutions, and is also the seat of the Lettish Literary Society. The old castle (1266) of the dukes of Courland, situated on an island in the river, was destroyed by Duke Biren, who erected in its place (1738-1772) a spacious palace, now occupied by the governor and the courts. Manufactures are few, those of wax-cloth, linen, soap, ink and beer being the most important. Mitau is supposed to have been founded in 1266 by Conrad Mandern, grand-master of the order of the Brethren of the Sword. In 1345, when it was plundered by the Lithuanians, it was already an important town. In 1561 it became the residence of the dukes of Courland. During the 17th century it was thrice taken by the Swedes. Russia annexed it with Courland in 1795. It was the residence (1 798-1801 and 1804-1807) of the count of Provence (afterwards Louis XVIIL). In 1812 it was taken by Napoleon I. MITCHAM, a suburb of London, in the Wimbledon parlia- mentary division of Surrey, England, 10 m. S. of London Bridge by the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (1901), 14,903. Mitcham Common covers* an area of 480 acres, and affords one of the best golf courses near London. The neighbourhood abounds in market gardens and plantations of aromatic herbs for the manufacture of scents and essences. MITCHEL, ORMSBY MACKNIGHT (1809-1862), American astronomer, was born at Morganfield, Kentucky, on the 28th of July, 1809. He began life as a clerk, but, obtaining an appoint- ment to a cadetship at West Point in 1825, he graduated there in 1829, and acted as assistant professor of mathematics 1829-1832. He was then called to the bar, but in 1836 became professor of mathematics and natural philosophy at Cincinnati College. In 1845 he was made director of an observatory established there through his initiative, and also in 1859 superintendent of the Dudley observatory at Albany. In 1861 he took part in the war as brigadier-general of volunteers, and for his skill in seizing certain important strategic points was on the nth of April 1862 made major-general. He died of yellow fever at Beaufort, South Carolina, on the 30th of October 1862. He founded the Sidereal Messenger in 1846, was one of the first to adopt (in 1848) the electrical method of recording observations, and published besides other works, TheOrbs of Heaven (1848, &c), and Popular Astronomy (i860), both reissued at London in 1892. See Ormsby MacKnight Mitchel; a Biographical Narrative, by his son, F. A. Mitchel (1887); P. C. Headley, The Patriot Boy (1865); Amer. Journal of Science, xxiv. 451 (1862) ; Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Society, xxiii. 133, xxxvii. 121 (C. Abbe); Astr. Nach., No. 1401 (G. W. Hough). MITCHELL, DONALD GRANT (1822-1908) American author, was born in Norwich, Connecticut, on the 12th of April 1822. He graduated at Yale College in 1841; studied law, but soon took up literature. Throughout his life he showed a particular interest in agriculture and landscape-gardening, which he followed at first in pursuit of health. He produced books of travel, volumes of essays on rural themes, of which My Farm of Edgewood (1863) is the best; sketchy studies of English monarchs and of English and American literature; and a character-novel entitled Doctor Johns (1866), &c; but is best known as the author (under the pseudonym of " Ik Marvel "), of the sentimental essays contained in the volumes Reveries of a Bachelor, or a Book of the Heart (1850), and Dream Life, a Fable of the Seasons (1851). MITCHELL, MARIA (1818-1889), American astronomer, was born of Quaker ancestry on the island of Nantucket on the 1st of August 1818. Her father, William Mitchell (1791-1869), was a school teacher and self-taught astronomer, who rated chrono- meters for Nantucket whalers, was an overseer of Harvard University (1857-1865), and for a time was employed by the United States Coast Survey. As early as 1831 (during the annular eclipse of the sun) she had been her father's assistant in his observations. On the 1st of October 1847 she discovered a telescopic comet (seen by De Vico Oct. 3, by W. R. Dawes Oct. 7, by Madame Riimker Oct. n), and for this discovery she received a gold medal from the King of Denmark, and was elected (1848) to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and (1850) to the American Association for the Advancement of Science. In 1861 she removed from Nantucket to Lynn, where she used a large equatorial telescope presented to her by the women of America; and there she lived until 1865, when she became professor of astronomy and director of the observa- tory at Vassar College; in 1888 she became professor emeritus. In 1874 she began making photographs of the sun, and for years she made a special study of Jupiter and Saturn. She died at 6i8 MITCHELL, S. W.— MITE Lynn on the 28th of June 1889. In 1908 an observatory was established in her honour at Nantucket. See Phebe Mitchell Kendall, Maria Mitchell: Life, Letters and Journals (Boston, 1896); In Memoriam (Poughkeepsie, 1889), by her pupil and successor at Vassar, Mary W. Whitney ; and a sketch by her brother, Henry Mitchell (1830-1902), himself a well-known hydrographer, in the Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. xxv. (1 889-1890), pp. 331-343. MITCHELL, SILAS WEIR (1830—), American physician and author, son of a Philadelphia doctor, John Kearsley Mitchell (1 798-1858), was born in Philadelphia on the 15th of February 1830. Ha studied at the university of Pennsylvania in that city, and received the degree of M.D. at Jefferson Medical College in 1850. During the Civil War he had charge of nervous injuries and maladies at Turner's Lane Hospital, Philadelphia, and at the close of the war became a specialist in nervous diseases. In this field Weir Mitchell's name became prominently associated with his introduction of the " rest cure," subsequently taken up by the medical world, for nervous diseases, particularly hysteria; the treatment consisting primarily in isolation, con- finement to bed, dieting and massage. In 1863 he wrote a clever short story, combining physiological and psychological problems, entitled " The Case of George Dedlow," in the Atlantic Monthly. Thenceforward Dr Weir Mitchell, as a writer, divided his attention between professional and literary pursuits. In the former field he produced monographs on rattlesnake poison, on intellectual hygiene, on injuries to the nerves, on neurasthenia, on nervous diseases of women, on the effects of gunshot wounds upon the nervous system, and on the relations between nurse, physician, and patient; while in the latter he wrote juvenile stories, several volumes of respectable verse, and prose fiction of varying merit, which, however, gave him a leading place among the American authors of the close of the 19th century. His historical novels, Hugh Wynne, Free Quaker (1897), The Adventures of Francois (1898) and The Red City (1909), take high rank in this branch of fiction. MITCHELL, SIR THOMAS LIVINGSTONE (1792-1855), Aus- tralian explorer, was born at Craigend, Stirlingshire, Scotland, on the 1 6th of June 1792. From 1808 to the end of the Peninsular War he served in Wellington's army, and was raised to the rank of major. He was appointed to survey the battlefields of the Peninsula, and his map of the Lower Pyrenees is still admired. In 1827 he was appointed deputy surveyor-general, and after- wards surveyor-general of New South Wales. He made four exploring expeditions between 1831 and 1846, and discovered the Peel, the Namoi, the Gwyder and other rivers, traced the course of the Darling and Glenelg, and was the first to penetrate into that portion of the country which he named Australia Felix. His last expedition was mainly devoted to the discovery of a route between Sydney and the Gulf of Carpentaria, and during the journey he explored the Fitzroy Downs, and discovered the Balonne, Victoria, Warrego and other streams. In 1838, while in England, Mitchell published his Three Expeditions into the Interior of East Australia. In 1839 he was knighted and made' a D.C.L. of Oxford. During this visit he took with him some of the first specimens of gold and the first diamond found in Australia. In 1848 the narrative of his second expedition was published in London, Journal of an Expedition into the Interior of Tropical Australia. In 1851 he was sent to report on the Bathurst goldfields, and in 1853 he again visited England and patented his boomerang propeller for steamers. He died at Darling Point, Sydney, on the 5th of October 1855. Besides the above works, Mitchell wrote a book on Geographical and Military Surveying (1827), an Australian Geography, and a trans- lation of the Lusiad of Camoens. During his tenure of office as surveyor-general he published an admirable map (still in use) of the settled districts of New South Wales. MITCHELL, a city and the county-seat of Davison county, South Dakota, U.S.A., about 70 m. W.N.W. of Sioux Falls. Pop. (1905), 5719; (1910), 6515. Mitchell is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul and the Chicago, St Paul, Minne- apolis & Omaha railways. Among its buildings and institutions are the city hall, the Federal building, a Carnegie library, a hospital, and a sanitorium. Mitchell is the seat of the Dakota Wesleyan University (1885; Methodist Episcopal). At Mitchell is a " corn palace," which is decorated each autumn with split ears of Indian corn, and is the centre of an annual festival, held in September and October. The city is an important shipping point for grain and livestock, and has a large wholesale trade. There are railway repair shops of the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railway, machine shops, and manufactories of bricks and dressed lumber. Mitchell was settled in 1879 and chartered as a city in 1883. MITCHELSTOWN, a market town of Co. Cork, Ireland, situated between the Kilworth and Galty Mountains, on a branch of the Great Southern & Western railway. Pop. (1901), 2146. Here is the Protestant Kingston College, a home for poor gentlefolk, founded by James, Lord Kingston, in 1760. The seat of the earls of Kingston was built in 1823. It is a massive castellated structure, among the finest of its kind in Ireland. The Mitchelstown limestone caves, exhibiting beautiful stalactite formations, are 6 m. distant in Co. Tipperary (q.v.). On the 9th of September 1887 Mitchelstown was the scene of a riot in connexion with the Irish Nationalist " plan of campaign." The police were compelled to fire on the rioters, and two men were killed, after which the coroner's jury brought in a verdict of wilful murder against the police. This verdict was ignored by the government, and subsequently quashed by the Queen's Bench in Dublin, but additional feeling was roused in respect of the incident owing to a message later sent by Mr Gladstone ending with the words " Remember Mitchelstown." MITE, a name applied to an order of small Arachnida, with which this article deals, and to a coin of very slight value. The origin of both would appear to be ultimately the same, viz. a root mei-, implying something exceedingly small. It has been suggested that the name for the animal comes from a secondary root of the root mei-, to cut, whence come such words as Goth. maitan, to cut, and Ger. messer, knife. In this case mite would mean " the biter " or " cutter." The coin was originally a Flemish copper coin (Dutch mijt) worth one-third or, according to some authorities, a smaller fraction of the Flemish penning, penny. It has become a common expression in English for a coin of the smallest value, from its use to translate Gr. \ewrbv, two of which make a KoSpavrris, translated " farthing " (Mark xii. 43). In zoology, " mite " is the common name for minute members of the class Arachnida (q.v.), which, with the ticks, constitute the order Acari. The word " mite," however, is merely a popular and convenient term for certain groups of Acari, and does not connote a natural assemblage as contrasted with the ticks (q.v.). Mites are either free-living or parasitic throughout their lives or parasitic at certain periods and free-living at others. They are almost universally distributed, and are found wherever terrestrial vegetation, even of the lowliest kind, occurs. They are spread from the arctic to the antarctic hemisphere, and inhabit alike the land, fresh-water streams and ponds, brackish marshes and the sea. The largest species, which occur in the tropics, reach barely half an inch in length; while the smallest, the most diminutive of the Arthropoda, are invisible to the naked eye. Mites are divided into a considerable number of families. The Bdellidae (Bdella) are free-living forms with long antenniform palpi. The large tropical forms above mentioned belong to the genus Trombidium of the family Trombidiidae. The members of this genus are covered with velvety plush-like hairs, often of an exquisite crimson colour. The legs are adapted for crawling or running, and the palpi are raptorial. They are non-parasitic in the adult stage; but immature individuals of a British species (T. holosericeum) are parasitic upon various animals (see Harvest Bug). The Tetranychidae are nearly related to the last. A well-known example, Tetranychus telarius, spins webs on the backs of leaves, and is sometimes called the money spider. The fresh-water mites or Hydrach- nidae are generally beautifully coloured red or green, and are commonly globular in shape. Their legs are furnished with MITFORD, M. R. 619 long hairs for swimming. The marine mites of the family Halacaridae, on the contrary, are not active swimmers but merely creep on the stems of seaweeds and zoophytes. The Gamasidae are mostly free-living forms with a thick exoskeleton, and are allied to the Ixodidae or ticks (?.».). A common species is Gamasus coleoptratorum, the females and young of which may be found upon the common dung-beetle. The Oribatidae or beetle-mites, so called from their resemblance to minute beetles, are non-parasitic, and often go through remark- able metamorphoses during development. The Sarcoptidae, as stated below, are mostly parasitic forms. Some members of this family, however, live in decaying animal substances, the best known perhaps being the cheese-mite (Tyroglyphus siro) which infests cheese, especially Stilton, in thousands. An allied species (T. entomophagus) often causes great damage to collec- tions of insects by destroying the dried specimens. They may be easily exterminated by application of benzine, which does not harm the contents of the cabinet. From the economic standpoint the most important mites are those which are parasitic upon mammals and birds. They belong to the four families, Gamasidae, Trombidiidae, Sarcoptidae and Demodicidae. Most of the Gamasidae are free-living mites. The family, however, contains an aberrant genus, Dertnanyssus, of which several species have been described, although they are all perhaps merely varieties of one and the same species commonly known as D. gallinae or D. avium. This species is found in fowl- houses, dovecotes and bird-cages. During the day they lurk in cracks in the floor, walls or perches, and emerge at night to attack the roosting birds. They are a great pest, and frequently do much damage to birds both by sucking their blood and by depriving them of rest at night. They are sometimes transferred from birds to mammals. The Trombidiidae also are mostly free-living predaceous mites. A few, however, are parasitic upon mammals and birds, the best-known being Trombidium holosericeum, the larva of which attacks human beings, as well as chickens and other birds, sometimes producing considerable mortality amongst them (see Harvest Bug). Another genus, Cheyletiella, affects rabbits as well as birds. Birds are also attacked by many species of Sarcoptidae, which according to the organs infected are termed plumicolae (Analgesinae), epi- dermicolae (Epidermoptinae) , and cysticolae (Cytoditinae) . The Analgesinae (Pterolichus, Analges) live almost wholly upon and between the barbules of the feathers. They are found in nearly every species of bird without apparently affecting the health in any way. The Epidermoptinae (Epidermoptes) occur on diseased fowls and live, as their name indicates, upon the skin at the base of the feathers, where their presence gives rise to an accu- mulation of yellowish scales. The Cytoditinae (Cytodiles), on the other hand, live in the subcutaneous or intermuscular con- nective tissue round the respiratory organs, or in the air sacs, especially of gallinaceous species. They also penetrate to certain internal organs, and may become encysted and give rise to tubercle-like nodules. Sometimes they exist in such quantities in the air passages as to cause coughing and asphyxia. The cutaneous mites, mentioned above, and others akin to them, produce no very marked disturbance in the skin of the species they infest. They merely suck the blood or feed upon the feathers, scurf and desquamating epidermis. Hence they are termed " non-psoric " mites. A certain number of species, however, called in contradistinction " psoric " mites, give rise by their bites, by the rapidity of their multiplication, and by the excavation of galleries in the skin, to a highly contagious disease known as scabies or mange, which if not treated in time produces the gravest results. These mites belong exclu- sively to the Sarcoptidae and Demodicidae. A variety of species are responsible for Sarcoptic mange, Sarcoptes mutatis producing it in the feet of gallinaceous and passerine birds by burrowing beneath the scales and giving rise to a crusted exuda- tion which pushes up beneath and between the scales. Feather scabies or depluming scabies of poultry is caused by another species, 5. laevis. Three genera of Sarcoptidae, namely Sarcoptes Chorioptes and Psoroptes cause mange or scabies in mammals, the mange produced by Sarcoptes being the most serious form of the disease, because the females of the species which produces it, Sarcoptes scabiei, burrow beneath the skin and are more difficult to reach with acaricides. A considerable number of varieties of this species have been named after the hosts upon which they most commonly and typically occur, such as S. scabiei hominis, equi, bovis, caprae, ovis, cameli, lupi, vulpis, &c. ; but they are not restricted to the mammals from which their names have been derived and structural differences between them are often difficult to define and sometimes non-existant. Under favourable conditions the multiplication of this species is very rapid. It has been computed indeed that a single pair may give rise to one million and a half individuals in about three months. Psoroptes lives in the epidermic incrustations to which it gives rise, without, however, excavating subcutaneous burrows. One species, P. communis, is known to affect various domestic animals. Of the genus Chorioptes two species have been described on domestic animals, viz. Ch. symbiotes, which has the same mode of life as Psoroptes communis and Ch. cynotis, which has been detected only in the ears of certain carnivora such as dogs, cats and ferrets. Mange, if taken in time, can be cured by applications of sulphur ointment or of sulphur mixed with an animal or vegetable oil. Mites of the family Demodicidae give rise to a skin disease called " Demodecic or follicular mange," which is often serious and always difficult to cure on account of the deep situation taken up by the parasites. These infest the hair follicles and sebaceous glands, and are therefore termed Demodex folliculorum. These mites differ greatly from those previously noticed — in the reduction of their legs to short three- jointed tubercles, and in the great elongation of the abdomen to form an annulated flexible postanal area to the body. They live not uncommonly in small numbers in the skin of the human face and their presence may never be detected. They also occur on dogs, pigs and other domesticated animals, as well as on mice and bats, and numerous varieties named after their hosts, hominis, bavis, canis, cati, &c, have been described, but they apparently differ from each other, principally in size. The mites of the family Eriophyidae or Phytoptidae produce in various plants pathological results analogous to those produced in animals by parasitical Sarcoptidae and by Demodicidae. As in the Demodicidae the abdomen is elongate and annulate, but the Eriophyidae differ from all other mites in halving per- manently lost the last two pairs of legs. The excrescences and patches they produce on leaves are called " galls," the best known of which are perhaps the nail-galls of the lime caused by Eriophyes tiliae. A very large number of species have been described and named after the plants upon which they live. They often inflict very considerable loss upon fruit-growers by destroying the growing buds of the trees. (R. I. P.) MITFORD, MARY RUSSELL (1787-1855), English novelist and dramatist, only daughter of Dr George Mitford, or Midford, was born at Alresford, Hampshire, on the 1 6th of December 1787. She retains an honourable place in English literature as the authoress of Our Village, a series of sketches of village scenes and characters unsurpassed in their kind, and as fresh as if they had been written yesterday. Her father was a curious character. He first spent his wife's fortune in a few years; then he spent the greater part of £20,000, which in 1797 his daughter, then at the age of ten, drew as a prize in a lottery; then he lived on a small remnant of his fortune and the proceeds of his daughter's literary industry. The father kept fresh in his daughter the keen delight in incon- gruities, the lively sympathy with self-willed vigorous indi- viduality, and the womanly tolerance of its excess, which inspire so many of her sketches of character. Miss Mitford lived in close attendance on him, refused all holiday invitations because he could not live without her, and worked incessantly for him except when she broke off her work to read him the sporting newspapers. Her writing has all the charm of perfectly unaffected spontaneous humour, combined with quick wit and exquisite literary skill. Miss Mitford met Elizabeth Barrett (Mrs Browning) in 1836, and the acquaintance ripened into a warm friendship. The strain of poverty began to tell on her 620 MITFORD, W.— MITHRADATES work, for although her books sold at high prices, her income did not keep pace with her father's extravagances. In 1837, however, she received a civil list pension, and five years later her father died. A subscription was raised to pay his debts, and the surplus increased the daughter's income. Miss Mitford eventually removed to a cottage at Swallowfield, near Reading, where she died on the 10th of January 1855. Miss Mitford's youthful ambition had been to be " the greatest English poetess," and her first publications were poems in the manner of Coleridge and Scott (Miscellaneous Verses, 1810, reviewed by Scott in the Quarterly; Christine, a metrical tale, 181 1 ; Blanche, 18 13). Her play Julian was produced at Covent Garden, with Macready in the title-role, in 1823; The Foscari was performed at Covent Garden, with Charles Kemble as the hero, in 1826; Rienzi, 1828, the best of her plays, had a run of thirty-four nights, and Miss Mitford's friend, Talfourd, imagined that its vogue militated against the success of his own play Ion. Charles the First was refused a licence by the Lord Chamberlain, but was played at the Surrey Theatre in 1834. But the prose, to which she was driven by domestic necessities, has rarer qualities than her verse. The first series of Our Village. sketches appeared in 1824, a second in 1826, a third in 1828, a fourth in 1830, a fifth in 1832. Our Village was several times reprinted; Belford Regis, a novel in which the neighbourhood and society of Reading were idealized, was published in 1835. Her Recollections of a Literary Life (1852) is a series of causeries about her favourite books. Her talk was said by her friends, Mrs Browning and Hengist Home, to have been even more amusing than her books, and five volumes of her Life arid Letters, published in 1870 and 1872, show her to have been a delightful letter-writer. MITFORD, WILLIAM (1744-1827), English historian, was the elder of the two sons of John Mitford, a barrister, who lived near Beaulieu, at the edge of the New Forest. Here, at Exbury House, his father's property, Mitford was born on the 10th of February 1744. He was educated at Cheam School, under the picturesque writer William Gilpin, but at the age of fifteen a severe illness led to his being removed, and after two years of idleness Mitford was sent, in July 1761, as a gentleman commoner to Queen's College, Oxford. In this year his father died, and left him the Exbury property and a considerable fortune. Mitford, therefore, being " very much his own master, was easily led to prefer amusement to study." He left Oxford (where the only sign of assiduity he had shown was to attend the lectures of Blackstone) without a degree, in 1763, and proceeded to the Middle Temple. But when he married Miss Fanny Molloy in 1766, and retired to Exbury for the rest of his life, he made the study of the Greek language and literature his hobby and occupa- tion. After ten years his wife died, and in October 1776 Mitford went abroad. He was encouraged by French scholars whom he met in Paris, Avignon and Nice to give himself systematically to the study of Greek history. But it was Gibbon, with whom he was closely associated when they both were officers in the South Hampshire Militia, who suggested to Mitford the form which his work should take. In 1784 the first of the volumes of his History of Greece appeared, and the fifth and last of these quartos was published in 1810, after which the state of Mitford's eyesight and other physical infirmities, including a loss of memory, forbade his continuation of the enterprise, although he painfully revised successive new editions. While his book was progressing, Mitford was a member of the House of Commons, with intervals, from 1785 to 1818, and he was for many years verderer of the New Forest and a county magistrate; but it does not appear that he ever visited Greece. After a long illness, he died at Exbury on the 10th of February 1827. In addition to his History of Greece, he published a few smaller works, the most important of which was an Essay on the Harmony of Language, 1774. The style of Mitford is natural and lucid, but without the rich colour of Gibbon. He affected some oddities both of language and of orthography, for which he was censured and which he endeavoured to revise. But his political opinions were still more severely treated, since Mitford was an impassioned anti- Jacobin, and his partiality for a monarchy led him to be unjust to the Athenians. Hence his History of Greece, after having had no peer in European literature for half a century , faded in interest on the appearance of the work of Grote. Clinton, too, in his Fasti hellenici, charged Mitford with " a general negligence of dates," though admitting that in his philosophical range " he is far superior to any former writer " on Greek history. Byron, who dilated on Mitford's shortcomings, nevertheless declared that he was " perhaps the best of all modern historians altogether." This Mitford certainly is not, but his pre-eminence in the little school of English historians who succeeded Hume and Gibbon it would be easier to maintain. William Mitford's cousin, the Rev. John Mitford (1781-1859), was editor of the Gentleman's Magazine and of various editions of the English poets. For the Freeman-Mitfords, who were also relatives, see Redesdale, Earl of. MITHILA, an ancient kingdom of India, corresponding to that portion of Behar lying N. of the Ganges, with an extension into Nepal, where was the capital of Janakpur. Its early history is obscure, but it has always been noted for its peculiar conservatism and the learning of its Brahmans. They form to this day one of the five classes of northern Brahmans, and their head is the Maharaja of Darbhanga. The language, known as Maithili, is a dialect of Bihari, with an archaic system of grammar and a literature of its own. MITHRADATES, less correctly Mithridates, a Persian name derived from Mithras (q.v.), the sun-god, and the Indo- European root da, " to give," i.e. " given by Mithras." The name occurs also in the forms Mitradates (Herod, i. no) and Meherdates (Tac. Ann. xii. 10). It was borne by a large number of Oriental kings, soldiers and statesmen. The earliest are Mithradates, the eunuch who helped Artabanus to assassinate Xerxes I. (Diod. xi. 69), and the Mithradates who fought first with Cyrus the Younger and after his death with Artaxerxes against the Greeks (Xen. Anab. ii. 5, 35; iii. 3, i-io;iii. 4, 1-5), and is the ancestor of the kings of Pontus. The most important are three kings of Parthia of the Arsacid dynasty, and six (or four) kings of Pontus. There were also two kings of Commagene, two of the Bosporus and one of Armenia (a.d. 35-51). Mithradates I. (Arsaces VI.), successor of his brother, Phraates I., came to the Parthian throne about 175 B.C. The first event of his reign was a war with Eucratides of Bactria, who tried to create a great Greek empire pfrthia in the East. At last, when Eucratides had been murdered by his son about 150, Mithradates was able to occupy some districts on the border of Bactria and to conquer Arachosia (Kandahar) ; he is even said to have crossed the Indus (Justin 41, 6; Strabo xi. 515, 517; cf. Orosius v. 4, 16; Diod. S3> 18). Meanwhile the Seleucid kingdom was torn by internal dissen- sions, fostered by Roman intrigues. Phraates I. had already conquered eastern Media, about Rhagae (Rai), and subjected the Mardi on the border of the Caspian (Justin 41, 5; Isidor. Charac. 7). Mithradates I. conquered the rest of Media and advanced towards the Zagros chains and the Babylonian plain. In a war against the Elymaeans (in Susiana) he took the Greek town Seleucia on the Hedyphon, and forced their king to become a vassal of the Parthians (Justin 41, 6; Strabo xv. 744). About 141 he must have become master of Babylonia. By Diodorus 33, 18 he is praised as a mild ruler; and the fact that from 140 he takes on his coins the epithet Philhellen (W. Wroth, Catalogue of the Coins of Parthia, p. 14 seq. ; till then he only calls himself " the great king Arsakes ") shows that he tried to conciliate his Greek subjects. The Greeks, however, induced Demetrius II. Nicator to come to their deliverance, although he was much pressed in Syria by the pretender Diodotus Tryphon. At first he was victorious, but in 138 he was defeated. Mithradates settled him with a royal household in Hyrcania and gave him his daughter Rhodogune in marriage (Justin 36, 1, 38, 9; Jos. Ant. 13, 5, n; Euseb. Chron. I. 257; Appian Syr. 67). Shortly afterwards Mithradates I. died, and was succeeded by his son Phraates II. He was the real founder of the Arsacid Empire. Mithradates II. the Great, king of Parthia (c. 120-88 B.C.), saved the kingdom from the Mongolian Sacae (Tochari), MITHRADATES 621 who had occupied Bactria and eastern Iran, and is said to have extended the limits of the empire (Justin 42, 2, where he is afterwards confused with Mithradates III.). He defeated King Artavasdes of Armenia and conquered seventy valleys; and the prince Tigranes came as hostage to the Parthians (Justin 42, 2; Strabo, xi. 532). In an inscription from Delos (Ditten- berger, Or. gr. inscr. 430) he is called " the great King of Kings Arsakes." He also interfered in the wars of the dynasts of Syria (Jos. Ant. xiii. 14, 3). He was the first Parthian king who entered into negotiations with Rome, then represented by Sulla, praetor of Cilicia (92 B.C.). ' Mithradates III. murdered his father Phraates III. about 57 B.C., with the assistance of his brother Orodes. He was made king of Media, and waged war against his brother, but was soon deposed on account of his cruelty. He took refuge with Gabinius, the Roman proconsul of Syria. He advanced into Mesopotamia, but was beaten at Seleucia by Surenas, fled into Babylon, and after a long siege was taken prisoner and killed in 54 by Orodes I. (Dio Cass. 39, 56; Justin 42, 4; Jos. Bell. i. 8, 7, Ant. 14, 6, 4). A Parthian king Mithradates, who must have occupied the throne for a short time during the reign of Phraates IV., is mentioned by Jos. Ant. xvi. 8, 4, in 10 B.C.; another pretender Meherdates was brought from Rome in a.d. 49 by the opponents of Gotarzes, but defeated (Tac. Ann. xi. 10, xii. 10 sqq.). The name of another pretender Mithradates (often called Mithradates IV.) occurs on a coin of the first half of the 2nd century, written in Aramaic, accom- panied by the Arsacid titles in Greek (Wroth, Catal. of the Coins of Parthia, p. 219) ; he appears to be identical with Meherdotes, one of the rival kings of Parthia who fought against Trajan in 116; he died in an attack on Commagene and appointed his son Sanatruces successor, who fell in a battle against the Romans (Arrian ap. Malalas, Chron. pp. 270. 274). (Ed. M.) The kings of Pontus were descended from one of the seven Persian conspirators who put the false Smerdis to death (see Darius I.). According to Diodorus Siculus, three pontus! members of his family — Mithradates, Ariobarzanes, Mithradates — were successively rulers of Cius on the Propontis and Carine in Mysia. The last of these was put to death in 302 B.C. by Antigonus, who suspected him of having joined the coalition against him. He was succeeded by his son Mithradates I. or III. (if the two dynasts of Cius be included 1 ) the founder (ktiotijs) of the Pontic kingdom, although this distinction is by some attributed to the father. Warned by his friend Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, that he was threatened with the same fate as his father, he fled to Paphlagonia, where he seized Cimiata, a fort at the foot of the Olgassys range. Being joined by the Macedonian garrison and the neighbouring populations, he conquered the Cappadocian and Paphlagonian territories on both sides of the Halys and assumed the title of king. Before his death he further enlarged Pontic Cappadocia. He was succeeded by Ariobarzanes, who left the throne to Mithradates II. (c. 256-190, according to Meyer, Mithradates II. and III.), a mere child. Early in his reign the Gauls of Galatia invaded his territory. Mithradates was at the battle of Ancyra (c. 241), in which he assisted Antiochus Hierax against his brother Seleucus Callinicus, in spite of the fact that he had married the daughter of the latter with Greater Phrygia as her dowry. His two daughters, both named Laodice, were married, one to Antiochus the Great, the other .0 his cousin Achaeus, a dynast of Asia Minor. He unsuccessfully attacked Sinope, which was taken by his successor Pharnaces, the brother (not the son) of Mithradates III. (169-121), surnamed Philopator, Philadelphus, and Euergetes. According to Meyer, however, there were two kings (Mithradates IV. Philopator and V. Euergetes). He was the first king of Pontus to recognize the suzerainty of the Romans, of whom he was a loyal ally. He assisted Attalus II. of Pergamum to resist Prusias II. of Bithynia; furnished a contingent during the Third Punic War; and aided the Romans in obtaining possession of Pergamum, bequeathed to them by Attalus III., but claimed by Aristonicus, a natural son of •There is much difference of opinion in regard to the kings of Pontus called Mithradates to the accession of Mithradates Eupator. Ed. Meyer reckons five, T. Reinach three. Eumenes II. Both Mithradates and Nicomedes of Bithynia demanded Greater Phrygia in return for their services. It was awarded to Mithradates, but the senate refused to ratify the bargain on the ground of bribery. For several years the kings of Pontus and Bithynia bid against each other, till in 116 Phrygia was declared independent, although in reality it was treated as part of the province of Asia. Mithradates appears to have taken it without waiting for the decision of the senate. He invaded Cappadocia, and married his daughter to the young king, Ariarathes Epiphanes; bought the succession from the last king of Paphlagonia, and obtained a kind of pro- tectorate over Galatia. He was a great admirer of the Greeks, who called him Euergetes; he removed his capital from Amasia to Sinope, and bestowed liberal gifts upon the temples of Delos and Athens. At the height of his power he was assassinated by his courtiers during a banquet in his palace at Sinope. Mithradates VI. Eupator, called the Great, a boy of eleven, now succeeded his father. Alarmed at the attempts made upon his life by his mother, he fled to the mountains and was for many years a hunter. In in he returned to Sinope, threw his mother into prison, and put his younger brother to death. Having thus established himself on the throne, he turned his attention to conquest. In return for his assistance against the Scythians, the Greeks of the Cimmerian Bosporus and the Tauric Chersonese recognized his suzerainty. He occupied Colchis, Paphlagonia and part of Galatia; set his son Ariarathes on the throne of Cappadocia and drove out Nicomedes III., the young king of Bithynia. The Romans restored the legiti- mate kings, and, while apparently acquiescing, Mithradates made preparations for war. He had long hated the Romans, who had taken Phrygia during his minority, and he aimed at driving them from Asia Minor. The cause of rupture was the attack on Pontic territory by Nicomedes at the instigation of the Romans. Mithradates, unable to obtain satisfaction, declared war (88 B.C.). He rapidly overran Galatia, Phrygia and Asia, defeated the Roman armies, and ordered a general massacre of the Romans in Asia. He sent large armies into European Greece, and his generals occupied Athens. But Sulla in Greece and Fimbria in Asia defeated his armies in several battles; the Greek cities were disgusted by his severity, and in 84 he concluded peace, abandoning all his conquests, surren- dering his fleet and paying a fine of 2000 talents. During what is called the Second Mithradatic War, Murena invaded Pontus without any good reason in 83, but was defeated in 82. Hostilities were suspended, but disputes constantly occurred, and in 74 a general war broke out. Mithradates defeated Cotta, the Roman consul, at Chalcedon; but Lucullus worsted him, and drove him in 72 to take refuge in Armenia with his son-in-law Tigranes. After two great victories at Tigranocerta (69) and Artaxata (68), Lucullus was disconcerted by mutiny and the defeat of his lieutenant Fabius (see Lucullus). In 66 he was superseded by Pompey, who completely defeated both Mithra- dates and Tigranes. The former established himself in 64 at Panticapaeum, and was planning new campaigns against the Romans when his own troops revolted, and, after vainly trying to poison himself, he ordered a Gallic mercenary to kill him. So perished the greatest enemy that the Romans had to en- counter in Asia Minor. His body was sent to Pompey, who buried it in the royal sepulchre at Sinope. Ancient authorities have invested Mithradates with a halo of romance. His courage, his bodily strength and size, his skill in the use of weapons, in riding, and in the chase, his speed of foot, his capacity for eating and drinking, his penetrating intellect and his mastery of 22 languages are celebrated to a degree which is almost incredible. With «. surface gloss of Greek education, he united the subtlety, the superstition, and the obstinate endurance of an Oriental. He collected curiosities and works of art; he assembled Greek men of letters round him; he gave prizes to the greatest poets and the best eaters. He spent much of his time in practising magic, and it was believed that he had so saturated his body with poisons that none could injure him. He trusted no one; he murdered 622 MITHRAS his mother, his sons, the sister whom he had married; to prevent his harem from falling to his enemies he murdered all his con- cubines, and his most faithful followers were never safe. For eighteen years he showed himself no unworthy adversary of Sulla, Lucullus and Pompey. See T. Reinach, Milhridate Eupator (1890; Ger. trans, by A. Goetz, 1895, with the author's corrections and additions) ; also E. Meyer, Geschichte des Kbnigreichs Pontos (1879). MITHRAS, a Persian god of light, whose worship, the latest one of importance to be brought from the Orient to Rome, spread throughout the empire and became the greatest anta- gonist of Christianity. I. History and Distribution. — The cult goes back to a period before the separation of the Persians from the Hindus, as is shown by references in the literatures of both stocks, the Avesta and the Vedas. Though but faintly pictured in the Vedic hymns, he is there invoked with Ormazd, or Ahuramazda, the god of the sky, and is clearly a divinity of light, the protector of truth and the enemy of error and falsehood. In the Avesta, after the separation of the Iranian stock from the Hindu and the rise of Zoroastrianism, which elevated Ormazd to the summit of the Persian theological system, his role was more distinct, though less important; between Ormazd, who reigned in eternal brightness, and Ahriman, whose realm was eternal darkness, he occupied an intermediate position as the greatest of the yazatas, beings created by Ormazd to aid in the destruction of evil and the administration of the world. He was thus a deity of the realms of air and light, and, by transfer to the moral realm, the god of truth and loyalty. Because light is accompanied by heat, he was the god of vegetation and increase; he sent prosperity to the good, and annihilated the bad; he was the god of armies and the champion of heroes; as the enemy of darkness and of all evil spirits, he protected souls, accompanying them on the way to paradise, and was thus a redeemer. Animals and birds were sacrificed and liba- tions poured to him, and prayers were addressed to him by devotees who had purified themselves by ablution and repeated flagellation. As a god who gave victory, he was pro- minent in the official cult of Persia, the seventh month and the sixteenth day of other months being sacred to him. His worship spread with the empire of the Persians throughout Asia Minor, and Babylon was an important centre. Its popu- larity remained unimpaired after the fall of Persia, and it was during the ferment following the conquests of Alexander that the characteristics which mark it during the Roman period were firmly fixed. Mithraism was at full maturity on its arrival at Rome, the only modifications it ever suffered having been experienced during its younger days in Asia. Modified though never essentially changed, (1) by contact with the star-worship of the Chaldaeans, who identified Mithras with Shamash, god of the sun, (2) by the indigenous Armenian religion and other local Asiatic faiths and (3) by the Greeks of Asia Minor, who identified Mithras with Helios, and contri- buted to the success of his cult by equipping it for the first time with artistic representations (the famous Mithras relief originated in the Pergamene school towards the 2nd century b.c.) , Mithraism was first transmitted to the Roman world during the 1st century b.c. by the Cilician pirates captured by Pompey. It attained no importance, fiowever, for nearly two centuries. The lateness of its arrival in the West was due to the fact that its centres of influence were not in immediate contact with Greek and Roman civiliza- tion. It never became popular in Greek lands, and was regarded by Hellenized nations as a barbarous worship. It was at rivalry with the Egyptian religion. As late as the time of Augustus it was but little known in Roman territory, and gained a firm foothold in Italy only gradually, as a result of the intercourse between Rome and Asia consequent upon the erection of the Eastern provinces and the submission and colonization of Mesopotamia. It seems at first to have had relations with the cult of the Great Mother of the Gods at Rome, whose influ- ence served to protect it and facilitate its growth. The cult of Mithras began to attract attention at Rome about the end of the 1st century a.d. Statius (c. a.d. 80) mentions the typical Mithraic relief in his T heboid (i. 719,720); from Plutarch's (a.d. 46-125) Vita Pompei (24) it is apparent that the worship was well known; and the first Roman reliefs show the characteristics of about the same time. Towards the close of the 2nd century the cult had begun to spread rapidly through the army, the mercantile class, slaves and actual propagandists, all of which classes were largely composed of Asiatics. It throve especially among military posts, and in the track of trade, where its monuments have been discovered in greatest abundance. >The German frontiers afford most evidence of its prosperity. Rome itself was a favourite seat of the religion. From the end of the 2nd century the emperors encouraged Mithraism, because of the support which it afforded to the divine right of monarchs. The Persian belief that the legitimate sovereign reigned by the grace of Ormazd, whose favour was made manifest by the sending of the Hvareno, a kind of celestial aureole of fire, resulted in the doctrine that the sun was the giver of the Hvareno. Mithras, identified with Sol Invictus at Rome, thus became the giver of authority and victory to the imperial house. From the time of Commodus, who participated in its mysteries, its supporters were to be found in all classes. Its importance at Rome may be judged from the abundance of monumental remains — more than 75 pieces of sculpture, 100 inscriptions, and ruins of temples and chapels in all parts of the city and suburbs. Finally, philosophy as well as politics contributed to the success of Mithraism, for the outcome of the attempt to recognize in the Graeco-Roman gods only forces of nature was to make the Sun the most important of deities; and it was the Sun with whom Mithras was identified. The beginning of the downfall of Mithraism dates from a.d. 275, when Dacia was lost to the empire, and the invasions of the northern peoples resulted in the destruction of temples along a great stretch of frontier, the natural stronghold of the cult. The aggression of Christianity also was now more effec- tive. The emperors, however, favoured the cult, which was the army's favourite until Constantine destroyed its hopes, The reign of Julian and the usurpation of Eugenius renewed the hopes of its devotees, but the victory of Theodosius (394) may be considered the end of its existence. It still survived in certain cantons of the Alps in the 5th century, and clung to life with more tenacity in its Eastern home. Its legitimate successor was Manichaeism, which afforded a refuge to those mystics who had been shaken in faith, but not converted, by the polemics of the Church against their religion. II. Sources, Remains, Ritual. — The sources of present know- ledge regarding Mithraism consist of the Vedas, the Avesta, the Pahlevi writings, Greek and Latin literature and inscriptions, and the cult monuments. The monuments comprise the remains of nearly a score of temples and about 400 statues and bas reliefs. The Mithraic temples of Roman times were artificial grottoes (spelaea) wholly or partially underground, in imitation of the original selcuded mountain caverns of Asia. The Mithraeum hewn in the tufa quarries of the Capitoline Hill at Rome, still in existence during the Renaissance, is an example. The main room of the ordinary temple was rectangular, with an elevated apsidal arrangement, like a choir, containing the sacred relief on its wall, at the end opposite the entrance, and with continuous benches (podia) of masonry, about 5 ft. wide and inclining slightly towards the floor, built against the wall on its long sides. The ceiling was made to symbolize the firmament. There were arrangements for the brilliant illumination of the choir and its relief, which was sometimes sculptured on both sides and reversible, while the podia were intentionally more obscure. The choir and the long space between the podia were for minis- trants, the podia themselves for kneeling worshippers. Two altars, to the Sun and the Moon, stood before the former, and cult statues along the latter. The approach to the grotto lay through a portico on the level with and fronting the street, and a pronaos, in communication with which was a kind of sacristy. Steps led to the lower level of the sanctuary. The MITHRAS 623 simplicity and smallness of the Mithraic temples are to be accounted for by structural and financial reasons; an under- ground temple was difficult to construct on a large scale, and the worshippers of Mithras were usually from the humbler classes. The average grotto held from fifty to a hundred persons. The size of the sanctuaries, however, was compensated for by their number; in Ostia alone there were five. The typical bas relief, which is found in great abundance in the museums of Europe, invariably represents Mithras, under the form of a youth with conical cap and flying drapery, slaying the sacred bull, the scorpion attacking the genitals of the animal, the serpent drinking its blood, the dog springing towards the wound in its side, and frequently, in addition, the Sun-god, his messenger the raven, a fig-tree, a lion, a ewer, and torch-bearers. The relief is in some instances enclosed in a frame of figures and scenes in relief. The best example is the monument of Osterburken (Cumont, Textes et monuments figures, No. 246). With this monument as a basis, Franz Cumont has arranged the small Mithraic reliefs into two groups, one illustrating the legend of the origin of the gods, and the other the legend of Mithras. In the first group are found Infinite Time, or Cronus; Tellus and Atlas supporting the globe, representing the union of Earth and Heaven; Oceanus; the Fates; Infinite Time giving into the hand of his successor Ormazd the thunder- bolt, the symbol of authority; Ormazd struggling with a giant of evil — the Mithraic gigantomachy. The second group repre- sents, first, the birth of Mithras; then the god nude, cutting fruit and leaves from a fig-tree in which is the bust of a deity, and before which one of the winds is blowing upon Mithras; the god discharging an arrow against a rock from which springs a fountain whose water a figure is kneeling to receive in his palms; the bull in a small boat, near which again occurs the figure of the animal under a roof about to be set on fire by two figures; the bull in flight, with Mithras in pursuit; Mithras bearing the bull on his shoulders; Helios kneeling before Mithras; Helios and Mithras clasping hands over an altar; Mithras with drawn bow on a running horse; Mithras and Helios banqueting; Mithras and Helios mounting the chariot of the latter and rising in full course over the ocean. Few of the Mithraic reliefs are of even mediocre art. Among the best is the relief from the Capitoline grotto, now in the Louvre. Cumont's interpretation of the main relief and its smaller companions involves the reconstruction of a Mithraic theology, a Mithraic legend, and a Mithraic symbolism. Paucity of evidence makes the first difficult. The head of the divine hierarchy of Mithras was Infinite Time — Cronus, Saturn; Heaven and Earth were his offspring, and begat Ocean, who formed with them a trinity corresponding to Jupiter, Juno, and Neptune. From Heaven and Earth sprang the remaining members of a circle analogous to the Olympic gods. Ahriman, also the son of Time, was the Persian Pluto. Owing to Semitic influence every Persian god had in Roman times come to possess a twofold significance — astrological and natural, Semitic and Iranian — the earlier and deeper Iranian significance being imparted by the clergy to the few intelligent elect, the more attractive and superficial Chaldaean symbolism being presented to the multi- tude. Mithras was the most important member of the circle. He was regarded as the mediator between suffering humanity and the unknowable and inaccessible god of all being, who reigned in the ether. The Mithras legend has been lost, and can be reconstructed only from the scenes on the above described relief. Mithras was born of a rock, the marvel being seen only by certain shep- herds, who brought gifts and adored him. Chilled by the wind, the new-born god went to a fig-tree, partook of its fruit, and clothed himself in its leaves. He then undertook to vanquish the beings already in the world, and rendered subject to him first the Sun, with whom he concluded a treaty of friendship. The most wonderful of his adventures, however, was that with the sacred bull which had been created by Ormazd. The hero seized it by the horns and was borne headlong in the flight of the animal, which he finally subdued and dragged into a cavern. The bull escaped, but was overtaken, and by order of the Sun, who sent his messenger the raven, was reluctantly sacrificed by Mithras. From the dying animal sprang the life of the earth, although Ahriman sent his emissaries to prevent it. The soul of the bull rose to the celestial spheres and became the guardian of herds and flocks under the name of Silvanus. Mithras was through his deed the creator of life. Meanwhile Ahriman sent a terrible drought upon the land. Mithras defeated his purpose by discharging an arrow against a rock and miraculously drawing the water from it. Next Ahriman sent a deluge, from which one man escaped in a boat with his cattle. Finally a fire desolated the earth, and only the creatures of Ormazd escaped. Mithras, his work accomplished, banqueted with the Sun for the last time, and was taken by him in his chariot to the habitation of the immortals, whence he continued to protect the faithful. The symbolism employed by Mithraism finds its best illustra- tion in the large central relief, which represents Mithras in the act of slaying the bull as a sacrifice' to bring about terrestrial life, and thus portrays the concluding scenes in the legend of the sacred animal. The scorpion, attacking the genitals of the bull, is sent by Ahriman from the lower world to defeat the purpose of the sacrifice; the dog, springing towards the wound in the bull's side, was venerated by the Persians as the companion of Mithras; the serpent is the symbol of the earth being made fertile by drinking the blood of the sacrificial bull; the raven, towards which Mithras turns his face as if for direction, is the herald of the Sun-god, whose bust is near by, and who has ordered the sacrifice; various plants near the bull, and heads of wheat springing from his tail, symbolize the result of the sacrifice; the cypress is perhaps the tree of immortality. There was also an astrological symbolism, but it was superficial, and of secon- dary importance. The torch-bearers sometimes seen on the relief represent one being in three aspects — the morning, noon and evening sun, or the vernal, summer and autumn sun. Owing to the almost absolute disappearance of documentary evidence, it is impossible to know otherwise than very imperfectly the inner life of Mithraism. Jerome (Epist. cvii.) and inscrip- tions preserve the knowledge that the mystic, sacratus, passed through seven degrees, which probably corresponded to the seven planetary spheres traversed by the soul in its progress to wisdom, perfect purity, and the abode of the blest: Corax, Raven, so named because the raven in Mithraic mythology was the servant of the Sun; Cryphius, Occult, a degree in the taking of which the mystic was perhaps hidden from others in the sanctuary by a veil, the removal of which was a solemn cere- monial; Miles, Soldier, signifying the holy warfare against evil in the service of the god; Leo, Lion, symbolic of the element of fire; Perses, Persian, clad in Asiatic costume, a reminiscence of the ancient origin of the religion; Heliodromus, Courier of the Sun, with whom Mithras was identified; Pater, Father, a degree bringing the mystic among those who had the general direction of the cult for the rest of their lives. One relief (Cumont, vol. i. p. 17s, fig- 10) shows figures masked and costumed to represent Corax, Perses, Miles and Leo, indicating the practice on occasion of rites involving the use of sacred disguise, a custom probably reminiscent of the primitive time when men represented their deities under the form of animals, and believed themselves in closer communion with them when disguised to impersonate them. Of the seven degrees, those mystics not yet beyond the third, Miles, were not in full communion, and were called virqperovvTes (servants); while the fourth degree, Leo, admitted them into the class of the fully initiate, the fierexovres (participants). No women were in any way connected with the cult, though the male sex could be admitted even in childhood. The time requisite for the several degrees is unknown, and may have been determined by the Patres, who conferred them in a solemn ceremony called Sacramentum, in which the initial step was an oath never to divulge what should be revealed, and for which the mystic had been specially prepared by lustral purification, prolonged absti- nence, and severe deprivations. Special ceremonies accompanied 624 MITHRAS the diverse degrees: Tertullian speaks of " marking the forehead of a Miles," which may have been the branding of a Mithraic sign; honey was applied to the tongue and hands of the Leo and the Perses. A sacred communion of bread, water and possibly wine, compared by the Christian apologists to the Eucharist, was administered to the mystic who was entering upon one of the advanced degrees, perhaps Leo. The ceremony was probably commemorative of the banquet of Mithras and Helios before the former's ascension, and its effect strength of body, wisdom, prosperity, power to resist evil, and participation in the immortality enjoyed by the god himself. Other features reminiscent of the original barbarous rites in the primitive caverns of the East, no doubt also occupied a place in the cult; bandaging of eyes, binding of hands with the intestines of a fowl, leaping over a ditch filled with water, witness- ing a simulated murder, are mentioned by the Pseudo- Augustine ; and the manipulation of lights in the crypt, the administration of oaths, and the repetition of the sacred formulae, all contributed toward inducing . a state of ecstatic exaltation. What in the opinion of Albrecht Dieterich (Eine Mithrasliturgie, Leipzig, 1903) is a Mithras liturgy is preserved in a Greek MS. of Egyptian origin of about a.d. 300. It is the ritual of a magician, imbedded in which, and alternating with magic formulae and other occult matter, are a number of invocations and prayers which Dieterich reconstructs as a liturgy in use by the clergy of Mithras between a.d. 100 and 300, and adapted to this new use about the latter date. The Mithraic priest, sacerdos or antistes, was sometimes also of the degree of pater. Tertullian (De praescr. haeret. 40) calls the chief priest summus pontifex, probably the pater patrum who had general supervision of all the initiates in one city, and states that he could marry but once. According to the same author, there were Mithraic, as well as Christian, virgines et continentes. Besides the administration of sacraments and the celebration of offices on special occasions, the priest kept alight the eternal fire on the altar, addressed prayers to the Sun at dawn, midday and twilight, turning towards east, south and west respectively. Clad in Eastern paraphernalia, he officiated at the numerous sacrifices indicated by the remains of iron and bronze knives, hatchets, chains, ashes and bones of oxen, sheep, goats, swine, fowl, &c. There was pouring of libations, chanting and music, and bells and candles were employed in the service. Each day of the week was marked by the adoration of a special planet, the sun being the most sacred of all, and certain dates, perhaps the sixteenth of each month and the equinoxes, in conformity with the character of Mithras as mediator, were set aside for special festivals. The Mithraic community of worshippers, besides being a spiritual fraternity, was a legal corporation enjoying the right of holding property, with temporal officials at its head, like any other sodalitas: there were the decuriones and decern primi, governing councils resembling assembly and senate in cities; magistri, annually elected presidents; curatores, financial agents; defensores, advocates; and patroni, protectors among the influ- ential. It may be that a single temple was the resort of several small associations of worshippers which were subdivisions of the whole community. The cult was supported mainly by voluntary contribution. An abundance of epigraphic evidence testifies to the devotion of rich and poor alike. III. Moral Influence. — The rapid advance of Mithraism was due to its human qualities. Its communities were bound together by a sense of close fraternal relation. Its democracy obliterated the distinctions between rich and poor; slave and senator became subject to the same rule, eligible for the same honours, par- took of the same communion, and were interred in the same type of sepulchre, to await the same resurrection. The reward of title and degree and the consequent rise in the esteem of his fellows and himself was also a strong incentive; but the Mithraic faith itself was the greatest factor. The impressive- ness and the stimulating power of the mystic ceremonies, the consciousness of being the privileged possessor of the secret wisdom of the ancients, the sense of purification from sin, and the expectation of a better life where there was to be com- pensation for the sufferings of this world — were all strong appeals to human nature. The necessity of moral rectitude was itself an incentive. Courage, watchfulness, striving for purity, were all necessary in the incessant combat with the forces of evil. Resistance to sensuality was one aspect of the struggle, and asceticism was not unknown. Mithras was ever on the side of the faithful, who were certain to triumph both in this world and the next. The worthy soul ascended to its former home in the skies by seven gates or degrees, while the unworthy soul descended to the realms of Ahriman. The doctrine of the immortality of the soul was accompanied by that of the resur- rection of the flesh; the struggle between good and evil was one day to cease, and the divine bull was to appear on earth, Mithras was to descend to call all men from their tombs and to separate the good from the bad. The bull was to be sacrificed to Mithras, who was to mingle its fat with consecrated wine and give to drink of it to the just, rendering them immortal, while the unjust, together with Ahriman and his spirits, were to be destroyed by a fire sent from Heaven by Ormazd. The universe, renewed, was to enjoy eternal happiness. IV. Relation to Christianity. — The most interesting aspect of Mithraism is its antagonism to Christianity. Both religions were of Oriental origin; they were propagated about the same time, and spread with equal rapidity on account of the same causes, viz. the unity of the political world and the debasement of its moral life. At the end of the 2nd century each had advanced to the farthest limits of the empire, though the one possessed greatest strength on the frontiers of the Teutonic countries, along the Danube and the Rhine, while the other throve especially in Asia and Africa. The points of collision were especially at Rome, in Africa, and in the Rh6ne Valley, and the struggle was the more obstinate because of the resem- blances between the two religions, which were so numerous and so close as to be the subject of remark as early as the 2nd century, and the cause of mutual recrimination. The fraternal and democratic spirit of the first communities, and their humble origin; the identification of the object of adoration with light and the Sun; the legends of the shepherds with their gifts and adoration, the flood, and the ark; the representation in art of the fiery chariot, the drawing of water from the rock; the use of bell and candle, holy water and the communion; the sancti- fication of Sunday and of the 25th of December; the insistence on moral conduct, the emphasis placed upon abstinence and self-control; the doctrine of heaven and hell, of primitive revelation, of the mediation of the Logos emanating from the divine, the atoning sacrifice, the constant warfare between good and evil and the final triumph of the former, the immor- tality of the soul, the last judgment, the resurrection of the flesh and the fiery destruction of the universe — are some of the resemblances which, whetheureal or only apparent, enabled Mithraism to prolong its resistance to Christianity. At their root lay a common Eastern origin rather than any borrowing. On the other hand, there were important contrasts between the two. Mithraism courted the favour of Roman paganism and combined monotheism with polytheism, while Christianity was uncompromising. The former as a consequence won large numbers of supporters who were drawn by the possibility it afforded of adopting an attractive faith which did not involve a rupture with the religion of Roman society, and con- sequently with the state. In the middle of the 3rd century Mithraism seemed on the verge of becoming the universal ' religion. Its eminence, however, was so largely based upon dalliance with Roman society, its weakness so great in having only a mythical character, instead of a personality, as an object of adoration, and in excluding women from its privileges, that it fell rapidly before the assaults of Christianity. Manichaeism, which combined the adoration of Zoroaster and Christ, became the refuge of those supporters of Mithraism who were inclined to compromise, while many found the transition to orthodox Christianity easy because of its very resemblance to their old faith. MITRA— MITRE 625 See Franz Cumont, Textes el monuments figure's relatifs aux my stores de Mithra (Brussels, 1896, 1899), which has superseded all publications on the subject; Albrecht Dieterich, Eine Mithras- liturgie (Leipzig, 1903). See also the translation of Cumont's Conclusions (the second part of vol. i. of the above work, published separately 1902, under the title Les Mystkres de Mithra), by T. J. McCormack (Chicago and London, 1903). Extended bibliography in Roscher's Lexicon der Mythologie. (G. Sn.) MITRA, RAJENDRA LALA (1824-1891), Indian Orientalist, was born in a suburb of Calcutta on the 15th of February 1824, of a respectable family of the Kayasth or writer caste of Bengal. To a large extent he was self-educated, studying Sanskrit and Persian in the library of his father. In 1846 he was appointed librarian of the Asiatic Society, and to that society the remainder of his life was devoted — as philological secretary, as vice- president, and as the first native president in 1885. Apart from very numerous contributions to the society's journal, and to the series of Sanskrit texts entitled " Bibliotheca indica," he published three separate works: (1) The Antiquities of Orissa (2 vols., 1875 and 1880), illustrated with photographic plates, in which he traced back the image of Jagannath (Juggernaut) and also the car-festival to a Buddhistic origin; (2) a similarly illustrated work on Bodh Gay a (1878), the hermitage of Sakya Muni, and (3) Indo-Aryans (2 vols., 1881), a collection of essays dealing with the manners and customs of the people of India from Vedic times. He received the honorary degree of LL.D. from the university of Calcutta in 1875, the com- panionship of the Indian Empire when that order was founded in 1878, and the title of raja in 1888. He died at Calcutta on the 26th of July 1891. MITRE (Lat. mitra, from Gr. nirpa, a band, head-band, head-dress), a liturgical head-dress of the Catholic Church, generally proper to bishops. 1. Latin Rite. — In the Western Church its actual form is that of a sort of folding cap consisting of two halves which, when not worn, lie flat upon each other. These sides are stiffened, and when the mitre is worn, they rise in front and behind like two horns pointed at the tips {cornua mitrae). From the lower rim of the mitre at the back hang two bands (infulae), termi- nating in fringes. In the Roman Catholic Church mitres are divided into three classes: (1) Mitra pretiosa, decorated with jewels, gold plates, &c; (2) Mitra auriphrygiata, of white silk, sometimes embroidered with gold and silver thread or small pearls, or of cloth of gold plain; (3) Mitra simplex, of white silk damask, silk or linen, with the two falling bands behind terminating in red fringes. Mitres are the distinctive head- dress of bishops; but the right to wear them, as in the case of the other episcopal insignia, is granted by the popes to other dignitaries — such as abbots or the heads and sometimes all the members of the chapters of cathedral or collegiate churches. In the case of these latter, however, the mitre is worn only in the church to which the privilege is attached and on certain high festivals. Bishops alone, including of course the pope and his cardinals, are entitled to wear the pretiosa and auriphrygiata; the others wear the mitra simplex. The proper symbol of episcopacy is not so much the mitre as the ring and pastoral staff. It is only after the service of consecration and the mass are finished that the consecrating prelate asperses and blesses the mitre and places on the head of the newly consecrated bishop, according to the prayer which accompanies the act, " the helmet of protection and salvation," the two horns of which represent " the horns of the Old and New Testaments," a terror to " the enemies of truth," and also the horns of " divine brightness and truth " which God set on the brow of Moses on Mount Sinai. There is no suggestion of the popular idea that the mitre symbolizes the " tongues of fire " that descended on the heads of the apostles at Pentecost. According to the Roman Caeremoniale the bishop wears the mitra pretiosa on high festivals, and always during the singing of the Te Deum and the Gloria at mass. He is allowed, however, " on account of its weight," to substitute for the pretiosa the auri- phrygiata during part of the services, i.e. at Vespers from the first psalm to the Magnificat, at mass from the end of the Kyrie to the „t„ Origin and proofs Acuity. canon. The auriphrygiata is worn during Advent, and from Septua- gesima to Maundy Thursday, except on the third Sunday in Advent (Gaudete), the fourth in Lent (Laetare) and on such greater festivals as fall within this time. It is worn, too, on the vigils of fasts, Ember Days and days of intercession, on the Feast of Holy Innocents (if on a week-day), at litanies, penitential processions, and at other than solemn benedictions and consecrations. At mass and vespers the mitra simplex may be substituted for it in the same way as the auri- phrygiata for the pretiosa. The simplex is worn on Good Friday, and at masses for the dead; also at the blessing of the candles at Candlemas, the singing of the absolution at the coffin, and the solemn investiture with the pallium. At provincial synods archbishops wear the pretiosa, bishops the auriphrygiata, and mitred abbots the simplex.^ At general councils bishops wear white linen mitres, cardinals mitres of white silk damask ; this is also the case when bishops and cardinals in pontificalibus assist at a solemn pontifical function presided over by the pope. Lastly, the mitre, though a liturgical vestment, differs from the others in that it is never worn when the bishop addresses the Almighty in prayer — e.g. during mass he takes it off when he turns to the altar, placing it on his head again when he turns to address the people (see 1 Cor. xi. 4). The origin and antiquity of the episcopal mitre have been the subject of much debate. Some have claimed for it apos- tolical sanction and found its origin in the liturgical head-gear of the Jewish priesthood. Such as have been adduced for this view are, however, based on the fallacy of reading into words (mitra, infula, &c.) used by early writers a special meaning which they only acquired later. Mitra, even as late as the 15th century, retained its simple meaning of cap (see Du Cange, Glossarium, s.v.) ; to Isidore of Seville it is specifically a woman's cap. Infula, which in late ecclesiastical usage was to be confined to mitre (and its dependent bands) and chasuble, meant originally a piece of cloth, or the sacred fillets used in pagan worship, and later on came to be used of any ecclesiastical vestment, and there is no evidence for its specific application to the liturgical head-dress earlier than the 12th century. With the episcopal mitre the Jewish miznephet, translated " mitre " in the Autho- rized Version (Exod. xxviii. 4, 36), has nothing to do, and there is no evidence for the use of the former before the middle of the 10th century even in Rome, and elsewhere than in Rome it does not make its appearance until the nth. 1 The first trustworthy notice of the use of the mitre is under Pope Leo IX. (1049-1054). This pope invested Archbishop Eberhard of Trier, who had accompanied him to Rome, with the Roman mitra, telling him that he and his successors should wear it in ecclesiastico officio (i.e. as a liturgical ornament) according to Roman custom, in order to remind him that he is a disciple of the Roman see (Jaffe, Regesta pont. rom., ed. Leipzig, 1888, No. 4158). This proves that the use of the mitre had been for some time established at Rome; that it was specifically a Roman ornament; and that the right to wear it was only granted to ecclesiastics elsewhere as an exceptional honour. 2 On the other hand, the Roman ordines of the 8th and 9th centuries make no mention of the mitre; the evidence goes to prove that this liturgical head-dress was first adopted by the popes some time in the 10th century; and Father Braun shows convincingly that it was in its origin nothing else than the papal regnum or phrygium which, originally worn only at outdoor processions and the like, was introduced into the church, and thus developed into the liturgical mitre, while outside it preserved its original significance as the papal 1 Father Braun, S. J., has dealt exhaustively with the supposed evidence for its earlier use — e.g. he proves conclusively that the mitra mentioned by Theodulph of Orleans (Paraenes. ad episc.) is the Jewish miznephet, and the well-known miniature of Gregory the Great (not St Dunstan, as commonly assumed) wearing a mitre (Cotton MSS. Claudius A. iii.) in the British Museum, often ascribed to the 10th or early nth century, he judges from the form of the pallium and dalmatic to have been produced at the end of the 1 ith century " at earliest." The papal bulls granting the use of mitres before the nth century are all forgeries (Liturgische Gewandung, 431-448). ( 2 That it had been already so granted is proved by a miniature containing the earliest extant representations of a mitre, in the Exultete rotula and baptismal rotula at Bari (reproduced in Berteaux, L'Art dans I'ltalie miridionale, I., Paris, 1904). 6a6 MITRE Nea- blshops / m f\ IB!! II lilt* tiara (q.v.). From Leo IX. 's time papal grants of the mitre to eminent prelates became increasingly frequent, and by the 1 2th century it had been assumed by all bishops in the West, with or without papal sanction, as their proper liturgical head-dress. From the 12th century, too, dates the custom of investing the bishop with the mitre at his consecration. It was not till the 12th century that the mitre came to be regarded as specifically episcopal, and meanwhile the custom had grown up of granting it honoris causa to other dignitaries besides bishops. The first known instance of a mitred abbot is Egelsinus of St Augustine's, Canter- bury, who received the honour from Pope Alexander II. in 1063. From this time onward papal bulls bestow- ing mitres, together with other episcopal insignia, on abbots become increasingly frequent. The original motive of the recipients of these favours was doubtless the taste of the time for outward display; St Bernard, zealous for the monastic ideal, de- nounced abbots for wearing mitres and the like more pontificum, and Peter the Cantor roundly called the abbatial mitre " inane, superfluous and puerile " (Verb, abbrev. c. xliv.in Migne, Patrolog. lat. 205, 159). It came, however, to symbolize the exemption of the abbots from episcopal jurisdiction, their quasi-episcopal character, and their immediate dependence on the Holy See. No such significance could attach to the grant of the usus mitrae (under somewhat narrow restrictions as to where and when) to cathedral dignitaries. The first instance is again a bull of Leo IX. (1051) granting to Hugh, archbishop of Besancon, and his seven cardinals the right to wear the mitre at the altar as celebrant, deacon and subdeacon, a similar privilege being granted to Bishop Hartwig of Bamberg in the following year. The intention was to show honour to a great church by allowing it to follow the custom doubtless already established at Rome. Subsequently the privilege was often granted, sometimes to one or more of the chief dignitaries, sometimes to all the canons of a cathedral {e.g. Campostella, Prague). Mitres were also sometimes bestowed by the popes on secular sovereigns, e.g. by Nicholas II. (1058-1061) on Spiteneus (Spytihnew) II., duke of Bohemia; by Alexander II. on Wratis- laus of Bohemia; by Lucius II. (1144-1145) on Roger of Sicily; and by Innocent III., in 1204, on Peter of Aragon. In the coronation of the emperor, more particularly, the mitre played a part. According to the 14th Roman ordo, of 1241, the pope places on the emperor's head first the mitra clericalis, then the imperial diadem. Father Braun (Liturgische Gewandung, p. 457) gives a picture of a seal of Charles IV. representing him as wearing both. The original form of the mitre was that of the early papal tiara (regnum), i.e. a somewhat high conical cap. The stages of its general development from this shape to the high double-horned modern mitre are clearly trace- able (see fig. 1), though it is impossible exactly to distinguish them in point of date. The most charac- teristic modifications may be said to have taken place from the nth to the middle of the 13th century. About 1100 the conical mitre begins to give place to a round one; a band of embroidery is next set over the top from back to front, which tends to bulge up the soft material on either side; and these bulges develop into points or horns. Mitres with horns on either side seem to have been worn till about the end of the 12th century, and Father Braun gives examples of their appearances on episcopal seals in France until far into the 13th. Such a mitre appears on a seal of Archbishop Thomas Becket (Father Thurston, The Pallium, London, 1892, p. 17). The custom was, however, of the head instead of the sides (the mitre said to have belonged to St Thomas Becket, now at Westminster Cathedral, is of this type), 1 and with this the essential character of the mitre, as it persisted through the middle ages, was established. The exaggeration of the height of the mitre, which began at the time of the Renaissance, reached its climax in the 17th century. Develop' ment of Form. already growing up of setting the horns over the front and back Drawn, by Father J. Braun and reproduced from his Liturgische Gewandung by permission of B. Herder. Fig. I. — Evolution of the Mitre from the nth century to the present day. This ugly and undignified type is still usually worn in the Roman Catholic Church, but in some cases the earlier type has survived, and many bishops are also now reverting to it. The decoration of mitres was characterized by increasing elabora- tion as time went on. From the first the white conical cap seems to have, been decorated round the lower edge by a band or orphrey (cir cuius). To this was added later a vertical orphrey (titulus), usually from the centre of the front of the circulus to that of the back, partly in order to hide the seam, partly to emphasize the horns when those were to left and right. When the horns came to be set before and behind, the vertical orphrey retained its position. Of the surviving early mitres the greater number have only the orphrey embroidered, the body of the mitre being left plain. Very early, however, the custom arose of ornamenting the triangular spaces between the orphreys with embroidery, usually a round medallion, or a star, set in the middle, but sometimes figures of saints, &c. (e.g. the early example from the cathedral of Anagni, reproduced by Braun, p. 469). The richness and variety of decora- tion increased from the 14th century onwards. Architectural motives even were introduced, as frames to the embroidered figures of saints, while sometimes the upper edges of the mitre were orna- mented with crockets, and the horns with architectural finials. Finally, the traditional circulus and titulus seem all but forgotten, the whole front and back surfaces of the mitre being ornamented with embroidered pictures or with arabesque patterns. The latter is characteristic of the mitre in the modern Roman Catholic Church, the tradition of the local Roman Church having always excluded the representation of "figures on ecclesiastical vestments. 2. Reformed Churches. — In most of the reformed Churches the use of mitres was abandoned with that of the other vest- ments. They have continued to be worn, however, by the bishops of the Scandinavian Lutheran Churches. In the Church of England the use of the mitre was discontinued at the Reformation. There is some evidence to show that it was used in consecrating bishops up to 1552, and also that its use was revived by the Laudian bishops in the 17th century (Hierurgia anglicana ii. 242, 243, 240). In general, however, there is no evidence to prove that this use was liturgical, though the silver-gilt mitre of Bishop Wren of Ely (d. 1667), which is preserved, is judged from the state of the lining to have been worn. The instances of the use of the mitre quoted in Hier. anglic. ii. 310, as carried by the bishop of Rochester at an investiture of the Knights of the Bath (1725), and by the archbishops and bishops at the coronation of George II. (1727), have no liturgical significance. The tradition of the mitre as an episcopal ornament has, nevertheless, been continuous in the Church of England, " and that on three lines: (1) heraldic usage; (2) its presence on the head of effigies of bishops, of which a number are extant, of the 16th, 17th, 18th and 19th centuries; (3) its presence in funeral processions, where 1 In Father Braun's opinion, expressed to the writer, this mitre, which was formerly at Sens, belongs probably to the 13th century. Church of England. MITRE MB ♦ B9 4- • Fig. 6. — Mitre (restored) of William of Wykeham, Bishop of Winchester (d. 1404), preserved at New 'College, Oxford. From a photograph by Father Joseph Braun, S. /■■ by kind permission. Fig. 5. — German. Mitre, of red velvet embroidered with pearls and silver gilt plaques. 15th century. In the cathedral at Halberstadt. "Semish Mitre, embroidered in gold thread, and the panels in colours, with figures of the Virgin and .St. Augustine. The other side is similar, with figures of St. Leonard and St. Mary Magdalene. It is dated 1592, repaired in 1766. Iq the Victoria and Albert Museum. MITROVICA— MITSCHERLICH 627 Drawn from a photograph taken by; Father J. firaun (reproduced in Die titurgische Gewandung). By permission of B. Herder. Fig. 2. — Greek Mitre. an actual mitre or the figure of one was sometimes carried, and sometimes suspended over the tomb " {Report on the Orna- ments of the Church, p. 106). The liturgical use of the mitre was revived in the Church of England in the latter part of the 19th century, and is now fairly widespread. ': 3. Oriental Rites. — Some form of liturgical head-dress is com- mon to all the Oriental rites. In the Orthodox Eastern Church the mitre (Gr. fdrpa; Slav, mitra) is, as in the Western Church, proper only to bishops. Its form differs entirely from that of the Latin Church. In general it rather resembles a closed crown, consisting of a circlet from which rise two arches intersecting each other at right angles. Circlet and arches are richly chased and jewelled; they are filled out by a cap of stiff material, often red velvet, ornamented with pictures in embroidery or applique" metal. Surmount- ing all, at the intersection of the arches is a cross. In Russia this usually lies flat, only certain metro- politans, and by prescrip- tion the bishops of the eparchy of Kiev, having the right to have the cross upright (see fig. 2). In the Armenian Church priests and archdeacons, as well as the bishops, wear a mitre. That of the bishops is of the Latin form, a custom dating from a grant of Pope Innocent III.; that of the priests, the sagvahart, is not unlike the Greek mitre (see fig. 3). In the Syrian Church only the patriarch wears a mitre, which resembles that of the Greeks. The biruna of the Chaldaean Nestorians, on the other hand, worn by all bishops, is a sort of hood ornamented with a cross. Coptic priests and bishops wear the ballin, a long strip of stuff ornamented with crosses &c, and wound turban-wise round the head; the patriarch of Alexandria has a helmet-like mitre, the origin of which is unknown, though it perhaps antedates the appearance of the phrygium at Rome. The Maronites, and the uniate Jacobites, Chaldaeans and Copts have adopted the Roman mitre. The mitre was only introduced into the Greek rite in com- paratively modern times. It was unknown in the earlier part of the 15th century, but had certainly been introduced by the beginning of the 16th. Father Braun suggests that its assumption by the Greek patriarch was connected with the changes due to the capture of Constantinople by the Turks. Possibly, as its form" suggests, it is based on the imperial crown and symbolized at the outset the quasi - sovereignty over the rayah population which Mahommed II. was content to leave to the patriarch. In Reproduced by kind permission of the T -o : f _,„„ ;n+,,w1ii™>r! fntr. Archbishop of Westminster. z 5°9 ll was introduced mtO Fig. 4.— Mitra pretiosa of the Russia, when the tsar Theodore late Cardinal Vaughan, Roman erected the Russian patriarch- Catholic Archbishop of West- a te and bestowed on the new mmster - patriarch the right to wear the mitre, sakkos and mandyas, all borrowed from the Greek rite. From Braun's Lilur- gisdie Gewandung. By permission of B. Herder. Fig. 3.— Mitre of Armenian Priest. A hundred years later the mitre, originally confined to the patriarch, was worn by all bishops. See J. Braun, S.J., Die liturgische Gewandung (Freiburg-im- Breisgau, 1907), pp. 424-498. The question of the use of the mitre in the Anglican Church is dealt with in the Report of the Sub-Committee of the Convocation of Canterbury on the Ornaments of the Church and its Ministers (1908). See also the bibliography to the article Vestments. (W. A. P.) MITROVICA (Hungarian, Mitrovicz; German, Mitroivitz), a town of Croatia-Slavonia, Hungary, situated on the river Save, in the county of Syrmia. Pop. (1900), 11,518. Mitrovica is on the railway from Agram, 170 m. W.N.W. to Belgrade, 38 m. E. by S. Roman remains have been discovered in its neighbourhood, and it occupies the site of Sirmium or Syrmium, the chief city of Lower Pannonia under Roman rule. The emperor Probus (232-282) was born and buried at Sirmium, where, according to some authorities, the emperor Marcus Aurelius (121-180) also died; but this is uncertain. In 351, 357 and 358, ecclesiastical councils of some importance met at Sirmium, which became an episcopal see about 305, and was united with the diocese of Bosnia in 1773. The city was sacked by the Huns in 441, and by the Turks, who destroyed all its ancient buildings, in 1396 and 1521. MITSCHERLICH, EILHARDT (1794-1863), German chemist, was born on the 7th of January 1794 at Neuende near Jever, in the grand duchy of Oldenburg, where his father was pastor. His uncle, Christoph Wilhelm Mitscherlich (1760-1854), professor at Gottingen, was in his day a celebrated scholar. He was educated at Jever under the historian F. C. Schlosser, when he went to Heidelberg in 1 8 1 1 , devoted himself to philology, giving special attention to the Persian language. In 1813 he went to Paris to obtain permission to join the embassy which Napoleon I. was to send to Persia. The events of 1 814 put an end to this, and Mitscherlich resolved to study medicine in order that he might enjoy that freedom of travel usually allowed in the East to physicians. He began at Gottingen with the study of chemistry, and this so arrested his attention that he gave up the journey to Persia. From his Gottingen days dates the treatise on certain parts of Persian history, compiled from MSS. in the university library and published in Persian and Latin in 1814, under the title Mirchondi historia Thaheridarum historicis nostris hucusque incognitorum Persiae principum. In 1818 he went to Berlin and worked in the laboratory of H. F. Link (1767-1851). There he made analyses of phosphates and phosphites, arsenates and arsenites, con- firming the conclusions of J. J. BerzeKus as to their composi- tion; and his observation that corresponding phosphates and arsenates crystallize in the same town was the germ from which grew the theory of isomorphism which he communicated to the Berlin Academy in December 1819. In that year Berzelius suggested Mitscherlich to the minister Altenstein as successor to M. H. Klaproth at Berlin. Altenstein did not immediately carry out this proposal, but he obtained for Mitscherlich a govern- ment grant to enable him to continue his studies in Berzelius's laboratory at Stockholm. He returned to Berlin in 1821, and in the summer of 1822 he delivered his first lecture as extraordinary professor of chemistry in the university, where in 1825 he was appointed ordinary professor. In the course of an investigation into the slight differences discovered by W. H. Wollaston in the angles of the rhombohedra of the carbonates isomorphous with calc-spar, he observed that the angle in the case of calc-spar varied with the temperature. On extending his inquiry to other aelotropic crystals he observed a similar variation, and was thus led, in 1825, to the discover}' that aelotropic crystals, when heated, expand unequally in the direction of dissimilar axes. In the following year he discovered the change, pro- duced by change of temperature, in the direction of the optic axes of selenite. His investigation (also in 1826) of the two crystalline modifications of sulphur threw much light on the fact that the two minerals calc-spar and aragonite have the same composition but different crystalline forms, a property which Mitscherlich called dimorphism. In 1833 he made a series of careful determinations of the vapour densities of a large 628 MITTEN— MIZRAIM number of volatile substances, confirming Gay-Lussac's law. He obtained selenic acid in 1827 and showed that its salts are isomorphous with the sulphates, while a few years later he proved that the same thing is true of the manganates and the sulphates, and of the permanganates and the perchlorates. He investi- gated the relation of benzene to benzoic acid and to other derivatives. In 1829-1830 he published his Lehrbuch der Chemie, which embodied many original observations. His interest in mineralogy led him to study the geology of volcanic regions, and he made frequent visits to the Eifel with a view to the discovery of a theory of volcanic action. He did not, however, publish any papers on the subject, though after his death his notes were arranged and published by Dr. J. L. A. Roth in the Memoirs of the Berlin Academy (1866). In December 1861 symptoms of heart-disease made their appearance, but he was able to carry on his academical work till December 1862. He died at Schonberg near Berlin, on the 28th of August 1863. Mitscherlich's published papers are chiefly to be found in the Abhandlungen of the Berlin Academy, in Poggendorff's Annalen, and in the Annales de chimie et de physique. The 4th edition of the Lehrbuch der Chemie was published in 1844-1847, a 5th was begun in 1855, but was not completed. MITTEN, a covering for the hand, with a division for the thumb only, and reaching to the lower joint of the fingers; it is made of silk, lace, wool or other material. The word is of obscure origin; it has been connected with Ger. mitte, middle, half, in the sense of that which half covers the hand. There are several Celtic words which may be cognate, e.g. Irish miotag, mutan, a thick glove, mitten, such as is worn by hedgers and ditchers. The 16th-century French word miton meant a gauntlet. A fine mitten made of lace or open network and extending well up the forearm was much worn by ladies in the early part of the 19th century, and has been fashionable at various times since that date. MITTWEIDA, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Saxony, on the Zschopau, 12 m. by rail N. of Chemnitz on the railway to Dobeln and Riesa. Pop. (1905), 17,465. It has a handsome Evangelical church, a classical, a modern and a technical school, and cotton and spinning mills. Other industries are the making of furniture, machinery, cigars and cement. MIVART, ST GEORGE JACKSON (1827-1900), English biologist, was born in London on the 30th of November 1827, and educated at Clapham grammar-school, Harrow, and King's College, London, and afterwards at St Mary's, Oscott, since his conversion to Roman Catholicism prevented him from going to Oxford. In 1851 he was called to the bar, but he devoted him- self to medical and biological studies. In 1862 he was appointed lecturer at St Mary's Hospital medical school, in 1869 he became a fellow of the Zoological Society, and from 1874 to 1877 he was professor of biology at the short-lived Roman Catholic University College, London. In 1873 he published Lessons in Elementary Anatomy, and an essay on Man and Apes. In 1 881 appeared The Cat: an Introduction to the Study of Back-boned Animals. The careful and detailed work he bestowed on Insectivora and Carnivora largely increased our knowledge of the anatomy of these groups. In 1871 his Genesis of Species brought him into the controversy then raging. Though admitting evolution generally, Mivart denied its applicability to the human intellect. His views as to the relationship existing between human nature and intellect and animal nature in general were given in Nature and Thought (1882); and in the Origin of Human Reason (1889) he stated what he considered the fundamental difference between men and animals. In 1884, at the invitation of the Belgian episcopate, he became professor of the philosophy of natural history at the university of Louvain, which had conferred on him the degree of M.D. in 1884. Some articles published in the Nineteenth Century in 1892 and 1893, in which Mivart advocated the claims of science even where they seemed to conflict with religion, were placed on the Index expurgatorius, and other articles in January 1900 led to his excommunication by Cardinal Vaughan, with whom he had a curious corre- spondence vindicating his claim to hold liberal opinions while remaining in the Roman Catholic Church. Shortly afterwards he died, in London, on the 1st of April 1900. Mivart was also the author of many scientific papers and occasional articles, and of Castle and Manor: a Tale of our Time (1900), which originally appeared in 1894 as Henry Standon, by " D'Arcy Drew." MIZPAH, or Mizpeh, the name of several places referred to in the Old Testament, in each case probably derived from a " commanding prospect," the Hebrew name having that sig- nificance. (1) Mizpah or Gilead, where Jacob was reconciled to Laban (Gen. xxxi. 49); apparently the site of the camp oi the Israelites when about to attack the Ammonites under Jephthah's leadership (Judges x. 1 7) . This ancient sanctuary was probably the scene of Jephthah's vow (Judges xi. 29; cf. v. n). The identification of this Mizpeh is a difficult problem: it is supposed to be the same as Ramoth Gilead, but the evidence is scarcely conclusive. It is referred to in Hos. v. 1. (2) Mizpah or Benjamin. It has been suggested, on hardly sufficient grounds, that the Mizpeh where the Hebrews assembled before the extermination of the Benjamites (Judges xx. 1) was not the shrine where Samuel made his headquarters (1 Sam. vii. 5). It was fortified by Asa (1 Kings xv. 22), and after the destruction of Jerusalem was the seat of government under the viceroy Geda- liah (2 Kings xxv. 23): here Gedaliah was murdered (ibid. 25). After the exile it retained the tradition of being a seat of govern- ment (Neh. iii. 7) and a holy place (1 Mace. iii. 46). It is probably to be identified with the mountain, Neby Samwil, north of Jerusalem, still considered sacred by the Moslems: a Crusaders' church (now a mosque), covers the traditional tomb of Samuel. (3) A territory near Mount Hermon, a seat of the Hivites, which joined the coalition of Jabin against Joshua (Joshua xi. 3). In the territory was the "valley of Mizpeh" (v. 8) where the Canaanites were routed. (4) A town in the tribe of Judah (Joshua xv. 38). (5) Mizpeh of Moab, where David interviewed the king of Moab and found an asylum for his parents (1 Sam. xxii. 3). (R. A. S. M.) MIZRAIM, the biblical name for Egypt (Gen. x. 6, 13, Hebrew Misrayim; the apparently dual termination -aim may be due to a misunderstanding); there is an alternative poetical form Masor (2 Kings xix. 24, &c). In Isa. xi. n the name is kept distinct from Pathros or Upper Egypt, and represents some por- tion at least of Lower Egypt. It perhaps means " boundary " or " frontier," a somewhat ambiguous term, which illustrates the topographical problems. First (a), E. Schrader. pointed out in 1874 that the Assyrians knew of some Musri (i.e. Mizraim) in North Syria, and it is extremely probable that this land is referred to in 2 Kings vii. 6 (mentioned with the Hittites), and in 1 Kings x. 28 seq., 2 Chron. i. 16 seq., where the word for " droves " (Heb. m-q-v-h) conceals the contiguous land Kue (Cilicia). 1 Next (b), C. T. Beke, as long ago as 1834, concluded in his Origines biblicae (p. 167 et passim) that •" Egypt " in the Old Testament sometimes designates a district near Midian and the Gulf of 'Akaba, and the view restated recently and quite independently by H. Winckler on later evidence (1893) has been the subject of continued debate. Egypt is known to have laid claim to the southern half of Palestine from early times, and consequently the extension of the name of Egypt beyond the limits of Egypt and of the Sinaitic penin- sula, is inherently probable. When, for example, Hagar, the " Egyptian," is the ancestress of Ishmaelite tribes, the evidence makes it vepy unlikely that the term is to be understood in the strict ethnical sense; and there are other passages more suitably interpreted on the hypothesis that the wider extension of the term was once familiar. In the second half of the 8th century B.C., Assyrian inscriptions allude to a powerful Musri at a time when the Nile empire was disintegrated and scarcely in a position to play the part ascribed to it (i.e. if by Musri we are to under- stand Egypt). 2 Not until the supremacy of Tirhakah does the ambiguity begin to disappear, and much depends upon the 1 See further, H. Winckler, Alt. test. Untersuch. (1892), pp. 168-174. s So, too, according to one passage, Tiglath-pileser IV. appoints a governor over Musri before Egypt itself had actually been con- quered. MNEMONICS 629 unbiased discussion of the related biblical history (especially the writings of Isaiah and Hosea) and the Egyptian data. But even in the period of disintegration the minor princes of the Delta were no doubt associated with their eastern neighbours, and although the Assyrian Musri stands in the same relation to the people of Philistia as do the Edomites and allied tribes of the Old Testament, Philistia itself was always intimately associated with Egypt. (See Philistines.) The problem is complicated by the obscurity which over- hangs the history of south Palestine and the Delta (see Edom; Midian). The political importance of Egypt was not constant, and the known fluctuations of geographical terms combine with the doubtful accuracy of early writers to increase the difficulties. The Assyrian evidence alone points very strongly to a Musri in north-west Arabia; the biblical evidence alone suggests an extra- Egyptian Misrayim. On the whole the result of discussion has been to admit the probability that Misrayim could refer to a district outside the limits of Egypt proper. But it has not justified the application of this conclusion to all the instances in which some critics have relied upon it, or the sweeping inferences and reconstructions which have sometimes been based upon it. Each case must be taken on its merits. See further, H. Winckler, Altorient. Forschungen, i. 24 seq; Mitteil. d. vorderasiat. Gesell. (1898), pp. I sqq., 169 sqq.; Hibbert Journal (April 1904); Keilinschr. u.das alte Test., 3rd ed., 136 sqq.; and Im Kampfe um den alten Orient, ii. (1907) ; T. K. Cheyne, especially Kingdom of Judah (1908), pp. xiv. sqq. ; F. Hommel, Vier neue arab. Landschaftsnamen in A.T. For criticisms (many of them somewhat captious) see Konig's reply to Hommel (Berlin, 1902), A. Noordtzij, Theolog. Tijdsch. (1906, July, September), and E. Meyer, Israeliten u. ihre Nachbarstamme, pp. 455 sqq. A valuable survey of the geographical and other conditions is given by N. Schmidt, Hibbert Journal (January 1908). (S. A. C.) MNEMONICS (from Gr. ixvaadai, remember; whence nvfifMiiv, mindful; rb nvrmovuibv, sc. Ttyyr\ii.o>, that which mechanically aids the memory) , the general name applied to devices for aiding the memory. Such devices are also described as memoria technica. The principle is to enable the mind to reproduce a relatively unfamiliar idea, and specially a series of dissociated ideas, by connecting it, or them, in some artificial whole, the parts of which are mutually suggestive. A pupil is far more likely to remember the cities which claimed to be the birthplace of Homer when he remembers that their names can be made to form the hexameter line, " Smyrna, Chios, Colophon, Salamis, Rhodos, Argos, Athenae." Among the most famous examples of metrical mnemonics are the " gender rhymes " of the Latin grammars, the hexameter lines (especially that beginning " Barbara Celarent ") invented by logicians (for a list see Baldwin's Diet, of Philos., vol. ii., s.v, " Mnemonic Verses "), the verse for remembering the number of days in the months (" Thirty days hath September, April, June and November "). Other devices are numerous. Thus the name and lights of the sides of a ship may be remembered because the three shorter words " port," " left," " red," go together, as compared with the longer, " starboard," " right," " green." Memory is commonly classified by psychologists according as it is exercised (a) mechanically, by attention and repetition; (b) judiciously, by careful selection and co-ordination; and (c) ingeniously, by means of artifices, i.e. mnemotechny, mnemonics. It must, however, be observed that no mnemonic is of any value which does not possess the qualities of (a) and (b) . A mnemonic is essentially a device which uses attention and repetition, and careful selection is equally necessary. A more accurate description of mnemonics is " mediate" or " indirect " memory. In the technical sense the word " mnemonic " is confined to the systems of general application which have been elaborated by various writers. Systems. — Mnemonic devices were much cultivated by Greek sophists and philosophers, and are repeatedly referred to by Plato and Aristotle. In later times the invention was ascribed to the poet Simonides, 1 perhaps for no other reason than that the strength of his memory was famous. Cicero, who attaches 1 Pliny, H.N. vii. 24. Cicero, De or. ii. 86, mentions this belief without committing himself to it. considerable importance to the art, but more to the principle of order as the best help to memory, speaks of Carneades (or perhaps Charmades) of Athens and Metrodorus of Scepsis as distinguished examples of the use of well-ordered images to aid the memory. The latter is said by Pliny to have carried the art so far " ut nihil non iisdem verbis redderet auditum." The Romans valued such helps as giving facility in public speak- ing. The method used is described by the author of Rhet. ad Heren., iii. 16-24; see also Quintilian {Inst. Or. xi. 2), whose account is, however, somewhat incomplete and obscure. In his time the art had almost ceased to be practised. The Greek and Roman system of mnemonics was founded on the use of mental places and signs or pictures, known as " topical " mnemonics. The most usual method was to choose a large house, of which the apartments, walls, windows, statues, furniture, &c, were severally associated with certain names, phrases, events or ide^s, by means of symbolic pictures; and to recall these it was only necessary to search over the apartments of the house till the particular place was discovered where they had been deposited by the imagination. In accordance with this system, if it were desired to fix an historic date in the memory, it was localized in an imaginary town divided into a certain number of districts, each with ten houses, each house with ten rooms, and each room with a hundred quadrates or memory-places, partly on the floor, partly on the four walls, partly on the roof. Thus, if it were desired to fix in the memory the date of the invention of printing (1436), an imaginary book, or some other symbol of printing, would be placed in the thirty-sixth quadrate or memory-place of the fourth room of the first house of the historic district of the town. Except that the rules of mnemonics are referred to by Martianus Capella, nothing further is known regarding the practice of the art until the 13th century. Among the voluminous writings of Roger Bacon is a tractate De arte memorativa. Raimon Lull devoted special attention to mnemonics in . connexion with his ars generalis. The first important modification of the method of the Romans was that invented by the German poet Konrad Celtes, who, in his Epitoma in utramque Ciceronis rhetoricam cum arte memorativa nova (1492), instead of places made use of the letters of the alphabet. About the end of the 15th century Petrus de Ravenna (b. 1448) awakened such astonishment in Italy by his mnemonic feats that he was believed by many to be a necromancer. His Phoenix artis memoriae (Venice, 1491, 4 vols.) went through as many as nine editions, the seventh appearing at Cologne in 1608. An impression equally great was produced about the end of the 1 6th century by Lambert Schenkel {Gazophylacium, 1610), who taught mnemonics in France, Italy, and Germany, and, although he was denounced as a sorcerer by the university of Louvain, published in 1593 his tractate De memoria at Douai with the sanction of that celebrated theological faculty. The most complete account of his system is given in two works by his pupil Martin Sommer, published at Venice in 1619. In 1618 John Willis (d. 1628?) published Mnemonica; sive ars reminiscendi (Eng. version by Leonard Sowersby, 1661; extracts in Feinaigle's New Art of Memory, 3rd ed., 1813), containing a clear statement of the principles of topical or local mnemonics. Giordano Bruno, in connexion with his exposition of the ars generalis of Lull, included a memoria technica in his treatise De umbris idearum. Other writers of this period are the Florentine Publicius (1482); Johann Romberch (1533); Hieronimo Morafiot, Ars memoriae (1602); B. Porta, Ars reminiscendi (1602). In 1648 Stanislaus Mink von Wenussheim or Winckelmann made known what he called the " most fertile secret " in mnemo- nics — namely, the use of consonants for figures, so as to express numbers by words (vowels being added as required); and the philosopher Leibnitz adopted an alphabet very similar to that of Winckelmann in connexion with his scheme for a form of writing common to all languages. Winckelmann's method, which in fact is adopted with slight changes by the majority of subsequent " original " systems, was modified and supplemented in regard to many details by Richard Grey (1694-1771), who published a Memoria technica in 1730. The 630 MNESICLES— MOA principal part of Grey's method (which may be compared with the Jewish system by which letters also stand for numerals, and therefore words for dates) is briefly this: "To remember anything in history, chronology, geography, &c, a word is formed, the beginning whereof, being the first syllable or syllables of the thing sought, does, by frequent repetition, of course draw after it the latter part, which is so contrived as to give the answer. Thus, in history, the Deluge happened in the year before Christ two thousand three hundred forty-eight; this is signified by the word Del-elok, Del standing for Deluge and etok for 2348." To assist in retaining the mnemonical words in the memory they were formed into memorial lines, which, however, being composed of strange words in difficult hexameter scansion, are by no means easy to memorize. The vowel or consonant, which Grey connected with a particular figure, was chosen arbitrarily; but in 1806 Gregor von Feinaigle, a German monk from Salem near Constance, began, in Paris to expound a system of mnemonics, one feature (based on Winckelmann's system) of which was to represent the numerical figures by letters chosen on account of some similarity to the figure to be represented or some accidental connexion with it. This alphabet was supplemented by a complicated system of localities and signs. Feinaigle, who apparently published nothing himself, came to England in 181 1, and in the following year one of his pupils published The New Art of Memory, which, beside giving Feinaigle's system, contains valuable historical material about previous systems. A simplified form of Feinaigle's method was published by Aime Paris (Principes et applications diverses de la mnemonique, 7 th ed., Paris, 1834), and the use of symbolic pictures was revived in connexion with the latter by a Pole, Antoni Jazwifisky, of whose system an account was published by the Polish general J. Bern, under the title Expose genSral de la mSthode mnimonique polonaise, perfectionnee a Paris (Paris, 1839). Various other modifications of the systems of Feinaigle and Aime Paris were advocated by subsequent mnemonists, among them being the Phrenotypics of Major Beniowsky, a Polish refugee, the Phreno-Mnemotechny (1845) of Francois Fauvel Gouraud the Mnemotechnik of Karl Otto Reventlow (generally known as Karl Otto), a Dane, and the Mnemotechny of the American Pliny Miles. The more complicated mnemonic systems have fallen almost into complete disuse; but methods founded chiefly on the so-called laws of association (see Association or Ideas) have been taught with some success in Germany by, among others, Hermann Kothe, author of Lehrbuch der Mnemonik (2nd ed., Hamburg, 1852), and Katechismus der Geddchtnisskunst (6th ed. by Montag, Leipzig, 1887); and Hugo Weber-Rumpe, author of Mnemonische Zahlworterbuch (Breslau, 1885) and Mnemonische Unterrichts- briefe (1887-1888); in England by Dr Edward Pick, whose Memory and the Rational Means of Improving it (5th ed., 1873) and Lectures on Memory Culture (1899) obtained a wide circula- tion. Passing over the work of William Day (New Mnemonical Chart and Guide to the Art of Memory, 1845), Rev. T. Brayshaw (Metrical Mnemonics, a very rare work), Fairchild and W. Stokes, the next name of any importance is the Rev. J. H. Bacon, a pupil of Edward Pick. His book (A Complete Guide to the Improvement of the Memory, 3rd ed., rev. 1890) contains a good summary of the history of mnemonics and a very reasonable account of the principles; it gains in value by its comparative simplicity. More or less successful systems were issued by Lyon Williams (1866), T. Maclaren (1866), Thomas A. Sayer (1867), Rev. Alexander Mackay (1869), George Crowther (1870), F. Appleby (1880), John Sambrook, who made use of similarities in sounds (gun, 1 ; Jew, 2), the French scientist Abbe Moigno, J. H. Noble, and Allan Dalzell. Considerable interest was roused both in London and in America by the controversy which raged round the system of "Alphonse Loisette," who taught his "art of never forgetting" successively in London and Washington. It claimed to be original in system, but was attacked in England by F. Appleby and in America by George S. Fellows, and is generally regarded as both unoriginal and inferior on the whole to preceding systems (for the litigation in America see e.g. Part II. of Middleton's Memory Systems, pp. 96 sqq.). An interesting work (Memoranda mnemonica) was published by James Copner in 1893, containing a system based partly on the use of letters for figures and words for dates, as well as a large number of rhymes for remembering facts in biblical, Roman, Greek and English history. He made use of Grey's system, but endeavoured as far as possible to invent, where necessary, words and terminations which in them- selves had some special fitness in place of Grey's monstrosities. More complicated systems are the Keesing Memory System (Auckland, 1896), the Smith- Watson System of Memory and Mental Training (Washington), and the Pelman memory system. Bibliography. — A large number of the works referred to in the text contain historical material. Among histories of the subject, see C. F. von Aretin, Systematische Anleitung zur Theorie und Praxis der Mnemonik (Sulzberg, 1810); A. E. Middleton, Memory Systems, Old and New (espec. 3rd rev. ed., New York, 1888), with bibliography of works from 1325 to 1888 by G. S. Fellows and account of the Loisette litigation; F. W. Colegrove, Memory (1901), with biblio- graphy, pp. 353-361. (J. M. M.) MNESICLES, the architect of the great Propylaea of the Athenian Acropolis, set up by Pericles about 437 B.C. MOA, apparently the Maori name of the extinct Ratite birds in New Zealand, comprising the group Dinornithes (cf. Bird: Classification; and Ratitae). The earliest account of these birds is that of Polack (New Zealand, London, 1838), who speaks of the former existence of some struthious birds in the north island as proved by fossil bones which were shown to him. " The natives added that, in times long past, they received the tradition that very large birds had existed, but the scarcity of food, as well as the easy method of entrapping them, had caused their extermination." In the North Island the moas seem to have died out soon after the arrival of the Maoris, according to F. W. Hutton, some 700-500 years ago. In the South Island they seem to have lingered much longer, possibly, according to H. O. Forbes (Nat Sci. II. 1893, pp. 374-380), " down even to the time that Captain Cook visited New Zealand." But these are only surmises, based upon the fact that in various dry caves limbs still surrounded by the mummified flesh and skin, feathers, and even eggs with the inner membrane, have been found. Great quantities of bones have been found in caves and in swamps, so that now nearly every part of the skeleton, of some kind or other, is known. The most striking feature of the moas, besides the truly gigantic size of some species, is the almost complete absence of the wings. In fact, the whole skeletons of the wings and of the shoulder girdle seem to have been lost, excepting Anomalo- pteryx dromaeoides, which, according to Hutton, 1 had still some vestiges. Such a complete reduction of the whole anterior limb and girdle is unique among birds, but the cassowaries indicate the process. In conformity with these reductions the breastbone of the moas is devoid of any coracoidal facets; there is no trace of a keel, and the number of sternal ribs is reduced to three or even two pairs. The hind limbs are very strong; the massive femur has a large pneumatic foramen; the tibia has a bony bridge on the anterior surface of the lower portion, a character in which the moas agree only with Apteryx amongst the other Ratitae. The number of toes is four, unless the hallux is more or less reduced. The pelvis much resembles that of the kiwis. The skull has been monographed by T. J. Parker (" On the Cranial Osteology, - Classification and Phylogeny of the Dinor- nithidae," Tr. Z. Soc. (1893), xiii. 373-431, pis. 56-62); it resembles in its general configuration that of the emeus and cassowaries, while it differs from that of Apteryx most obviously by the short and stout bill. The feathers have a large after-shaft which is of the size of the other half, likewise in agreement with the Australian Ratitae, while in the others, including the kiwis, the after-shaft is absent. Another important point, in which the moas agree with the other Ratitae and differ from the kiwis, are the branched, instead of simple, porous canals in the eggshell. 1 " The Moas of New Zealand," Tr. N. Zea. Inst. (1892), xxiv. 93-172, pis. xv.-xvii. MOAB 631 The affinities of the moas are undoubtedly with the Australian Ratitae, and, in spite of the differences mentioned above, with the kiwis. In this respect Max Furbringer and T. J. Parker are in perfect agreement. The relationship with Aepyornis of Madagascar is still problematic. Whilst the moas seem to have been entirely herbivorous, feeding not unlikely upon the shoots of ferns, the kiwis have become highly specialized worm- eaters. In this respect cassowaries and emeus hold an inter- mediate position, their occasional zoophagous (especially piscivo- rous) inclination being well known. Unmolested by enemies (Harpagornis, a tremendous bird of prey, died out with the Pleistocene) , living in an equable insular climate, with abundant vegetation, the moas nourished and seem to have reached their greatest development in specialization, numbers, and a bewilder- ing variety of large and small kinds, within quite recent times. Unfortunately no fossil moas, older than the Pleiocene, are known. Parker recognizes five genera, with about twenty species, which he combines into three sub-families: Dinornithinae with Dinornis, Anomalopteryginae with Pachyomis, Mesopteryx and Anomalopteryx, comprising the comparatively least special- ized forms; and Emeinae with the genus Emeus, not to be con- founded with the vernacular emeu. The moas ranged in size from that of a turkey to truly colossal dimensions, the giant being Dinornis maximus, which, with a tibial length of 39 in., stood with its small head about 12 ft. above the ground. (H. F. G.) MOAB, the name of an ancient people of Palestine who inhabited a district E. of the Jordan and the Dead Sea, lying N. of Edom and S. of Ammon (q.v.) and the Israelite Transjordanic districts. There is little material for its earlier history outside the Old Testament, and the various references in the latter are often of disputed reference and date. The national traditions of Israel recognize a close relationship between Moab and Ammon, " sons " of Lot, and the " brothers " Esau (Edom) and Jacob (Israel), and Moab is represented as already a powerful people when Israel fled from Egypt (Exod. xv. 15). The detailed narratives, however, give conflicting views of the exodus and the conquest of Palestine. It was supposed that Moab, having expelled the aboriginal giants, was in turn displaced by the Amorite king Sihon, who forced Moab south of the Arnon (Wadi MSjib, a natural boundary) and drove Ammon beyond the Jabbok. The Israelites at Kadesh, almost at the gate of the promised land, incurred the wrath of Yahweh, and, deterred by a defeat at Hormah from pursuing their journey northwards, were obliged to choose another route (Num. xiv. 40-45; contrast xxi. 1-3). (See Exodus, The.) Messengers to Edom were repulsed (Num. xx. 14-18), or Israel was met by Edom with force (v. 19 seq.); consequently a great detour was made from Kadesh round by the south of Edom (Num. xiv. 25, xxi. 4; Judges xi. 18). At length the people safely reached Pisgah in Moab (Num. xxi. 16-20; cf. Deut. iii. 27, xxxiv. 1), or, according to another view, passed outside Moab until they reached the border of Sihon's kingdom (Num. xxi. 13, 26; Judges xi. 17 seq.). There are other details in Deut. ii., and the late list in Num. xxxiii. even seems to assume that the journey was made from Kadesh across the northern end of Edom. Apparently no fixed or distinct tradition existed regarding the journeys, and it extremely probable that some of the most characteristic features belong to much later periods than the latter half of the second millen- nium B.C., the age to which they are ascribed (e.g. the poem on the fall of Heshbon, Num. xxi. 27-30). The account of Balaam (q.v.), the son of Beor, the soothsayer, of the children of Ammon (xxii. 5, some MSS.), or of Aram or of Edom (see Cheyne, Ency. Bib., col. 3685 and below), is noteworthy for the prophecies of Israel's future supremacy; but he is passed over in the historical sketch, Deut. ii.; and even the allusion, ibid, xxiii. 4 seq., belongs to a context which on independent grounds appears to be a later insertion. Israel's idolatry in Moab is supplemented by a later story of the vengeance upon Midian (xxv. 6-18, xxxi.). In Joshua xiii. 21 the latter is associated with both Sihon and Balaam, and in some obscure manner Midian and Moab are connected in Num. xxii. 4-7 (cf. xxv. 18, xxxi. 8). An Edomite list of kings includes Bela (cf. Bil'am, i.e. Balaam), son of Beor, and states that a Hadad, son of Bedad, smote Midian in the field of Moab (Gen. xxxvi. 32, 35) ; these events, assigned to an early age, have been connected with the appearance of Moabite power west of the Jordan in the days of the " judge " Ehud {q.v.). However, all that is recorded in Num. xxii. sqq., together with various legal and other matter, now severs the accounts of the Israelite occupation of east Jordan (Num. xxi. 33-35, xxxii. 39-42)- For full details see G. B. Gray, " Numbers " (Internal. Critical Comment.). Although Moab and Ammon were " brothers," their history was usually associated with that of Judah and Israel respectively, and naturally depended to a considerable extent upon these two and their mutual relations. Jephthah (q.v.), one of the Israelite " judges," delivered Gilead from Ammon, who resumed the attack under its king Nahash, only to be repulsed by Saul (q.v.). Ehud (q.v.) of Benjamin or Ephraim freed Israel from the Moabite oppression. To the first great kings, Saul and David, are ascribed conquests over Moab, Ammon and Edom. The Judaean David, for his part, sought to cultivate friendly relations with Ammon, and tradition connects him closely with Moab. His son Solomon contracted marriages with women of both states (1 Kings xi. 5, 7), thus introducing into Jerusalem cults which were not put down until almost at the close of the monarchy (2 Kings xxiii. 13). In the 9th century B.C. the two states appear in more historical surroundings, and the discovery of a lengthy Moabite inscription has thrown valuable light upon contemporary conditions. This inscription, now in the Louvre, was found at Dhlban, the biblical Dibon, in 1868 by the Rev. F. Klein, a representa- tive of the Church Missionary Society stationed at Jerusalem. It contains a record of the successes gained by the Moabite king Mesha against Israel. 1 Omri (q.v.) had previously seized a number of Moabite cities north of the Arnon, and for forty years the Moabite national god Chemosh was angry with his land. At length he roused Mesha; and Moab, which had evi- dently retreated southwards towards Edom, now began to take reprisals. " The men of Gad had dwelt in the land of 'Ataroth from of old; and the king of Israel built 'Ataroth for himself." Mesha took the city, slew its people in honour of Chemosh, and dragged before the god the altar-hearth (or the priests?) of D-v-d-h (apparently a divine name, but curiously similar to David). Next Chemosh roused Mesha against the city of Nebo. It fell with its thousands, for the king had "devoted" it to the deity "Ashtar-Chemosh. Yahweh had been worshipped there, and his . . . (? vessels, or perhaps the same doubtful word as above) were dragged before the victorious Chemosh. With the help of these and other victories (at Jahaz, Aroer, &c), Moab recovered its territory, fortified its cities, supplied them with cisterns, and Mesha built a great sanctuary to his god. The inscription enumerates many places known elsewhere (Isa. xv.; Jer. xlviii.), but although it mentions the "men of Gad," makes no allusion to the Israelite tribe Reuben, whose seat lay in the district (Num. xxxii.; Josh. xiii. 15-23; see Reuben). The revolt will have followed Ahab's death (see 2 Kings i. 1) and apparently led to the unsuccessful attempt by Jehoram to recover the lost ground (ibid. iii.). The story of Jehoram in 2 Kings iii. now gives prominence to Elisha, his wonders, his hostility to the ruling dynasty and his regard for the agedjehoshaphat of Judah. Following other synchronisms, the Septuagint (Lucian's recension) names Ahaziah of Judah ; from 2 Kings i. 17, the reigning king could only have been Jehoram's namesake. The king of Edom appears as an ally of Israel and Judah (contrast I Kings xxii. 47; 2 Kings viii. 20), and hostile to Moab (comp. above, and the obscure allusion in Amos ii. 1-2). But the king of Moab's attempt to break through unto him suggests that in the original story (there are several signs of revision) Moab and Edom were in alliance. In this case the object of Jehoram's march round the south of the Dead Sea was to drive a wedge between them, and the result hints at an Israelite disaster. Singularly enough, Jehoram of Judah suffered some defeat from Edom at Zair, an unknown name for which Ewald suggested (the Moabite) Zoar (2 Kings viii. 21 ; see Jehoram). Moab thus retained its independence, even harrying Israel with marauding bands (2 Kings xiii. 20), while Ammon was 1 See edition by M. Lidzbarski, Altsemitische Texte, Bd. I. (Giessen, 1907) ; also G. A. Cooke, North Semitic Inscr., 'pp. i-i4,andthe articles on " Moab " in Hasting's Diet. Bible (by W. H. Bennett), and " Mesha " in Ency. Bib. (by S. R. Driver). 632 MO 'ALL AK AT perpetrating cruelties upon Gilead (Am. i. 13 sqq.)- But under Jeroboam II. (q.v.) Israelite territory was extended to the Wadi of the 'Arabah or wilderness (probably south end of the Dead Sea), and again Moab suffered. If Isa. xv. seq. is to be referred to this age, its people fled southwards and appealed for protec- tion to the overlord of Edom (see Uzziah). During the Assyrian supremacy, its king Salamannu (probably not the Shalman of Hos. x. 14) paid tribute to Tiglath-Pileser IV., but joined the short-lived revolt with Judah and Philistia in 711. When Sennacherib besieged Jerusalem in 701, Kamus(Chemosh)-nadab also submitted, and subsequently both Esarhaddon and Assur- bani-pal mention the Moabite king Musuri ( " the Egyptian," but cf. Mizraim) among their tributaries. In fact, during the reign of Assur-bani-pal Moab played the vassal's part in helping to repulse the invasion of the Nabayati and nomads of Kedar, a movement which made itself felt from Edom nearly as far as Damascus. It had its root in the revolt of Samas-sum- yukin (Shamash-shun-ukin) of Babylonia, and coming at a time immediately preceding the disintegration of the Assyrian Empire, may have had most important consequences for Judah and the east of the Jordan. 1 (See Palestine: History.) Moab shares with Ammon and Edom in the general obscurity which overhangs later events. If it made inroads upon Judah (2 Kings xxiv. 2), it joined the coalition against Babylonia (Jer. xxvii. 3) ; if it is condemned for its untimely joy at the fall of Jerusalem (Isa. xxv. 9 seq.; Jer. xlviii.; Ezek. xxv. 8-ri; Zeph. ii. 8-10), it had offered a harbour to fugitive Jews (Jer. xl. n). The dates of the most significant passages are unfortu- nately uncertain. If Sanballat the Horonite was really a native of the Moabite Horonaim, he finds an appropriate place by the side of Tobiah the Ammonite and Gashmu the Arabian among the strenuous opponents of Nehemiah. Still later we find Moab part of the province of Arabia in the hands of fresh tribes from the Arabian desert (Jos. Ant. xiii. 13, 5); and, with the loss of its former independent power, the name survives merely as a type (Dan. xi. 41). (See Jews; Nabataeans.) A populous land commanding the trade routes from Arabia to Damascus, rich in agricultural and pastoral wealth, Moab, as Mesha's inscription proves, had already reached a high state of civilization by the 9th century B.C. Its language differed only dialectically from Hebrew; its ideas and religion were very closely akin to the Israelite, and it may be assumed that they shared in common many features of culture. 2 The relation of Chemosh, the national god, to his " children " (Num. xxi. 29) was that of Yahweh to Israel (see especially Judges xi. 24). He had his priests (Jer. xlviii. 7), and Mesha, perhaps himself a priest-king, receives the oracles direct or through the medium of his prophets. The practice of devoting, banning or annihilat- ing city or community was both Moabite and Israelite (cf . above, also Deut. ii. 34, iii. 6, xx. 10-20; 2 Chron. xxv. 12, &c), and human sacrifice, offered as an exceptional gift to Chemosh in 2 Kings iii. 27, in Israel to Molech (q.v.), was a rite once less rare. Apart from the religious cult suggested in the name Mount Nebo, there were local cults of the Baal of Peor and the Baal of Meon, and Mesha's allusion to 'Ashtar-Chemosh, a compound deity, has been taken to point to a corresponding consort whose existence might naturally be expected upon other grounds (see Astarte) . The fertility of Moab, the wealth of wine and corn, the temperate climate and the enervating heat supply conditions which directed the form of cult. Nature- worship, as in Israel, lay at the foundation, and the impure rites of Shittim and Baal-Peor (Num. xxxi. 16; Ps. cvi. 28) would not materially differ from practices which Israelite prophets were called upon to condemn. Much valuable evidence is to be obtained also from the survival of ancient forms of cult in Moab 1 See G. Smith, Ashurbanipal (p. 288, cyl. A. viii. 51, B. viii. 37); L. B. Paton, Syria and Palestine, p. 269 seq.; R. F. Harper, Ass. and Bab. Lit., pp. 118 sqq.; H. Winckler, Keilinschr. u. das alte Test., 3rded., p. 151. 2 Excavation alone can supplement the scanty information which the present evidence furnishes. For a representation of a Moabite warrior (-god ?), see G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, Art in Phoenicia, ii. 4.5 seq. and east of the Jordan (e.g. sacrifices on the house roofs) and from a survey of epigraphical and other data from the Greek, Roman, and later periods, allowance being made for contamina- tion. The whole question deserves careful investigation in the light of comparative religion. 3 The relationship felt between Israel and the external states (Moab, Edom, and Ammon) is entirely justified. It extends intermittently throughout the history, and certain complicated features in the traditions of the southern tribes point to affinities with Moab which find a parallel in the traditions of David (see Ruth) and in the allusions to intercourse between Moab and Benjamin (1 Chron. viii. 8) or Judah (ibid. iv. 21 seq.). But the obscure historical background of the references makes it uncertain whether the exclusiveness of orthodox Judaism (Neh. xiii. 1-3; cf. Deut. xxiii. 3-6; Ezra ix. 1, 12) was imposed upon an earlier catholicity, or represented only one aspect of religious spirit, or was succeeded by a more tolerant attitude. Evidence for the last-mentioned has been found in the difficult narrative in Josh. xxii. But Israel remained a great power in religious history while Moab disappeared. It is true that Moab was continuously hard pressed by desert hordes; the exposed condition of the land is emphasized by the chains of ruined forts and castles which even the Romans were compelled to construct. The explanation of the comparative insignificance of Moab, however, is not to be found in purely topographical considerations. Nor can it be sought in political history, since Israel and Judah suffered as much from external movements as Moab itself. The explanation is to be found within Israel itself, in factors which succeeded in re-shaping existing material and in imprinting upon it a durable stamp, and these factors, as biblical tradition recognizes, are to be found in the work of the prophets. See the articles on Moab in Hastings's Diet. Bible (W. H. Bennett), Ency. Bib. (G. A. Smith and Wellhausen) , and Hauck's Realencyklo- pddie (F. Buhl) with their references; also the popular description by W. Libbey and F. E. Hoskins, Jordan Valley and Petra (1905), and the very elaborate and scientific works by R. E. Brunnow and A. von Domaszewski, Die Provincia Arabia (1904-1905), and A. Musil, Arabia Petraea (1907-1908). Mention should be made of the mosaic map of Palestine found at Medaba, dating perhaps from the 5th century a.d. ; for this, see A. Jacoby, Das geograph. Mosaik von M. (1905), and P. Palmer and Guthe (1906). For language and epigraphy see Nabataeans, Semitic Languages ; for topography, &c, Palestine; and for the later history, Jews. (S. A. C.) MO'ALLAKAT (Mo'allaqat or Mu'allaqat). Al-Mo'allaqdt is the title of a group of seven longish Arabic poems, which have come down to us from the time before Islam. The name signifies " the suspended " (pi.), the traditional explanation being that these poems were hung up by the Arabs on or in the Ka'ba at Mecca. The oldest passage known to the present writer where this is stated occurs in the 'Iqd of the Spanish Arab, Ibn 'Abd-Rabbihi (a.d. 860-940), Bulaq ed. of 1293 a.h. vol. iii. p. 116 seq. We read there: " The Arabs had such an interest in poetry, and valued it so highly, that they took seven long pieces selected from the ancient poetry, wrote them in gold on pieces of Coptic linen folded up, and hung them up ('allaqat) on the curtains which covered the Ka'ba. Hence we speak of 'the golden poem of Amra'al Qais,' the golden poem of Zuhair.' The number of the golden poems is seven; they are also called 'the suspended' (al-Mo'allaqdl)." Similar statements are found in later Arabic works. But against this we have the testimony of a contemporary of Ibn "Abd- Rabbihi, the grammarian Nahhas (d. a.d. 949), who says in his commentary on the Mo'allaqat: "As for the assertion that they were hung up in [sic] the Ka'ba, it is not known to any of those who have handed down ancient poems. " 4 This cautious scholar is unquestionably right in rejecting a story so utterly unauthenticated. The customs of the Arabs before Mahomet 3 See W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites (2nd ed.), which may be supplemented by the scattered gleanings in Clermont-Ganneau's Recueil d ' arcMologie orientate ; and more especially by P. Antonin Jaussin's valuable monograph, Coutumes des Arabes au pays de Moab (Paris, 1908). (See also Hebrew Religion.) 4 Ernst Frenkel, An-Nahljas' Commentar zur Mu'allaqa des Imruul-Qais (Halle, 1876), p. viii. MO ALL AK AT <>33 are pretty accurately known to us; we have also a mass of information about the affairs of Mecca at the time when the Prophet arose; but no trace of this or anything like it is found in really good and ancient authorities. We hear, indeed, of a Meccan hanging up a spoil of battle on the Ka'ba (Ibn Hisham, ed. Wiistenfeld, p. 431). Less credible is the story of an impor- tant document being deposited in that sanctuary (ibid. p. 230), for this looks like an instance of later usages being transferred to pre-Islamic times. But at all events this is quite a different thing from the hanging up of poetical manuscripts. To account for the disappearance of the Mo'allaqat from the Ka'ba we are told, in a passage of late origin (De Sacy, Chrestom. ii. 480), that they were taken down at the capture of Mecca by the Prophet. But in that case we should expect some hint of the occurrence in the circumstantial biographies of the Prophet, and in the works on the history of Mecca; and we find no such thing. That a series of long poems was ■written at all at that remote period is improbable in the extreme. Up to a time when the art of writing had become far more general than it was before the spread of Islam, poems were never — or very rarely — written, with the exception, perhaps, of epistles in poetic form. The diffusion of poetry was exclusively committed to oral tradition. Moreover, it is quite inconceivable that there should have been either a gild or a private individual of such acknowledged taste, or of such influence, as to bring about a consensus of opinion in favour of certain poems. Think of the mortal offence which the canonization of one poet must have given to his rivals and their tribes. It was quite another thing for an individual to give his own private estimate of the respec- tive merits of two poets who had appealed to him as umpire, or for a number of poets to appear at large gatherings, such as the fair of 'Oqaz (Okad) as candidates for the place of honour in the estimation of the throng which listened to their recitations. No better is the modifications of the legend, which we find, at a much later period, in the Moqaddima of Ibn Khaldfin (a.d. 1332-1406), who tells us that the poets themselves hung up their poems on the Ka'ba (ed. Paris iii. 357)- In short, this legend, so often retailed by Arabs, and still more frequently by Europeans, must be entirely rejected. 1 The story is a pure fabrication based on the name " suspended." The word was taken in its literal sense; and as these poems were prized by many above all others in after times, the same opinion was attributed to " the [ancient] Arabs," who were supposed to have given effect to their verdict in the way already described. A somewhat simpler version, also given by Nahhas in the passage already cited, is as follows: " Most of the Arabs were accustomed to meet at 'Oqaz and recite verses; then, if the king was pleased with any poem, he said, ' Hang it up, and preserve it among my treasures.' " But, not to mention other difficulties, there was no king of all the Arabs; and it is hardly probable that any Arabian king attended the fair at 'Oqaz. The story that the poems were written in gold has evidently originated in the name " the golden poems " (literally " the gilded "), a figurative expression for excellence. We may interpret the designation " suspended " on the same principle. It seems to mean those (poems) which have been raised, on account of their value, to a specially honourable position. Another derivative of the same root is 'ilq, "precious thing." A clearer significance attaches to another name some- times used for these poems — assumilt, " the strings of pearls." The comparison of artificially elaborated poems to these strings is extremely apt. Hence it became so popular that, even in ordinary prose, to speak in rhythmical form is called simply na%m — " to string pearls." The selection of these seven poems can scarcely have been 1 Doubts had already been expressed by various scholars, when Hengstenberg — rigid conservative as he was in theology — openly challenged it, and Sprenger {Das Leben des Mohammad, i. 14, Berlin, 1861) declared it a fable. Since then it has been controverted at length in Noldeke's Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Poesie der alten Araber (Hanover, 1864), p. xvii. sqq. Ahlwardt concurs in this con- clusion; see his Bemerkungen iiber die Aechtheit der alten arabischen Gedichte (1872), pp. 25 seq. the work of the ancient Arabs at all. It is much more likely that we owe it to some connoisseur of a later date. Now Nahhas says expressly in the same passage: " The true view of the matter is this: when Hammad ar-Rawiya (Hammad the Rhapsodist) saw how little men cared for poetry, he collected these seven pieces, urged people to study them, and said to them: ' These are the [poems] of renown.' " And this agrees with all our other information. Hammad (who lived in the first three quarters of the 8th century a.d.) was perhaps of all men the one who knew most Arabic poetry by heart. The recitation of poems was his profession. To such a rhapsodist the task of selection is in every way appropriate; and it may be assumed that he is responsible also for the somewhat fantastic title of " the suspended." There is another fact which seems to speak in favour of Hammad as the compiler of this work. He was a Persian by descent, but a client of the Arab tribe, Bakr ibn Wall. For this reason, we may suppose, he not only received into the collection a poem of the famous poet Tarafa, of the tribe of Bakr, but also that of another Bakrite, Harith, who, though not accounted a bard of the highest rank, had been a prominent chieftain; while his poem could serve as a counterpoise to another also received — the celebrated verses of Harith's con- temporary 'Amr, chief of the Taghlib, the rival brethren of the Bakr. 'Amr praises the Taghlib in glowing terms: Harith, in a similar vein, extolls the Bakr — ancestors of Hammad's patrons. The collection of Hammad appears to have consisted of the same seven poems which are found in our modern editions, composed respectively by Amra'al-Qais, Tarafa, Zuhair, Labid, 'Antara ibn Shaddad, 'Amr ibn Kulthum, and Harith ibn HMiza. These are enumerated both by Ibn 'Abd-Rabbihi, and, on the authority of the older philologists, by Nahhas; and all subsequent commentators seem to follow them. We have, however, evidence of the existence, at a very early period, of a slightly different arrangement. Certainly we cannot now say, on the testimony of the Jamharat ask'dr al 'Arab, that twoof the most competent ancient authorities on Arabic poetry, Mofaddal (d. c. 790) and Abu 'Ubaida (d. a.d. 824, at a great age), had already assigned to the " Seven " (viz. " the seven Mo'allaqat ") a poem each of Nabigha and A'sha in place of those of 'Antara and Harith. For meanwhile it has been discovered that the compiler of the above-mentioned work — who, in order to deceive the reader, issued it under a false name — is absolutely untrust- worthy. But the learned Ibn Qotaiba (9th century a.d.), in his book Of Poetry and Poets, mentions as belonging to the " Seven " not only the poem of 'Amr, which has invariably been reckoned among the Mo'allaqat (ed. de Goeje, p. 120), but also a poem of 'Abld ibn Abras (ibid. 144). In place of which poem he read this we do not know; and we are equally ignorant as to whether he counted other pieces than those indicated above among the seven. Now Nabigha and A'sha enjoyed greater celebrity than any of the poets represented in the Mo'allaqat, with the exception of Amra'al-Qais, and it is therefore not surprising that scholars, of a somewhat later date, appended a poem by each of these to the Mo'aliaqat, without intending by this to make them an integral part of that work. This is clear, for instance, from the introductory words of TibrizI (d. a.d. 1109) to his com- mentary on the Mo'allaqat. Appended to this he gives a com- mentary to a poem of Nabigha, to one of A'sha, and moreover one to that poem of 'Abld which, as we have just seen, Ibn Qotaiba had counted among the seven. It is a pure misunder- standing when Ibn Khaldun {loc. cit.) speaks of nine Mo'allaqat; and we ought hardly to lay any stress on the fact that he mentions not only Nabigha and A'sha, but also 'Alqama, as Mo'allaqa — poets. He was probably led to this by a delusive recollection of the Collection of the " Six Poets," in which were included these three, together with the three Mo'allaqa-poets, Amra'al- Qais, Zuhair and Tarafa. The lives of these poets were spread over a period of more than a hundred years. The earliest of the seven was Amra'al- Qais (q.v.), regarded by many as the most illustrious of Arabian ^34 MO'ALLAKAT poets. His exact date cannot be determined; but probably the best part of his career fell within the midst of the 6th century. He was a scion of the royal house of the tribe Kinda, which lost its power at the death of King Harith ibn 'Amr in the year 529. 1 The poet's royal father, Hojr, by some accounts a son of this Harith, was killed by a Bedouin tribe, the Banu Asad. The son led an adventurous life as a refugee, now with one tribe, now with another, and appears to have died young. The anecdotes related of him — which, however, are very untrust- worthy in detail — as well as his poems, imply that the glorious memory of his house and the hatred it inspired were still com- paratively fresh, and therefore recent. A contemporary of Amra'al-Qais was 'Abid ibn Abras, one poem of whose, as we have seen, is by some authorities reckoned among the collection. He belonged to the Banu Asad, and is fond of vaunting the heroic dead of his tribe — the murder of Hojr — in opposition to the victim's son, the great poet. The Mo'allaqa of 'Amr hurls defiance against the king of Hira, 'Amr son of Mundhir, who reigned from the summer of 554 till 568 or 569, and was afterwards slain by our poet. 2 This prince is also addressed by Harith m his Mo'allaqa. Of Tarafa, who is said to have attained no great age, a few satirical verses have been preserved, directed against this same king. This agrees with the fact that a grandson of the Qais ibn Khalid, mentioned as a rich and influential man in Tarafa's Mo'allaqa (v. 80 or 81), figured at the time of the battle of Dhu-Qar, in which the tribe Bakr routed a Persian army. This battle falls between a.d. 604 and 610. 3 The Mo'allaqa of 'Antara and that of Zuhair contain allusions to the feuds of the kindred tribes 'Abs and Dhobyan. Famous as these contests were, their time cannot accurately be ascer- tained. But the date of the two poets can be approximately determined from other data. Ka'b, son of Zuhair, composed first a satire, and then, in the year 630, a eulogy on the Prophet; another son, Bujair, had begun, somewhat sooner, to celebrate Mahomet. 'Antara killed the grandfather of Ahnaf ibn Qais, who died at an advanced age in a.d. 686 or 687; he outlived 'Abdallah ibn Simma, whose brother Duraid was a very old man when he fell in battle against the Prophet (early in a.d. 630); and he had communications with Ward, whose son, the poet'Orwa, may perhaps have survived the flight of Mahomet to Medina. From- all these indications we may place the pro- ductive period of both poets in the end of the 6th century. The historical background of 'Antara's Mo'allaqa lies somewhat earlier than that of Zuhair's. To the same period appears to belong the poem of 'Alqama, which, as we have seen, Ibn Khaldun reckons amongst the Mo'allaqat. This too is certainly the date of Nabigha, who was one of the most distinguished of Arabic poets. For in the poem often reckoned as a Mo'allaqa, as in many others, he addresses himself to No'man, king of Hira, who reigned in the two last decades of the 6th century. The same king is mentioned as a contemporary in one of 'Alqama's poems. The poem of A'sha, sometimes added to the Mo'allaqat, contains an allusion to the battle of Dhu Qar (under the name " Battle of Hinw," v. 62). This poet, not less famous than Nabigha, lived to compose a poem in honour of Mahomet, and died not long before a.d. 630. Labid is the only one of these poets who embraced Islam. His Mo'allaqa, however, like almost all his other poetical works, belongs to the Pagan period. He is said to have lived till 661, or even later; certainly it is true of him, what is asserted with less likelihood of several others of these poets, that he lived to a ripe old age. The seven Mo'allaqat, and also the poems appended to them, represent almost every type of ancient Arabian poetry in its excellences and its weaknesses. In order rightly to appreciate these, we must translate ourselves into the world of the Bedouin, 1 See Tabari's Geschichte der Perser und Araber . . . ubersetzt von Th. Noldeke (Leiden, 1879), p. 171. 2 See Noldeke's Tabari, pp. 170,172. * Ibid. p. 311. and seek to realize the peculiar conditions of his life, together with the views and thoughts resulting from those conditions. In the Mo'allaqa of Tarafa we are repelled by the long, anatomi- cally exact description of his camel; but such a description had an extraordinary charm of its own for the Bedouins, every man of whom was a perfect connoisseur on this subject down to the minutest points; and the remaining parts of the poem, together with the other extant fragments of his songs, show that Tarafa had a real poetic gift. In the Mo'allaqat of 'Amr and Harith, for the preservation of which we are especially grateful to the compiler, we can read the haughty spirit of the powerful chieftains, boastfully celebrating the splendours of their tribe. These two poems have also a certain historical importance. The song of Zuhair contains the practical wisdom of a sober man of the world. The other poems are fairly typical examples of the customary qaslda, the long poem of ancient Arabia, and bring before us the various phases of Bedouin life. But even here we have differences. In the Mo'allaqa of 'Antara, whose heroic temperament had overcome the scorn with which the son of a black slave-mother was regarded by the Bedouins, there predominates a warlike spirit, which plays practically no part in the song of Labid. It is a phenomenon which deserves the fullest recognition, that the needy inhabitants of a barren country should thus have produced an artistic poetry distinguished by so high a degree of uniformity. Even the extraordinary strict metrical system, observed by poets who had no inkling of theory and no knowledge of an alphabet, excites surprise. In the most ancient poems the metrical form is as scrupulously regarded as in later compositions. The only poem which shows unusual metrical freedom is the above-mentioned song of 'Abid. It is, however, remarkable that 'Abid's contemporary Amra'al- Qais, in a poem which in other respects also exhibits certain coincidences with that of 'Abid (No. 55, ed. Ahlwardt), presents himself considerable licence in the use of the very same metre — one which, moreover, is extremely rare in the ancient period. Presumably, the violent deviations from the schema in 'Abid are due simply to incorrect transmission by compilers who failed to grasp the metre. The other poems ascribed to 'Abid, together with all the rest attributed to Amra'al-Qais, are con- structed in precise accord with the metrical canons. It is necessary always to bear in mind that these ancient poems, which for a century or more were preserved by oral tradition alone, have reached us in a much mutilated condition. Fortunately, there was a class of men who made it their special business to learn by rote the works either of a single poet or of several. The poets themselves used the services of these rhapsodists (rawi). The last representative of this class is Hammad, to whom is attributed the collection of the Mo'allaqat; but he, at the same time, marks the transition of the rhapsodist to the critic and scholar. The most favourable opinion of these rhapso- dists would require us to make allowance for occasional mistakes: expressions would be transposed, the order of verses disarranged, passages omitted, and probably portions of different poems pieced together. It is clear, however, that Hammad dealt in the most arbitrary fashion with the enormous quantity of poetry which he professed to know thoroughly. The seven Mo'allaqat are indeed free from the suspicion of forgery, but even in them the text is frequently altered and many verses are transposed. The loose structure of Arabic poems was extremely favourable to such alterations. Some of the Mo- 'allaqat have several preambles: so, especially, that of 'Amr, the first eight verses of which belong not to the poem, but to another poet. Elsewhere, also, we find spurious verses in the Mo'allaqat. Some of these poems, which have been handed down to us in other exemplars besides the collection itself, exhibit great divergences both in the order and number of the verses and in textual details. This is particularly the case with the oldest Mo'allaqa — that of Amra'al-Qais — the critical treatment of which is a problem of such extreme difficulty that only an approximate solution can ever be reached. The variations of the text, outside the Mo'allaqat collection, have MOAT— MOBILE 635 here and there exercised an influence on the text of that collection. It would be well if our manuscripts at least gave the Mo'allaqat in the exact form of Hammad's days. The best text — in fact, we may say,, a really good text — is that of the latest Mo'allaqa, the song of Labid. The Mo'allaqat exist in many manuscripts, some with old commen- taries, of which a few are valuable. They have also been several times printed. Especial mention is due to the edition of Charles (afterwards Sir Charles) Lyall with the commentary of Tibrlzl (Calcutta, 1894). Attempts to translate these poems, verse for verse, in poetical form, could scarcely have a happy result. The strangeness, both of the expression and of the subjects, only admits of a paraphrastic version for large portions, unless the sense is to be entirely obliterated. An attempt at such a translation, in conjunc- tion with a commentary based on the principles of modern science, has been made by the present author: " Filnf Mo'allaqat tibersetzt und erklart," in the Sitzungsberichte der kais. Akad. d. Wiss. in Wien. Philos.-hist. Classe. Bde. cxl.-cxiv. A supplement to this is formed by an article, by Dr Bernh. Geiger, on the Mo'allaqa of Tarafa, in the Wiener Zeitschrift fur die Kunde des Morgenlands, xix. 323 sqq. See further the separate articles on the seven poets. (Th. N.) MOAT, a ditch filled with water surrounding a castle, town or other fortified place for purposes of defence. The word is taken from the O. Fr. mote, or motte, a mound or embankment of earth used as a means of defence; the transition in meaning from the heap of earth to the trench left by excavating the earth is parallel with the similar interchange of meaning in dike and ditch (see Dike). In mod. Fr. motte means a lump or clod of earth. The word is probably of Teutonic origin, and may be connected with Eng. " mud." (See Fortification AND SlEGECRAFT.) MOB. (1) A disorderly crowd, a rabble, also a contemptuous name for the common people, the lower orders, the Greek by\os, (whence " ochlocracy," mob-rule). The word is a shortened form of Lat. mobile (sc. vulgus), the movable or mutable emotional, easily stirred crowd. " Mobile " in the sense of rabble was used in the 17th century, and was still used after the shortened form, for some time considered a vulgarism, had become common. Thus Addison (Spectator, No. 135) writes, "It is perhaps this humour of speaking no more than we needs must which has so miserably curtailed some of our words. ... I dare not answer that ' mob ' . . . ' incog.' and the like will not in time be looked at as part of our tongue." Roger North's Examen, vii., 574 (1740), dates the beginning of the use of the shortened form " mob." " I may note that the rabble first changed their title and were called the 'mob ' in the assemblies of this club. It was their beast of burden, and called first mobile vulgus, but fell naturally into the con- traction of one syllable, and ever since is become proper English." The club alluded to is the Green Ribbon Club (q.v.), and the date would be about 1680. (2) A kind of head-dress for women, usually called a " mob cap," worn during the 18th and early part of the 19th centuries. It was a large cap covering all the hair, with a bag-shaped crown, a broad band and frilled edge. It seems to have been originally an article of wear for the morn- ings. It is probably connected with words such as " mop," " mab," meaning untidy, niglige. MOBERLY, GEORGE (1803-1885), English divine, was born on the 10th of October 1803, and educated at Winchester and Balliol. After a distinguished academic career he became head master of Winchester in 1835. This post he resigned in 1866, and retired to Brightstone Rectory, Isle of Wight. Mr. Gladstone, however, in 1869 called him to be bishop of Salisbury, in which see he kept up the traditions of his predecessors, Bishops Hamilton and Denison, his chief addition being the summoning of a diocesan synod. Though Moberly left Oxford at the begin- ning of the Oxford movement, he fell under its influence: the more so that at Winchester he formed a most intimate friendship with Keble, spending several weeks every year at Otterbourne, the next parish to Hursley. Moberly, however, retained his independence of thought, and in 1872 he astonished his High Church friends by joining in the movement for the disuse of the damnatory clauses in the Athanasian Creed. His chief contribution to theology is his B amp ton Lectures of 1868, on The Administration of the Holy Spirit in the Body of Christ. He died en the 6th of July 1885. MOBERLY, ROBERT CAMPBELL (1845-1903), English theologian, was born on the 26th of July 1845. He was the son of George Moberly, bishop of Salisbury, and faithfully maintained the traditions of his father's teaching. Educated at Winchester and New College, Oxford, he was appointed senior student of Christ Church in 1867 and tutor in 1869. In 1876 he went out with Bishop Copleston to Ceylon for six months. After his return he became the first head of St Stephen's House, Oxford (1876-1878), and then, after presiding for two years over the Theological College at Salisbury, where he acted as his father's chaplain, he accepted the college living of Great Budworth in Cheshire in 1880, and the same year married Alice, the daughter of his father's predecessor, Walter Kerr Hamilton. In 1892 Lord Salisbury made him Regius Professor of Pastoral Theology of Oxford; and after a long period of delicate health he died at Christ Church on the 8th of June 1903. His chief writings were: An essay in Lux Mundi on " The Incarnation as the Basis of Dogma " (1889); a paper, Belief in a Personal God (1891) ; Reason and Religion (1896), a pro- test against the limitation of the reason to the understanding; Ministerial Priesthood (1897) ; and Atonement and Personality (1901). In this last work, by which he is chiefly known, he aimed at presenting an explanation and a vindication of the doctrine of the Atonement by the help of the conception of personality. Rejecting the retributive view of punishment, he describes the sufferings of Christ as those of the perfect " Penitent," and finds their expiatory value to lie in the Person of the Sufferer, the God-Man. MOBERLY, a city of Randolph county, Missouri, U.S.A., in the north central part of the state, about 130 m. E. by N. of Kansas City. Pop. (1890), 8215; (1900), 8012, (923 negroes); (1910), 10,923. It is served by the Missouri, Kansas & Texas and the Wabash railways, and is a division headquarters of the latter. The city is regularly laid out on a level prairie site. There are two public parks, a Carnegie library, a commercial college, a Y.M.C.A. building, and a hospital maintained by the Wabash Employees Hospital Association. The most important industrial establishments are the large machine shops (established here in 1872) of the Wabash railway. Moberly was platted in 1866, was incorporated as a town and became the county- seat in 1868, and in 1873 secured a special city charter, which it surrendered in 1889 for city status under the general statute. MOBILE, a city and the county-seat of Mobile county, Ala- bama, U.S.A., in the S.W. part of the state, at the mouth of Mobile River, and the head of Mobile Bay. Pop. (1890), 31,076; (1900), 38,469, of whom 17,045 were negroes and 2111 foreign-born (562 German, 492 Irish, 202 English); (1910 census), 51,521. It is served by the Southern, the Louisville & Nashville, the Mobile & Ohio, the Mobile, Jackson & Kansas City, and the Tombigbee Valley railways; by steamboat lines to ports in Europe, Cuba, Mexico, Central America (especially Panama) and South America; by a coastwise steamboat line to New York; and by river boats on a river system embracing nearly 2000 m. of navigable waters in Alabama, Mississippi, and Georgia. The city occupies about 17 sq. m. of a sandy plain, which rises gradually from a low water front along the river to a range of hills a few miles to the westward. Among the principal buildings are the customs-house and post-office, the court-house, the Battle House (a hotel), the United States marine hospital, the city hospital, the Providence infirmary, Barton Academy (a part of the public school system), a Young Men's Christian Association building, St Joseph's church (Roman Catholic), the cathedral of the Immaculate Conception, the Van Antwerp office building, and the southern market and armoury. Mobile is the see of a Roman Catholic bishopric and the headquarters of the United States district court for the southern district of Alabama. In the city are a public library; the departments of medicine and pharmacy of the university of Alabama; the academy of the Visitation, and the 6 3 6 MOBIUS Immaculate Conception school, both for girls and both Roman Catholic; the Convent of Mercy; the Emerson normal and industrial school (for negroes), McGill Institute, the University military school, and the Mobile military institute; and 5 m. from Mobile, at Spring Hill, is Spring Hill college (Roman Catholic, founded in 1830, chartered 1836), controlled by the Jesuits. There is an annual celebration in Mobile on Mardi Gras (Shrove Tuesday), conducted by the Order of Myths and the Mystics, two social organizations, successors of the Cowbel- lion de Rakin Society, which was organized in 1830 and long conducted a somewhat similar celebration annually on New Year's Eve. Mobile is the only seaport of Alabama. In 1826 the channel from it to the Gulf, about 30 m. distant, had a minimum depth of only sJ ft. through Choctaw Pass and 8 ft. through Dog River bar; but subsequently the channel has been greatly improved by the United States government, and in June 1908 ' vessels drawing 23 and 24 ft. could pass at low-water to the mouth of Chickasaw Creek above the city. While the channel was still shallow, and rapidly growing railway systems were serving other ports, much foreign commerce was lost to Mobile, the value of the exports falling off from $12,784,171 in 1877 to $3,258,605 in 1882, and the value of the imports, during the same period, from $648,404 to $396,573; but after the improve- ment of the channel the value of the exports increased from $8,140,502 in 1897 to $26,815,279 in 1908, and the value of the imports rose from $956,712 in 1897 to $4,242,169 in 1908. The foreign commerce consists largely in the export of cotton, lumber, timber, cotton-seed oil, coal, provisions and clothing, and in the import of tropical fruits (especially bananas), sisal grass, coffee, mahogany, asphalt, and manganese and sulphur ores. Vegetables, particularly beans and cabbage, and small fruits are grown extensively in the vicinity, and the city has an important domestic trade in market-garden produce, fish and oysters, hardware, dry goods, grain and groceries. In manu- facturing Mobile was second (Birmingham being first) among the cities of the state in 1905, when the value of the factory product was $4,942,331, 41-8% more than in 1900. In 1905 it ranked first in the state in the value of fertilizer, lumber and timber, and in the construction of railway cars; and the manufacture of flour and grist mill products and machinery for lumber mills were important industries. Founded by Pierre Lemoyne, Sieur d'Iberville (1661-1706), and his brother Jean Baptiste Lemoyne, Sieur de Bienville (1680-1768), in 1702, Mobile 2 was the capital of the French province of Louisiana until 1720, when the seat of government was transferred to Biloxi, in the present Mississippi. The original settlement was at Twenty-seven Mile Bluff, about 20 m. above the present site, to which it was removed in 1710 as a consequence of floods in 1709. By the Treaty of Paris (1763) Mobile, as a part of Louisiana east of the Mississippi, was ceded to Great Britain; but on the 14th of March 1780 it was captured by a Spanish force under Don Bernardo de Galvez (1755-1786), the governor at New Orleans, and Spain was confirmed in its possession by the treaty of 1783. Spanish civil institutions were introduced, and new names, such as Con- ception, St Emanuel and St Joseph, which still survive, were given to the streets. Yet neither the English nor the Spanish occupation made any substantial change in the tone of the place or the habits of its people, even the negroes holding to their French jargon. The alliance between Great Britain and Spain, at the outbreak of the war of 181 2, gave Mobile strategic import- ance for the military operations in the south-west. Hence, on the 15th of April 1813 General James Wilkinson, acting on President James Madison's instructions, which were based on the claim that Mobile was a part of Louisiana sold by France to the United States in 1803, seized Mobile for the United States. 1 Between 1826 and 1908 the Federal government expended $5,148,179 on the improvement of the harbour. The bar channel also has been improved. 2 The city was named from the Mobile or Maubila Indians, a Muskhogean tribe, now extinct, who occupied the neighbouring region and were Christianized by the French, In August 1814 General Andrew Jackson made Mobile his headquarters. He repaired Fort Bowyer, on Mobile Point at the mouth of the bay, and garrisoned it just in time for it to resist attack by the British on the 15th of September. On the nth of February 1815, forty-two days after peace had been declared and thirty-four days after the battle of New Orleans, a British force captured Fort Bowyer; but it made no move against Mobile, and withdrew on the 1st of April. Now began the Americanization of Mobile, a tide of immigration from the up-country setting in and rapidly changing the character of the place, which had previously been distinctly French. A town charter had been granted by the territorial legislature of Mississippi on the 20th of January 1814, and an interesting feature under the town government was the " tariff for bakers," which fixed the weight of loaves of bread in accordance with the price of flour. A city charter, dated the 17th of December 1819, was granted by the first state legislature of Alabama, and Mobile became the commercial emporium for Alabama and Mississippi, its cotton exports increasing from 7000 bales in 1818 to 100,000 in 1830 and 450,000 in 1840. In 1826 Barton Academy, still one of the landmarks of the city, was built; but it was not until 1852 that common schools were opened in Mobile county. Branches of the United States Bank and of the State bank were established at Mobile, and in the panic of 1837 the Bank of Mobile was one of the few banks in the United States that did not suspend payment. The Mobile & Ohio railroad, begun in 1848, provided ampler com- munication with the Mississippi valley, and Mobile's export of cotton rose to 1,000,000 bales in 1861. During the Civil War Mobile was an important seaport of the Confederacy. A Federal blockade was begun as early as the 26th of May 1 86 1, but trade with West Indian and European ports was continued by a line of swift vessels, which regularly escaped the blockading squadron. On the 5th of August 1864 Admiral David G. Farragut (q.v.), with a Federal fleet of four iron moni- tors, seven wooden sloops of war, and several gunboats, entered the channel by passing the Confederate defences, Fort Gaines on Dauphin Island and Fort Morgan occupying the site of old Fort Bowyer on Mobile Point, captured the formidable Confederate ironclad ram " Tennessee," destroyed one gunboat and drove another aground. One of the Federal monitors, the " Tecum- seh," was destroyed by torpedoes. The Confederate fleet was commanded by Admiral Franklin Buchanan (1800-18 74). Fort Gaines surrendered on the 7th, and Fort Morgan on the 23rd of the same month. In the spring of 1865 General E. R. S. Canby (1819-1873), with a Federal force of about 45,000, laid siege to Fort Blakely and Spanish Fort, on the east side of 'the bay (opposite the city), defended by General Randall L. Gibson (183 2-1 892) with 5000 men. After twenty-five days of resistance the Confederates evacuated the fortifications and then the city, the Federals entering on the 12th of April 1865. Losses from rail- way enterprises and the panic of 1873 resulted in the bankruptcy of the municipality in 1879, whereupon its charter was vacated, its property vested in certain trustees acting under the Chancery Court to adjust its debt, and a municipal government under the name of Port of Mobile succeeded the city of Mobile until 1887, when the latter was again chartered. On the 27th of September 1906 Mobile was swept by a hurricane, which destroyed property valued at $5,000,000 or more. See Peter J. Hamilton, Colonial Mobile (Boston, 1897); and a chapter by the same writer in L. P. Powell's Historic Towns of the Southern States (New York, 1900). MOBIUS, AUGUST FERDINAND (1790-1868), German astronomer and mathematician, was born at Schulpforta on the 17th of November 1790. At Leipzig, Gottingen and Halle he studied for four years, ultimately devoting himself to mathe- matics and astronomy. In 181 5 he settled at Leipzig as privat- docent, and the next year became extraordinary professor of astronomy in connexion with the university. Later he was chosen director of the university observatory, which was erected (1818-1821) under his superintendence. In 1844 he was elected ordinary professor of higher mechanics and astronomy, a position MOCATTA— MOCKING-BIRD &37 which he held till his death on the 26th of September 1868. His doctor's dissertation, De computandis occultationibus fixarum per planetas (Leipzig, 181 5), established his reputation as a theoretical astronomer. Die Hauptsatze der Astronomie (1836), Die Elemente der Mechanik des Himmels (1843), may be noted amongst his other purely astronomical publications. Of more general in- terest, however, are his labours in pure mathematics, which appear for the most part in Crelle's Journal from 1828 to 1858. These papers are chiefly geometrical, many of them being develop- ments and applications of the methods laid down in his great work, Der barycentrische Calcul (Leipzig, 1827), which, as the name implies, is based upon the properties of the mean point or centre of mass (see Algebra: Universal). This work abounds in suggestions and foreshadowings of some of the most striking discoveries in more recent times — such, for example, as are contained in H. Grassmann's Ausdehnungslehre and Sir W. R. Hamilton's Quaternions. Mobius must be regarded as one of the leaders in the introduction of the powerful methods of modern projective geometry. His Gesammelten Werke have been published in four volumes at Leipzig (1885-1887). k MOCATTA, FREDERICK DAVID (1828-1905), English Jewish philanthropist, was a member of the London financial firm, Mocatta and Goldsmid, but retired from business in 1874 and devoted himself to works of public and private benevolence. Besides this he was a patron of learning and himself an author of historical works, the chief of which was The Jews and the Inquisi- tion. On occasion of his 70th birthday, he was presented with a testimonial from more than 200 philanthropic and literary institutions. The Anglo-Jewish Historical Exhibition (1887) owed its inception to him. He bequeathed his fine library to the Jewish Historical Society of England, of which he was at one time president. This library formed the basis of the collections which are now included in the Mocatta Library and Museum, founded in his memory, and located at the University of London (University College, Gower Street). See Trans. Jewish Hist. Soc. Eng. vol. v. (I. A.) MOCCASIN (a North-American Indian word, of which the spelling and pronunciation vary in different dialects), a shoe made of deerskin or other soft leather. It is made in one piece; the sole is soft and flexible and the upper part is often adorned with embroidery, beading or other ornament. It is the footwear of the North American Indian tribes and is also worn by hunters, traders and settlers. In botany, the lady's slipper is known in the United States of America, as the " moccasin flower," from its resemblance to a shoe or moccasin. The name moccasin is also given to a venomous snake, found as far north as North Carolina and westward to the Rocky Mountains, and popularly called " cottonmouth," from the white rim around the mouth. It belongs to the family Crotalidae, species Ancistrodon (or Cenchris) piscivorus, is about two feet long, and is often found in marshy land. It is sometimes called the water moccasin to distinguish it from the upland moccasin (Ancistrodon contorlrix or atrofuscus), which is commonly called " copperhead " and is found further north in dry and mountainous regions. The name is possibly a distinct word of which the origin has not been traced. MOCENIGO, the name of a noble and ancient Venetian family which gave many doges, statesmen and soldiers to the republic. Tommaso Mocenigo (1343-1423) commanded the crusading fleet in the expedition to Nicopolis in 1396, and also won battles against the Genoese. While he was Venetian ambassador at Cremona he was elected doge (1414), and he escaped in secret, fearing that he might be held a prisoner by Gabrino Fondolo, tyrant of that city. He made peace with the Turkish sultan, but when hostilities broke out afresh his fleet defeated that of the Turks at Gallipoli. During his reign the patriarch of Aquileia was forced to cede his territories to the republic (1420), which also acquired Friuli and Dalmatia. Tommaso greatly encouraged commerce, reconstructed the ducal palace and commenced the library. Pietro Mocenigo, doge from 1474 to 1476, was one of the greatest Venetian admirals, and revived the fortunes of his country's navy, which had fallen very low after the defeat at Negropont in 1470. In 1472 he captured and destroyed Smyrna; the following year he placed Catherine Cornaro, queen of Cyprus, under Venetian protection, and by that means the republic obtained possession of the island in 1475. He then defeated the Turks who were besieging Scutari, but he there contracted an illness of which he died. Giovanni Mocenigo, Pietro 's brother, who was doge from 1478 to 1485, fought against Mohammed II. and Ercole I., duke of Ferrara, from whom he recaptured Rovigo and the Polesine. Luigi Mocenigo was doge from 1570 to 1577. During his reign Venice lost the fortresses Nicosia and Famagosta in Cyprus. He took part in the battle of Lepanto, but after the loss of Cyprus he was forced to make peace with the Turks and to hand them back his conquests. Andrea Mocenigo, who flourished in the 15th and 1 6th centuries, was a senator of the republic and a historian; he composed a work on the league of Cambrai entitled Belli memorabilis Cameracensis adversus Venetos historiae libri vi. (Venice, 1525). Another Luigi Mocenigo was doge from 1700 to 1709, and his brother Sebastiano from 1722 to 1732. Alvise Mocenigo (1701-1778), who was doge from 1763 until his death, restricted' the privileges of the clergy, and in consequence came into bitter conflict with Pope Clement XIII. MOCHA STONE, a name applied to chalcedony with dendritic markings, said to have been obtained originally from Mocha in Arabia. The markings which sometimes simulate with curious fidelity the form of miniature trees and shrubs, are caused by the infiltration of solutions carrying iron and manga- nese, which are deposited as thin films of oxide along the cracks of the stone, producing black, brown or red dendrites, effectively disposed on a ground of grey or white chalcedony. Most of the Mocha stones of commerce are obtained from India, where they are found among the agate-pebbles resulting from the disinte- gration of the trap rocks of the Deccan. In recent years the formation of dendrites has been artificially effected at the agate- works of Oberstein, so as to imitate the true Mocha stones. MOCK, an adjective meaning sham, feigned, spurious, falsely imitative. As a verb it means to deride or imitate contemp- tuously. The derivation of O. Fr. mocquer, mod. moquer; Ital. moccare, from which the English word is adopted, is disputed. Some authorities refer it to Ger. mucken, mucksen, to growl, grumble, which is probably echoic in origin; others to a supposed Late Lat. muccare, formed from mucus— mucus, in the sense of " to wipe the nose at." MOCKING-BIRD, or Mock-bird (as W. Charleton, J. Ray and M. Catesby called it), the popular name of birds belonging to the American sub-family Miminae of the thrushes, Turdidae, differing by having the tarsus scutellate in front, while the typical thrushes have it covered by a single horny plate. Mimus poly- glottus, the northern mocking-bird, inhabits the southern part of the United States, being in the north only a summer visitant; it breeds rarely in New England, is seldom found north of the 38th parallel, and migrates to the south in winter, passing that season in the Gulf States and Mexico. It appears to be less numerous on the western side of the Alleghanies, though found in suitable localities across the continent to the Pacific coast, but seldom farther north than Virginia and southern Illinois, and it is said to be common in Kansas. J. J. Audubon states that the mocking-birds which are resident all the year round in Louisiana attack their travelled brethren on the return of the latter from the north in autumn. The names of the species, both English and scientific, have been bestowed from its capacity of success- fully imitating the cry of many other birds, to say nothing of other sounds, in addition to uttering notes of its own which possess a varied range and liquid fullness of tone that are unequalled, according to its admirers, even by those of the nightingale (q.v.). Plain in plumage, being greyish brown above and dull white below, while its quills are dingy black, variegated with white, there is little about the mocking-bird's appearance beyond its graceful form to recommend it; but the lively gesticulations it exhibits are very attractive, and therein its European rival in melody is far surpassed, for the cock-bird mounts aloft in rapid 6-3 8 MODEL circling flight, and, alighting on a conspicuous perch, pours forth his ever-changing song to the delight of all listeners; while his actions in attendance on his mate are playfully demonstrative and equally interest the observer. The mocking-bird is more- over of familiar habits, haunting the neighbourhood of houses, and is therefore a general favourite. The nest is placed with little regard to concealment, and is not distinguished by much care in its construction^ The eggs, from three to six in number, are of a pale bluish-green, blotched and spotted with light yellowish-brown. They, as well as the young, are much sought after by snakes, but the parents are often successful in repelling these deadly enemies, and are always ready to wage war against any intruder on their precincts, be it man, cat or hawk. Their food is various, consisting of berries, seeds and insects. Some twelve or fourteen other species of Mimus have been recog- nized, mostly from South America; but M. orpheus seems to be common to some of the Greater Antilles, and M. hilli is peculiar to Jamaica, while the Bahamas have a local race in M. bahamensis. The so-called mountain mocking-bird (Oreoscoptes montanus) is a form not very distant from Mimus; but it inhabits exclusively the plains overgrown with sage-brush {Artemisia) of the interior table- land of North America, and is not at all imitative in its notes, so that it is an instance of a misnomer. Of the various other genera allied to Mimus, the best known are the thrashers (genus Harpo- rhynchus) of which six or eight species are found in North America, which are thrush-like and shy in their habits and do not mimic; and the cat-bird (Galeoscoptes carolinensis), which in addition to having an attractive song, utters clucks, whistles and mewing sounds. The sooty-grey colour that, deepening into blackish-brown on the crown and quills, pervades the whole of its plumage — the lower tail- coverts, which are of a deep chestnut, excepted — renders it a con- spicuous object ; and though, for some reason or other, far from being a favourite, it is always willing when undisturbed to become intimate with men's abodes. It has a much wider range on the American continent than the mocking-bird, and is one of the few species that are resident in Bermuda, while on more than one occasion it is said to have appeared in Europe. The name mocking-bird, or more frequently mock-nightingale, is in England occasionally given to some of the warblers {q.v.), especially the blackcap (Sylvia atricapilla) , and the sedge-bird (Acrocephalus schoenobaenus). In India and Australia the same name is sometimes applied to other species. (A. N.) MODEL (O. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard), a tangible represen- tation, whether the size be equal, or greater, or smaller, of an object which is either in actual existence, or has to be constructed in fact or in thought. More generally it denotes a thing, whether actually existing or only mentally conceived of, whose properties are to be copied. In foundries, the object of which a cast is to be taken, whether it be for engineering or artistic purposes, is usually first formed of some easily workable material, generally wood. The form of this model is then reproduced in clay or plaster, and into the mould thus obtained the molten metal is poured. The sculptor first makes a model of the object he wishes to chisel in some plastic material such as wax, ingenious and complicated contrivances being employed to transfer this wax model, true to nature, to the stone in which the finai work is to be executed. In anatomy and physiology, models are specially employed as aids in teaching and study, and the method of moulage or chromoplastic yields excellent impressions of living organisms, and enables anatomical and medical prepara- tions to be copied both in form and colour. A special method is also in use for making plastic models of microscopic and minute microscopic objects. That their internal nature and structure may be more readily studied, these are divided by numerous parallel transverse cuts, by means of a microtome, into exceedingly thin sections-. Each of these shavings is then modelled on an enlarged scale in wax or pulp plates, which are fixed together to form a reproduction of the object. Models in the mathematical, physical and mechanical sciences are of the greatest importance. Long ago philosophy perceived Represeiite-the essence of our process of thought to lie in the tionia fact that we attach to the various real objects Thought. aroun d us particular physical attributes — our con- cepts — and by means of these try to represent the objects to our minds. Such views were formerly regarded by mathematicians and physicists as nothing more than unfertile speculations, but in more recent times they have been brought by J. C. Maxwell, H. v. Helmholtz, E. Mach, H. Hertz and many others into intimate relation with the whole body of mathematical and physical theory. On this view our thoughts stand to things in the same relation as models to the objects they represent. The essence of the process is the attachment of one concept having a definite content to each thing, but without implying complete similarity between thing and thought; for naturally we can know but little of the resemblance of our thoughts to the things to which we attach them. What resemblance there is lies principally in the nature of the connexion, the correlation being analogous to that which obtains between thought and language, language and writing, the notes on the stave and musical sounds, &c. Here, of course, the symbolization of the thing is the important point, though, where feasible, the utmost possible correspondence is sought between the two — the musical scale, for example, being imitated by placing the notes higher or lower. When, therefore, we endeavour to assist our conceptions of space by figures, by the methods of descriptive geometry, and by various thread and object models; our topography by plans, charts and globes; and our mechanical and physical ideas by kinematic models — we are simply extending and continuing the principle by means of which we comprehend objects in thought and represent them in language or writing. In precisely the same way the micro- scope or telescope forms a continuation and multiplication of the lenses of the eye; and the notebook represents an external expansion of the same process which the memory brings about by purely internal means. There is also an obvious parallelism with representation by means of models when we express longi- tude, mileage, temperature, &c, by numbers, which should be looked upon as arithmetical analogies. Of a kindred character is the representation of distances by straight lines, of the course of events in time by curves, &c. Still, neither in this case nor in that of maps, charts, musical notes, figures, &c, can we legitimately speak of models, for these always involve a concrete spatial analogy in three dimensions. So long as the volume of matter to be dealt with in science was insignificant, the need for the employment of models was naturally less imperative; indeed, there are self-evident advan- tages in comprehending things without resort to complicated models, which are difficult to make, and cannot be altered and adapted to extremely varied conditions so readily as can the easily adjusted symbols of thought, conception and calculation. Yet as the facts of science increased in number, the greatest economy of effort had to be observed in comprehending them and in conveying them to others; and the firm establishment of ocular demonstration was inevitable in view of its enormous superiority over purely abstract symbolism for the rapid and complete exhibition of complicated relations. At the present time it is desirable, on the one hand, that the power of deducing results from purely abstract premisses, without recourse to the aid of tangible models, should be more and more perfected, and on the other that purely abstract conceptions should be helped by objective and comprehensive models in cases where the mass of matter cannot be adequately dealt with directly. In pure mathematics, especially geometry, models constructed of papier-mache and plaster are chiefly employed to present to the senses the precise form of geometrical figures, surfaces and curves. Surfaces of the second order, repre- Models la sented by equations of the second degree between Mathematics the rectangular co-ordinates of a point, are very and Physics. simple to classify, and accordingly all their possible forms can easily be shown by a few models, which, however, become somewhat more intricate when lines of curvature, loxodromics and geodesic lines have to appear on their surfaces. On the other hand, the multiplicity of surfaces of the third order is enormous, and to convey their fundamental types it is necessary to employ numerous models of complicated, not to say hazardous, construction. In the case of more intricate surfaces it is sufficient to present those singularities which exhibit variation from the usual type of surface with synclastic or anticlastic curvatures, such as, for example, a sharp edge or point, or MODEL 639 an intersection of the surface with itself; the elucidation of such singularities is of fundamental importance in modern mathematics. In physical science, again, models that are of unchangeable form are largely employed. For example, the operation of the refraction of light in crystals can be pictured if we imagine a point in the centre of the crystal whence light is dispersed in all directions. The aggregate of the places at which the light arrives at any instant after it has started is called the wave- front. This surface consists of two cups or sheets fitting closely and exactly one inside the other. The two rays into which a single ray is broken are always determined by the points of contact of certain tangent-planes drawn to those sheets. With crystals possessing two axes these wave-surfaces display peculiar singularities in the above sense of the term, in that the inner sheet has four protuberances, while the outer has four funnel-like depressions, the lowest point of each depression meeting the highest point of each protuberance. At each of these funnels there is a tangent-plane that touches not in a single point, but in a circle bounding the depression, so that the corresponding ray of light is refracted, not into two rays, but into a whole cone of light — the so-called conical refraction theoretically predicted by Sir W. R. Hamilton and experimentally detected by Humphrey Lloyd. These conditions, which it is difficult to adequately express in language, are self-evident so soon as the wave-surface formed in plaster lies before our eyes. In thermodynamics, again, similar models serve, among other purposes, for the representation of the surfaces which exhibits the relation between the three thermodynamic variables of a body, e.g. between its temperature, pressure and volume. A glance at the model of such a thermodynamic surface enables the behaviour of a particular substance under the most varied conditions to be immediately realized. When the ordinate intersects the surface but once a single phase only of the body is conceivable, but where there is a multiple intersection various phases are possible, which may be liquid or gaseous. On the boundaries between these regions lie the critical phases, where transition occurs from one type of phase into the other. If for one of the elements a quantity which occurs in calorimetry be chosen — for example, entropy — information is also gained about the behaviour of the body when heat is taken in or abstracted. After the stationary models hitherto considered, come the manifold forms of moving models, such as are used in geometry, to show the origin of geometrical figures from the motion of others — e.g. the origin of surfaces from the motion of lines. These include the thread models, in which threads are drawn tightly between movable bars, cords, wheels, rollers, &c. In mechanics and engineering an endless variety of working models are employed to convey to the eye the working either of machines as a whole, or of their component and subordinate parts. In theoretical mechanics models are often used to exhibit the physical laws of motion in interesting or special cases — e.g. the motion of a falling body or of a spinning-top, the movement of a pendulum on the rotating earth, the vortical motions of fluids, &c. Akin to these are the models which exe- cute more or less exactly the hypothetical motions by which it is sought to explain various physical phenomena — as, for instance, the complicated wave-machines which present the motion of the particles in waves of sound (now ascertained with fair accuracy), or the more hypothetical motion of the atoms of the aether in waves of light. The varying importance which in recent times has been attached to models of this kind is intimately connected with Theories of the changes which have taken place in our con- Nature. ceptions of nature. The first method by which an attempt was made to solve the problem of the universe was entirely under the influence of Newton's laws. In ana- logy to his laws of universal gravitation, all bodies were conceived of as consisting of points of matter — atoms or mole- cules — to which was attributed a direct action at a distance. The circumstances of this action at a distance, however, were conceived as differing from those of the Newtonian law of attrac- tion, in that they could explain the properties not only of solid elastic bodies, but also those of fluids, both liquids and gases. The phenomena of heat were explained by the motion of minute particles absolutely invisible to the eye, while to explain those of light it was assumed that an impalpable medium, called luminiferous aether, permeated the whole universe; to this were attributed the same properties as were possessed by solid bodies, and it was also supposed to consist of atoms, although of a much finer composition. To explain electric and magnetic phenomena the assumption was made of a third species of matter — electric fluids which were conceived of as being more of the nature of fluids, but still consisting of infinitesimal particles, also acting directly upon one another at a distance. This first phase of theoretical physics may be called the direct one, in that it took as its principal object the investigation of the internal structure of matter as it actually exists. It is also known as the mechani- cal theory of nature, in that it seeks to trace back all natural phenomena to motions of infinitesimal particles, i.e. to purely mechanical phenomena. In explaining magnetic and electrical phenomena it inevitably fell into somewhat artificial and improbable hypotheses, and this induced J. Clerk Maxwell, adopting the ideas of Michael Faraday, to propound a theory of electric and magnetic phenomena which was not only new in substance, but also essentially different in form. If the mole- cules and atoms of the old theory were not to be conceived of as exact mathematical points in the abstract sense, then their true nature and form must be regarded as absolutely unknown, and their groupings and motions, required by theory, looked upon as simply a process having more or less resemblance to the workings of nature, and representing more or less exactly certain aspects incidental to them. With this in mind, Maxwell propounded certain physical theories which were purely mechanical so far as they proceeded from a conception of purely mechanical pro- cesses. But he explicitly stated that he did not believe in the existence in nature of mechanical agents so constituted, and that he regarded them merely as means by which phenomena could be reproduced, bearing a certain similarity to those actually existing, and which also served to include larger groups of phenomena in a uniform manner and to determine the relations that held in their case. The question no longer being one of ascertaining the actual internal structure of matter, many mechanical analogies or dynamical illustrations became avail- able, possessing different advantages; and as a matter of fact Maxwell at first employed special and intricate mechanical arrangements, though later these became more general and indefinite. This theory, which is called that of mechanical analogies, leads to the construction of numerous mechanical models. Maxwell himself and his followers devised many kine- matic models, designed to afford a representation of the mechani- cal construction of the ether as a whole as well as of the separate mechanisms at work in it : these resemble the old wave-machines, so far as they represent the movements of a purely hypothetical mechanism. But while it was formerly believed that it was allowable to assume with a great show of probability the actual existence of such mechanisms in nature, yet nowadays philo- sophers postulate no more than a partial resemblance between the phenomena visible in such mechanisms and those which appear in nature. Here again it is perfectly clear that these models of wood, metal and cardboard are really a continuation and integration of our process of thought; for, according to the view in question, physical theory is merely a mental construction of mechanical models, the working of which we make plain to ourselves by the analogy of mechanisms we hold in our hands, and which have so much in common with natural phenomena as to help our comprehension of the latter. Although Maxwell gave up the idea of making a precise investigation into the final structure of matter as it actually is, yet in Germany his work, under G. R. Kirchhoff's lead, was carried still further. Kirchhoff defined his own aim as being to describe, not to explain, the world of phenomena; but as he leaves the means of description open his theory differs little from Maxwell's, so soon as recourse is had to description bv 640 MODELS, ARTISTS'— MODEL- YACHTING means of mechanical models and analogies. Now the resources of pure mathematics being particularly suited for the exact description of relations of quantity, Kirchhoff 's school laid great stress on description by mathematical expressions and formulae, and the aim of physical theory came to be regarded as mainly the construction of formulae by which phenomena in the various branches of physics should be determined with the greatest approximation to the reality. This view of the nature of physical theory is known as mathematical phenomenology; it is a presentation of phenomena by analogies, though only by such as may be called mathematical. Another phenomenology in the widest sense of the term, maintained especially by E. Mach, gives less prominence to mathematics, but considers the view that the phenomena of motion are essentially more fundamental than all the others to have been too hastily taken. It rather emphasizes the prime importance of description in the most general terms of the various spheres of phenomena, and holds that in each sphere its own fundamental law and the notions derived from this must be employed. Analogies and elucidations of one sphere by another — e.g. heat, electricity, &c. — by mechanical conceptions, this theory regards as mere ephemeral aids to perception, which are necessitated by historical development, but which in course of time either give place to others or entirely vanish from the domain of science. All these theories are opposed by one called energetics (in the narrower sense), which looks upon the conception of energy, not that of matter, as the fundamental notion of all scientific investigation. It is in the main based on the similarities energy displays in its various spheres of action, but at the same time it takes its stand upon an interpretation or explanation of natural phenomena by analogies which, however, are not mechanical, but deal with the behaviour of energy in its various modes of manifestation. A distinction must be observed between the models which have been described and those experimental models which pre- Experi- sen t on a small scale a machine that is subsequently mental to be completed on a larger, so as to afford a trial of Models. jt s capabilities. Here it must be noted that a mere alteration in dimensions is often sufficient to cause a material alteration in the action, since the various capabilities depend in various ways on the linear dimensions. Thus the weight varies as the cube of the linear dimensions, the surface of any single part and the phenomena that depend on such surfaces are pro- portionate to the square, while other effects — such as friction, expansion and conduction of heat, &c, vary according to other laws. Hence a flying-machine, which when made on a small scale is able to support its own weight, loses its power when its dimensions are increased. The theory, initiated by Sir Isaac Newton, of the dependence of various effects on the linear dimen- sions, is treated in the article Units, Dimensions of. Under simple conditions it may often be affirmed that in comparison with a large machine a small one has the same capacity, with reference to a standard of time which must be diminished in a certain ratio. Of course experimental models are not only those in which purely mechanical forces are employed, but also include models of thermal, electro-magnetic and other engines — e.g. dynamos and telegraphic machines. The largest collection of such models is to be found in the museum of the Washington Patent Office. Sometimes, again, other than purely mechanical forces are at work in models for purposes of investigation and instruction. It often happens that a series of natural processes — such as motion in liquids, internal friction of gases, and the conduction of heat and electricity in metals — may be expressed by the same differential equations; and it is frequently possible to follow by means of measurements one of the processes in question — e.g. the conduction of electricity just mentioned. If then there be shown in a model a particular case of electrical conduction in which the same conditions at the boundary hold as in a problem of the internal friction of gases, we are able by measuring the electrical conduction in the model to determine at once the numerical data which obtain for the analogous case of internal friction, and which could only be ascertained otherwise by intri- cate calculations. Intricate calculations, moreover, can very often be dispensed with by the aid of mechanical devices, such as the ingenious calculating machines which perform additions and subtractions and very elaborate multiplications and divi- sions with surprising speed and accuracy, or apparatus for solving the higher equations, for determining the volume or area of geometrical figures, for carrying out integrations, and for developing a function in a Fourier's series by mechanical means. (L. Bo.) MODELS, ARTISTS', the name given to persons who pose to artists as models for their work. The Greeks, who had the naked body constantly before them in the exercises of the gymnasium, had far less need of professional models than the moderns; but it is scarcely likely that they could have attained to the high level reached by their works without constant study from nature; and the story told of Zeuxis by Valerius Maximus, who had five of the most beautiful virgins of the city of Crotona offered him as models for his picture of Helen, proves their occasional use. The remark of Eupompus, quoted by Pliny, who advised Lysippus, " Let nature be your model, not an artist," directing his attention to the crowd instead of to his own work, also suggests a use of models which the many portrait statues of Greek and Roman times show to have been not unknown. In Egypt, too, although the priesthood had control of both sculpture and painting as used for the decoration of temples and palaces, and imposed a strict conventionalism, there are several statues of the early periods which are so lifelike in their treatment as to make it certain that they must have been worked from life. At the period of the Renaissance, painters generally made use of their relations and friends as models, of which many examples might be quoted from Venice, Florence, Rome and other places, and the stories of Titian and the duchess of Ferrara, and Botti- celli and Simonetta Vespucci, go to show that ladies of exalted rank were sometimes not averse from having their charms immortalized by the painter's brush. But paid models were not unknown, as the story of the unfortunate contadino used by Sansovino as model for his statue of the little Bacchus will show. Artists' models as a special class appear when the establishment of schools for the study of the human figure created a regular demand, and since that time the remuneration offered has ensured a continual supply. The prices and the hours of work vary in different art centres. In England seven shillings is generally paid for a day of six hours, but models of exceptional beauty or talent frequently obtain more from successful artists or wealthy amateurs. MODEL-YACHTING, the pastime of building and racing model-yachts. It has always been customary for ship-builders to make a miniature model of the vessel under construction, which is in every respect a copy of the original on a small scale, whether steam-ship or sailing-vessel (there is a fine collection in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London). Many of these models are of exquisite workmanship, every rope, pulley or portion of the engine being faithfully reproduced. In the case of sailing yachts these models were often pitted against each other on small bodies of water, and hence arose the modern pastime. It was soon seen that elaborate fittings and complicated rigging were a detriment to rapid handling, and that, on account of the comparatively stronger winds in which models were sailed, they needed a greater draught. For these reasons modern model yachts, which usually have fin-keels, are of about 15% or 20% deeper draught than full-sized vessels, while rigging and fittings have been reduced to absolute simplicity. This applies to models built for racing and not to elaborate copies of steamers and ships, made only for show or for " toy cruising." Model-yacht clubs have existed for many years in Great Britain, Ireland and the United States, most of them holding a number of regattas during each season. The rules do not generally require the owner or skipper of a model to build his own craft, but among model-yachtsmen the designing and the construction of the boats constitute as important and interesting MODENA 641 a part of the sport as the actual sailing. Models are constructed of some light, seasoned wood — such as pine (preferably white), white cedar or mahogany — free from knots. The hull may either be hollowed out of a solid block of wood, or cut from layers of planks in the so-called " bread-and-butter " style, or planked over a frame of keel and cross-sections. The first two methods are used in constructing " dug-out " models. Hollowing out from the solid block entails a great deal of labour and has there- fore fallen into disfavour. In the " bread-and-butter " style a number of planks, which have been shaped to the horizontal sections of the model and from which the middle has been sawn out, are glued together and then cut down to the exact lines of the design, templates being used to test the precision of the curves. In the planked, or " built-up " model, which is generally chosen by more expert builders, the planks are tacked to the frame, as in the construction of large vessels. Models now are generally exaggerated cutters, so far as their under- bodies are concerned, or, more often, are fitted with fin-keels weighted with lead, after the manner of full-sized yachts. They may have any rig, but schooner and sloop rigs are most common, the latter being the favourite for racing on account of its simplicity. Two kinds of steering-gear are used, the weighted swinging rudder and the " main-sheet balance gear," the object of both being to keep the model on a true course, either before or against the wind. Models are often sailed without rudders, but though a perfectly built boat will sail readily against the wind without steering-gear, it is almost impossible to keep it on its course before the wind without some contrivance to check divergence. This is accomplished by the weighted rudder, which falls over when the vessel heels and tends to counteract the force of the breeze. There are two varieties of the weighted rudder, in the first of which the weight, usually lead, is fixed to the edge of the rudder, while in the second the weight, usually a ball of lead, is made to run on the tiller above the deck, so that it can be placed further forward or aft, according to the force needed to overcome the influence of the wind. While the weighted rudder is almost universal in the British Isles, the chief model-yachtsmen in America use the " main-sheet balance gear," in which the boom is connected with the tiller in such a manner that, when it swings out with a pressure of wind, the rudder is automatically pulled round sufficiently to keep the yacht in its course. This apparatus is particularly efficient in sailing before the wind. Model-yacht regattas are very different from the toy-boat matches indulged in by children from one side of a pond to the other. They take place upon sufficiently large bodies of water to allow a course at least a quarter of a mile, in length, which is generally sailed twice* or three times over to windward and back- ward. Triangular courses are also sailed. Racing rules corre- spond generally to those controlling regattas of large boats, and there is full scope to exhibit all the proofs of good seaman- ship. The yachts are followed in light skiffs, and may not be touched more than a certain number of times during a race, on penalty of a handicap. Racing measurements differ in the various clubs, but all are based upon length and sail-area. In Great Britain the regular Yacht Racing Association rule has been generally adopted, and handicaps deducted from it. In America models are divided into a single schooner with a maxi- mum load water-line of 63 in., and three classes of sloops, the first class including yachts with water-lines between 48 and 53 in., the second class those between 42 and 48 in. and the third and smallest class those between 35 and 42 in. A yacht with a shorter water-line than 35 in. must race in the third class. It has been found that yachts of smaller dimensions possess too little resistance to the wind. See Model Sailing Yachts, in Marshall's Practical Manuals series, 1905; and How to Build a Model Yacht, by Herbert Fisher (New York, 1902). MODENA (ancient Mutina), one of the principal cities of Emilia, Italy, the chief town of the province of Modena and the seat of an archbishop, 31 m. E.S.E. of Parma by rail. Pop. £1906), 26,847 (town); 66,762 (commune). It is situated in a xvm. 21 damp, low plain in the open country in the south side of the valley of the Po, between the Secchia to the west and the Panaro to the east. Some of its main streets (as their names indicate) follow the lines of canals, which still (though now covered) traverse the city in various directions. The observatory stands 135 ft. above the level of the sea. Dismantled since 18 16, and now largely converted into promenades, the fortifications give the city an irregular pentagonal contour, modified at the north-west corner by the addition of a citadel also pentagonal Within this circuit there are various open areas — the spacious Ippodromo in front of the citadel, the public gardens in the north-east of the city, the Piazza Grande in front of the cathedral, and the Piazza Reale to the south of the palace. The Via Aemilia passes obliquely right through the heart of the city, from the Bologna Gate in the east to that of Sant' Agostino in the west. Begun by the Countess Matilda of Tuscany in 1099, after the designs of Lanfranc, and consecrated in 1184, the Romanesque cathedral (S Geminiano) is a low but handsome building, with a lofty crypt, under the choir (characteristic of the Tuscan Romanesque architecture), three eastern apses, and a facade still preserving some curious sculptures of the 12th century. The interior was restored in 1897. The graceful bell-tower, erected in 1224-1319, named La Ghirlandina from the bronze garland surrounding the weathercock, is 335 ft. high; in the base- ment may be seen the wooden bucket captured by the Modenese from the Bolognese in the affray at Zappolino (1325), and rendered famous by Tassoni's Secchia Rapita. Of the other churches in Modena, the church of S Giovanni Decollato contains a Pieta in painted terra-cotta by Guido Mazzoni (1450-1518). The so-called Pantheon Estense (the church of S. Agostino, containing works of sculpture in honour of the house of Este) is a baroque building by Bibbiena; it also contains the tombs of Sigonio and Muratori. San Pietro and San Francesco have terra-cottas by Begarelli (1498-1565). The old ducal palace, begun by Duke Francis I. in 1635 from the designs of Avanzini, and finished by Francis Ferdinand V., is an extensive building with a fine courtyard, and now contains the military school and the observatory. The Albergo d' Arti, built by Duke Francis III., accommodates the civic collections, comprising the Museo Lapidario (Roman inscriptions, &c.) ; the valuable archives, the Biblioteca Estense, with 90,000 volumes and 3000 MSS.; the Museo Civico, with large and good palaeo-ethnological and archaeological collections; a fine collection of textile fabrics, and the picture gallery, a good representative collection presented to the city by Francis V. and since augmented by the addition of the collection of the Marchese Campori. Many of the best pictures in the ducal collection were sold in the 18th century and found their way to Dresden. The town hall is a noteworthy building, with arcades dating from 1194, but in part rebuilt in 1826. The university of Modena, originally founded in 1683 by Francis II., is mainly a medical and legal school, but has also a faculty of physical and mathematical science. The old academy of the Dissonanti, dating from 1684, was restored in 1814, and now forms the flourishing Royal Academy of Science and Art. In industrial enterprise silk and linen goods and iron wares are almost the only products of any note. Commerce is chiefly agricultural and is stimulated by a good position in the railway system, and by a canal which opens a water-way by the Panaro and the Po to the Adriatic. Modena is the point at which the railway to Mantua and Verona diverges from that between Milan and Bologna, and has several steam tramways to neighbouring places. It is also the starting-point of a once important road over the Apennines to Pistoia by the Abetone Pass. Modena is the ancient Mutina in the territory of the Boh, which came into the possession of the Romans probably in the war of 215-212 B.C. In 183 B.C. Mutina became the seat of a Roman colony. The Roman town lay immediately to the south- east of the modern; its north-western wall is marked by the modern Corso Umberto I. (formerly Canal Grande) It appears to have been a place of importance under the empire, but none of its buildings is now to be seen. The Roman !evel, indeed,, u 642 MODERATOR— MODJESKA is some 15 to 20 ft. below the modern town. Its vineyards and potteries are mentioned by Pliny, the latter doing a considerable export trade. Its territory was coterminous with that of Bononia and Regium, as its diocese is now, and to the south it seems to have extended to the summit of the Apennines. During the civil wars Marcus Brutus, the lieutenant of Lepidus, held out within its walls against Pompeius in 78 B.C., and in 44 B.C. the place was successfully defended by D. Brutus against Mark Antony for four months. The 4th century found Mutina in a state of decay; the ravages of Attila and the troubles of the Lombard period left it a ruined city in a wasted land. In the 7th century, perhaps owing to a terrible inundation, 1 its exiles founded, at a distance of 4 m. to the north-west, a new city, Citta. Geminiana (still represented by the village of Cittanova) ; but about the close of the 9th century Modena was restored and refortified by its bishop, Ludovicus. When it began to build its cathedral (a.d. 1099) the city was part of the possessions of the Countess Matilda of Tuscany; but when, in 1184, the edifice was consecrated by Lucius III., it was a free community. In the wars between Frederick II. and Gregory IX. it sided with the emperor, though ultimately the papal party was strong enough to introduce confusion into its policy. In 1288 Obizzo d'Este was recognized as lord of the city; after the death of his successor, Azzo VIII. (1308), it resumed its communal independence; but by 1336 the Este family was again in power. Constituted a duchy in 1452 in favour of Borso d'Este, and enlarged and strengthened by Hercules II., it became the ducal residence on the incorporation of Ferrara with the States of the Church (1598). Francis I. (1629-1658) erected the citadel and commenced the palace, which was largely embellished by Francis II. Rinaldo (ob. 1737) was twice driven from his city by French invasion. To Francis III. (1698-1780) the city was indebted for many of its public buildings. Hercules III. (1727-1803) saw his states transformed by the French into the Cispadine Republic, and, having refused the principality of Breisgau and Ortenau, offered him in compensation by the treaty of Campo Formio, died an exile at Treviso. His only daughter, Maria Beatrice, married Ferdinand of Austria (son of Maria Theresa), and in 1814 their eldest son, Francis, received back the Stati Estensi. His rule was subservient to Austria, reactionary and despotic. On the outbreak of the French Revolution of 1830, Francis IV. seemed for a time disposed to encourage the corresponding movement in Modena; but no sooner had the Austrian army put an end to the insurrection in Central Italy than he returned to his previous policy. Francis Ferdinand V., who succeeded in 1846, followed in the main his father's example. Obliged to leave the city in 1848, he was restored by the Austrians in 1849; ten years later, on the 20th of August 1859, the representatives of Modena declared their territory part of the kingdom of Italy, and their decision was confirmed by the plebiscite of i860. See Vedriani, Storia di Modena (1666) ; Tiraboschi, Mem. storiche modenesi (1793); Scharfenberg, Gesch. des Herzogth. Modena (1859) ; Oreste Raggi, Modena descritta (i860); Baraldi, Storia di Modena; Valdrighi, Diz. Storico, &c, delle contrade di Modena (1798-1880); Crespellani, Guida di Modena (1879); Cavedoni, Dichiarazione degli antici marmi Modenesi (1828). MODERATOR (from Lat. moderare, to impose a modus, limit), a judge or umpire, one who acts the part of mediator, and so a term \ised of the person chosen to be president of a meeting (as in America, of a town meeting). In academic use, the word was formerly applied to the public officer who presided over the exercises, &c, prescribed forcandidates for degrees in the univer- sity schools; it is now used at Cambridge of one or two officers who are appointed each year to preside over the examination for the mathematical tripos, at Oxford of an examiner in the first public examination, known as " moderations," and at Dublin of a candidate for honours in the examination for degree of Bachelor of Arts. In the Presbyterian churches the name is applied to the minister elected to preside over ecclesiastical meetings or assemblies, as the synod, presbytery or general 1 Some authorities (of whom Tiraboschi was the first) attribute its desertion entirely to a succession of inundations, denying that it was even among the cities destroyed by Attila. assembly (see Presbyterianism). The name was historically given to a party of people who joined together to oppose the "Regulators," another party who professed to administer jus- tice in the Carolinas (1767-1771). Technically, the word is also used of a particular form of lamp, in which the flow of oil from the reservoir to the burner is regulated by a mechanical arrangement to which the name is applied. MODERATUS OF GADES, a Greek philosopher of the Neo- Pythagorean school, contemporary with Apollonius of Tyana. He wrote a great work on the doctrines of the Pythagoreans, and tried to show that the successors of Pythagoras had made no additions to the views of their founder, but ha-d merely borrowed and altered the phraseology. He has been given a fictitious importance by recent commentators, who have regarded him as the forerunner of the Alexandrian School of philosophy. Zeller has shown that the authority on which this view is based is entirely unsound. Moderatus is thus left as an unimportant ' though interesting representative of a type of thought which had almost disappeared since the 5th century B.C. Stobaeus, Eclogae, p. 3, preserves a fragment of his writings. MODESTINUS, HERENNIUS, a celebrated Roman jurist, who flourished about 250 B.C. He appears to have been a native of one of the Greek-speaking provinces, probably Dalmatia, and was a pupil of Ulpian. In Valentinian's Law of Citations he is classed with Papinian, Paulus, Gaius and Ulpian. He is mentioned in a rescript of Gordian in the year 240 B.C. in connexion with a responsum which he gave to the party to whom the rescript was addressed. No fewer than 345 passages in the Digest are taken from his writings. MODICA, a town of Sicily, in the province of Syracuse, 57 m. W.S.W. of Syracuse by rail and $s m. direct. Pop. (1901), 48,962. It lies on a hill between two valleys; the hill, crowned by the church of S. Giorgio, reconstructed in the 17th century, was the site of the Sicel town of Motyca, while the modern part of the town extends along the river Mauro, an inundation of which did much damage in September 1902. Remains of mega- lithic buildings, apparently, however, houses of the Byzantine period, are described in Notizie degli Scavi, 1896, 242 seq. Six miles to the south-east is the valley known as the Cava d'Ispica. with hundreds of grottoes cut in its rocky sides; of these only ? few are Sicel tombs, the majority being catacombs or open tombs of the early Christian and Byzantine periods, or even cave-dwellings of the latter age. See P. Orsi in Notizie degli Scavi (1905), 431. MODILLION (a French word, probably from Lat. modulus, a measure of proportion), a term in architecture for the enriched block or horizontal bracket generally found under the cornice and above the bedmould of the Corinthian entablature. It is probably so called because of its arrangement in regulated distances. MODJESKA, HELENA (1844-1909), Polish actress, was born at Cracow on the 12th of October 1844. Her father, Michael Opido, was a musician, and her tastes soon declared themselves strongly in favour of a dramatic career; but it was not until after her marriage in 1861 that she first attempted to act, and then it was with a company of strolling players. Her husband (whose name, Modrzejewski, she simplified for stage purposes) died in 1865. In 1868 she married Count Bozenta Chlapowski, a Polish politician and critic, and almost immediately afterwards received an invitation to act at Warsaw. There she remained for seven or eight years, and won a high position in her art. Her chief tragic roles were Ophelia, Juliet, Desdemona, Queen Anne in Richard III., Louisa Miller, Maria Stuart, Schiller's Princess Eboli, Marion Delorme, Victor Hugo's Tisbe and Slowacki's Mazeppa. In comedy her favourite roles were Beatrice in Much Ado About Nothing, and Donna Diana in the Polish trans- lation of an old Spanish play of that name. Madame Modjeska was also the Polish interpretress of the most prominent plays of Legouve, Dumas, father and son, Augier, Alfred de Musset, Octave Feuillet and Sardou. In 1876 she went with her husband to California, where they settled on a ranch. This new career, however, proved a failure, and Madame Modjeska returned to MODLING— MOESIA 643 the stage. She appeared in San Francisco in 1877, in an English version of Adrienne Lecouvreur, and, in spite of her imperfect command of the language, achieved a remarkable success. She continued to act principally in America, but was also seen from time to time in London and elsewhere in the United Kingdom, her repertory including several Shakespearian roles and a variety of emotional parts in modern drama. She died on the 9th of April 1909 at her home near Los Angeles, California. See Mabel Collins, The Story of Helena Modjesha (London, 1883), and the (autobiographical) Memories and Impressions (New York, 1910). MODLING, an old town of Austria, in Lower Austria, 10 m. S. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 15,304. It is situated at the entrance of the Briihl valley and is a popular summer resort, possessing iron and sulphur baths. It possesses a Gothic church, with a crypt dating from the 15th century, and a still older Romanesque burial chapel. It has a considerable iron and metal industry, and manufactures of shoes, varnish, &c. MODOC {i.e. "southerners"), a tribe of North American Indians of the Lutuamian stock, who formerly lived around Lower Klamath Lake, south-western Oregon. They were always an aggressive people, and constantly at war with their neighbours. They are known mainly from their stubborn resistance to the United States government in 1872 and 1873. This is called the Modoc War, and was caused by an attempt to place them on a reservation. After some preliminary fighting the Modocs retreated to the " Lava Beds," a basaltic region, seamed and crevassed, and rich in caves. Here they made a stand for several months. During the war two members of a peace commission were treacherously massacred by them while under a flag of truce. On their final submission the leaders were hanged and part of the tribe was removed to Indian Territory (now Oklahoma), and the others were sent back to a reservation on the Klamath. MODULE (Lat. modulus, a measure), in architecture, the semi- diameter of the column at its base; the term was first set forth by Vitruvius (iv. 3), and was generally employed by the archi- tects of the Italian revival to determine the relative proportions of the various parts of a columnar ordinance. The module was divided by the revivalists into thirty parts, called minutes, allowing of much greater accuracy than was thought necessary by Vitruvius, whose subdivision was usually six parts. The tendency now is to adopt the whole diameter instead of the semi-diameter when determining the height of the column or entablature or any of their subdivisions. The term module is also applied in hydraulics (q.v.) to a contrivance for regulating the supply of water from an irrigation channel. MOERIS, AELIUS, Greek grammarian, surnamed Atticista (" the Atticist "), probably flourished in the 2nd century a.d. He was the author of an extant (more or less alphabetical) list of Attic forms and expressions ('Attwch Xe£«is), accompanied by the Hellenistic parallels of his own time, the differences of gender, accent and meaning being clearly and succinctly pointed out. Editions by J. Hudson (1711); J. Pierson (1759); A. Koch (1830); I. Bekker (1833) ; with Harpocration. MOERIS, LAKE OF, the lake which formerly filled the deep depression of the Fayum to the Nile level, now shrunken and sunk more than 200 ft. to the shallow Birket el Kerun. In remote prehistoric times the Fayum depression was probably dry, but with the gradual rise of the river bed the high Nile reached a level at which it could enter through the natural or artificial channel now known as the Bahr Yusuf. The borders of the lake were occupied by a neolithic people, and the town of Crocodilo- polis grew up very early on the eastern slope south of the channel, where the higher ground formed a ridge in the lake. The rise continuing (at the rate of about 4 in. to the century) the waters threatened to flood the town; consequently under the XHth Dynasty great embankments were made to save the settled land from encroachment. The line of the embankment is still trace- able in places and marked by monuments of the XHth Dynasty kings, an obelisk of Senwosri I. at Ebgig, and colossi of Amenemhe III. at Biahmu. The latter ornamented the quay of the port of Crocodilopolis, and projected into the lake on high bases. As the Nile fell the broad expanse of the lake lowered, and the water pouring back through the channel was of value for summer irrigation; the inflow and outflow were regulated by sluices, and the capture of fish here and in the lake was enormous. The channel which was of such importance was called the " Great Channel," Mewer, in Greek Moeris. The native name of the lake was Shei, " the lake," later Piom, " the sea " (whence Fayum) ; Teshei, " the land of the lake," was the early name of the region. At its capital Crocodilopolis and elsewhere the crocodile god Sobk (Suchus) was worshipped. Senwosri II. of the XHth Dynasty built his pyramid at Illahun at the outer end of the channel, Amenemhe III. built his near the inner end at Hawara, and the vast labyrinth attached to it was probably his funerary temple. This king was afterwards worshipped in more than one locality about the lake under the name Marres (his praeno- men Nemare) or Peremarres, i.e. Pharaoh Marres. The mud poured in at high Nile made rich deposits on the eastern slope; in the reign of Philadelphus large reclamations of land were made, veterans from the Syrian War were settled in the " Lake " (Ai/xv-q), and the latter quickly became a populous and very fertile province. Strabo's account of the Lake of Moeris must be copied from earlier writers, for in his day the outflow had been stopped probably for two centuries, and the old bed of the lake was dotted with flourishing villages to a great depth below the level of the Nile. Large numbers of papyri of the Ptolemaic and Roman periods have been found in and about the Fayum, which continued to flourish through the first two centuries of the Roman rule. See W. M. F. Petrie, Hawara Biahmu and Arsinoe (London, 1889) ; R. H. Brown, The Fayum and Lake Moeris (London, 1892); B. P. Grenfell, A. S. Hunt and D. G. Hogarth, Fayum Towns and their Papyri (London, 1900); H. J. C. Beadnell, The Topography and Geology of the Fayum Province of Egypt (Cairo, 1905). (F. Ll. G.) MOESIA (Gr. Mvala and Mvala 17 h> Etiponrj?, to distinguish it from Mysia in Asia), in ancient geography, a district inhabited by a Thracian people, bounded on the S. by the mountain ranges of Haemus and Scardus (Scordus, Scodrus), on the W. by the Drinus, on the N. by the Danube and on the E. by the Euxine. It thus corresponded in the main to the modern Servia and Bul- garia. In 75 b.c, C. Scribonius Curio, proconsul of Macedonia, penetrated as far as the Danube, and gained a victory over the inhabitants, who were finally subdued by M. Licinius Crassus, grandson of the triumvir and also proconsul of Macedonia, during the reign of Augustus c. 29 B.C. (see Mommsen, Provinces of the Roman Empire, Eng. trans., i. 12-14). The country, however, was not organized as a province until the last years of the reign; in a.d. 6 mention is made of its governor, Caecina Severus (Dio Cassius lv. 29). The statement of Appian (Illyrica, 30) that it did not become a Roman province until the time of Tiberius, is therefore incorrect. Originally one province, under an imperial consular legate (who probably also had control of Achaea and Macedonia), it was divided by Domitian into Upper (superior) and Lower (inferior, also called Ripa Thracia) Moesia, the western and eastern portions respectively, divided from each other by the river Cebrus (Ciabrus; mod. Cibritza or Zibru). Some, however, place the boundary further west. Each was governed by an imperial consular legate and a procurator. As a frontier province, Moesia was strengthened by stations and fortresses erected along the southern bank of the Danube, and a wall was built from Axiopolis to Tomi as a protection against Scythian and Sarmatian inroads. After the abandon- ment of Dacia (q.v.) to the barbarians by'Aurelian (270-275) and the transference of its inhabitants to the south of the Danube, the central portion of Moesia took the name of Dacia Aureliani (again divided into Dacia ripensis and interior). The district called Dardania (in Upper Moesia), inhabited by the Ulyrian Dardani, was formed into a special province by Diocletian with capital Naissus (Nissa or Nish), the birthplace of Constantine the Great. The Goths, who had already invaded Moesia in 250, hard pressed by the Huns, again crossed the Danube during the reign of Valens (376), and with his permission settled in 644 MOFADDALIY AT Moesia. But quarrels soon took place, and the Goths under Fritigern defeated Valens in a great battle near Adrianople (378). These Goths are known as Moeso-Goths, for whom Ulfilas made the Gothic translation of the Bible. In the 7th century Slavs and Bulgarians entered the country and founded the modern kingdoms of Servia and Bulgaria. The chief towns of Upper Moesia were: Singidunum (Belgrade), Viminacium (sometimes called municipium Aelium; Kostolatz), Bononia (Widdin), Ratiaria (Artcher): of Lower Moesia; Oescus (colonia Ulpia, Gigen), Novae (near Sistova, the chief seat of Theodoric), Nicopolis ad Istrum (Nikup), really on the Iatrus or Yantra, Odessus (Varna), Tomi (Kustendje), to which the poet Ovid was banished. The last two were Greek towns, which, with Istros, Mesambria and Apollonia, formed a pentapolis. See Orosius v. 23, 20; Livy, Epit.92, 134, 135; Dio Cassius li. 25-27 ; E. R. Rosier, Romanische Studien (Leipzig, 1871) ; T. Momm- sen, Corpus inscriptionum latinarum, iii. 141, 263; J. Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung (1881), i. 301; H. Kiepert, Lehrbuch der alien Geographic (1878), §§ 298, 299; article in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1873). G- H. F.) MOFADDALlYAT, strictly MufaddalIyat, an anthology of ancient Arabic poems, which derives its name from al-Mufaddal, son of Muhammad, son of Ya'la, a member of the tribe of Pabba, who compiled it some time between a.d. 762 and 784 in the latter of which years he died. Al-Mufaddal was a contempo- rary of Hammad ar-Rawiya and Khalaf al-Ahmar, the famous collectors of ancient Arab poetry and tradition, and was some- what the junior of Abu 'Amr ibn al-'Ala, the first scholar who systematically set himself to preserve the poetic literature of the Arabs. He died about fifty years before Abu 'Ubaida and al-Asma'I, to whose labours posterity is largely indebted for the arrangement, elucidation and criticism of ancient Arabian verse; and his anthology was put together between fifty and sixty years before the compilation by Abu. Tammam of the lj.amasa (q.v.). Al-Mufaddal was a careful and trustworthy collector both of texts and traditions, and is praised by ail authorities on Arabian history and literature as in this respect greatly the superior of Hammad and Khalaf, who are accused (especially the latter) of unscrupulous fabrication of poems in the style of the ancients. He was a native of Kufa, the northernmost of the two great military colonies founded in 638 by the caliph 'Omar for the control of the wide Mesopotamian plain. In Kufa and Basra were gathered representatives of all the Arabian tribes who formed the fighting force of the Islamic Empire, and from these al-Mufaddal was able to collect and record the compositions of the poets who had celebrated the fortunes and exploits of their forefathers. He, no doubt, like al-Asma'I and Abu 'Ubaida, also himself visited the areas occupied by the tribes for their camping grounds in the neighbouring desert; and adjacent to Kufa was al-Hira, the ancient capital of the Lakhmid kings, whose court was the most celebrated centre in pre-Islamic Arabia, where, in the century before the preaching of the Prophet, poets from the whole of the northern half of the peninsula were wont to assemble. There is indeed a tradition that a written collection (diwan) existed in the family of an-Nu'man, the last Lakhmid king, containing a number of poems by the Fuhvl, or most eminent poets of the pagan time, and especially by those who had praised the princes of the house, and that this collection passed into the possession of the Omayyad caliphs of the house of Marwan; to this, if the tradition is to be believed, al-Mufaddal probably had access. The date of al-Mufaddal's birth is unknown; but he lived for many years under the caliphs of the Omayyad line until their overthrow by the 'Abbasids in 749. In 762 he took part in the rising led by Ibrahim ibn 'Abdallah ibn al-Hasan, the 'Alid, called " Tie Pure Soul," against the caliph al-Mansur, and after the defeat and death of Ibrahim was cast into prison. Al- Mansiir, however, pardoned him on the intercession of his fellow- tribesman Musayyab ibn Zuhair of Dabba, and appointed him the instructor in literature of his son, afterwards the caliph al-Mahdl. It was for this prince that, at al-Mansur's instigation, aJ-Mufaddal compiled the Mufaddaliyat. The collection, in its present form, contains 126 pieces of verse, xong and short; that is the number included in the recen- sion of al-Anbarl, who had the text from Abu Tkrima of Pabba, who read it with Ibn al-A'rabl, the stepson and inheritor of the tradition of al-Mufaddal. We know from the Fihrist of Muham- mad an-Nadim (a.d. 988) that in his time 128 pieces were counted in the book; and this number agrees with that contained in the Vienna MS., which gives an additional poem, besides those annotated by al-Anbarl, to al-Muraqqish the Elder,and adds at the end a poem by al-Harith ibn Hilliza. The Fihrist states (p. 68) that some scholars included more and others fewer poems, while the order of the poems in the several recensions differed; but the correct text, the author says, is that handed down through Ibn al-A'rabl. It is noticeable that this traditional text, and the accompanying scholia, as represented by al-Anbari's recension, are wholly due to the scholars of Krifa, to which place al-Mufaddal himself belonged. The rival school of Basra, on the other hand, has given currency to a story that the original collection made by al-Mufaddal included a much smaller number of poems. The Berlin MS. of al-Marzuql's commentary states that the number was thirty, but a better reading of the passage, found elsewhere, 1 mentions eighty; and that al-Asma'I and his school added to this nucleus poems which increased the number to a hundred and twenty. It is curious that this tradition is ascribed by al-Marzuqi and his teacher Abu 'All al-FarisI to Abu Tkrima of Dabba, who is represented by al-Anbarl as the trans- mitter of the correct text from Ibn al-A'rabl. There is no men- tion of it in al-Anbari's work, and it is in itself somewhat im- probable, as in al-Asma'I's time the schools of Kufa and Basra were in sharp opposition one to the other, and Ibn al-A'rabl in particular was in the habit of censuring al-Asma'I's interpretations of the ancient poems. It is scarcely likely that he would have accepted his rival's additions to the work of his step-father, and have handed them on to Abu Tkrima with his annotations. The collection is one of the highest importance as a record of the thought and poetic art of Arabia during the time imme- diately preceding the appearance of the Prophet. Not more than five or six of the 126 poems appear to have been composed by poets who had been born in Islam. The great majority of the authors belonged to the days of " the Ignorance," and though a certain number (e.g. Mutammim ibn Nuwaira, Rabl'a ibn Maqrum, 'Abda ibn at-Tablb and Abu Dhu'aib), born in paganism, accepted Islam, their work bears few marks of the new faith. The ancient virtues — hospitality to the guest and the poor, profuse expenditure of wealth, valour in battle, faithfulness to the cause of the tribe — are the themes of praise; wine and the game of maisir, forbidden by Islam, are celebrated by poets who professed themselves converts; and if there is no mention of the old idolatry, there is also little spirituality in the outlook on life. The 126 pieces are distributed between 68 poets, and the work represents a gathering from the compositions of those who were called al-Muqittun, " authors of whom little has survived," in contrast to the famous poets whose Works had been collected into diwans. At the same time" many of them are extremely celebrated, and among the pieces selected by al-Mufaddal several reach a very high level of excellence. Such are the two long poems of 'Alqama ibn 'Abada (Nos. 119 and 120), the three odes by Mutammim ibn Nuwaira (Nos. 9, 67, 68), the splendid poem of Salama ibn Jandal (No. 22), the beautiful naslb of ash-Shanfara (No. 20), and the death-song of 'Abd-Yaghtith (No. 30). One of the most admirable and famous is the last of the series (No. 126), the long elegy by Abu Dhu'aib of Hudhail on the death of his sons; almost every verse of this poem is cited in illustration of some phrase or meaning of a word in the national lexicons. Only one of the poets of the Muallaqdt (see Mo' allakat) , al-Harith, son of HiHiza, is represented in the collection. Of others (such as Bishr ibn Abl Khazim, al-Hadira, 'Amir ibn at-Tufail, 'Alqamah ibn 'Abadah, al-Muthaqqib, Ta'abbata Sharra and Abu Dhu'aib) diwans or bodies of collected poems exist, but it is doubtful how far these had been brought together when al-Mufaddal made 1 In the dhail or supplement to the Amad of al-Qall. (Edn. Cairo 1324 H., p. 131). MOFETTA— MOGADOR 645 his compilation. An interesting feature of the work is the treat- ment in it of the two poets of Bakr ibn Wa'il, uncle and nephew, called al-Muraqqish, who are perhaps the most ancient in the collection. The elder Muraqqish was the great-uncle of Tarafa of Bakr, the author of the Mu'allaqa, and took part in the long warfare between the sister tribes of Bakr and Taghlib, called the war of Basus, which began about the end of the 5th century a.d. Al-Mufaddal has included ten pieces (Nos. 45-54) by him in the collection, which are chiefly interesting from an antiquarian point of view. One, in particular (No. 54), presents a very archaic appearance. It is probable that the compiler set down all he could gather of this ancient author, and that his interest in him was chiefly due to his antiquity. Of the younger Muraq- qish, uncle of Tarafa, there are five pieces (Nos. 55-59). The only other authors of whom more than three poems are cited are Bishr ibn Abl Khazim of Asad (Nos. 96-99) and Rabi'a ibn Maqrum of Dabba (Nos. 38, 39, 43 and 113). The Mufaddallydt differs from the ITamasa in being a collection of complete odes (qasidas), while the latter is an anthology of brilliant passages specially selected for their interest or effective- ness, all that is prosaic or less striking being pruned away. It is of course not the case that all the poems of al-Mufaddal's collection are complete. Many are mere fragments, and even in the longest there are often lacunae; but the compiler evidently set down all that he could collect of a poem from the memory of the rawls, and did not, like Abu Tammam, choose only the best portions. We are thus presented with a view of the litera- ture of the age which is much more characteristic and comprehen- sive than that given by the brilliant poet to whom we owe the Ifamdsa, and enables us to form a better judgment on the general level of poetic achievement. The Mufaddallydt is not well represented by MSS. in the libraries of the West. There is an imperfect copy of the recension of al- Marzuqi (died 1030) , with his commentary, in the Berlin collection. A very ancient fragment (dated 1080) of al-Anbari's recension, contain- ing five poems in whole or part, is in the Royal Library at Leipzig. In the British Museum there is a copy made about a century ago for C. J. Rich at Bagdad of a MS. with brief glosses; and at Vienna there is a modern copy of a MS. of which the original is at Constan- tinople, the glosses in which are taken from al-Anbari, though the author had access also to al-Marzuqi. In the mosque libraries at Constantinople there are at least five MSS. ; and at Cairo there is a modern copy of one of these, containing the whole of al-Anbari's commentary. In America there are at Yale University a modern copy of the same recension, taken from the same original as the Cairo copy, and a MS. of Persian origin, dated 1657, presenting a text identical with the Vienna codex. Quite recently a very in- teresting MS., probably cf the 6th century of the Hegira, but not dated, has come to light. It purports to be the second part of a combination of two anthologies, the MufaddaUydt of al-Mufa