THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST edit on, published in three volumes, 1768— 1771. SECOND , ,, ten »> 1777— 1784. THIRD , ,, eighteen » 1788 — 1797. FOURTH , ,, twenty » 1801 — 1810. FIFTH , „ twenty >» 1815— 1817. SIXTH , „ twenty » 1823 — 1824. SEVENTH , „ twenty-one » 1830 — 1842. EIGHTH , „ twenty-two »* 1853— 1860. NINTH , „ twenty-five >> 1875— 1889. TENTH , ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903. ELEVENTH , published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911. COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE All rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME VIM DEMIJOHN to EDWARD New York Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. 342 Madison Avenue Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910 by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company. INITIALS USED IN VOLUME VIII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS, 1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED, A. Ca. A. E. G.* A. E. S. ■I Determinant. Devil. Desmoscolecida; Echiuroidea. A. Fi A. F. P. A. G. A. G. D. A. H. J. G A. H. S. A. J. L. A. J. P. A. L. G. A. Mw. A. M. C. A.N, Arthur Cayley, LL.D.; F.R.S. See the biographical article : CAyleY, Arthur. Rev. Alfred Ernest Garvie, M.A., D.D. Principal of. New College, Hampstead. Member of the Board of Theology and Board of Philosophy, London University. Formerly Professor of Philosophy, ■;> ■ . Theism, Comparative Religion, and Christian Ethicsih Hackney and New Colleges, London. Author of Studies in the Inner Life of Jesus; The Christian Certainly; &c. ■Arthur Everett Shipley, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.Z.S,. F.L.S. Fellow, Tutor and Lecturer of Christ's College, Cambridge. University Reader in Zoology. President of the Association of Economic Biologists. Formerly University Lecturer on the Advanced Morphology of the Invertebrata. Author of Zoology of the Invertebrata. Editor of the Pitt Press Natural Science Manuals; &c. Pierre Marie Auguste Filon. See the biographical article: Filon, P. M. A. Albert Frederick Pollard, M.A., F.R.Hist.Soc. f Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, ' Professor of English History in the University J g j war fl yi. of London. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893-1901. | Author of England under the Protector Somerset; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c. I Major Arthur George Frederick Griffiths (d. 1908). f H.M. Inspector of Prisons,' 1 878-1 896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgate ; -j Deportation. Secrets of the Prison House ; &c. I Arthur George Doughty, C.M.G., M.A., Litt.D., F.R.Hist.S. f Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of Canada. . Author of The Cradle of New France; &c. Joint Editor of Documents relating to the Constitutional History of Canada. Abel Hendy Jones Greenidge, M.A., D.Litt. (d. 1905). Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Hertford College, Oxford, and of St John's College, Oxford. Author of Infamia in Roman Law; Handbook of Greek Con- stitutional History; Roman Public Life; History of Rome. Joint Editor of Sources of Roman History, 133-70 B.C. Rev. Archibald Henry Sayce, D.Litt., L.L.D., D.D. See the biographical article: Sayce, A. H; Andrew Jackson Lamoureux. Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. News, Rio de Janeiro. Alexander J. Philip. Borough Librarian of Gravesend. Andrew Lockhart Gillespie, M.D., F.R.S. (Edin.) (d. 1904). Formerly Lecturer on Modern Gastric Methods, Edinburgh Post-Graduate School. Author of Manual of Modern Gastric Methods ; &c. Allen Mawer, M.A. Professor of English^ Language and Literature, Armstrong College, Newcastle-on- Tyne. Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Formerly Lecturer in English at the University of Sheffield. Agnes Mary Clerke. See the biographical article: Clerke, A. M. Alfred Newton, F.R.S. See the biographical article: Newton, Alfred. 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final vol v Drama: French {in pari). Dorion. Dictator. Formerly Editor of the Rio J Ecbatana. Ecuador (in part). { Dene-holes. J Digestive Organs: Pathology I [in part). Denmark: Ancient History; Edgar, King; Edmund , King of East Anglia; Edmund I.; Edred; Edward (the Elder); Edward (the Martyr). { Dick, Thomas; Donati. f Diver; Dodo (in part) ; \ Dove; Duck; Eagle. VI A. R. & A. S. Wo. A. Wa. A. W. H * A, W. R. A. W. W. C. A. G. C. Ch. c, c. H. c. E. * c. F. A. c. H. Rd. c. H. T.* c. L. K. C. PL C. R. B. C. S. P.* C. W. W. D. B. Ma. D. C. T. D. G. H. D.Ho D. Mn. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ,1: of Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws De Tabley. J Derby, Earls of (in part). } Easement. I J Drama. J Denmark: Geography and '\ Statistics (in part) Earth Currents. -y Dynamo. ■I Density; Distillation. '{ Dutch Wars: Military. Alexander Ross Clarke, C.B., F.R.S. . . Colonel, R.E. Royal Medal of Royal Society, 1887. In charge of Trigonometrical 1 Earth, Figure 01 the (m part)- Operations of the Ordnance Survey, 1 854-1 881. L Arthur Smith Woodward, LL.D., F.R.S. I Keeper of Geology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Secretary of the ~) DiplOdOCUS. Geological Society, London. ^ Arthur Waugh, M.A. f New College, Oxford. Newdigate Prize, 1888. Managing Director of Chapman & . Hall, Ltd. Author of Gordon in Africa; Alfred, Lord Tennyson. Editor Johnson's Lives of the Poets; editions of Dickens, Tennyson, Arnold, Lamb; &c. Arthur William Holland. Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Alexander Wood Renton, M.A., LL.B. Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. of England. Adolphus William Ward, LL.D., D.Litt. See the biographical article: Ward, A. W. Christian Carl August Gosch, M.Sc. Commander of the Danebrog. Knight of St Anna. Formerly Attache 1 to the - Danish Legation, London. Author of Denmark and Germany since 1815. Charles Chree, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S. Superintendent, Kew Observatory. Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. . President of Physical Society of London. Watt Medallist, Institute of Civil Engineers', 1905. Charles Caesar Hawkins, M.A., M.I.E.E. Author of The Dynamo. Charles Everitt, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Sometime Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford. Charles Francis Atkinson. Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal - Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. Charles Hercules Read, LL.D. Keeper of British and Medieval Antiquities, British Museum. President of the" Society of Antiquaries of London. Author of Antiquities from Benin ; &c. Crawford Howell Toy, A.M., LL.D. See the biographical article: Toy, Crawford Howell. Charles Lethbridge Kingsford, M.A., F.R.Hist.S., F.S.A. Assistant Secretary, Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey of London. Christian Pfister, D. es L. Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Titude sur le regne de Robert le Pieux; Le duche merovingien aV Alsace et la legende de Sainte-Odile. Charles Raymond Beazley, M.A., D.Litt., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S. r Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow Diaz de Novaes; of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. < Djcuj]. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. I Rev. Charles Stanley Phillips. S Edmund Ironside; King's College, Cambridge. Gladstone Memorial Prize, 1904. I Edward the Confessor. Sir Charles William Wilson, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907). c Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Com- mission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1 836-1 894. Director-General of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korti to Khartoum; Life of Lord Clive; &c. Duncan Black Macdonald, M.A., D.D. r Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S.A. Author J Dervish; of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory; 1 Divan. Selection from Ibn Khaldum; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam; &c. I David Croal Thomson. Formerly Editor of the Art Journal. Author of The Brothers Maris; The Barbizon- School of Painters ; Life of " Phiz " ; Life of Bewick ; &c. David George Hogarth, M.A. Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naukratis, 1899 - and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, I 906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. David Hannay. Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Navy, 1217-1688 ; Life of Emilio Castelar ; &c. Editor of ; A Drinking Vessels. 4 Ecclesiastes. J Derby, 1st Earl of; \ Edward IV. J Ebroin. Diarbekr (in part). Author of Short History of Royal ■ Diaz, N. V. Derna; Didymi; Druses (in part). Dudley, Sir Robert; Dutch Wars: Naval. Rev. Dugald Macfadyen, M.A. r Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Director of the London J. Duff, Alexander. Missionary Society. |_ INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES m E. A.T- E. Br. E. C. B. E. C. B.* { Formerly -4 E. C. K. E. C. Q. E. Es. E. E. A. E.6. E. Gr. E. I. C. E. J. D E. K. Ed. M. E. Ma. E. M. T. E. O'M. E. Pr. P. A. B. F. E. B. F. 6. M. B. Mrs (Ethel) Alec Tweedie. Author of Porfirio Diaz ; Mexico as I saw it ; &;c. Ernest Barker, M.A. Fellow of, and Lecturer in Modern History at, St John's College, Oxford. Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven Scholar, 1895. Right Rev. Edward Cuthbert Butler, O.S.B., D.Litt. (Dublin). f Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. \ Edward Cresswell Baber, M.A. (d. 1910). f Formerly Senior Surgeon, Brighton and Sussex Throat and Ear Hospital. Prize- J man and William Brown Scholar, St George's Hospital, London. Author of] numerous papers on Diseases of the Ear, Nose and Throat. L Edward Cameron Kirk, D.Sc. f Dean of the Dental Faculty and Professor of Dental Pathology, Therapeutics and J Materia Medica, University of Pennsylvania. Editor of The American Text-Book 1 of Operative Dentistry. I Edmund Crosby Quiggin, M.A. f Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge ; Lecturer in Modern Languages i and Monro Lecturer in Celtic. Edmond Esmonin. Ernest E. Austen. .- Assistant in Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington, -i { Edmund Gosse, LL.D. See the biographical article: Gosse, Edmund. { Diaz, Porfirio. Diet. Dominic, Saint; Dominicans. Ear: Diseases. Dentistry. Druidism. Desmarets. Diptera. Denmark: Literature; Descriptive Poetry; Dialogue; Diary; Didactic Poetry; Dithyrambic Poetry; Donne; Drachmann; Drayton, Michael; Dutch Literature; Edda. Dodona. Ernest A. Gardner, M.A. See the biographical article: Gardner, Percy. Edward Irving Carlyle, MA., F.R.Hist.S. ( Fellow, Lecturer in Modern History, and Tutor of Lincoln College, Oxford. J ]) os t Mahommed Khan Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National 1 Formerly Fellow of Merton College. Biography, 1 895-1 901. Edward Joseph Dent, M.A., Mus.Bac. Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. and Works. Author of A. Scarlatti: his Lifei Durante, Francesco Edmund Knecht, Ph.D., M.Sc.Tech. (Manchester), F.I.C. Professor of Technological Chemistry, Manchester University. Head of Chemical Department, Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. Examiner in Dyeing, -\ Dyeing. City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of A Manual of Dyeing; &c. Editor of Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists. Eduard Meyer, D.Litt. (Oxon.), LL.D., Ph.D. r Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte J Diodotus des Alterthums; Forschungen zur alten Geschichte; Geschichte des alien Agyptens;} Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarslamme ; &c. ' [_ Edward Manson. r Barrister at-Law. Joint Editor of Journal of Comparative Legislation ; Author cf "I Directors. Law of Trading Companies ; Practical Guide to Company Law ; &c. l_ Sir Edward Maunde Thompson, G.C.B., I.S.O., D.C.L., Litt.D., LL.D. Director and Principal Librarian, British Museum, 1898-1909. Sandars Reader in Bibliography, Cambridge, 1895-1896. Hon. Fellow of University College, Oxford. Correspondent of the Institute of France and of the Royal Prussian , Academy of Sciences. Author of Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography. Editor of Chronicon Angliae. Joint Editor of publications of the Palaeographicai Society, the New Palaeographicai Society, and of the Facsimile of the Laurentian Sophocles. Rev. Eugene Henry O'Meara, M.A Vicar of Tallaght, County Dublin. Edgar Prestage. Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Com- J Eca da Oueiroz mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal 1 **uoiiu*. Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society, &c. I Francis Arthur Bather, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.R.G.S. r Assistant Keeper of Geology, British Museum. Rolleston Prizeman, Oxford, 1892. J Echinoderma Echinoderma " in A Treatise on Zoology; Triassic Echinoderms of\ Diplomatic. 1 Diatomaceae (in part). Author of Bakony; &c. Frank Evers Beddard, M.A., F.R.S. r Prosector of the Zoological Society, London. Formerly Lecturer in Biology at J Earth-worm Guy's Hospital. Naturalist to " Challenger " Expedition Commission, 1882-1884. 1 Author of Text-Book of Zoogeography; Animal Colouration; &c. I Frederick George Meeson Beck, M.A. Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. \ East Anglia. • p • Vlll INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARflClLES 1 F. G. P. F. G. P.* F. J. H. F. LI. G. F R H. F. R. M. F. S. F. T. M. F. V. T. F. W .R.* F. W . W. G. A. B. G. Be G. B. M. C G. C. W. G. F. B. G. G. S. G. H. Br. G. H. C. G. S. W.* H. A. Mi. H. B. Wo. H. Ch. Frederick Gymer Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.Anthrop.Inst. <' Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. Formerly Examiner in the • Universities of Cambridge, Aberdeen, London and Birmingham ; and Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. Frank George Pope. Lecturer. on Chemistry, East London College (University of London). Francis John Haverfield, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. Camden Professor qt Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Brasenose College. Fellow of the - British Academy. Author of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain, &c. Francis Llewelyn Griffith, M.A., Ph.D., F.S.A. Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, . Oxford; Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial Germaii Archaeological .Institute. Frederick Robert Helmert, Ph.D., D.Ing. Professor of Geodesy, University of Berlin. . Francis Richard Maunsell, C.M.G. Lieutenant-Colonel. Military Vice-Consul, Sivas, Trebizond, Van (Kurdistan), 1897-1898. Military Attache, British Embassy, Constantinople, 1901-1905. Author of Central Kurdistan ; &c. Francis Storr, M.A. . ■. . ■<.- Editor of the Journal of Education, London. Officier d'Academie, Paris Sir Frank Thomas Marzials, K.C.B. Formerly Accountant General of the Army. Frederick Vincent Theobald, M.A. Vice-Principal and Zoologist, S.E. Agricultural College, Wye, Kent (University of . London). Grand Medallist of the Societe Nationale dAcclimatation de France. Author of The Insect and other Allied Pests of Orchard, Bush and Hothouse Fruits ; &c. Frederick William Rudler, I.S.O., F.G.S. Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. " President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-18,89. Diaphragm; Ductless Glands Ear. Diazo Compounds EburSeum. Deridera; Edfu. \ Earth, Figure of the (in part) Diarbekr (in part). Duel. Editor of the " Great Writers " Series. \ Dumas: fi ls - Economic Entomology. Earthquake (in part). Translator of Filon!s English Stage; Schil-i Du Maurier, G. Dory. -J Druses (in part). \ Education: National System*' Frederic W. Whyte. Author of Actors of the Century; &c. ling's With Flashlight and Rifle; &c. George A. Boulenger, F.R.S., D.Sc, Ph.D. In charge of the collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London. Gertrude Margaret Lothian Bell. Author of The Desert and the Sown ; &c. George Barnard Milbank Coore. Assistant Secretary, Board of Education, London. George Charles Williamson, Litt.D. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures ; Life of Richard^ Cosway, R.A.; George Engleheart; Portrait Drawings', &c. Editor of new edition of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers. ''-■.■■ G. F. Barwick. Assistant Keeper of Printed Books and Superintendent of Reading Room, British - Museum. '' ■■■■■'.■■'.•' George Gregory Smith, M.A. Professor of English Literature, Queen's University of Belfast. Author of The - Days of James IV.; The Transition Period; Specimens of 'Middle Sc0ts; &c. George Hartley Bryan, M. A., D.Sc, F.R.S. . Professor of Pure and Applied Mathematics, University College of North Wales. „ Formerly Fellow of Peterhouse, Cambridge. President of Mathematical Association, 1907- . L' George Herbert Carpenter, B.Sc. f Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects:!. Dragon-fly (in part). their Structure and Life. [ George Stephen West, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S. ? Professor of Botany, University of Birmingham. Associate of Royal Callege of J DiatomaceaG (in part). Science, London. Author of Treatise on British Fresh-water Algae; &c. |_ Henry Alexander Miers, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. r Principal of the University of London. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Formerly Waynflete Professor of Mineralogy, Oxford. President of Mineralogical - Society since 1904. Editor of the Mineralogical Magazine, 1891-1900. Author of Mineralogy; &c. Horace Bolingbroke Woodward, F.R.S., F.G.S. Formerly Assistant Director of the Geological Survey of England and Wales. - President, Geologists' Association, 1893-1:894. Wollaston Medallist, 1908. Hugh Chisholm, M.A. r Formerly Scholarof Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition -< of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the 10th edition. Downman; Dumont, Francois. Dhuleep Singh. Douglas, Gavin; Dunbar, William. Diffusion. Diamond. Desmarest, N. Devonshire, Earls and )u5-*»s of; Dufferin and Ava, 1st Marquess; Edward VII. H. De. H F. 8a H. F. G. H. G. H. H. T. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix Rev. Hippolyte Delehaye, S.J. f . . Bollandist. Joint Author of the Acta Sanctorum. \ Denis, Saint. Henry Frederick Baker, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. C Fellow and Lecturer of St John's College, Cambridge. Cayley Lecturer in Mathe- -i Differential Equation. matics in the University. Author of Abel's Theory and the Allied Theory; &c. [_ Hans Friedrich Gadow, M.A., F.R.S. , Ph.D. f Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. ■< Dodo [in part). Author of Amphibia and Reptiles (Cambridge Natural History). I. Hugh Godfray, M.A. f Sometime Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Author of an Elementary < Dial and Dialling. Treatise on the Lunar Theory; A Treatise on Astronomy. L Herbert Hall Turner, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. Savilian Professor of Astronomy, Oxford University. Fellow of New College. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Chief Assistant at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. Correspondent, Institut de France. President, Royal Astronomical Society, .1903-1904. Author of Modern Astronomy; Astronomical Discovery. Eclipse [in part). H. Lb. Horace Lamb, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S. r Professor of Mathematics, University of Manchester. Formerly Fellow and I Assistant Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Member of Council of Royal "j Dynamics. Society, 1894-1896. Royal Medallist, 1902. President of London Mathematical Society, 1902-1904. Author of Hydrodynamics ; &c. ^ H. N. D. Henry Newton Dickson, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. (Edin.), F.R.G.S. f Professor of Geography at University College, Reading. Formerly Vice-President, J Royal Meteorological Society. Lecturer in Physical Geography, Oxford. Author | of Meteorology ; Elements of Weather and Climate ; &c. I Desert. H. 0. T. Henry Osborn Taylor, LL.B. (Columbia). f „. . ... Author of The Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages; A ncient Ideals ; &c. \ Dionysius AreopagltlCUS. H. St. Henry Sturt, M.A. f nflh , Author of Idola Theatri; The Idea of a Free Church; and Personal Idealism. \ uuann S- H. S. S. Harold Spencer Scott, M.A. f New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. "^ Dower. H. Ti. Henry Tiedemann. ( London Editor of the Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant. Ex-President of the Foreign J Dozy. Press Association. [ H. W. C. D. Henry William Carless Davis, M.A. f riormni iWaniw.,rro„„i, . Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, 4 ^ermoi macmurrougn , 1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. L Edmund, Saint. H. W. H. Hope W. Hogg, M.A. Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures in the University of Manchester. Edessa. I. A. Israel Abrahams, M.A. r Dukes Leopold • Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of Cambridge. President, J rj.-iiach • ' Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short History of Jewish Litera- 1 ~ unasn « ture; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages. I Duran. J. A.* John Aitken, LL.D., F.R.S. r Investigator of Atmospheric Dust. Inventor of instruments for counting the dust particles in the atmosphere. Author of papers on Dust Fogs and Clouds ; Hazing -s Dust. Effects of Atmospheric Dust; Cyclones and Anticyclones; &c, in publications of Royal Society. >- J. A. H. John Allen Howe, B.Sc f Devonian System ; Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. \ Drift. J. A. P.* Rev. J.,mes Alexander Paterson, M.A., D.D. r Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, New College, Edinburgh. Author of The Period of the Judges; Book of Leviticus, in" Temple" Bible; Book ofi Deuteronomy. Numbers, in "Polychrome" Bible; &c. Translator of Schultz's Old Testament Theology. L I. C. M. James Clerk Maxwell, D.C.L., F.R.S. J _. See the biographical article: Maxwell, James Clerk. \ Diagram. J. F.-K. James Fitzmaurice-Kelly, Litt.D., F.R.Hist.S. r Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. DeUS, Joao de ; Norman McColl, Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy, i Don Juan; Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of Frhpparav v Ei7aimirr« Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c. L *-i<" c S<» Uiaspore; Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineralogical j Diopside; Dioptase. Magazine. I Luigi Villari. Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Department). Formerly Newspaper Corre- spondent in East of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906; Phil- adelphia, 1907; and Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town and Country ; Fire and Sword in the Caucasus ; &c. Maurice Arthur Canney, M.A. Assistant Lecturer in Semitic Languages in the University of Manchester. Domicile. Education: Theory. Droysen, J. 6. f Double-Bass; Drone; I Drum; Dulcimer. \ Dock. Diavolo, Fra; Doria. Dorner. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES XI M.Br. M.P. M, G. D. M. Ha. M. Ja. M. 0. B. C N.M. N. M. B. N. W. T. 0. J. R. H. P.A.K. P. CM. P. C. Y. P. Gi. P. G. K. R. R. A S. M. R. C. J. R. D. H. R. H D.* R. I. P. R. J. R. J. M. Miss Margaret Bryant. Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., D C.L., D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S. See the biographical article: Foster, Sir M. Rt. Hon. Sir Mountstuart Elphinstone Grant-Duff, G.C.S.I., F.R.S (1820-1906). M.P. for the Elgin Burghs, 1857-1881. Under-Secretary of State for India, 1868- 1874. Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, 1880-1881. Governor of Madras, 1881-1886. President of the Royal Geographical Society, 1889-1893. President of the Royal Historical Society, 1892-1899. Author of Studies in European Politics; Notes from a Diary ; &c. Marcus Hartog, M.A., D.Sc, F.L S. Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork. Author of Protozoa (in Cambridge Natural History) ; and papers for various scientific journals. Morris Jastrow, Jr., Ph.D. Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania, U.S.A. Author of Religion of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c. Maximilian Otto Bismarck Caspari, M.A. Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birming- ham University, 1905-1908. Norman McLean, M.A. Fellow, Lecturer and Librarian of Christ's College, Cambridge. University Lecturer in Aramaic. Examiner for the Oriental Languages Tripos, and the Theological Tripos, at Cambridge. Nicholas Murray Butler. See the biographical article: Butler, N. M. Northcote Whitbridge Thomas, M.A. Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and Marriage in Australia; &c. Osbert John Radcliffe Howarth, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, 1901. British Association. Dryden {in part); Dumas. Du Bois-Reymond. Derby, 14th Earl of. Dinoflagellata. fEa; [ Eabani. Doris. \ Dionysius Telmaharensis. J Education: United States. Assistant Secretary of the ■ Prince Peter Alexeivitch Kropotkin. See the biographical article : Kropotkin, Prince P. A. Peter Chalmers Mitchell, F.R.S., M.A., D.Sc, LL.D. Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891.. Lecturer on Biology at Charing Cross Hospital, 1892-1894; at London Hospital, 1894. Examiner in Biology to the Royal College of Physicians, 1892-1896, 1901- 1903. Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903. Philip Chesney Yorke, M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford. Peter Giles, M.A., LL.D., Litt. D. Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University Reader in Comparative Philology. Late Secretary of the Cambridge Philological " Society. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology ; &c. I Paul George Konody. f Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of The Artist. \ Donatello. Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c. I Lord Rayleigh. See the biographical article: Rayleigh, 3RD Baron. Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister, M.A., F.S.A. St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Explora- tion Fund. Sir Richard Claverhouse Jebb., Litt.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article: Jebb, Sir Richard C. f Demonology; \ Divination; [ Doll; Dreams. Denmark: Geography and Statistics {in part). Dnieper (in part); Dniester (in part); Don (in part); Don Cossacks, Territory of the (in part); Dvina (in part); Echmiadzin (in part). Dog (in part). Derby, 7th Earl of; Digby, Sir Everard; Digby, Sir Kenelm. E. -j Diffraction of Light. Diptych. j Dietetics (in part). ■I Demosthenes. R. D. Milner. Formerly Assistant, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Robert Henry Davis. f Managing Director, Siebe, Gorman & Co., Ltd., Submarine Engineers, London. -{ Divers and Diving Apparatus Author of A Diving Manual ; &c. [_ ' Reginald Innes Pocock, F.Z.S. Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. Richard Jordan. Draughts Champion of Scotland, 1896, and of the world, 1896 seq. Ronald John McNeill, M.A. f n r j vinl ,. Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James' s\ zi , s ' . , _ . . Gazette, London. 1 Durham, 1st Earl of. \ Earwig. -j Draughts (in part). Xll R. L.* R. Ma. R. M'L. R. N. B. R. P. S. S. A. C. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES stc. StH. S. C. S. D. H. S. K. S.N. T. As. T. A. I. T. F. T. T. K C. T. L. H. T. M. F. T. Se. T. W. R. D. Richard Lydekker, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. .Author of. Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum; The Deer of all Lands ; &c. Dingo; Dolphin; Dormouse; Dugong; Duiker; Edentata. Rev. Robert Mackintosh, D.D. f Professor of Christian Ethics and Apologetics, Lancashire Independent College. J Dogma Lecturer on the Philosophy of Religion, University of Manchester. Author of | " S ma " Christ and the Jewish Law ; &c. *- Robert M'Lachlan, F.R.S. Editor of the Entomologists' Monthly Magazine. Robert Nisbet Bain (d. 1909). Assistant Librarian, British Museum 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 15 13-1900; The First Romanovs , ■ 1613 to i?2$ ; Slavonic Europe : the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1460 to 1796 ; &c. R. Phene Spiers, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past- President of Architectural Association. Associate and. Fellow of King's College,' London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c. Stanley Arthur Cook. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University, 1904--1908. Council of Royal Asiatic Society, 1904- 1905. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions; The Laws of Moses and Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c. Viscount St Cyres. See the biographical article: Iddesleigh, ist Earl of. Dragon-fly {in part). Denmark: Medieval and Modern History; Dessewffy; Dlugosz; Dolgoruki; Dozsa. Dome; Door; Doorway; Early English Period. Edom. { Du Vergier de Hauranne. Lord St Helier (Sir Francis Henry Jeune), P.C, K.C.B., G.CB. (1843-1905). f President of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division of the High Court of A Divorce. Justice, 1 892-1905. Honorary Fellow of Hertford College, Oxford. [_ Sidney Colvin, LL.D. See the biographical article: Colvin, S. S. D. Hopkinson. i Diirer. 1 f IDividend. Sten Konow, Ph.D. r Professor of Indian Philology in the University of Christiania. Officier de l'Academie Franchise. Author of Stamavidhdna brahmana; The Karpuramanjari; volumes^ Dravidian. on Tibeto-Burman languages; Munda and Dravidian; " Marathi Bhil " in The Linguistic Survey of India. I Simon Newcomb, LL.D. See the biographical article: Newcomb, Simon. f Eclipse (in part); \ Ecliptic. Thomas Ashby, M.A., D.Litt., F.S.A. Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Corresponding Member of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Formerly Scholar of Christ - Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1897. Author of The Classical Tcpo graphy of the Roman Campagna ; &c. Eboli. Thomas Allan Ingram, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin. Thomas Frederick Tout, M.A. Professor of Medieval and Modern History in the University of Manchester. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford. Author of Edward I. ; The Empire * and Papacy; &c. Rev. Thomas Kelly Cheyne, M.A., D.D. See the biographical article: Cheyne, T. K. Sir Thomas Little Heath, K.C.B., D.Sc. Assistant Secretary to the Treasury. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- _. bridge. Author of Diophantos of Alexandria; Editor of The- Thirteen Books of* Euclid's Elements; &c. Thomas McCall Fallow, M.A., F.S.A. _ 1 Formerly Editor of the Antiquary. Author of Memorials of Old Yorkshire;* Cathedral Churches of Ireland ; &c. Thomas Seccombe, M.A. Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges (University of London). Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of.- Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson; Joint Author of The Bookman History of English Literature ; &c. T. W. Rhys Davids, LL.D., Ph.D. Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester. Professor of Pali and Buddhist Literature, University College, London, 1 882-1904. President of the Pali Text Society. Fellowof the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of Royal Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the Buddhists; Early Buddhism; Buddhist India; Dialogues of the Buddha; &c. < Desertion. Edward I., II., III.; Edward, The Black Prince. Eden. Diophantos. Easter. Dickens; Dostoievsky. Devadatta; Dhammapala. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES XI tl V.T. W. A. TV. A. B. C. W. A. P. W. A. S. H. W. B. W. E. B. Vladimir Tchertkoff. Editor of The Free Age Press. Literary Representative of Leo Tolstoy. Author of Christian Martyrdom in Russia; &c. William Archer. See the biographical article Archer, William. Rev. William Augustus Brevoort Coolidge, M.A., F.R.G.S., Ph.D. (Bern). Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haut Dauphine; The Range of the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889; &c. Walter Alison Phillips, M.A. Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John s College, - Oxford. Author of M odern Europe; &c. William Albert Samuel Hewins, M.A. Secretary of the Tariff Commission. Formerly Director of the London School of Economics. Teacher of Modern Economic History in the University of London, 1 902-1903. Tooke Professor of Economic Science and Statistics at King's " College, London, 1897-1903. Author of Imperialism and its Probable Effect on the Commercial Policy of the United Kingdom ; &c. Doukhobors. Drama {Recent English). ' Digne; Dolomites, The; Dornbirn; Durance; Ebel, J. G. Diplomacy; Dispensation; Donation of Constantine; Dragon; Duke; Eastern Question, The. Economics. W. E. D. W. P. Sh. W. F. W. W. G. P. P. W. Hy. IV. H.* W. H. Ma. W. L. G. W. M. W. M. R. W. N. S. Walter Baxendale. Kennel Editor of the Field. Rev. William Emery Barnes, M.A., D.D. Hulsean Professor of Divinity, Cambridge. Fellow and Hon. Chaplain of Peter- house, Cambridge. Examining Chaplain to the Bishop of London. Joint Editor of Journal of Theological Studies, 1899-1901. Formerly Lecturer in Hebrew, Clare College, and Lecturer in Hebrew and Divinity, Peterhouse. Author of The Canonical and Uncanonical Gospels; The Peshitta Text of Chronicles; Tlte Psalms in the Peshitta Version; Genuineness of Isaiah; &c. William Ernest Dalby, M.A., M.Inst.C.E., M.I.M.E., A.M.Inst.N.A. Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering at the City and Guilds of London Institute Central Technical College, South Kensington. Formerly University Demonstrator in the Engineering Department, Cambridge. Author of The Balanc- ing of Engines ; Valves and Valve Gear Mechanism ; &c. William Fleetwood Sheppard, M.A. Senior Examiner to the Board of Education. Cambridge. Senior Wrangler, 1884. Walter Francis Willcox, LL.B., Ph.D. Chief Statistician, United States Census Bureau. Professor of Social Science and Statistics, Cornell University. Member of the American Social Science Association ■ end Secretary of the American Economical Association. [Author of The Divorce Problem : A Study in Statistics ; Social Statistics of the United States ; &c. Sir Walter George Frank Phillimore, Bart., D.C.L., LL.D. Judge of the King's Bench Division. President of International Law Association, 1905. Author of Book of Church Law. Editor of 2nd edition of Phillimore' 1 s ' Ecclesiastical Law ; 3rd edition of vol. iv. of Phillimore' s International Law ; &c. J Dog {in part). Ecclesiasticus. Dynamometer. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, -I Differences, Calculus of. Divorce: United Slatei. Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction. William Henry. Founder and Chief Secretary to the Royal Life Saving Society. Associate of the Order of St John of Jerusalem. Joint Author of Swimming, (Badminton Library) ; ' &c. Walter Hunter, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., F.G.S. Consulting Engineer for Waterworks to Crown Agents for the Colonies. Member of Council of Institute of Civil Engineers. Silver Medallist, Royal Society of Arts. - Originator of Staines Scheme of Storage Reservoirs. Has reported on Waterworks at Accra, Secconder and Lagos; also on Rand Water Supply. William Henry Maxwell, A.M.I. C.E. Borough and Waterworks Engineer, Tunbridge Wells. Formerly President of Institute of Sanitary Engineers, London. Author of Refuse Destructors; &c. ' Joint Editor of Encyclopaedia of Municipal and Sanitary Engineering. [_ William Lawson Grant, M.A. _ [ Professor at Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly Beit Lecturer in J Dorchester 1st Baron. Colonial History at Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy Council, Colonial 1 ' series; Canadian Constitutional Development (in collaboration). L William Minto, M.A. See the biographical article: Minto, William. Drowning and Life Saving. Dredge and Dredging: Hydraulic Engineering. Destructors. William Michael Rossetti. See the biographical article: Rossetti, Dante Gabriel. J Dryden {in part). JDolci; Domenichino; \ Dyce, William; Eastlake. William Napier Shaw, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S. Director of the Meteorological Office. Reader in Meteorology in the University of London. President of Permanent International Meteorological Committee. Member of Meteorological Council, 1897-1905. Hon. Fellow of Emmanuel College, Cambridge. Senior Tutor, 1890-1899. Joint Author of Text Book of Practical Physics; &c. Dew. XIV INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES W. 0. A. W. R. E. H. W. R. L. W. S. J. W. W. W. W. R.* Dietetics (in part). Dynamite. Wilbur Olin Atwater, Ph.D. (1844-1907). Formerly Professor of Chemistry, Wesleyan University, U.S.A. Special Agent of " the United States Department of Agriculture in charge of Nutrition Investigations. William Richard Eaton Hodgkinson, Ph.D., F.R.S. Professor of Chemistry and Physics, Ordnance College, Woolwich. Formerly . Professor of Chemistry and Physics, R.M.A., Woolwich. Part author of Valentin- Hodgkinson's Practical Chemistry; &c. L W. R. Lethaby, F.S.A. f Principal of the Central School of Arts and Crafts under the London County Council, "j Design. Author of Architecture, Mysticism and Myth; &c. I William Stanley Jevons, LL.D. See the biographical article: Jevons, William Stanley. William Wallace. See the biographical article: Wallace, William (1 844-1 897). William Walker Rockwell, Lic.Theol. _ _ f D . a vno a f Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Thedlogical Seminary, New York. \ oynou 01. ■j De Morgan. -j Descartes. PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES Democratic Party. Democritus. • Derbyshire. Desmoulins. Detroit. Devonshire. De Witt, John. Diabetes. Diamond Necklace. Dice. Dictionary. Didache. Dietary. Dietrich of Bern. Digitalis. Dijon. Dionysius. Diphtheria. Distress. Dittersdorf, Karl D. von. Divining-rod. Dockyards. Doge. Dominoes. Donatists. Donegal. Dorset, Earls, Marquesses and Dukes of. Dorsetshire. Douglas: Family. Dover. Down. Dragoman. Drainage of Land. Drake, Sir Francis. Dresden. Dropsy. Drummond of Hawthornden. Drunkenness. Dualism. Dublin. Dunbar. Dundee, Viscount. Dundee: City. Dundonald. Duns Scotus. Durban. Durham. Dutch East India Company. Dutch West India Company. Dwarf. Dyaks. Dysentery. Dyspepsia. Earth. Eastern Bengal and Assam. East India Company. Ebionites. Ecarte. Ecclesiastical Law. Eclecticism. Edgeworth. Edinburgh. Edinburghshire. ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME VIII DEMIJOHN, a glass bottle or jar with a large round body and narrow neck, encased in wicker-work and provided with handles. The word is also used of an earthenware jar, similarly covered with wicker. The capacity of a demijohn varies from two to twelve gallons, but the common size contains five gallons. According to the New English Dictionary the word is an adapta- tion of a French Dame Jeanne, or Dame Jane, an application of a personal name to an object which is not uncommon; cf. the use of " Toby " for a particular form of jug and the many uses of the name " Jack." DEMISE, an Anglo-French legal term (from the Fr. dimettre, Lat. dimittere, to send away) for a transfer of an estate, especially by lease. The word has an operative effect in a lease implying a covenant for " quiet enjoyment " (see Landlord and Tenant). The phrase " demise of the crown " is used in English law to signify the immediate transfer of the sovereignty, with all its attributes and prerogatives, to the successor without any inter- regnum in accordance with the maxim " the king never dies." At common law the death of the sovereign eo facto dissolved parliament, but this was abolished by the Representation of the People Act 1867, §51. Similarly the common law doctrine that all offices held under the crown determined at its demise has been negatived by the Demise of the Crown Act 1901. " Demise " is thus often used loosely for death or decease. DEMIURGE (Gr. Syniovpyos, from Srinios, of or for the people, and epyov, work) , a handicraftsman or artisan. In Homer the word has a wide application, including not only hand-workers but even heralds and physicians. In Attica the demiurgi formed one of the three classes (with the Eupatridae and the geomori, georgi or agroeci) into which the early population was divided (cf. Arist. Ath. Pol. xiii. 2). They represented either a class of the whole population, or, according to Busolt, a commercial nobility (see Eupatridae). In the sense of " worker for the people " the word was used throughout the Peloponnese, with the excep- tion of Sparta, and in many parts of Greece, for a higher magistrate. The demiurgi among other officials represent Elis and Mantineia at the treaty of peace between Athens, Argos, Elis andMantineiain420B.c. (Thuc. v. 47). In the Achaean League (q.v.) the name is given to ten elective officers who presided over the assembly, and Corinth sent " Epidemiurgi " every year to Potidaea, officials who apparently answered to the Spartan harmosts. In Plato drjiuovpyos is the name given to the " creator of the world " (Timaeus, 40) and the word was so adopted by the Gnostics (see Gnosticism). DEMMIN, a town of Germany, kingdom of Prussia, on the navigable river Peene (which in the immediate neighbourhood receives the Trebel and the Tollense), 72 m. W.N.W. of Stettin, on the Berlin-Stralsund railway. Pop. (1905) 12,541. It has manufactures of textiles, besides breweries, distilleries and tanneries, and an active trade in corn and timber. vm — 1 The town is of Slavonian origin and of considerable antiquity, and was a place of importance in the time of Charlemagne. It was besieged by a German army in 1 148, and captured by Henry the Lion in 1164. In the Thirty Years' War Demmin was the object of frequent conflicts, and even after the peace of West- phalia was taken and retaken in the contest between the electoral prince and the Swedes. It passed to Prussia in 1720, and its fortifications were dismantled in 1759. In 1807 several engage- ments took place in the vicinity between the French and Russians. DEMOCHARES (c. 355-275 B.C.), nephew of Demosthenes, Athenian orator and stateman, was one of the few distinguished Athenians in the period of decline. He is first heard of in 322, when he spoke in vain against the surrender of Demosthenes and the other anti-Macedonian orators demanded by Antipater. During the next fifteen years he probably lived in exile. On the restoration of the democracy by Demetrius Poliorcetes in 307 he occupied a prominent position, but was banished in 303 for having ridiculed the decree of Stratocles, which contained a fulsome eulogy of Demetrius. He was recalled in 298, and during the next four years * fortified and equipped the city with provisions and ammunition. In 296 (or 295) he was again banished for having concluded an alliance with the Boeotians, and did not return until 287 (or 286). In 280 he induced the Athenians to erect a public monument in honour of his uncle with a suitable inscription. After his death (some five years later) the son of Demochares proposed and obtained a decree (Plutarch, Vitae decern oratorum,p. 851) that a statue should be erected in his honour, containing a record of his public services, which seem to have consisted in a reduction of public expenses, a more prudent management of the state finances (after his return in 287) and successful begging missions to the rulers of Egypt and Macedonia. Although a friend of the Stoic Zeno, Demochares regarded all other philosophers as the enemies of freedom, and in 306 supported the proposal of one Sophocles, advocating their expulsion from Attica. According to Cicero (Brutus, 83) Demo- chares was the author of a history of his own times, written in an oratorical rather than a historical style. As a speaker he was noted for his freedom of language (Parrhesiastes, Seneca, De ira, iii. 23). He was violently attacked by Timaeus, but found a strenuous defender in Polybius (xii. 13). See also Plutarch, Demosthenes, 30, Demetrius, 24, Vitae decern oratorum, p. 847; J. G. Droysen's essay on Demochares in Zeit- schriftfiir die Altertumswissenschaft (1836), Nos. 20, 21. DEMOCRACY (Gr. S^juoKpcma, from Sij^os, the people, i.e. the commons, and updros, rule), in political science, that form of government in which the people rules itself, either directly, as in the small city-states of Greece, or through representatives. According to Aristotle, democracy is the perverted form of the 1 For the " four years' war " and the chronological questions in- volved, see C. W. Muller, Frag. Hist. Craec. ii. 445. 11 DEMOCRATIC PARTY third form of government, which he called irohreia., " polity " or " constitutional government," the rule of the majority of the free and equal citizens, as opposed to monarchy and aristocracy, the rule respectively of an individual and of a minority consist- ing of the best citizens (see Government and Aristocracy). Aristotle's restriction of " democracy " to bad popular govern- ment, i.e. mob-rule, or, as it has sometimes been called, " ochlocracy " (oxXos, mob), was due to, the fact that the Athenian democracy had in his day degenerated far, below the ideals of the 5th century, when it reached its zenith under Pericles. Since Aristotle's day the word has resumed its natural meaning, but democracy in modern times is a very different thing from what it was in its best days in Greece and Rome. The Greek states were what are known as " city-states," the characteristic of which was that all the citizens could assemble together in the city at regular intervals for legislative and other purposes. This sovereign assembly of the people was known at Athens as the Ecclesia (?.».), at Sparta as the Apella (q.v.), at Rome variously as the Comitia Centuriata or the Concilium Plebis (see Comitia). Of representative government in the modern sense there is practically no trace in Athenian history, though certain of the magistrates (see Strategus) had a quasi-representative char- acter. Direct democracy is impossible except in small states. In the second place the qualification for citizenship was rigorous; thus Pericles restricted citizenship to those who were the sons of an Athenian father, himself a citizen, and an Athenian mother (e£ an4>6iv Lardiv) . This system excluded not only all the slaves, who were more numerous than the free population, but also resident aliens, subject allies, and those Athenians whose descent did not satisfy this criterion (t ykva. ixij icaJBapol). The Athenian democracy, which was typical in ancient Greece, was a highly exclusive form of government. With the growth of empire and nation states this narrow parochial type of democracy became impossible. The population became too large and the distance too great for regular assemblies of qualified citizens. The rigid distinction of citizens and non- citizens was progressively more difficult to maintain, and new criteria of citizenship came into force. The first difficulty has been met by various forms of representative government. The second problem has been solved in various ways in different countries; moderate democracies have adopted a low property qualification, while extreme democracy is based on the exten- sion of citizenship to all adult persons with or without dis- tinction of sex. The essence of modern representative govern- ment is that the people does not govern itself, but periodically elects those who shall govern on its behalf (see Government; Representation). DEMOCRATIC PARTY, originally Democratic-Republican Party, the oldest of existing political parties in the United States. Its origin lay in the principles of local self-government and repugnance to social and political aristocracy established as cardinal tenets of American colonial democracy, which by the War of Independence, which was essentially a democratic move- ment, became the basis of the political institutions of the nation. The evils of lax government, both central and state, under the Confederation caused, however, a marked anti-democratic reaction, and this united with the temperamental conservatism of the framers of the constitution of 1787 in the shaping of that conservative instrument. The influences and interests for and against its adoption took form in the groupings of Federalists and Anti-Federalists, and these, after the creation of the new government, became respectively, in underlying principles, and, to a large extent, in personnel, the Federalist party (q.v.) and the Democratic-Republican party. 1 The latter, organized by Thomas Jefferson in opposition to the Federalists dominated by Alexander Hamilton, was a real party by 1792. The great service of attaching to the constitution a democratic bill of rights be- longs to the Anti-Federalists or Democratic-Republican party, although this was then amorphous. The Democratic-Republican party gained full control of the government, save the judiciary, 1 The Drefix " Democratic " was not used by Jefferson; it became established, however, and official. in 1801, and controlled it continuously thereafter until 1825. No political " platforms " were then known, but the writings of Jefferson, who dominated his party throughout this period, take the place of such. His inaugural address of 180 1 is a famous statement of democratic principles, which to-day are taken for granted only because, through the party organized by him to secure their success, they became universally accepted as the ideal of American institutions. In all the colonies, says John Adams, " a court and a country party had always contended "; Jefferson's followers believed sincerely that the Federalists were a new court party, and monarchist. Hence they called themselves " Republicans " as against monarchists, — standing also, incident- ally, for States' rights against the centralization that monarchy (or any approach to it) implied; and " Democrats " as against aristocrats, — standing for the " common rights of Englishmen," the " rights of man," the levelling of social ranks and the widen- ing bf political privileges. In the early years of its history — and during the period of the French Revolution and afterwards — the Republicans sympathized with the French as against the British, the Federalists with the British as against the French. Devotion to abstract principles of democracy and liberty, and in practical politics a strict construction of the constitution, in order to prevent an aggrandizement of national power at the expense of the states (which were nearer popular control) or the citizens, have been permanent characteristics of the Democratic party as contrasted with its principal opponents; but neither these nor any other distinctions have been continuously or consistently true throughout its long course. 2 After 1801 the commercial and manufacturing nationalistic 3 elements of the Federalist party, being now dependent on Jefferson for protection, gradually went over to the Republicans, especially after the War of 18.12; moreover, administration of government naturally developed in Republican ranks a group of broad-constructionists. These groups fused, and became an independent party. 4 They called themselves National Republicans, while the Jacksonian Republicans soon came to be known simply as Democrats. 6 Immediately afterward followed the tremendous victory of the Jacksonians in 1828, — a great advance in radical democracy over the victory of 1800. In the interval the Federalist party had disappeared, and practically the entire country, embracing Jeffersonian democracy, had passed through the school of the Republican party. It had established the power of the "people " in the sense of that word in present-day American politics. Bills of rights in every state constitution protected the citizen; some state judges were already elective; very soon the people came to nominate their presidential candidates in national conven- tions, and draft their party platforms through their conven- tion representatives. 6 After the National Republican scission the Democratic party, weakened thereby in its nationalistic tendencies, and deprived of the leadership of Jackson, fell quickly under the control of its Southern adherents and became virtually sectional in its objects. Its states' rights doctrine was turned to the defence of slavery. In thus opposing anti-slavery sentiment — inconsistently, alike as regarded the " rights of man " and constitutional construction, with its original and permanent 2 Under the rubric of " strict construction " fall the greatest struggles in the party's history: those over the United States Bank, over tariffs — for protection or for " revenue " only — over " internal improvements," over issues of administrative economy in pro- viding for the " general welfare," &c. The course of the party has frequently been inconsistent, and its doctrines have shown, absolutely considered, progressive latitudinarianism. * " Nationalistic " is used here and below, not in the sense of a general nationalistic spirit, such as that of Jackson, but to indicate the centralizing tendency of a broad construction of constitutional powers in behalf of commerce and manufactures. 4 Standing for protective tariffs, internal improvements, &c. 6 It should be borne in mind, however, that the Democratic party of Jackson was not Strictly identical with the Democratic-Republican party of Jefferson, — and some writers date back the origin of the present Democratic party only to 1828— 1829. * The Democratic national convention of 1832 was preceded by an Anti-Masonic convention of 1830 and by the National-Republican convention of 1831; but the Democratic platform of 1840 was the first of its kind. DEMOCRrruS principles— it lost morale and power. As a result of the contest over Kansas it became fatally divided, and in i860 put forward two presidential tickets: one representing the doctrine of Jefferson Davis that the constitution recognized slave-property, and therefore the national government must protect slavery in the territories; the other representing Douglas's doctrine that the inhabitants of a territory might virtually exclude slavery by " unfriendly legislation." The combined popular votes for the two tickets exceeded that cast by the new, anti-slavery Republican party (the second of the name) for Lincoln; but the election was lost. During the ensuing Civil War such members of the party as did not become War Democrats antagonized the Lincoln administration, and in 1864 made the great blunder of pronounc- ing the war " a failure." Owing to Republican errors in recon- struction and the scandals of President Grant's administration, the party gradually regained its strength and morale, until, having largely subordinated Southern questions to economic issues, it cast for Tilden for president in 1876 a popular vote greater than that obtained by the Republican candidate, Hayes, and gained control of the House of Representatives. The Electoral Commission, however, made Hayes president, and the quiet acceptance of this decision by the Democratic party did it considerable credit. Since 1877 the Southern states have been almost solidly Democratic; but, except on the negro question, such unanimity among Southern whites has been, naturally, factitious; and by no means an unmixed good for the party. Apart from the "Solid South," the period after 1875 is characterized by two other party difficulties. The first was the attempt from 1878 to 1896 to "straddle" the silver issue; 1 the second, an attempt after 1896 to harmonize general elements of conservatism and radicalism within the party. In 1896 the South and West gained control of the organization, and the national campaigns of 1896 and 1900 were fought and lost mainly on the issue of " free silver," which, however, was abandoned before 1904. After 1898 " imperialism," to which the Democrats were hostile, became another issue. Finally, after 1896, there became very apparent in the party a tendency to attract the radical elements of society in the general re-alignment of parties taking place on industrial-social issues; the Democratic party apparently attracting, in this readjustment, the " radicals " and the " masses " as in the time of Jefferson and Jackson. In this process , in the years 1 896- 1 900, it took over many of the principles and absorbed, in large part, the members of the radical third- party of the " Populists," only to be confronted thereupon by the growing strength of Socialism, challenging it to a farther radical widening of its programme. From i860 to 1908 it elected but a single president (Grover Cleveland, 1885-1889 and 1893-1897). 2 All American parties accepted long ago in theory " Jeffersonian democracy "; but the Democratic party has been " the political champion of those elements of the [American] democracy which are most democratic. It stands nearest the people." 3 It may be noted that the Jeffersonian Republicans did not attempt to democratize the constitution itself. The choice of a president was soon popularized, however, in effect; and the popular election of United States senators is to-day a definite Demo- cratic tenet. 4 Bibliography. — For an exposition of the party's principles see Thomas Jefferson, Writings, ed. by P. L. Ford (10 vols., New York, 1892-1899); J. P. Foley (ed.), The Jeffersonian Cyclopaedia (New York, 1900) ; and especially the Campaign Text-Books of more recent 'The attitude of the Republican party was no less inconsistent and evasive. 2 It controlled the House of Representatives from 1874 to 1894 except in 1880-1882 and 1888-1890; but except for a time in Cleveland's second term, there were never simultaneously a Democratic president and a Democratic majority in Congress. 8 Professor A. D. Morse in International Monthly, October 1900. He adds, " It has done more to Americanize the foreigner than all other parties." (It is predominant in the great cities of the country.) 4 In connexion with the prevalent popular tendency to regard the president as a people's tribune, it may be noted that a strong pre- sidential veto is, historically, peculiarly a Democratic contribution, owing to the history of Jackson's (compare Cleveland's) adminis- tration. times, usually' issued by the national Democratic committee in alternate years, and M. Carey, The Democratic Speaker's Hand- book (Cincinnati, 1868). For a hostile criticism of the party, see W.D.Jones, Mirror of Modern Democracy; History of the Democratic Party from 182s to 1861 (New York, 1864)'; Jonathan Norcross,.fl r i.ytory of Democracy Considered as a Party-Name and a Political Organiza- tion (New York, 1883) ; J. H. Patton, The Democratic Party: Its Political History and Influence (New York, 1884). Favourable treatises are R. H. Gillet, Democracy in the United States (New York, 1868); and George Fitch, Political Facts: an Historical Text-Book of the Democratic and Other Parties (Baltimore, 1884). See also, for general political history, Thomas H. Benton, Thirty Years' View (2 vols., New York, 1854-1856, and later editions) ; James G. Blaine, Twenty Years of Congress (2 vols., Norwich, Conn., 1884- 1893); S. S. Cox, Three Decades of Federal Legislation (Providence, 1885); S. P. Orth, Five American Politicians: a Study in the Evolution of American Politics (Cleveland, 1906), containing sketches of four Democratic leaders — Burr, DeWitt Clinton, Van Burenand Douglas; }. Macy, Party Organization and Machinery (New York, 1904); . H. Hopkins, History of Political Parties in the United States (New York, 1900) ; E. S. Stanwood, History of the Presidency (last ed., Boston, 1904) ; J. P. Gordy, History of Political Parties, 1. (New York, 1900) ; H. J. Ford, Rise and Growth of American Politics (New York, 1898) ; Alexander Johnston, History of American Politics (New York, 1900, and later editions); C. E. Merriam, A History of American Political Theories (New York, 1903), containing chapters on the Jeffersonian and the Jacksonian Democracy; and James A. Woodburn, Political Parties and Party Problems in the United States (New Yprk, 1903). DEMOCRITUS, probably the greatest of the Greek physical philosophers, was a native of Abdera in Thrace, or as some say — probably wrongly — of Miletus (Diog. Laert. ix. 34). Our knowledge of his life is based almost entirely on tradition of an untrustworthy kind. He seems to have been born about 470 or 460 B.C., and was, therefore, an older contemporary of Socrates. He inherited a considerable property, which enabled him to travel widely in the East in search of information. In Egypt he settled for seven years, during which he studied the mathe- matical and physical systems of the ancient schools. The extent to which he was influenced by the Magi and the Eastern astrologists is a matter of pure conjecture. He returned from his travels impoverished; one tradition says that he received 500 talents from his fellow-citizens, and that a public funeral was decreed him. Another tradition states that he was regarded as insane by the Abderitans, and that Hippocrates was summoned to cure him. Diodorus Siculus tells us that he died at the age of ninety; others make him as much as twenty years older. His works, according to Diogenes Laertius, numbered seventy- two, and were characterized by a purity of style which com- pares favourably with that of Plato. The absurd epithet, the " laughing philosopher," applied to him by some unknown and very superficial thinker, may possibly have contributed in some measure to the fact that his importance was for centuries overlooked. It is interesting, however, to notice that Bacon (De Principiis) assigns to him his true place in the history of thought, and points out that both in his own day and later " in the times of Roman learning " he was spoken of in terms of the highest praise. In the variety of his knowledge, and in the importance of his influence on both Greek and modern speculation he was the Aristotle of the 5th century, while the sanity of his metaphysical theory has led many to regard him as the equal, if not the superior, of Plato. His views may be treated under the following heads: — 1. The Atoms and Cosmology (adopted in part at least from the doctrines of Leucippus, though the relations between the two are hopelessly obscure). While agreeing with the Eleatics as to the eternal sameness of Being (nothing can arise out of nothing; nothing can be reduced to nothing), Democritus followed the physicists in denying its oneness and immobility. Movement and plurality being necessary to explain the pheno- mena of the universe and impossible without space (not-Being), he asserted that the latter had an equal right with Being to be considered existent. Being is the Full (irXrjpes, plenum); not-Being is the Void (nev6v, vacuum), the infinite space in which moved the infinite number of atoms into which the single Being of the Eleatics was broken up. These atoms are eternal and invisible; absolutely small, so small that their size cannot be DEMOGEOT— DEMOGRAPHY diminished (hence the name i-roftos, " indivisible ") ; absolutely full and incompressible, they are without pores and entirely fill the space they occupy; homogeneous, differing only in figure (as A from N), arrangement (as AN from NA), position (as N is Z on its side), magnitude (and consequently in weight, although some authorities dispute this). But while the atoms thus differ in quantity, their differences of quality are only apparent, due to the impressions caused on our senses by different configurations and combinations of atoms. A thing is only hot or cold, sweet or bitter, hard or soft by convention (vonq); the only things that exist in reality (erej?) are the atoms and the void. Locke's distinction between primary and secondary qualities is here anticipated. Thus, the atoms of water and iron are the same, but those of the former, being smooth and round, and therefore unable to hook on to one another, roll over and over like small globes, whereas the atoms of iron, being rough, jagged and uneven, cling together and form a solid body. Since all phenomena are composed of the same eternal atoms (just as a tragedy and a comedy contain the same letters) it may be said that nothing comes into being or perishes in the absolute sense of the words (cf. the modern "indestructibility of matter " and " conservation of energy ") , although the compounds of the atoms are liable to increase and decrease, appearance and disappearance — in other words, to birth and death. As the atoms are eternal and uncaused, so is motion; it has its origin in a preceding motion, and so on ad infinitum. For the Love and Hate of Empedocles and the Nous (Intelligence) of Anaxagoras, Demo- critus substituted fixed and necessary laws (not chance; that is a misrepresentation due chiefly to Cicero). Everything can be explained by a purely mechanical (but not fortuitous) system, in which there is no room for the idea of a providence or an intelligent cause working with a view to an end. The origin of the universe was explained as follows. An infinite number of atoms was carried downwards through infinite space. The larger (and heavier), falling with greater velocity, overtook and collided with the smaller (and lighter), which were thereby forced upwards. This caused various lateral and contrary movements, resulting in a whirling movement (Slvrj) resembling the rotation of Anaxagoras, whereby similar atoms were brought together (as in the winnowing of grain) and united to form larger bodies and worlds. Atoms and void being infinite in number and extent, and motion having always existed, there must always have been an infinite number of worlds, all consisting of similar atoms, in various stages of growth and decay. 2. The Soul. — Democritus devoted considerable attention to the structure of the human body, the noblest portion of which he considered to be the soul, which everywhere pervades it, a psychic atom being intercalated between two corporeal atoms. Although, in accordance with his principles, Democritus was bound to regard the soul as material (composed of round, smooth, specially mobile atoms, identified with the fire-atoms floating in the air), he admitted a distinction between it and the body, and is even said to have looked upon it as something divine. These all-pervading soul atoms exercise different functions in different organs; the head is the seat of reason, the heart of anger, the liver of desire. Life is maintained by the inhalation of fresh atoms to replace those lost by exhalation, and when respiration, and consequently the supply of atoms, ceases, the result is death. It follows that the soul perishes with, and in the same sense as, the body. 3. Perception. — Sensations are the changes produced in the soul by external impressions, and are the result of contact, since every action of one body (and all representations are corporeal phenomena) upon another is of the nature of a shock. Certain emanations (ixop/Socu, £7r6ppoicH) or images (eWwXa), consisting of subtle atoms, thrown off from the surface of an object, penetrate the body through the pores. On the principle that like acts upon like, the particular senses are only affected by that which resembles them. We see by means of the eye alone, and hear by means of the ear alone, these organs being best adapted to receive the images or sound currents. The organs are thus merely conduits or passages through which the atoms pour into the soul. The eye, for example, is damp and porous, and the act of seeing consists in the reflection of the image (Seke\ov) mirrored on the smooth moist surface of the pupil. To the interposition of air is due the fact that all visual images are to some extent blurred. At the same time Democritus distinguished between obscure (0*07x17) cognition, resting on sensation alone, and genuine (yvqab)), which is the result of inquiry by reason, and is con- cerned with atoms and void, the only real existences. This knowledge, however, he confessed was exceedingly difficult to attain. It is in Democritus first that we find a real attempt to explain colour. He regards black, red, white and green as primary. White is characteristically smooth, i.e. casting no shadow, even, flat; black is uneven, rough, shadowy and so on. The other colours result from various mixtures of these four, and are infinite in number. Colour itself is not objective; it is found not in the ultimate plenum and vacuum, but only in derived objects according to their physical qualities and relations. 4. Theology. — The system of Democritus was altogether anti- theistic. But, although he rejected the notion of a deity taking part in the creation or government of the universe, he yielded to popular prejudice so far as to admit the existence of a class of beings, of the same form as men, grander, composed of very subtle atoms, less liable to dissolution, but still mortal, dwelling in the upper regions of air. These beings also manifested them- selves to man by means of images in dreams, communicated with him, and sometimes gave him an insight into the future. Some of them were benevolent, others malignant. According to Plutarch, Democritus recognized one god under the form of a fiery sphere, the soul of the world, but this idea is probably of later origin. The popular belief in gods was attributed by Democritus to the desire to explain extraordinary phenomena (thunder, lightning, earthquakes) by reference to superhuman agency. 5. Ethics. — Democritus 's moral system — the first collection of ethical precepts which deserves the name — strongly resembles the negative side of the system of Epicurus. The summum bonum is the maximum of pleasure with the minimum of pain. But true pleasure is not sensual enjoyment; it has its principle in the soul. It consists not in the possession of wealth or flocks and herds, but in good humour, in the just disposition and con- stant tranquillity of the soul. Hence the necessity of avoiding extremes; too much and too little are alike evils. True happi- ness consists in taking advantage of what one has and being content with it (see Ethics). Bibliography. — Fragments edited by F. Mullach (1843) with commentary and in his Fragmenta philosophorum Graecorum, 1.(1860). See also H. Ritter and L. Preller, Historia philosophiae (chap. i. ad fin.); P. Lafaist (Lafaye), Dissertation sur la philosophic ato- mistique (1833); L. Liard, De Democrito philosopho (Paris, 1873); H. C. Liepmann, Die Leucipp-Democritischen Atome (Leipzig, 1886) ; F.A.Lange, Geschichte des Materialismus (Eng.trans. by E. C. Thomas, 1877); G. Hart, Zur Seelen- und Erkenntnislehre des Democritus (Leipzig, 1886) ; P. Natorp, Die Elhika des Demokritos (Marburg, 1893); A. Dyroff, Demokntstudien (Leipzig, 1899); among general works C. A. Brandis, Gesch. d. Entwickelungen d. griech. Philosophie (Bonn, 1 862-1 864); Ed. Zeller, Pre-Socratic Philosophy (Eng.trans., London, 1881); for his theory of sense-perception see especially J. I. Beare, Greek Theories of Elementary Cognition (Oxford, 1906). DEMOGEOT, JACQUES CLAUDE (1808-1894), French man of letters, was born in Paris on the 5th of July 1808. He was professor of rhetoric at the lycee Saint Louis, and subsequently assistant professor at the Sorbonne. He wrifte many detached papers on various literary subjects, and two reports on secondary education in England and Scotland in collaboration with H. Montucci. His reputation rests on his excellent Histoire de la littirature jrancaise depuis ses origines jusqu'A nos jours (1851), which has passed through many subsequent editions. He was also the author of a Tableau de la littirature jrancaise au XVIP sihcle (1859), and of a work (3 vols., 1880-1883) on the influence of foreign literatures on the development of French literature. He died in Paris in 1894. DEMOGRAPHY (from Gr. or}/«>s, people, and ypatu>, to write), the science which deals with the statistics of health and DEMOIVRE— DEMONOLOGY disease, of the physical, intellectual, physiological and economical aspects of births, marriages and mortality. The first to employ the word was Achille Guillard in his Elements de statistique humaine ou dSmographie comparee (1855), but the meaning which he attached to it was merely that of the science which treats of the condition, general movement and progress of population in civilized countries, i.e. little more than what is comprised in the ordinary vital statistics, gleaned from census and registra- tion reports. The word has come to have a much wider meaning and may now be defined as that branch of statistics which deals with the life-conditions of peoples. DEMOIVRE, ABRAHAM (1667-1754), English mathematician of French extraction, was born at Vitry, in Champagne, on the 26th of May 1667. He belonged to a French Protestant family, and was compelled to take refuge in England at the revocation of the edict of Nantes, in 1685. Having laid the foundation of his mathematical studies in France, he prosecuted them further in London, where he read public lectures on natural philosophy for his support. The Principia mathematica of Sir Isaac Newton, which chance threw in his way, caused him to prosecute his studies with vigour, and he soon became distinguished among first-rate mathematicians. He was among the intimate personal friends of Newton, and his eminence and abilities secured his admission into the Royal Society of London in 1697, and after- wards into the Academies of Berlin and Paris. His merit was so well known and acknowledged by the Royal Society that they judged him a fit person to decide the famous contest between Newton and G. W. Leibnitz (see Infinitesimal Calculus). The life of Demoivre was quiet and uneventful. His old age was spent in obscure poverty, his friends and associates having nearly all passed away before him. He died at London, on the 27th 01 November 1754. The Philosophical Transactions contain several of his papers. He also published some excellent works, such as Miscellanea analytica de seriebus et quadraturis (1730), in 4to. This contained some elegant and valuable improvements on then existing methods, which nave themselves, however, long been superseded. But he has been more generally known by his Doctrine of Chances, or Method of Calculating the Probabilities of Events at Play. This work was first printed in 1618, in 4to, and dedicated to Sir Isaac Newton. It was reprinted in 1738, with great alterations and improvements; and a third edition was afterwards published with additions in 1756. He also published a Treatise on Annuities (1725), which has passed through several revised and corrected editions. See C. Hutton, Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary (1815). For Demoivre' s Theorem see Trigonometry: Analytical. DEMONETIZATION, a term employed in monetary science in two different senses, (a) The depriving or divesting of a metal of its standard monetary value. From 1663 to 171 7 silver was the standard of value in England and gold coins passed at their market value. The debasement and underrating of the silver coinage insensibly brought about the demonetization of silver in England as a standard of value and the substitution of gold. During the latter half of the 19th century, the tremendous depreciation of silver, owing to its continually increasing pro- duction, and consequently the impossibility of preserving any ratio of stability between it and gold, led to the abandonment or demonetization of the metal as a standard and to its use merely as token money, (b) The withdrawal of coin from circulation, as, for example, in England that of all pre- Victorian gold coins under the provisions of the Coinage Act 1889, and the royal proclama- tion of the 22nd of November 1890. DEMONOLOGY (Aai/icov, demon, genius, spirit), the branch of the science of religions which relates to superhuman beings which are not gods. It deals both with benevolent beings which have no circle of worshippers or so limited a circle as to be below the rank of gods, and with malevolent beings of all kinds. It may be noted that the original sense of " demon " was a benevolent being; but in English the name now connotes malevolence; in German it has a neutral sense, e.g. Korndamonen. Demons, when they are regarded as spirits, may belong to either of the classes of spirits recognized by primitive animism (q.v.) ; that is to say, they may be human, or non-human, separable souls, or discarnate spirits which have never inhabited a body; a sharp distinction is often drawn between these two classes, notably by the Melanesians, the West Africans and others; the Arab jinn, for example, are not reducible to modified human souls; at the same time these classes are frequently conceived as pro- ducing identical results, e.g. diseases. Under the head of demons are classified only such spirits as are believed to enter into relations with the human race; the term therefore includes (1) human souls regarded as genii or familiars, (2) such as receive a cult (for which see Ancestor Worship), and (3) ghosts or other malevolent revenants; excluded are souls conceived as inhabiting another world. But just as gods are not necessarily spiritual, demons may also be regarded as corporeal; vampires for example are sometimes described as human heads with appended entrails, which issue from the tomb to attack the living during the night watches*. The so-called Spectre Huntsman of the Malay Peninsula is said to be a man who scours the firmament with his dogs, vainly- seeking for what he could not find on earth — a buck mouse-deer pregnant with male offspring; but he seems to be a living man; there is no statement that he ever died, nor yet that he is a spirit. The incubus and succubus of the middle ages are some- times regarded as spiritual beings; but they were held to give very real proof of their bodily existence. It should, however, be remembered that primitive peoples do not distinguish clearly between material and immaterial beings. Prevalence of Demons. — According to a conception of the world frequently found among peoples of the lower cultures, all the affairs of life are supposed to be under the control of spirits, each ruling a certain element or even object, and them- selves in subjection to a greater spirit. Thus, the Eskimo are said to believe in spirits of the sea, earth and sk./, the winds, the clouds and everything in nature. Every cove of the seashore, every point, every island and prominent rock has its guardian spirit. All are of the malignant type, to be propitiated only by acceptable offerings from persons who desire to visit the locality where it is supposed to reside. A rise in culture often results in an increase in the number of spiritual beings with whom man surrounds himself. Thus, the Koreans go far beyond the Eskimo and number their demons by thousands of billions; they fill the chimney, the shed, the living-room, the kitchen, they are on every shelf and jar; in thousands they waylay the traveller as he leaves his home, beside him, behind him, dancing in front of him, whirring over his head, crying out upon him from air, earth and water. Especially complicated was the ancient Babylonian demon- ology ; all the petty annoyances of life — a sudden fall, a headache, a quarrel — were set down to the agency of fiends; all the stronger emotions — love, hate, jealousy and so on — were regarded as the work of demons; in fact so numerous were they, that there were special fiends for various parts of the human body — one for the head, another for the neck, and so on. Similarly in Egypt at the present day the jinn are believed to swarm so thickly that it is necessary to ask their permission before pouring water on the ground, lest one should accidentally be soused and vent his anger on the offending human being. But these beliefs are far from being confined to the uncivilized; Greek philosophers like Porphyry, no less than the fathers of the Church, held that the world was pervaded with spirits; side by side with the belief in witchcraft, we can trace through the middle ages the survival of primitive animistic views; and in our own day even these beliefs subsist in unsuspected vigour among the peasantry of the more uneducated European countries. In fact the ready acceptance of spiritualism testifies to the force with which the primitive animistic way of looking at things appealed to the white races in the middle of the last century. Character of Spiritual World. — The ascription of malevolence to the world of spirits is by no means universal. In West Africa the Mpongwe believe in local spirits, just as do the Eskimo; but they are regarded as inoffensive in the main; true, the passer- by must make some trifling offering as he nears their place of abode; but it is only occasionally that mischievous acts, such as the throwing down of a tree on a passer-by, are, in the view of the DEMONOLOGY natives, perpetuated by the Ombuiri. So too, njany of the spirits especially concerned with the operations of nature are conceived as neutral or even benevolent; the European peasant fears the corn-spirit only when he irritates him by trenching on his domain and taking his property by cutting the corn; similarly, there is no reason why the more insignificant personages of the pantheon should be conceived as malevolent, and we find that the Petara of the Dyaks are far from indiscriminating and malignant, though disease and death are laid at their door. Classification. — Besides the distinctions of human and non- human, hostile and friendly, the demons in which the lower races believe are classified by them according to function, each class with a distinctive name, with extraordinary minuteness, the list in the case of the Malays running to several score. They have, for example, a demon of the waterfall, a demon of wild-beast tracks, a demon which interferes with snares for wild-fowl, a baboon demon, which takes possession of dancers and causes them to perform wonderful feats of climbing, &c. But it is impossible to do more than deal with a few types, which will illustrate the main features of the demonology of savage, barbarous and semi^ civilized peoples. (a) Natural causes, either of death or of disease, are hardly, if at all, recognized by the uncivilized; everything is attributed to spirits or magical influence of some sort. The spirits which cause disease may be human or non-human and their influence is shown in more than one way; they may enter the body of the victim (see Possession), and either dominate his mind as well as his body, inflict specific diseases, or cause pains of various sorts. Thus the Mintra of the Malay Peninsula have a demon corresponding to every kind of disease known to them; the Tasmanian ascribed a gnawing pain to the presence within him of the soul of a dead man, whom he had unwittingly summoned by mentioning his name and who was devouring his liver; the Samoan held that the violation of a food tabu would result in the animal being formed within the body of the offender and cause his death. The demon theory of disease is still attested by some of our medical terms; epilepsy (Gr. «rtXi7^w, seizure) points to the belief that the patient is possessed. As a logical conse- quence of this view of disease the mode of treatment among peoples in the lower stages of culture is mainly magical; they endeavour to propitiate the evil spirits by sacrifice, to expel them by spells, &c. (see Exorcism), to drive them away by blowing, &c. ; conversely we find the Khonds attempt to keep away smallpox ; v placing thorns and brushwood in the paths leading to places decimated by that disease, in the hope of making the disease demon retrace his steps. This theory of disease disappeared sooner than did the belief in possession; the energumens (ivepyovpevot) of the early Christian church, who were under the care of a special clerical order of exorcists, testify to a belief in possession; but the demon theory of disease receives no recog- nition; the energumens find their analogues in the converts of missionaries in China, Africa and elsewhere. Another way in which a demon is held to cause disease is by introducing itself into the patient's body and sucking his blood; the Malays believe that a woman who dies in childbirth becomes a langsuir and sucks the blood of children; victims of the lycanthrope are sometimes said to be done to death in the same way; and it is commonly believed in Africa that the wizard has the power of killing people in this way, probably with the aid of a familiar. (b) One of the primary meanings of balnuv is that of genius or familiar, tutelary spirit; according to Hesiod the men of the golden race became after death guardians or watchers over mortals. The idea is found among the Romans also; they attributed to every man a genius who accompanied him through life. A Norse belief found in Iceland is that the fylgia, a genius in animal form, attends human beings; and these animal guardians may sometimes be seen fighting; in the same way the Siberian shamans send their animal familiars to do battle instead of deciding their quarrels in person. The animal guardian re- appears in the nagual of Central America (see article Totemism), the yunbeai of some Australian tribes, the manitou of the Red Indian and the bush soul of some West African tribes; among the latter the link between animal and human being is said to be established by the ceremony of the blood bond. Corresponding to the animal guardian of the ordinary man, we have the familiar of the witch or wizard. All the world over it is held that such people can assume the form of animals; some- times the power of the shaman is held to depend on his being able to summon his familiar; among the Ostiaks the shaman's coat was covered with representations of birds and beasts; two bear's claws were on his hands; his wand was covered with mouse-skin; when he wished to divine he beat his drum till a black bird appeared and perched on his hut; then the shaman swooned, the bird vanished, and the divination could begin. Similarly the Greenland angekok is said to summon his torngak (which may be an ancestral ghost or an animal) by drumming; he is heard by the bystanders to carry on a conversation and obtain advice as to how to treat diseases, the prospects of good weather and other matters of importance. The familiar, who is sometimes replaced by the devil, commonly figured in witchcraft trials; and a statute of James I. enacted that all persons invok- ing an evil spirit or consulting, covenanting with, entertaining, employing, feeding or rewarding any evil spirit should be guilty of felony and suffer death. In modern spiritualism the familiar is represented by the " guide," corresponding to which we have the theosophical " guru." (c) The familiar is sometimes an ancestral spirit, and here we touch the fringe of the cult of the dead (see also Ancestor Worship). Especially among the lower races the dead are regarded as hostile; the Australian avoids the grave even of a kinsman and elaborate ceremonies of mourning are found amongst most primitive peoples, whose object seems to be to rid the living of the danger they run by association with the ghost of the dead. Among the Zulu the spirits of the dead are held to be friendly or hostile, just as they were in life; on the Congo a man after death joins the good or bad spirits according as his life has been good ot bad. Especially feared among many peoples are the souls of those who have committed suicide or died a violent death; the woman who dies in childbed is held to become a demon of the most dangerous kind; even the unburied, as restless, dis- satisfied spirits, are more feared than ordinary ghosts. Naturally spirits of these latter kinds are more valuable as familiars than ordinary dead men's souls. We find many recipes for securing their aid. In the Malay Peninsula the blood of a murdered man must be put in a bottle and prayers said over; after seven days of this worship a sound is heard and the operator puts his finger into the bottle for the polong, as the demon is called, to suck; it will fly through the air in the shape of an exceedingly diminutive female figure, and is always preceded by its pet, the pelesit, in the shape of a grasshopper. In Europe a similar demon is said to be obtainable from a cock's egg. In South Africa and India, on the other hand, the magician digs up a dead body, especially of a child, to secure a familiar. The evocation of spirits, especially in the form of necromancy, is an important branch of the demon- ology of many peoples; and the peculiarities of trance medium- ship, which seem sufficiently established by modern research, go far to explain the vogue of this art. It seems to have been common among the Jews, and the case of the witch of Endor is narrated in a way to suggest something beyond fraud; in the book of magic which bears the name of Dr Faustus may be found many of the formulae for raising demons; in England may be mentioned especially Dr Dee as one of the most famous of those who claimed before the days of modern spiritualism (q.v.) to have intercourse with the unseen world and to summon demons at his will. Sometimes the spirits were summoned to appear as did the phantoms of the Greek heroes to Odysseus; some- times they were called to enter a crystal (see Crystai-Gazing) ; sometimes they are merely asked to declare the future or com- municate by moving external objects without taking a visible form; thus among the Karens at the close of the burial cere- monies the ghost of the dead man, which is said to hover round till the rites are completed, is believed to make a ring swing round and snap the string from which it hangs. (d) The vampire is a particular form of demon which calls for DEMONOLOGY ■7 some notice. In the Malay Peninsula, parts of Polynesia, &c., it is conceived as a head with attached enftails, which issues, it may be from the grave, to suck the blood of living human beings. According to the Malays a penanggalan (vampire) is a living witch, and can be killed if she can be caught; she is especially feared in houses where a birth has taken place and it is the custom to hang up a bunch of thistle in order to catch her; she is said to keep vinegar at home to aid her in re-entering her own body. In Europe the Slavonic area is the principal seat of vampire beliefs, and here too we find, as a natural development, that means of preventing the dead from injuring the living have been evolved by the popular mind. The corpse of the vampire, which may often be recognized by its unnaturally ruddy and fresh appearance, should be staked down in the grave or its head should be cut off; it is interesting to note that the cutting off of heads of the dead was a neolithic burial rite. (e) The vampire is frequently blended in popular idea with the Poltergeist (q.v.) or knocking spirit, and also with the werwolf (see Lycanthropy). (/) As might be expected, dream demons are very common; in fact the word " nightmare " (A.S. mcsr, spirit, elf) preserves for us a record of this form of belief, which is found right down to the lowest planes of culture. The Australian, when he suffers from an oppression in his sleep, says that Koin is trying to throttle him; the Caribs say that Maboya beats them in their sleep; and the belief persists to this day in some parts of Europe; horses too are said to be subject to the persecutions of demons, which ride them at night. Another class of nocturnal demons are the incubi and succubi, who are said to consort with human beings in their sleep; in the Antilles these were the ghosts of the dead; in New Zealand likewise ancestral deities formed liaisons with females; in the Samoan Islands the inferior gods were regarded as the fathers of children otherwise unaccounted for; the Hindus have rites prescribed by which a companion nymph may be secured. The question of the real existence of incubi and succubi, whom the Romans identified with the fauns, was gravely discussed by trie fathers of the church ; and in 1418 Innocent VIII. set forth the doctrine of lecherous demons as an indisputable fact; and in the history of the Inquisition and of trials for witch- craft may be found the confessions of many who bore witness to their reality. In the Anatomy of Melancholy Burton assures us that they were never more numerous than in a.d. 1600. (g) Corresponding to the personal tutelary spirit {supra, b) we have the genii of buildings and places. The Romans celebrated the birthday of a town and of its genius, just as they celebrated that of a man; and a snake was a frequent form for this kind of demon; when we compare with this the South African belief that the snakes which are in the neighbourhood of the kraal are the incarnations, of the ancestors of the residents, it seems probable that some similar idea lay at the bottom of the Roman belief; to this day in European folklore the house snake or toad, which lives in the cellar, is regarded as the " life index " or other self of the father of the house; the death of one involves the death of the other, according to popular belief. The assignment of genii to buildings and gates is connected with an important class of sacrifices; in order to provide a tutelary spirit, or to appease chthonic deities, it was often the custom to sacrifice a human being or an animal at the foundation of a building; sometimes we find a similar guardian provided for the frontier of a country or of a tribe. The house spirit is, however, not necessarily connected with this idea. In Russia the domovoi (house spirit) is an important personage in folk-belief; he may object to certain kinds of animals, or to certain colours in cattle; and must, generally speaking, be propitiated and cared for. Corresponding to him we have the drudging goblin of English folklore. (h) It has been shown above how the animistic creed postulates the existence of all kinds of local spirits, which are sometimes tied to their habitats, sometimes free to wander. Especially prominent in Europe, classical, medieval and modern, and in East Asia, is the spirit of the lake, river, spring, or well, often conceived as human, but also in the form of a bull or horse ; the term Old Nick may refer to the water-horse Nok. Less specialized in their functions are many of the figures of modern folklore, some of whom have perhaps replaced some ancient goddess, e.g. Frau Holda; others, like the Welsh Pwck, the Lancashire boggarts or the more widely found Jack-o'-Lantern (Will o' the Wisp), are sprites who do no more harm than leading the wanderer astray. The banshee is perhaps connected with ancestral or house spirits; the Wild Huntsman, the Gabriel hounds, the Seven Whistlers, &c, are traceable to some actual phenomenon; but the great mass of British goblindom cannot now be traced back to savage or barbarous analogues. Among other local sprites may be mentioned the kobolds or spirits of the mines. The fairies (see Fairy), located in the fairy knolls by the inhabitants of the Shetlands, may also be put under this head. (i) The subject of plant souls is referred to in connexion with animism (q.v.); but certain aspects of this phase of belief demand more detailed treatment. Outside the European area vegetation spirits of all kinds seem to be conceived, as a rule, as anthropomorphic; in classical Europe, and parts of the Slavonic area at the present day, the tree spirit was believed to have the form of a goat, or to have goats' feet. Of special importance in Europe is the conception of the so-called " corn spirit "; W. Mannhardt collected a mass of information proving that the life of the corn is supposed to exist apart from the corn itself and to take the form, sometimes of an animal, sometimes of a man or woman, sometimes of a child. There is, however, no proof that the belief is animistic in the proper sense. The animal which popular belief identified with the corn demon is sometimes killed in the spring in order to mingle its blood or bones with the seed; at harvest-time it is supposed to sit in the last corn and the animals driven out from it are sometimes killed; at others the reaper who cuts the last ear is said to have killed the " wolf " or the " dog," and sometimes receives the name of " wolf " or " dog " and retains it till the next harvest. The corn spirit is also said to be hiding in the barn till the corn is threshed, or it may be said to reappear at midwinter, when the farmer begins to think of his new year of labour and harvest. Side by side with the conception of the corn spirit as an animal is the anthropomorphic view of it; and this element must have predominated in the evolution of the cereal deities like Demeter; at the same time traces of the association of gods and goddesses of corn with animal embodiments of the corn spirit are found. (j) In many parts of the world, and especially in Africa, is found the conception termed the " otiose creator "; that is to say, the belief in a great deity, who is the author of all that exists but is too remote from the world and too high above terrestrial things to concern himself with the details of the universe. As a natural result of this belief we find the view that the operations of nature are conducted by a multitude of more or less obedient subordinate deities; thus, in Portuguese West Africa the Kimbunda believe in Suku-Vakange, but hold that he has com- mitted the government of the universe to innumerable kilulu good and bad; the latter kind are held to be far more numerous, but Suku-Vakange is said to keep them in order by occasionally smiting them with his thunderbolts; were it not for this, man's lot would be insupportable. Sometimes the gods of an older religion degenerate into the demons of the belief which supersedes it. A conspicuous example of this is found in the attitude of the Hebrew prophets to the gods of the nations, whose power they recognize without admitting their claim to reverence and sacrifice. The same tendency is seen in many early missionary works and is far from being without influence even at the present day. In the folklore of European countries goblindom is peopled by gods and nature-spirits of an earlier heathendom. We may also compare the Persian devs with the Indian devas. Expulsion of Demons. — In connexion with demonology mention must be made of the custom of expelling ghosts, spirits or evils generally. Primitive peoples from the Australians upwards celebrate, usually at fixed intervals, a driving out of hurtful influences. Sometimes, as among the Australians, it is merely the ghosts of those who have died in the year which are thus 8 DE MORGAN driven out; from this custom must be distinguished another, which consists in dismissing the souls of the dead at the close of the year and sending them on their journey to the other world; this latter custom seems to have an entirely different origin and to be due to love and not fear of the dead. In other cases it is believed that evil spirits generally or even non-personal evils such as sins are believed to be expelled. In these customs originated perhaps the scapegoat, some forms of sacrifice (q.v.) and other cathartic ceremonies. Bibliography. — Tylor, Primitive Culture; Frazer, Golden Bough; Skeat, Malay Magic; Bastian, Der Mensch in der Geschichte; Callaway, Religion of the Amazulu; Hild, Etude sur les demons; Welcker, Griechische Gotterlehre, i. 731 ; Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. xxvi. 79; Calmet, Dissertation sur les esprits; Maury, La Magie; L. W. King, Babylonian Magie; Lenormant, La Magie chez les Chaldeens; R. C. Thompson, Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia; Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie; Roskoff , Geschichte des Teuf els ; Sibly, Illustration of the Occult Sciences; Scott, Demonology; Pitcairn, Scottish Criminal Trials ; Jewish Quarterly Rev. viii. 576, &c. ; Horst, Zauberbibliothek; Jewish Encyclopedia, s.v. " Demonology." See also bibliography to Possession, Animism and other articles. (N. W. T.) DE MORGAN, AUGUSTUS (1806-1871), English mathema- tician and logician, was born in June 1806, at Madura, in the Madras presidency. His father, Colonel John De Morgan, was employed in the East India Company's service, and his grand- father and great-grandfather had served under Warren Hastings. On the mother's side he was descended from JamesDodson,F.R.S., author of the Anti-logarithmic Canon and other mathematical works of merit, and a friend of Abraham Demoivre. Seven months after the birth of Augustus, Colonel De Morgan brought his wife, daughter and infant son to England, where he left them during a subsequent period of service in India, dying in 181 6 on his way home. Augustus De Morgan received his early education in several private schools, and before the age of fourteen years had learned Latin, Greek and some Hebrew, in addition to acquiring much general knowledge. At the age of sixteen years and a half he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, and studied mathematics, partly under the tuition of Sir G. B. Airy. In 1825 he gained a Trinity scholarship. De Morgan's love of wide reading some- what interfered with his success in the mathematical tripos, in which he took the fourth place in 1827. He was prevented from taking his M.A. degree, or from obtaining a fellowship, by his conscientious objection to signing the theological tests then required from masters of arts and fellows at Cambridge. A career in his own university being closed against him, he entered Lincoln's Inn ; but had hardly done so when the establish- ment, in 1828, of the university of London, in Gower Street, afterwards known as University College, gave him an opportunity of continuing his mathematical pursuits. At the early age of twenty-two he gave his first lecture as professor of mathematics in the college which he served with the utmost zeal and success for a third of a century. His connexion with the college, indeed, was interrupted in 183 1, when a disagreement with the governing body caused De Morgan and some other professors to resign their chairs simultaneously. When, in 1836, his successor was acci- dentally drowned, De Morgan was requested to resume the professorship. In 1837 he married Sophia Elizabeth," daughter of William Frend, a Unitarian in faith, a mathematician and actuary in occupation, a notice of whose life, written by his son-in-law, will be found in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (vol. v.). They settled in Chelsea (30 Cheyne Row), where in later years Mrs De Morgan had a large circle of intellectual and artistic friends. As a teacher of mathematics De Morgan was unrivalled. He gave instruction in the form of continuous lectures delivered extempore from brief notes. The most prolonged mathematical reasoning, and the most intricate formulae, were given with almost infallible accuracy from the resources of his extraordinary memory. De Morgan's writings, however excellent, give little idea of the perspicuity and elegance of his viva voce expositions, which never failed to fix the attention of all who were worthy of hearing him. Many of his pupils have distinguished them- selves, and, through%saac Todhunter and E. J. Routh, he had an important influence on the later Cambridge school. For thirty years he took an active part in the business of the Royal Astronomical Society, editing its publications, supplying obituary notices of members, and for eighteen years acting as one of the honorary secretaries. He was also frequently employed as con- sulting actuary, a business in which his mathematical powers, combined with sound judgment and business-like habits, fitted him to take the highest place. De Morgan's mathematical writings contributed powerfully towards the progress of the science. His memoirs on the " Foundation of Algebra," in the 7th and 8th volumes of the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions, contain some of the most important contributions which haye been made to the philosophy of mathematical method; and Sir W. Rowan Hamilton, in the preface to his Lectures on Quaternions, refers more than once to those papers as having led and encouraged him in the working out of the new system of quaternions. The work on Trigon- ometry and Double Algebra (1849) contains in the latter part a most luminous and philosophical view of existing and possible systems of symbolic calculus. But De Morgan's influence on mathematical science in England can only be estimated by a review of his long series of publications, which commence, in 1828, with a translation of part of Bourdon's Elements of Algebra, prepared for his students. In 1830 appeared the first edition of his well-known Elements of Arithmetic, which did much to raise the character of elementary training. It is distinguished by a simple yet thoroughly philosophical treatment of the ideas of number and magnitude, as well as by the introduction of new abbreviated processes of computation, to which De Morgan always attributed much practical importance. Second and third editions were called for in 1832 and 1835; a sixth edition was issued in 1876. De Morgan's other principal mathematical works were The Elements of 'Algebra (1835), a valuable but some- what dry elementary treatise; the Essay on Probabilities (1838), forming the 107th volume of Lardner's Cyclopaedia, which forms a valuable introduction to the subject; and The Elements of Trigonometry and Trigonometrical Analysis, preliminary to the Differential Calculus (1837). Several of his mathematical works were published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Know- ledge, of which De Morgan was at <5ne time an active member. Among these may be mentioned the Treatise on the Differential and Integral Calculus (1842); the Elementary Illustrations of the Differential and Integral Calculus, first published in 1832, but often bound up with the larger treatise; the essay, On the Study and Difficulties of Mathematics (183 1); and a brief treatise on Spherical Trigonometry (1834). By some accident the work on probability in the same series, written by Sir J. W. Lubbock and J. Drinkwater-Bethune, was attributed to De Morgan, an error which seriously annoyed his nice sense of bibliographical accuracy. For fifteen years he did all in his power to correct the mistake, and finally wrote to The Times to disclaim the authorship. (See Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xxvi. p. 118.) Two of his most elaborate treatises are to be found in the Encyclopaedia metropolitana, namely the articles on the Calculus of Functions, and the Theory of Probabilities. De Morgan's minor mathematical writings were scattered over various periodicals. A list of these and other papers will be found in the Royal Society's Catalogue, which contains forty-two entries under the name of De Morgan. In spite, however, of the excellence and extent of his mathe- matical writings, it is probably as a logical reformer that De Morgan will be best remembered. In this respect he stands alongside of his great contemporaries Sir W. R. Hamilton and George Boole, as one of several independent discoverers of the all-important principle of the quantification of the predicate. Unlike most mathematicians, De Morgan always laid much stress upon the importance of logical training. In his admirable papers upon the modes of teaching arithmetic and geometry, originally published in the Quarterly Journal of Education (reprinted in The Schoolmaster, vol ii.), he remonstrated against the neglect of DE MORGAN logical doctrine. In 1839 he produced a small work called First Notions of Logic, giving what he had found by experience to be much wanted by students commencing with Euclid. In October 1846 he completed the first of his investigations, in the form of a paper printed in the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society (vol. viii. No. 29). In this paper the principle of the quantified predicate was referred to, and there immediately ensued a memorable controversy with Sir W. R. Hamilton regard- ing the independence of De Morgan's discovery, some communi- cations having passed between them' in the autumn of 1 846. The details of this dispute will be found in the original pamphlets, in the Athenaeum and in the appendix to De Morgan's Formal Logic. Suffice it to say that the independence of De Morgan's discovery was subsequently recognized by Hamilton. The eight forms of proposition adopted by De Morgan as the basis of his system partially differ from those which Hamilton derived from the quantified predicate. The general character of De Morgan's development of logical forms was wholly peculiar and original on his part. Late in 1847 De Morgan published his principal logical treatise, called Formal Logic, or the Calculus of Inference, Necessary and Probable. This contains a reprint of the First Notions, an elabor- ate development of his doctrine of the syllogism, and of the numerical definite syllogism, together with chapters of great interest on probability, induction, old logical terms and fallacies. The severity of the treatise is relieved by characteristic touches of humour, and by quaint anecdotes and allusions furnished from his wide reading and perfect memory. There followed at intervals, in the years 1850, 1858, i860 and 1863, a series of four elaborate memoirs on the " Syllogism," printed in volumes ix. and x. of the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions. These papers taken together constitute a great treatise on logic, in which he substituted improved systems of notation, and developed a new logic of relations, and a new onymatic system of logical expression. In i860 De Morgan endeavoured to render their contents better known by publishing a Syllabus of a Proposed System of Logic, from which may be obtained a good idea of his symbolic system, but the more readable and interesting discussions contained in the memoirs are of necessity omitted. The article " Logic " in the English Cyclopaedia (i860) completes the list of his logical publications. Throughout his logical writings De Morgan was led by the idea that the followers of the two great branches of exact science, logic and mathematics, had made blunders, — the logicians in neglecting mathematics, and the mathematicians in neglecting logic. He endeavoured to reconcile them, and in the attempt showed how many errors an acute mathematician could detect in logical writings, and how large a field there was for discovery. But it may be doubted whether De Morgan's own system, " horrent with mysterious spiculae," as Hamilton aptly described it, is fitted to exhibit the real analogy between quantitative and qualitative reasoning, which is rather to be sought in the logical works of Boole. Perhaps the largest part, in volume, of De Morgan's writings re- mains still to be briefly mentioned ; it consists of detaphed articles contributed to various periodical or composite works. During the years 1 833-1 843 he contributed very largely to the first edition of the Penny Cyclopaedia, writing chiefly on mathematics, astronomy, phyacs and biography. His articles of various length cannot be less in number than 850, and they have been estimated to constitute a sixth part of the whole Cyclopaedia, of which they formed perhaps the most valuable portion. He also wrote biographies of Sir Isaac Newton and Edmund Halley for Knight's British Worthies, various notices of scientific men for the Gallery of Portraits, and for the un- completed Biographical Dictionary of the Useful Knowledge Society, and at least seven articles in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography. Some of De Morgan's most interesting and useful minor writings are to be found in the Companions to the British Almanack, to which he contributed without fail one article each year from 1 83 1 up to 1857 inclusive. In these carefully written papers he treats a great variety of topics relating to astronomy, chronology, decimal coinage, life assurance, bibliography and the history of science. Most of them are as valuable now as when written. Among De Morgan's miscellaneous writings may be mentioned his Explanation of the Gnomonic Projection of the Sphere, 1836, including a description of the maps of the stars, published by the Useful Know- ledge Society; his Treatise on the Globes, Celestial and Terrestrial,l%^5, and his remarkable Book of Almanacks (2nd edition, 1871), which contains a series of thirty-five almanacs, so arranged with indices of reference, that the almanac for any year, whether in old style or new, from any epoch, ancient or modern, up to a. d. 2000, may be found without difficulty, means being added for verifying the almanac and also for discovering the days of new and full moon from 2000 b. c. up to A. d. 2000. De Morgan expressly draws attention to the fact that the plan of this book was that of L. B. Francoeur and J. Ferguson, but the plan was developed by one who was an unrivalled master of all the intricacies of chronology. The two best tables of logarithms, the small five-figure tables of the Useful Knowledge Society (1839 and 1857), and Shroen's Seven Figure-Table (5th ed., 1865), were printed under De Morgan's superintendence. Several works edited by him will be found mentioned in the British Museum Catalogue. He made numerous anonymous contributions through a long series of years to the Athenaeum, and to Notes and Queries, and occasionally to The North British Review, Macmillan's Magazine, &c. Considerable labour was spent by De Morgan upon the subject of decimal coinage. He was a great advocate of the pound and mil scheme. His evidence on this subject was sought by the Royal Commission, and, besides constantly supporting the Decimal Association in periodical publications, he published several separate pamphlets on the subject. One marked characteristic of De Morgan was his intense and yet reasonable love of books. He was a true bibliophile and loved to surround himself, as far as his means allowed, with curious and rare books. He revelled in all the mysteries of watermarks, title-pages, colophons, catch-words and the like; yet he treated bibliography as an important science. As he himself wrote, " the most worthless book of a bygone day is a record worthy of preservation; like a telescopic star, its obscurity may render it unavailable for most purposes; but it serves, in hands which know how to use it, to de- termine the places of more important bodies." His evidence before the Royal Commission on the British Museum in 1850 (Questions 5704*-58i5,* 6481-6513, and 8966-8967), should be studied by all who would comprehend the principles of bibliography or the art of constructing a catalogue, his views on the latter subject correspond- ing with those carried out by Panizzi in the British Museum Catalogue. A sample of De Morgan's bibliographical learning is to be found in his account of Arithmetical Books, from the Invention of Printing (1847), and finally in his Budget of Paradoxes. This latter work consists of articles most of which were originally published in the Athenaeum, describing the various attempts which have been made to invent a perpetual motion, to square the circle, or to trisect the angle ; but De Morgan took the opportunity to include many curious bits gathered from his extensive reading, so that the Budget, as re- Crinted by his widow (1872), with much additional matter prepared y himself, forms a remarkable collection of scientific ana. De Morgan's correspondence with contemporary scientific men was very extensive and full of interest. It remains unpublished, as does also a large mass of mathematical tracts which he prepared for the use of his students, treating all parts of mathematical science, and embodying some of the matter of his lectures. De Morgan's library was purchased by Lord Overstone, and presented to the university of London. In 1866 his life became clouded by the circumstances which led him to abandon the institution so long the scene of his labours. The refusal of the council to accept the recommendation of the senate, .that they should appoint an eminent Unitarian minister to the professorship of logic and mental philosophy, revived all De Morgan's sensitiveness on the subject of sectarian freedom; and, though his feelings were doubtless excessive, there is no doubt that gloom was thrown over his life, intensified in 1867 by the loss of his son George Campbell De Morgan, a young man of the highest scientific promise, whose name, as De Morgan expressly wished, will long be connected with the London Mathematical Society, of which he was one of the founders. From this time De Morgan rapidly fell into ill-health, previously almost unknown to him, dying on the 18th of March 1871. An interesting and truthful sketch of his life will be found in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society for the 9th of February 1872, vol. xxii. p. 112, written by A. C. Ranyard, who says, " He was the kindliest, as well as the most learned of men — benignant to every one who approached him, never forgetting the claims which weakness has on strength." De Morgan left no published indications of his opinions on religious questions, in regard to which he was extremely reticent. He seldom or never entered a place of worship, and declared that he could not listen to a sermon, a circumstance perhaps due to the extremely strict religious discipline under which he was brought up. Nevertheless there is reason to believe that he IO DEMOSTHENES was of a deeply religious disposition. Like M. Faraday and Sir I. Newton he entertained a confident belief in Provi- dence, founded not on any tenuous inference, but on personal feeling. His hope of a future life also was vivid to the last. It is impossible to omit a reference to his witty sayings, some specimens of which are preserved in Dr Sadler's most interesting Diary of Henry Crabb Robinson (1869), which also contains a humorous account of H. C. R. by De Morgan. It may be added that De Morgan was a great reader and admirer of Dickens; he was also fond of music, and a fair performer on the flute. (W.S.J.) His son, William Frend De Morgan (b. 1839), first became known in artistic circles as a potter, the " De Morgan " tiles being remarkable for his rediscovery of the secret of some beauti- ful colours and glazes. But later in life he became even better known to the literary world by his novels, Joseph Vance (1906), Alice for Short (1907), Somehow Good (1908) and It Never Can Happen Again (1909), in which the influence of Dickens and of his own earlier family life were conspicuous. DEMOSTHENES, the great Attic orator and statesman, was born in 384 (or 383) B.C. His father, who bore the same name, was an Athenian citizen belonging to the deme of Paeania. His mother, Cleobule, was the daughter of Gylon, a citizen who had been active in procuring the protection of the kings of Bosporus for the Athenian colony of Nymphaeon in the Crimea, and whose wife was a native of that region. On these grounds the adversaries of Demosthenes, in after-days, used absurdly to taunt him with a traitorous or barbarian ancestry. The boy had a bitter fore- taste of life. He was seven years old when his father died, leaving property (in a manufactory of swords, and another of upholstery) worth about £3500, which, invested as it seems to have been (20% was not thought exorbitant), would have yielded rather more than £600 a year. £300 a year was a very comfortable income at Athens, and it was possible to live decently on a tenth of it. Nicias, a very rich man, had property equivalent, probably, to not more than £4000 a year. Demosthenes was born then, to a handsome, though not a great fortune. But his guardians — two nephews of his father, Aphobus and Demophon, and one Therippides — abused their trust, and handed over to Demosthenes, when he came of age, rather less than one-seventh of his patrimony, perhaps between £50 and £60 a year. Demosthenes, after studying with Isaeus (q.v.) — then the great master of forensic eloquence and of Attic law, especially in will cases '—brought an action against Aphobus, and gained a verdict for about £2400. But it does not appear that he got the money; and, after some more fruitless proceedings against Onetor, the brother-in-law of Aphobus, the matter was dropped,— not, however, before his relatives had managed to throw a public burden (the equipment of a ship of war) on their late ward, whereby his resources were yet further straitened. He now became a professional writer of speeches or pleas (Xoyoypa&s) for the law courts, sometimes speaking himself. Biographers have delighted to relate how painfully Demosthenes made him- self a tolerable speaker, — how, with pebbles in his mouth, he tried his lungs against the waves, how he declaimed as he ran up hill, how he shut himself up in a cell, having first guarded himself against a longing for the haunts of men by shaving one side of his head, how he wrote out Thucydides eight times, how he was derided by the Assembly and encouraged by a judicious actor who met him moping about the Peiraeus. He certainly seems to have been the rever.se of athletic (the stalwart Aeschines upbraids him with never having been a sportsman), and he probably had some sort of defect or impediment in his speech as a boy. Perhaps the most interesting fact about his work for the law courts is that he seems to have continued it, in some measure, through the most exciting parts of his great political career. The speech for Phormio belongs to the same year as the plea for Megalopolis. The speech against Boeotus " Concerning the Name " comes between the First Philippic and the First Olynthiac. The speech against Pantaenetus comes between-the speech " On the Peace " and the Second Philippic. 1 See Jebb's Attic Orators from Antiphon to Isaeos, vol. ii. p. 267 f. The political career of Demosthenes, from his first direct contact with public affairs in 355 B.C. to his death in 322, has an essential unity. It is the assertion, in successive forms adapted to successive moments, of unchanging Po,u,cal principles. Externally, it is divided into the chap- cree a. ter which precedes and the chapter which follows Chaeronea. But its inner meaning, the secret of its indomitable vigour, the law which Harmonizes its apparent contrasts, cannot be understood unless it is regarded as a whole. Still less can it be appreciated in all its large wisdom and sustained self-mastery if it is viewed merely as a duel between the ablest champion and the craftiest enemy of Greek freedom. The time indeed came when Demosthenes and Philip stood face to face as representative antagonists in a mortal conflict. But, for Demosthenes, the special peril represented by Philip, the peril of subjugation to Macedon, was merely a disastrous accident. Philip happened to become the most prominent and most formidable type of a danger which was already threatening Greece before his baleful star arose. As Demosthenes said to the Athenians, if the Macedonian had not existed, they would have made another Philip tor themselves. Until Athens recovered something of its old spirit, there must ever be a great standing danger, not for Athens only, but for Greece, — the danger that sooner or later, in some' shape, from some quarter — no man could foretell the hour, the manner or the source — barbarian violence would break up the gracious and und'efiled tradition of separate Hellenic life. What was the true relation of Athens to Greece ? The answer which he gave to this question is the key to the life of Demosthenes. Athens, so Demosthenes held, was the natural head of Greece. Not, however, as an empress holding subject or subordinate cities in a dependence more or less compulsory. Rather as that city which most nobly expressed the noblest attributes of Greek political existence, and which, by her pre- eminent gifts both of intellect and of moral insight, was primarily responsible, everywhere and always, for the maintenance of those attributes in their integrity. Wherever the cry of the oppressed goes up from Greek against Greek, it was the voice of Athens which should first remind the oppressor that Hellene differed from barbarian in postponing the use of force to the persuasions of equal law. Wherever a barbarian hand offered wrong to any city of the Hellenic sisterhood, it was the arm of Athens which should first be stretched forth in the holy strength of Apollo the Averter. Wherever among her own children the ancient loyalty was yielding to love of pleasure or of base gain, there, above all, it was the duty of Athens to see that the central hearth of Hellas was kept pure. Athens must never again seek " empire " in the sense which became odious under the influence of Cleon and Hyperbolus— when, to use the image of Aristophanes, the allies were as Babylonian slaves grinding in the Athenian mill. Athens must never permit, if she could help it, the re-establishment of such a domination as Sparta exercised in Greece from the battle of Aegospotami to the battle of Leuctra. Athens must aim at leading a free confederacy, of which the members should be bound to her by their own truest interests. Athens must seek to deserve the confidence of all Greeks alike. Such, in the belief of Demosthenes, was the part which Athens must perform if Greece was to be safe. But reforms must be effected before Athens could be capable of such a part. The evils to be cured were different phases of one malady. Athens had long been suffering from the profound decay of public spirit. Since the early years of the Peloponnesian War, the separation of Athenian society from the state had been growing more and more marked. The old type of the eminent citizen, who was at once statesman and general, had become almost extinct. Politics were now managed by a small circle of politicians. Wars were conducted by professional soldiers whose troops were chiefly mercenaries, and who were usually regarded by the politicians either as instruments or as enemies. The mass of the citizens took no active interest in public affairs. But, fe * e ^ " though indifferent to principles, they had quickly sensi- tive partialities for men, and it was necessary to keep them in good humour. Pericles had introduced the practice of giving a DEMOSTHENES ii small bounty from the treasury to the poorer citizens, for the pur- pose of enabling them to attend the theatre at the great festivals, —in other words, for the purpose of bringing them under the concentrated influence of the best Attic culture. A provision eminently wise for the age of Pericles easily became a mischief when the once honourable name of " demagogue " began to mean a flatterer of the mob. Before the end of the Pelopon- nesian War the festival-money (theoricon) was abolished. A few years after the restoration of the democracy it was again intro- duced. But until 354 B.C. it had never been more than a gratuity, of which the payment depended on the treasury having a surplus. In 354 B.C. Eubulus became steward of the treasury. He was an able man, with a special talent for finance, free from all taint of personal corruption, and sincerely solicitous for the honour of Athens, but enslaved to popularity, and without principles of policy. His first measure was to make the festival-money a permanent item in the budget. Thenceforth this bounty was in reality very much what Demades afterwards called it, — the cement (raXXa) of the democracy. Years before the danger from Macedon was urgent, Demos- thenes had begun the work of his life, — the effort to lift the spirit Forensic °f Athens, to revive the old civic loyalty, to rouse the speeches city into taking that place and performing that part in Publle w hich her own welfare as well as the safety of Greece causes. prescribed. His formally political speeches must never be considered apart from his forensic speeches in public causes. The Athenian procedure against the proposer of an unconstitu- tional law- — i.e. of a law incompatible with existing laws — had a direct tendency to make the law court, in such cases, a political arena. The same tendency was indirectly exerted by the tolerance of Athenian juries (in the absence of a presiding expert like a judge) for irrelevant matter, since it was usually easy for a speaker to make capital out of the adversary's political ante- cedents. But the forensic speeches of Demosthenes for public causes are not only political in this general sense. They are documents, as indispensable as the Olynthiacs or Philippics, for his own political career. Only by taking them along with the formally political speeches, and regarding the whole as one unbroken series, can we see clearly the full scope of the task which he set before him, — a task in which his long resistance to Philip was only the most dramatic incident, and in which his real achievement is not' to be measured by the event of Chaeronea. A forensic speech, composed for a public cause, opens the political career of Demosthenes with a protest against a signal abuse. In 355 B.C., at the age of twenty-nine, he wrote the speech " Against Androtion." This combats on legal grounds a proposal that the out-going senate should receive the honour of a golden crown. In its larger aspect, it is a denunciation of the corrupt system which that senate represented, and especially of the manner in which the treasury had been administered by Aristophon. In 354 B.C. Demosthenes composed and spoke the oration " Against Leptines," who had effected a slender saving for the state by the expedient of revoking those hereditary exemptions from taxation which had at various times been conferred in recognition of distinguished merit. The descendants of Harmodius and Aristogeiton alone had been excepted from the operation of the law. This was the first time that the voice of Demosthenes himself had been heard on the public concerns of Athens, and the utterance was a worthy prelude to the career of a statesman. He answers the advocates of the retrenchment by pointing out that the public interest will not ultimately be served by a wholesale violation of the public faith. In the same year he delivered his first strictly political speech, " On the Navy Boards " (Symmories). The Athenians, irritated by the support which Artaxerxes had lately given to the revolt of their allies, and excited by rumours of his hostile preparations, were feverishly eager for a war with Persia. Demosthenes urges that such an enterprise would at present be useless; that it would fail to unite Greece; that the energies of the city .should be reserved for a real emergency; but that, before the city can successfully cope with any war, there must be a better organization of resources, and, first of all, a reform of the navy, which he outlines with character- istic lucidity and precision. Two years later (352 B.C.) he is found dealing with a more definite question of foreign policy. Sparta, favoured by the depression of Thebes in the Phocian War, was threatening Megalopolis. Both Sparta and Megalopolis sent embassies to Athens. Demosthenes supported Megalopolis. The ruin of Megalopolis would mean, he argued, the return of Spartan domination in the Peloponnesus. Athenians must not favour the tyranny of any one city. They must respect the rights of all the cities, and thus promote unity based on mutual confidence. In the same year Demosthenes wrote the speech " Against Timocrates." to be spoken by the same Diodorus who had before prosecuted Androtion, and who now combated an attempt to screen Androtion and others from the penalties of embezzlement. The speech " Against Aristocrates," also of 352 B.C., reproves that foreign policy of feeble makeshifts which was now popular at Athens. The Athenian tenure of the Thracian Chersonese partly depended for its security on the good- will of the Thracian prince Cersobleptes. Charidemus, a soldier of fortune who had already played Athens false, was now the brother-in-law and the favourite of Cersobleptes. Aristocrates proposed that the person of Charidemus should be invested with a special sanctity, by the enactment that whoever attempted his life should be an outlaw from all dominions of Athens. Demosthenes points out that such adulation is as futile as it is fulsome. Athens can secure the permanence of her foreign possessions only in one way — by being strong enough to hold them. Thus, between 355 and 352, Demosthenes had laid down the main lines of his policy. Domestic administration must be purified. Statesmen must be made to feel that they are responsible to the state. They must not be allowed JfooUcv S to anticipate judgment on their deserts by voting each other golden crowns. They must not think to screen mis- appropriation of public money by getting partisans to pass new laws about state-debtors. Foreign policy must be guided by a larger and more provident conception of Athenian interests. When public excitement demands a foreign war, Athens must not rush into it without asking whether it is necessary, whether it will have Greek support, and whether she herself is ready for it. When a strong Greek city threatens a weak one, and seeks to purchase Athenian connivance with the bribe of a border-town, Athens must remember that duty and prudence alike command her to respect the independence of all Greeks. When it Jg pro- posed, by way of insurance on Athenian possessions abroad, to flatter the favourite of a doubtful ally, Athens must remember that such devices will not avail a power which has no army except on paper, and no ships fit to leave their moorings. But the time had gone by when Athenians could have tranquil leisure for domestic reform. A danger, calling for prompt action, had at last come very near. For six years Athens had been at war with Philip on account of his seizure of gad Amphipolis. Meanwhile he had destroyed Potidaea Philip. and founded Philippi. On the Thracian coasts he had become master of Abdera and Maronea. On the Thessalian coast he had acquired Methone. In a second invasion of Thessaly, he had overthrown the Phocians under Onomarchus, and had advanced to Thermopylae, to find the gates of Greece closed against him by an Athenian force. He had then marched to Heraeon on the Propontis, and had dictated a peace to Cersobleptes. He had formed an alliance with Cardia, Perinthus and Byzantium. Lastly, he had begun to show designs on the great Confederacy of Olynthus, the more warlike Miletus of the North. The First Philippic of Demosthenes was spoken in 351 B.C. The Third Philippic — the latest of the extant political speeches— was spoken in 341 B.C. Between these he delivered eight political orations, of which seven are directly concerned with Philip. The whole series falls into two great divisions. The first division comprises those speeches which were spoken against Philip while he was still a foreign power threatening Greece from without. Such are the First Philippic and the three orations for Olynthus. The second division comprises the speeches 12 DEMOSTHENES spoken against Philip when, by admission to the Amphictyonic Council, he had now won his way within the circle of the Greek states, and when the issue was no longer between Greece and Macedonia, but between the Greek and Macedonian parties in Greece. Such are the speech " On the Peace," the speech " On the Embassy," the speech " On the Chersonese," the Second and Third Philippics. The First Philippic, spoken early in 351 B.C., was no sudden note of alarm drawing attention to an unnoticed peril. On the contrary, the Assembly was weary of the subject. For Phui ic. six years the war with Philip had been a theme of barren PP °' talk. Demosthenes urges that it is time to do some- thing, and to do it with a plan. Athens fighting Philip has fared, he says, like an amateur boxer opposed to a skilled pugilist. The helpless hands have only followed blows which a trained eye should have taught them to parry. An Athenian force must be stationed in the north, at Lemnos or Thasos. Of 2000 infantry and 200 cavalry at least one quarter must be Athenian citizens capable of directing the mercenaries. Later in the same year Demosthenes did another service to the cause of national freedom. Rhodes, severed by its own act from the Athenian Confederacy, had since 355 been virtually subject to Mausolus, prince (SueaoTTjs) of Caria, himself a tributary of Persia. Mausolus died in 351, and was succeeded by his widow Artemisia. The democratic party in Rhodes now appealed to Athens for help in throwing off the Carian yoke. Demosthenes supported their application in his speech " For the Rhodians." No act of his life was a truer proof of statesmanship. He failed. But at least he had once more warned Athens that the cause of political freedom was everywhere her own, and that, wherever that cause was forsaken, there a new danger was created both for Athens and for Greece. Next year (350) an Athenian force under Phocion was sent to Euboea, in support of Plutarchus, tyrant of Eretria, against the faction of Cleitarchus. Demosthenes protested against War""" spending strength, needed for greater objects, on the local quarrels of a despot. Phocion won a victory at Tamynae. But the " inglorious and costly war " entailed an outlay of more than £12,000 on the ransom of captives alone, and ended in the total destruction of Athenian influence through- out Euboea. That island was now left an open field for the intrigues of Philip. Worst of all, the party of Eubulus not only defeated a proposal, arising from this campaign, for applying the festival-money to the war-fund, but actually carried a law making it high treason to renew the proposal. The degree to which political enmity was exasperated by the Euboean War may be judged from the incident of Midias, an adherent of Eubulus, and a type of opulent rowdyism. Demosthenes was choragus of his tribe, and was wearing the robe of that sacred office at the great festival in the theatre of Dionysus, when Midias struck him on the face. The affair was eventually compromised. The speech " Against Midias " written by Demosthenes for the trial (in 349) was neither spoken nor completed, and remains, as few will regret, a sketch. It was now three years since, in 352, the Olynthians had sent an embassy to Athens, and had made peace with their only sure ally. In 350 a second Olynthian embassy had sought and obtained Athenian help. The hour of Olynthus had indeed come. In 349 Philip opened war against the Chalcidic towns of the Olynthian League. The First and Second Olynthiacs of Demosthenes were spoken in that year in support of sending one force to defend Olynthus and another to attack Philip. " Better now than later," is the thought of the First Olynthiac. The Second argues that Philip's strength is overrated. The Third — spoken in 348 — carries us into the midst of action. 1 It deals with practical details. The festival-fund must be used for the war. The citizens must serve in person. 1 It is generally agreed that the Third Olynthiac is the latest ; but the question of the order of the First and Second has been much discussed. See Grote (History of Greece, chap. 88, appendix), who prefers the arrangement ii. i. iii., and Blass, Die attische Beredsamkeit, lii. p. 319. Olyn- thiacs. A few months later, Olynthus and the thirty-two towns of the confederacy were swept from the earth. Men could walk over their sites, Demosthenes said seven years afterwards, without knowing that such cities had existed. It was now certain that Philip could not be stopped outside of Greece. The question was, What point within Greece shall he be allowed to reach? Eubulus and his party, with that versatility which is the privilege of political vagueness, now began to call for a congress of the allies to consider the common danger. They found a brilliant interpreter in Aeschines, who, after having been a tragic actor and a clerk to the assembly, had entered political life with the advantages of a splendid gift for eloquence, a fine presence, a happy address, a ready wit and a facile conscience. While his opponents had thus suddenly become warlike, Demosthenes had become pacific. He saw that Athens must have time to collect strength. Nothing could be gained, meanwhile, by going on with the war. Macedonian sympathizers at Athens, of whom Philocrates was the chief, also favoured peace. Eleven envoys, including Philocrates, Aeschines, and Demosthenes, were sent to Philip in February 346 B.C. After a debate at Athens, peace was concluded with Philip in April. Philip on the one p eace hand, Athens and her allies on the other, were to keep between what they respectively held at the time when the peace p f , . i ' lp and was ratified. But here the Athenians made a fatal error. Philip was bent on keeping the door of Greece open. Demosthenes was bent on shutting it against him. Philip was now at war with the people of Halus in Thessaly. Thebes had for ten years been at war with Phocis. Here were two distinct chances for Philip's armed intervention in Greece. But if the Halians and the Phocians were included in the peace, Philip could not bear arms against them without violating the peace. Accordingly Philip insisted that they should not be included. Demosthenes insisted they should be included. They were not included. The result followed speedily. The same envoys were sent a second time to Philip at the end of April 346 for the purpose of receiving his oaths in ratification of the peace. It was late in June before he returned from Thrace to Pella — thus gaining, under the terms, all the towns that he had taken mean- while. He next took the envoys with him through Thessaly to Thermopylae. There — at the invitation of Thessalians and Thebans — he intervened in the Phocian War. Phalaecus surrendered. Phocis was crushed. Philip took its place in the Amphictyonic Council, and was thus p£ / established as a Greek power in the very centre, at the y^ar. sacred hearth, of Greece. The right of precedence in consultation of the oracle (wpoixavTeia) was transferred from Athens to Philip. While indignant Athenians were clamouring for the revocation of the peace, Demosthenes upheld it in his speech " On the Peace " in Septernber. It ought never to have been made on such terms, he said. But, having been made, it had better be kept. " If we went to war now, where should we find allies? And after losing Oropus, Amphipolis, Cardia, Chios, Cos, Rhodes, Byzantium, shall we fight about the shadow of Delphi?" During the eight years between the peace of Philocrates and the battle of Chaeronea, the authority of Demosthenes steadily grew, until it became first predominant and then paramount. He had, indeed, a melancholy advantage. Each year his argument was more and more cogently enforced by the logic of facts. In 344 he visited the Peloponnesus for the purpose of counteracting Macedonian intrigue. Mistrust, he told the Peloponnesian cities, is the safeguard of free communities against tyrants. Philip lodged a formal complaint at Athens. Here, as elsewhere, the future master of Greece reminds us of Napoleon on the eve of the first empire. He has the same imperturbable and persuasive effrontery in protesting that he is doing one thing at the moment when his energies are concentrated on doing the opposite. Demosthenes replied in the Second Philippic. " If," he said, " Philip is the friend of Greece, we are doing pj^fon/c wrong. If he is the enemy of Greece, we are doing right. Which is he? I hold him to be our enemy, because everything that he has hitherto done has benefited himself and hurt us." The prosecution of Aeschines for malversation on the DEMOSTHENES 13 Third Philippic embassy (commonly known as De falsa legatione), which was brought to an issue in the following year, marks the moral strength of the position now held by Demosthenes. When the gravity of the charge and the complexity of the evidence are considered, the acquittal of Aeschines by a narrow majority must be deemed his condemnation. The speech " On the Affairs of the Chersonese " and the Third Philippic were the crowning efforts of Demosthenes. Spoken in the same year, 341 B.C., and within a short space of each other, they must be taken together. The speech " On the Affairs of the Chersonese " regards the situation chiefly from an Athenian point of view. " If the peace means," argues Demosthenes, " that Philip can seize with impunity one Athenian possession after another, but that Athenians shall not on their peril touch aught that belongs to Philip, where is the line to be drawn? We shall go to war, I am told, when it is necessary. If the necessity has not come yet, when will it come? " The Third Philippic surveys a wider horizon. It ascends from the Athenian to the Hellenic view. Philip has annihilated Olynthus and the Chalcidic towns. He has ruined Pbocis. He has frightened Thebes. He has divided Thessaly. Euboea and the Pelo- ponnesus are his. His power stretches from the Adriatic to the Hellespont. Where shall be the end? Athens is the last hope of Greece. And, in this final crisis, Demosthenes was the embodied energy of Athens. It was Demosthenes who went to Byzantium, brought the estranged city back to the Athenian alliance, and snatched it from the hands of Philip. It was Demosthenes who, when Philip had already seized Elatea, hurried to Thebes, who by his passionate appeal gained one last chance, the only possible chance, for Greek freedom, who broke down the barrier of an inveterate jealousy, who brought Thebans to fight beside Athenians, and who thus won at the eleventh hour a victory for the spirit of loyal union which took away at least one bitterness from the unspeakable calamity of Chaeronea. But the work of Demosthenes was not closed by the ruin of his cause. During the last sixteen years of his life (338-322) he rendered services to Athens not less important, and activity? perhaps more difficult, than those which he- had rendered before. He was now, as a matter of course, foremost in the public affairs of Athens. In January 337, at the annual winter Festival of the Dead in the Outer Ceramicus, he spoke the funeral oration over those who had fallen at Chaeronea. He was member of a commission for strengthening the fortifica- tions of the city (reixofoios) . He administered the festival-fund. During a dearth which visited Athens between 330 and 326 he was charged with the organization of public relief. In 324 he was chief (dpx^ewpos) of the sacred embassy to Olympia. Already, in 336, Ctesiphon had proposed that Demosthenes should receive a golden crown from the state, and that his extraordinary merits should be proclaimed in the theatre at the Great Dionysia. The proposal was adopted by the senate as a bill (irpofioiAevna) ; but it must be passed by the Assembly before it could become an act (\prj4ncrna). To prevent this, Aeschines gave notice, in 336, that he intended to proceed against Ctesiphon for having proposed an unconstitutional measure. For six years Aeschines avoided action on this notice. At last, in 330, the patriotic party felt strong enough to force him to an issue. Aeschines spoke the speech " Against Ctesiphon," an attack on the whole public life of Demosthenes. Demosthenes gained an overwhelming victory for himself and for the honour of Athens in the most finished, the most splendid and the most pathetic work of ancient eloquence — the immortal oration " On the Crown." In the winter of 325-324 Harpalus, the receiver-general of Alexander in Asia, fled to Greece, taking with him 8000 mercen- aries, and treasure equivalent to about a million and Harpalus. a quarter sterling. On the motion of Demosthenes he was warned from the harbours of Attica. Having left his troops and part of his treasure at Taenarum, he again presented himself at the Peiraeus, and was now admitted. He spoke fervently of the opportunity which offered itself to those who loved the freedom of Greece. All Asia would rise with Athens to throw off the hated yoke. Fiery patriots like Hypereides were in raptures. For zeal which could be bought Harpalus had other persuasions. But Demosthenes stood fira \. War with Alexander would, he saw, be madness. It could have but one result, — some indefinitely worse doom for Athens. Antipater and Olympias presently demanded the surrender of Harpalus. Demosthenes opposed this. But he reconciled the dignity with the loyalty of Athens by carrying a decree that Harpalus should be arrested, and that his treasure should be deposited in the Parthenon, to be held in trust for Alexander. Harpalus escaped from prison. The amount of the treasure, which Harpalus had stated as 700 talents, proved to be no more than 350. Demosthenes proposed that the Areopagus should inquire what had become of the other 350. Six months, spent in party intrigues, passed before the Areo- pagus gave in their report (air64>av Ar/fjioadevovs x^piuv, " adap- tations or transcripts of passages in Demosthenes." Such manipulation could not but lead to interpolations or confusions in the original text. Great, too, as was the attention bestowed on the thought, sentiment and style of Demosthenes, compara- tively little care was bestowed on his subject-matter. He was studied more on the moral and the formal side than on the real side. An incorrect substitution of one name for another, a reading which gave an impossible date, insertions of spurious laws or decrees, were points which few readers would stop to notice. Hence it resulted that, while Plato, Thucydides and Demos- thenes, were the most universally popular of the classical prose- writers, the text of Demosthenes, the most widely used perhaps of all, was also the least pure. His more careful students at length made an effort to arrest the process of corruption. Editions of Demosthenes based on a critical recension, and called 'ATTiKiava (&.VTlypa4>a), came to be distinguished from the vulgates, or S-qjxuSeLS e/c56<7eis. Among the extant manuscripts of Demosthenes — upwards of 170 in number — one is far superior, as a whole, to the rest. This is Parisinus 2 2934, of the 10th century. A com- parison of this MS. with the extracts of Aelius, Aristeides and Harpocration from the Third Philippic favours the view that it is derived from an 'ArTiiaavov, whereas the Srifjuiideis eKdoaeis, used by Hermogenes and by the rhetoricians generally, have been the chief sources of our other manuscripts. The collation of this manuscript by Immanuel Bekker first placed the textual criticism of Demosthenes on a sound footing. Not only is this manuscript nearly free from interpolations, but it is the sole voucher for many excellent readings. Among the other MSS., some of the most important are — Marcianus 416 F, of the 10th (or nth) century, the basis of the Aldine edition; Augustanus I. (N 85), derived from the last, and containing scholia to the speeches on the Crown and the Embassy, by Ulpian, with some by a younger writer, who was Manu- scripts. i6 DEMOTIC— DEMPSTER perhaps Moschopulus; Parisinus T ; Antverpiensis — the last two comparatively free from additions. The fullest authority on the MSS. is J. T. Vomel, Notitia codicum Demosth., and Prolegomena Critica to his edition published at Halle (1856-1857), pp. 175-178. 1 The extant scholia on Demosthenes are for the most part poor. Their staple consists of Byzantine erudition; and their value Scholia. depends chiefly on what they have preserved of older criticism. They are better than usual for the Ilepi cretpavov, Kara. Tt/wKparous; best for the Ilepi ■Kapavpea- (3eias. The Greek commentaries ascribed to Ulpian are especially defective on the historical side, and give little essential aid. Editions: — C. W. Miiller, in Oral. All. ii. (1847-1858); Scholia Graeca in Demosth. ex cod. aucta et emendata (Oxon., 1851; in W. Dindorf's ed.). Bibliography. — Editio princeps (Aldus, Venice, 1504); J. J. Reiske (with notes of J. Wolf, J. Taylor, j. Markland, &c, 1770- 1775); revised edition of Reiske by G. H. Schafer (1823-1826); I. Bekker, in Oratores Altici (1823-1824), the first edition based on codex 2 (see above); W. S. Dobson (1828); J. G. Baiter and H. Sauppe (1850) ; W. Dindorf (in Teubner series, 1867, 4th ed. by F. Blass, 1885-1889); H. Omont, facsimile edition of codex 2 (1 892-1 893); S. H. Butcher in Oxford Scriplorum Classicorum Bibliotheca (1903 foil.); W. Dindorf (9 vols., Oxford, 1846-1851), with notes of previous commentators and Greek scholia ; R. Whiston (political speeches) with introductions and notes (1859-1868). For a select list of the numerous English and foreign editions and trans- lations of separate speeches see J. B. Mayor, Guide to the Choice of Classical Books (1885, suppt. 1896). Mention may here be made of De corona by W. W. Goodwin (1901, ed. min., 1904) ; W. H. Simcox (1873, with Aeschines In Ctesiphontem) ; and P. E. Matheson (1899); Leptines by J. E. Sandys (1890); De falsa legatione by R. Shilleto (4th ed., 1874) ; Select Private Orations by J. E. Sandys and F. A. Paley (3rd ed., 1898, 1896) ; Midias by W. W. Goodwin (1906). C. R. Kennedy's complete translation is a model of scholarly finish, and the appendices on Attic law, &c, are of great value. There are indices to Demosthenes by J. Reiske (ed. G. H. Schafer, 1823) ; S. Preuss (1892). Among recent papyrus finds are fragments of a special lexicon to the Aristocralea and a commentary by Didymus (ed. H. Diels and W. Schubart, 1904). Illustrative literature: A. D. Schafer, Demosthenes und seine Zeit (2nd ed., 1885-1887), a masterly and exhaustive historical work; F. Blass, Die altische Beredsamkeit (1887-1898); W. J. Brodribb, " Demosthenes " in Ancient Classics for English Readers (1877); S. H. Butcher, Introduction to the Study of Demosthenes (1881); C. G. Bohnecke, Demosthenes, Lykurgos, Hyperides, und ihr Zeitalter (1864) ; A. Bouille, Histoire de Demos- thene (2nd ed., 1868) ; J. Girard, Utiides sur I'eloquence attique (1874) ; M. Croiset, Des idSes morales dans V&loqwnce politique de Demos- ihlne (1874);^. Hug, Demosthenes als polilischer Denker (1881); L. Bredit, L'Eloquence politique en Grece (2nd ed., 1886); A. Bougot, Rivalite d'Eschine et Demosthine (1891). For fuller bibliographical information consult R. Nicolai, Griechische Literaturgeschichte (1881); W. Engelmann, Scriptores Graeci (1881); G. Huttner in C. Bursian's Jahresbericht, li. (1889). (R. C. J.) DEMOTIC (Gr. drjuonKos, of or belonging to the people), a term, meaning popular, specially applied to that cursive script of the ancient Egyptian language used for business and literary purposes, — for the people. It is opposed to " hieratic " (Gr. UpariKos, of or belonging to the priests), the script, an abridged form of the hieroglyphic, used in transcribing the religious texts. (See Writing, and Egypt: II., Ancient,D. Languageand Writing.) DEMOTICA, or Dimotica, a town of European Turkey, in the vilayet of Adrianople; on the Maritza valley branch of the Constantinople-Salonica railway, about 35 m. S. of Adrianople. Pop. (1905) about 10,000. Demotica is built at the foot of a conical hill on the left bank of the river Kizildeli, near its junction with the Maritza. It was formerly the seat of a Greek arch- bishop, and besides the ancient citadel and palace on the summit of the hill contains several Greek churches, mosques and public baths. In the middle ages, when it was named Didymotichos, it was one of the principal marts of Thrace; in modern times it has regained something of its commercial importance, and exports pottery, linen, silk and grain. These goods are sent to Dedeagatch for shipment. Demotica was the birthplace of the 1 See also H. Usener in Nachrichten von der Konigl. Chsdlschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gbttingen, p. 188 (1892) ; J. H. Lipsius, " Zur Text- critik des Demosthenes " in Berichle . . . der Konigl. Sachsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften (1893) with special reference to the papyrus finds at the end of the 19th century; E. Bethe, Demosthenis scriplorum corpus (1893). Turkish sultan Bayezid I. (1347); after the battle of Poltava, Charles XII. of Sweden resided here from February 17 13 to October 17 14. DEMPSTER, THOMAS (1579-1625), Scottish scholar and historian, was born at Cliftbog, Aberdeenshire, the son of Thomas Dempster of Muresk, Auchterless and Killesmont, sheriff of Banff and Buchan. According to his own account, he was the twenty-fourth of twenty-nine children, and was early remarkable for precocious talent. He obtained his early educa- tion in Aberdeenshire, and at ten entered Pembroke Hall, Cambridge; after a short while he went to Paris, and, driven thence by the plague, to Louvain, whence by order of the pope he was transferred with several other Scottish students to the papal seminary at Rome. Being soon forced by ill health to leave, he went to the English college at Douai, where he remained three years and took his M.A. degree. While at Douai he wrote a scurrilous attack on Queen Elizabeth, which caused a riot among the English students. But, if his truculent character was thus early displayed, his abilities were no less conspicuous; and, though still in his teens, he became lecturer on the Humanities at Tournai, whence, after but a short stay, he returned to Paris, to take his degree of doctor of canon law, and become regent of the college of Navarre. He soon left Paris for Toulouse, which in turn he was forced to leave owing to the hostility of the city authorities, aroused by his violent assertion of university rights. He was now elected professor of eloquence at the university or academy of Nimes, but not without a murderous attack upon him by one of the defeated candidates and his supporters, followed by a suit for libel, which, though he ulti- mately won his case, forced him to leave the town. A short engagement in Spain, as tutor to the son of Marshal de Saint Luc, was terminated by another quarrel; and Dempster now returned to Scotland with the intention of asserting a claim to his father's estates. Finding his relatives unsympathetic, and falling into heated controversy with the Presbyterian clergy, he made no long stay, but returned to Paris, where he remained for seven years, becoming professor in several colleges successively. At last, however, his temporary connexion with the college de Beauvais was ended by a feat of arms which proved him as stout a fighter with his sword as with his pen; and, since his victory was won over officers of the king's guard, it again became expedient for him to change his place of residence. The dedica- tion of his edition of Rosinus' Antiquitatum Romanorum corpus absolulissimum to King James I. had won him an invitation to the English court; and in 161 5 he went to London. His reception by the king was flattering enough; but his hopes of preferment were dashed by the opposition of the Anglican clergy to the promotion of a papist. He left for Rome, where, after a short imprisonment on suspicion of being a spy, he gained the favour of Pope Paul V., through whose influence with Cosimo II., grand duke of Tuscany, he was appointed to the professorship of the Pandects at Pisa. He had married while in London, but ere long had reason to suspect his wife's relations with a certain Englishman. Violent accusations followed, indignantly repudi- ated; a diplomatic correspondence ensued, and a demand was made, and supported by the grand duke, for an apology, which the professor refused to make, preferring rather to lose his chair. He now set out once more for Scotland, but was intercepted by the Florentine cardinal Luigi Capponi, who induced him to remain at Bologna as professor of Humanity. This was the most distinguished post in the most famous of continental universities, and Dempster was now at the height of his fame. Though his Roman Antiquities and Scotia iUustrior had been placed on the Index pending correction, Pope Urban VIII. made him a knight and gave him a pension. He was not, however, to enjoy his honours long. His wife eloped with a student, and Dempster, pursuing the fugitives in the heat of summer, caught a fever, and died at Bologna on the 6th of September 1625. Dempster owed his great position in the history of scholarship to his extraordinary memory, and to the versatility which made him equally at home in philology, criticism, law, biography and history. His style is, however, often barbarous; and the obvious DEMURRAGE— DENBIGH 17 defects of his works, are due to his restlessness and impetuosity, and to a patriotic and personal vanity which led him in Scottish questions into absurd exaggerations, and in matters affecting his own life into an incurable habit of romancing. The best known of his works is the Historia ecclesiastica gentis Scotorum (Bologna, 1627). In this book he tries to prove that Bernard (Sapiens), Alcuin, Boniface and Joannes Scotus Erigena were all Scots, and even Boadicea becomes a Scottish author. This criticism is not applicable to his works on antiquarian subjects, and his edition of Benedetto Accolti's De hello a Chris tianis contra barbaros (1623) has great merits. A portion of his Latin verse is printed in the first volume (pp. 306- 354) of Delitiae poetarum Scotorum (Amsterdam, 1637). DEMURRAGE (from "demur," Fr. demeurer, to delay, derived from Lat. mora), in the law of merchant shipping, the sum payable by the freighter to the shipowner for detention of the vessel in port beyond the number of days allowed for the purpose of loading or unloading (see Affreightment: under Charter-parties). The word is also used in railway law for the charge on detention of trucks; and in banking for the charge per ounce made by the Bank of England in exchanging coin or notes for bullion. DEMURRER (from Fr. demeurer, to delay, Lat. morari), in English law, an objection taken to the sufficiency, in point of law, of the pleading or written statement of the other side. In equity pleading a demurrer lay only against the bill, and not against the answer; at common law any part of the pleading could be demurred to. On the passing of the Judicature Act of 1875 the procedure with respect to demurrers in civil cases was amended, and, subsequently, by the Rules of the Supreme Court, Order XXV. demurrers were abolished and a more summary process for getting rid of pleadings which showed no reasonable cause of action or defence was adopted, called proceedings in lieu of demurrer. Demurrer in criminal cases still exists, but is now seldom resorted to. Demurrers are still in constant use in the United States. See Answer; Pleading. DENAIN, a town of northern France in the department of Nord, 8 m. S.W. of Valenciennes by steam tramway. A mere village in the beginning of the 19th century, it rapidly increased from 1850 onwards, and, according to the censusof 1906, possessed 22,845 inhabitants, mainly engaged in the coal mines and iron- smelting works, to which it owes its development. There are also breweries, manufactories of machinery, sugar and glass. A school of commerce and industry is among the institutions. Denain has a port on the left bank of the Scheldt canal. Its vicinity was the scene of the decisive victory gained in 171 2 by Marshal Villars over the allies commanded by Prince Eugene; and the battlefield is marked by a monolithic monument inscribed with the verses of Voltaire: — " Regardez dans Denain l'audacieux Villars Disputant le tonnerre k l'aigle des Cesars." DENBIGH, WILLIAM FEILDING, ist Earl of (d. 1643), son of Basil Feilding 1 of Newnham Paddox in Warwickshire, and of Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Walter Aston, was educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and knighted in 1603. He married Susan, daughter of Sir George Villiers, sister of the future duke of Buckingham, and on the rise of the favourite received various offices and dignities. He was appointed custos rotulorum of Warwickshire, and master of the great wardrobe in 1622, and created baron and viscount Feilding in 1620, and earl of Denbigh. on the 14th of September 1622. He attended Prince Charles on the Spanish adventure, served as admiral in the unsuccessful expedition to Cadiz in 1625, and commanded the disastrous attempt upon Rochelle in 1628, becoming the same year a member of the council of war, and in 1633 a member of the council of Wales. In 163 1 Lord Denbigh visited the East. On the outbreak of the Civil War he served under Prince Rupert 1 The descent of the Feildings from the house of Habsburg, through the counts of Laufenburg and Rheinfelden, long considered authentic, and immortalized by Gibbon, has been proved to have been based on forged documents. See J. H. Round, Peerage and Family History (1901). and was present at Edgehill. On the 3rd of April 1643 during Rupert's attack on Birmingham he was wounded and died from the effects on the 8th, being buried at Monks Kirby in Warwick- shire. His courage, unselfishness and devotion to duty are much praised by Clarendon. See E. Lodge, Portraits (1850), iv. 113; J. Nichols, Hist, of Leicestershire (1807), iv. pt. 1, 273; Hist. MSS. Comm Ser. 4th Rep. app. 254 ; Cal. of State Papers, Dom. ; Studies in Peerage and Family History, by J. H. Round (1901), 216. His eldest son, Basil Feilding, 2nd earl of Denbigh (c. i6o8-> 1675), was educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. He was summoned to the House of Lords as Baron Feilding in March 1629. After seeing military service in the Netherlands he was sent in 1634 by Charles I. as ambassador to Venice, where he remained for five years. When the Civil War broke out Feilding, unlike the other members of his family, ranged himself among the Parliamentarians, led a regiment of horse at Edgehill, and, having become earl of Denbigh in April 1643, was made com- mander-in-chief of the Parliamentary army in Warwickshire and the neighbouring counties, and lord-lieutenant of Warwickshire. During the year 1644 he was fairly active in the field, but in some quarters he was distrusted and he resigned his command after the passing of the self-denying ordinance in April 1645. At Uxbridge in 1645 Denbigh was one of the commissioners appointed to treat with the king, and he undertook a similar duty at Carisbrooke in 1647. Clarendon relates how at Uxbridge Denbigh declared privately that he regretted the position in which he found himself, and expressed his willingness to serve Charles I. He supported the army in its dispute with the parliament, but he would take no part in the trial of Charles I. Under the government of the commonwealth Denbigh was a member of the council of state, but his loyalty to his former associates grew lukewarm, and gradually he came to be regarded as a royalist. In 1664 the earl was created Baron St Liz. Although four times married he .'.eft no issue when he died on the 28th of November 1675. His titles devolved on his nephew William Feilding (1640- 1685), son and heir of his brother George (created Baron Feilding of Lecaghe, Viscount Callan and earl of Desmond), and the earldom of Desmond has been held by his descendants to the present day in conjunction with the earldom of Denbigh. DENBIGH (Dinbych), a municipal and (with Holt, Ruthin and Wrexham) contributory parliamentary borough, market town and county town of Denbighshire, N. Wales, on branches of the London & North Western and the Great Western railways. Pop. (1901) 6438. Denbigh Castle, surrounding the hill with a double wall, was built; in Edward I.'s reign, by Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, from whom the town received its first charter. The outer wall is nearly a mile round; over its main gateway is a niche with a figure representing, possibly, Edward L, but more probably, de Lacy. Here, in 1645, after the defeat of Rowton Moor, Charles I. found shelter, the castle long resisting the Parliamentarians, and being reduced to ruins by his successor. The chief buildings are the Carmelite Priory (ruins dating perhaps from the 13th century); a Bluecoat school (1514); a free grammar school (1527); an orphan girl school (funds left by Thomas Howel to the Drapers' Co., in Henry VII. 's reign); the town hall (built in 1572 by Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, enlarged and restored in 1780); an unfinished church (begun by Leicester); a market hall (with arcades or " rows," such as those of Chester or Yarmouth); and the old parish church of St Marcella. The streams near Denbigh are the Clwyd and Elwy. The inhabitants of Denbigh are chiefly occupied in the timber trade, butter-making, poultry-farming, bootmaking, tanning and quarrying (lime, slate and paving-stones). The borough of Denbigh has a separate commission of the peace, but no separate court of quarter sessions. The town has long been known as a Welsh publishing centre, the vernacular newspaper, Baner, being edited and printed here. Near Denbigh, at Bodelwyddan, &c, coal is worked. The old British tower and castle were called Castell caled fryn yn Rhds, the " castle of the hard hill in Rh6s." Din in i8 DENBIGHSHIRE— DENDERA Dinbych means a fort. There is a goblin well at the castle. Historically, David (Dafydd), brother of the last Llewelyn, was here (aet. Edward I.) perhaps on a foray; also Henry Lacy, who built the castle (aet. Edward I.), given to the Mortimers and to Leicester (under Edward III. and Elizabeth, respectively). DENBIGHSHIRE (Dinbych), a county of N. Wales, bounded N. by the Irish Sea, N.E. by Flint and Cheshire, S.E. by Flint and Shropshire, S. by Montgomery and Merioneth, and W. by Carnarvon. Area, 662 sq. m. On the N. coast, within the Denbighshire borders and between Old Colwyn and Llandulas, is a wedge of land included in Carnarvonshire, owing to a change in the course of the Conwy stream. (Thus, also, Llandudno is partly in the Bangor, and partly in the St Asaph, diocese.) The surface of Denbighshire is irregular, and physically diversified. In the N.W. are the bleak Hiraethog (" longing ") hills, sloping W. to the Conw}' and E. to the Clwyd. In the N. are Colwyn and Abergele bays, on the S. the Yspytty (Lat. Hospitium) and Llangwm range, between Denbigh and Merioneth. From this watershed flow the Elwy, Aled, Clywedog, Merddwr and Alwen, tributaries of the Clwyd, Conwy and Dee (Dyfrdwy). Some of the valleys contrast agreeably with the bleak hills, e.g. those of the Clwyd and Elwy. The portion lying between Ruabon (Rhiwabon) hills and the Dee is agricultural and rich in minerals; the Berwyn to Offa's Dyke (Wdl Of a) is wild and barren, except the Tanat valley, Llansilin and Ceiriog. One feeder of the Tanat forms the Pistyll Rhaiadr (waterspout fall), another rises in Llyncaws (cheese pool) under Moel Sych (dry bare-hill), the highest point in the county. Aled and Alwen are both lakes and streams. Geology. — The geology of the county is full of interest, as it develops all the principal strata that intervenes between the Ordovician and the Triassic series. Id the Ordovician district, which extends from the southern boundary to the Ceiriog, the Llandeilo formation of the eastern slopes of the Berwyn and the Bala beds of shelly sandstone are traversed east and west by bands of intrusive felspathic porphyry and ashes. The same formation occurs just within the county border at Cerrig-y-Druidion, Langum, Bettys-y- coed and in the Fairy Glen. Northwards from the Ceiriog to the limestone fringe at Llandrillo the Wenlock shale of the Silurian covers the entire mass of the Hiraethog and Clwydian hills, but verging on its western slopes into the Denbighshire grit, which may be traced southward in a continuous line from the mouth of the Conway as far as Llanddewi Ystrad Enni in Radnorshire, near Pentre-Voelas and Conway they are abundantly fossiliferous. On its eastern slope a narrow broken band of the Old Red, or what may be a conglomeratic basement bed of the Carboniferous Limestone series, crops up along the Vale of Clwyd and in Eglwyseg. Resting upon this the Carboniferous Limestone extends from Llanymynach, its extreme southern point, to the Cyrnybrain fault, and there forks into two divisions that terminate respectively in the Great Orme's Head and in Talargoch, and are separated from each other by the denuded shales of the Moel Famma range. In the Vale of Clwyd the limestone underlies the New Red Sandstone, and in the eastern division it is itself overlaid by the Millstone Grit of Ruabon and Minera, and by a long reach of the Coal Measures which near Wrexham are 4! m. in breadth. Eastward of these a broad strip of the red marly beds succeeds, formerly considered to be Permian but now regarded as belonging to the Coal Measures, and yet again between this and the Dee the ground is occupied — as in the Vale of Clwyd— by the New Red rocks. As in the other northern counties of Wales, the whole of the lower ground is covered more or less thickly with glacial drift. On the western side of the Vale of Clwyd, at Cefn and Plas Heaton, the caves, which are a common feature in such limestone districts, have yielded the remains of the rhinoceros, mammoth, hippopotamus and other extinct mammals. Coal is mined from the Coal Measures, and from the limestone below, lead with silver and zinc ores have been obtained. Valuable fireclays and terra-cotta marls are also taken from the Coal Measures about Wrexham. The uplands being uncongenial for corn, ponies, sheep and black cattle are reared, for fattening in the Midlands of England and sale in London. Oats and turnips, rather than wheat, barley and potatoes, occupy the tilled land. The county is fairly wooded. There are several important farmers' clubs (the Denbighshire and Flintshire, the vale of Conway, the Cerrig y druidion, &c.) . The London & North- Western railway (Holyhead line), with the Conway and Clwyd valleys branches, together with the lines connecting Denbigh with Ruabon (Rhiwabon), via Ruthin and Corwen, Wrexham with Connah's Quay (Great Central) and Rhosllanerchrhugog with Glyn Ceiriog (for the Great Western and Great Central railways) have opened up the county. Down the valley of Llangollen also runs the Holyhead road from London, well built and passing through fine scenery. At Nantglyn paving flags are raised, at Rhiwfelen (near Llangollen) slabs and slates, and good slates are also obtained at Glyn Ceiriog. There is plenty of limestone, with china stone at Brymbo. Cefn Rhiwabon yields sandstone (for hones) and millstone grit. Chirk, Ruabon and Brymbo have coal mines. The great Minera is the principal lead mine. There is much brick and pottery clay. The Ceiriog valley has a dynamite factory. Llangollen and Llansantffraid (St Bridgit's) have woollen manufactures. The area of the ancient county is 423,499 acres, with a popula- tion in 1901 of 129,942. The area of the administrative county is 426,084 acres. The chief towns are: Wrexham, a mining centre and N. Wales military centre, with a fine church; Denbigh; Ruthin, where assizes are held (here are a grammar school, a warden and a 13th-century castle rebuilt); Llangollen and Llanrwst; and Holt, with an old ruined castle. The Denbigh district of parliamentary boroughs is formed of: Denbigh (pop. 6483), Holt (1059), Ruthin (2643), and Wrexham (14,966). The county has two parliamentary divisions. The urban districts are: Abergele and Pensarn (2083), Colwyn Bay and Colwyn (8689), Llangollen (3303), and Llanrwst (2645). Denbighshire is in the N. Wales circuit, assizes being held at Ruthin. Denbigh and Wrexham boroughs have separate commissions of the peace, but no separate quarter-session courts. The ancient county, which is in the diocese of St Asaph, contains seventy-five ecclesiastical parishes and districts and part of a parish. The county was formed, by an act of Henry VIII., out of the lordships of Denbigh, Ruthin (Rhuthyn), Rhos and Rhyfoniog, which are roughly the Perfeddwlad (midland) between Conway and Clwyd, and the lordships of Bromfield, Yale (Idl, open land) and Chirkland, the old possessions of Gruffydd ap Madoc, arglwydd (lord) of Dinas Bran. Cefn (Elwy Valley) limestone caves hold the prehistoric hippopotamus, elephant, rhinoceros, lion, hyena, bear, reindeer, &c; Plas Heaton cave, the glutton; Pont Newydd, felstone tools and a polished stone axe (like that of Rhosdigre) ; Carnedd Tyddyn Bleiddian, " platycnemic (skeleton) men of Denbighshire " (like those of Perthi Chwareu). Clawdd Coch has traces of the Romans; so also Penygaer and Penbarras. Roman roads ran from Deva (Chester) to Segontium (Carnarvon) and from Deva to Mons Heriri ( Tomen y tnur). To their period belong the inscribed Gwytherin and Pentrefoelas (near Bettws-y-coed) stones. The Valle Crucis " Eliseg's pillar " tells of Brochmael and the Cairlegion (Chester) struggle against iEthelfrith's invading Northumbrians, a.d. 613, while Offa's dike goes back to the Mercian advance. Near and parallel to Offa's is the shorter and mysterious Watt's dike. Chirk is the only Denbighshire castle comparatively untouched by time and still occupied. Ruthin has cloisters; Wrexham, the Brynffynnon " nunnery "; and at both are collegiate churches. Llanrwst, Gresford and Derwen boast rood lofts and screens; Whitchurch and Llanrwst, portrait brasses and monuments; Derwen, a churchyard cross; Gresford and Llanrhaiadr (Dyff ryn Clwyd) , stained glass. Near Abergele, known for its sea baths, is the ogoj (or cave), traditionally the refuge of Richard II. and the scene of his capture by Bolingbroke in 1390. See J. Williams, Denbigh (1856), and T. F. Tout, Welsh Shires. DENDERA, a village in Upper Egypt, situated in the angle of the great westward bend of the Nile opposite Kena. Here was the ancient city'of Ten tyra, capital of the Tentyrite nome, the sixth of Upper Egypt, and the principal seat of the worship of Hathor [Aphrodite] the cow-goddess of love and joy. The old Egyptian name of Tentyra was written 'In-t (Ant), but the pro- nunciation of it is unknown: in later days it was 'Imt-t-ntr-t, " ant of the goddess," pronounced Ni-tent6ri, whence Tivrvpa, Tkvrvpis. The temple of Hathor was built in the 1st century B.C., being begun under the later Ptolemies (Ptol. XIII.) and finished by Augustus, but much of the decoration is later. A great DENDROCOMETES— DENE-HOLES rectangular enclosure of crude bricks, measuring about 900 X 850 ft., contains the sacred buildings: it was entered by two stone gateways, in the north and the east sides, built by Domitian. Another smaller enclosure lies to the east with a gateway also of the Roman period. The plan of the temple may be supposed to have included a colonnaded court in front of the present facade, and pylon towers at the entrance; but these were never built, probably for lack of funds. The building, which is of sandstone, measures about 300 ft. from front to back, and consists of two oblong rectangles; the foremost, placed transversely to the other, is the great hypostyle hall or pronaos, the broadest and loftiest part of the temple, measuring 135 ft. in width, and comprising about one- third of the whole structure; the facade has six columns with heads of Hathor, and the ceiling is supported by eighteen great columns. The second rectangle contains a small hypostyle hall with six columns, and the sanctuary, with their subsidiary chambers. The sanctuary is surrounded by a corridor into which the chambers open: on the west side is an apartment forming a court and kiosk for the celebration of the feast of the New Year, the principal festival of Dendera. On the roof of the temple, reached by two staircases, are a pavilion and several chambers dedicated to the worship of Osiris. Inside and out, the whole of the temple is covered with scenes and inscriptions in crowded characters, of ceremonial and religious import; the decoration is even carried into a remarkable series of hidden passages and chambers or crypts made in the solid walls for the reception of its most valuable treasures. The architectural style is dignified and pleasing in design and proportions. The interior of the building has been completely cleared: from the outside, however, its imposing effect is quite lost, owing to the mounds of rubbish amongst which it is sunk. North-east of the entrance is a " Birth House " for the cult of the child Harsemteu, and behind the temple a small temple of Isis, dating from the reign of Augustus. The original foundation of the temple must date back to a remote time: the work of some of the early builders is in fact referred to in the inscriptions on the present structure. Petrie's excavation of the cemetery behind the temple enclosures revealed burials dating from the fourth dynasty onwards, the most important being mastables of the period from the sixth to the eleventh dynasties; many of these exhibited a peculiar degradation of the contemporary style of sculpture. The zodiacs of the temple of Dendera gave rise to a consider- able literature before their late origin, was established by Champollion in 1822: one of them, from a chamber on the roof, was removed in 1820 to the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. Figures of the celebrated Cleopatra VI. occur amongst the sculptures on the exterior of the temple, but they are purely conventional, without a trace of portraiture. Horus of Edfu, the enemy of the crocodiles and hippopotami of Set, appears sometimes as the consort of Hathor of Dendera. The skill displayed by the Tentyrites in capturing the crocodile is referred to by Strabo and other Greek writers. Juvenal, in his seventeenth satire, takes as his text a religious riot between the Tentyrites and the neighbouring Ombites, in the course of which an unlucky Ombite was torn to pieces and devoured by the opposite party. The Ombos in question is not the distant Ombos south of Edfu, where the crocodile was worshipped; Petrie has shown that opposite Coptos, only about 15 m. from Tentyra, there was another Ombos, venerating the hippopotamus sacred to Set. See A. Marieitte, Denderah (5 vols, atlas and text, 1869-1880) ; W. M. F. Petrie, Denderah (1900) ; Nagada and Ballas (1896). (F. Ll. G.) DENDROCOMETES (so named by F. Stein), a genus of suctorian Infusoria, characterized by the repeatedly branched attached body; each of the lobes of the body gives off a few retractile tentacles. It is parasitic on the gills of the so-called freshwater shrimp Gammarus pulex. For its conjugation see Sydney H. Hickson, in Quarterly Journ. of Microsc. Science, vol xlv. (1902), p. 32.5. DENE-HOLES, the name given to certain caves or excavations in England, which have been popularly supposed to be due to the Danes or some other of the early northern invaders of the country. The common spelling " Dane hole " is adduced as evidence of this, and individual names, such as Vortigern's Caves at Margate, and Canute's Gold Mine near Bexley, naturally follow the same theory. The word, however, is probably derived from the Anglo- Saxon den, a hole or valley. There are many underground excavations in the south of the country, also found to some extent in the midlands and the north, but true dene-holes are found chiefly in those parts of Kent and Essex along the lower banks of the Thames. With one exception there are no recorded specimens farther east than those of the Grays Thurrock district; situated in Hangman's Wood, on the north, and one near Rochester on the south side of the river. The general outline of the formation of these caves is invariably the same. The entrance is a vertical shaft some 3 ft. in diameter falling, on an average, to a depth of 60 ft. The depth is regulated, obviously, by the depth of the chalk from the surface, but, although chalk could have been obtained close at hand within a few feet, or even inches, from the surface, a depth of from 45 to 80 ft., or more, is a characteristic feature. It is believed that dene-holes were also excavated in sand, but as these would be of a perishable nature there are no available data of any value. The shaft, when the chalk is reached, widens out into a domed chamber with a roof of chalk some 3 ft. thick. The walls frequently contract somewhat as they near the floor. As a rule there is only one chamber, from 16 to 18 ft. in height, beneath each shaft. From this excessive height it has been inferred that the caves were not primarily intended for habitations or even hiding-places. In some cases the chamber is extended, the roof being supported by pillars of chalk left standing. A rare specimen of a twin-chamber was discovered at Gravesend. In this case the one entrance served for both caves, although a separate aperture connected them on the floor level. Where galleries are found connecting the chambers, forming a bewildering labyrinth, a careful scrutiny of the walls usually reveals evidence that they are the work of a people of a much later period than that of the chambers, or, as they become in these cases, the halls of the galleries. Isolated specimens have been discovered in various parts of Kent and Essex, but the most important groups have been found at Grays Thurrock, in the districts of Woolwich, Abbey Wood and Bexley, and at Gravesend. Those at Bexley and Grays Thurrock are the most valuable still existing. It is generally found that the tool work on the roof or ceiling is rougher than that on the walls, where an upright position could be maintained. Casts taken of some of the pick-holes near the roof show that, in all probability, they were made by bone or horn picks. And numerous bone picks have been discovered in Essex and Kent. These pick-holes are amongst the most valuable data for the study of dene-holes, and have assisted in fixing the date of their formation to pre-Roman times. Very few relics of antiquarian value have been discovered in any of the known dene-holes which have assisted in fixing the date or determining the uses of these prehistoric excavations. Pliny mentions pits sunk to a depth of a hundred feet, " where they branched out like the veins of mines." This has been used in support of the theory that dene-holes were wells sunk for the extraction of chalk; but no known dene-hole branches out in this way. Chretien de Troyes has a passage on underground caves in Britain which may have reference to dene-holes, and tradition of the 14th century treated the dene-holes of Grays as the fabled gold mines of Cunobeline (or Cymbeline) of the 1st century. Vortigern's Caves at Margate are possibly dene-holes which have been adapted by later peoples to other purposes; and excellent examples of various pick-holes may be seen on different parts of the walls. Local tradition in some cases traces the use of these caves to the smugglers, and, when it is remembered that illicit traffic was common not only on the coast but in the Thames as far up the river as Barking Creek, the theory is at least tenable that these ready-made hiding-places, difficult of approach and dangerous to descend, were so utilized- 20 DENGUE— DENHAM There are three purposes for which dene-holes may have been originally excavated: (a) as hiding-places or dwellings, (b) draw- wells for the extraction of chalk for agricultural uses, and (c) store- houses for grain. For several reasons it is unlikely that they were used as habitations, although they may have been used occasion- ally as hiding-places. Other evidence has shown that it is equally improbable that they were used for the extraction of chalk. The chief reasons against this theory are that chalk could have been obtained outcropping close by, and that every trace of loose chalk has been removed from the vicinity of the holes, while known examples of chalk draw-wells do not descend to so great a depth. The discovery of a shallow dene-hole, about 14 ft. below the surface, at Stone negatives this theory still further. The last of the three possible uses for which these prehistoric excavations were designed is usually accepted as the most probable. Silos, or underground storehouses, are well known in the south of Europe and Morocco. It is supposed that the grain was stored in the ear and carefully protected from damp by straw. A curious smoothness of the roof of one of the chambers of the Gravesend twin-chamber dene-hole has been put forward as additional evidence in support of this theory. One other theory has been advanced, viz. that the excavations were made in order to get flints for implements, but this is quite impossible, as a careful examination of a few examples will show. Further reference may be made to Essex Dene-holes by T.V. Holmes and W. Cole; €0 The Archaeological Journal (1882); the Transac- tions of the Essex Field Club; Archaeologia Cantiana, &c; Dene- holes by F. W. Reader, in Old Essex, ed. A. C. Kelway (1908). (A. J. P.) DENGUE (pronounced deng-ga), an infectious fever occurring in warm climates. The symptoms are a sudden attack of fever, accompanied by rheumatic pains in the joints and muscles with severe headache and erythema. After a few days a crisis is reached and an interval of two or three days is followed by a slighter return of fever and pain and an eruption resembling measles, the most marked characteristic of the disease. The disease is rarely fatal, death occurring only in cases of extreme weakness caused by old age, infancy or other illness. Little is known of the aetiology of " dengue." The virus is probably similar to that of other exanthematous fevers and communicated by an intermediary culex. The disease is nearly always epidemic, though at intervals it appears to be pandemic and in certain districts almost endemic. The area over which the disease ranges may be stated generally to be between 32° 47' N. and 23 23' S. Throughout this area " dengue " is constantly epidemic. The earliest epidemic of which anything is known occurred in 1779- 1 780 in Egypt and the East Indies. The chief epidemics have been those of 1824-1826 in India, and in the West Indies and the southern states of North America, of 1870-1875, extending practically over the whole of the tropical portions of the East and reaching as far as China. In 1888 and 1889 a great outbreak spread along the shores of the Aegean and over nearly the whole of Asia Minor. Perhaps " dengue " is most nearly endemic in equatorial East Africa and in the West Indies. The word has usually been identified with the Spanish dengue, meaning stiff or prim behaviour, and adopted in the West Indies as a name suit- able to the curious cramped movements of a sufferer from the disease, similar to the name " dandy-fever " which was given to it by the negroes. According to the New English Dictionary (quoting Dr Christie in The Glasgow Medical Journal, September 1881), both "dengue" and "dandy" are corruptions of the Swahili word dinga or denga, meaning a sudden attack of cramp, the Swahili name for the disease being ka-dinga pepo. See Sir Patrick Manson, Tropical Diseases; a Manual of Diseases of Warm Climates (1903). DENHAM, DIXON (1786-1828^, English traveller in West Central Africa, was born in London on the 1st of January 1786. He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School, and was articled to a solicitor, but joined the army in 1811. First in the 23rd Royal Welsh Fusiliers, and afterwards in the 54th foot, he served in the campaigns in Portugal, Spain, France and Belgium, and received the Waterloo medal. In 1821 he volunteered to join Dr Oudney and Hugh Clapperton (q.v.), who had been sent by the British government via Tripoli to the central Sudan. He joined the expedition at Murzuk in Fezzan. Finding the promised escort not forthcoming, Denham, whose energy was boundless, started for England to complain of the " duplicity " of the pasha of Tripoli. The pasha, alarmed, sent messengers after him with promises to meet his demands. Denham, who had reached Marseilles, consented to return, the escort was forthcoming, and Murzuk was regained in November 1822. Thence the expedition made its way across the Sahara to Bornu, reached in February 1823. Here Denham, against the wish of Oudney and Clapperton, accompanied a slave-raiding expedition into the Mandara high- lands south of Bornu. The raiders were defeated, and Denham barely escaped with his life. When Oudney and Clapperton set out, December 1823, for the Hausa states, Denham remained behind. He explored the western, south and south-eastern shores of Lake Chad, and the lower courses of the rivers Waube, Logone and Shari. In August 1824, Clapperton having returned and Oudney being dead, Bornu was left on the return journey to Tripoli and England. In December 1826 Denham, promoted lieutenant-colonel, sailed for Sierra Leone as superintendent of liberated Africans. In 1828 he was appointed governor of Sierra Leone, but after administering the colony for five weeks died of fever at Freetown on the 8th of May 1828. See Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central Africa in the years 1822-1824 (London, 1826), the greater part of which is written by Denham ; The Story of Africa, vol. i. chap. xiii. (London, 1892), by Dr Robert Brown. DENHAM, SIR JOHN (1615-1669), English poet, only son of Sir John Denham (iSSg-r'w), lord chief baron of the exchequer in Ireland, was born in Dublin in 161 5. In 161 7 his father became baron of the exchequer in England, and removed to London with his family. In Michaelmas term 1631 the future poet was entered as a gentleman commoner at Trinity College, Oxford. He removed in 1634 to Lincoln's Inn, where he was, says John Aubrey, a good student, but not suspected of being a wit. The reputation he had gained at Oxford of being the " dream- ingest young fellow " gave way to a scandalous reputation for gambling. In 1634 he married Ann Cotton, and seems to have lived with his father at Egham, Surrey. In 1636 he wrote his paraphrase of the second book of the Aeneid (published in 1656 as The Destruction of Troy, with an excellent verse essay on the art of translation). About the same time he wrote a prose tract against gambling, The Anatomy of Play (printed 1651), designed to assure his father of his repentance, but as soon as he came into his fortune he squandered it at play. It was a surprise to every- one when in- 1642 he suddenly, as Edmund Waller said, " broke out like the Irish rebellion, three score thousand strong, when no one was aware, nor in the least expected it," by publishing The Sophy, a tragedy in five acts, the subject of which was drawn from Sir Thomas Herbert's travels. At the beginning of the Civil War Denham was high sheriff for Surrey, and was appointed governor of Farnham Castle. He showed no military ability, and speedily surrendered the castle to the parliament. He was sent as a prisoner to London, but was soon permitted to join the king at Oxford. In 1642 appeared Cooper's Hill, a poem describing the Thames scenery round his home at Egham. The first edition was anonymous: subsequent editions show numerous alterations, and the poem did not assume its final form until 1655. This famous piece, which was Pope's model for his Windsor Forest, was not new in theme or manner, but the praise which it received was well merited by its ease and grace. Moreover Denham expressed his commonplaces with great dignity and skill. He followed the taste of the time in his frequent use of antithesis and metaphor, but these devices seem to arise out of the matter, and are not of the nature of mere external ornament. At Oxford he wrote many squibs against the roundheads. One of the few serious pieces belonging to this period is the short poem " On the Earl of Strafford's Trial and Death." From this time Denham was much in Charles I.'s confidence. He was entrusted with the charge of forwarding letters to and from the king when he was in the custody of the parliament, a DENIA— DENIS, SAINT 21 duty which he discharged successfully with Abraham Cowley, but in 1648 he was suspected by the Parliamentary authorities, and thought it wiser to cross the Channel. He helped in the removal of the young duke of York to Holland, and for some time he served Queen Henrietta Maria in Paris, being entrusted by her with despatches for Holland. In 1650 he was sent to Poland in company with Lord Crofts to obtain money for Charles II. They succeeded in raising £10,000. After two years spent at the exiled court in Holland, Denham returned to London and being quite without resources, he was for some time the guest of the earl of Pembroke at Wilton. In 165s an order was given that Denham should restrict himself to some place of residence to be selected by himself at a distance of not less than 20 m. from London; subsequently he obtained from the Protector a licence to live at Bury St Edmunds, and in 1658 a passport to travel abroad with the earl of Pembroke. At the Restoration Denham's services were rewarded by the office of surveyor-general of works. His qualifications as an architect were probably slight, but it is safe to regard as grossly exaggerated the accusations of incompetence and peculation made by Samuel Butler in his brutal " Panegyric upon Sir John Denham's Recovery from his Madness." He eventually secured the services of Christopher Wren as deputy- surveyor. In 1660 he was also made a knight of the Bath. In 1665 he married for the second time. His wife, Margaret, daughter of Sir William Brooke, was, according to the comte de Gramont, a beautiful girl of eighteen. She soon became known as the mistress of the duke of York, and the scandal, according to common report, shattered the poet's reason. While Denham was recovering, his wife died, poisoned, it was said, by a cup of chocolate. Some suspected the duchess of York of the crime, but the Comte de Gramont says that the general opinion was that Denham himself was guilty. No sign of poison, however, was found in the examination after Lady Denham's death. Denham survived her for two years, dying at his house near Whitehall in March 1669. He was buried on the 23rd in West- minster Abbey. In the last years of his life he wrote the bitter political satires on the shameful conduct of the Dutch War entitled " Directions to a Painter," and " Fresh Directions," continuing Edmund Waller's " Instructions to a Painter." The printer of these poems, with which were printed one by Andrew Marvell, was sentenced to stand in the pillory. In 1667 Denham wrote his beautiful elegy on Abraham Cowley. Denham's poems include, beside those already given, a verse paraphrase of Cicero's Cato major, and a metrical version of the Psalms. As a writer of didactic verse, he was perhaps too highly praised by his immediate successors. Dryden called Cooper's Hill " the exact standard of good writing," and Pope in his Windsor Forest called him " majestic Denham." His collected poems with a dedicatory epistle to Charles II. appeared in 1668. Other editions followed, and they are reprinted in Chalmers' (1810) and other col- lections of the English poets. His political satires were printed with some of Rochester's and Marvell's in Bibliotheca curiosa, vol. i. (Edinburgh, 1885). DfSNIA, a seaport of eastern Spain, in the province of Alicante; on the Mediterranean Sea, at the head of a railway from Car- cagente. Pop. (1900) 12,431. Denia occupies the seaward slopes of a hill surmounted by a ruined castle, and divided by a narrow valley on the south from the limestone ridge of Mongo (2500 ft.), which commands a magnificent view of the Balearic Islands and the Valencian coast. The older houses of Denia are characterized by their flat Moorish roofs (azoteas) and view-turrets (mir adores), while fragments of the Moorish ramparts are also visible near the harbour; owing, however, to the rapid extension of local com- merce, many of the older quarters were modernized at the beginning of the 20th century. Nails, and wbollen, linen and esparto grass fabrics are manufactured here; and there is a brisk export trade in grapes, raisins and onions, mostly consigned to Great Britain or the United States. Baltic timber and British coal are largely imported. The harbour bay, which is well lighted and sheltered by a breakwater, contains only a small space of deep water, shut in by deposits of sand on three sides. In 1904 it accommodated 402 vessels of 175,000 tons; about half of which were small fishing craft, and coasters carrying agricultural produce to Spanish and African ports. Denia was colonized by Greek merchants from Emporiae (Ampurias in Catalonia), or Massilia (Marseilles), at a very early date; but its Greek name of Hemeroskopeion was soon super- seded by the Roman Dianium. In the 1st century B.C., Sertorius made it the naval headquarters of his resistance to Rome; and, as its name implies, it was already famous for its temple of Diana, built in imitation of that at Ephesus. The site of this temple can be traced at the foot of the castle hill. Denia was captured by the Moors in 713, and from 1031 to 1253 belonged successively to the Moorish kingdoms of Murcia and Valencia. According to an ancient but questionable tradition, its population rose at this period to 50,000, and its commerce proportionately increased. After the city was retaken by the Christians in 1253, its pros- perity dwindled away, and only began to revive in the 19th century. During the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14), Denia was thrice besieged; and in 1813 the citadel was held for five months by the French against the allied British and Spanish forces, until the garrison was reduced to 100 men, and compelled to surrender, on honourable terms. DENIKER, JOSEPH (1852- ) French naturalist and anthropologist, was born of French parents at Astrakhan, Russia, on the 6th of March 1852. After receiving his education at the university and technical institute of St Petersburg, he adopted engineering as a profession, and in this capacity travelled ex- tensively in the petroleum districts of the Caucasus, in Central Europe, Italy and Dalmatia. Settling at Paris in 1876, he studied at the Sorbonne, where he took his degree in natural science. In 1888 he was appointed chief librarian of the Natural History Museum, Paris. Among his many valuable ethnological works mention may be made of Recherches anatomiques et embryo- logiques sur les singes anthropoUes (1886); Etude sur les Kal- mouks (1883); Les Ghiliaks (1883); and Races et peuples de la terre (1900). He became one of the chief editors of the Diction- naire de g&ographie universelle, and published many papers in the anthropological and zoological journals of France. DENILIQUIN, a municipal town of Townsend county, New South Wales, Australia, 534 m. direct S.W. of Sydney, and 195 m. by rail N. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 2644. The business of the town is chiefly connected with the interests of the sheep and cattle farmers of the Riverina district, a plain country, in the main pastoral, but suited in some parts for cultivation. Deniliquin has a well-known public school. DENIM (an abbreviation of serge de Nimes), the name origin- ally given to a kind of serge. It is now applied to a stout twilled cloth made in various colours, usually of cotton, and used for overalls, &c. DENINA, CARLO GIOVANNI MARIA (1731-1813), Italian historian, was born at Revello, Piedmont, in 1731, and was educated at Saluzzo and Turin. In 1753 he was appointed to the chair of humanity at Pignerol, but he was soon compelled by the influence of the Jesuits to retire from it. In 1756 he graduated as doctor in theology, and began authorship with a theological treatise. Promoted to the professorship of humanity and rhetoric in the college of Turin, he published (1769-1772) his Delle re- volutions d'ltalia, the work on which his reputation is mainly founded. Collegiate honours accompanied the issue of its successive volumes, which, however, at the same time multiplied his foes and stimulated their hatred. In 1782, at Frederick the Great's invitation, he went to Berlin, where he remained for many years, in the course of which he published his Vie et regne de Frederic II (Berlin, 1788) and La Prusse litteraire sous Frideric II (3 vols., Berlin, 1790-1791). His Delle revoluzioni delta Germania was published at Florence in 1804, in which year he went to Paris as the imperial librarian, on the invitation of Napoleon. At Paris he published in 1 805 his Tableau de la Haute Italie, et des Alpes qui I'entourent. He died there on the 5th of December 1813. DENIS (Dionysius), SAINT, first bishop of Paris, patron saint of France. According to Gregory of Tours (Hist. Franc, i. 30), he was sent into Gaul at the time of the emperor Decius. He suffered martyrdom at the village of Catulliacus, the modern St Denis. His tomb was situated by the side of the Roman road. 22 DENIS, J. N. C. M.— DENIZLI where rose the priory of St-Denis-de-l'Estr6e, which existed until the 18th century. In the 5th century the clergy of the diocese of Paris built a basilica over the tomb. About 625 Dagobert, son of Lbthair II., founded in honour of St Denis, at some distance from the basilica, the monastery where the greater number of the kings of France have been buried. The festival of St Denis is celebrated on the 9th of October. With his name are already associated in the Martyrologium Hieronymianum the priest Rusticus and the deacon Eleutherius. Other traditions— of no value — are connected with the name of St Denis. A false interpretation of Gregory of Tours, apparently dating from 724, represented St Denis as having received his mission from Pope Clement, and as having suffered martyrdom under Domitian (81-96). Hilduin, abbot of St-Denis in the first half of the 9th century, identified Denis of Paris with Denis (Dionysius) the Areopagite (mentioned in Acts xviii. 34), bishop of Athens (Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. iii. 4. 10, iv. 23. 3), and naturally attributed to him the celebrated writings of the pseudo-Areopagite. St Denis is generally represented carrying his head in his hands. See Acta Sanctorum, Octobris, iv. 696-987; Bibliotheca hagio- graphica graeca, p. 37 (Brussels, 1895); Bibliotheca hagiographica latina, No. 2171-2203 (Brussels, 1899); J. Havet, Les Origines de Saint-Denis, in his collected works, i. 191-246 (Paris, 1896) ; Cahier, Caracteristiques des saints, p. 761 (Paris, 1867). (H. De.) DENIS, JOHANN NEPOMUK COSMAS MICHAEL (1729-1800), Austrian poet, was born at Scharding on the Inn, on the 27th of September 1729. He was brought up by the Jesuits, entered their order, and in 1759 was appointed professor in the Theresianum in Vienna, a Jesuit college. In 1784, after the suppression of the college, he was made second custodian of the court library, and seven years later became chief librarian. He died on the 29th of September 1800. A warm admirer of Klopstock, he was one of the leading members of the group of so-called " bards "; and his original poetry, published under the title Die Lieder Sineds des Barden (1772), shows all the extrava- gances of the " bardic " movement. He is best remembered as the translator of Ossian (1 768-1 769; also published together with his own poems in 5 vols, as Ossians und Sineds Lieder, 1784). More important than either his original poetry or his translations were his efforts to familiarize the Austrians with the literature of North Germany; his Sammlung kiirzerer Gedichte aus den neuern Dichtem Deutschlands, 3 vols. (1762-1766), was in this respect invaluable. He has also left a number of bibliographical compilations, Grundriss der Bibliographic und Biicherkunde (1774), Grundriss der Liter aturgeschichte (1776), Einleitung in die Biicherkunde (1777) and Wiens Buchdruckergeschichte bis 1560 (1782). Ossians und Sineds Lieder have not been reprinted since 1791 ; but a selection of his poetry edited by R. Hamel will be found in vol. 48 (1884) of Kiirschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur. His Litera- rischer Nachlass was published by J. F. von Retzer in 1802 (2 vols.). See P. von Hofmann-Wellenhof, Michael Denis (1881). DENISON, GEORGE ANTHONY (1805-1896), English church- man, brother of John Evelyn Denison (1800-1873; speaker of the House of Commons 1857-1872; Viscount Ossington), was born at Ossington, Notts, on the nth of December 1805, and educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford. In 1828 he was elected fellow of Oriel; and after a few years there as a tutor, during which he was ordained and acted as curate at Cuddesdon, he became rector of Broadwindsor, Dorset (1838). He became a prebendary of Sarum in 1841 and of Wells in 1849. In 185 1 he was preferred to the valuable living of East Brent, Somerset, and in the same year was made archdeacon of Taunton. For many years Archdeacon Denison represented the extreme High Tory party not only in politics but in the Church, regarding all " progressive " movements in education or theology as abomination, and vehemently repudiating the " higher criticism " from the days of Essays and Reviews (i860) to those of Lux Mundi (1890). In 1853 he resigned his position as examining chaplain to the bishop of Bath and Wells owing to his pronounced eucharistic views. A suit on the complaint of a neighbouring clergyman ensued and after various complications Denison was condemned by the archbishops' court at Bath (1856); but on appeal the court of Arches and the privy council quashed this judgment on a technical plea. The result was to make Denison a keen champion of the ritualistic school. He edited The Church and State Review (186 2-1 86 5). Secular state education and the " conscience clause " were anathema to him. Until the end of his life he remained a protagonist in theological controversy and a keen fighter against latitudinarianism and liberalism; but the sharpest religious or political differences never broke his personal friendships and his Christian charity. Among other things for which he will be remembered was his origination of harvest festivals. He died on the 21st of March 1896. DENISON, GEORGE TAYLOR (1839- ), Canadian soldier and publicist, was born in Toronto on the 31st of August 1839. In 1 86 1 he was called to the bar, and was from 186 5- 186 7 a member of the city council. From the first he took a prominent part in the organization of the military forces of Canada, becom- ing a lieutenant-colonel in the active militia in 1866. He saw active service during the Fenian raid of 1866, and during the rebellion of 1885. Owing to his dissatisfaction with the conduct of the Conservative ministry during the Red River Rebellion in 1869-70, he abandoned that party, and in 1872 unsuccessfully contested Algoma in the Liberal interest. Thereafter he remained free from party ties. In 1877 he was appointed police magistrate of Toronto. Colonel Denison was one of the founders of the " Canada First " party, which did much to shape the national aspirations from 1870 to 1878, and was a consistent supporter of imperial federation and of preferential trade between Great Britain and her colonies. He became a member of the Royal Society of Canada, and was president of the section dealing with English history and literature. The best known of his military works is his History of Modern Cavalry (London, 1877), which was awarded first prize by the Russian government in an open competition and has been translated into German, Russian and Japanese. In 1900 he published his reminiscences under the title of Soldiering in Canada. DENISON, a city of Grayson county, Texas, U.S.A., about 25 m. from the S. bank of the Red river, about 70 m. N. of Dallas. Pop. (1890) 10,958; (1900) 11,807, of whom 2251 were negroes; (1910 census) 13,632. It is served by the Houston & Texas Central, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Texas & Pacific, and the St Louis & San Francisco ("Frisco System) railways, and is connected with Sherman, Texas, by an electric line. Denison is the seat of the Gate City business college (generally known as Harshaw Academy), and of St Xavier's academy (Roman Catholic). It is chiefly important as a railway centre, as a collecting and distributing point for the fruit, vegetables, hogs and poultry, and general farming products of the surrounding region, and as a wholesale and jobbing market for the upper Red river valley. It has railway repair shops, and among its manufactures are cotton-seed oil, cotton, machinery and foundry products, flour, wooden-ware, and dairy products. In 1905 its factory products were valued at $1,234,956, 47-0 % more than in 1900. Denison was settled by Northerners at the time of the construction of the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railway to this point in 1872, and was named in honour of George Denison (1822-1876), a director of the railway; it became a city in 1891, and in 1907 adopted the commission form of government. DENIZEN (derived through the Fr. from Lat. de intus, " from within," i.e. as opposed to "foreign"), an alien who obtains by letters patent {ex donatione regis) certain of the privileges of a British subject. He cannot be a member of the privy council or of parliament, or hold any civil or military office of trust, or take a grant of land from the crown. The Naturalization Act 1870 provides that nothing therein contained shall affect the grant of any letters of denization by the sovereign. DENIZLI (anc. Laodicea (q.v.) ad Lycum), chief town of a sanjak of the Aidin vilayet of Asia Minor, altitude 1167 ft. Pop. about 17,000. It is beautifully situated at the foot of Baba Dagh (Mt. Salbacus), on a tributary of the Churuk Su (Lycus), and is connected by a branch line with the station of Gonjeli on the Smyrna-Dineir railway. It took the place of Laodicea when that town was deserted during the wars between the DENMAN— DENMARK 23 Byzantines and Seljuk Turks, probably between 1158 and 1174. It had become a fine Moslem city in the 14th century, and was then called Ladik, being famous for the woven and embroidered products of its Greek inhabitants. The delightful gardens of Denizli have obtained for it the name of the "^Damascus of Anatolia." DENMAN, THOMAS, ist Baron (1779-1854), English judge, was born in London, the son of a well-known physician, on the 23rd of July 1779. He was educated at Eton and St John's College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1800. Soon after leaving Cambridge he married; and in 1806 he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, and at once entered upon practice. His success was rapid, and in a few years he attained a position at the bar second only to that of Brougham and Scarlett (Lord Abinger). He distinguished himself by his eloquent defence of the Luddites; but his most brilliant appearance was as one of the counsel for Queen Caroline. His speech before the Lords was very powerful, and some competent judges even considered it not inferior to Brougham's. It contained one or two daring passages, which made the king his bitter enemy, and retarded his legal promotion. At the general election of 1818 he was returned M.P. for Wareham, and at once took his seat with the Whig opposition. In the following year he was returned for Nottingham, for which place he continued to sit till his elevation to the bench in 1832. His liberal principles had caused his exclusion from office till in 1822 he was appointed common Serjeant by the corporation of London. In 1830 he was made attorney-general under Lord Grey's administration. Two years later he was made lord chief justice of the King's Bench, and in 1834 he was raised to the peerage. As a judge he is most celebrated for his decision in the important privilege case of Stockdale v. Hansard (9 Ad. & El. I.; 11 Ad. & El. 253), but he was never ranked as a profound lawyer. In 1850 he resigned his chief justiceship and retired into private life. He died on the 26th of September 1854, his title continuing in the direct line. The Hon. George Denman (1819-1896), his fourth son, was also a distinguished lawyer, and a judge of the Queen's Bench from 1872 till his death in 1896. See Memoir of Thomas, first Lord Denman, by Sir Joseph Arnould (2 vols., 1873); E. Manson, Builders of our Law (1904). DENMARK (Danmark), a small kingdom of Europe, occupying part of a peninsula and a group of islands dividing the Baltic and North Seas, in the middle latitudes of the eastern coast. The kingdom lies between 54 33' and 57 45' N. and between 8° 4' 54" and 12 47' 25" E., exclusive of the island of Bornholm, which, as will be seen, is not to be included in the Danish archi- pelago. The peninsula is divided between Denmark and Germany (Schleswig- Holstein). The Danish portion is the northern and the greater, and is called Jutland (Dan. Jylland). Its northern part is actually insular, divided from the mainland by the Limfjord or Liimfjord, which communicates with the North Sea to the west and the Cattegat to the east, but this strait, though broad and possessing lacustrine characteristics to the west, has only very narrow entrances. The connexion with the North Sea dates from 1825. The Skagerrack bounds Jutland to the north and north-west. The Cattegat is divided from the Baltic by the Danish islands, between the east coast of the Cimbric peninsula in the neighbourhood of the German frontier and south-western Sweden. There is little variety in the surface of Denmark. It is uniformly low, the highest elevation in the whole country, the Himmelbjerg near Aarhus in eastern Jutland, being little more than 500 ft. above the sea. Denmark, however, is nowhere low in the sense in which Holland is; the country is pleasantly diversified, and rises a little at the coast even though it remains flat inland. The landscape of the islands and the south-eastern part of Jutland is rich in beech-woods, corn fields and meadows, and even the minute islets are green and fertile. In the western and northern districts of Jutland this condition gives place to a wide expanse of moorland, covered with heather, and ending towards the sea in low whitish-grey cliffs. There is a certain charm even about these monotonous tracts, and it cannot be said that Denmark is wanting in natural beauty of a quiet order. Lakes, though small, are numerous; the largest are the Arreso and the Esromso in Zealand, and the chain of lakes in the Himmelbjerg region, which are drained by the largest river in Denmark, the Gudenaa, which, however, has a course not exceeding 80 m. Many of the meres, overhung with thick beech- woods, are extremely beautiful. The coasts are generally low" and sandy; the whole western shore of Jutland is a succession of sand ridges and shallow lagoons, very dangerous to shipping. In many places the sea has encroached; even in the 19th century entire villages were destroyed, but during the last twenty years of the century systematic efforts were made to secure the coast by groynes and embankments. A belt of sand dunes, from 500 yds. to 7 m. wide, stretches along the whole of this coast for about 200 m. Skagen, or the Skaw, a long, low, sandy point, stretches far into the northern sea, dividing the Skagerrack from the Cattegat. On the western side the coast is bolder and less inhospitable; there are several excellent havens, especially on the islands. The coast is nowhere, however, very high, except at one or two points in Jutland, and at the eastern extremity of Moen, where limestone cliffs occur. Continental Denmark is confined wholly to Jutland, the geographical description of which is given under that heading. Out of the total area of the kingdom, 14,829 sq. m., Jutland, including the small islands adjacent to it, covers 9753 sq. m., and the insular part of the kingdom (including Bornholm), 5076 sq. m. The islands may be divided into two groups, consisting of the two principal islands Filnen and Zealand, and the lesser islands attendant on each. Fun en (Dan. Fyen), in form roughly an oval with an axis from S.E. to N.W. of 53 m., is separated from Jutland by a channel not half a mile wide in the north, but averaging 10 m. between the island and the Schleswig coast, and known as the Little Belt. Fiinen, geologically a part of southern Jutland, has similar characteristics, a smiling landscape of fertile meadows, the typical beech-forests clothing the low hills and the presence of numerous erratic blocks, are the superficial signs of likeness. Several islands, none of great extent, lie off the west coast of Fiinen in the Little Belt; off the south, how- ever, an archipelago is enclosed by the long narrow islands of Aero (16 m. in length) and Langeland (32 m.), including in a triangular area of shallow sea the islands of Taasinge, Avernako, Dreio, Turo and others. These are generally fertile and well cultivated. Aeroskjobing and Rudkjobing, on Aero and Langeland respectively, are considerable ports. On Langeland is the great castle of Tranekjaer, whose record dates from the 13th century. The chief towns of Fiinen itself are all coastal. Odense is the principal town, lying close to a great inlet behind the peninsula of Hindsholm on the north-east, known as Odense Fjord. Nyborg on the east is the port for the steam-ferry to Korsor in Zealand; Svendborg picturesquely overlooks the southern archipelago; Faaborg on the south-west lies on a fjord of the same name; Assens, on the west, a port for the crossing of the Little Belt into Schleswig, still shows traces of the fortifications which were stormed by John of Ranzau in 1535; Middelfart is a seaside resort near the narrowest reach of the Little Belt; Bogense is a small port on the north coast. All these towns are served by railways radiating from Odense. The strait crossed by the Nyborg- Korsor ferry is the Great Belt which divides the Fiinen from the Zealand group, and is con- tinued south by the Langelands Belt, which washes the straight eastern shore of that island, and north by the Samso Belt, named from an island 15 m. in length, with several large villages, which lies somewhat apart from the main archipelago. Zealand, or Sealand (Dan. Sjaelland), measuring 82 m. N. to S. by 68 E. to W. (extremes), with its fantastic coast-line indented by fjords and projecting into long spits or promontories may be considered as the nucleus of the kingdom, inasmuch as it contains the capital, Copenhagen, and such important towns as Roskilde, Slagelse, Korsor, Naestved and Elsinore (Helsingor). Its topography is described in detail under Zealand. Its attendant islands lie mainly to the south and are parts of itself, only separated by geologically recent troughs. The eastern 24 DENMARK [GEOGRAPHY coast of Moen is rocky and bold. It is recorded that this island formed three separate isles in i ioo, and the village of Borre, now 2 m. inland, was the object of an attack by a fleet from Liibeck in 1510. On Falster is the port of Nykjobing, and from Gjedser, the extreme southern point of Denmark, communication is maintained with Warnemiinde in Germany (29 m.). From Nykjobing a bridge nearly one-third of a mile long crosses to Laaland, at the west of which is the port of Nakskov; the other towns are the county town of Maribo with its fine church of the 14th century, Saxkjobing and Rodby. The island of Bornholm lies 86 m. E. of the nearest point of the archipelago, and as it belongs geologically to Sweden (from which it is distant only 22m.) must be considered to be physically an appendage rather than an internal part of the kingdom of Denmark. Geology. — The surface in Denmark is almost everywhere formed by the so-called Boulder Clay and what the Danish geologists call the Boulder Sand. The former, as is well known, owes its origin to the action of ice on the mountains of Norway in the Glacial period. It is unstratified; but by the action of water on it, stratified deposits have been formed, some of clay, containing remains of arctic animals, some, and very extensive ones, of sand and gravel. This boulder sand forms almost every- where the highest hills, and besides, in the central part of Jutland, a wide expanse of heath and moorland apparently level, but really sloping gently towards the west. The deposits of the boulder formation rest generally on limestone of the Cretaceous period, which in many places comes near the surface and forms cliffs on the sea-coast. Much of the Danish chalk, including the well- known limestone of Faxe, belongs to the highest or "Danian" subdivision of the Cretaceous period. In the south-western parts a succession of strata, described as the Brown Coal or Lignite formations, intervenes between the chalk and the boulder clay; its name is derived from the deposits of lignite which occur in it. It is only on the island of Bornholm that older formations come to light. This island agrees in geological structure with the southern part of Sweden, and forms, in fact, the southernmost portion of the Scandinavian system. There the boulder clay lies immediately on trj^e primitive rock, except in the south-western corner of the island, where a series of strata appear belonging to the Cambrian, Silurian, Jurassic and Cretaceous formations, the true Coal formation, &c, being absent. Some parts of Denmark are supposed to have been finally raised out of the sea towards the close of the Cretaceous period; but as a whole the country did not appear above the water till about the close of the Glacial period. The upheaval of the country, a movement common to a large part of the Scandinavian peninsula, still continues, though slowly, north-east of a line drawn in a south-easterly direction from Nissumfjord on the west coast of Jutland, across the island of Fyen, a little south of the town of Nyborg. Ancient sea- beaches, marked by accumulations of seaweed, rolled stones, &c, have been noticed as much as 20 ft. above the present level. But the upheaval does not seem to affect all parts equally. Even in historic times it has vastly changed the aspect and configuration of the country. Climate, Flora, Fauna. — The climate of Denmark does not differ materially from that of Great Britain in the same latitude; but whilst the summer is a little warmer, the winter is colder, so that most of the evergreens which adorn an English garden in the winter cannot be grown in the open in Denmark. During thirty years the annual mean temperature varied from 43-88° F. to 4.6-22° in different years and different localities, the mean average for the whole country being 45-14°. The islands have, upon the whole, a somewhat warmer climate than Jutland. The mean temperatures of the four coldest months, December to March, are 33-26°, 31-64°, 31-82°, and 33-98° respectively,, or for the whole winter 32-7°; that of the summer, June to August, 59-2°, but considerable irregularities occur. Frost occurs on an average on twenty days in each of the four winter months, but only on two days in either October or May. A fringe of ice generally lines the greater part of the Danish coasts on the eastern side for some time during the winter, and both the Sound and the Great Bel f are at times impassable on account of ice. In some winters the latter is sufficiently firm and level to admit of sledges passing between Copenhagen and Malmo. The annual rainfall varies between 21-58 in. and 27-87 in. in different years and different localities. It is highest on the west coast of Jutland; while the small island of Anholt in the Cattegat has an annual rainfall of only 15-78 in. More than half the rainfall occurs from July to November, the wettest month being September, with an average of 2-95 in.; the driest month is April, with an average of 1-14 in. Thunderstorms are frequent in the summer. South-westerly winds prevail from January to March, and from September to the end of the year. In April the east wind, which is particularly searching, is predominant, while westerly winds prevail from May to August. In the district of Aalborg, in the north of Jutland, a cold and dry N.W. wind called skai prevails in May and June, and is exceedingly destructive to vegetation; while along the west coast of the peninsula similar effects are produced by a salt mist, which carries its influence from 15 to 30 m. inland. The flora of Denmark presents greater variety than might be anticipated in a country of such simple physical structure. The ordinary forms of the north of Europe grow freely in the mild air and protected soil of the islands and the eastern coast; while on the heaths and along the sandhills on the Atlantic side there flourish a number of distinctive species. The Danish forest h almost exclusively made up of beech, a tree which thrives better in Denmark than in any other country of Europe. The oak and ash are now rare, though in ancient times both were abundant in the Danish islands. The elm is also scarce. The almost universal predominance of the beech is by no means of ancient origin, for in the first half of the 17th century the oak was still the characteristic Danish tree. No conifer grows in Denmark except under careful cultivation, which, however, is largely practised in Jutland (q.v.). But again, abundant traces of ancient extensive forests of fir and pine are found in the numerous peat bogs which supply a large proportion of the fuel locally used. In Bornholm, it should be mentioned, the flora is more like that of Sweden; not the beech, but the pine, birch and ash are the most abundant trees. The wild animals and birds of Denmark are those of the rest of central Europe. The larger quadrupeds are all extinct; even the red deer, formerly so abundant that in a single hunt in Jutland in 1593 no less than 1600 head of deer were killed, is now only to be met with in preserves. In the prehistoric " kitchen- middens " (kj okkenmodding) and elsewhere, however, vestiges are found which prove that the urochs, the wild boar, the beaver, the bear and the wolf all existed subsequently to the arrival of man. The usual domestic animals are abundantly found in Denmark, with the exception of the goat, which is uncommon. The sea fisheries are of importance. Oysters are found in some places, but have disappeared from many localities, where their abundance in ancient times is proved by their shell moulds on the coast. The Gudenaa is the only salmon river in Denmark. Population. — The population of Denmark in 1901 was 2,449,540. It was 929,001 in 1801, showing an increase during the century in the proportion of 1 to 2-63. In 1901 the average density of the population of Denmark was 165-2 to the square mile, but varied much in the different parts. Jutland showed an average of only 109 inhabitants per square mile, whilst on the islands, which had a total population of 1,385,537, the average stood at 272-95, owing, on the one hand, to the fact that large tracts in the interior of Jutland are almost uninhabited, and on the other to the fact that the capital of the country, with its pro- portionately large population, is situated on the island of Zealand. The percentages of urban and rural population are respectively about 38 and 62. A notable movement of the population to the towns began about the middle of the 19th century, and increased until very near its end. It was stronger on the islands, where the rural population increased by 5-3 % only in eleven years, whereas in Jutland the increase of the rural population between 1890 and 1901 amounted to 12-0%. Here, however, peculiar circum- stances contributed to the increase, as successful efforts have been made to render the land fruitful by artificial means. The B C DENMARK Scale, 1:1,800,000 English Miles o 10 20 30 40 Capitals of Counties.. County Boundaries Railways .-*-*+*+• Marshes mmm mgBtmRrmsii tm^tJ— fla g*— D E Canals ■ %m.G 0^R G ^SRandeis <*%**- — ,. BSfflla^ 56 ■ , _ , .aaniTW v o BiSjyi(Bii53»E4biere-.5£' ; S ~<*? f TJsltJp /Andsagr- ?> ~- * ' - JB&TC'*^^ ^- - g ^g^ Brcdebro _ ] D fiE-^N i ^^§ J( 7l^u^ekjp'bin| ^^ . (^jw H.... K ^ Hanson -\-_^| ■ 4 lle&et , ^ JT&Bt ¥ Rbune BORNHOLM Same Scale 55 D E Emery Walker *c INDUSTRIES] DENMARK 25 Danes are a yellow-haired and blue-eyed Teutonic race of middle stature, bearing traces of their kinship with the northern Scandinavian peoples. Their habits of life resemble those of the North Germans even more than those of the Swedes. The in- dependent tenure of the land by a vast number of small farmers, who are their own masters, gives an air of carelessness, almost of truculence, to the well-to-do Danish peasants. They are gener- ally slow of speech and manner, and somewhat irresolute, but take an eager interest in current politics, and are generally fairly educated men of extreme democratic principles. The result of a fairly equal distribution of wealth is a marked tendency toward* equality in social intercourse. The townspeople show a bias in favour of French habits and fashions. The separation from the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which were more than half German, intensified the national character; the Danes are intensely patriotic; and there is no portion of the Danish dominions except perhaps in the West Indian islands, where a Scandinavian language is not spoken. The preponderance of the female population over the male is approximately as 1052 to 1000. The male sex remains in excess until about the twentieth year, from which age the female sex preponderates in increasing ratio with advancing age. The percentage of illegitimacy is high as a whole, although in some of the rural districts it is very low. But in Copenhagen 20 % of the births are illegitimate. Between the middle and the end of the 19th century the rate of mortality decreased most markedly for all ages. During the last decade of the century it ranged between 19-5 per thousand in 1891 and 15-1 in 1898 (17-4 in 1900). Emigration for some time in the 19th century at different periods, both in its early part and towards its close, seriously affected the population of Denmark. But in the last decade it greatly diminished. Thus in 1892 the number of emigrants to Transatlantic places rose to 10,422 but in 1900 it was only 3570. The great bulk of them go to the United States; next in favour is Canada. Communications. — The roads of Denmark form an extensive and well-maintained system. The railway system is also fairly complete, the state owning about three-fifths of the total mileage, which amounts to some 2000. Two lines enter Denmark from Schleswig across the frontier. The main Danish lines are as follows. From the frontier a line runs east by Fredericia, across the island of Ftinen by Odense and Nyborg, to Korsor on Zealand, and thence by Roskilde to Copenhagen. The straits between Fredericia and Middelfart and between Nyborg and Korsor are crossed by powerful steam-ferries which are generally capable of conveying a limited number of railway wagons. This system is also in use on the line which runs south fromRoskilde to the island of Falster, from the southernmost point of which, Gjedser, ferry- steamers taking railway cars serve Warnemiinde in Germany. The main lines in Jutland run (a) along the eastern side north from Fredericia by Horsens, Aarhus, Randers, Aalborg and Hjorring, to Frederikshavn, and (b) along the western side from Esbjerg by Skjerne and Vemb, and thence across the peninsula by Viborg to Langaa on the eastern line. The lines are generally of standard gauge (4 ft. 85 in.), but there is also a considerable mileage of light narrow-gauge railways. Besides the numerous steam-ferries which connect island and island, and Jutland with the islands, and the Gjedser-Warnemunde route, a favourite passenger line from Germany is that between Kiel and Korsor, while most of the German Baltic ports have direct connexion with Copenhagen. With Sweden communications are established by ferries across the Sound between Copenhagen and Malmo and Landskrona, and between Elsinore (Helsingor) and Helsingborg. The postal department maintains a telegraph and telephone service. Industries. — The main source of wealth in Denmark is agri- culture, which employs about two-fifths of the entire population. Most of the land is freehold and cultivated by the owner himself, and comparatively little land is let on lease except very large holdings and glebe farms. The independent small farmer {bonder) maintains a hereditary attachment to his ancestral holding. There is also a class of cottar freeholders (junster). Fully 74 % of the total area of the country is agricultural land. Of this only about one-twelfth is meadow land. The land under grain crops is not far short of one-half the remainder, the principal crops being oats, followed by barley and rye in about equal quantities, with wheat about one-sixth that of barley and hardly one-tenth that of oats. Beet is extensively grown. During the last forty years of the 19th century dairy-farming was greatly developed in Denmark, and brought to a high degree of perfection by the application of scientific methods and the best machinery, as well as by the establishment of joint dairies. The Danish government has assisted this development by granting money for experiments and by a rigorous system of inspection for the prevention of adulteration. The co-operative system plays an important part in the industries of butter-making, poultry-farm- ing and the rearing of swine. Rabbits, which are not found wild in Denmark, are bred for export. Woods cover fully 7 % of the area, and their preserva- tion is considered of so much importance that private owners are under strict control as regards cutting of timber. The woods consist mostly of beech, which is principally used for fuel, but pines were extensively planted during the 1 9th century. Allusion has been made already to the efforts to plant the extensive heaths in Jutland {q.v.) with pine-trees. Agriculture. — Rates and taxes on land are mostly levied ac- cording to a uniform system of assessment, the unit of which is called a Tonde Hartkorn. The Td. Htk., as it is usually abbrevi- ated, has further subdivision, and is intended to correspond to the same value of land throughout the country. The Danish measure for land is a Tonde Land (Td. L.), which is equal to 1-363 statute acres. Of the best ploughing land a little over 6 Td. L., or about 8 acres, go to a Td. Htk., but of unprofitable land a Td. Htk. may represent 300 acres or more. On the islands and in the more fertile part of Jutland the average is about 10 Td. L., or 135 acres. Woodland, tithes, &c, are also assessed to Td. Htk. for fiscal purposes. In the island of Bornholm, the assessment is somewhat different, though the general state of agricultural holdings is the same as in other parts. The selling value of land has shown a decrease in modern times on account of the agri- cultural depression. A homestead with land assessed less than 1 Td. Htk. is legally called a Huus or Sted, i.e. cottage, whilst a farm assessed at 1 Td. Htk. or more is called Gaard, i.e. farm. Farms of between 1 and 1 2 Td. Htk. are called Bonder gaarde, or peasant farms, and are subject to the restriction that such a hold- ing cannot lawfully be joined to or entirely merged into another. They may be subdivided, and portions may be added to another holding, but the homestead, with a certain amount of land, must be preserved as a separate holding for ever. The seats of the nobility and landed gentry are called Herregaarde. The peasants hold about 73 % of all the land according to its value. As regards their size about 30 % are assessed from 1 to 4 Td. Htk. ; about 33% from 4 to 8 Td. Htk.; the remainder at about 8 Td. Htk. An annual sum is voted by parliament out of which loans are granted to cottagers who desire to purchase small freehold plots. The fishery along the coasts of Denmark is of some importance both on account of the supply of food obtained thereby for the population of the country, and on account of the export; but the good fishing grounds, not far from the Danish coast, particularly in the North Sea, are mostly worked by the fishing vessels of other nations, which are so numerous that the Danish government is obliged to keep gun-boats stationed there in order to prevent encroachments on territorial waters. Other Industries. — The mineral products of Denmark are unimportant. It is one of the poorest countries of Europe in this particular. It is rich, however, in clays, while in the island of Bornholm there are quarries of freestone and marble. The factories of Denmark supply mainly local needs. The largest are those engaged in the construction of engines and iron ships. The manufacture of woollens and cotton, the domestic manufacture of linen in Zealand, sugar refineries, paper mills, breweries, and distilleries may also be mentioned. The most notable manu- facture is that of porcelain. The nucleus of this industry was a factory started in 1772, by F. H. Muller, for the making of china out of Bornholm clay. In 1779 it passed into the hands of the 26 DENMARK [GOVERNMENT state, and has remained there ever since, though there are also private factories. Originally the Copenhagen potters imitated the Dresden china made at Meissen, but they later pro- duced graceful original designs. The creations of Thorvaldsen have been largely repeated and imitated in this ware. Trade- unionism flourishes in Denmark, and strikes are of frequent occurrence. Commerce. — Formerly the commercial legislation of Denmark was to such a degree restrictive that imported manufactures had to be delivered to the customs, where they were sold by public auction, the proceeds of which the importer received from the custom-houses after a deduction was made for the duty. To this restriction, as regards foreign intercourse, was added a no less injurious system of inland duties impeding the commerce of the different provinces with each other. The want of roads also, and many other disadvantages, tended to keep down the develop- ment of both commerce and industry. During the 19th century, however, several commercial treaties were concluded between Denmark and the other powers of Europe, which made the Danish tariff more regular and liberal. The vexed question, of many centuries' standing, concerning the claim of Denmark to levy dues on vessels passing through the Sound (q.v.), was settled by the abolition of the dues in 1857. The commerce of Denmark is mainly based on home production and home consumption, but a certain quantity of goods is im- ported with a view to re-exportation, for which the free port and bonded 'warehouses at Copenhagen give facilities. In modern times the value of Danish commerce greatly increased, being doubled in the last twenty years of the 19th century, and ex- ceeding a total of fifty millions sterling. The value of export is exceeded as a whole by that of import in the proportion, roughly, of 1 to 1-35. By far the most important articles of export may be classified as articles of food of animal origin, a group which covers the vast export trade in the dairy produce, especially butter, for which Denmark is famous. The value of the butter for export reaches nearly 40% of the total value of Danish exports. A small , proportion of the whole is imported chiefly from Russia (also Siberia) and Sweden and re-exported as of foreign origin. The production of margarine is large, but not much is exported, margarine being largely consumed in Denmark instead of butter, which is exported. Next to butter the most important article of Danish export is bacon, and huge quantities of eggs are also exported. Exports of less value, but worthy of special notice, are vegetables and wool, bones and tallow, also dairy machinery, and finally cement, the production of which is a growing industry. The classes of articles of food of animal origin, and living animals, are the only ones of which the exportation exceeds the importation; with regard to all other goods, the reverse is the case. In the second of these classes the most important export is home-bred horned cattle. The trade in live sheep and swine, which was formerly important, has mostly been converted into a dead-meat trade. A proportionally large importation of timber is caused by the scarcity of native timber suitable for building purposes, the plantations of firs and pines being insufficient to produce the quantity required, and the quality of the wood being inferior beyond the age of about forty years. The large importation of coal, minerals and metals, and goods made from them is likewise caused by the natural poverty of the country in these respects. Denmark carries on its principal import trade with Germany, Great Britain and the United States of America, in this order, the proportions being about 30, 20 and 16% respectively of the total. Its principal export trade is with Great Britain, Germany and Sweden, the percentage of the whole being 60, 18 and 10. With Russia, Norway and France (in this order) general trade is less important, but still large. A considerable proportion of Denmark's large commercial fleet is engaged in the carrying trade between foreign, especially British, ports. Under a law of the 4th of May 1907 it was enacted that the metric system of weights and measures should come into official use in three years from that date, and into general use in five years. Money and Banking. — The unit of the Danish monetarysystem, as of the Swedish and Norwegian, is the krone (crown), equal to is. ijd., which is divided into 100 ore; consequently 75 ore are equal to one penny. Since 1873 gold has been the standard, and gold pieces of 20 and 10 kroner are coined, but not often met with, as the public prefers bank-notes. The principal bank is the National Bank at Copenhagen, which is the only one authorized to issue notes. These are of the value of 10, 50, 100 and 500 kr. Next in importance are the Danske Landmands Bank, the Handels Bank and the Private Bank, all at Copenhagen. The ^provincial banks are very numerous; many of them are at the same time savings banks. Their rate of interest, with few ex- ceptions, is 3I to 4%. There exist, besides, in Denmark several mutual loan associations (Kreditjoreninger) , whose business is the granting of loans on mortgage. Registration of mortgages is compulsory in Denmark, and the system is extremely simple, a fact which has been of the greatest importance for the improve- ment of the country. There are comparatively large institutions for insurance of all kinds in Denmark. The largest office for life insurance is a state institution. By law of the 9th of April 1891 a system of old-age pensions was established for the benefit of persons over sixty years of age. Government. — Denmark is a limited monarchy, according to the law of 1849, revised in 1866. The king shares his power with the parliament (Rigsdag), which consists of two chambers, the Landsthing and the Folkething, but the constitution contains no indication of any difference in their attributes. The Lands thing, or upper house, however, is evidently intended to form the con- servative element in the constitutional machinery. While the 1 14 members of the Folkething (House of Commons) are elected for three years in the usual way by universal suffrage, 12 out of the 66 members of the Landsthing are life members nominated by the crown. The remaining 54 members of the Landsthing are returned for eight years according to a method of proportionate representation by a body of deputy electors. Of these deputies one-half are elected in the same way as members of the Folke- thing, without any property qualification for the voters; the other half of the deputy electors are chosen in the towns by those who during the last preceding year were assessed on a certain minimum of income, or paid at least a certain amount in rates and taxes. In the rural districts the deputy electors returned by election are supplemented by an equal number of those who have paid the highest amounts in taxes and county rate - together. In this manner a representation is secured for fairly large minorities, and what is considered a fair share of influence on public affairs given to those who contribute the most to the needs of the state. The franchise is held by every male who has reached his thirtieth year, subject to independence of public charity and certain other circumstances. A candidate for either house of the Rigsdag must have passed the age of twenty-five. Members are paid ten kroner each day of the session and are allowed travelling expenses. The houses meet each year on the first Monday in October. The constitutional theory of the Folkething is that of one member for every 16,000 inhabitants. The Faeroe islands, which form an integral part of the kingdom of Denmark in the wider sense, are represented in the Danish parliament, but not the other dependencies of the Danish crown, namely Iceland, Greenland and the West Indian islands of St Thomas, St John and St Croix. The budget is considered by the Folkething at the beginning of each session. The revenue and expenditure average annually about £4,700,000. The principal items of revenue are customs and excise, land and house tax, stamps, railways, legal fees, the state lottery and death duties. A considerable reserve fund is maintained to meet emergencies. The public debt is about £13,500,000 and is divided into an internal debt, bearing interest generally at 3i%, and a foreign debt (the larger), with interest generally at 3 %. The revenue and expenditure of the Faeroes are included in the budget for Denmark proper, but Iceland and the West Indies have their separate budgets. The Danish treasury receives nothing from these possessions; on the contrary, Iceland receives an annual grant, and the West Indian islands have been heavily subsidized by the Danish finances to -ADMINISTRATION] DENMARK 27 assist the sugar industry. The administration of Greenland (q.v.) entails an annual loss which is posted on the budget of the ministry of finances. The state council (Statsraad) includes the presidency of the council and ministries of war, and marine, foreign affairs, the interior, justice, finance, public institution and ecclesiastical, agriculture and public works. Local Government. — For administrative purposes the country is divided into eighteen counties (Amter, singular Ami), as follows. (1) Covering the islands of Zealand and lesser adjacent islands, Copenhagen, Frederiksborg, Holbaek, Soro, Praesto. (2) Cover- ing the islands of Laaland and Falster, Maribo. (3) Covering Fiinen, Langeland and adjacent islets, Svendborg, Odense. (4) On the mainland, Hjorring, Aalborg, Thisted, Ringkjobing, Viborg, Randers, Aarhus, Vejle, Ribe. (5} Bornholm. The principal civil officer in each of these is the Amlmand. Local affairs are managed by the Amstraad and Sogneraad, correspond- ing to the English county council and parish council. These institutions date from 1841, but they have undergone several modifications since. The members of these councils are elected on a system similar to that applied to the elections for the Landsthing. The same is the case with the provincial town councils. That of Copenhagen is elected by those who are rated on an income of at least 400 kroner (£2 2). The burgomasters are appointed by the crown, except at Copenhagen, where they are elected by the town council, subject to royal approbation. The financial position of the municipalities in Denmark is generally good. The ordinary budget of Copenhagen amounts to about £1,100,000 a year. Justice. — For the administration of justice Denmark is divided into herreds or hundreds; as, however, they are mostly of small extent, several are generally served by one judge (herredsfoged) ; the townships are likewise separate jurisdictions, each with a byfcged. There are 126 such local judges, each of whom deals with all kinds of cases arising in his district, and is also at the head of the police. There are two intermediary Courts of Appeal (Overret), one in Copenhagen, another in Viborg; the Supreme Court of Appeal (Hojesteret) sits at Copen- hagen. In the capital the different functions are more divided. There is also a Court of Commerce and Navigation, on which leading members of the trading community serve as assessors. In the country, Land Commissions similarly constituted deal with many questions affecting agricultural holdings. A peculiarity of the Danish system is that, with few exceptions, no civil cause can be brought before a court until an attempt has been made at effecting an amicable settlement. This is mostly done by so-called Committees of Conciliation, but in some cases by the court itself before commencing formal judicial proceedings. In this manner three-fifths of all the causes are settled, and many which remain unsettled are abandoned by the plaintiffs. Sanitary matters are under the control of a Board of Health. The whole country is divided into districts, in each of which a medical man is appointed with a salary, who is under the obliga^- tion to attend to poor sick and assist the authorities in medical matters, inquests, &c. The relief of the poor is well organized, mostly on the system of out-door relief. Many workhouses have been established for indigent persons capable of work. There are also many almshouses and similar institutions. Army and Navy. — The active army consists of a life guard battalion and 10 infantry regiments of 3 battalions each, infantry, S cavalry regiments of 3 squadrons each, 12 field batteries (now re-armed with a Krupp Q.F. equipment), 3 battalions of fortress artillery and 6 companies of engineers, with in addition various local troops and details. The peace strength of permanent troops, without the annual contingent of recruits, is about 13,500 officers and men, the annual contingent of men trained two or three years with the colours about 22,500, and the annual contingent of special reservists (men trained for brief periods) about 17,000. Thus the number of men maintained under arms (without calling up the reserves) is as high as 75,000 during certain periods of the year and averages nearly 60,000. Reservists who have definitively left the colours are recalled for short refresher trainings, the number of men so trained in 1907 being about 80,000. The field army on a war footing, without depot troops, garrison troops and reservists, would be about 50,000 strong, but by constituting new cadres at the outbreak of war and calling up the reserves it could be more than doubled, and as a matter of fact nearly 1 20,000 men were with the colours in the manoeuvre season in 1907. The term of service is eight years in the active army and its reserves and eight years in the second line. The armament of the infantry is the Krag-jorgensen of •314 in. calibre, model 1889, that of the field artillery a 7-5 cm. Krupp Q.F. equipment, model 1902. The navy consists of 6 small battleships, 3 coast defence armour-clads, 5 protected cruisers, 5 gun-boats, and 24 torpedo craft. Religion. — The national or state church of Denmark is officially styled " Evangelically Reformed," but is popularly described as Lutheran. The king must belong to it. There is complete religious toleration, but though most of the important Christian communities are represented their numbers are very small. The Mormon apostles for a considerable time made a special raid upon the Danish peasantry and a few hundreds profess this faith. There are seven dioceses, Fiinen, Laaland and Falster, Aarhus, Aalborg, Viboxg and Ribe, while the primate is the bishop of Zealand, and resides at Copenhagen, but his cathedral is at Roskilde. The bishops have no political function by reason of their office, although they may, and often do, take a prominent part in politics. The greater part of the pastorates comprise more than one parish. The benefices are almost without excep- tion provided with good residences and glebes, and the tithes, &c, generally afford a comfortable income. The bishops have fixed salaries in lieu of tithes appropriated by the state. Education and Arts.- — The educational system of Denmark is maintained at a high standard. The instruction in primary schools is gratuitous. Every child is bound to attend the parish school at least from the seventh to the thirteenth year, unless the parents can prove that it receives suitable instruction in other ways. The schools are under the immediate control of school boards appointed by the parish councils, but of which the incumbent of the parish is ex-officio member; superior control is exercised by the Amtmand, the rural dean, and the bishop, under the Minister for church and education. Secondary public schools are provided in towns, in which moderate school fees are paid. There are also public grammar-schools. Nearly all schools are day-schools. There are only two public schools, which, though on a much smaller scale, resemble the great English schools, namely, those of Soro and Herlufsholm, both founded by private munifi- cence. Private schools are generally under a varying measure of public control. The university is at Copenhagen (q.v.). Amongst numerous other institutions for the furtherance of science and training of various kinds may be mentioned the large polytechnic schools; the high school for agriculture and veter- inary art; the royal library; the royal society of sciences; the museum of northern antiquities; the society of northern antiquaries, &c. The art museums of Denmark are not consider- able, except the museum of Thorvaldsen, at Copenhagen, but much is done to provide first-rate training in the fine arts and their application to industry through the Royal Academy of Arts, and its schools. Finally, it may be mentioned that a sum proportionately large is available from public funds and regular parliamentary grants for furthering science and arts by temporary . subventions to students, authors, artists and others of insufficient means, in order to enable them to carry out particular works, to profit by foreign travel, &c. The principal scientific societies and institutions are detailed under Copenhagen. During the earlier part of the 19th century not a few men could be mentioned who enjoyed an exceptional reputation in various departments of science, and Danish scientists continue to contribute their full share to the advancement of knowledge. The society of sciences, that of northern antiquaries, the natural history and the botanic cal societies, &c, publish their transactions and proceedings, but the Naturhistorisk Tidsskrift, of which 14 volumes with 259 plates were published (1861-1884), and which was in the foremost rank in its department, ceased with the death in 1884 of the editor, the distinguished zoologist, I. C. Schiodte. 28 DENMARK JHISTORY Another extremely valuable publication of wide general interest, the Meddelelser om Gronland, is published by the commission for the exploration of Greenland. What may be called the modern " art " current, with its virtues and vices, is as strong in Denmark as in England. Danish sculpture will be always famous, if only through the name of Thorvaldsen. In architecture the prevailing fashion is a return to the style of the first half of the 17th century, called the Christian IV. style; but in this branch of art no marked excellence has been obtained. Authorities. — J. P. Trap, Statistisk Topographisk Beskrivelse af Kongeriget Danmark (Copenhagen, 1859-1860, 3 vols., 2nd ed., 1872- 1879) ; V. Falbe-Hansen and W. Scharling, Danmarks Statistik (Copenhagen, 1878-1891, 6 vols.). (Various writers) Vort Folk i det nittende Aarhundrede (Copenhagen, 1899 et seq.), illustrated; J. Carlsen, H. Olrik and C. N. Starcke, Le Danemark (Copenhagen, 1900), 700 pp. ; illustrated, published in connexion with the Paris Exhibition. Statistisk Aarbog (1896, &c). Annual publication, and other publications of Statens Statistiske Bureau, Copenhagen;. Annuaire mtieorologique, Danish Meteorological Institution, Copen- hagen ; E. Loffler, Danemarks Natur and Volk (Copenhagen, 1905) ; Margaret Thomas, Denmark Past and Present (London, 1902). 6 (C. A. G.;0. J. R. H.) History Ancient. — Our earliest knowledge of Denmark is derived from Pliny, who speaks of three islands named " Skandiai," a name which is also applied to Sweden. He says nothing about the inhabitants of these islands, but tells us more about the Jutish peninsula, or Cimbric Chersonese as he calls it. He places the Saxons on the neck, above them the Sigoulones, Sabaliggoi and Kobandoi, then the Chaloi, then above them the "Phoundousioi, then the Charondes and finally the Kimbroi. He also mentions the three islands called Alokiai, at the northern end of the peninsula. This would point to the fact that the Limfjord was then open at both ends, and agree with Adam of Bremen (iv. 16), who also speaks of three islands called Wendila, Morse and Thud. The Cimbri and Charydes are mentioned in the Monumentum Ancyranum as sending embassies to Augustus in a.d. 5. The Promontorium Cimbrorum is spoken of in Pliny, who says that the Sinus Codanus lies between it and Mons Saevo. The latter place is probably to be found in the high- lying land on the N.E. coast of Germany, and the Sinus Codanus must be the S.W. corner of the Baltic, and not the whole sea. Pomponius Mela says that the Cimbri and Teutones dwelt on the Sinus Codanus, the latter also in Scandinavia (or Sweden). The Romans believed that these Cimbri and Teutones were the same as those who invaded Gaul and Italy at the end of the 2nd century B.C. The Cimbri may probably be traced in the province of Aalborg, formerly known as Himmerland; the Teutones, with less certainty, may be placed in Thyth or Thyland, north of the Limfjord. No further reference to these districts is found till towards the close of the migration period, about the beginning of the 6th century, when the Heruli (q.v.), a nation dwelling in or near the basin of the Elbe, were overthrown by the Langobardi. According to Procopius (Bellum Gothicum, ii. 15), a part of them made their way across the " desert of the Slavs," through the lands of the Warni and the Danes to Thoule (i.e. Sweden). This is the first recorded use of the name " Danes." It occurs again in Gregory of Tours (Historiae Francorum, iii. 3) in connexion with an irruption of a Gotish (loosely called Danish) fleet into the Netherlands (c. 520). From this time the use of the name is fairly common. The heroic poetry of the Anglo-Saxons may carry the name further back, though probably it is not very ancient, at all events on the mainland. According to late Danish tradition Denmark now consisted of Vitheslaeth (i.e. Zealand, Moen, Falster and Laaland), Jutland (with Fyen) and Skaane. Jutland was acquired by Dan, the eponymous ancestor of the Danes. He also won Skaane, including the modern provinces of Halland, Kristianstad, Malmohus and Blekinge, and these remained part of Denmark until the middle of the 17th century. These three divisions aiways remained more or less distinct, and the Danish kings had to be recognized at Lund, Ringsted and Viborg, but Zealand was from time immemorial the centre of government, and Lejre was the royal seat and national sanctuary. According to tradition this dates from the time of Skioldr, the eponymous ancestor of the Danish royal family of Skioldungar. He was a son of Othin and husband of the goddess Gefjon, who created Zealand. Anglo- Saxon tradition also speaks of Scyld (i.e. Skioldr), who was regarded as the ancestor of both the Danish and English royal families, and it represented him as coming as a child of unknown origin in a rudderless boat. There can be little doubt that from a remote antiquity Zealand had been a religious sanctuary, and very probably the god Nerthus was worshipped here by the Angli and other tribes as described in Tacitus (Germania, c. 40). The Lejre sanctuary was still in existence in the time of Thietmar of Merseburg (i. 9), at the beginning of the nth century. In Scandinavian tradition the next great figure is Fr65e the peace-king, but it is not before the 5th century that we meet with the names of any kings which can be regarded as definitely historical. In Beowulf we hear of a Danish king Healfdene, who had three sons, Heorogar, Hrothgar and Halga. The hero Beowulf comes to the court of Hrothgar from the land of the Gotar, where Hygelac is king. This Hygelac is undoubtedly to be identified with the Chochilaicus, king of the Danes (really Gotar) who, as mentioned above, made a raid against the Franks c. 520. Beowulf himself won fame in this campaign, and by the aid of this definite chronological datum we can place the reign of Healfdene in the last half of the 5th century, and that of Hrothgar's nephew Hrothwulf, son of Halga, about the middle of the 6th century. Hrothgar and Halga correspond to Saxo's Hroar and Helgi, while Hrothwulf is the famous Rolvo or Hrolfr Kraki of Danish and Norse saga. There is probably some historical truth in the story that Heoroweard or HiorvarSr was responsible for the death of Hrolfr Kraki. Possibly a still earlier king of Denmark was Sigarr or Sigehere, who has won lasting fame from the story of his daughter Signy and her lover HagbaroY. From the middle of the 6th to the beginning of the 8th century we know practically nothing of Danish history. There are numerous kings mentioned in Saxo, but it is impossible to identify them historically. We have mention at the beginning of the 8th century of a Danish king Ongendus (cf. O. E. Ongenheow) who received a mission led by St Willibrord, and it was probably about this time that there flourished a family of whom tradition records a good deal. The founder of this line was Ivarr ViSfaSmi of Skaane, who became king of Sweden. His daughter AuSr married one Hroerekr and became the mother of Haraldr Hilditonn. The genealogy of Haraldr is given differently in Saxo, but there can be no doubt of his historical existence. In his time it is said that the land was divided into four kingdoms — Skaane, Zealand, Fyen and Jutland. After a reign of great splendour Haraldr met his death in the great battle of Bravalla (Bravik in Ostergotland), where he was opposed by his nephew Ring, king of Sweden. The battle probably took place about the year 750. Fifty years later the Danes begin to be mentioned with comparative frequency in continental annals. From 777-798 we have mention of a certain Sigifridus as king of the Danes, and then in 804 his name is replaced by that of one Godefridus. This Godefridus is the Godefridus-Guthredus of Saxo, and is to be identified also with GuSroor the Yngling, king in Vestfold in Norway. He came into conflict with Charlemagne, and was preparing a great expedition against him when he was killed by one of his own followers (c. 810). He was succeeded by his brother Hemmingus, but the latter died in 812 and there was a disputed succession. The two claimants were " Sigefridus nepos Godefridi regis " and " Anulo nepos Herioldi quondam regis " (i.e. probably Haraldr Hilditonn). A great battle took place in which both claimants were slain, but the party of Anulo (O.N. Ali) were victorious and appointed as kings Anulo's brothers Herioldus and Reginfridus. They soon paid a visit to Vestfold, " the extreme district of their realm, whose peoples and chief men were refusing to be made subject to them," and on their return had trouble with the sons of Godefridus. The latter expelled them from their kingdom, and in 814 Reginfridus fell in a vain attempt to regain it. Herioldus now received the support of the emperor, HISTORY] DENMARK 29 and after several unsuccessful attempts a compromise was effected in 819 when the parties agreed to share the realm. In 820 Herioldus was baptized at Mainz and received from the emperor a grant of Riustringen in N.E. Friesland. In 827 he was expelled from his kingdom, but St Anskar, who had been sent with Herioldus to preach Christianity, remained at his post. In 836 we find one Horic as king of the Danes; he was probably a son of Godefridus. During his reign there was trouble with the emperor as to the overlordship of Frisia. In the meantime Herioldus remained on friendly terms with Lothair and received a further grant of Walcheren and the neighbouring districts. In 850 Horic was attacked by his own nephews and compelled to share the kingdom with them, while in 852 Herioldus was charged with treachery and slain by the Franks. In 854 a revo- lution took place in Denmark itself. Horic's nephew Godwin, returning from exile with a large following of Northmen, over- threw his uncle in a three days' battle in which all members of the royal house except one boy are said to have perished. This boy now became king as " Horicus junior." Of his reign we know practically nothing. The next kings mentioned are Sigafrid and Halfdane, who were sons of the great Viking leader Ragnarr LoSbrok. There is also mention of a third king named Godefridus. The exact chronology and relationship of these kings it is impossible to determine, but we know that Healfdene died in Scotland in 877, while Godefridus was treacherously slain by Henry of Saxony in 885. During these and the next few years there is mention of more than one king of the names Sigefridus and Godefridus: the most important event associated with their names is that two kings Sigefridus and Godefridus fell in the great battle on the Dyle in 891. We now have the names of several kings, Heiligo, Olaph (of Swedish origin), and his sons Chnob and Gurth. Then come a Danish ruler Sigeric, followed by Hardegon, son of Swein, coming from Norway. At some date after 916 we find mention of one " Hardecnuth Urm " ruling among the Danes. Adam of Bremen, from whom these details come, was himself uncertain whether " so many kings or rather tyrants of the Danes ruled together or succeeded one another at short intervals." Hardecnuth Urm is to be identified with the famous Gorm the old, who married Thyra Danmarkarbot: their son was Harold Bluetooth. (A. Mw.) Medieval and Modern. — Danish history first becomes authentic at the beginning of the 9th century. The Danes, the southern- most branch of the Scandinavian family, referred to by Alfred (c. 890) as occupying Jutland, the islands and Scania, were, in 777, strong enough to defy the Frank empire by harbouring its fugitives. Five years later we find a Danish king, Sigfrid, among the princes who assembled at I.ippe in 782 to make their submission to Charles the Great. About the same time Willibrord, from his see at Utrecht, made an unsuccessful attempt to convert the " wild Danes." These three salient facts are practically the sum of our knowledge of early Danish history previous to the Viking period. That mysterious upheaval, most generally attributed to a love of adventure, stimulated by the pressure of over-population, began with the ravaging of Lindisfarne in 793, and virtually terminated with the establish- ment of Rollo in Normandy (911). There can be little doubt that the earlier of these expeditions were from Denmark, though the 'term Northmen was originally applied indiscriminately to all these terrible visitants from the unknown north. The rovers who first chastened and finally colonized southern England and Normandy were certainly Danes. The Viking raids were one of the determining causes of the establishment of the feudal monarchies of western Europe, but the un tameable freebooters were themselves finally Con " . subdued by the Church. At first sight it seems curious V theDanes. that Christianity should have been so slow to reach Denmark. But we must bear in mind that one very important consequence of the Viking raids was to annihilate the geographical remoteness which had hitherto separated Denmark from the Christian world. Previously to 793 there lay between Jutland and England a sea which no keel had traversed within the memory of man. The few and peaceful traders who explored those northern waters were careful never to lose sight of the Saxon, Frisian and Frankish shores during their passage. Nor was communication with the west by land any easier. For genera- tions the obstinately heathen Saxons had lain, a compact and impenetrable mass, between Scandinavia and the Frank empir?, nor were the measures adopted by Charles the Great for the conversion of the Saxons to the true faith very much to the liking of their warlike Danish neighbours on the other side. But by the time that Charles had succeeded in " converting " the Saxons, the Viking raids were already at their height, and though generally triumphant, necessity occasionally taught the Northmen the value of concessions. Thus it was the desire to secure his Jutish kingdom which induced Harold Klak, in 826, to sail up the Rhine to Ingelheim, and there accept baptism, with his wife, his son Godfred and 400 of his suite, acknowledging the emperor as his overlord, and taking back with him to Denmark the missionary monk Ansgar. Ansgar preached in Denmark from 826 to 861, but it was not till after the subsidence of the Viking raids that Adaldag, archbishop of Hamburg, could open a new and successful mission, which resulted in the erection of the bishoprics of Schleswig, Ribe and Aarhus (c. 948), though the real conversion of Denmark must be dated from the baptism of King Harold Bluetooth (960). Meanwhile the Danish monarchy was attempting to aggrandize itself at the expense of the Germans, the Wends who then occupied the Baltic littoral as far as the Vistula, and the other Scandinavian kingdoms. Harold Bluetooth expansion. (940-986) subdued German territory south of the Eider, extended the Danevirke, Denmark's great line of defensive fortifications, to the south of Schleswig and planted the military colony of Julin or Jomsborg, at the mouth of the Oder. Part of Norway was first seized after the united Danes and Swedes had defeated and slain King Olaf Trygvesson at the battle of Svolde (1000); and between 1028 and 1035 Canute the Great added the whole kingdom to his own; but the union did not long survive him. Equally short-lived was the Danish dominion in England, which originated in a great Viking expedition of King Sweyn I. The period between the death of Canute the Great and the accession of Valdemar I. was a troublous time for Denmark. The k> gdom was harassed almost incessantly, and consoiida- more than once partitioned.by pretenders to the throne, tion of the who did not scruple to invoke the interference of the kI "i do ^l neighbouring monarchs, and even of the heathen vaide- Wends, who established themselves for a time on mars, the southern islands. Yet, throughout this chaos, one 1, ^ 7m thing made for future stability, and that was the growth and consolidation of a national church, which culmin- ated in the erection of the archbishopric of Lund (c. n 04) and the consequent ecclesiastical independence of Denmark. The third archbishop of Lund was Absalon (n 28-1 201), Denmark's first great statesman, who so materially assisted Valdemar I. (1157-1182) and Canute VI. (1182-1202) to establish the dominion of Denmark over the Baltic, mainly at the expense of the Wends. The policy of Absalon was continued on a still vaster scale by Valdemar II. (1202-1241), at a time when the German kingdom was too weak and distracted to intervene to save its seaboard; but the treachery of a vassal and the loss of one great battle sufficed to plunge this unwieldy, unsubstantial empire in the dust. (See Valdemar I., II., and Absalon.) Yet the age of the Valdemars was one of the most glorious in Danish history, and it is of political importance as marking a turning-point. Favourable circumstances had, from the first, given the Danes the lead in Scandinavia. They held the richest and therefore the most populous lands, and geographically they were nearer than their neighbours to western civilization. Under the Valdemars, however, the ancient patriarchal system was merging into a more complicated development, of separate estates. The monarchy, now dominant, and far wealthier than before, rested upon the support of the great nobles, many of whom held their lands by feudal tenure, and constituted the royal Raad, or council. The clergy, fortified by royal privileges, 3° DENMARK [HISTORY had also risen to influence; but celibacy and independence of the civil courts tended to make them more and more of a separate caste. Education was spreading. Numerous Danes, lay as well as clerical, regularly frequented the university of Paris. There were signs too of the rise of a vigorous middle class, due to the extraordinary development of the national resources (chiefly the herring fisheries, horse-breeding and cattle-rearing) and the foundation of gilds, the oldest of which, the Edslag of Schleswig, dates from the early 12th century. The bonder, or yeomen, were prosperous and independent, with well-defined rights. Danish territory extended over 60,000 sq. kilometres, or nearly double its present area; the population was about 700,000; and 160,000 men and 1400 ships were available for national defence. On the death of Valdemar II. a period of disintegration ensued. Valdemar's son, Eric Plovpenning, succeeded him as king; but his near kinsfolk also received huge appanages, and Period of family discords led to civil wars. Throughout the tion. tegra " I 3 th and P art of the I4th centurv , tbe struggle raged between the Danish kings and the Schleswig dukes; and of six monarchs no fewer than three died violent deaths. Superadded to these troubles was a prolonged struggle for supremacy between the popes and the crown, and, still more serious, the beginning of a breach between the kings and nobles, which had important constitutional consequences. The prevalent disorder had led to general lawlessness, in consequence of which the royal authority had been widely extended; and a strong opposition gradually arose which protested against the abuses of this authority. In 1282 the nobles extorted from King Eric dipping the first Haandfoestning, or charter, which recognized the Danehof, or national assembly, as a regular branch of the administration and gave guarantees against further usurpations. Christopher II. (1319-1331) was constrained to grant another charter considerably reducing the prerogative, increasing the privileges of the upper classes, and at the same time reducing the burden of taxation. But aristocratic licence proved as mischiev- ous as royal incompetence; and on the death of Christopher II. the whole kingdom was on the verge of dissolution. Eastern Denmark was in the hands of one magnate; another magnate held Jutland and Funen in pawn ; the dukes of Schleswig were practically independent of the Danish crown; the Scandian pro- vinces had (1332) surrendered themselves to Sweden. It was reserved for another Valdemar (Valdemar IV., q.v.) to reunite and weld together the scattered members of his heritage. Vaide- His long reign (1340-1375) resulted in the re-establish- mariv., ment of Denmark as the great Baltic power. It is also 1340- a verv interesting period of her social and constitutional 1 75 ' development. This great ruler, who had to fight, year after year, against foreign and domestic foes, could, nevertheless, always find time to promote the internal prosperity of his much afflicted country. For the dissolution of Denmark, during the long anarchy, had been internal as well as external. The whole social fabric had been convulsed and transformed. The monarchy had been undermined. The privileged orders had aggrandized themselves at the expense of the community. The yeoman class had sunk into semi-serfdom. In a word, the natural cohesion of the Danish nation had been loosened and there was no security for law and justice. To make an end of this universal lawlessness Valdemar IV. was obliged, in the first place, to re-establish the royal authority by providing the crown with a regular and certain income. This he did by recovering the alienated royal demesnes in every direction, and from henceforth the annual landgilde, or rent, paid by the royal tenants, became the monarch's principal source of revenue. Throughout his reign Valdemar laboured incessantly to acquire as much land as possible. Moreover, the old distinction between the king's private estate and crown property henceforth ceases; all such property was henceforth regarded as the hereditary possession of the Danish crown. The national army was also re-established on its ancient footing. Not only were the magnates sharply reminded that they held their lands on military tenure x but the towns were also made to contribute both men and ships, and peasant levies, especially archers, were recruited from every parish. Everywhere indeed Valdemar intervened personally. The smallest detail was not beneath his notice. Thus he invented nets for catching wolves and built innumerable water-mills, " for he would not let the waters run into the sea before they had been of use to the community." Under such a ruler law and order were speedily re- established. The popular tribunals regained their authority, and a supreme court of justice, Del Kongelige Retterting, presided over by Valdemar himself, not only punished the unruly and guarded the prerogatives of the crown, but also protected the weak and defenceless from the tyranny of the strong. Nor did Valdemar hesitate to meet his people in public and periodically render an account of his stewardship. He voluntarily resorted to the old practice of summoning national assemblies, the so-called Danehof. At the first of these assemblies held at Nyborg, Midsummer Day 13 14, the bishops and councillors solemnly promised that the commonalty should enjoy all the ancient rights and privileges conceded to them by Valdemar II., and the wise provision that the Danehof should meet annually considerably strengthened its authority. The keystone to the whole constitutional system was " King Valdemar's Charter " issued in May 1360 at the Rigsmbde, or parliament, held at Kalundborg in May 1360. This charter was practically an act of national pacification, the provisions of which king and people together undertook to enforce for the benefit of the commonweal. The work of Valdemar was completed and consolidated by his illustrious daughter Margaret (1375-14T2), whose crowning achievement was the Union of Kalmar (1397), whereby she sought to combine the three northern kingdoms Ths Vaioa into a single state dominated by Denmark. In any jrjp 7 _ a ' case Denmark was bound to be the only gainer by the Union. Her population was double that of the two other kingdoms combined, and neither Margaret nor her successors observed the stipulations that each country should retain its own laws and customs and be ruled by natives only. In both Norway and Sweden, therefore, the Union was highly unpopular. The Norwegian aristocracy was too weak, however, seriously to endanger the Union at any time, but Sweden was, from the first, decidedly hostile to Margaret's whole policy. Nevertheless during her lifetime the system worked fairly well; but her pupil and successor, Eric of Pomerania, was unequal to the burden of empire and embroiled himself both with his neighbours and his subjects. The Hanseatic League, whose political ascendancy had been shaken by the Union, enraged by Eric's efforts to bring in the Dutch as commercial rivals, as well as by the establish- ment of the Sound tolls, materially assisted the Holsteiners in their twenty-five years' war with Denmark (1410-35), and Eric VII. himself was finally deposed (1439) in favour of his nephew, Christopher of Bavaria. The deposition of Eric marks another turning-point in Danish history. It was the act not of the people but of the Rigsraad (Senate), which had inherited the authority of the Growth of ancient Danehof and, after the death of Margaret, the power grew steadily in power at the expense of the crown. o/ '* e As the government grew more and more aristocratic, the position of the peasantry steadily deteriorated. It is under Christopher that we first hear, for instance, of the Vornedskab, or patriarchal control of the landlords over their tenants, a system which degenerated into rank slavery. In Jutland, too, after the repression, in 144 1, of a peasant rising, something very like serfdom was introduced. On the death of Christopher III. without heirs, in 1448, the Rigsraad elected his distant cousin, Count Christian of Oldenburg, king; but Sweden preferred Karl Knutsson (Charles " VIII."), while Norway finally combined with Den- Break-up mark, at the conference of Halmstad, in a double y a y ^ election which practically terminated the Union, though an agreement was come to that the survivor of the two kings should reign over all three kingdoms. Norway, subse- quently, threw in her lot definitively with Denmark. Dissensions resulting in interminable civil wars had, even before the Union, exhausted the resources of the poorest of the three northern realms; and her ruin was completed by the ravages of the Black HISTORY] DENMARK 3i Death, which wiped out two-thirds of her population. Unfortu- nately, too, for Norway's independence, the native gentry had gradually died out, and were succeeded by immigrant Danish fortune-hunters; native burgesses there were none, and the peasantry were mostly thralls; so that, excepting the clergy, there was no patriotic class to stand up for the national liberties. Far otherwise was it in the wealthier kingdom of Sweden. Here the clergy and part of the nobility were favourable to the Union; but the vast majority of the people hated it as a foreign usurpa- tion. Matters were still further complicated by the continual interference of the Hanseatic League; and Christian I. (1448- 1481) and Hans (1481-1513), whose chief merit it is to have founded the Danish fleet, were, during the greater part of their reigns, only nominally kings of Sweden. Hans also received in fief the territory of Dietmarsch from the emperor, but, in attempting to subdue the hardy Dietmarschers, suffered a crushing defeat in which the national banner called " Danebrog " fell into the enemy's hands ( 1 500) . Moreover, this defeat led to a successful rebellion in Sweden, and a long and ruinous war with Ltibeck, terminated by the peace of Malmo, 1512. It was during this war that a strong Danish fleet dominated the Baltic for the first time since the age of the Valdemars. On the succession of Hans's son, Christian II. (1513-1523), Margaret's splendid dream of a Scandinavian empire seemed, finally, about to be realized. The young king, a man 11 1513° °^ c ^ aracter an d genius, had wide views and original 1523. ideas. Elected king of Denmark and Norway, he suc- ceeded in subduing Sweden by force of arms; but he spoiled everything at the culmination of his triumph by the hideous crime and blunder known as the Stockholm massacre, which converted the politically divergent Swedish nation into the irreconcilable foe of the unional government (see Christian II.). Christian's contempt of nationality in Sweden is the more remarkable as in Denmark proper he sided with the people against the aristocracy, to his own undoing in that age of privilege and prejudice. His intentions, as exhibited to his famous Landelove (National Code*), were progressive and enlightened to an eminent degree; so much so, indeed, that they mystified the people as much as they alienated the patricians; but his actions were often of revolting brutality, and his whole career was vitiated by an incurable double-mindedness which provoked general distrust. Yet there is no doubt that Christian II. was a true patriot, whose ideal it was to weld the three northern kingdoms into a powerful state, independent of all foreign influences, especially of German influence as manifested in the commercial tyranny of the Hansa League. His utter failure was due, partly to the vices of an undisciplined temperament, and partly to the extraordinary difficulties of the most inscrutable period of European history, when the shrewdest heads were at fault and irreparable blunders belonged to the order of the day. That period was the period of the Reformation, which profoundly affected the politics of Scandinavia. Christian II. had always subordinated religion to politics, and was Papist or Lutheran according to circumstances. But, though he treated the Church more like a foe than a friend and was constantly at war with the Curia, he retained the Catholic form of church worship and never seems to have questioned the papal supremacy. On the flight of Christian II. and the election of his uncle, Frederick I. (1523- Fr d rick J 533)> t ^ le Church resumed her jurisdiction and every- /., 1523- thing was placed on the old footing. The newly 1533. The elected and still insecure German king at first remained Reforms- neu t r al; but in the autumn of 1525 the current of Lutheranism began to run so strongly in Denmark as to threaten to whirl away every opposing obstacle. This novel and disturbing phenomenon was mainly due to the zeal and eloquence of the ex-monk Hans Tausen and his associates, or disciples, Peder Plad and Sadolin; and, in the autumn of 1526, Tausen was appointed one of the royal chaplains. The three ensuing years were especially favourable for the Reformation, as during that time the king had unlooked-for opportunities for filling the vacant episcopal sees with men after his own heart, and at heart he was a Lutheran. The reformation movement in Denmark was further promoted by Schleswig-Holstein influence. Frederick's eldest son Duke Christian had, since 1527, resided at Haderslev, where he collected round him Lutheran teachers from Germany, and made his court the centre of the propaganda of the new doctrine. On the other hand, the Odense Recess of the 20th of August 1527, which put both confessions on a footing of equality, remained unrepealed; and so long as it remained in force, the spiritual jurisdiction of the bishops, and, consequently, their authority over the " free preachers " (whose ambition convulsed all the important towns of Denmark and aimed at forcibly expelling the Catholic priests from their churches) remained valid, to the great vexation of the reformers. The inevitable ecclesiastical crisis was still further postponed by the superior stress of two urgent political events — Christian II. 's invasion of Norway (1531) and the outbreak, in 1533, of " Grevens fejde," or "The Count's War" (1534-36), Th the count in question being Christopher of Oldenburg, count's great-nephew of King Christian I., whom Liibeck and War, her allies, on the death of Frederick I., raised up 'ff 3 ' against Frederick's son Christian III. The Catholic party and the lower orders generally took the part of Count Christopher, who acted throughout as the nominee of the captive Christian II., while the Protestant party, aided by the Holstein dukes and Gustavus Vasa of Sweden, sided with Christian III. The war ended with the capture of Copenhagen by the forces of Christian III., on the 29th of July 1536, and the triumph of so devoted a Lutheran sealed the fate of the Roman Catholic Church in Denmark, though even now it was necessary for the victorious king to proceed against the bishops and their friends by a coup d'itat, engineered by his German generals the Rantzaus. The Recess of 1536 enacted that the bishops should forfeit their temporal and spiritual authority, and that all their property should be transferred to the crown for the good of the common- wealth. In the following year a Church ordinance, based upon the canons of Luther, Melanchthon and Bugenhagen, was drawn up, submitted to Luther for his approval, and promulgated on the 2nd of September 1537. On the same day seven " super- intendents," including Tausen and Sadolin, all of whom had worked zealously for the cause of the Reformation, were consecrated in place of the dethroned bishops. The position of the superintendents and of the reformed church generally was consolidated by the Articles of Ribe in 1542, and the constitution of the Danish church has practically continued the same to the present day. But Catholicism could not wholly or immediately be dislodged by the teaching of Luther. It had struck deep roots into the habits and feelings of the people, and traces of its survival were distinguishable a whole century after the triumph of the Reformation. Catholicism lingered longest in the cathedral chapters. Here were to be found men of ability proof against the eloquence of Hans Tausen or Peder Plad and quite capable of controverting their theories — men like Povl Helgesen, for instance, indisputably the greatest Danish theologian of his day, a scholar whose voice was drowned amidst the clash of conflicting creeds. Though the Reformation at first did comparatively little for education, 1 and the whole spiritual life of Denmark was poor and feeble in consequence for at least a generation after- wards, the change of religion was of undeniable, if the n e . temporary, benefit to the state from the political formation. point of view. The enormous increase of the royal revenue consequent upon the confiscation of the property of the Church could not fail to increase the financial stability of the monarchy. In particular the suppression of the monasteries benefited the crown in two ways. The old church had, indeed, frequently rendered the state considerable financial aid, but such voluntary assistance was, from the nature of the case, casual and arbitrary. Now, however, the state derived a fixed and certain revenue from the confiscated lands; and the possession 1 It is true the university was established on the 9th of September 1537, but its influence was of very gradual growth and small at first. 32 DENMARK [HISTORY 1544- 1626. of immense landed property at the same time enabled the crown advantageously to conduct the administration. The gross revenue of the state is estimated to have risen threefold. Before the Reformation the annual revenue from land averaged 400,000 bushels of corn; after the confiscations of Church property it averaged 1,200,000 bushels. The possession of a full purse materially assisted the Danish government in its domestic administration, which was indeed epoch-making. It enabled Christian III. to pay off his German mercenaries immediately after the religious coup d'ttat of 1536. It enabled him to prosecute shipbuilding with such energy that, by, 1550, the royal fleet numbered at least thirty vessels, which were largely employed as a maritime police in the pirate-haunted Baltic and North Seas. It enabled him to create and remunerate adequately a capable official class, which proved its efficiency under the strictest supervision, and ultimately produced a whole series of great statesmen and admirals like Johan Friis, Peder Oxe, Herluf Trolle and Peder Skram. It is not too much to say that the increased revenue derived from the appropriation of Church property, intelligently applied, gave Denmark the hegemony of the North during the Influence latter P art °f Christian III.'s reign, the whole reign 0/ of Frederick II. and the first twenty-five years of the Denmark, reign of Christian IV., a period embracing, roughly speaking, eighty years (1544-1626). Within this period Denmark was indisputably the leading Scandinavian power. While Sweden, even after the advent of Gustavus Vasa, was still of but small account in Europe, Denmark easily held her own in Germany and elsewhere, even against Charles V., and was important enough, in 1553, to mediate a peace between the emperor and Saxony. Twice during this period Denmark and Sweden measured their strength in the open field, on the first occasion in the " Scandinavian Seven Years' War" (1562-70), on the second in the " Kalmar War " (1611-13), and on both occasions Denmark prevailed, though the temporary advantage she gained was more than neutralized by the intense feeling of hostility which the unnatural wars, between the two kindred peoples of Scandinavia, left behind them. Still, the fact remains that, for a time, Denmark was one of the great powers of Europe. Frederick II., in his later years (1571-1588), aspired to the dominion of all the seas which washed the Scandinavian coasts, and before he died he was able to enforce the rule that all foreign ships should strike their topsails to Danish men-of-war as a token of his right to rule the northern seas. Favourable political circumstances also contributed to this general acknowledgment of Denmark's maritime greatness. The power of the Hansa had gone; the Dutch were enfeebled by their contest with Spain; England's sea-power was yet in the making; Spain, still the greatest of the maritime nations, was exhausting her resources in the vain effort to conquer the Dutch. Yet more even than to felicitous circumstances, Denmark owed her short-lived greatness to the great statesmen and administrators whom Frederick II. succeeded in gathering about him. Never before, since the age of Margaret, had Denmark been so well governed, never before had she possessed so many political celebrities nobly emulous for the common good. Frederick II. was succeeded by his son Christian IV. (April 4, 1588), who attained his majority on the 17th of August 1596, at Denmark t ^ le a S e °^ nineteen. The realm which Christian IV. was at the ac- to govern had undergone great changes within the last cession of two generations. Towards the south the boundaries of ^y^fjgg the Danish state remained unchanged. Levensaa and the Eider still separated Denmark from the Empire. Schleswig was recognized as a Danish fief, in contradistinc- tion to Holstein, which owed vassalage to the Empire. The " kingdom " stretched as far as Kolding and Skedborg, where the " duchy " began; and this duchy since its amalgamation with Holstein by means of a common Landtag, and especially since the union of the dual duchy with the kingdom on almost equal terms in 1533, was, in most respects, a semi-independent state. Denmark, moreover, like Europe in general, was, politic- ally, on the threshold of a transitional period. During the whole course of the 16th century the monarchical form of government was in every large country, with the single exception of Poland, rising on the ruins of feudalism. The great powers of the late 16th and early 17th centuries were to be the strong, highly centralized, hereditary monarchies, like France, Spain and Sweden. There seemed to be no reason why Denmark also should not become a powerful state under the guidance of a powerful monarchy, especially as the sister state of Sweden was developing into a great power under apparently identical conditions. Yet, while Sweden was surely ripening into the dominating power of northern Europe, Denmark had as surely entered upon a period of uninterrupted and apparently incurable decline. What was the cause of this anomaly ? Something of course must be allowed for the superior and altogether extraordinary genius of the great princes of the house of Vasa; yet the causes of the decline of Denmark lay far deeper than this. They may roughly be summed up under two heads: the inherent weakness of an elective monarchy, and the absence of that public spirit which is based on the intimate alliance of ruler and ruled. Whilst Gustavus Vasa had leaned upon the Swedish peasantry, in other words upon the bulk of the Swedish nation, which was and continued to be an integral part of the Swedish body-politic, Christian III. on his accession had crushed the middle and lower classes in Denmark and reduced them to political insignificance. Yet it was not the king who benefited by this blunder. The Danish monarchy since the days of Margaret had continued to be purely elective; and a purely elective monarchy at that stage of the political development of Europe was a mischievous anomaly. It signified in the first place that the crown was not the highest power in the state, but was subject to the aristocratic Rigsraad, or council of state. The Rigsraad was the permanent owner of the realm and the crown-lands; the king was only their temporary administrator. If the king died before the election of his successor, the Rigsraad stepped into the king's place. Moreover, an elective monarchy implied that, at every fresh succession, the king was liable to be bound by a new Haandfaeslning, or charter. The election itself might, and did, become a mere formality; but the condition precedent of election, the acceptance of the charter, invariably limiting the royal authority, remained a reality. This period of aristocratic rule, which dates practically from the accession of Frederick I. (1523), and lasted for nearly a century and a half, is known in Danish history as Adelsvaelde, or rule of the nobles. Again, the king was the ruler of the realm, but over a very large portion of it he had but a slight control. The crown-lands and most of the towns were under his immediate jurisdiction, but by the side of the crown-lands lay the estates of the nobility, which already comprised about one-half of the superficial area of Denmark, and were in many respects independent of the central government both as regards taxation and administration. In a word, the monarchy had to share its dominion with the nobility; and the Danish nobility in the 16th century was one of the most exclusive and selfish aristocracies in Europe, and already far advanced in decadence. Hermetically sealing itself from any intrusion from below, it deteriorated by close and constant inter- marriage; and it was already, both morally and intellectually, below the level of the rest of the nation. Yet this very aristo- cracy, whose claim to consideration was based not upon its own achievements but upon the length of its pedigrees, insisted upon an amplification of its privileges which endangered the economical and political interests of the state and the nation. The time was close at hand when a Danish magnate was to demonstrate that he preferred the utter ruin of his country to any abatement of his own personal dignity. All below the king and the nobility were generally classified together as " subjects." Of these lower orders the clergy stood first in the social scale. As a spiritual estate, indeed, it had ceased to exist at the Reformation, though still represented in the Rigsdag or diet. Since then too it had become quite detached from the nobility, which ostentatiously despised the teaching profession. The clergy recruited themselves therefore from the class next below them, and looked more and more to the HISTORY] DENMARK 33 crown for help and protection as they drew apart from the gentry, who, moreover, as dispensers of patronage, lost no opportunity of appropriating church lands and cutting down tithes. The burgesses had not yet recovered from the disaster of " Grevens fejde"; but while the towns had become more dependent on the central power, they had at the same time been released from their former vexatious subjection to the local mag- nates, and could make their voices heard in the Rigsdag, where they were still, though inadequately, represented. Within the Estate of Burgesses itself, too, a levelling process had begun. The old municipal patriciate, which used to form the connecting link between the bourgeoisie and the nobility, had disappeared, and a feeling of common civic fellowship had taken its place. All this tended to enlarge the political views of the burgesses, and was not without its influence on the future. Yet, after all, the prospects of the burgesses depended mainly on economic con- ditions; and in this respect there was a decided improvement, due to the increasing importance of money and commerce all over Europe, especially as the steady decline of the Hanse towns immediately benefited the trade of Denmark-Norway; Norway by this time being completely merged in the Danish state, and ruled from Copenhagen. There can, indeed, be no doubt that the Danish and Norwegian merchants at the end of the 16th century flourished exceedingly, despite the intrusion and competition of the Dutch and the dangers to neutral shipping arising from the frequent wars between England, Spain and the Netherlands. At the bottom of the social ladder lay the peasants, whose condition had decidedly deteriorated. Only in one respect had they benefited by the peculiar conditions of the 16th century: the rise in the price of corn without any corresponding rise in the land-tax must have largely increased their material prosperity. Yet the number of peasant-proprietors had diminished, while the obligations of the peasantry generally had increased; and, still worse, their obligations were vexatiously indefinite, varying from year to year and even from month to month. They weighed especially heavily on the so-called Ugedasmaend, who were forced to work two or three days a week in the demesne lands. This increase of villenage morally depressed the peasantry, and widened still further the breach between the yeomanry and the gentry. Politically its consequences were disastrous. While in Sweden the free and energetic peasant was a salutary power in the state, which he served with both mind and plough, the Danish peasant was sinking to the level of a bondman. While the Swedish peasants were well represented in the Swedish Riksdag, whose proceedings they sometimes dominated, the Danish peasantry had no political rights or privileges what- ever. Such then, briefly, was the condition of things in Denmark when, in 1 588, Christian IV. ascended the throne. Where so much was necessarily uncertain and fluctuating, there was IV 1588- room f° r an almost infinite variety of development. 1648. Much depended on the character and personality of the young prince who had now taken into his hands the reins of government, and for half a century was to guide the destinies of the nation. In the beginning of his reign the hand of the young monarch, who was nothing if not energetic, made itself felt in every direction. The harbours of Copenhagen, Elsinore and other towns were enlarged; many decaying towns were abolished and many new ones built under more promising conditions, including Christiania, which was founded in August 1624, on the ruins of the ancient city of Oslo. Various attempts were also made to improve trade and industry by abolishing the still remaining privileges of the Hanseatic towns, by promoting a wholesale immigration of skilful and well-to-do Dutch traders and handicraftsmen into Denmark under most favourable conditions, by opening up the rich fisheries of the Arctic seas, and by establishing joint-stock chartered companies both in the East and the West Indies. Copenhagen especially benefited by Christian IV. 's commercial policy. He enlarged and embellished it, and provided it with new harbours and fortifications; in short, did his best to make it the worthy capital of a great empire. But it was in the foreign policy of the government that the royal influence was most perceptible. Unlike Sweden, Denmark had remained outside the great religious-political movements which were the outcome of the Catholic reaction; and the peculiarity of her position made her rather hostile than friendly to the other Protestant states. The possession of the Sound enabled her to close the Baltic against the Western powers; the possession of Norway carried along with it the control of the rich fisheries which were Danish monopolies, and therefore a source of irrita- tion to England and Holland. Denmark, moreover, was above all things a Scandinavian power. While the territorial expansion of Sweden in the near future was a matter of necessity, Denmark had not only attained, but even exceeded, her natural limits. Aggrandizement southwards, at the expense of the German empire, was becoming every year more difficult; and in every other direction she had nothing more to gain. Nay, more, Denmark's possession of the Scanian provinces deprived Sweden of her proper geographical frontiers. Clearly it was Denmark's wisest policy to seek a close alliance with Sweden in their common interests, and after the conclusion of the " Kalmar War " the two countries did remain at peace for the next thirty-one years. But the antagonistic interests of the two countries in Germany during the Thirty Years' War precipitated a fourth contest between them (1643-45), in which Denmark would have been utterly ruined but for the heroism of King Christian IV. and his command of the sea during the crisis of the struggle. Even so, by the peace of Bromsebro (February 8, 1645) Denmark surrendered the islands of Oesel and Gotland /o ^ es of and the provinces of Jemteland and Herjedal (in territory. Norway) definitively, and Halland for thirty years. The freedom from the Sound tolls was by the same treaty also extended to Sweden's Baltic provinces. The peace of Bromsebro was the first of the long series of treaties, extending down to our own days, which mark the progressive shrinkage of Danish territory into an irreducible minimum. Sweden's appropriation of Danish soil had begun, and at the same time Denmark's power of resisting the encroach- ments of Sweden was correspondingly reduced. The Danish national debt, too, had risen enormously, while the sources of future income and consequent recuperation had diminished or disappeared. The Sound tolls, for instance, in consequence of the treaties of Bromsebro and Kristianope! (by the latter treaty very considerable concessions were made to the Dutch) had sunk from 400,000 to 140,000 rix-dollars. The political influence of the crown, moreover, had inevitably been weakened, and the conduct of foreign affairs passed from the hands of the king into the hands of the Rigsraad. On the accession of Frederick III. (1648-1670) moreover, the already 7/ " \^ s . diminished royal prerogative was still further curtailed 1670. by the Haandfaestning, or charter, which he was compelled to sign. Fear and hatred of Sweden, and the never abandoned hope of recovering the lost provinces, animated king and people alike; but it was Denmark's crowning misfortune that she possessed at this difficult crisis no statesman of the first rank, no one even approximately comparable with such com- petitors as Charles X. of Sweden or the " Great Elector " Frederick William of Brandenburg. From the very beginning of his reign Frederick III. was resolved upon a rupture at the first convenient opportunity, while the nation was, if possible, even more bellicose than the king. The apparently insuperable difficulties of Sweden in Poland was the feather that turned the scale; on the 1st of June 1657, Frederick III. signed the manifesto justifying a war which was never formally declared and brought Denmark to the very verge of ruin. The extraordinary details of this dramatic struggle will be found elsewhere (see Frederick III., king of Denmark, and Charles X., king of Sweden); suffice it to say that by the peace of Roskilde (February 26, 1658), Denmark consented to cede the Roskilde three Scanian provinces, the island of Bornholm and I6S8. the Norwegian provinces of Baahus and Trondhjem; to renounce all anti-Swedish alliances and to exempt all Swedish 11 34 DENMARK [HISTORY llshed, 1660. vessels, even when carrying foreign goods, from all tolls. These terrible losses were somewhat retrieved by the subsequent treaty of Copenhagen (May 27, 1660) concluded by the Swedish regency with Frederick III. after the failure of Charles X.'s second war against Denmark, a failure chiefly owing to the heroic defence of the Danish capital (1658-60). By this treaty Treaty of Sweden gave back the province of Trondhjem and the Copen- isle of Bornholm and released Denmark from the most hagen, onerous of the obligations of the treaty of Roskilde. 1660. j n £ ac j. ^ p eace f Copenhagen came as a welcome break in an interminable series of disasters and humiliations. Anyhow, it confirmed the independence of the Danish state. On the other hand, if Denmark had emerged from the war with her honour and dignity unimpaired, she had at the same time tacitly surrendered the dominion of the North to her Scandi- navian rival. But the war just terminated had important political conse- quences, which were to culminate in one of the most curious and Hereditary interesting revolutions of modern history. In the first monarchy place, it marks the termination of the Adelsvaelde, or estab- rule of the nobility. By their cowardice, incapacity, egotism and treachery during the crisis of the struggle, the Danish aristocracy had justly forfeited the respect of every other class of the community, and emerged from the war hopelessly discredited. On the other hand, Copenhagen, proudly conscious of her intrinsic importance and of her inestim- able services to the country, whom she had saved from annihilation by her constancy, now openly claimed to have a voice in public affairs. Still higher had risen the influence of the crown. The courage and resource displayed by Frederick III. in the extremity of the national danger had won for " the least expansive of monarchs " an extraordinary popularity. On the 10th of September 1660, the Rigsdag, which was to repair the ravages of the war and provide for the future, was opened with great ceremony in the Riddersaal of the castle of Copenhagen. The first bill laid before the Estates by the government was to impose an excise tax on the principal articles of consumption, together with subsidiary taxes on cattle, poultry, &c, in return for which the abolition of all the old direct taxes was promised. The nobility at first claimed exemption from taxation altogether, while the clergy and burgesses insisted upon an absolute equality of taxation. There were sharp encounters between the presidents of the contending orders, but the position of the Lower Estates was considerably prejudiced by the dissen- sions of its various sections. Thus the privileges of the bishops and of Copenhagen profoundly irritated the lower clergy and the unprivileged towns, and made a cordial understanding impossible, till Hans Svane, bishop of Copenhagen, and Hans Nansen the burgomaster, who now openly came forward as the leader of the reform movement, proposed that the privileges which divided the non-noble Estates should be abolished. In accordance with this proposal, the two Lower Estates, on the 16th of September, subscribed a memorandum addressed to the Rigsraad, declaring their willingness to renounce their privileges, provided the nobility did the same; which was tantamount to a declaration that the whole of the clergy and burgesses had made common cause against the nobility. The opposition so formed took the name of the " Conjoined Estates." The presentation of the memorial provoked an outburst of indignation. But the nobility soon perceived the necessity of complete surrender. On the 30th of September the First Estate abandoned its former standpoint and renounced its privileges, with one unimportant reservation. The struggle now seemed to be ended, and the financial question having also been settled, the king, had he been so minded, might have dismissed the Estates. But the still more important question of reform was now raised. On the 17th of September the burgesses introduced a bill proposing a new constitution, which was to include local self-government in the towns, the abolition of serfdom, and the formation of a national army. It fell to the ground for want of adequate support; but another proposition, the fruit of secret discussion between the king and his confederates, which placed all fiefs under the control of the crown as regards taxation, and provided for selling and letting them to the highest bidder, was accepted by the Estate of burgesses. The significance of this ordinance lay in the fact that it shattered the privileged position of the nobility, by abolishing the exclusive right to the possession of fiefs. What happened next is not quite clear. Our sources fail us, and we are at the mercy of doubtful rumours and more or less unreliable anecdotes. We have a vision of intrigues, mysterious conferences, threats and bribery, dimly discernible through a shifting mirage of tradition. The first glint of light is a letter, dated the 23rd of September, from Frederick III. to Svane and Nansen, authorizing them to communicate the arrangements already made to reliable men, and act quickly, as " if the others gain time they may possibly gain more." The first step was to make sure of the city train- bands: of the garrison of Copenhagen the king had no doubt. The headquarters of the conspirators was the bishop's palace near Vor Frue church, between which and the court messages were passing continually, and where the document to be adopted by the Conjoined Estates took its final shape. On the 8th of October the two burgomasters, Hans Nansen and Kristoffer Hansen, proposed that the realm of Denmark should be made over to the king as a hereditary kingdom, without prejudice to theprivilegesof theEstates; whereupon theyproceeded to Brewer's Hall, and informed the Estate of burgesses there assembled of what had been done. A fiery oration from Nansen dissolved some feeble opposition; and simultaneously Bishop Svane carried the clergy along with him. The so-called " Instrument," now signed by the Lower Estates, offered the realm to the king and his house as a hereditary monarchy, by way of thank-offering mainly for his courageous deliverance of the kingdom during the war; and the Rigsraad and the nobility were urged to notify the resolution to the king, and desire him to maintain each Estate in its due privileges, and to give a written counter- assurance that the revolution now to be effected was for the sole benefit of the state. Events now moved forward rapidly. On the 10th of October a deputation from the clergy and burgesses proceeded to the Council House where the Rigsraad were de- liberating, to demand an answer to their propositions. After a tumultuous scene, the aristocratic Raad rejected the " Instru- ment " altogether, whereupon the deputies of the commons pro- ceeded to the palace and were graciously received by the king, who promised them an answer next day. The same afternoon the guards in the streets and on the ramparts were doubled; on the following morning the gates of the city were closed, powder and bullets were distributed among the city train-bands, who were bidden to be in readiness when the alarm bell called them, and cavalry was massed on the environs of the city. The same afternoon the king sent a message to the Rigsraad urging them to declare their views quickly, as he could no longer hold himself responsible for what might happen. After a feeble attempt at a compromise the Raad gave way. On the 13 th of October it signed a declaration to the effect that it associated itself still with the Lower Estates in the making over of the kingdom, as a hereditary monarchy, to his majesty and his heirs male and female. The same day the king received the official communi- cation of this declaration and the congratulation of the burgo- masters. Thus the ancient constitution was transformed; and Denmark became a monarchy hereditary in Frederick III. and his posterity. But although hereditary sovereignty had been introduced, the laws of the land had not been abolished. The monarch was specifically now a sovereign over-lord, but he had not been absolved from his obligations towards his subjects. Hereditary sovereignty per se was not held to signify unlimited dominion, still less absolutism. On the contrary, the magnificent gift of the Danish nation to Frederick III. was made under express conditions. The " Instrument " drawn up by the Lower Estates implied the retention of all their rights; and the king, in accepting the gift of a hereditary crown, did not repudi- ate the implied inviolability of the privileges of the donors. HISTORY] DENMARK 35 Unfortunately everything had been left so vague, that it was an easy matter for ultra-royalists like Svane and Nansen to ignore the privileges of the Estates, and even the Estates themselves. On the 14th of October a committee was summoned to the palace to organize the new government. The discussion turned mainly upon two points, (1) whether a new oath of homage should be taken to the king, and (2) what was to be done with the Haandjaestning or royal charter. The first point was speedily decided in the affirmative, and, as to the second, it was ultimately decided that the king should be released from his oath and the charter returned to him; but a rider was added suggesting that he should, at the same time, promulgate a Recess providing for his own and his people's welfare. Thus Frederick III. was not left absolutely his own master; for the provision regarding a Recess, or new constitution, showed plainly enough that such a constitution was expected, and, once granted, would of course have limited the royal power. It now only remained to execute the resolutions of the com- mittee. On the 17th of October the charter, which the king had sworn to observe twelve years before, was solemnly handed back to him at the palace, Frederick III. thereupon promising to rule as a Christian king to the satisfaction of all the Estates of the realm. On the following day the king, seated on the topmost step of a lofty tribune surmounted by a baldaquin, erected in the midst of the principal square of Copenhagen, received the public homage of his subjects of all ranks, in the presence of an immense concourse, on which occasion he again promised to rule " as a Christian hereditary king and gracious master," and, " as soon as possible, to prepare and set up " such a constitution as should secure to his subjects a Christian and indulgent sway. The ceremony concluded with a grand banquet at the palace. After dinner the queen and the clergy withdrew; but the king remained. An incident now occurred which made a strong impression on all present. With a brimming beaker in his hand, Frederick III. went up to Hans Nansen, drank with him and drew him aside. They communed together in a low voice for some time, till the burgomaster, succumbing to the influence of his potations, fumbled his way to his carriage with the assistance of some of his civic colleagues. Whether Nansen, intoxicated by wine and the royal favour, consented on this occasion to sacrifice the privileges of his order and his city, it is impossible to say; but it is significant that, from henceforth, we hear no more of the Recess which the more liberal of the leaders of the lower orders had hoped for when they released Frederick III. from the obligations of the charter. We can follow pretty plainly the stages of the progress from a limited to an absolute monarchy. By an act dated the 10th Establish- °^ J anuar y 1661, entitled " Instrument, or pragmatic mentor sanction," of the king's hereditary right to the king- absolute doms of Denmark and Norway, it was declared that "*• all the prerogatives of majesty, and " all regalia as an absolute sovereign lord," had been made over to the king. Yet, even after the issue of the " Instrument," there was nothing, strictly speaking, to prevent Frederick III. from voluntarily conceding to his subjects some share in the administration. Unfortunately the king was bent upon still further emphasizing the plenitude of his power. At Copenhagen his advisers were busy framing drafts of a Lex Regia Perpetua ; and the one which finally won the royal favour was the famous Kongelov, or " King's Law." This document was in every way unique. In the first place it is remarkable for its literary excellence. Compared with the barbarous macaronic jargon of the contemporary official language it shines forth as a masterpiece of pure, pithy and original Danish. Still more remarkable are the tone and tenor of this royal law. The Kongelov has the highly dubious honour of being the one written law in the civilized world which fearlessly carries out absolutism to the last consequences. The monarchy is de- clared to owe its origin to the surrender of the supreme authority by the Estates to the king. The maintenance of the indivisi- bility of the realm and of the Christian faith according to the | Augsburg Confession, and the observance of the Kongelov itself, are now the sole obligations binding upon the king. The supreme spiritual authority also is now claimed; and it is expressly stated that it becomes none to crown him; the moment he ascends the throne, crown and sceptre belong to him of right. Moreover, par. 26 declares guilty of lese-majestS whomsoever shall in any way usurp or infringe the king's absolute authority. In the following reign the ultra-royalists went further still. In their eyes the king was not merely autocratic, but sacrosanct. Thus before the anointing of Christian V. on the 7th of June 167 1, a ceremony by way of symbolizing the new autocrat's humble submission to the Almighty, the officiating bishop of Zealand delivered an oration in which he declared that the king was God's immediate creation, His vicegerent on earth, and that it was the bounden duty of all good subjects to serve and honour the celestial majesty as represented by the king's terrestrial majesty. The Kongelov is dated and subscribed the 14th of November 1665, but was kept a profound secret, only two initiated persons knowing of its existence until after the death of Frederick III., one of them being Kristoffer Gabel, the king's chief intermediary during the revolution, and the other the author and custodian of the Kongelov, Secretary Peder Schumacher, better known as Griffenfeldt. It is significant that both these confidential agents were plebeians. The revolution of 1660 was certainly beneficial to Norway. With the disappearance of the Rigsraad, which, as representing the Danish crown, had hitherto exercised sovereignty Effects Bf over both kingdoms, Norway ceased to be a subject the revola- principality. The sovereign hereditary king stood in tion of exactly the same relations to both kingdoms; and I660 ' thus, constitutionally, Norway was placed on an equality with Denmark, united with but not subordinate to it. It is clear that the majority of the Norwegian people hoped that the revolution would give them an administration independent of the Danish government; but these expectations were not realised. Till the cessation of the Union in 1814, Copenhagen continued to be the headquarters of the Norwegian administra- tion; both kingdoms had common departments of state; and the common chancery continued to be called the Danish chancery. On the other hand the condition of Norway was now greatly improved. In January 1661 a land commission was appointed to investigate the financial and economical conditions of the kingdoms; the fiefs were transformed into counties; the nobles were deprived of their immunity from taxation; and in July 1662 the Norwegian towns received special privileges, including the monopoly of the lucrative timber trade. The Enevaelde, or absolute monarchy, also distinctly benefited the whole Danish state by materially increasing its reserve of native talent. Its immediate consequence was to throw open every state appointment to the middle classes; and the middle classes of that period, with very few exceptions, monopolized the intellect and the energy of the nation. New blood of the best quality nourished and stimulated the whole body politic. Ex- pansion and progress were the watchwords at home, and abroad it seemed as if Denmark were about to regain her former position as a great power. This was especially y hr fJlg° the case during the brief but brilliant administration I'^gg. of Chancellor Griffenfeldt. Then, if ever, Denmark had the chance of playing once more a leading part in inter- national politics. But Griffenfeldt's difficulties, always serious, were increased by the instability of the European situation, depending as it did on the ambition of Louis XIV. Resolved to conquer the Netherlands, the French king proceeded, first of all, to isolate her by dissolving the Triple Alliance. (See Sweden and Griffenfeldt.) In April 1672 a treaty was concluded between France and Sweden, on condition that France should not include Denmark in her system of alliances without the consent of Sweden. This treaty showed that Sweden weighed more in the French balances than Denmark. In June 1672 a French army invaded the Netherlands; whereupon the elector of Brandenburg contracted an alliance with the emperor Leopold, to which Denmark was invited to accede; almost simultaneously 36 DENMARK [HISTORY the States-General began to negotiate for a renewal of the recently- expired Dano-Dutch alliance. In these circumstances it was as difficult for Denmark to remain neutral as it was dangerous for her to make a choice. Denmark ^ n a ' uance with France would subordinate her to in the Sweden ; an alliance with the Netnerlands would expose Oreat her to an attack from Sweden. The Franco-Swedish Northern a uj ance left Griffenfeldt no choice but to accede to the opposite league, for he saw at once that the ruin of the Netherlands would disturb the balance of power in the north by giving an undue preponderance to England and Sweden. But Denmark's experience of Dutch promises in the past was not reassuring; so, while negotiating at the Hague for a renewal of the Dutch alliance, he at the same time felt his way at Stockholm towards a commercial treaty with Sweden. His Swedish mission proved abortive, but, as he had anticipated, it effectually acceler- ated the negotiations at the Hague, and frightened the Dutch into unwonted liberality. In May 1673 a treaty of alliance was signed by the ambassador of the States-General at Copenhagen, whereby the Netherlands pledged themselves to pay Denmark large subsidies in return for the services of 10,000 men and twenty warships, which were to be held in readiness in case the United Provinces were attacked by another enemy besides France. Thus, very dexterously, Griffenfeldt had succeeded in gaining his subsidies without sacrificing his neutrality. His next move was to attempt to detach Sweden from France; but, Sweden showing not the slightest inclination for a rapproche- ment, Denmark was compelled to accede to the anti-French league, which she did by the treaty of Copenhagen, of January 1674, thereby engaging to place an army of 20,000 in the field when required; but here again Griffenfeldt safeguarded himself to some extent by stipulating that this provision was not to be operative till the allies were attacked by a fresh enemy. When, in December 1674, a Swedish army invaded Prussian Pomerania, Denmark was bound to intervene as a belligerent, but Griffen- feldt endeavoured to postpone this intervention as long as possible; and Sweden's anxiety to avoid hostilities with her southern neighbour materially assisted him to postpone the evil day. He only wanted to gain time, and he gained it. To the last he endeavoured to avoid a rupture with France even if he broke with Sweden; but he could not restrain for ever the foolish impetuosity of his own sovereign, Christian V., and his fall in the beginning of 1676 not only, as he had foreseen, involved Denmark in an unprofitable war, but, as his friend and disciple, Jens Juel, well observed, relegated her henceforth to the humiliat- ing position of an international catspaw. Thus at the peace of Fontainebleau (September 2, 1679) Denmark, which had borne the brunt of the struggle in the Baltic, was compelled by the inexorable French king to make full restitution to Sweden, the treaty between the two northern powers being signed at Lund on the 26th of September. Freely had she spent her blood and her treasure, only to emerge from the five years' contest exhausted and empty-handed. By the peace of Fontainebleau Denmark had been sacrificed to the interests of France and Sweden; forty-one years later she was sacrificed to the interests of Hanover and Prussia by the peace of Copenhagen (1720), which ended the Northern War so far as the German powers were concerned. But it would not have terminated advantageously for them at all, had not the powerful and highly efficient Danish fleet effectually prevented the Swedish government from succouring its distressed German provinces, and finally swept the Swedish fleets out of the northern waters. Yet all the compensation Denmark received for her inestimable services during a whole decade was 600,000 rix- dollars! The bishoprics of Bremen and Verden, the province of Farther Pomerania and the isle of Riigen which her armies had actually conquered, and which had been guaranteed to her by a whole catena of treaties, went partly to the upstart electorate of Hanover and partly to the upstart kingdom of Prussia, both of which states had been of no political importance whatever at the beginning of the war of spoliation by which they were, ultimately, to profit so largely and so cheaply. The last ten years of the reign of Christian V.'s successor, Frederick IV. (1699-1730), were devoted to the nursing and development of the resources of the country, which had suffered only less severely than Sweden from the effects ^fYiw- of the Great Northern War. The court, seriously pious, 1730. did much for education. A wise economy also contri- buted to reduce the national debt within manageable limits, and in the welfare of the peasantry Frederick IV. took a deep interest. In 1722 serfdom was abolished in the case of all peasants in the royal estates born after his accession. The first act of Frederick's successor, Christian VI. (1730-1746), was to abolish the national militia, which had been an intoler- able burden upon the peasantry; yet the more pressing agrarian difficulties were not thereby surmounted, ^! r/ ^ff as had been hoped. The price of corn continued i 7 '^ 6i to fall; the migration of the peasantry assumed alarming proportions; and at last, " to preserve the land " as well as to increase the defensive capacity of the country, the national militia was re-established by the decree of the 4th of February 1733, which at the same time bound to the soil all peasants between the age of nine and forty. Reactionary as the measure was it enabled the agricultural interest, on which the prosperity of Denmark mainly depended, to tide over one of the most dangerous crises in its history; but certainly the position of the Danish peasantry was never worse than during the reign of the religious and benevolent Christian VI. Under the peaceful reign of Christian's son and successor, Frederick V. (1746-1766), still more was done for commerce, industry and agriculture. To promote Denmark's carrying trade, treaties were made with the Barbary y ,?^. States, Genoa and Naples; and the East Indian ij'^e. Trading Company flourished exceedingly. On the other hand the condition of the peasantry was even worse under Frederick V. than it had been under Christian VI., the Stavns- baand, or regulation which bound all males to the soil, being made operative from the age of four. Yet signs of a coming amelioration were not wanting. The theory of the physiocrats now found powerful advocates in Denmark; and after 1755, when the press censorship was abolished so far as regarded political economy and agriculture, a thorough discussion of the whole agrarian question became possible. A commission appointed in 1757 worked zealously for the repeal of many agricultural abuses; and several great landed proprietors introduced heredi- tary leaseholds, and abolished the servile tenure. Foreign affairs during the reigns of Frederick V. and Christian VI. were left in the capable hands of J. H. E. Bernstorff, who aimed at steering clear of all foreign complications and preserving inviolable the neutrality of Denmark. This he succeeded in doing, in spite of the Seven Years' War and of the difficulties attending the thorny Gottorp question in which Sweden and Russia were equally interested. The same policy was victori- ously pursued by his nephew and pupil Andreas Bernstorff, an even greater man than the elder Bernstorff, who controlled the foreign policy of Denmark from 1773 to 1778, and again from 1784 till his death in 1797. The period of the younger Bernstorff synchronizes with the greater part of the Christian long reign of Christian VII. (1766-1808), one of the jgos. most eventful periods of modern Danish history. The king himself was indeed a semi-idiot, scarce responsible for his actions, yet his was the era of such striking personalities as the brilliant charlatan Struensee, the great philanthropist and reformer C. D. F. Reventlow, the ultra-conservative Ove Hoegh-Guldberg, whose mission it was to repair.tlie damage done by Struensee, and that generation of alert and progressive spirits which surrounded the young crown prince Frederick, whose first act, on taking his seat in the council of state, at the age of sixteen, on the 4th of April 1784, was to dismiss Guldberg. A fresh and fruitful period of reform now began, lasting till nearly the end of the century, and interrupted only by the brief but costly war with Sweden in 1788. The emancipation of the peasantry was now the burning question of the day, and the whole matter was thoroughly ventilated. Bernstorff and the HISTORY] DENMARK 37 crown prince were the most zealous advocates of the peasantry in the council of state; but the honour of bringing the whole peasant question within the range of practical politics un- doubtedly belongs to C. D. F. Reventlow (q.v.). Nor was the reforming principle limited to the abolition of serfdom. In 1788 the corn trade was declared free; the Jews received civil rights; and the negro slave trade was forbidden. In 1796 a special ordinance reformed the whole system of judicial procedure, making it cheaper and more expeditious; while the toll ordinance of the 1st of February 1797 still further extended the principle of free trade. Moreover, until two years after Bernstorff's death in 1797, the Danish press enjoyed a larger freedom of speech than the press of any other absolute monarchy in Europe, so much so that at last Denmark became suspected of favouring Jacobin views. But in September 1799 under strong pressure from the Russian emperor Paul, the Danish government forbade anonymity, and introduced a limited censorship. It was Denmark's obsequiousness to Russia which led to the first of her unfortunate collisions with Great Britain. In 1800 _ . the Danish government was persuaded by the tsar and Great to accede to the second Armed Neutrality League, Britain la which Russia had just concluded with Prussia and theNapo' Sweden. Great Britain retaliated by laying an Wars. embargo on the vessels of the three neutral powers, and by sending a considerable fleet to the Baltic under the command of Parker and Nelson. Surprised and unprepared though they were, the Danes, nevertheless, on the 2nd of April 1801, offered a gallant resistance; but their fleet was destroyed, their capital bombarded, and, abandoned by Russia, they were compelled to submit to a disadvantageous peace. The same vain endeavour of Denmark to preserve her neutrality led to the second breach with England. After the peace of Tilsit there could be no further question of neutrality. Napoleon had determined that if Great Britain refused to accept Russia's mediation, Denmark, Sweden and Portugal were to be forced to close their harbours to her ships and declare war against her. It was the intention of the Danish government to preserve its neutrality to the last, although, on the whole, it preferred an alliance with Great Britain to a league with Napoleon, and was even prepared for a breach with the French emperor if he pressed her too hardly. The army had therefore been assembled in Holstein, and the crown prince regent was with it. But the British government did not consider Denmark strong enough to resist France, and Canning had private trustworthy information of the designs of Napoleon, upon which he was bound to act. He sent accordingly a fleet, with 30,000 men on board, to the Sound to compel Denmark, by way of security for her future conduct, to unite her fleet with the British fleet. Denmark was offered an alliance, the complete restitution of her fleet after the war, a guarantee of all her possessions, compensation for all expenses, and even territorial aggrandizement. Dictatorially presented as they were, these terms were liberal and even generous; and if a great statesman like Bernstorfl had been at the head of affairs in Copenhagen, he would, no doubt, have accepted them, even if with a wry face. But the prince regent, if a good patriot, was a poor politician, and invincibly obstinate. When, therefore, in August 1807, Gambier arrived in the Sound, and the English plenipotentiary Francis James Jackson, not perhaps the most tactful person that could have been chosen, hastened to Kiel to place the British demands before the crown prince, Frederick not only refused to negotiate, but ordered the Copenhagen authorities to put. the city in the best state of defence possible. Taking this to be tantamount to a declaration of war, on the 16th of August the British army landed at Vedback; and shortly afterwards the Danish capital was invested. Anything like an adequate defence was hopeless; Loss of a bombardment began which lasted from the 2nd of Norway. September till the 5th of September, and ended with ktT'm/^ ^ e ca Pitulation of the city and the surrender of the fleet intact, the prince regent having neglected to give orders for its destruction. After this Denmark, unwisely, but not unnaturally, threw herself into the arms of Napoleon and continued to be his faithful ally till the end of the war. She was punished for her obstinacy by being deprived of Norway, which she was compelled to surrender to Sweden by the terms of the treaty of Kiel (1814), on the 14th of January, receiving by way of compensation a sum of money and Swedish Pomerania, with Rttgen, which were subsequently transferred to Prussia in ex- change for the duchy of Lauenburg and 2,000,000 rix-dollars. On the establishment of the German Confederation in 1815, Frederick VI. acceded thereto as duke of Holstein, but refused to allow Schleswig to enter it, on the ground that Schleswig was an integral part of the Danish realm. The position of Denmark from 1815 to 1830 was one of great difficulty and distress. The loss of Norway necessitated consider- able reductions of expenditure, but the economies actually practised fell far short of the requirements of atte"%is the diminished kingdom and its depleted exchequer; while the agricultural depression induced by the enormous fall in the price of corn all over Europe caused fresh demands upon the state, and added 10,000,000 rix-dollars to the national debt before 1835. The last two years of the reign of Frederick VI. (1838-1839) were also remarkable for the revival of political life, provincial consultative assemblies being established for Jutland, the Islands, Schleswig and Holstein, by the ordinance of the 28th of May 1831. But these consultative assemblies were regarded as insufficient by the Danish Liberals, and during the last years of Frederick VI. and the whole reign of his successor, Christian VIII. (1839-1848), the agitation for a free constitution, both in Denmark and the duchies, continued to grow ^ ons '#«»" in strength, in spite of press prosecutions and other agitation. repressive measures. The rising national feeling in Beginnings Germany also stimulated the separatist tendencies of the of the duchies; and " Schleswig-Holsteinism," as ^""J*" it now began to be called, evoked in Denmark the Question. counter-movement known as Eiderdansk-politik, i.e. the policy of extending Denmark to the Eider and obliterating German Schleswig, in order to save Schleswig from being absorbed by Germany. This division of national sentiment within the monarchy, complicated by the ap- proaching extinction of the Oldenburg line of the house of Denmark, by which, in the normal course under the Salic law, the succession to Holstein would have passed away from the Danish crown, opened up the whole complicated Schleswig- Holstein Question with all its momentous consequences. (See Schleswig-Holstein Qdestion.) Within the monarchy itself, during the following years, " Schleswig-Holsteinism " and " Eiderdanism " faced each other as rival, mutually exacerbating forces; and the efforts of succeeding governments to solve the insoluble problem broke down ever on the rock of nationalist passion and the interests of the German powers. The unionist constitution, devised by Christian VIIL, and pro- v . mulgated by his successor, Frederick VII. (1848-1863), Constita- on the 28th of January 1848, led to the armed inter- tionot vention of Prussia, at the instance of the new German ,848, "° d parliament at Frankfort; and, though with the help pru^i'a. of Russian and British diplomacy, the Danes were ultimately successful, they had to submit, in 1851, to the government of Holstein by an international commission consisting of three members, Prussian, Austrian and Danish respectively. Denmark, meanwhile, had been engaged in providing herself with a parliament on modern lines. The constitutional rescript of the 28th of January 1848 had been withdrawn in favour of an electoral law for a national assembly, of whose 152 members 38 were to be nominated by the king and to form an Upper House (Landsting) , while the remainder were to be elected by the people and to form a popular chamber (Folketing). The Bondevenlige, or philo-peasant party, which objected to the king's right of nomination and preferred a one-chamber system, now separated from the National Liberals on this point. But the National Liberals triumphed at the general election; fear of reactionary tendencies finally induced the Radicals to accede to the wishes of the majority; and on the 5th of June 1849 the new constitution received the royal sanction. 38 DENMARK [HISTORY Danish duchies. At this stage Denmark's foreign relations prejudicially affected her domestic politics. The Liberal Eiderdansk party was for Germany dividing Schleswig into three distinct administrative and the belts, according as the various nationalities predomin- ated (language rescripts of i85i),but German sentiment was opposed to any such settlement and, still worse, the great continental powers looked askance on the new Danish constitution as far too democratic. The substance of the notes embodying the exchange of views, in 1851 and 1852, between the German great powers and Denmark, was promulgated, on the 28th of January 1852, in the new constitutional decree which, together with the documents on which it was founded, was known as the Conventions of 1851 and 1852. Under this Conven- arran gement each part of the monarchy was to have 1852. local autonomy, with a common constitution for common affairs. Holstein was now restored to Denmark, and Prussia and Austria consented to take part in the conference of London, by which the integrity of Denmark was upheld, and the succession to the whole monarchy settled on Prince Christian, youngest son of Duke William of Schleswig- Holstein-Sonderburg-Gliicksburg, and husband of Louise of Hesse, the niece of King Christian VIII. The " legitimate " heir to the duchies, under the Salic law, Duke Christian of Sonderburg-Augustenburg, accepted the decision of the London conference in consideration of the purchase by the Danish government of his estates in Schleswig. On the 2nd of October 1855 was promulgated the new common constitution, which for two years had been the occasion of a fierce contention between the Conservatives and the Constitu- Radicals. It proved no more final than its predecessors. I85S. The representatives of the duchies in the new common Rigsraad protested against it, as subversive of the Con- ventions of 1 85 1 and 1852; and their attitude had the support of the German powers. In 1857, Carl Christian Hall (q.v.) became prime minister. After putting off the German powers by seven years of astute diplomacy, he realized the impossibility of carrying out the idea of a common constitution and, on the 30th of March 1862, a royal proclamation was issued detaching Holstein as far as possible from the common monarchy. Later in the year he introduced into the Rigsraad a common constitution Hon of ' f° r Denmark and Schleswig, which was carried through 1863 and and confirmed by the council of state on the 13th of accession November 1863. It had not, however, received the tian IX.' r °y a l assent when the death of Frederick VII. brought the " Protocol King " Christian IX. to the throne. Placed between the necessity of offending his new subjects or embroiling himself with the German powers, Christian chose the remoter evil and, on the 18th of November, the new constitution became law. This once more opened up the whole question in an acute form. Frederick, son of Christian of Augustenburg, refus- ing to be bound by his father's engagements, entered Holstein and, supported by the Estates and the German diet, proclaimed himself duke. The events that followed: the occupation of the duchies by Austria and Prussia, the war of 1864, Danish gallantly fought by the Danes against overwhelming War of odds, and the astute diplomacy by which Bismarck 1864, and succeeded in ultimately gaining for Prussia the seaboard cession of g0 esse ntial for her maritime power, are dealt with duchies. elsewhere (see Schleswig-Holstein Question). For Denmark the question was settled when, by the peace of Vienna (October 30, 1864), the duchies were irretrievably lost to her. At the peace of Prague, which terminated the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Napoleon III. procured the in- sertion in the treaty of paragraph v., by which the northern districts of Schleswig were to be reunited to Denmark when the majority of the population by a free vote should so desire; but when Prussia at last thought fit to negotiate with Denmark on the subject, she laid down conditions which the Danish government could not accept. Finally, in 1878, by a separate agreement between Austria and -Prussia, paragraph v. was rescinded. The salient feature of Danish politics during subsequent years was the struggle between the two Tings, the Folketing or Lower House, and the Landsting, or Upper House of the Rigsdag. This contest began in 1872, when a com- ^"a/""" bination of all the Radical parties, known as the struggles " United Left," passed a vote of want of confidence ia Dea ' against the government and rejected the budget, ^£* s,ace Nevertheless, the ministry, supported by the Landsting, refused to resign; and the crisis became acute when, in 1875, J. B. Estrup became prime minister. Perceiving that the coming struggle would be essentially a financial one, he retained the ministry of finance in his own hands; and, strong in the support of the king, the Landsting, and a considerable minority in the country itself, he devoted himself to the double task of establish- ing the political parity of the Landsting with the Folketing and strengthening the national armaments, so that, in the event of a war between the European great powers, Denmark might be able to defend her neutrality. The Left was willing to vote 30,000,000 crowns for extraordinary military expenses, exclusive of the fortifications of Copenhagen, on condition that the amount should be raised by a property and income tax; and, as the elections of 1875 had given them a majority of three-fourths in the popular chamber, they spoke with no uncertain voice. But the Upper House steadily supported Estrup, who was disinclined to accept any such compromise. As an agreement between the two houses on the budget proved impossible, a provisional financial decree was issued on the 12th of April 1877, which the Left stigmatized as a breach of the constitution. But the difficulties of the ministry were somewhat relieved by a split in the Radical party, still further accentuated by the elections of 1879, which enabled Estrup to carry through the army and navy defence bill and the new military penal code by leaning alternately upon one or the other of the divided Radical groups. After the elections of 188 1, which brought about the reamalga- mation of the various Radical sections, the opposition presented • a united front to the government, so that, from 1882 onwards, legislation was almost at a standstill. The elections of 1884 showed clearly that the nation was also now on the side of the Radicals, 83 out of the 102 members of the Folketing belonging to the opposition. Still Estrup remained at his post. He had underestimated the force of public opinion, but he was conscienti- ously convinced that a Conservative ministry was necessary to Denmark at this crisis. When therefore the Rigsdag rejected the budget, he advised the king to issue another provisional financial decree. Henceforth, so long as the Folketing refused to vote supplies, the ministry regularly adopted these makeshifts. In 1886 the Left, having no constitutional means of dismissing the Estrup ministry, resorted for the first time to negotiations; but it was not till the 1st of April 1894 that the majority of the Folketing could arrive at an agreement with the government and the Landsting as to a budget which should be retrospective and sanction the employment of the funds so irregularly obtained for military expenditure. The whole question of the provisional financial decrees was ultimately regularized by a special resolution of the Rigsdag; and the retirement of the Estrup ministry in August 1894 was the immediate result of the compromise. In spite of the composition of 1894, the animosity between Folketing and Landsting continues to characterize Danish politics, and the situation has been complicated by the division of both Right and Left into widely divergent groups. The elections of 1895 resulted in an undeniable victory of the extreme Radicals; and the budget of 1895-1896 was passed only at the last moment by a compromise. The session of 1896-1897 was remarkable for a rapprochement between the ministry and the " Left Reform Party," caused by the secessions of the " Young Right," which led to an unprecedented event in Danish politics — the voting of the budget by the Radical Folketing and its rejection by the Conserva- tive Landsting in May 1897; whereupon the ministry resigned in favour of the moderate Conservative Horring cabinet, which induced the Upper House to pass the budget. The elections of i8g8 were a fresh defeat for the Conservatives, and in the autumn session of the same year, the Folketing, by a crushing majority of LITERATURE] DENMARK 39 85 to 12, rejected the military budget. The ministry was saved by a mere accident — the expulsion of Danish agitators from North Schleswig by the German government, which evoked a passion of patriotic protest throughout Denmark, and united all parties, the war minister declaring in the Folketing, during the debate on the military budget (January 1899), that the armaments of Denmark were so far advanced that any great power must think twice before venturing to attack her. The chief event of the year 1899 was the great strike of 40,000 artisans, which cost Denmark 50,000,000 crowns, and brought about a reconstruction of the cabinet in order to bring in, as minister of the interior, Ludwig Ernest Bramsen, the great specialist in industrial matters, who succeeded (September 2-4) in bringing about an understanding between workmen and employers. The session 1900-1901 was remarkable for the further disintegration of the Conservative party still in office (the Sehested cabinet superseded the Horring cabinet on the 27th of April 1900) and the almost total paralysis of parliament, caused by the interminable debates on the question of taxation reform. The crisis came in 1901. Deprived of nearly all its supporters in the Folketing, the Conservative ministry resigned, and King Christian was obliged to assent to the formation of a " cabinet of the Left " under Professor Deuntzer. Various reforms were carried, but the proposal to sell the Danish islands in the West Indies to the United States fell through. During these years the relations between Denmark and the German empire improved, and in the country itself the cause of social democracy made great progress. In January 1906 King Christian ended his long reign, and was succeeded by his son Frederick VIII. At the elections of 1906 the government lost its small absolute majority, but remained in power with support from the Moderates and Conservatives. It was severely shaken, however, when Herr A. Alberti, who had been minister of justice since 1901, and was admitted to be the strongest member of the cabinet, was openly accused of nepotism and abuse of the power of his position. These charges gathered weight until the minister was forced to resign in July 1908, and in September he was arrested on a charge of forgery in his capacity as director of the Zealand Peasants' Savings Bank. The ministry, of which Herr Jens Christian Christensen was head, was compelled to resign in October. The effect of these revelations was profound not only politically, but also economically; the important export trade in Danish butter, especially, was adversely affected, as Herr Alberti had been interested in numerous dairy companies. Bibliography. — I. General History. Danmarks Riges Historie (Copenhagen, 1897-1905); R. Nisbet Bain, Scandinavia (Cambridge, 1905); H. Weitemeyer, Denmark (London, 1901); Adolf Ditlev Jorgensen, Historishe Afhandlinger (Copenhagen, 1898) ; ib. Fortaellinger af Nordens Historie (Copenhagen, 1892). II. Early and Medieval History. Saxo, Gesta Danorum (Strassburg, 1886) ; Repertorium diplomaticum regni Danici mediaevalis (Copenhagen, 1894); Ludvig Holberg, Konge og Danehof (Copenhagen, 1895); Poul Frederik Barford, Danmarks Historie 1319-1536 (Copenhagen, 1885); ib. 1536-1670 (Copenhagen, 1891). III. i6th to 19TH Century. Philip P. Munch, Kobstadstyrelsen i Danmark (Copen- hagen, 1900) ; Peter Edvard Holm, Danmark Norges indre Historie, 1660-1720 (Copenhagen, 1 885-1 886); ib. Danmark Norges Historie, 1720-1814 (Copenhagen, 1891-1894); Soren Bloch Thrige, Dan- marks Historie i vort Aarhundrede (Copenhagen, 1888) ; Marcus Rubin, Frederick VI.' s Tid fra Kielerfreden (Copenhagen, 1895) ; Christian Frederick von Holten, Erinnerungen; Der deutsch-ddnische Krieg (Stuttgart, 1900) ; Niels Peter Jensen, Den anden slesvigske Krig (Copenhagen, 1900); S. N. Mouritsen, Vor Forfalnings Historic (Copenhagen, 1894) ; Carl Frederik Vilhelm Mathildus Rosenberg, Danmarkf i Aaret 1848 (Copenhagen, 1891). See also the special bibliographies appended to the biographies of the Danish kings and statesmen. (R. N. B.) Literature The present language of Denmark is derived directly from the same source as that of Sweden, and the parent of both is the old Scandinavian (see Scandinavian Languages). In Iceland this tongue, with some modifications, has remained in use, and until about 1100 it was the literary language of the whole of Scandinavia. The influence of Low German first, and High German afterwards, has had the effect of drawing modern Danish constantly farther from this early type. The difference began to show itself in the 12th century. R. K. Rask, and after him N. M. Petersen, have distinguished four periods in the develop- ment of the language, The first, which has been called Oldest Danish, dating from about 1100 and 1250, shows a slightly changed character, mainly depending on the system of inflections. In the second period, that of Old Danish, bringing us down to 1400, the change of the system of vowels begins to be settled, and masculine and feminine are mingled in a common gender. An indefinite article has been formed, and in the conjugation of the verb a great simplicity sets in. In the third period, 1400- 1 530, the influence of German upon the language is supreme, and culminates in the Reformation. The fourth period, from 1530 to about 1680, completes the work of development, and leaves the language as we at present find it. The earliest work known to have been written in Denmark was a Latin biography of Knud the Saint, written by an English monk ^Elnoth, who was attached to the church of St Alban in Odense where King Knud was murdered. Denmark produced several Latin writers of merit. Anders Sunesen (d. 1228) wrote a long poem in hexameters, Hexaemeron, describing the creation. Under the auspices of Archbishop Absalon the monks of Soro began to compile the annals of Denmark, and at the end of the 1 2 th century Svend Aagesen, a cleric of Lund, compiled from Icelandic sources and oral tradition his Compendiosa histbria regum Daniae. The great Saxo Grammaticus (q.v.) wrote his Historia Danica under the same patronage. It was not till the 16th century that literature began to be generally practised in the vernacular in Denmark. The oldest laws which are still preserved date from the beginning of the 13th century, and many different collections are in existence. 1 A single work detains us in the 13th century, a treatise en medicine 3 by Henrik Harpestreng, who died in 1244. The first royal edict written in Danish is dated 1386; and the Act of Union at Kalmar, written in 1397, is the most important piece of the vernacular of the 14th century. Between 1300 and 1500, however, it is sup- posed that the Kjaempeviser, or Danish ballads, a large collection of about 500 epical and lyrical poems, were originally composed, and these form the most precious legacy of the Denmark of the middle ages, whether judged historically or poetically. We know nothing of the authors of these poems, which treat of the heroic adventures of the great warriors and lovely ladies of the chivalric age in strains of artless but often exquisite beauty. Some of the subjects are borrowed in altered form from the old mythology, while a few derive from Christian legend, and many deal with national history. The language in which we receive these ballads, however, is as late as the 16th or even the 17th century, but it is believed that they have become gradually modernized in the course of oral tradition. The first attempt to collect the ballads was made in 1591 by Anders Sorensen Vedel (1542-1616), who published 100 of them. Peder Syv printed 100 more in 1695. In i8i2-i8i4an elaborate collection in five volumes appeared at Christiania, edited by W. H. F. Abrahamson, R. Nyerup and K. M. Rahbek. Finally, Svend Grundtvig produced an exhaustive edition, Danmarks gamle Folkeviser (Copenhagen, 1853-1883, 5 vols.), which was supplemented (1891) by A. Olrik. In 1490, the first printing press was set up at Copenhagen, by Gottfried of Gemen, who had brought it from Westphalia; and five years later the first Danish book was printed. This was the famous Rimkronike 3 ; a history of Denmark in rhymed Danish verse, attributed by its first editor to Niels (d. 1481), a monk of the monastery of Soro. It extends to the death of Christian I., in 1481, which may be supposed to be approximately the date of the poem. In 1479 the university of Copenhagen had been founded. In 1506 the same Gottfried of Gemen published a famous collection of proverbs, attributed to Peder Laaie. Mikkel, priest of St Alban's Church in Odense, wrote three sacred poems, The Rose-Garland of Maiden Mary, The Creation and 1 Collected as Samling af gamle danske Love (5 vols., Copenhagen. 1821-1827). 2 Henrik Harpestraengs Laegebog (ed. C. Molbech, Copenhagen,, 1826). 3 Ed. C. Molbech (Copenhagen, 1825). 4Q DENMARK [LITERATURE Human Life, which came out together in 1514, shortly before his death. The popular Lucidarius also appeared in the vulgar tongue. These few productions appeared along with innumerable works in Latin, and dimly heralded a Danish literature. It was the Reformation that first awoke the living spirit in the popular tongue. Christiern Pedersen (q.v.; 1480-1554) was the first man of letters produced in Denmark. He edited and published, at Paris in 15 14, the Latin text of the old chronicler, Saxo Gram- maticus ; he worked up in their present form the beautiful half- mythical stories of Karl Magnus (Charlemagne) and Holger Danske (Ogier the Dane). He further translated the Psalms of David and the New Testament, printed in 1529, and finally — in conjunction with Bishop Peder Palladius — the Bible, which appeared in 1550. Hans Tausen, the bishop of Ribe (1494-1561), continued Pedersen's work, but with far less literary talent. He may, however, be considered as the greatest orator and teacher of the Reformation movement. He wrote a number of popular hymns, partly original, partly translations; translated the Pentateuch from the Hebrew; and published (1536) a collection of sermons embodying the reformed doctrine and destined for the use of clergy and laity. The Catholic party produced one controversialist of striking ability, Povel Helgesen 1 (b. c. 1480), also known as Paulus Eliae. He had at first been inclined to the party of reform, but when Luther broke definitely with the papal authority he became a bitter opponent. His most important polemical work is an answer (1528) to twelve questions on the religious question propounded by Gustavus I. of Sweden. He is also supposed to be the author of the Skiby Chronicle, 2 in which he does not confine himself to the duties of a mere annalist, but records his personal opinion of people and events. Vedel, by the edition of the Kjaempeviser which is mentioned above, gave an immense stimulus to the progress of literature. He published an excellent translation of Saxo Grammaticus in 1575. The first edition of a Danish Reineke Fuchs, by Herman Weigere, appeared at Liibeck in 1555, and the first authorized Psalter in 1559. Arild Huitfeld wrote Chronicle of the Kingdom of Denmark, printed in ten volumes, between 1595 and 1604. There are few traces of dramatic effort in Denmark before the Reformation; and many of the plays of that period may be referred to the class of school comedies. Hans Sthen, a lyrical poet, wrote a morality entitled Kortvending (" Change of For- tune "), which is really a collection of monologues to be delivered by students. The anonymous Ludus de Sancto Kanuto 3 (c. 1 530) which in spite of its title, is written in Danish, is the earliest Danish national drama. The burlesque drama assigned to Christian Hansen, The Faithless Wife, is the only one of its kind that has survived. But the best of these old dramatic authors was a priest of Viborg, Justesen Ranch (1 539-1607), who wrote Kong Salomons Hylding (" The Crowning of King Solomon") (1585), Samsons Faengsel ("The Imprisonment of Samson "), which includes lyrical passages which have given it claims to be considered the first Danish opera, and a farce, Karrig Niding (" The Miserly Miscreant "). Beside these works Ranch wrote a famous moralizing poem, entitled " A new song, of the nature and song of certain birds, in which many vices are pun- ished, and many virtues praised." Peder Clausen 4 (1545-1614), a Norwegian by birth and education, wrote a Description of Norway, as well as an admirable translation of Snorri Sturlason's Heimskringla, published ten years after Clausen's death. The father of Danish poetry, Anders Kristensen Arrebo (1587-1637), was bishop of Trondhjem, but was deprived of his see for im- morality. He was a poet of considerable genius, which is most brilliantly shown in an imitation of Du Bartas's Divine Semaine, 1 See Povel EHesens danske Skrifter (Copenhagen, 1855, &c), edited by C. E. Secher. 2 See Monumenta hisloriae Danicae (ed. H. Rordam, vol. i., 1873). 3 Ed. Sophus Birket Smith (Copenhagen, 1868), who also edited the comedies ascribed to Chr. Hansen as De tre aeldste danske Skuespil (1874), and the works of Ranch (1876). 4 His works were edited by Gustav Storm (Christiania, 1877- 1879)- the Hexaemeron, a poem on the creation, in six books, which did not appear till 1661. He also made a translation of the Psalms. He was followed by Anders Bording (1619-1677), a cheerful occasional versifier, and by Thoger Reenberg (1656-1742), a poet of somewhat higher gifts, who lived on into a later age. Among prose writers should be mentioned the grammarian Peder Syv, 6 (1631-1702); Bishop Erik Pontoppidan (1616-1678), whose Grammatica Danica, published in 1668, is the first systematic analysis of the language; Birgitta Thott (1610-1662), a lady who translated Seneca (1658); and Leonora Christina Ulfeld, daughter of Christian IV., who has left a touching account of her long imprisonment in her Jammersminde. Ole Worm (1 588- 1654), a learned pedagogue and antiquarian, preserved in his Danicorum monumentorum libri sex (Copenhagen, 1643) the descriptions of many antiquities which have since perished or been lost. In two spiritual poets the advancement of the literature of Denmark took a further step. Thomas Kingo 6 (1634-1703) was the first who wrote Danish with perfect ease and grace. He was a Scot by descent, and retained the vital energy of his ancestors as a birthright. In 1677 he became bishop in Fiinen, where he died in 1703. His Winter Psalter (1689), and the so-called Kingo's Psalter (1699), contained brilliant examples of lyrical writing, and an employment of language at once original and national. Kingo had a charming fancy, a clear sense of form and great rapidity and variety of utterance. Some of his very best hymns are in the little volume he published in 1681, and hence the old period of semi-articulate Danish may be said to close with this eventful decade, which also witnessed the birth of Holberg. The other great hymn- writer was Hans Adolf Brorson (1694- 1764), who published in 1740 a great psalm-book at the king's command, in which he added his own to the best of Kingo's. Both these men held high posts in the church, one being bishop of Fiinen and the other of Ribe; but Brorson was much inferior to Kingo in genius. With these names the introductory period of Danish literature ends. The language was now formed, and was being employed for almost all the uses of science and philo- sophy. Ludvig Holberg (q.v.; 1684-1754) may be called the founder of modern Danish literature. His various works still retain their freshness and vital attraction. As an historian his style was terse and brilliant, his spirit philosophical, and his data singularly accurate. He united two unusual gifts, being at the same time the most cultured man of his day, and also in the highest degree a practical person, who clearly perceived what would most rapidly educate and interest the uncultivated. In his thirty-three dramas, sparkling comedies in prose, more or less in imitation of Moliere, he has left his most important positive legacy to litera- ture. Nor in any series of comedies in existence is decency so rarely sacrificed to a desire for popularity or a false sense of wit. Holberg founded no school of immediate imitators, but his stimulating influence was rapid and general. The university of Copenhagen, which had been destroyed by fire in 1728, was reopened in 1742, and under the auspices of the historian Hans Gram (1685-1748), who founded the Danish Royal Academy of Sciences, it inspired an active intellectual life. Gram laid the foundation of critical history in Denmark. He brought to bear on the subject a full knowledge of documents and sources. His best work lies in his annotated editions of the older chroniclers. In 1744 Jakob Langebek (17 10-1775) founded the Society for the Improvement of the Danish Language, which opened the field of philology. He began the great collection of Scriptores rerum Danicarum medii aevi (9 vols., Copenhagen, 1772-1878). In jurisprudence Andreas Hoier (1690-1739) represented the new impulse, and in zoology Erik Pontoppidan (q.v.), the younger. This last name represents a lifelong activity in many branches of. literature. From Holberg's college of Soro, two learned professors, Jens Schelderup Sneedorff (1724-1764) and Jens Kraft (1720-1765), disseminated the seeds of a wider culture. All these men were aided by the generous and enlightened patronage 6 See Fr. W. Horn, Peder Syv (Copenhagen, 1878). 6 See A. C. L. Heiberg, Thomas Kingo (Odense, 1852). LITERATURE] DENMARK 4i of Frederick V. A little later on, the German poet Klopstock Settled in Copenhagen, bringing with him the prestige of his great reputation, and he had a strong influence in Germanizing Denmark. He founded, however, the Society for the Fine Arts, and had it richly endowed. The first prize offered was won by Christian Braumann Tullin (1728-1765) for his beautiful poem of May-day. Tullin, a Norwegian by birth, represents the first accession of a study of external nature in Danish poetry; he was an ardent disciple of the English poet Thomson. Christian Falster (1690-1752) wrote satires of some merit, but most of his work is in Latin. The New Hemic Poems of Jbrgen Sorterup are notable as imitations of the old folk-literature. Ambrosius Stub 1 (1705-1758) was a lyrist of great sweetness, born before his due time, whose poems, not published till 177 1, belong to a later age than their author. The Lyrical Revival.— Between 1742 and 1749, that is to say, at the very climax of the personal activity of Holberg, several poets were born, who were destined to enrich the language with its first group of lyrical blossoms. Of these the two eldest, Wessel and Ewald, were men of extraordinary genius, and destined to fascinate the attention of posterity, not only by the brilliance of their productions, but by the suffering and brevity of their lives. Johannes Ewald (q.v.; 1 743-1 781) was not only the greatest Danish lyrist of the 18th century, but he had few rivals in the whole of Europe. As a dramatist, pure and simple, his bird-like instinct of song carried him too often into a sphere too exalted for the stage; but he has written nothing that is not stamped with the exquisite quality of distinction. Johan Herman Wessel 2 (1 742-1 785) excited even greater hopes in his contemporaries, but left less that is immortal behind him. After the death of Holberg, the affectation of Gallicism had reappeared in Denmark; and the tragedies of Voltaire, with their stilted rhetoric, were the most popular dramas of the day. Johan Nordahl Brun (1745-1816), a young writer who did better things later on, gave the finishing touch to the exotic absurdity by bringing out a wretched piece called Zarina, which was hailed by the press as the first original Danish tragedy, although Ewald's exquisite RolfKrage, which truly merited that title, had appeared two years before. Wessel, who up to that time had only been known as the president of a club of wits, immediately wrote Love without Stockings (1772), in which a plot of the most abject triviality is worked out in strict accordance with the rules of French tragedy, and in most pompous and pathetic Alexandrines. The effect of this piece was magical; the Royal Theatre ejected its cuckoo-brood of French plays, and even the Italian opera. It was now essential that every performance should be national, and in the Danish language. To supply the place of the opera, native musicians, and especially J. P. E. Hartmann, set the dramas of Ewald and others, and thus the Danish school of music originated. Johan Nordahl Brun's best work is to be found in his patriotic songs and his hymns. He became bishop of Bergen in 1803. Of the other poets of the revival the most important were born in Norway. Nordahl Brun, Claus Frimann (1746-1829), Claus Fasting (1746-1791), who edited a brilliant aesthetic journal, The Critical Observer, Christian H. Pram 3 (1756-1821), author of Staerkodder, a romantic epic, based on Scandinavian legend, and Edvb.rd Storm (1749-1794), were associates and mainly fellow- students at Copenhagen, where they introduced a style peculiar to themselves, and distinct from that of the true Danes. Their lyrics celebrated the mountains and rivers of the magnificent country they had left; and, while introducing images and scenery unfamiliar to the inhabitants of monotonous Denmark, they enriched the language with new words and phrases. This group of writers is now claimed by the Norwegians as the founders of a Norwegian literature; but their true place is certainly among the Danes, to whom they primarily appealed. They added 1 His collected works were edited by Fr. Barford (Copenhagen, 5th ed., 1879). 2 Wessel's Digte (3rd ed., 1895) are edited by J. Levin, with a biographical introduction. 3 A biography by his friend, K. L. Rahbek, is prefixed to a selection of his poetry (6 vols., 1824-1829). nothing to the development of the drama, except in the person of N. K. Bredal (1733-1778), who became director of the Royal Danish Theatre, and the writer of some mediocre plays. To the same period belong a few prose writers of eminence. Werner Abrahamson (1744-1812) was the first aesthetic critic Denmark produced. Johan Clemens Tode (1736-1806) was eminent in many branches of science, but especially as a medical writer. Ove Mailing (1746-1829) was an untiring collector of historical data, which he annotated in a lively style. Two historians of more definite claim on our attention are Peter Frederik Suhm (1728-1798), whose History of Denmark (n vols., Copenhagen, 1782-1812) contains a mass of original material, and Ove Guldberg (1731-1808). In theology Christian Bastholm (1740-1819) and Nicolai Edinger Balle (1744-1816), bishop of Zealand, a Norwegian by birth, demand a reference. But the only really great prose-writer of the period was the Norwegian, Niels Treschow (1751-1833), whose philosophical works are composed in an admirably lucid style, and are distinguished for their depth and originality. The poetical revival sank in the next generation to a more mechanical level. The number of writers of some talent was very great, but genius was wanting. Two intimate friends, Jonas Rein (1760-1821) and Jens Zetlitz (1761-1821), attempted, with indifferent success, to continue the tradition of the Norwegian group. Thomas Thaarup (1749-1821) Was a fluent and eloquent writer of occasional poems, and of homely dramatic idylls. The early death of Ole Samsoe (1759-1796) prevented the develop- ment of a dramatic talent that gave rare promise. But while poetry languished, prose, for the first time, began to flourish in Denmark. Knud Lyne Rahbek (1760-1830) was a pleasing novelist, a dramatist of some merit, a pathetic elegist, and a witty song- writer; he was also a man full of the literary instinct, and through a long life he never ceased to busy himself with editing the works of the older poets, and spreading among the people a knowledge of Danish literature through his magazine, Minerva, edited in conjunction with C. H. Pram. Peter Andreas Heiberg (1758-1841) was a political and aesthetic critic of note. Hewas exiled from Denmark in company with another sympathizer with the principles of the French Revolution, Malte Conrad Brunn (1775-1826), who settled in Paris, and attained a world-wide reputation as a geographer. O. C. Olufsen (1764-1827) was a writer on geography, zoology and political economy. Rasmus Nyerup (1759-1829) expended an immense energy in the compila- tion of admirable works on the history of language and literature. From 1 7 78 to his death he exercised a great power in the statistical and critical departments of letters. The best historian of this period, however, was Engelstoft (1774-1850), and the most brilliant theologian Bishop Mynster (1775-1854). In the annals of modern science Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851) is a name universally honoured. He explained his inventions and described his discoveries in language so lucid and so characteristic that he claims an honoured place in the literature of the country of whose culture, in other branches, he is one of the most distinguished ornaments. On the threshold of the romantic movement occurs the name of Jens Baggesen (q.v.; 1764-1826), a man of great genius, whose work was entirely independent of the influences around him. Jens Baggesen is the greatest comic poet that Denmark has produced; and as a satirist and witty lyrist he has no rival among the Danes. In his hands the difficulties of the language disappear; he performs with the utmost ease extraordinary tours de force of style. His astonishing talents were wasted on trifling themes and in a fruitless resistance to the modern spirit in literature. Romanticism. — With the beginning of the 19th century the new light in philosophy and poetry, which radiated from Germany through all parts of Europe, found its way into Denmark also- In scarcely any country was the result so rapid or so brilliant. There arose in Denmark a school of poets who created for them- selves a reputation in all parts of Europe, and would have done honour to any nation or any age. The splendid cultivation of metrical art threw other branches into the shade; and the epoch 42 DENMARK [LITERATURE of which we are about to speak is eminent above all for mastery over verse. The swallow who heralded the summer was a German by birth, Adolph Wilhelm Schack von Staffeldt 1 (1769- 1826), who came over to Copenhagen from Pomerania, and prepared the way for the new movement. Since Ewald no one had written Danish lyrical verse so exquisitely as Schack von Staffeldt, and the depth and scientific precision of his thought won him a title which he has preserved, of being the first philo- sophic poet of Denmark. The writings of this man are the deepest and most serious which Denmark had produced, and at his best he yields to no one in choice and skilful use of expression. This sweet song of Schack von Staffeldt's, however, was early silenced by the louder choir that one by one broke into music around him. It was Adam Gottlob Ohlenschlager (q.v.; 1779- 1850), the greatest poet of Denmark, who was to bring about the new romantic movement. In 1802 he happened to meet the young Norwegian Henrik Steffens (1773-1845), who had just returned from a scientific tour in Germany, full of the doctrines of Schelling. Under the immediate direction of Steffens, Ohlenschlager began an entirely new poetic style, and destroyed all his earlier verses. A new epoch in the language began, and the rapidity and matchless facility of the new poetry was the wonder of Steffens himself. The old Scandinavian mythology lived in the hands of Ohlenschlager exactly as the classical Greek religion was born again in Keats. He aroused in his people the slumbering sense of their Scandinavian nationality. The retirement of Ohlenschlager comparatively early in life, left the way open for the development of his younger con- temporaries, among whom several had genius little inferior to his own. Steen Steensen Blicher (1 782-1848) was a Jutlander, and preserved all through life the characteristics of his sterile and sombre fatherland. After a struggling youth of great poverty, he published, in 1807-1809, a translation of Ossian; in 1814 a volume of lyrical poems; and in 181 7 he attracted considerable attention by his descriptive poem of The Tour in Jutland. His real genius, however, did not lie in the direction of verse; and his first signal success was with a story, A Village Sexton's Diary, in 1824, which was rapidly followed by other tales, descriptive of village life in Jutland, for the next twelve years. These were collected in five volumes (1833-1836). His masterpiece is a collec- tion of short stories, called The Spinning Room. He also produced many national lyrics of great beauty. But it was Blicher's use of patois which delighted his countrymen with a sense of freshness and strength. They felt as though they heard Danish for the first time spoken in its fulness. The poet Aarestrup (in 1848) declared that Blicher had raised the Danish language to the dignity of Icelandic. Blicher is a stern realist, in many points akin to Crabbe, and takes a singular position among the romantic idealists of the period, being like them, however, in the love of precise and choice language, and hatred of the mere common- places of imaginative writing. 2 Nikolai Frederik Severin Grundtvig (q.v.; 1 783-1872), like Ohlenschlager, learned the principles of the German romanticism from the lips of Steffens. He adopted the idea of introducing the Old Scandinavian element into art, and even into life, still more earnestly than the older poet. Bernhard Severin Ingemann (q.v.; 1789-1862) contributed to Danish literature historical romances in the style of Sir Walter Scott. Johannes Carsten Hauch (q.v.; 1790-1872) first distinguished himself as a disciple of Ohlenschlager, and fought under him in the strife against the old school and Baggesen. But the master misunderstood the disciple; and the harsh repulse of Ohlenschlager silenced Hauch for many years. He possessed, however, a strong and fluent genius, which eventually made itself heard in a multitude of volumes, poems, dramas and novels. All that Hauch wrote is marked by great qualities, and by distinction; he had a native bias towards the mystical, which, however, he learned to keep in abeyance. 'See F. L. Liebenberg, Schack Staffeldts samlede Digte (2 vols., Copenhagen, 1843), and Samlinger til Schack Staffeldts Levnet (4 vols., 1846-1851). 2 Blicher's Tales were edited by P. Hansen (3 vols., Copenhagen, 1871), and his Poems in 1870. Johan Ludvig Heiberg (q.v.; 1701-1860) was a critic who ruled the world of Danish taste for many years. His mother, the Baroness Gyllembourg-Ehrensvard (q.v.; 1 773-1856), wrote a large number of anonymous novels. Her knowledge of life, her sparkling wit and her almost faultless style, make these short stories masterpieces of their kind. Christian Hviid Bredahl (1 784-1860) produced six volumes of Dramatic Scenes* (1819-1833) which, in spite of their many brilliant qualities, were little appreciated at the time. Bredahl gave up literature in despair to become a peasant farmer, and died in poverty. Ludvig Adolf Bodtcher (1 793-1874) wrote a single volume of lyrical poems, which he gradually enlarged in succeeding editions. He was a consummate artist in verse, and his impressions are given with the most delicate exactitude of phrase, and in a very fine strain of imagination. He was a quietist and an epicurean, and the closest parallel to Horner in the literature of the North. Most of Bodtcher's poems deal with Italian life, which he learned to know thoroughly during a long residence in Rome. He was secretary to Thorwaldsen for a considerable time. Christian Winther (q.v.; 1796-1876) made the island of Zealand his loving study, and that province of Denmark belongs to him no less thoroughly than the Cumberland lakes belong to Wordsworth. Between the latter poet and Winther there was much resemblance. He was, without compeer, the greatest pastoral lyrist of Denmark. His exquisite strains, in which pure imagination is blended with most accurate and realistic descrip- tions of scenery and rural life, have an extraordinary charm not easily described. The youngest of the great poets born during the last twenty years of the 18th century was Henrik Hertz (q.v.; 1797-1870). As a satirist and comic poet he followed Baggesen, and in all branches of the poetic art stood a little aside out of the main current of romanticism. He introduced into the Danish literature of his time inestimable elements of lucidity and purity. In his best pieces Hertz is the most modern and most cosmopolitan of the Danish writers of his time. It is noticeable that all the great poets of the romantic period lived to an advanced age. Their prolonged literary activity — for some of them, like Grundtvig, were busy to the last — had a slightly damping influence on their younger contemporaries, but certain names in the next generation have special prominence. Hans Christian Andersen (q.v.; 1805-1875) was the greatest of modern fabulists. In 1835 there appeared the first collection of his Fairy Tales, and won him a world-wide reputation. Almost ' every year from this time forward until near his death he published about Christmas time one or two of these unique stories, so delicate in their humour and pathos, and so masterly in their simplicity. Carl Christian Bagger (1807-1846) published volumes in 1834 and 1836 which gave promise of a great future, — a promise broken by his early death. Frederik Paludan-Miiller (q.v.; 1809-1876) developed, as a poet, a magnificent career, which contrasted in its abundance with his solitary and silent life as a man. His mythological or pastoral dramas, his great satiric epos of Adam Homo (1841-1848), his comedies, his lyrics, and above all his noble philosophic tragedy of Kalanus, prove the immense breadth of his compass, and the inexhaustible riches of his imagination. C. L. Emil Aarestrup (1800-1856) published in 1838 a volume of vivid erotic poetry, but its quality was only appreciated after his death. Edvard Lembcke (1815-1897) made himself famous as the admirable translator of Shakespeare, but the incidents of 1864 produced from him some volumes of direct and manly patriotic verse. The poets completely ruled the literature of Denmark during this period. There were, however, eminent men in other depart- ments of letters, and especially in philology. Rasmus Christian Rask (1 787-1832) was one of the most original and gifted linguists of his age. His grammars of Old Frisian, Icelandic and Anglo- Saxon were unapproached in his own time, and are still admirable. Niels Matthias Petersen (1791-1862), a disciple of Rask, was the author of an admirable History of Denmark in the Heathen 3 Edited (3 vols., 2nd ed., 1855, Copenhagen) by F. L. Liebenberg. LITERATURE] DENMARK 43 Antiquity, and the translator of many of the sagas. Martin Frederik Arendt (1773-1823), the botanist and archaeologist, did much for the study of old Scandinavian records. Christian Molbech (1783-1857) was a laborious lexicographer, author of the first good Danish dictionary, published in 1833. In Joachim Frederik Schouw (1789-1852), Denmark produced a very eminent botanist, author of an exhaustive Geography of Plants. In later years he threw himself with zeal into politics. His botanical researches were carried on by Frederik Liebmann (1813-1856). The most famous zoologist contemporary with these men was Salomon Dreier (1813-1842). The romanticists found their philosopher in a most remarkable man, Soren Aaby Kierkegaard (1813-1855), one of the most subtle thinkers of Scandinavia, and the author of some brilliant philosophical and polemical works. A learned philosophical writer, not to be compared, however, for genius or originality to Kierkegaard, was Frederik Christian Sibbern (1785-1872). He wrote a dissertation On Poetry and Art (3 vols., 1853-1860) and The Contents' of a MS. from the Year 2135 (3 vols., 1858-1872). Among novelists who were not also poets was Andreas Nikolai de Saint-Aubain (1798-1865), who, under the pseudonym of Carl Bernhard, wrote a series of charming romances. Mention must also be made of two dramatists, Peter Thun Feorsom (1777-181 7) , who produced an excellent translation of Shakespeare (1807-1816), and Thomas Overskou (1 798-1873), author of a long series of successful comedies, and of a history of the Danish theatre (5 vols., Copenhagen, 1854-1864). Other writers whose names connect the age of romanticism with a later period were Meyer Aron Goldschmidt (1810-1887), author of novels and tales; Herman Frederik Ewald (1821-1908), who wrote a long series of historical novels; Jens Christian Hostrup (1818-1892), a writer of exquisite comedies; and the miscellaneous writer Erik Bogh (1822-1899). In zoology, J. J. S. Steenstrup (1813-1898); in philology, J. N. Madvig (1804-1886) and his disciple V. Thomsen (b. 1842); in anti- quarianism, C. J. Thomsen (1788-1865) and J. J. Asmussen Worsaae (1821-1885); and in philosophy, Rasmus Nielsen (1809-1884) and Hans Brochner (1820-1875), deserve mention. The development of imaginative literature in Denmark became very closely defined during the latter half of the 19th century. The romantic movement culminated in several poets of great eminence, whose deaths prepared the way for a new school. In 1874 Bodtcher passed away, in 1875 Hans Christian Andersen, in the last week of 1876 Winther, and the greatest of all, Frederik Paludan-Miiller. The field was therefore left open to the successors of those idealists, and in 1877 the reaction began to be felt. The eminent critic, Dr Georg Brandes (q.v.), had long foreseen the decline of pure romanticism, and had advocated a more objective and more exact treatment of literary phenomena. Accordingly, as soon as all the great planets had disappeared, a new constellation was perceived to have risen, and all the stars in it had been lighted by the enthusiasm of Brandes. The new writers were what he called Naturalists, and their sympathies were with the latest forms of exotic, but particularly of French literature. Among these fresh forces three immediately took place as leaders — Jacobsen, Drachmann and Schandorph. In J. P. Jacobsen (q.v.; 1847-1885) Denmark was now taught to welcome the greatest artist in prose which she has ever pos- sessed; his romance of Marie Grubbe led off the new school with a production of unexampled beauty. But Jacobsen died young, and the work was really carriedout by his two companions. Holger Drachmann (q.v.; 1846-1908) began life as a marine painter; and a first little volume of poems, which he published in 1872, attracted slight attention. In 1877 he came forward again with one volume of verse, another of fiction, a third of travel; in each he displayed great vigour and freshness of touch, and he rose at one leap to the highest position among men of promise. Drach- mann retained his place, without rival, as the leading imaginative writer in Denmark. For many years he made the aspects of life at sea his particular theme, and he contrived to rouse the patriotic enthusiasm of the Danish public as it had never been roused before. His variou? and unceasing productiveness, his freshness and vigour, and the inexhaustible richness of his lyric versatility, early brought Drachmann to the front and kept him there. Meanwhile prose imaginative literature was ably sup- ported by Sophus Schandorph (1836-1901), who had been entirely out of sympathy with the idealists, and had taken no step while that school was in the ascendant. In 1876, in his fortieth year, he was encouraged by the change in taste to publish a volume of realistic stories, Country Life, and in 1878 a novel, Without a Centre. He has some relation with Guy de Maupassant as a close analyst of modern types of character, but he has more humour. He has been compared with such Dutch painters of low life as Teniers. His talent reached its height in the novel called Little Folk (1880), a most admirable study of lower middle-class life in Copenhagen. He was for a while, without doubt, the leading living novelist, and he went on producing works of great force, in which, however, a certain monotony is apparent. The three leaders had meanwhile been joined by certain younger men who took a prominent position. Among these Karl Gjellerup and Erik Skram were the earliest. Gjellerup (b. 1857), whose first works of importance date from 1878, was long uncertain as to the direction of his powers; he was poet, novelist, moralist and biologist in one; at length he settled down into line with the new realistic school, and produced in 1882 a satirical novel of manners which had a great success, The Disciple of the Teutons. Erik Skram (b. 1847) had in 1879 written a solitary novel, Gertrude Coldbjornsen, which created a sensation, and was hailed by Brandes as ex- actly representing the " naturalism " which he desired to see encouraged; but Skram has written little else of importance. Other writers of reputation in the naturalistic school were Edvard Brandes (b. 1847), and Herman Bang (b. 1858). Peter Nansen (b. 1861) has come into wide notoriety as the author, in particularly beautiful Danish, of a series of stories of a pronouncedly sexual type, among which Maria (1894) has been the most successful. Meanwhile, several of the elder generation, unaffected by the movement of realism, continued to please the public. Three lyrical poets, -H. V. Kaalund (1818-1885), Carl Ploug (1813-1894) and Christian Richardt (1831-1892), of very great talent, were not yet silent, and among the veteran novelists were still active H. F. Ewald and Thomas Lange (1829-1887). Ewald's son Carl (1856-1908) achieved a great name as a novelist, but did his most characteristic work in a series of books for children, in which he used the fairy tale, in the manner of Hans Andersen, as a vehicle for satire and a theory of morals. During the whole of this period the most popular writer of Denmark was J. C. C. Brosboll (1816-1900), who wrote, under the pseudonym Carit Etlar, a vast number of tales. Another popular novelist was Vilhelm Bergsoe (b. 1835), author of In the Sabine Mountains ( 187 1), and other romances. Sophus Bauditz (b. 1850) persevered in composing novels which attain a wide general popularity. Mention must be made also of the dramatist Christian Molbech (1821-1888). Between 1885 and 1892 there was a transitional period in Danish literature. Up to that time all the leaders had been united in accepting the naturalistic formula, which was combined with an individualist and a radical tendency. In 1885, however, Drachmann, already the recognized first poet of the country, threw off his allegiance to Brandes, denounced the exotic tradition, declared himself a Conservative, and took up a national and patriotic attitude. He was joined a little later by Gjellerup, while Schandorph remained stanchly by the side of Brandes. The camp was thus divided. New writers began to make their appearance, and, while some of these were stanch to Brandes, others were inclined to hold rather with Drachmann. Of the authors who came forward during this period of transition, the strongest novelist proved to be Hendrik Pontoppidan (b. 1857). In some of his books he reminds the reader of Turgeniev. Pontoppidan published in 1898 the first volume of a great novel entitled Lykke- Per, the biography of a typical Jutlander named Per Sidenius, a work to be completed in eight volumes. From 1893 to 1909 no great features of a fresh kind revealed themselves. The Danish public, grown tired of realism, and satiated with pathological phenomena, returned to a fresh study, of their own national 44 DENNERY— DENNIS characteristics. The cultivation of verse, which was greatly dis- couraged in the eighties, returned. Drachmann was supported by excellent younger poets of his school. J. J. Jorgensen (b. 1866), a Catholic decadent, was very prolific. Otto C. Fonss (b. 1853) published seven little volumes of graceful lyrical poems in praise of gardens and of farm-life. Andreas Dolleris (b. 1850), of Vejle, showed himself an occasional poet of merit. Alfred Ipsen (b. 1852) must also be mentioned as a poet and critic. Valdemar Rordam, whose The Danish Tongue was the lyrical success of 1001, may also be named. Some attempts were made to transplant the theories of the symbolists to Denmark, but without signal success. On the other hand, something of a revival of naturalism is to be observed in the powerful studies of low life admirably written by Karl Larsen (b. i860). The drama has long flourished in Denmark. The principal theatres are liberally open to fresh dramatic talent of every kind, and the great fondness of the Danes for this form of entertain- ment gives unusual scope for experiments in halls or private theatres; nothing is too eccentric to hope to obtain somewhere a fair hearing. Drachmann produced with very great success several romantic dramas founded on the national legends. Most of the novelists and poets already mentioned also essayed the stage, and to those names should be added these of Einar Christiansen (b. 1861), Ernst von der Recke (b. 1848), Oskar Benzon (b. 1856) and Gustav Wied (b. 1858). In theology no names were as eminent as in the preceding generation, in which such writers as H. N. Clausen (1793-1877), and still more Hans Lassen Martensen (1808-1884), lifted the prestige of Danish divinity to a high point. But in history the Danes have been very active. Karl Ferdinand Allen (181 1-1871) began a comprehensive history of the Scandinavian kingdoms (5 vols., 1864-1872). Jens Peter Trap (1810-1885) concluded his great statistical account of Denmark in 1879. The 16th century was made the subject of the investigations of Troels Lund (q.v.). About 1880 several of the younger historians formed the plan of combining to investigate and publish the sources of Danish history; in this the indefatigable Johannes Steenstrup (b. 1844) was prominent. The domestic history of the country began, about 1885, to occupy the attention of Edvard Holm (b. 1833), 0. Nielsen and the veteran P. Frederik Barfod (1811-1896). The naval histories of G. Liitken attracted much notice. Besides the names already mentioned, A. D. Jorgensen (1840-1897), J. Fredericia (b. 1849), Christian Erslev (b. 1852) and Vilhelm Mollerup have all distinguished them- selves in the excellent school of Danish historians. In 1896 an elaborate composite history of Denmark was undertaken by some leading historians (pub. 1897-1905). In philosophy nothing has recently been published of the highest value. Martensen's Jakob Bohme (1881) belongs to an earlier period. H. HSffding (b. 1843) has been the most prominent contributor to psychology. His Problems of Philosophy and his Philosophy of Religion were translated into English in 1906. Alfred Lehmann (b. 1858) has, since 1896, attracted a great deal of attention by his sceptical investigation of psychical phenomena. F. Ronning has written on the history of thought in Denmark. In the criticism of art, Julius Lange (1838-1896), and later Karl Madsen, have done excellent service. In literary criticism Dr Georg Brandes is notable for the long period during which he remained pre- dominant. His was a steady and stimulating presence, ever pointing to the best in art and thought, and his influence on his age was greater than that of any other Dane. Authorities. — R. Nyerup, Den danske Digtekunsts Historie (1800-1808), and Almindeligt Literaturlexikon (1818-1820); N. M. Petersen, Literaturhistorie (2nd ed., 1867-1871, 5 vols.); Overskou, Den danske Skueplads (1 854-1 866, 5 vols.), with a continuation (2 vols., 1873-1876) by E Collin; Chr. Bruun, Bibliotheca Danica (3 vols., 1872-1896) ; Bricka, Dansk biografisk Lex-ikon (1887-1901) ; J. Paludan, Danmarks Literatur i Middelalderen (Copenhagen, 1896) ; P. Hansen, Illustreret Dansk Literaturhistorie (3 vols., 1901-1902) ; F. W. Horn, History of the Scandinavian North from the most ancient times to the present (English translation by Rasmus B. Anderson (Chicago, 1884), with bibliographical appendix by Thorwald Solberg) ; Ph. Schweitzer, Geschichte der Skandinavischen Litteratur (3 pts., Leipzig, 1886-1889), forming vol. viii. of the Geschichte der Welt- litteratur. See also Brandes, Kritiker og Portraiter (1870) ; Brandes, Danske Ditgere (1877); Marie Herzfeld, Die Skandinavische Litteratur und ihre Tendenzen (Berlin and Leipzig, 1898) ; Hjalmar Hjorth Boyesen, Essays on Scandinavian Literature (London, 1895); Edmund Gosse, Studies in the Literature of Northern Europe (new ed., London, 1883) ; Vilhelm Andersen, Litteraturbilleder (Copenhagen, 1903) ; A. P. J. Schener, Kortfattet Indledning til Romantikkus Periode i Danmarks Litteratur (Copenhagen, 1894). (E. G.) DENNERY, or D'Ennery, ADOLPHE (1811-1899), French dramatist and novelist, whose real surname was Philippe, was born in Paris on the 17 th of June 181 1. He obtained his first success in collaboration with Charles Desnoyer in Emile, ou le fils d'un pair de France (183 1), a drama which was the first of a series of some two hundred pieces written alone or in collaboration with other dramatists. Among the best of them may be mentioned Gaspard Hauser (1838) with Anicet Bourgeois; Les Bohemiens de Paris (1842) with Eugene Grange; with Mallian, Marie-Jeanne, ou la femme du peuple (1845), in which Madame Dorval obtained a great success; La Case d'Oncle Tom (1853); Les Deux Orphelines (1875), perhaps his best piece, with Eugene Cormon. He wrote the libretto^ for Gounod's Tribut de Zamora (1881); with Louis Gallet and Edouard Blan he composed the book of Massenet's Cid (1885); and, again in collaboration with Eugene Cormon, the books of Auber's operas, Le Premier Jour de bonheur (1868) and Reve d'amour (1869). He prepared for the stage Balzac's posthumous comedy Mer cadet ou le faiseur, presented at the Gymnase theatre in 1851. Reversing the usual order of procedure, Dennery adapted some of his plays to the form of novels. He died in Paris in 1899. DENNEWITZ, a village of Germany, in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, near Jiiterbog, 40 m. S.W. from Berlin. It is memorable as the scene of a decisive battle on the 6th of September 1813, in which Marshal Ney, with an army of 58,000 French, Saxons and Poles, was defeated with great loss by 50,000 Prussians under Generals Bulow (afterwards Count Biilow of Dennewitz) and Tauentzien. The site of the battle is marked by an iron obelisk. DENNIS, JOHN (1657-1734), English critic and dramatist, the son of a saddler, was born in London in 1657. He was educated at Harrow School and Caius College, Cambridge, where he took his B.A. degree in 1679. In the next year he was fined and dis- missed from his college for having wounded a fellow-student with a sword. He was, however, received at Trinity Hall, where he took his M.A. degree in 1683. After travelling in France and Italy, he settled in London, where he became acquainted with Dryden, Wycherley and others; and being made temporarily independent by inheriting a small fortune, he devoted himself to literature. The duke of Marlborough procured him a place as one of the queen's waiters in the customs with a salary of £1 20 a year. This he afterwards disposed of for a small sum, retaining, at the suggestion of Lord Halifax, a yearly charge upon it for a long term of years. Neither the poems nor the plays of Dennis are of any account, although one of his tragedies, a violent attack on the French in harmony with popular prejudice, entitled Liberty Asserted, was produced with great success at Lincoln's Inn Fields in 1704. His sense of his own importance approached mania, and he is said to have desired the duke of Marlborough to have a special clause inserted in the treaty of Utrecht to secure him from French vengeance. Marlborough pointed out that although he had been a still greater enemy of the French nation, he had no fear for his own security. This tale and others of a similar nature may well be exaggerations prompted by his enemies, but the infirmities of character and temper indicated in them were real. Dennis is best remembered as a critic, and Isaac D'Israeli, who took a by no means favourable view of Dennis, said that some of his criticisms attain classical rank. The earlier ones, which have nothing of the rancour that afterwards gained him the nickname of " Furius," are the best. They are Remarks. . .(1696), on Blackmore's epic of Prince Arthur; Letters upon Several Occasions written by and between Mr Dryden, Mr Wycherley, Mr Moyle, Mr Congreve and Mr Dennis, published by Mr Dennis (1696); two pamphlets in reply to Jeremy Collier's Short View; The Advancement and Reformation of DENOMINATION—DENOTATION 45 Modem Poetry (1701), perhaps his most important work ; The Grounds of Criticism in Poetry (1704), in which he argued that the ancients owed their superiority over the moderns in poetry to their religious attitude; an Essay upon Publick Spirit . . . (1711), in which he inveighs against luxury, and servile imitation of foreign fashions and customs; and Essay on the Genius and Writings of Shakespeare in three Letters (17 12). Dennis had been offended by a humorous quotation made from his works by Addison, and published in 1713 Remarks upon Cato. Much of this criticism was acute and sensible, and it is quoted at considerable length by Johnson in his Life of Addison, but there is no doubt that Dennis was actuated by personal jealousy of Addison's success. Pope replied in The Narrative of Br Robert Norris, concerning the strange and deplorable frenzy of John Dennis . . . (1713). This pamphlet was full of personal abuse, exposing Dennis's foibles, but offering no defence of Cato. Addison repudiated any connivance in this attack, and in- directly notified Dennis that when he did answer his objections, it would be without personalities. Pope had already assailed Dennis in 171 1 in the Essay on Criticism, as Appius. Dennis retorted by Reflections, Critical and Satirical . . . , a scurrilous production in which he taunted Pope with his deformity, saying among other things that he was " as stupid and as venomous as a hunch-backed toad." He also wrote in 17 17* Remarks upon Mr Pope's Translation of Homer . . . and A True Character of Mr Pope. He accordingly figures in the Dunciad, and in a scathing note in the edition of 1729 (bk. i. 1. 106) Pope quotes his more outrageous attacks, and adds an insulting epigram attributed to Richard Savage, but now generally ascribed to Pope. More pamphlets followed, but Dennis's day was over. He outlived his annuity from the customs, and his last years were spent in great poverty. Bishop Atterbury sent him money, and he received a small sum annually from Sir Robert' Walpole. A benefit performance was organized at the Haymarket (December 18, 1733) on his behalf. Pope wrotefor the occasion an ill-natured prologue which Cibber recited. Dennis died within three weeks of this performance, on the 6th of January 1734. His other works include several plays, for one of which, Appius and Virginia (1709), he invented a new kind of thunder. He wrote a curious Essay on the Operas after the Italian Manner (1706), main- taining that opera was the outgrowth of effeminate manners, and should, as such, be suppressed. His Works were published in 1702, Select Works . . . (2 vols.) in 17 18, and Miscellaneous Tracts, the first volume only of which appeared, in 1727. For accounts of Dennis see Cibber's Lives of the Poets, vol. iv. ; Isaac D'Israeli's essays on Pope and Addison in the Quarrels of Authors, and " On the Influence of a Bad Temper in Criticism " in Calamities of Authors; and numerous references in Pope's Works. DENOMINATION (Lat. denominare, to give a specific name to), the giving of a specific name to anything, hence the name or designation of a person or thing, and more particularly of a class of persons or things; thus, in arithmetic, it is applied to a unit in a system of weights and measures, currency or numbers. The most general use of " denomination " is for a body of persons holding specific opinions and having a common name, especially with reference to the religious opinions of such a body. More particularly the word is used of the various " sects " into which members of a common religious faith may be divided. The term " denominationalism " is thus given to the principle of emphasiz- ing the distinctions, rather than the common ground, in the faith held by different bodies professing one sort of religious belief. This use is particularly applied to that system of religious education which lays stress on the principle that children belonging to a particular religious sect should be publicly taught in the tenets of their belief by members belonging to it and under the general control of the ministers of the denomination. DENON, DOMINIQUE VIVANT, Baeon de (i 747-1 8 25), French artist and archaeologist, was born at Chalon-sur-Saone on the 4th of January 1747. He was sent to Paris to study law, but he showed a decided preference for art and literature, and soon gave up his profession. In his twenty-third year he pro- duced a comedy, L.e Bon Pere, which obtained a succes d'estime, as he had already won a position in society by his agreeable manners and exceptional conversational powers. He became a favourite of Louis XV., who entrusted him with the collection and arrange- ment of a cabinet of medals and antique gems for Madame de Pompadour, and subsequently appointed him attache to the French embassy at St Petersburg. On the accession of Louis XVI. Denon was transferred to Sweden; but he returned, after a brief interval, to Paris with the ambassador M. de Vergennes, who had been appointed foreign minister. In 1775 Denon was sent on a special mission to Switzerland, and took the oppor- tunity of visiting Voltaire at Ferney. He made a portrait of the philosopher, which was engraved and published on his return to Paris. His next diplomatic appointment was to Naples, where he spent seven years, first as secretary to the embassy and after- wards as charge d'affaires. He devoted this period to a careful study of the monuments of ancient art, collecting many specimens and making drawings of others. He also perfected himself in etching and mezzotinto engraving. The death of his patron, M. de Vergennes, in 1787, led to his recall, and the rest of his life was given mainly to artistic pursuits. On his return to Paris he was admitted a member of the Academy of Painting. After a brief interval he returned to Italy, living chiefly at Venice. He also visited Florence arid Bologna, and afterwards went to Switzerland. While there he heard that his property had been confiscated, and his name placed on the list of the proscribed, and with characteristic courage he resolved at once to return to Paris. His situation was critical, but he was spared, thanks to the friendship of the painter David, who obtained for him a com- mission to furnish designs for republican costumes. When the Revolution was over, Denon was one of the band of eminent men who frequented the house of Madame de Beauharnais. Here he met Bonaparte, to whose fortunes he wisely attached himself. At Bonaparte's invitation he joined the expedition to Egypt, and thus found the opportunity of gathering the materials for his most important literary and artistic work. He accompanied General Desaix to Upper Egypt, and made numerous sketches of the monuments of ancient art, sometimes under the very fire of the enemy. The results were published in his Voyage dans la basse el la haute Egypte (2 vols, fol., with 141 plates, Paris, 1802), a work which crowned his reputation both as an archaeologist and as an artist. In 1804 he was appointed by Napoleon to the important office of director-general of museums, which he filled until the restoration in 181 5, when he had to retire. He was a devoted friend of Napoleon, whom he accompanied in his ex- peditions to Austria, Spain and Poland, taking sketches with his wonted fearlessness on the various battlefields, and advising the conqueror in his choice of spoils of art from the various cities pillaged. After his retirement he began an illustrated history of ancient and modern art, in which he had the co-operation of several skilful engravers. He died at Paris on the 27th of April 1825, leaving the work unfinished. It was published posthu- mously, with an explanatory text by Amaury Duval, under the title Monuments des arts du dessin chez les peuples tant anciens que modernes ,recueillis par Vivant Denon (4 vols, fol., Paris, 1829). Denon was the author of a novel, Point de lendemain (1777), of which further editions were printed in 181 2, 1876 and 1879. See J. Renouvier, Histoire de Vart pendant la Revolution; A. de la Fizeliere, L'CEuvre originate de Vivant-Denon (2 vols., Paris, 1872- 1873); Roger Portallis, Les Dessinateurs a" illustrations au XVIII siecle; D. H. Beraldi, Les Graveurs d' illustrations au XVIII' siecle. DENOTATION (from Lat. denotare, to mark out, specify), in logic, a technical term used strictly as the correlative of Con- notation, to describe one of the two functions of a concrete term. The concrete term " connotes " attributes and " denotes " all the individuals which, as possessing these attributes, constitute the genus or species described by the term. Thus " cricketer " denotes the individuals who play cricket, and connotes the qualities or characteristics by which these individuals are marked. In this sense, in which it was first used by J. S. Mill, Denotation is equivalent to Extension, and Connotation to Intension. It is clear that when the given term is qualified by a limiting adjective the Denotation or Extension diminishes, while the Connotation or Intension increases; e.g. a generic term like "flower" has a larger Extension, and a smaller Intension than " rose "• " rose " +6 DENS— DENSITY than " moss-rose." In more general language Denotation is used loosely for that which is meant or indicated by a word, phrase, sentence or even an action. Thus a proper name or even an abstract term is said to have Denotation. (See Connotation.) DENS, PETER (1690-1775), Belgian Roman Catholic theo- logian, was born at Boom near Antwerp. Most of his life was spent in the archiepiscopal college of Malines, where he was for twelve years reader in theology and for forty president. His great work was the Theologia moralis et dogmatica, a compendium in catechetical form of Roman Catholic doctrine and ethics which has been much used as a students' text-book. Dens died on the 15th of February 1775. DENSITY (Lat. densus, thick), in physics, the mass or quantity of matter contained in unit volume of any substance: this is the absolute density; the term relative density or specific gravity denotes the ratio of the mass of a certain volume of a substance to the mass of the same volume of some standard substance. Since the weights used in conjunction with a balance are really standard masses, the word " weight " may be substituted for the word " mass " in the preceding definitions; and we may symbolically express the relations thus: — If M be the weight of substance occupying a volume V, then the absolute density A = M/V; and if m, mi be the weights of the substance and of the standard substance which occupy the same volume, the relative density or specific gravity S = mj-mi ; or more generally if oti be the weight of a volume v of the substance, and tn\ the weight of a volume Vi of the standard, then S = mvi/miv. In the numerical expression of absolute densities it is necessary to specify the units of mass and volume employed; while in the case of relative densities, it is only necessary to specify the standard substance, since the result is a mere number. Absolute densities are generally stated in the C.G.S. system, i.e. as grammes per cubic centimetre. In commerce, however, other expressions are met with, as, for example, " pounds per cubic foot " (used for woods, metals, &c), " pounds per gallon," &c. The standard substances employed to determine relative densities are: water for liquids and solids, and hydrogen or atmospheric air for gases; oxygen (as 16) is sometimes used in this last case. Other standards of reference may be used in special connexions; for example, the Earth is the usual unit for expressing the relative density of the other members of the solar system. Reference should be made to the article Gravitation for an account of the methods employed to determine the " mean density of the earth." In expressing the absolute or relative density of any substance, it is necessary to specify the conditions for which the relation holds: in the case of gases, the temperature and pressure of the experimental gas (and of the standard, in the case of relative density) ; and in the case of solids and liquids, the temperature. The reason for this is readily seen; if a mass M of any gas occupies a volume V at a temperature T (on the absolute scale) and a pressure P, then its absolute density under these conditions is A = M/V; if now the temperature and pressure be changed to Ti and Pi, the volume Vi under these conditions is VPT/P1T1, and the absolute density is MP1T/VPT1. It is customary to re- duce gases to the so-called " normal temperature and pressure," abbreviated to N.T.P., which is o° C. and 760 mm. The relative densities of gases are usually expressed in terms of the standard gas under the same conditions. The density gives very important information as to the molecular weight, since by the law of Avogadro it is seen that the relative density is the ratio of the molecular weights of the experimental and standard gases. In the case of liquids and solids, comparison with water at 4 C, the temperature of the maximum density of water; at o° C, the zero of the Centigrade scale and the freezing- point of water; at 15° and 18°, ordinary room-temperatures; and at 25°, the temperature at which a thermostat may be conveniently maintained, are common in laboratory practice. The temperature of the experimental substance may or may not be the temperature of the standard. In such cases a bracketed fraction is appended to the specific gravity, of which the numer- ator and denominator are respectively the temperatures of the M substance and of the standard; thus 1-093 (o°/4°) means that the ratio of the weight of a definite volume of a substance at o° to the weight of the same volume of water 4 is 1-093. It may be noted that if comparison be made with water at 4°, the relative density is the same as the absolute density, since the unit of mass in the C.G.S. system is the weight of a cubic centimetre of water at this temperature. In British units, especially in connexion with the statement of relative densities of alcoholic liquors for Inland Revenue purposes, comparison is made with water at 62° F, (16-6 C); a reason for this is that the gallon of water is defined by statute as weighing 10 ft> at 62° F., and hence the densities so expressed admit of the ready conversion of volumes to weights. Thus if d be the relative density, then lod represents the weight of a gallon in lb. The brewer has gone a step further in simplifying his expressions by multiplying the density by 1000, and speaking of the difference between the density so expressed and 1000 as " degrees of gravity " (see Beer). Practical Determination of Densities The methods for determining densities may be divided into two groups according as hydrostatic principles are employed or not. In the group where the principles of hydrostatics are not employed the method consists in determining the weight and volume of a certain quantity of the substance, or the weights of equal volumes of the smbstance and of the standard. In " the case of solids we may determine the volume in some cases by direct measurement — this gives at the best a very rough and ready value ; a better method is to immerse the body in a fluid (in which it must sink and be insoluble) contained in a graduated glass, and to deduce its volume from the height to which the liquid rises. The weight may be directly determined by the balance. The ratio " weight to volume " is the absolute density. The separate determination of the volume and mass of such substances as gunpowder, cotton- wool, soluble sub- stances, &c., supplies the only means of determining their densities. The stereometer of Say, which was greatly improved by Regnault and further modified by Kopp, permits an accurate determination of the volume of a given mass of any such substance. In its simplest form the instrument consists of a glass tube PC (fig. 1), of uniform bore, terminating in a cup PE, the mouth of which can be rendered air- tight by the plate of glass E. The substance whose volume is to be determined is placed in the cup PE, and the tube PC is immersed in the vessel of mercury D, until the mercury reaches the mark P. The plate E is then placed on the cup, and the tube PC raised until the surface of the mercury in the tube stands at M, that in the vessel D being at C, and the height MC is measured. Let k denote this height, and let PM be denoted by /. Let u represent the volume of air in the cup before the body was inserted, v the volume of the body, a the area of the horizontal Pi G- t _ Say's section of the tube PC, and h the height of the Stereometer. mercurial barometer. Then, by Boyle's law (u—v+al) (h — k) — {u—v)h, and therefore v = u—al{h—k)lk. The volume u may be determined by repeating the experiment when only air is in the cup. In this case v = o, and the equation becomes (u+al l ) (h — k 1 )=uh, whence u = aP (h — k 1 ) Ik 1 . Substituting this value in the expression for v, the volume of the body inserted in the cup becomes known. The chief errors to which the stereometer is liable are (1) variation of temperature and atmospheric pressure during the experiment, and (2) the presence of moisture which dis- turbs Boyle's law. The method of weighing equal volumes is particularly applicable to the determination of the relative densities of liquids. It consists in weighing a glass vessel (1) empty, (2) filled with the liquid, (3) filled with the standard substance. Calling the weight of the empty vessel w, when filled with the liquid W, and when filled with the standard substance Wi, it is obvious that W — w, and Wi — to, are the weights of equal volumes of the liquid and standard, and hence the relative density is (W— w)l(Wi— to). Many forms of vessels have been devised. The com moner type of " specific gravity bottle " consists of a thin glass bottle (fig. 2) of a capacity varying from 10 to 100 cc. fitted with an accurately ground stopper, which is vertically/ perforated by a fine hole. The bottle is carefully cleansed! by washing with soda, hydrochloric acid and distilled water, and then dried by heating in an air bath or by blow- ing in warm air. It is allowed to cool and then weighed. The bottle is then filled with distilled water, and brought to a definite temperature by immersion in a thermostat, and the stopper inserted. It is removed from the thermostat, and carefully l£j Fig. 2. DENSITY 47 Fig. 3. wiped. After cooling it is weighed. The bottle is again cleaned and dried, and the operations repeated with the liquid under examina- tion instead of water. Numerous modifications of this bottle are in use. For volatile liquids, a flask provided with a long neck which carries a graduation and is fitted with a well-ground stopper is recommended. The bringing of the liquid to the mark is effected by removing the excess by means of a capillary. In many forms a thermometer forms part of the apparatus. Another type of vessel, named the Sprengel tube or pycnometer (Gr. ttvkvos, dense), is shown in fig. 3. It consists of a cylindrical tube of a capacity ranging from 10 to 50 cc, provided at the upper end with a thick-walled capillary bent as shown on the left of the figure. From the bottom there leads another fine tube, bent upwards, and then at right angles so as to be at the same level as the capillary branch. This tube bears a graduation. A loop of plati- num wire passed under these tubes serves to suspend the vessel from the balance arm. The manner of cleansing, &c, is the same as in the ordinary form. The vessel is filled by placing the capillary in a vessel containing the liquid and gently aspirating. Care must be taken that no air bubbles are enclosed. The liquid is adjusted to the mark by withdrawing any excess from the capillary end by a strip of bibulous paper or by a capillary tube. Many variations of this apparatus are in use; in one of the commonest there are two cylindrical chambers, joined at the bottom, and each provided at the top with fine tubes bent at right angles ; sometimes the inlet and outlet tubes are provided with caps. The specific gravity bottle may be used to determine the relative density of a solid which is available in small fragments, and is insoluble in the standard liquid. The method involves three operations: — (1) weighing the solid'in air (W), (2) weighing the specific gravity bottle full of liquid (Wi), (3) weighing the bottle containing the solid and filled up with liquid (W 2 ). It is readily seen that W+W1-W2 is the weight of the liquid displaced by the solid, and therefore is the weight of an equal volume of liquid; hence the relative density is W/(W+W X -W 2 ). The determination of the absolute densities of gases can only be effected with any high degree of accuracy by a development of this method. As originated by Regnault, it consisted in filling a large glass globe with the gas by alternately exhausting with an air-pump and admitting the pure and dry gas. The flask was then brought to 0° by immersion in melting ice, the pressure of the gas taken, and the stop-cock closed. The flask is removed from the ice, allowed to attain the temperature of the room, and then weighed. The flask is now partially exhausted, transferred to the cooling bath, and after standing the pressure of the residual gas is taken by a manometer. The flask is again brought to room-temperature, and re-weighed. The difference in the weights corresponds to the volume of gas at a pressure equal to the difference of the recorded pressures. The volume of the flask is determined by weighing empty and filled with water. This method has been refined by many experimenters, among whom we may notice Morley and Lord Rayleigh. Morley determined the densities of hydrogen and oxygen in the course of his classical investigation of the composition of water. The method differed from Regnault's inasmuch as the flask was exhausted to an almost complete vacuum, a performance rendered possible by the high efficiency of the modern air-pump. The actual experiment necessi- tates the most elaborate precautions, for which reference must be made to Morley 's original papers in the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge (1895), or to M. Travers, The Study of Gases. Lord Rayleigh has made many investigations of the absolute densities of gases, one of which, namely on atmospheric and artificial nitrogen, undertaken in conjunction with Sir William Ramsay, culminated in the discovery of argon (q.v.). He pointed out in 1888 (Proc. Roy. Soc. 43, p. 361) an important correction which had been overlooked by previous experimenters with Regnault's method, viz. the change in volume of theexperimental globe duetoshrinkage under diminished pressure; this may be experimentally determined and amounts to between 0-04 and 0-16 % of the volume of the globe. Related to the determination of the density of a gas is the deter- mination of the density of a vapour, i.e. matter which at ordinary temperatures exists as a solid or liquid. This subject owes its importance in modern chemistry to the fact that the vapour density, when hydrogen is taken as the standard, gives perfectly definite information as to the molecular condition of the compound, since twice the vapour density equals the molecular weight of the compound. Many methods have been devised. In historical order we may briefly enumerate the following: — in 1811, Gay-Lussac volatilized a weighed quantity of liquid, which must be readily volatile, by letting it rise up a short tube containing mercury and standing inverted in a vessel holding the same metal. This method was developed by Hofmann in 1868, who replaced the short tube of Gay-Lussac by an ordinary barometer tube, thus effecting the volatilization in a Torricellian vacuum. In 1826 Dumas devised a method suitable for substances of high boiling-point ; this consisted A in its essential point in vaporizing the substance in a flask made of suitable material, sealing it when full of vapour, and weighing. This method is very tedious in detail. H. Sainte-Claire Deville and L. Tro'ost made it available for specially high temperatures by employing porcelain vessels, sealing them with the oxyhydrogen blow-pipe, and maintaining a constant temperature by a vapour bath of mercury (350°), sulphur (440 ), cadmium (86o°) and zinc (1040 ). In 1878 Victor Meyer devised his air-expulsion method. Before discussing the methods now used in detail, a summary of the conclusions reached by Victor Meyer in his classical investiga- tions in this field as to the applicability of the different methods will be given : (1) For substances which do not boil higher than 260 and have vapours stable for 30° above the boiling-point and which do not react on mercury, use Victor Meyer's "mercury expulsion method." (2) For substances boiling between 260 and 420 , and which do not react on metals, use Meyer's " Wood's alloy expulsion method." (3) For substances boiling at higher temperatures, or for any substance which reacts on mercury, Meyer's "air expulsion method " must be used. It is to be noted, however, that this method is applicable to substances of any boiling-point (see below). (4) For substances which can be vaporized only under diminished pressure, several methods may be used, (a) Hofmann's is the best if the substance volatilizes at below 310°, and does not react on mercury; otherwise (6) Demuth and Meyer's, Eykman's, Schall's, or other methods may be used. 1. Meyer's " Mercury Expulsion " Method. — A small quantity of the substance is weighed into a tube, of the form shown in fig. 4, which has a capacity of about 35 cc, provided with a capillary tube at the top, and a bent tube about 6 mm. in diameter at the bottom. The vessel is completely filled with mercury, the capillary sealed, and the vessel weighed. The vessel is then lowered into a jacket containing vapour at a known temperature which is sufficient to volatilize the substance. Mercury is expelled, and when this expulsion ceases, the vessel is removed, allowed to cool, and weighed. It is necessary to determine the pressure exerted on the vapour by the mercury in the narrow limb; this is effected by opening the capillary and inclining the tube until the mercury just reaches the top of the narrow tube; the difference between Fig. 4. the height of the mercury in the wide tube and the top of the narrow tube represents the pressure due to the mercury column, and this must be added to the barometric pressure in order to deduce the total pressure on the vapour. The result is calculated by means of the formula: n= W(i +0^X7,980,000 (P+pi-rS^mll+^t-t^-m^l+yit-tomi+yty in which W = weight of substance taken; t = temperature of vapour bath; a = 0-00366 = temperature coefficient of gases; p = baro- metric pressure; p\= height of mercury column in vessel; 5 = vapour tension of mercury at t° ; m = weight of mercury contained in the vessel; mi= weight of mercury left in vessel after heating ; /J = coefficient of expansion of glass = -0000303 ; 7 = coefficient of expansion of mercury = o-oooi 8 (0-00019 above 240 °) (see Ber. 1877, 10, p. 2068; 1886, 19, p. 1862). 2. Meyer's Wood's Alloy Expulsion Method. — This method is a modification of the one just described. The alloy used is composed of 15 parts of bismuth, 8 of lead, 4 of tin and 3 of cadmium; it melts at 70 , and can be experimented with as readily as mercury. The cylindrical vessel is replaced by a globular one, and the pressure on the vapour due to the column of alloy in the side tube is readily reduced to millimetres of mercury since the specific gravity of the alloy at the temperature of boiling sulphur, 444° (at which the apparatus is most frequently used), is two-thirds of that of mercury (see Ber. 1876, 9, p. 1220). 3. Meyer's Air Expulsion Method. — The simplicity, moderate accuracy, and adaptability of this method to every class of substance which can be vaporized entitles it to rank as one of the most potent methods in analytical chemistry; its invention is indissolubly connected with the name of Victor Meyer, being termed " Meyer's method " to the exclusion of his other original methods. It consists in determining the air expelled from a vessel by the vapour of a given quantity of the substance. The apparatus is shown in fig. 5. A long tube (a) terminates at the bottom in a cylindrical chamber of about 100-150 cc. capacity. The top is fitted with a rubber stopper, or in some forms with a stop-cock, while a little way down there is a bent delivery tube (6). To use the apparatus, the long tube is placed in a vapour bath (c) of the requisite temperature, and after the air within the tube is in equilibrium, the delivery tube is placed beneath the surface of the water in a pneumatic trough, the rubber stopper pushed home, and observation made as to whether any more air is being expelled. If this be not so, a graduated tube (d) is filled with water, and inverted over the delivery tube. The rubber stopper is removed and the experimental substance introduced, and the stopper quickly replaced to the same extent as before. Bubbles are quickly disengaged and collect in the Fig. 5. 4 8 DENSITY graduated tube. Solids may be directly admitted to the tube from a weighing bottle, while liquids are conveniently introduced by means of small stoppered bottles, or, in the case of exceptionally volatile liquids, by means of a bulb blown on a piece of thin capillary tube, the tube being sealed during the weighing operation, and the capillary broken just before transference to the ap- paratus. To prevent the bottom of the apparatus being knocked out by the impact of the substance, a layer of sand, asbestos or sometimes mercury is placed in the tube. To complete the experi- ment, the graduated tube containing the expelled air is brought to a constant and determinate temperature and pressure, and this volume is the volume which the given weight of the substance would occupy if it were a gas under the same temperature and pressure. The vapour density is calculated by the following formula: ^ W(i+aQX587,78o in which W = weight of substance taken, V = volume of air expelled, a = 1/273 = -003665, ' an d P = temperature and pressure at which expelled air is measured, and s = vapour pressure of water at t". By varying the material of the bulb, this apparatus is rendered available for exceptionally high temperatures. Vapour baths of iron are used in connexion with boiling anthracene (335°), anthraquinone (368 °) .sulphur (444 ) ,phosphoruspentasulphide(5 1 8°) ; molten lead may also be used. For higher tempera- tures the bulb of the vapour density tube is made of porcelain or platinum, and is heated in a gas furnace. (4a) Hof matin's Method. — Both the modus operandi and apparatus employed in this method particularly recommend its use for substances which do not react on mercury and which boil in a vacuum at below 310°. The apparatus (fig. 6) consists of a barometer tube, containing mercury and standing in a bath of the same metal, surrounded by a vapour jacket. The vapour is circulated through the jacket, and the height of the mercury read by a cathetometer or otherwise. The sub- stance is weighed into a small stoppered bottle, which is then placed beneath the mouth of the barometer tube. It ascends the tube, the substance is rapidly volatilized, and the mercury column is depressed; .this depression is read off. It is necessary to know the volume of the tube above the second level ; this may most efficiently be determined by calibrating the tube prior to its use. Sir T. E. Thorpe employed a barometer tube 96 cm. long, and determined the volume from the closed end for a distance of about 35 mm. by weighing in mercury ; below this mark it was calibrated in the ordinary way so that a scale reading gave the volume at once. The calculation is effected by the following formulae : — 76ow(i +0-0036650 o-ooi2934XVXB ; b= h .-( h h. +s \ 1+0-000184 \i+o-oooi8fe 1+0-00018/ ' /' in which w = weight of substance taken; / = temperature of vapour jacket; V = volume of vapour at /; & = height of barometer reduced too"; h = temperature of air; hi = height of mercury column below vapour jacket; fc = temperature of mercury column not heated by vapour; hi = height of mercury column within vapour jacket; 5 = vapour tension of mercury at t°. The vapour tension of mercury need not be taken into account when water is used in the jacket. (46) Demuth and Meyer's Method. — The principle of this method is as follows: — In the ordinary air expulsion method, the vapour always mixes to some extent with the air in the tube, and this in- volves a reduction of the pressure of the vapour. It is obvious that this reduction may be increased by accelerating the diffusion of the vapour. This may be accomplished by using a vessel with a some- what wide bottom, and inserting the substance so that it may be volatilized very rapidly, as, for example, in tubes of Wood's alloy, and by filling the tube with hydrogen. (For further details see Ber. 23, p. 311.) We may here notice a modification of Meyer's process in which the increase of pressure due to the volatilization of the substance, and not the volume of the expelled air, is measured. This method has been developed by J. S. Lumsden (Journ. Chetn. Soc. 1903, 83, p. 342), whose apparatus is shown diagrammatically in fig. 7. The vaporizing bulb A has fused about it a jacket B, provided with a condenser c. Two side tubes are fused on to the neck of A : the lower one leads to a mercury mano- meter M, and to the air by means of a cock C ; the upper tube is provided with a rubber stopper through which a glass rod passes — this rod serves to support the tube containing the substance to be experimented upon, and so avoids the objection to the practice of withdrawing the stopper of the tube, dropping the substance in, and reinserting the stopper. To use the apparatus, a liquid of suitable boiling-point is placed in the jacket and brought to the boiling-point. All parts of the apparatus are open to the air, and the mercury in the manometer is adjusted so as to come to a D = BD Fig. 7. fixed mark a. The substance is now placed on the support already mentioned, and the apparatus closed to the air by inserting the cork at D and turning the cock C. By turning or withdrawing the support the substance enters the bulb ; and during its vapori- zation the free limb of the manometer is raised so as to maintain the mercury at a. When the volatilization is quite complete, the level is accurately adjusted, and the difference of the levels of the mercury gives the pressure exerted by the vapour. To calculate the result it is necessary to know the capacity of the apparatus to the mark o, and the temperature of the jacket. Methods depending on the Principles of Hydrostatics. — Hydro- statical principles can be applied to density determinations in four typical ways : (1) depending upon the fact that the heights of liquid columns supported by the same pressure vary inversely as the densities of the liquids ; (2) depending upon the fact that a body which sinks in a liquid loses a weight equal to the weight of liquid which it displaces; (3) depending on the fact that a body remains sus- pended, neither floating nor sinking, in a liquid of exactly the same density; (4) depending on the fact that a floating body is immersed to such an extent that the weight of the fluid displaced equals the weight of the body. 1. The method of balancing columns is of limited use. Two forms are recognized. In one, applicable only to liquids which do not mix, the two liquids are poured into the limbs of a U tube. The heights of the columns above the surface of junction of the liquids are in- versely proportional to the densities of the liquids. In the second form, named after Robert Hare (1781-1858), professor of chemistry at the university of Pennsylvania, the liquids are drawn or aspirated up vertical tubes which have their lower ends placed in reservoirs containing the different liquids, and their upper ends connected to a common tube which is in communication with an aspirator for decreasing the pressure within the vertical tubes. The heights to which the liquids rise, measured in each case by the distance between the surfaces in the reservoirs and in the tubes, are inversely pro- portional to the densities. 2. The method of " hydrostatic weighing*" is one of the most important. The principle may be thus stated : the solid is weighed in air, and then in water. If W be the weight in air, and Wi the weight in water, then Wi is always less than W, the difference W-Wi representing the weight of the water displaced, i.e. the weight of a volume of water equal to that of the solid. Hence W/(W-Wi) is the relative density or specific gravity of the body. The principle is readily adapted to the determination of the relative densities of two liquids, for it is obvious that if W be the weight of a solid body in air, Wi and W 2 its weights when immersed in the liquids, then W-Wi and W-W 2 are the weights of equal volumes of the liquids, and therefore the relative density is the quotient (W-W 1 )/(W-W 2 ). The determination in the case of solids lighter than water is effected by the introduction of a sinker, i.e. a body which when affixed to the light solid causes it to sink. If W be the weight of the experimental solid in air, w the weight of the sinker in water, and Wi the weight of the solid plus sinker in water, then the relative density is given by W/(W+w-Wi). In practice the solid or plummet is suspended from the balance arm by a fibre — silk, platinum, &c— and carefully weighed. A small stool is then placed over the balance pan, and on this is placed a beaker of distilled water so that the solid is totally immersed. Some balances are provided with a " specific gravity pan," i.e. a pan with short suspending arms, provided with a hook at the bottom to which the fibre may be attached ; when this is so, the stool is unnecessary. Any air bubbles are removed from the surface of the body by brushing with a camel-hair brush; if the solid be of a porous nature it is desirable to boil it for some time in water, thus expelling the air from its interstices. The weighing is conducted in the usual way by vibrations, except when the weight be small ; it is then advisable to bring the pointer to zero, an opera- tion rendered necessary by the damping due to the adhesion of water to the fibre. The temperature and pressure of the air and water must also be taken. There are several corrections of the formula A=W/(W-Wi) necessary to the accurate expression of the density. Here we can only summarize the points of the investigation. It may be assumed that the weighing is made with brass weights in air at t° and p mm. pressure. To determine the true weight in vacuo at 0°, account must be taken of the different buoyancies, or losses of true weight, due to the different volumes of the solids and weights. Similarly in the case of the weighing in water, account must be taken of the buoyancy of the weights, and also, if absolute densities be required, of the density of water at the temperature of the experiment. In a form of great accuracy the absolute density A(o°/4°) is given by • _ A(o7 4 °) = ( P aW-3W 1 )/(W-Wi), in which W is the weight of the body in air at t° and p mm. pressure, Wi the weight in water, atmospheric conditions remaining very nearly the same ; p is the density of the water in which the body is weighed, a is (i+at°) in which a is the coefficient of cubical expansion of the body, and 8 is the density of the air at t", p mm. Less accurate formulae are A = p W/(W-Wi), the factor involving the density of the air, and the coefficient of the expansion of the solid being disregarded, and A = W/(W-Wj), in which the density of water is taken as unity. Reference may be made to J. Wade and R. W. Merriman, Journ. Chem. Soc. 1909, 95, p. 2174. DENTATUS 49 Fig. 8. The determination of the density of a liquid by weighing a plummet in air, and in the standard and experimental liquids, has been put into a very convenient laboratory form by means of the apparatus known as a Westphal balance (fig. 8). It consists of a steel- yard mounted on a fulcrum; one arm carries at its extrem- ity a heavy bob and pointer, the latter moving along a scale affixed to the stand and serv- ing to indicate when the beam is in its standard position. The other arm is graduated in ten divisions and carries riders — bent pieces of wire of determined weights — and at its extremity a hook from which the glass plummet is suspended. To complete the apparatus there is a glass jar which serves to hold the liquid experimented with. The apparatus is so designed that when the plummet is suspended in air, the index of the beam is at the zero of the scale; if this be not so,' then it is adjusted by a levelling screw. The plummet is now placed in distilled water at 15°, and the beam brought to equilibrium by means of a rider, which we shall call I, hung on a hook; other riders are provided, t\>th and f ^ 5 th respec- tively of I. To determine the density of any liquid it is only neces- sary to suspend the plummet in the liquid, and to bring the beam to its normal position by means of the riders ; the relative density is read off directly from the riders. 3. Methods depending on the free suspension of the solid in a liquid of the same density have been especially studied by Retgers and Gossner in view of their applicability to density determinations of crystals. Two typical forms are in use; in one a liquid is pre- pared in which the crystal freely swims, the density of the liquid being ascertained by the pycnometer or other methods; in the other a liquid of variable density, the so-called " diffusion column," is prepared, and observation is made of the level at which the particle comes to rest. The first type is in commonest use; since both necessitate the use of dense liquids, a summary of the media of most value, with their essential properties, will be given. Acetylene tetrabromide, C 2 H 2 Br4, which is very conveniently prepared by passing acetylene into cooled bromine, has a density of 3-001 at 6° C. It is highly convenient, since it is colourless, odourless, very stable and easily mobile. It may be diluted with benzene or toluene. Methylene iodide, CH 2 I 2 , has a density of 3-33, and may be diluted with benzene. Introduced by Brauns in 1886, it was recommended by Retgers. Its advantages rest on its high density and mobility; its main disadvantages are its liability to decomposition, the originally colourless liquid becoming dark owing to the separation of iodine, and its high coefficient of expansion. Its density may be raised to 3-65 by dissolving iodoform and iodine in it. Thoulet's solution, an aqueous solution of potassium and mercuric iodides (potassium iodo-mercurate), introduced by Thoulet and subsequently investigated by V. Goldschmidt, has a density of 3-196 at 22-9°. It is almost colourless and has a small coefficient of expansion; its hygroscopic properties, its viscous character, and its action on the skin, however, militate against its use. A. Duboin (Compt. rend., 1905, p. 141) has investigated the solutions of mercuric iodide in other alkaline iodides; sodium iodo-mercurate solution has a density of 3-46 at 26 , and gives with an excess of water a dense precipitate of mercuric iodide, which dissolves without decomposition in alcohol; lithium iodo-mercurate solution has a density of 3-28 at 25-6°; and ammonium iodo-mercurate solution a density of 2-98 at 26 . Rohrbach's solution, an aqueous solution of barium and mercuric iodides, introduced by Carl Rohrbach, has a density of 3-588. Klein's solution, an aqueous solution of cadmium borotungstate, 2Cd(OH) 2 -B 2 Gv9WGvi6H 2 0, introduced by D. Klein, has a density up to 3-28. The salt melts in its water of crystallization at 75°, and the liquid thus obtained goes up to a density of 3-6. Silver-thallium nitrate, TIAg(N0 3 ) 2 , introduced by Retgers, melts at 75° to form a clear liquid of density 4-8; it may be diluted with water. The method of using these liquids is in all cases the same; a particle is dropped in ; if it floats a diluent is added and the mixture well stirred. This is continued until the particle freely swims, and then the density of the mixture is determined by the ordinary methods (see Mineralogy). In the " diffusion column " method, a liquid column uniformly varying in density from about 3-3 to 1 is prepared by pouring a little methylene iodide into a long test tube and adding five times as much benzene. The tube is tightly corked to prevent evaporation, and allowed to stand for some hours. The density of the column at any level is determined by means of the areometrical beads proposed by Alexander Wilson (1714-1786), professor of astronomy at Glasgow University. These are hollow glass beads of variable density; Fig. 9. they may be prepared by melting off pieces of very thin capillary tubing, and determining the density in each case by the method just previously described. To use the column, the experimental fragment is introduced, when it takes up a definite position. By successive trials two beads, of known density, say di, di, are obtained, one of which floats above, and the other below, the test crystal; the distances separating the beads from the crystal are determined by means of a scale placed behind the tube. If the bead of density di be at the distance h above the crystal, and that of 73°; (1897) 14,821. It occupies a narrow strip of land beside the sea, from which it climbs up the steep heights inland to the citadel of Naryn-kaleh, and is on all sides except towards the east surrounded by walls built of porous limestone. Its general aspect is Oriental, owing to the flat roofs of its two- storeyed houses and its numerous mosques. The environs are occupied by vineyards, gardens and orchards, in which madder, saffron and tobacco, as well as figs, peaches, pears and other fruits, are cultivated. Earthenware, weapons and silk and cotton fabrics are the principal products of the manufacturing industry. To the north of the town is the monument of the Kirk-lar, or " forty heroes," who fell defending Daghestan against the Arabs in 728; and to the south lies the seaward extremity of the Caucasian wall (50 m. long), otherwise known as Alexander's wall, blocking the narrow pass of the Iron Gate or Caspian Gates (Portae Albanae or Portae Caspiae). This, when entire, had a height of 29 ft. and a thickness of about 10 ft., and with its iron gates and numerous watch-towers formed a valuable defence of the Persian frontier. Derbent is usually identified with Albana, the capital of the ancient Albania. The modern name, a Persian word meaning " iron gates," came into use in the end of the 5th or the beginning of the 6th century, when the city was refounded by Kavadh of the Sassanian dynasty of Persia. The walls and the citadel are believed to belong to the time of Kavadh's son, Khosrau (Chosroes) Anosharvan. In 728 the Arabs entered into possession, and established a principality in the city, which they called Bab-el-Abwab (" the principal gate "), Bab-el-Khadid (" the iron gate "), and Seraill-el-Dagab (" the golden throne "). The celebrated caliph, Harun-al-Rashid, lived in Derbent at different times, and brought it into great repute as a seat of the arts and commerce. In 1220 it was captured by the Mongols, and in the course of the succeeding centuries it frequently changed masters. In 1722 Peter the Great of Russia wrested the town from the Persians, but in 1736 the supremacy of Nadir Shah was again recognized. In 1 796 Derbent was besieged by the Russians, and in 1813 incorporated with the Russian empire. DERBY, EARLS OF. The 1st earl of Derby was probably Robert de Ferrers (d. 1139), who is said by John of Hexham to have been made an earl by King Stephen after the battle of the Standard in 1138. Robert and his descendants retained the earldom until 1266, when Robert (c. 1240-c. 1279), probably the 6th earl, having taken a prominent part in the baronial rising against Henry III., was deprived of his lands and practi- cally of bis title. These earlier earls of Derby were also known as Earls Ferrers, or de Ferrers, from their surname; as earls of Tutbury from their residence; and as earls of Nottingham because this county was a lordship under their rule. The large estates which were taken from Earl Robert in 1266 were given by Henry III. in the same year to his son, Edmund, earl of Lancaster; and- Edmund's son, Thomas, earl of Lancaster, called himself Earl Ferrers. In 1337 Edmund's grandson, Henry (c. 1 290-1361), afterwards duke of Lancaster, was created earl of Derby, and this title was taken by Edward III.'s son, John of Gaunt, who had married Henry's daughter, Blanche. John of Gaunt's son and successor was Henry, earl of Derby, who became king as Henry IV. in 1399. In October 1485 Thomas, Lord Stanley, was created earl of Derby, and the title has since been retained by the Stanleys, who, however, have little or no connexion with the county of Derby. Thomas also inherited the sovereign lordship of the Isle of Man, which had been granted by the crown in 1406 to his great-grandfather, Sir John Stanley; and this sovereignty remained in possession of the earls of Derby till 1736, when it passed to the duke of Atholl. The earl of Derby is one of the three " catskin earls," the others being the earls of Shrewsbury and Huntingdon. The term " catskin " is possibly a corruption of quatre-skin, derived from DERBY, EARLS OF 65 the fact that in ancient times the robes of an earl (as depicted in some early representations) were decorated with four rows of ermine, as in the robes of a modern duke, instead of the three rows to which they were restricted in later centuries. The three " catskin "earldoms are the only earldoms now in existence which date from creations prior to the 17th century. (A. W. H.*) Thomas Stanley, 1st earl of Derby (c. 1435-1504), was the son of Thomas Stanley, who was created Baron Stanley in 1456 and died in 1459. His grandfather, Sir John Stanley (d. 1414), had founded the fortunes of his family by marrying Isabel Lathom, the heiress of a great estate in the hundred of West Derby in Lancashire; he was lieutenant of Ireland in 1389-1391, and again in 1399-1401, and in 1405 received a grant of the lordship of Man from Henry IV. The future earl of Derby was a squire to Henry VI. in 1454, but not long afterwards married Eleanor, daughter of the Yorkist leader, Richard Neville, earl of Salisbury. At the battle of Blore Heath in August 1459 Stanley, though close at hand with a large force, did not join the royal army, whilst his brother William fought openly for York. In 146 1 Stanley was made chief justice of Cheshire by Edward IV., but ten years later he sided with his brother-in-law Warwick in the Lancastrian restoration. Nevertheless, after Warwick's fall, Edward made Stanley steward of his household. Stanley served with the king in the French expedition of 1475, and with Richard of Gloucester in Scotland in 1482. About the latter date he married, as his second wife, Margaret Beaufort, mother of the exiled Henry Tudor. Stanley was one of the executors of Edward IV., and was at first loyal to the young king Edward V. But he acquiesced in Richard's usurpation, and retaining his office as steward avoided any entanglement through his wife's share in Buckingham's rebellion. He was made constable of England in succession to Buckingham, and granted possession of his wife's estates with a charge to keep her in some secret place at home. Richard could not well afford to quarrel with so powerful a noble, but early in 1485 Stanley asked leave to retire to his estates in Lancashire. In the summer Richard, suspicious of his continued absence, required him to send his eldest son, Lord Strange, to court as a hostage. After Henry of Richmond had landed, Stanley made excuses for not joining the king ; for his son's sake he was obliged to temporize, even when his brother William had been publicly proclaimed a traitor. Both the Stanleys took the field; but whilst William was in treaty with Richmond, Thomas professedly supported Richard. On the morning of Bosworth (August 22), Richard summoned Stanley to join him, and when he received an evasive reply ordered Strange to be executed. In the battle it was William Stanley who turned the scale in Henry's favour, but Thomas, who had taken no part in the fighting, was the first to salute the new king. Henry VII. confirmed Stanley in all his offices, and on the 27th of October created him earl of Derby. As husband of the king's mother Derby held a great position, which was not affected by the treason of his brother William in February 1495. In the following July the earl entertained the king and queen with much state at Knowsley. Derby died on the 29th of July 1504. Strange had escaped execution in 1485, through neglect to obey Richard's orders; but he died before his father in 1497, and his son Thomas succeeded as second earl. An old poem called The Song of the Lady Bessy, which was written by a retainer of the Stanleys, gives a romantic story of how Derby was enlisted by Elizabeth of York in the cause of his wife's son. For fuller narratives see J. Gairdner's Richard III. and J. H. Ramsay's Lancaster and York; also Seacome's Memoirs of the House of Stanley (1741). (C. L. K.) Edward Stanley, 3rd earl of Derby (1508-1572), was a son of Thomas Stanley, 2nd earl and grandson of the 1st earl, and succeeded to the earldom on his father's death in May 1521. During his minority Cardinal Wolsey was his guardian, and as soon as he came of age he began to take part in public life, being often in the company of Henry VIII. He helped to quell the rising in the north of England known as the Pilgrimage of Grace in 1536; but remaining true to the Roman Catholic faith he disliked and opposed the religious changes made under Edward vni. — 3 VI. During Mary's reign the earl was more at ease, but under Elizabeth his younger sons, Sir Thomas (d. r576) and Sir Edward Stanley (d. 1609), were concerned in a plot to free Mary, queen of Scots, and he himself was suspected of disloyalty. However, he kept his numerous dignities until his death at Lathom House, near Ormskirk, on the 24th of October 1572. Derby's first wife was Katherine, daughter of Thomas Howard, duke of Norfolk, by whom he had, with other issue, a son Henry, the 4th earl (c. 1 531-1593), who was a member of the council of the North, and like his father was lord-lieutenant of Lancashire. Henry was one of the commissioners who tried Mary, queen of Scots, and was employed by Elizabeth on other high under- takings both at home and abroad. He died on the 25th of September 1593. His wife Margaret (d. 1596), daughter of Henry Clifford, 2nd earl of Cumberland, was descended through the Brandons from King Henry VII. Two of his sons, Ferdinando (c. 1559-1594), and William (c. 1561-1642), became in turn the 5th and 6th earls of Derby. Ferdinando, the 5th earl (d. 1594), wrote verses, and is eulogized by the poet Spenser under the name of Amyntas. (A. W. H.*) James Stanley, 7th earl of Derby (1607-1651), sometimes styled the Great Earl of Derby, eldest son of William, 6th earl, and Elizabeth de Vere, daughter of Edward, 17th earl of Oxford, was born at Knowsley on the 31st of January 1607. During his father's life he was known as Lord Strange. After travelling abroad he was chosen member of parliament for Liverpool in 1625, was created knight of the Bath on the occasion of Charles's coronation in 1626, and was joined with his father the same year as lieutenant of Lancashire and Cheshire and chamberlain of Chester, and in the administration of the Isle of Man, being appointed subsequently lord-lieutenant of North Wales. On the 7th of March 1628 he was called up to the House of Lords as Baron Strange. He took no part in the political disputes between king and parliament and preferred country pursuits and the care of his estates to court or public life. Never- theless when the Civil War broke out in 1642, Lord Strange devoted himself to the king's cause. His plan of securing Lancashire at the beginning and raising troops there, which promised success, was however discouraged by Charles, who was said to be jealous of his power and royal lineage and who com- manded his presence at Nottingham. His subsequent attempts to recover the county were unsuccessful. He was unable to get possession of Manchester, was defeated at Chowbent and Lowton Moor, and in 1643 after gaining Preston failed to take Bolton and Lancaster castles. Finally, after successfully beating off Sir William Brereton's attack on Warrington, he was defeated at Whalley and withdrew to York, Warrington in consequence surrendering to the enemy's forces. In June he left for the Isle of Man to attend to affairs there, and in the summer of 1644 he took part in Prince Rupert's successful campaign in the north, when Lathom House, where Lady Derby had heroically resisted the attacks of the besiegers, was relieved, and Bolton Castle taken. He followed Rupert to Marston Moor, and after the complete defeat of Charles's cause in the north withdrew to the Isle of Man, where he held out for the king and offered an asylum to royalist fugitives. His administration of the island imitated that of Strafford in Ireland. It was strong rather than just. He maintained order, encouraged trade, remedied some abuses, and defended the people from the exactions of the church; but he crushed opposition by imprisoning his antagonists, and aroused a prolonged agitation by abolishing the tenant-right and introduc- ing leaseholds. In July 1649 he refused scornfully terms offered to him by Ireton. By the death of his father on the 29th of September 1642 he had succeeded to the earldom, and on the 12th of January 1650 he obtained the Garter. He was chosen by Charles II. to command the troops of Lancashire and Cheshire, and on the 15th of August 1651 he landed at Wyre Water in Lancashire in support of Charles's invasion, and met the king on the 17th. Proceeding to Warrington he failed to obtain the support of the Presbyterians through his refusal to take the Covenant, and on the 25th was totally defeated at Wigan, being severely wounded and escaping with difficulty. He joined 11 66 DERBY, EARLS OF Charles at Worcester; after the battle on the 3rd of September he accompanied him to Boscobel, and while on his way north alone was captured near Nantwich and given quarter. He was tried by court-martial at Chester on the 29th of September, and on the ground that he was a traitor and not a prisoner of war under the act of parliament passed in the preceding month, which declared those who corresponded with Charles guilty of treason, his quarter was disallowed and he was condemned to death. When his appeal for pardon to parliament was rejected, though supported by Cromwell, he endeavoured to escape; but was recaptured and executed at Bolton on the 15th of October 1651. He was buried in Ormskirk church. Lord Derby was a man of deep religious feeling and of great nobility of character, who though unsuccessful in the field served the king's cause with single-minded purpose and without expectation of reward. His political usefulness was handicapped in the later stages of the struggle by his dislike of the Scots, whom he regarded as guilty of the king's death and as unfit instruments of the restoration. According to Clarendon he was " a man of great honour and clear courage," and his defects the result of too little knowledge of the world. Lord Derby left in MS. " A Discourse concerning the Government of the Isle of Man " (printed in the Stanley Papers and in F. Peck's Desiderata Curiosa, vol. ii.) and several volumes of historical collections, observations, devotions (Stanley Papers) and a commonplace book. He married on the 26th of June 1626 Charlotte de la Tremoille (1599-1664), daughter of Claude, due de Thouars, and granddaughter of William the Silent, prince of Orange, by whom besides four daughters he had five sons, of whom the eldest, Charles (1628-1672), succeeded him as 8th earl. Charles's two sons, William, the 9th earl (c. 1655-1702), and James, the 10th earl (1664-1736), both died without sons, and consequently, when James died in February 1736, his titles and estates passed to Sir Edward Stanley (1689-1776), a descendant of the 1st earl. From him the later earls were descended, the 12th earl (d. 1834) being his grandson. Bibliography. — Article in Diet, of Nat. Biog. with authorities and article in same work on Charlotte Stanley, countess of Derby ; the Stanley Papers, with the too laudatory memoir by F. R. Haines (Chetham Soc. publications, vols. 62, 66, 67, 70); Memoires, by De Lloyd (1668), 572; State Trials, v. 293-324; Notes & Queries, viii. Ser. iii. 246; Seacombe's House of Stanley; Clarendon's Hist, of the Rebellion; Gardiner's Hist, of the Civil War and Protectorate; The Land of Home Rule, by Spencer Walpole (1893); Hist, of the Isle of Man, by A. W. Moore (1900); Manx Soc. publications, vols. 3, 25. 27. (P- C Y.) Edward Geoffrey Smith Stanley, 14th earl of Derby (1799- 1869), the " Rupert of Debate," born at Knowsley in Lanca- shire on the 29th of March 1799, grandson of the 12th earl and eldest son of Lord Stanley, subsequently (1834) 13th earl of Derby (1775-1851). He was educated at Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he distinguished himself as a classical scholar, though he took no degree. In 1819 he obtained the Chancellor's prize for Latin verse, the subject being " Syracuse." He gave early promise of his future eminence as an orator, and in his youth he used to practise elocution under the instruction of Lady Derby, his grandfather's second wife, the actress, Elizabeth Farren. In 1820 he was returned for Stockbridge in Hampshire, one of the nomination boroughs whose electoral rights were swept away by the Reform Bill of 1832, Stanley being a warm advocate of their destruction. His maiden speech was delivered early in the session of 1824 in the debate on a private bill for lighting Manchester with gas. On the 6th of May 1824 he delivered a vehement and eloquent speech against Joseph Hume's motion for a reduction of the Irish Church establishment, maintaining in its most conservative form the doctrine that church property is as sacred as private property. From this time his appearances became frequent; and he soon asserted his place as one of the most powerful speakers in the House. Specially noticeable almost from the first was the skill he displayed in reply. Macaulay, in an essay published in 1834, remarked that he seemed to possess intuitively the faculty which \n most men is developed only by long and laborious practice. In the autumn of 1824 Stanley went on an extended tour through Canada and the United States in company with Mr Labouchere, afterwards Lord Taunton, and Mr Evelyn Denison, afterwards Lord Ossington. In May of the following year he married the second daughter of Edward Bootle-Wilbraham, created Baron Skelmersdale hi 1828, by whom he had a family of two sons and one daughter who survived. At the general election of 1826 Stanley renounced his connec- tion with Stockbridge, and became the representative of the borough of Preston, where the Derby influence was paramount. The change of seats had this advantage, that it left him free to speak against the system of rotten boroughs, which he did with great force during the Reform Bill debates, without laying himself open to the charge of personal inconsistency as the representative of a place where, according to Gay, cobblers used to " feast three years upon one vote." In 1827 he and several other distinguished Whigs made a coalition with Canning on the defection of the more unyielding Tories, and he commenced his official life as under- secretary for the colonies, but the coalition was broken up by Canning's death in August. Lord Goderich succeeded to the premiership, but he never was really in power, and he resigned his place after the lapse of a few months. During the succeeding administration of the duke of Wellington (1828-1830), Stanley and those with whom he acted were in opposition. His robust and assertive Liberalism about this period seemed curious after- wards to a younger generation who knew him only as the very embodiment of Conservatism. By the advent of Lord Grey to power in November 1830, Stanley obtained his first opportunity of showing his capacity for a responsible office. He was appointed to the chief secretary- ship of Ireland, a position in which he found ample scope for both administrative and debating skill. On accepting office he had to vacate his seat for Preston and seek re-election; and he had the mortification of being defeated by the Radical " orator " Hunt. The contest was a peculiarly keen one, and turned upon the question of the ballot, which Stanley refused to support. He re-entered the House as one of the members for Windsor, Sir Hussey Vivian having resigned in his favour. In 1 83 2 he again changed his seat, being returned for North Lancashire. Stanley was one of the most ardent supporters of Lord Grey's Reform Bill. Of this no other proof is needed than his frequent parliamentary utterances, which were fully in sympathy with the popular cry " The bill, the whole bill, and nothing but the bill." Reference may be made especially to the speech he delivered on the 4th of March 1831 on the adjourned debate on the second reading of the bill, which was marked by all the higher qualities of his oratory. Apart from his connexion with the general policy of the government, Stanley had more than enough to have employed all his energies in the management of his own depart- ment. The secretary of Ireland has seldom an easy task; Stanley found it one of peculiar difficulty. The country was in a very unsettled state. The just concession that had been somewhat tardily yielded a short time before in Catholic emancipation had excited the people to make all sorts of demands, reasonable and unreasonable. Undaunted by the fierce denunciations of O'Connell, who styled him Scorpion Stanley, he discharged with determination the ungrateful task of carrying a coercion bill through the House. It was generally felt that O'Connell, powerful though he was, had fairly met his match in Stanley, who, with invective scarcely inferior to his own, evaded no challenge, ignored no argument, and left no taunt unanswered. The title " Rupert of Debate " is peculiarly applicable to him in connexion with the fearless if also often reckless method of attack he showed in his parliamentary war with O'Connell. It was first applied to him, however, thirteen years later by Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton in The New Timon : — " One after one the lords of time advance; Here Stanley meets — here Stanley scorns the glance! The brilliant chief, irregularly great, Frank, haughty, rash, — the Rupert of debate." The best answer, however, which he made to the attacks of the great agitator was not the retorts of debate, effective though these were, but the beneficial legislation he was instrumental in DERBY, EARLS OF 67 passing. He introduced and carried the first national education act for Ireland, one result of which was the remarkable and to many almost incredible phenomenon of a board composed of Catholics, Episcopalians and Presbyterians harmoniously administering an efficient education scheme. He was also chiefly responsible for the Irish Church Temporalities Act, though the bill was not introduced into parliament until after he had quitted the Irish secretaryship for another office. By this measure two archbishoprics and eight bishoprics were abolished, and a remedy was provided for various abuses connected with the revenues of the church. As originally introduced, the bill contained- a clause authorizing the appropriation of surplus revenues to non- ecclesiastical purposes. This had, however, been strongly opposed from the first by Stanley and several other members of the cabinet, and it was withdrawn by the government before the measure reached the Lords. In 1833, just before the introduction of the Irish Church Temporalities Bill, Stanley had been promoted to be secretary for the colonies with a seat in the cabinet. In this position it fell to his lot to carry the emancipation of the slaves to a successful practical issue. The speech which he delivered on introducing the bill for freeing the slaves in the West Indies, on the 14th of May 1833, was one of the finest specimens of his eloquence. The Irish Church question determined more than one turning- point in his political career. The most important occasion on which it did so was in 1834, when the proposal of the government to appropriate the surplus revenues of the church to educational purposes led to his secession from the cabinet, and, as it proved, his complete and final separation from the Whig party. In the former of these steps he had as his companions Sir James Graham, the earl of Ripon and the duke of Richmond. Soon after it occurred, O'Connell, amid the laughter of the House, described the secession in a couplet from Canning's Loves of the Triangles: — " Still down thy steep, romantic Ashbourne, glides The Derby dilly carrying six insides." Stanley was not content with marking his disapproval by the simple act of withdrawing from the cabinet. He spoke against the bill to which he objected with a vehemence that showed the strength of his feeling in the matter, and against its authors with a bitterness that he himself is understood to have afterwards admitted to have been unseemly towards those who had so recently been his colleagues. The course followed by the govern- ment was " marked with all that timidity, that want of dexterity, which led to the failure of the unpractised shoplifter." His late colleagues were compared to "thimble-riggers at a country fair," and their plan was "petty larceny, for it had not the redeeming qualities of bold and open robbery." In the end of 1834, Lord Stanley, as he was now styled by courtesy, his father having succeeded to the earldom in October, was invited by Sir Robert Peel to join the short-lived Con- servative ministry which he formed after the resignation of Lord Melbourne. Though he declined the offer for reasons stated in a letter published in the Peel memoirs, he acted from that date with the Conservative party, and on its next accession to power, in 1 84 1, he accepted the office of colonial secretary, which he had held under Lord Grey. His position and his temperament alike, however, made him a thoroughly independent supporter of any party to which he attached himself. When, therefore, the injury to health arising from the late hours in the Commons led him in 1844 to seek elevation to the Upper House in the right of his father's barony, Sir Robert Peel, in acceding to his request, had the satisfaction of at once freeing himself from the possible effects of his " candid friendship " in the House, and at the same time greatly strengthening the debating power on the Conservative side in the other. If the premier in taking this step had any presentiment of an approaching difference on a vital question, it was not long in being realized. When Sir Robert Peel accepted the policy of free trade in 1846, the breach between him and Lord Stanley was, as might have been anticipated from the antecedents of the latter, instant and irreparable. Lord Stanley at once asserted himself as the uncompromising opponent of that policy, and he became the recognized leader of the Protectionist party, having Lord George Bentinck and Disraeli for his lieutenants in the Commons. They did all that could be done in a case in which the logic of events was against them, though Protection was never to become more than their watchword. It is one of the peculiarities of English politics, however, that a party may come into power because it is the only available one at the time, though it may have no chance of carrying the very principle to which it owes its organized existence. Such was the case v/hen Lord Derby, who had succeeded to the earldom on the death of his father in June 1851, was called upon to form his first administration in February 1852. He was in a minority, but the circumstances were such that no other than a minority govern- ment was possible, and he resolved to take the only available means of strengthening his position by dissolving parliament and appealing to the country at the earliest opportunity. The appeal was made in autumn, but its result did not materially alter the position of parties. Parliament met in November, and by the middle of the following month the ministry had resigned in consequence of their defeat on Disraeli's budget. For the six following years, during Lord Aberdeen's " ministry of all the talents " and Lord Palmerston's premiership, Lord Derby remained at the head of the opposition, whose policy gradually became more generally Conservative and less distinctively Protectionist as the hopelessness of reversing the measures adopted in 1846 made itself apparent. In 1855 ne was asked to form an administration after the resignation of Lord Aberdeen, but failing to obtain sufficient support, he declined the task. It was in somewhat more hopeful circumstances that, after the defeat of Lord Palmerston on the Conspiracy Bill in February 1858, he assumed for the second time the reins of government. Though he still could not count upon a working majority, there was a possibility of carrying on affairs without sustaining defeat, which was realized for a full session, owing chiefly to the dexterous management of Mr Disraeli in the Commons. The one rock ahead was the question of reform, on which the wishes of the country were being emphatically expressed, but it was not so pressing as to require to be immediately dealt with. During the session of 1858 the government contrived to pass two measures of very considerable importance, one a bill to remove Jewish disabilities, and the other a bill to transfer the government of India from the East India Company to the crown. Next year the question of parliamentary reform had to be faced, and, recognizing the necessity, the government introduced a bill at the opening of the session, which, in spite of, or rather in consequence of, its " fancy franchises," was rejected by the House, and, on a dissolution, rejected also by the country. A vote of no confidence having been passed in the new parliament on the 10th of June, Lord Derby at once resigned. After resuming the leadership of the Opposition Lord Derby devoted much of the leisure the position afforded him to the classical studies that had always been congenial to him. It was his reputation for scholarship as well as his social position that had led in 1852 to his appointment to the chancellorship of the university of Oxford, in succession to the duke of Wellington ; and perhaps a desire to justify the possession of the honour on the former ground had something to do with his essays in the field of authorship. His first venture was a poetical version of the ninth ode of the third book of Horace, which appeared in Lord Ravensworth's collection of translations of the Odes. In 1862 he printed and circulated in influential quarters a volume entitled Translations of Poems A ncient and Modern, with a very modest dedicatory letter to Lord Stanhope, and the words " Not published " on the title-page. It contained, besides versions of Latin, Italian, French and German poems, a translation of the first book of the Iliad. The reception of this volume was such as to encourage him to proceed with the task he had chosen as his magnum opus, the translation of the whole of the Iliad, which accordingly appeared in 1864. During. the seven years that elapsed between Lord Derby's second and third administrations an industrial crisis occurred in his native county, which brought out very conspicuously his public spirit and his philanthropy. The destitution in Lancashire 68 DERBY, EARLS OF caused by the. stoppage of the cotton-supply in consequence of the American Civil War, was so great as to threaten to overtax the benevolence of the country. That it did not do so was probably due to Lord Derby more than to any other single man. From the first he was the very life and soul of the movement for relief. His persona] subscription, munificent though it was, represented the least part of his service. His noble speech at the meeting in Manchester in December 1862, where the movement was initiated, and his advice at the subsequent meetings of the committee, which he attended very regularly, were of the very highest value in stimulating and directing public sympathy. His relations with Lancashire had always been of the most cordial description, notwithstanding his early rejection by Preston; but it is not surprising that after the cotton famine period the cordiality passed into a warmer and deeper feeling, and that the name of Lord Derby was long cherished in most grateful remembrance by the factory operatives. On the rejection of Earl Russell's Reform Bill in 1866, Lord Derby was for the third time entrusted with the formation of a cabinet. Like those he had previously formed it was destined to be short-lived, but it lived long enough to settle on a permanent basis the question that had proved fatal to its predecessor. The " education " of the party that had so long opposed all reform to the point of granting household suffrage was the work of another; but Lord Derby fully concurred in, if he was not the first to suggest, the statesmanlike policy by which the question was disposed of in such a way as to take it once for all out of the region of controversy and agitation. The passing of the Reform Bill was the main business of the session 1867. The chief debates were, of course, in the Commons, and Lord Derby's failing powers pre- vented him from taking any large share in those which took place in the Lords. His description of the measure as a " leap in the dark " was eagerly caught up, because it exactly represented the common opinion at the time, — the most experienced statesmen, while they admitted the granting of household suffrage to be a political necessity, being utterly unable to foresee what its effect might be on the constitution and government of the country. Finding himself unable, from declining health, to encounter the fatigues of another session, Lord Derby resigned office early in 1868. The step he had taken was announced in both Houses on the evening of the 25th of February, and warm tributes of admiration and esteem were paid by the leaders of the two great parties. He yielded the entire leadership of the party as well as the premiership to Disraeli. His subsequent appearances in public were few and unimportant. It was noted as a consistent close to his political life that his last speech in the House of Lords should have been a denunciation of Gladstone's Irish Church Bill marked by much of his early fire and vehemence. A few months later, on the 23rd of October 1869, he died at Knowsley. Sir Archibald Alison, writing of him when he was in the zenith of his powers, styles him " by the admission of all. parties the most perfect orator of his day." Even higher was the opinion of Lord Aberdeen, who is reported by The Times to have said that no one of the giants he had listened to in his youth, Pitt, Fox, Burke or Sheridan, " as a speaker, is to be compared with our own Lord Derby, when Lord Derby is at his best." (W.B.S.) Edward Henry Stanley, 15th earl of Derby (1826- 1893), eldest son of the 14th earl, was educated at Rugby and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took a high degree and became a member of the society known as the Apostles. In March 1848 he unsuccessfully contested the borough of Lancaster, and then made a long tour in the West Indies, Canada and the United States. During his absence he was elected member for King's Lynn, which he represented till October 1869, when he succeeded to the peerage. He took his place, as a matter of course, among the Conservatives, and delivered his maiden speech in May 1850 on the sugar duties. Just before, he had made a very brief tour in Jamaica and South America. In 1852 he went to India, and while travelling in that country he was appointed under-secretary for foreign affairs in his father's first administra- tion. From the outset of his career he was known to be a most Liberal Conservative, and in 1855 Lord Palmerston offered him the post of colonial secretary. He was much tempted by the proposal, and hurried down to Knowsley to consult his father, who called out when he entered the room, "Hallo, Stanley! what brings you here ? — Has Dizzy cut his throat, or are you going to be married ? " When the object of his sudden appear- ance had been explained, the Conservative chief received the courteous suggestion of the prime minister with anything but favour, and the offer was declined. In his father's second administration Lord Stanley held, at first, the office of secretary for the colonies, but became president of the Board of Control on the resignation of Lord Ellenborough. He had the charge of the India Bill of 1858 in the House of Commons, became the first secretary of state for India, and left behind him in the India Office an excellent reputation as a man of business. After the revolution in Greece and the disappearance of King Otho, the people most earnestly desired to have Queen Victoria's second son, Prince Alfred, for their king. He declined the honour, and they then took up the idea that the next best thing they could do would be to elect some great and wealthy English noble, not concealing the hope that although they might have to offer him a Civil List he would decline to receive it. Lord Stanley was the prime favourite as an occupant of this bed of thorns, and it has been said that he was actually offered the crown. That, however, is not true; the offer was never formally made. After the fall of the Russell government in 1866 he became foreign secretary in his father's third administration. He compared his conduct in that great post to that of a man floating down a river and fending off from his vessel, as well as he could, the various obstacles it encountered. He thought that that should be the normal attitude of an English foreign minister, and probably under the circumstances of the years 1866-1868 it was the right one. He arranged the collective guarantee of the neutrality of Luxemburg in 1867, negotiated a convention about the " Alabama," which, however, was not ratified, and most wisely refused to take any part in the Cretan troubles. In 1874 he again became foreign secretary in Disraeli's government. He acquiesced in the purchase of the Suez Canal shares, a measure then considered dangerous by many people, but ultimately most successful; he accepted the Andrassy Note, but declined to accede to the Berlin Memorandum. His part in the later phases of the Russo-Turkish struggle has never been fully explained, for with equal wisdom and generosity he declined to gratify public curiosity at the cost of some of his colleagues. A later generation will know better than his contemporaries what were the precise developments of policy which obliged him to resign. He kept himself ready to explain in the House of Lords the course he had taken if those whom he had left challenged him to do so, but from that course they consistentlyrefrained. Already in October 1 8 79 it was clear enough that he had thrown in his lot with the Liberal party, but it was not till March 1880 that he publicly announced this change of allegiance. He did not at first take office in the second Gladstone government, but became secretary for the colonies in December 1882, holding this position till the fall of that govern- ment in the summer of 1885. In 1886 the old Liberal party was run on the rocks and went to pieces. Lord Derby became a Liberal Unionist, and took an active part in the general manage- ment of that party, leading it in the House of Lords till 1891, when Lord Hartington became duke of Devonshire. In 1892 he presided over the Labour Commission, but his health never recovered an attack of influenza which he had in 1891, and he died at Knowsley on the 21st of April 1893. During a great part of Lord Derby's life he was deflected from his natural course by the accident of his position as the son of the leading Conservative statesman of the day. From first to last he was at heart a moderate Liberal. After making allowance, however, for this deflecting agency, it must be admitted that in the highest quality of the statesman, " aptness to be right," he was surpassed by none of his contemporaries, or — if by anybody — by Sir George Cornewall Lewis alone. He would have been more at home in a state of things which did not demand from its leading statesman great popular power; he had none of those " isms " and " prisms of fancy " which stood in such good stead DERBY 6 9 some of his rivals. He had another defect besides the want of popular power. He was so anxious to arrive at right con- clusions that he sometimes turned and turned and turned a subject over till the time for action had passed. One of his best lieutenants said of him in a moment of impatience: "Lord Derby is like the God of Hegel: ' Er setzt sich, er verneint sich, er verneint seine Negation.' " His knowledge, acquired both from books and by the ear, was immense, and he took every opportunity of increasing it. He retained his old university habit of taking long walks with a congenial companion, even in London, and although he cared but little for what is commonly known as society — the society of crowded rooms and fragments of sentences — he very much liked conversation. During the many years in which he was a member of " The Club " he was one of its most assiduous frequenters, and his loss was acknow- ledged by a formal resolution. His talk was generally grave, but every now and then was lit up by dry humour. The late Lord Arthur Russell once said to him, after he had been buying some property in southern England: " So you still believe in land, Lord Derby." " Hang it," he replied, " a fellow must believe in something! " He did an immense deal of work outside politics. He was lord rector of the University of Glasgow from 1868 to 187 1, and later held the same office in that of Edinburgh. From 1875 to 1893 be was president of the Royal Literary Fund, and attended most closely to his duties then. He succeeded Lord Granville as chancellor of the University of London in 1891, and remained in that position till his death. He lived much in Lancashire, managed his enormous estates with great skill, and did a great amount of work as a local magnate. He married in 1870 Maria Catharine, daughter of the 5th earl de la Warr, and widow of the 2nd marquess of Salisbury. The earl left no children and he was succeeded as 16th earl by his brother Frederick Arthur Stanley (1 841-1908), who had been made a peer as Baron Stanley of Preston in 1886. He was secretary of state for war and for the colonies and president of the board of trade; and was governor-general of Canada from 1888 to 1893. He died on the 14th of June 1908, when his eldest son, Edward George Villiers Stanley, became earl of Derby. As Lord Stanley the latter had been member of parliament for the West Houghton division of Lancashire from 1892 to 1906; he was financial secretary to the War Office from 1900 to 1903, and postmaster-general from 1903 to 1905. The best account of the 15th Lord Derby is that which was prefixed by W. E. H. Lecky, who knew him very intimately, to the edition of his speeches outside parliament, published in 1894. (M. G. D.) DERBY, a city of New Haven county, Connecticut, U.S.A., coextensive with the township of Derby, about 10 m. W. of New Haven, at the junction of the Housatonic and Naugatuck rivers. Pop. (1900) 7930 (2635 foreign-born); (1910) 8991. It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and by interurban electric railways. In Derby there are an opera house, owned by the city, and a public library. Across the Housatonic is the borough of Shelton (pop. 1910, 4807), which is closely related, socially and industrially, to Derby, the two having a joint board of trade. Adjoining Derby on the N. along the Naugatuck is Ansonia. Derby, Ansonia and Shelton form one of the most important manufacturing communities in the state; although their total population in 1900 (23,448) was only 2-9% of the state's population, the product of their manufactories was 7 '4 % of the total manufactured product of Connecticut. Among the manufactures of Derby are pianos and organs, woollen goods, pins, keys, dress stays, combs, typewriters, corsets, hosiery, guns and ammunition, and foundry and machine-shop products. Derby was settled in 1642 as an Indian trading post under the name Paugasset, and received its present name in 1675. The date of organization of the township is unknown. Ansonia was formed from a part of Derby in 1889. In 1893 the borough of Birmingham, on the opposite side of the Naugatuck, was annexed to Derby, and Derby was chartered "as a city. In the 18th century Derby was the centre of a thriving commerce with the West Indies. Derby is the birthplace of David Humphreys (1752-1818), a soldier, diplomatist and writer, General Washington's aide and military secretary from 1780 until the end of the War of Independence, the first minister of the United States to Portugal (1 790-1 797) and minister to Spain in 1797-1802, and one of the "Hartford Wits." See Samuel Orcutt and Ambrose Beardsley, History of the Old Town of Derby (Springfield, 1880); and the Town Records of Derby front 165$ to 1710 (Derby, 1901). DERBY, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough, and the county town of Derbyshire, England, i28f m. N.N.W. of London by the Midland railway; it is also served by the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1891) 94,146; (1901) 114,848. Occupying a position almost in the centre of England, the town is situated chiefly on the western bank of the river Derwent, on an undulating site encircled with gentle eminences, from which flow the Markeaton and other brooks. In the second half of the 19th century the prosperity of the town was enhanced by the establish- ment of the head offices and principal workshops of the Midland Railway Company. Derby possesses several handsome public buildings, including the town hall, a spacious range of buildings erected for the postal and inland revenue offices, the county hall, corn exchange and market hall. Among churches may be mentioned St Peter's a fine building principally of Perpendicular date but with earlier portions; St Alkmund's with its lofty spire, Decorated in style; St Andrew's, in the same style, by Sir G. G. Scott; and All Saints', which contains a beautiful choir-screen, good stained glass and monuments by L. F. Roubiliac, Sir Francis Chantrey and others. The body of this church is in classic style (1725), but the tower was built 1509-1527, and is one of the finest in the midland counties, built, in three tiers, and crowned with battlements and pinnacles, which give it a total height of 210 ft. The Roman Catholic church of St Mary is one of the best examples of the work of A. W. Pugin. The Derby grammar school, one of the most ancient in England, was placed in 1 1 60 under the administration of the chapter of Darley Abbey, which lay a little north of Derby. It occupies St Helen's House, once the town residence of the Strutt family, and has been enlarged in modern times, accommodating about 160 boys. The Derby municipal technical college is administered by the corpora- tion. Other institutions include schools of science and art, public library, museum and art gallery, the Devonshire alms- houses, a remodelled foundation inaugurated by Elizabeth, countess of Shrewsbury, in the 16th century, and the town and county infirmary. The free library and museum buildings, together with a recreation ground, were gifts to the town from M. T. Bass, M.P. (d. 1884), while an arboretum of seventeen acres was presented to the town by Joseph Strutt in 1840. Derby has been long celebrated for its porcelain, which rivalled that of Saxony and France. This manufacture was introduced about 1750, and although for a time partially abandoned, it has been revived. There are also spar works where the fluor-spar, or Blue John, is wrought into a variety of useful and ornamental articles. The manufacture of silk, hosiery, lace and cotton formerly employed a large portion of the population, and there are still numerous silk mills and elastic web works. Silk " throwing " or spinning was introduced into England in 1 71 7 by John Lombe, who found out the secrets of the craft when visiting Piedmont, and set up machinery in Derby. Other industries include the manufacture of paint, shot, white and red lead and varnish; and there are sawmills and tanneries. The manufacture of hosiery profited greatly by the inventions of Jedediah Strutt about 1750. In the northern suburb of Littlechester, there are chemical and steam boiler works. The Midland railway works employ a large number of hands. Derby is a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of Southwell. The parlia- mentary borough returns two members. The town is governed by a mayor, sixteen aldermen and forty-two councillors. Area, 3449 acres. Littlechester, as its name indicates, was the site of a Roman fort or village; the site is in great part built over and the remains practically effaced. Derby was known in the time of the heptarchy as Northworthig, and did not receive the name of 7o DERBYSHIRE Deoraby or Derby until after it was given up to the Danes by the treaty of Wedmore and had become one of their five boroughs, probably ruled in the ordinary way by an earl with twelve " lawmen " under him. Being won back among the sweeping conquests of /Ethelflred, lady of the Mercians, in 91 7, it prospered during the 10th century, and by the reign of Edward the Con- fessor there were 243 burgesses in Derby. However, by 1086 this number had decreased to 100, while 103 " manses " which used to be assessed were waste. In spite of this the amount rendered by the town to the lord had increased from £24 to £30. The first extant charter granted to Derby is dated 1206 and is a grant of all those privileges which the burgesses of Nottingham had in the time of Henry I. and Henry II., which included freedom from toll, a gild merchant, power to elect a provost at their will, and the privilege of holding the town at the ancient farm with an increase of £10 yearly. The charter also provides that no one shall dye cloth within ten leagues of Derby except in the borough. A second charter, granted by Henry III. in 1 229, limits the power of electing a provost by requiring that he shall be removed if he be displeasing to the king. Henry III. also granted the burgesses two other charters, one in 1225 confirming their privileges and granting that the comitatus of Derby should in fuiure be held on Thursdays in the borough, the other in 1260 granting that no Jew should be allowed to live in the town. In 1337 Edward III. on the petition of the burgesses granted that they might have two bailiffs instead of one. Derby was incorporated by James I. in 161 1 under the name of the bailiffs and burgesses of Derby, but Charles I. in 1637 appointed a mayor, nine aldermen, fourteen brethren and fourteen capital burgesses. In 1680 the burgesses were obliged to resign their charters, and received a new one, which did not, however, alter the government of the town. Derby has been represented in parliament by two members since 1295. In the rebellion of 1745 the young Pretender marched with his army as far south as Derby, where the council was held which decided that he should return to Scotland instead of going on to London. Among early works on Derby are W. Hutton, History of Derby (London, 1791); R. Simpson, History and Antiquities of Derby (Derby, 1826). DERBYSHIRE, a north midland county of England, bounded N. and N.E. by Yorkshire, E. by Nottinghamshire, S.E. and S. by Leicestershire, S. and S.W. by Staffordshire, and W. and N.W. by Cheshire. Theareais1029-5sq.nl. The physical aspect is much diversified. The extreme south of the county is lacking in picturesqueness, being for the most part level, with occasional slight undulations. The Peak District of the north, on the other hand, though inferior in grandeur to the mountainous Lake District, presents some of the finest hill scenery in England, deriving a special beauty from the richly wooded glens and valleys, such as those of Castleton, Glossop, Dovedale and Millersdale. The character of the landscape ranges from the wild moorland of the Cheshire borders or the grey rocks of the Peak, to the park lands and woods of the Chatsworth district. Some of the woods are noted for their fine oaks, those at Kedleston, 3 m. from Derby, ranking among the largest and oldest in the kingdom. From the northern hills the streams of the county radiate. Those of the north-west belong to the Mersey, and those of the north-east to the Don, but all the others to the Trent, which, like the Don, falls into the Humber. The principal river is the Trent, which, rising in the Staffordshire moorlands, intersects the southern part of Derbyshire, and forms part of its boundary with Leicestershire. After the Trent the most important river is the Derwent, one of its tributaries, which, taking its rise in the lofty ridges of the High Peak, flows southward through a beautiful valley, receiving a number of minor streams in its course, includ- ing the Wye, which, rising near Buxton, traverses the fine Millersdale and Monsal Dale. The other principal rivers are the following: The Dane rises at the junction of the three counties, Staffordshire, Cheshire and Derbyshire. The Goyt has its source a little farther north, at the base of the same hill, and, taking a N.N.E. direction, divides Derbyshire from Cheshire, andfallsinto the Mersey. The Dove rises on the southern slope, and flows as the boundary stream between Derbyshire and Staffordshire for nearly its entire course. It receives several feeders, and falls into the Trent near Repton. The Erewash is the boundary stream between Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire. The Rother rises about Baslow, and flows into Yorkshire, with a northerly course, joining the Don. Besides the attractions of its scenery Derby- shire possesses, in Buxton, Matlock and Bakewell, three health resorts in much favour on account of their medicinal springs. The whole northward extension of the county is occupied by the plateau of the Peak and other plateau-like summits, the highest of which are of almost exactly similar elevation. Thus in the extreme north Bleaklow Hill reaches 2060 ft., while southward from this point along the axis of main elevation are found Shelf Moss (2046 ft.), and Kinder Scout and other summits of the Peak itself, ranging up to 2088 ft. This plateau-mass is demarcated on the north and west by the vales of the Etherow and Goyt, by the valley of the Derwent on the east, and in part by that of its tributary the Noe on the south. The flanks of the plateau are deeply scored by abrupt ravines, often known as " doughs " (an Anglo-Saxon word, cloh) watered by streams which sometimes descend over precipitous ledges in picturesque falls, such as the Kinder Downfall, formed by the brook of that name which rises on Kinder Scout. The most picturesque doughs are found on the south, descending to Edale, and on the west. Edale is the upper part of the Noe valley, and the narrow gorge at its head is exceedingly beautiful, as is the more gentle scenery of the Vale of Plope, the lower part of the valley. In a branch vale is situated Castleton (g.v.), with the ruined Peak Castle, or Castle of the Peak, and the Peak Cavern, Blue John Mine and other caves. The upper Derwent valley, or Derwent Dale, is narrow and well wooded. In it, near the village of Derwent Chapel, is Derwent Hall, a fine old mansion formerly a seat of the Newdigate family. On Derwent Edge, above the village, are various peculiar rock formations, known by such names as the Salt-cellar. Ashopton, another village lower down the dale, is a favourite centre, and here the main valley is joined by Ashop Dale, a bold defile in its upper part, penetrating the heart of the Peak. The well-known high road crossing the plateau from east to west, between the lower Derwent valley, Bakewell, Buxton and Macclesfield, shows the various types of scenery characteristic of the limestone hill-country of Derbyshire south of the Peak itself. The lower Derwent valley, about Chatsworth, Rowsley, Darley and Matlock, is open, fertile and well wooded. The road leads up the tributary valley of the Wye, which after Bakewell quickly narrows, and in successive portions is known as Monsal Dale, Millersdale (which the main road does not touch), Chee Dale and Wye Dale. On the flanks of these beautiful dales bold cliffs and bastions of limestone stand out among rich woods. Near the mouth of the valley, about Stanton, the fantastic effects of weathering on the limestone are especially well seen, as in Rowtor Rocks and Robin Hood's Stride, and in the same locality are a remarkable number of tumuli and other early remains, and the Hermitage, a cave containing sacred carvings. From Buxton the road ascends over the high moors, here open and grassy in contrast to the heather of the Peak, and shortly after crossing the county boundary, reaches the head of the pass well known by the name of an inn, the Cat and Fiddle, at its highest point, 1690 ft. South of Buxton the elevations along the main axis decrease, thus Axe Edge reaches 1600 ft., and this height is nowhere exceeded as the hills sink to the plain valley of the Trent. The dales and ravines which ramify among the limestone heights are characteristic and beautiful, and the valley of the Dove (g.v.) or Dovedale, on the border with Staffordshire, is as famous as any of the northern dales. Swallow-holes or waterworn caverns are common in many parts of the limestone region. The hills east of the Derwent are nowhere so high as those to the west — Margley Hill reaches 1793 ft., Howden Edge 1787 ft. and Der- went Moors 1505 ft. The plateau type is maintained. The valley of the Derwent provides the most attractive scenery in DERBYSHIRE 7i the southern part of the county, from Matlock southward by Heage, Belper and Duffield to Derby. Geology. — Five well-contrasted types of scenery in Derbyshire are clearly traceable to as many varieties of rock ; the bleak dry uplands of the north and east, with deep-cut ravines and swift clear streams, are due to the great mass of Mountain Limestone ; round the lime- stone boundary are the valleys with soft outlines in the Pendleside Shales; these are succeeded by the rugged moorlands, covered with heather and peat, which are due to the Millstone Grit series; east- ward lies the Derbyshire Coalfield with its gently moulded grass- covered hills; southward is the more level tract of red Triassic rocks. The principal structural feature is the broad anticline, its axis running north and south, which has brought up the Carboniferous Limestone ; this uplifted region is the southern extremity of the Pennine Range. The Carboniferous or " Mountain " Limestone is the oldest formation in the county; its thickness is not known, but it is certainly over 2000 ft. ; it is well exposed in the numerous narrow gorges cut by the Derwent and its tributaries and by the Dove on the Staffordshire border. Ashwood Dale, Chee Dale, Millersdale, Monsal Dale and the valley at Matlock are all flanked by abrupt sides of this rock. It is usually a pale, thick-bedded rock, sometimes blue and occasionally, as at Ashford, black. In some places, e.g. Thorpe Cloud, it is highly fossiliferous, but it is usually somewhat barren except for abundant crinoids and smaller organisms. It is polished in large slabs at Ashford, where crinoidal, black and " rosewood " marbles are pro- duced. Volcanic rocks, locally called " Toadstone," are represented in the limestones by intrusive sills and flows of dolerite and by necks of agglomerate, notably near Tideswell, Millersdale and Matlock. Beds and nodules of chert are abundant in the upper parts of the limestone; at Bakewell it is quarried for use in the Potteries. At some points the limestone has been dolomitized ; near Bonsall it has been converted into a granular silicified rock. A series of black shales with nodular limestones, the Pendleside series, rests upon the Mountain Limestone on the east, south and north-west ; much of the upper course of the Derwent has been cut through these soft beds. Mam Tor, or the Shivering Mountain, is made of these shales. Next in upward sequence is a thick mass of sandstones, grits and shales — the Millstone Grit series. On the west side these extend from Blacklow Hill to Axe Edge; on the east, from Derwent Edge to near Derby ; outlying masses form the rough moorland on Kinder Scout and the picturesque tors near Stanton-by-Youlgreave. A small patch of Millstone Grit and Limestone occurs in the south of the county about Melbourne and Ticknall. The Coal Measures repose upon the Millstone Grit ; the largest area of these rocks lies on the east, where they are conterminous with the coalfields of Yorkshire and Nottingham. A small tract, part of the Leicestershire coalfield, lies in the south-east corner, and in the north-west corner a portion of the Lancashire coalfield appears about New Mills and Whaley Bridge. They yield valuable coals, clays, marls and ganister. East of Bolsover, the Coal Measures are covered unconformably by the Permian breccias and magnesian limestone. Flanking the hills between Ashbourne and Quarndon are red beds of Bunter marl, sandstone and conglomerate; they also appear at Morley, east of the Derwent, and again round the small southern coalfield. Most of the southern part of the county is occupied by Keuper marls and sand- stones, the latter yield good building stone; and at Chellaston the gypsum beds in the former are excavated on a large scale. Much of the Triassic area is covered superficially by glacial drift and alluvium of the Trent. Local boulders as well as northern erratics are found in the valley of the Derwent. The bones of Pleistocene mammals, the rhinoceros, mammoth, bison, hyaena, &c, have been found at numerous places, often in caves and fissures in the limestones, e.g. at Castleton, Wirksworth and Creswell. At Doveholes the Pleiocene Mastodon has been reported. Galena and other lead ores are abundant in veins in the limestone, but they are now only worked on a large scale at Mill Close, near Winster; calamine, zinc, blende, barytes, calcite and fluor-spar are common. Apeculiar variety of the last named, called " Blue John," is found only near Castleton; at the same place occurs the remarkable elastic bitumen, " elaterite." Limestone is quarried at Buxton, Millersdale and Matlock for lime, fluxing and chemical purposes. Good sandstone is obtained from the Millstone Grit at Stancliffe, Tansley and Whatstandwell. Cal- careous tufa or travertine occurs in the valley of Matlock and else- where, and in some places is still being deposited by springs. Large pits containing deposits of white sand, clay and pebbles are found in the limestone at Longcliff, Newhaven and Carsington. Climate. — From the elevation which it attains in its northern division the county is colder and is rainier than other midland counties. Even in summer cold and thick fogs are often seen hanging over the rivers, and clinging to the lower parts of the hills, and hoar-frosts are by no means unknown even in June and July. The winters in the uplands are generally severe, and the rainfall heavy. At Buxton, at an elevation of about 1000 ft., the mean temperature in January is 34-9° F., and in July 57-5°, the mean annual being 45-4°. These conditions contrast with those at Derby, in the southern lowknd, where the figures are respectively 37-5°, 61-2° and 48-8°, while intermediate conditions are found at Belper, 9 m. higher up the Derwent valley, where the figures are 36-3°, 59-9° and 47-3°. The contrasts shown by the mean annual rainfall are similarly marked. Thus at Wood- head, lying high in the extreme north, it is 52-03 in., at Buxton 49-33 in., at Matlock, in the middle part of the Derwent valley, 35-2 in., and at Derby 24-35 in. Agriculture. — A little over seven-tenths of the total area of the county is under cultivation. Among the higher altitudes of north Derbyshire, where the soil is poor and the climate harsh, grain is unable to flourish, while even in the more sheltered parts of this region the harvest is usually belated. In such districts sheep farming is chiefly practised, and there is a considerable area of heath pasture. - Farther south, heavy crops of wheat, turnips and other cereals and green crops are not uncommon, while barley is cultivated about Repton and Gresley, and also in the east of the county, in order to supply the Burton breweries. A large part of the Trent valley is under permanent pasture, being devoted to cattle-feeding and dairy-farming. This industry has prospered greatly, and the area of permanent pasture encroaches continually upon that of arable land. Derbyshire cheeses are exported or sent to London in considerable quantities ; and cheese fairs are held in various parts of the county, as at Ashbourne and Derby. A feature of the upland districts is the total absence of hedges, and the substitution of limestone walls, put together without any mortar or cement. Other Industries. — The manufactures of Derbyshire are both numerous and important, embracing silks, cotton hosiery, iron, woollen manufactures, lace, elastic web and brewing. For many of these this county has long been famous, especially for that of silk, which is carried on to a large extent in Derby, as well as in Belper and Duffield. Derby is also celebrated for its china, and silk-throwing is the principal industry of the town. Elastic web weaving by power looms is carried on to a great extent, and the manufacture of lace and net curtains, gimp trimmings, braids and cords. In the county town and neighbourhood are several important chemical and colour works; and in various parts of the county, as at Belper, Cromford, Matlock, Tutbury, are cotton- spinning mills, as well as hosiery and tape manufactories. The principal works of the Midland Railway Company are at Derby. The principal mineral is coal. Ironstone is not extensively wrought, but, on account of the abundant supply of coal, large quantities are imported for smelting purposes. There are smelting furnaces in several districts, as at Alfreton, Chesterfield, Derby, Ilkeston. Besides lead, gypsum and zinc are raised, to a small extent; and for the quarrying of limestone Derbyshire is one of the principal English counties. The east and the extreme south-west parts are the principal industrial districts. Communications. — The chief railway serving the county is the Midland, the south, east and north being served by its main line and branches. In the north-east and north the Great Central system touches the county; in the west the North Staffordshire and a branch of the London & North- Western; while a branch of the Great Northern serves Derby and other places in the south. The Trent & Mersey canal crosses the southern part of the county, and there is a branch canal (the Derby) connecting Derby with this and with the Erewash canal, which runs north from the Trent up the Erewash valley. From it there is a little-used branch (the Cromford canal) to Matlock. Population and Administration. — The area of the ancient county is 658,885 acres, with a population in 1891 of 528,033, and 1901 of 620,322. The area of the administrative county is 652,272 acres. The county contains six hundreds. The municipal boroughs are Chesterfield (pop. 27,185), Derby, a county borough and the county town (114,848), Glossop (21,526), Ilkeston ( 2 S,384)- The other urban districts .are Alfreton (17,505), AlvastonandBoulton(i279), Ashbourne (4039), Bakewell(285o), Baslow and Bubnell (797), Belper (10,934), Bolsover (6844) Bonsall (1360), Brampton and Walton (2698), Buxton (10,181), Clay Cross(8358), Dronfield(38o9), Fairfield(2 9 6 9 ), Heage(2889), Heanor (16,249), Long Eaton (13,045), Matlock (5979), Matlock Bath and Scarthin Nick (i8iq), Newbold and Dunston (5986*). 72 DERBYSHIRE New Mills (7773), North Darley (2756), Ripley (10,111), South Darley (788), Swadlincote (18,014), Whittington (9416), Wirksworth (3807). Among other towns may be mentioned Ashover (2426), Barlborough (2056), Chapel-en-le-Frith (4626), Clowne (3896) , Crich (3063) , Killamarsh (3644) , Staveley (1 1 ,420) , Whitwell (3380). The county is in the Midland circuit, and assizes are held at Derby. It has one court of quarter sessions and is divided into fifteen petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Derby, Chesterfield and Glossop have separate commissions of the peace, and that of Derby has also a separate court of quarter sessions. The total number of civil parishes is 3 14. The county is mainly in the diocese of Southwell, with small portions in the dioceses of Peterborough and Lichfield, and contains 255 ecclesi- astical parishes or districts. The parliamentary divisions of the county are High Peak, North-Eastern, Chesterfield, Mid, Ilkeston, Southern and Western, each returning one member, while the parliamentary borough of Derby returns two members. History. — The earliest English settlements in the district which is now Derbyshire were those of the West Angles, who in the course of their northern conquests in the 6th century pushed their way up the valleys of the Derwent and the Dove, where they became known as the Pecsaetan. Later the district formed the northern division of Mercia, and in 848 the Mercian witenagemot assembled at Repton. In the 9th century the district suffered frequently from the ravages of the Danes, who in 874 wintered at Repton and destroyed its famous monastery, the burial-place of the kings of Mercia. Derby under Guthrum was one of the five Danish burghs, but in 917 was recovered by ./Ethelfted. In 924 Edward the Elder fortified Bakewell, and in 942 Edmund regained Derby, which had fallen under the Danish yoke. Barrows of the Saxon period are numerous in Wirksworth hundred and the Bakewell district, among the most remarkable being White-low near Winster and Bower's-low near Tissington. There are Saxon cemeteries at Stapenhill and Foremark Hall. Derbyshire probably originated as a shire in the time of iEthelstan, but for long it maintained a very close connexion with Nottinghamshire, and the Domesday Survey gives a list of local customs affecting the two counties alike. The two shire-courts sat together for the Domesday Inquest, and the counties were united under one sheriff until the time of Elizabeth. The villages of Appleby, Oakthorpe, Donisthorpe, Stretton-en-le-Field, Willesley, Chilcote and Measham were reckoned as part of Derbyshire in 1086, although separated from it by the Leicester- shire parishes of Over and Nether Seat. The early divisions of the county were known as wapentakes, five being mentioned in Domesday, while 13th-century documents mention seven wapentakes, corresponding with the six present hundreds, except that Repton and Gresley were then reckoned as separate divisions. In the 14th century the divisions were more frequently described as hundreds, and Wirksworth alone retained the designation wapentake until modern times. Ecclesiastically the county constituted an archdeaconry in the diocese of Lichfield, comprising the six deaneries of Derby, Ashbourne, High Peak, Castillar, Chesterfield and Repington. In 1884 it was transferred to the newly formed diocese of Southwell. The assizes for Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire were held at Nottingham until the reign of Henpy III., when they were held alternately at Nottingham and Derby until 1569, after which the Derbyshire assizes were held at Derby. The court of the Honour of Peverel, held at Basford in Nottinghamshire, which formerly exercised jurisdiction in the hundreds of Scarsdale, the Peak and Wirksworth. was abolished in 1849. The miners of Derbyshire formed an independent community under the jurisdiction of a steward and barmasters, who held two Barmote courts (q.v.) every year. The forests of Peak and Duffield had their separate courts and officers, the justice seat of the former being in an extra-parochial part at equal distances from Castleton, Tideswell and Bowden, while the pleas of Duffield Forest were held at Tutbury. Both were disafforested in the 17th century. The greatest landholder in Derbyshire at the time of the Domesday Survey was Henry de Ferrers, who owned almost the whole of the modern hundred of Appletree. The Ferrers estates were forfeited by Robert, earl of Derby, in the reign of Henry III. Another great Domesday landholder was William Peverel, the historic founder of Peak Castle, whose vast possessions were known as the Honour of Peverel. In 1155 the younger Peverel was disinherited for poisoning the earl of Chester, and his estates forfeited to the crown. Few Englishmen retained estates of any importance after the Conquest, but one, Elfin, an under-tenant of Henry de Ferrers, not only held a considerable property but was the ancestor of the Derbyshire family of Brailsford, The families of Shirley and Gresley can also boast an unbroken descent from Domesday tenants. During the rebellion of Prince Henry against Henry II. the castles of Tutbury and Duffield were held against the king, and in the civil wars of John's reign Bolsover and Peak Castles were garrisoned by the rebellious barons. In the Barons' War of the reign of Henry III. the earl of Derby was active in stirring up feeling in the county against the king, and in 1266 assembled a considerable force, which was defeated by the king's party at Chesterfield. At the time of the Wars of the Roses discontent was rife in Derbyshire, and riots broke out in 1443, but the county did not lend active support to either party. On the outbreak of the Civil War of the 17th century, the county at first inclined to support the king, who received an enthusiastic reception when he visited Derby in 1642, but by the close of 1643 Sir John Gell of Hopton had secured almost the whole county for the parliament. Derby, however, was always royalist in sym- pathy, and did not finally surrender till 1646; in 1659 it rebelled against Richard Cromwell, and in 1745 entertained the young Pretender. Derbyshire has always been mainly a mining and manufactur- ing county, though the rich land in the south formerly produced large quantities of corn. The lead mines were worked by the Romans, and the Domesday Survey mentions lead mines at Wirksworth, Matlock, Bakewell, Ashford and Crich. . Iron has also been produced in Derbyshire from an early date, and coal mines were worked at Norton and Alfreton in the beginning of the 14th century. The woollen industry flourished in the county before the reign of John, when an exclusive privilege of dyeing cloth was conceded to the burgesses of Derby. Thomas Fuller writing in 1662 mentions lead, malt and ale as the chief products of the county, and the Buxton waters were already famous in his day. The 18th century saw the rise of numerous manufactures. In 1 7 18 Sir Thomas and John Lombe set up an improved silk- throwing machine at Derby, and in 1758 Jedediah Strutt intro- duced a machine for making ribbed stockings, which became famous as the " Derby rib." In 177 1 Sir Richard Arkwright set up one of his first cotton mills in Cromford, and in 1787 there were twenty-two cotton mills in the county. The Derby porcelain or china manufactory was started about 1750. From 1295 until the Reform Act of 1832 the county and town of Derby each returned two members to parliament. From this latter date the county returned four members in two divisions until the act of 1868, under which it returned six members for three divisions. Antiquities. — Monastic remains are scanty, but there are interesting portions of a priory incorporated with the school buildings at Repton. The village church of Beauchief Abbey, near Dronfield, is a remnant of an abbey founded c. n 75 by Robert Fitzranulf. It has a stately transitional Norman tower, and three fine Norman arches. Dale Abbey, near Derby, was founded early in the 13th century for the Premonstratensian order. The ruins are scanty, but the east window is preserved, and the present church incorporates remains of the ancient rest- house for pilgrims. The church has a peculiar music gallery, entered from without. The abbey church contained famous stained glass, and some of this is preserved in the neighbouring church at Morley. Derbyshire is rich in ecclesiastical architecture as a whole. The churches are generally of various styles. The chancel of the church at Repton is assigned to the second half of the 10th century, though subsequently altered, and the crypt beneath is supposed to be earlier still; its roof is supported by DEREHAM— DERHAM 73 four round pillars, and it is approached by two stairways. Other remains of pre-Conquest date are the chancel arches in the churches of Marston Montgomery and of Sawle}'; and the curiously carved font in Wilne church is attributed to the same period. Examples of Norman work are frequent in doorways, as in the churches of Allestree and Willington near Repton, while a fine tympanum is preserved in the modern church of Findern. There is a triple-recessed doorway, with arcade above, in the west end of Bakewell church, and there is another fine west doorway in Melbourne church, a building principally of the late Norman period, with central and small western towers. In restoring this church curious mural paintings were discovered. At Steetley, near Worksop, is a small Norman chapel, with apse, restored from a ruinous condition; Youlgrave church, a building of much general interest, has Norman nave pillars and a fine font of the same period, and Normanton church has a peculiar Norman corbel table. The Early English style is on the whole less well exemplified in the county, but Ashbourne church, with its central tower and lofty spire, contains beautiful details of this period, notably the lancet windows in the Cockayne chapel. The parish churches of Dronfield, Hathersage (with some notable stained glass), Sandiacre and -Tideswell exemplify the Decorated period; the last is a particularly stately and beautiful building, with a lofty and ornate western tower and some good early brasses. The churches of Dethic, Wirksworth and Chester- field are typical of the Perpendicular period; that of Wirksworth contains noteworthy memorial chapels, monuments and brasses, and that of Chesterfield is celebrated for its crooked spire. The remains of castles are few; the ancient Bolsover Castle is replaced by a castellated mansion of the 17th century; of the Norman Peak Castle near Castleton little is left; of Codnor Castle in the Erewash valley there are picturesque ruins of the 13th century. Among ancient mansions Derbyshire possesses one of the most famous in England in Haddon Hall, of the 15th century. Wingfield manor house is a ruin dating from the same century. Hardwick Hall is a very perfect example of Elizabethan building; ruins of the old Tudor hall stand near by. Other Elizabethan examples are Barlborough and Tissington Halls. The village of Tissington is noted for the maintenance of an old custom, that of " well-dressing." On the Thursday before Easter a special church service is celebrated, and the wells are beautifully ornamented with flowers, prayers being offered at each. The ceremony has been revived also in several other Derbyshire villages. See Davies, New Historical and Descriptive View of Derbyshire (Belper, 181 1) ; D. Lysons, Magna Britannia, vol. v. (London, 1817) ; Maunder, Derbyshire Miners' Glossary (Bakewell, 1824) ; R. Simpson, Collection of Fragments illustrative of the History of Derbyshire (1826) ; S. Glover, History and Gazetteer of the County of Derby, ed. T. Noble, part 1 of vols. i. and ii. (Derby, 1831-1833); T. Bateman, Vestiges of the Antiquities of Derbyshire (London, 1848); L. Jewitt, Ballads and Songs of Derbyshire (London, 1867); J. C. Cox, Notes on the Churches of Derbyshire (Chester, 1875), and Three Centuries of Derbyshire Annals (2 vols., London, 1890); R. N. Worth, Derby, in "Popular County Histories" (London, 1886); J. P. Yeatman, Feudal History of the County of Derby (3 vols., London, 1886-1895) ; Victoria County History, Derbyshire. See also Notts and Derbyshire Notes and Queries. DEREHAM (properly East Dereham), a market town in the Mid parliamentary division of Norfolk, England, 122 m. N.N.E. from London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5545. The church of St Nicholas is a cruciform Perpendicular structure with a beautiful central tower, and some portions of earlier date. It contains a monument to William Cowper, who came to live here in 1796, and the Congregational chapel stands on the site of the house where the poet spent his last days. Dereham' is an important agricultural centre with works for the manufacture of agricultural implements, iron foundries and a malting industry. DERELICT (from Lat. derelinquere, to forsake), in law, property thrown away or abandoned by the owner in such a manner as to indicate that he intends to make no further claim to it. The word is used more particularly with respect to property abandoned at sea (see Wreck), but it is also applied in other senses; for example, land gained from the sea by receding of the water is termed dereliction. Land gained gradually and slowly by dereliction belongs to the owner of the adjoining land, but in the case of sudden or considerable dereliction the land belongs to the Crown. This technical use of the term " dereliction " is to be distinguished from the more general modern sense, dere- liction or abandonment of duty, which implies a culpable failure or neglect in moral or legal obligation. DERENBOURG, JOSEPH (1811-1895), Franco-German orientalist. He was a considerable force in the educational revival of Jewish education in France. He made great contribu- tions to the knowledge of Saadia, and planned a complete edition of Saadia's works in Arabic and French. A large part of this work appeared during his lifetime. He also wrote an Essai sur I'histoire et la giographie de la Palestine (Paris, 1867). This was an original contribution to the history of the Jews and Judaism in the time of Christ, and has been much used by later writers on the subject (e.g. by Schiirer). He also published in collaboration with his son Hartwig, Opuscules et traites d' Abou-'l-W aiid (with translation, 1 880); Deux Versions hebra'iques du livre de Kalildh et Dimnah (188 1), and a Latin translation of the same story under the title Joannia de Capua directorium vitae humanae (1889); Commenlaire de Maimonide sur la Mischnah Seder Tohorot (Berlin,i886-i8gi); and a second edition of S. de Sacy's Stances de Hariri. He died on the 29th of July 1895, at Ems. His son, Hartwig Derenbourg (1844-1908), was born in Paris on the 17th of June 1844. He was educated at Gottingen and Leipzig. Subsequently he studied Arabic at the Ecole des Langues Orientales. In 1879 he was appointed professor of Arabic, and in i886_ professor of Mahommedan Religion, at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes in Paris. He collaborated with his father in the great edition of Saadia and the edition of Abu-'l- Walid, and also produced a number of important editions of other Arabic writers. Among these are Le Diwdn de Ndbiqa Dhobyani; Le Livre de Sibawaihi (2 vols., Paris, 1881-1889); Chrestomathie eUmeritaire de I'arabe litteral (in collaboration with Spiro, 1885; 2nded., 1892); Ousdma ibn Mounkidh, un £mir syrien (1889); Ousdma ibn Mounkidh, preface du livre du bdton (with trans., 1887); Al-Fdkhri (1895); Oumdra du Gemen (1897), a catalogue of Arabic MSS. in the Escorial (vol. i., 1884). DERG, LOUGH, a lake of Ireland, on the boundary of the counties Galway, Clare and Tipperary. It is an expansion of the Shannon, being the lowest lake on that river, and is 23 m. long and generally from 1 to 3 m. broad. It lies where the Shannon leaves the central plain of Ireland and flows between the hills which border the plain. While the northerly shores of the lake, therefore, are flat, the southern are steep and picturesque, being backed by the Slieve Aughty, Slieve Bernagh and Arra Mountains. Ruined churches and fortresses are numerous on the eastern shore, and on Iniscaltra Island are a round tower and remains of five churches. Another Lough Derg, near Pettigo in Donegal, though small, is famous as the traditional scene of St Patrick's purgatory. In the middle ages its pilgrimages had a European reputation, and they are still observed annually by many of the Irish from June 1 to August 15. The hospice, chapels, &c, are on Station Island, and there is a ruined monastery on Saints' Island. DERHAM, WILLIAM (1657-1735), English divine, was born at Stoulton, near Worcester, on the 26th of November 1657. He was educated at Blockley, in his native county, and at Trinity College, Oxford. In ,1682 he became vicar of Wargrave, in Berkshire; and in 1689 he was preferred to the living of Upminster, in Essex. In 1696 he published his Artificial Clockmaker, which went through several editions. The best known of his subsequent works are Physico-Theology, published in 17 13; Astro-Theology, 1714; and Christo-Theology, 1730. The first two of these books were teleological arguments for the being and attributes of God, and were used by Paley nearly a century later. In 1702 Derham 74 D'ERLON— DEROULEDE was elected fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1716 was made a canon of Windsor. He was Boyle lecturer in 1711-1712. His last work, entitled A Defence of the Church's Right in Leasehold Estates, appeared in 173 1. He died on the 5th of April 1735. Besides the works published in his own name, Derham, who was keenly interested in natural history, contributed a variety of papers to the Transactions of the Royal Society, revised the Miscellanea Curiosa, edited the correspondence of John Ray and Eleazar Albin's Natural History, and published some of the MSS. of Robert Hooke, the natural philosopher. D'ERLON, JEAN BAPTISTE DROUET, Count (1765-1844), marshal of France, was born at Reims on the 29th of July 1765. He entered the army as a private soldier in 1782, was discharged after five years' service, re-entered it in 1792, and rose rapidly to the rank of an officer. From 1794 to 1796 he was aide-de-camp to General Lefebvre. He did good service in the campaigns of the revolutionary wars and in 1799 attained the rank of general of brigade. In the campaign of that year he was engaged in the Swiss operations under Massena. In 1800 he fought under Moreau at Hohenlinden. As a general of division he took part in Napoleon's campaigns of 1805 and 1806, and rendered excellent service at Jena. He was next engaged under Lefebvre in the siege of Danzig and negotiated the terms of surrender; after this he rejoined the field army and fought at Friedland (1807), receiving a severe wound. After this battle he was made grand officer of the Legion of Honour, was created Count d'Erlon and received a pension. For the next six years d'Erlon was almost continuously engaged as commander of an army corps in the Peninsular War, in which he added greatly to his reputation as a capable general. At the pass of Maya in the Pyrenees he inflicted a defeat upon Lord Hill's troops, and in the subsequent battles of the 1814 campaign he distinguished himself further. After the first Restoration he was named commander of the 16th military division, but he was soon arrested for conspiring with the Orleans party, to which he was secretly devoted. He escaped, however, and gave in his adhesion to Napoleon, who had returned from Elba. The emperor made him a peer of France, and gave him command of the I. army corps, which formed part of the Army of the North. In the Waterloo campaign d'Erlon's corps formed part of Ney's command on the 16th of June, but, in consequence of an extraordinary series of misunderstandings, took part neither at Ligny nor at Quatre Bras (see Waterloo Campaign) . He was not, however, held to account by Napoleon, and as the latter's practice in such matters was severe to the verge of injustice, it may be presumed that the failure was not due to d'Erlon. He was in command of the right wing of the French army throughout the great battle of the 18th of June, and fought in the closing operations around Paris. At the second Restoration d'Erlon fled into Germany, only returning to France after the amnesty of 1825. He was not restored to the service until the accession of Louis Philippe, in whose interests he had engaged in several plots and intrigues. As commander of the 1 2th military division (Nantes), he suppressed the legitimist agitation in his district and caused the arrest of the duchess of Berry (1832). His last active service was in Algeria, of which country he was made governor-general in 1834 at the age of seventy. He returned to France after two years, and was made marshal of France shortly before his death at Paris on the 25th of January 1844. DERMOT MAC MURROUGH (d. 1171), Irish king of Leinster, succeeded his father in the principality of the Hui Cinsellaigh (1115) an d eventually in the kingship of Leinster. The early events of his life are obscure; but about 1152 we find him engaged in a feud with O Ruairc, the lord of Breifne (Leitrim and Cavan). Dermot abducted the wife of O Ruairc more with the object of injuring his rival than from any love of the lady. The injured husband called to his aid Roderic, the high king (aird- righ) of Connaught; and in n 66 Dermot fled before this powerful coalition to invoke the aid of England. Obtaining from Henry II. a licence to enlist allies among the Welsh marchers, Dermot secured the aid of the Clares and Geraldines. To Richard Strongbow, earl of Pembroke and head of the house of Clare, Dermot gave his daughter Eva in marriage; and on his death was succeeded by the earl in Leinster. The historical importance of Dermot lies in the fact that he was the means of introducing the English into Ireland. Through his aid the towns of Water- ford, Wexford and Dublin had already become English colonies before the arrival of Henry II. in the island. See The Song of Dermot and the Earl, an old French Poem (by M. Regan?), ed. with trans, by G. H. Orpen, 1892; Kate Norgate, England under the Angevin Kings, vol. ii. (H. W. C. D.) DERNA (anc. Darnis-Zarine), a town on the north coast of Africa and capital of the eastern half of the Ottoman province of Bengazi or Barca. Situated below the eastern butt of Jebel Akhdar on a small but rich deltaic plain, watered by fine perennial springs, it has a growing population and trade, the latter being mainly in fruits grown in its extensive palm gardens, and in hides and wool brought down by the nomads from the interior. If the port >Were better there would be more rapid expansion. The bay is open from N.W. round to S.E. and often inaccessible in winter and spring, and the steamers of the Nav. Gen. Italiana sometimes have to pass without calling. The population has recovered from the great plague epidemic of 1821 and reached its former figure of about 7000. A proportion of it is of Moorish stock, of Andalusian origin, which emigrated in 1493; the descendants preserve a fine facial type. The sheikhs of the local Bedouin tribes have houses in the place, and a Turkish garrison of about 250 men is stationed in barracks. There is a lighthouse W. of the bay. A British consular agent is resident and the Italians maintain a vice-consul. The names Darnis and Zarine are philologically identical and probably refer to the same place. No traces are left of the ancient town except some rock tombs. Darnis continued to be of some importance in early Moslem times as a station on the Alexandria-Kairawan road, and has served on more than one occasion as a base for Egyptian attacks on Cyrenaica and Tripolitana. In 1805 the government of the United States, having a quarrel with the dey of Tripoli on account of piracies committed on American shipping, landed a force to co-operate in the attack on Derna then being made by Sidi Ahmet, an elder brother of the dey. This force, commanded by William Eaton (q.v.), built a fort, whose ruins and rusty guns are still to be seen, and began to improve the harbour; but its work quickly came to an end with the conclusion of peace. After 1835 Derna passed under direct Ottoman control, and subsequently served as the point whence the sultan exerted a precarious but increasing control over eastern Cyrenaica and Marmarica. It is now in communication by wireless telegraphy with Rhodes and western Cyrenaica. It is the only town, or even large village, between Bengazi and Alexandria (600 m.) (D. G. H.) _ DEROULEDE, PAUL (1846- ), French author and poli- tician, was born in Paris on the 2nd of September 1846. He made his first appearance as a poet in the pages of the Revue nationale, under the pseudonym of Jean Rebel, and in 1869 pro- duced at the Theatre Francais a one-act drama in verse entitled Juan Strenner. On the outbreak of the Franco-German War he enlisted as a private, was wounded and taken prisoner at Sedan, and sent to Breslau, but effected his escape. He then served under Chanzy and Bourbaki, took part in the latter's disastrous retreat to Switzerland, and fought against the Commune in Paris. After attaining the rank of lieutenant, he was forced by an accident to retire from the army. He published in 187 2 a number of patriotic poems {Chants du soldat), which enjoyed unbounded popularity. This was followed in 1875 by another collection, Nouveaux Chants du soldat. In 1877 he produced a drama in verse called L'Hetman, which derived a passing success from the patriotic fervour of its sentiments. For the exhibition of 1878 he wrote a hymn, Vive la France, which was set to music by Gounod. In 1880 his drama in verse, La Moabite, which had been accepted by the Theatre Francais, was forbidden by the censor on religious grounds. In 1882 M. Deroulede founded the Ligue des patriotes, with the object of furthering France's " revanche " against Germany. He was one of the first advocates of a Franco-Russian alliance, and as early as 1883 undertook a journey to Russia for DERRICK— DERVISH 75 the furtherance of that object. On the rise of General Boulanger, M. Deroulede attempted to use the Ligue des patriotes, hitherto a non-political organization, to assist his cause, but was deserted by a great part of the league and forced to resign his presidency. Nevertheless he used the section that remained faithful to him with such effect that the government found it necessary in 1889 to decree its suppression. In the same year he was elected to the chamber as member for Angouleme. He was expelled from the chamber in 1890 for his disorderly interruptions during debate. He did not stand at the elections of 1803, but was re-elected in 1898, and distinguished himself by his violence as a nationalist and anti-Dreyfusard. After the funeral of President Faure, on the 23rd of February 1899, he endeavoured to persuade General Roget to lead his troops upon the Elys6e. For this he was arrested, but on being tried for treason was acquitted (May 31). On the 1 2th of August he was again arrested and accused, together with Andre Buffet, Jules Guerin and others, of conspiracy against the republic. After a long trial before the high court, he was sentenced, on the 4th of January 1900, to ten years' banishment from France, and retired to San Sebastian. In 1901, he was again brought prominently before the public by a quarrel with his Royalist allies, which resulted in an abortive attempt to arrange a duel with M. Buffet in Switzerland. In November 1905, however, the law of amnesty enabled him to return to France. Besides the works already mentioned, he published Le Sergent, in the The&tre de campagne (1880) ; De I'educalion naiionale (1882); Monsieur le Uhlan et les trois couleurs (1884); Le Premier grenadier de France; La Tour d'Auvergne (1886); Le Livre de la ligue des patriotes (1887); Refrains milUaires (1888); Histoire d 'amour (1890); a pamphlet entitled Dfsarmement? (1891); Chants du paysan (1894); PoSsies Militaires (1896) and Messire du Guesdin, drame en vers (1895); La mort de Hoche. Cinq actes en prose (1897); La Plus belle fille du monde, conte dialogue en vers litres (1898). DERRICK, a sort of crane (q.v.); the name is derived from that of a famous early 1 7th-century Tyburn hangman, and was originally applied as a synonym. DERRING-DO, valour, chivalrous conduct, or " desperate courage," as it is defined by Sir Walter Scott. The word in its present accepted substantival form is a misconstruction of the verbal substantive durryng or durring, daring, and do or don, the present infinitive of " do," the phrase dorryng do thus meaning " daring to do." It is used by Chaucer in Troylus, and by Lydgate in the Chronicles of Troy. Spenser in the Shepherd's Calendar first adapted derring-do as a substantive meaning " manhood and chevalrie," and this use was revived by Scott, through whom it came into vogue with writers of romance. DE RUYTER, MICHAEL ADRIANZOON (1607-1676), Dutch naval officer, was born at Flushing on the 24th of March 1607. He began his seafaring life at the age of eleven as a cabin boy, and in 1636 was entrusted by the merchants of Flushing with the command of a cruiser against the French pirates. • In 1640 he entered the service of the States, and, being appointed rear- admiral of a fleet fitted out to assist Portugal against Spain, specially distinguished himself at Cape St Vincent, on the 3rd of November 1641. In the following year he left the service of the States, and, until the outbreak of war with England in 1652, held command of a merchant vessel. In 1653 a squadron of seventy vessels was despatched against the English, under the command of Admiral Tromp. Ruyter, who accompanied the admiral in this expedition, seconded him with great skill and bravery in the three battles which were fought with the English. He was after- wards stationed in the Mediterranean, where he captured several Turkish vessels. In 1659 he received a commission to join the king of Denmark in his war with the Swedes. As a reward of his services, the king of Denmark ennobled him and gave him a pension. In 1661 he grounded a vessel belonging to Tunis, released forty Christian slaves, made a treaty with the Tunisians, and reduced the Algerine corsairs to submission. From his achievements on the west coast of Africa he was recalled in 1665 to take command of a large fleet which had been organized against England, and in May of the following year, after a long contest off the North Foreland, he compelled the English to take refuge in the Thames. On the 7th of Ju-ne 1672 he fought a drawn battle with the combined fleets of England and France, in Southwold or Sole Bay, and after the fight he convoyed safely home a fleet of merchantmen. His valour was displayed to equal advantage in several engagements with the French and English in the folio wing year. In i676he was despatched to the assistance of Spain against France in the Mediterranean, and, receiving a mortal wound in the battle on the 21st of April off Messina, died on the 29th at Syracuse. A patent by the king of Spain, investing him with the dignity of duke, did not reach the fleet till after his death. His body was carried to Amsterdam, where a magnificent monument to his memory was erected by command of the states-general. See Life of De Ruyter by Brandt (Amsterdam, 1687), and by Klopp (2nd ed., Hanover, 1858). DERVISH, a Persian word, meaning " seeking doors," i.e. " beggar," and thus equivalent to the Arabic faqir (fakir). Generally in Islam it indicates a member of a religious fraternity, whether mendicant or not; but in Turkey and Persia it indicates more exactly a wandering, begging religious, called, in Arabic- speaking countries, more specifically a faqir. With important differences, the dervish fraternities may be compared to the regular religious orders of Roman Christendom, while the Ulema (q.v.) are, also with important differences, like the secular clergy. The origin and history of the mystical life in Islam, which led to the growth of the order of dervishes, are treated under Sufi'ism. It remains to treat here more particularly of (1) the dervish fraternities, and (2) the Sufi hierarchy. 1. The Dervish Fraternities. — In the earlier times, the relation between devotees was that of master and pupil. Those inclined to the spiritual life gathered round a revered sheikh (murshid, "guide," usladh, pir, "teacher"), lived with him, shared his religious practices and were instructed by him. In time of war against the unbelievers, they might accompany him to the threatened frontier, and fight under his eye. Thus murdbil, " one who pickets his horse on a hostile frontier," has become the marabout (q.v.) or dervish of French Algeria; and ribat, " a frontier fort," has come to mean a monastery. The relation, also, might be for a time only. The pupil might at any time return to the world, when his religious education and training were complete. On the death of the master the memory of his life and sayings might go down from generation to generation, and men might boast themselves as pupils of his pupils. Con- tinuous corporations to perpetuate his name were slow in forming. Ghazali himself, though he founded, taught and ruled a Sufi cloister (khanqah) at Tus, left no order behind him. But 'Adi al-Hakkarl, who founded a cloister at Mosul and died about 1 163, was long reverenced by the 'Adawite Fraternity, and in 1166 died 'Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani, from whom the Qadirite order descends, one of the greatest and most influential to this day. The troublous times of the break up of the Seljuk rule may have been a cause in this, as, with St Benedict, the crumbling Roman empire. Many existing fraternities, it is true, trace their origin to saints of the third, second and even first Moslem centuries, but that is legend purely. Similar is the tendency to claim all the early pious Moslems as good Sufis; collections of Sufi biography begin with the ten to whom Mahomet promised Paradise. So, too, the ultimate origin of fraternities is assigned to either Ali or Abu Bekr. and in Egypt all are under the rule of a direct descendant of the latter. To give a complete list of these fraternities is quite impossible. Commonly, thirty-two are reckoned, but many have vanished or have been suppressed, and there are sub-orders innumerable. Each has a " rule " dating back to its founder, and a ritual which the members perform when they meet together in their convent (khanqah, zawiya, takya). This may consist simply in the repeti- tion of sacred phrases, or it may be an elaborate performance, such as the whirlings of the dancing dervishes, the Mevlevites, an order founded by Jelal ud-Dln ar-Rurnl, the author of the 7 6 DERWENT great Persian mystical poem, the Mesnevi, and always ruled by one of his descendants. Jelal ud-Din was an advanced pantheist, and so are the Mevlevites, but that seems only to earn them the dislike of the Ulema,- and not to affect their standing in Islam. They are the most broad-minded and tolerant of all. There are also the performances of the Rifa'ites or " howling dervishes." In ecstasy they cut themselves with knives; eat live coals and glass, handle red-hot iron and devour serpents. They profess miraculous healing powers, and the head of the Sa'dites, a sub- order, used, in Cairo, to ride over the bodies of his dervishes without hurting them, the so-called Doseh (dausa). These different abilities are strictly regulated. Thus, one sub-order may eat glass and another may eat only serpents. Another division is made by their attitude to the law of Islam. When a dervish is in a state of ecstasy (majdhub), he is supposed to be unconscious of the actions of his body. Reputed saints, therefore, can do practically anything, as their souls will be supposed to be out of their bodies and in the heavenly regions. They may not only commit the vilest of actions, but neglect in general the ceremonial and ritual law. This goes so far that in Persia and Turkey dervish orders are classified as bd-shar', " with law," and bi-shar, " without law." The latter are really antinomians, and the best example of them is the Bakhtashite order, widely spread and influential in Turkey and Albania and connected by legend with the origin of the Janissaries. The Qalandarite order is known to all from the " Calenders " of the Thousand and One Nights. They separated from the Bakhtashites and are under obligation of perpetual travelling. The Senussi (Senussia) were the last order to appear, and are distinguished from the others by a severely puritanic and reforming attitude and strict orthodoxy, without any admixture of mystical slackness in faith or conduct. Each order is distinguished by a peculiar garb. Candidates for admission have to pass through a noviciate, more or less lengthy. First comes the 'ahd, or initial covenant, in which the neophyte or murld, " seeker," repents of his past sins and takes the sheikh of the order he enters as his guide (murskid) for the future. He then enters upon a course of instruction and discipline, called a " path " (tariqa), on which he advances through diverse " stations " (tnaqdmdl) or " passes " {'aqabat) of the spiritual life. There is a striking resemblance here to the gnostic system, with its seven Archon-guarded gates. On another side, it is plain that the sheikh, along with ordinary instruction of the novice, also hypnotizes him and causes him to see a series of visions, marking his penetration of the divine mystery. The part that hypnosis and autohypnosis, conscious and unconscious, has played here cannot easily be overestimated. The Mevlevites seem to have the most severe noviciate. Their aspirant has to labour as a lay servitor of the lowest rank for iooi days — called the karrd kolak, or " jackal " — before he can be received. For one day's failure he must begin again from the beginning. But besides these full members there is an enormous number of lay adherents, like the tertiaries of the Franciscans. Thus, nearly every religious man of the Turkish Moslem world is a lay member of one order or another, under the duty of saying certain prayers daily. Certain trades, too, affect certain orders. Most of the Egyptian Qadirites, for example, are fishermen and, on festival days, carry as banners nets of various colours. On this side, the orders bear a striking resemblance to lodges of Freemasons and other friendly societies, and points of direct contact have even been alleged between the more pantheistic and antinomian orders, such as the Bakhtashite, and European Freemasonry. On another side, just as the dhikrs of the early ascetic mystics suggest comparison with the class-meetings of the early Methodists, so these orders are the nearest approach in Islam to the different churches of Protestant Christendom. They are the only ecclesiastical organization that Islam has ever known, but it is a multiform organization, unclassified internally or externally. They differ thus from the Roman monastic orders, in that they are independent and self-developing, each going its own way in faith and practice, limited only by the universal conscience (ijmd', "agreement": see Mahommedan Law) of Islam. Strange doctrines and moral defects may develop, but freedom is saved, and the whole people of Islam can be reached and affected. 2. Saints and the Sufi Hierarchy. — That an elaborate doctrine of wonder-working saints should have grown up in Islam may, at first sight, appear an extreme paradox. It can, however, be conditioned and explained. First, Mahomet left undoubted loop-holes for a minor inspiration, legitimate and illegitimate. Secondly, the Sufis, under various foreign influences, developed these to the fullest. Thirdly, just as the Christian church has absorbed much of the mythology of the supposed exterminated heathen religions into its cult of local saints, so Islam, to an even higher degree, has been overlaid and almost buried by the superstitions of the peoples to which it has gone. Their religious and legal customs have completely overcome the direct commands of the Koran, the traditions from Mahomet and even the " Agreement " of the rest of the Moslem world (see Mahommedan Law). The first step in this, it is true, was taken by Mahomet himself when he accepted the Meccan pilgrimage and the Black Stone. The worship of saints, therefore, has appeared everywhere in Islam, with an absolute belief in their miracles and in the value of their intercession, living or dead. Further, there appeared very early in Islam a belief that there was always in existence some individual in direct intercourse with God and having the right and duty of teaching and ruling all mankind. This individual might be visible or invisible; his right to rule continued. This is the basis of the Isma'Ilite and Shl'ite positions (see Mahommedan Religion and Mahommedan Institutions). The Sufis applied this idea of divine right to the doctrine of saints, and developed it into the Sufi hierarchy. This is a single, great, invisible organization, forming a saintly board of administration, by which the invisible government of the world is supposed to be carried on. Its head is called the Qutb (Axis); he is presumably the greatest saint of the time, is chosen by God for the office and given greater miraculous powers and rights of intercession than any other saint enjoys. He wanders through the world, often invisible and always unknown, performing the duties of his office. Under him there is an elaborate organization of walls, of different ranks and powers, according to their sanctity and faith. The term wall is applied to a saint because of Kor. x. 63, " Ho! the waits of God; there is no fear upon them, nor do they grieve," where wall means " one who is near ," friend or favourite. In the fraternities, then," all are dervishes, cloistered or lay; those whose faith is so great that God has given them miraculous powers — and there are many — are walls; begging friars are fakirs. All forms of life — solitary, monastic, secular, celibate, married, wandering, stationary, ascetic, free — are open. Their theology is some form of Sufi'ism. Authorities. — The bibliography of this subject is very large, and the following only a selection: — (1) On Dervishes. In Egypt, Lane's Modern Egyptians, chaps, x. xx., xxiv., xxv. ; in Turkey, D'Ohsson, Tableau general de I'emp. othoman, ii. (Paris, 1790); Turkey in Europe by " Odysseus " (London, 1900) ; in Persia, E. G. Browne, A Year among the Persians (1893) , in Morocco, T. H. Weir, Sheikhs of Morocco (Edinburgh, 1904) ; B. Meakin, The Moors (London, 1902), chap. xix. ; in Central Asia, all Vambery's books of travel and history. In general, Hughes, Diet, of Islam, s.v. " Faqir "; Depont and Cappolani, Les Confreries religieuses musulmanes (Alger, 1897) I J. P. Brown, The Dervishes, or Oriental Spiritualism (London, 1868). (2) On Saints. I. Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien, ii. 277 ff., and " De l'ascetisme aux premiers temps de l'lslam " in Revue de I'histoire des religions, ;vol. xxxvii. pp. 134 ff. ; Lane, Modern Egyptians, chap. x. ; Arabian Nights, chap. iii. note 63; Vollers in Zeitsch. d. morgenland. Gesellsch. xliii. 115 ff. (D. B. Ma.) DERWENT (Celtic Dwr-gent, clear water), the name of several English rivers. (1) The Yorkshire Derwent collects the greater part of the drainage of the North Yorkshire moors, rising in their eastern part. A southern head-stream, however, rises in the Yorkshire Wolds near Filey, little more than a mile from the North Sea, from which it is separated by a morainic deposit, and thus flows in an inland direction. The early course of the Derwent lies through a flat open valley between the North Yorkshire moors and the Yorkshire Wolds, the upper part of which is known as the Carrs, when the river follows an artificial drainage cut. It receives numerous tributaries from the moors, then breaches the DERWENTWATER 77 low hills below Malton in a narrow picturesque ' valley, and debouches upon the central plain of Yorkshire. Its direction, hitherto westerly and south-westerly from the Carrs, now becomes southerly, and it flows roughly parallel to the Ouse, which it joins near Barmby-on-the-Marsh, in the level district between Selby and the head of the Humber estuary, after a course, excluding minor sinuosities, of about 70 m. As a tributary of the Ouse it is included in the Humber basin. It is tidal up to Sutton-upon-Derwent, 15 m. from the junction with the Ouse, and is locked up to Malton, but the navigation is little used. A canal leads east from the tidal water to the small market town of Pocklington. (2) The Derbyshire Derwent rises in Bleaklow Hill north of the Peak and traverses a narrow dale, which, with those of such tributary streams as the Noe, watering Hope Valley, and the Wye, is famous for its beauty (see Derbyshire). The Derwent flows south past Chatsworth, Matlock and Belper and then, passing Derby, debouches upon a low plain, and turns south-eastward, with an extremely sinuous course, to join the Trent near Sawley. Its length is about 60 m. It falls in all some 1 700 ft. (from Matlock 200 ft.), and no part is navigable, save certain reaches at Matlock and elsewhere for pleasure boats. (3) The Cumberland Derwent rises below Great End in the Lake District, draining Spinkling and Sty Head tarns, and flows through Borrowdale, receiving a considerable tributary from Lang Strath. It then drains the lakes of Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite, after which its course, hitherto N. and N.N.W., turns W. and W. by S. past Cockerrhouth to the Irish Sea at Workington. The length is about 34 m., and the fall about 2000 ft. (from Derwentwater 244 ft.); the waters are usually beautifully clear, and the river is not navigable. At a former period this stream must have formed one large lake covering the whole area which includes Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite; between which a flat alluvial plain is formed of the deposits of the river Greta, which now joins the Derwent from the east immediately below Derwentwater, and the Newlands Beck, which enters Bassenthwaite. In time of high flood this plain is said to have been submerged, and the two lakes thus reunited. (4) A river Derwent rises in the Pennines near the borders of Northumberland and Durham, and, forming a large part of the boundary between these counties, takes a north-easterly course of 30 m. to the Tyne, which it joins 3 m. above Newcastle. DERWENTWATER, EARL OF, an English title borne by the family of Radclyffe, or Radcliffe, from 1688 to 17 16 when the 3rd earl was attainted and beheaded, and claimed by his descendants, adherents of the exiled house of Stewart, from that date until the death of the last male heir in 1814. Sir Francis Radclyffe, 3rd baronet (1625-1697), was the lineal descendant of Sir Nicholas Radclyffe, who acquired the extensive Derwent- water estates in 141 7 through his marriage with the heiress of John de Derwentwater, and of Sir Francis Radclyffe, who was made a baronet in 1619. In 1688 Sir Francis was created Viscount Radclyffe and earl of Derwentwater by James II., and dying in 1697 was succeeded as 2nd earl by his eldest son Edward (1655-1705), who had married Lady Mary Tudor (d. 1726), a natural daughter of Charles II. The 2nd earl died in 1705, and was succeeded by his eldest son James (1689-1716), who was born in London on the 28th of June 1689, and was brought up at the court of the Stewarts in France as companion to Prince James Edward, the old Pretender. In 17 10 he came to reside on his English estates, and in July 171 2 was married to Anna Maria (d. 1723), daughter of Sir John Webb, baronet, of Odstock, Wiltshire. Joining without any hesitation in the Stewart rising of 171 5, Derwentwater escaped arrest owing to the devotion of his tenantry, and in October, with about seventy followers, he joined Thomas Forster at Green-rig. Like Forster the earl was lacking in military experience, and when the rebels capitulated at Preston he was conveyed to London and im- peached. Pleading guilty at his trial he was attainted and condemned to death. Great efforts were made to obtain a mitigation of the sentence, but the government was obdurate, and Derwentwater was beheaded on Tower Hill on the 24th of February 1716, declaring on the scaffold his devotion to the Roman Catholic religion and to King James III. The earl was very popular among his tenantry and in the neighbourhood of his residence, Dilston Hall. His gallant bearing and his sad fate have been celebrated in song and story, and the aurora borealis, which shone with exceptional brightness on the night of his execution, is known locally as " Lord Derwentwater's lights." He left an only son John, who, in spite of his father's attainder, assumed the title of earl of Derwentwater, and who died un- married in 1731; and a daughter Alice Mary (d. 1760), who married in 1732 Robert James, 8th Baron Petre (1713-1742). On the death of John Radclyffe in 1731 his uncle Charles (1693-1746), the only surviving son of the 2nd earl, took the title of earl of Derwentwater. Charles Radclyffe had shared the fate of his brother, the 3rd earl, at Preston in November 1715, and had been condemned to death for high treason; but, more fortunate than James, he had succeeded in escaping from prison, and had joined the Stewarts on the Continent. In 1724 he married Charlotte Maria (d. 1755), in her own right countess of Newburgh, and after spending some time in Rome, he was captured by an English ship in November 1745 whilst proceeding to join Charles Edward, the young Pretender, in Scotland. Condemned to death under his former sentence he was beheaded on the 8th of December 1 746. His eldest son, James Bartholomew (1725-1786), who had shared his father's imprisonment, then claimed the title of earl of Derwentwater, and on his mother's death in 1755 became 3rd earl of Newburgh. His only son and successor, Anthony James (1 757-1814), died without issue in 1 8 14, when the title became extinct de facto as well as de jure. Many of the forfeited estates in Northumberland and Cumberland had been settled upon Greenwich Hospital, and in 1 749 a sum of £30,000 had been raised upon them for the benefit of the earl of Newburgh. The present representative of the Radclyffe family is Lord Petre, and in 1874 the bodies of the first three earls of Derwentwater were reburied in the family vault of the Petres at Thorndon, Essex. In 1865 a woman appeared in Northumberland who claimed to be a grand-daughter of the 4th earl and, as there were no male heirs, to be countess of Derwentwater and owner of the estates. She said the 4th earl had not died in 1731 but had married and settled in Germany. Her story aroused some interest, and it was necessary to eject her by force from Dilston Hall. See R. Patten, History of the Late Rebellion (London, 1717) ; W. S. Gibson, Dilston Hall, or Memoirs of James Radcliffe, earl of Derwent- water (London, 1848-1850); G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage (Exeter, 1887-1898) ; and Dictionary of National Biography, vol. xlvii. (London, 1896). DERWENTWATER, a lake of Cumberland, England, in the northern part of the celebrated Lake District (q.v. for the physical relations of the lake with the district at large). It is of irregular figure, approaching to an oval, about 3 m. in length and from \ m. to ij m. in breadth. The greatest depth is 70 ft. The lake is seen at one view, within an amphitheatre of mountains of varied outline, overlooked by others of greater height. Several of the lesser elevations near the lake are especially famous as view-points, such as Castle Head, Walla Crag, Ladder Brow and Cat Bells. The shores are well wooded, and the lake is studded with several islands, of which Lord's Island, Derwent Isle and St Herbert's are the principal. Lord's Island was the residence of the earls of Derwentwater. St Herbert's Isle receives its name from having been the abode of a holy man of that name mentioned by Bede as contemporary with St Cuthbert of Fame Island in the 7th century. Derwent Isle, about six acres in extent, contains a handsome residence surrounded by lawns, gardens and timber of large growth. The famous Falls of Lodore, at the upper end of the lake, consist of a series of cascades in the small Watendlath Beck, which rushes over an enormous pile of protruding crags from a height of nearly 200 ft. The " Floating Island " appears at intervals on the upper portion of the lake near the mouth of the beck. This singular phenomenon is supposed to owe its appearance to an accumulation of gas, formed by the decay oi 78 DES ADRETS— DESAULT vegetable matter, detaching and raising to the surface the matted weeds which cover the floor of the lake at this point. The river Derwent (q.v.) enters the lake from the south and leaves it on the north, draining it through Bassenthwaite lake, to the Irish Sea. To the north-east of the lake lies the town of Keswick. DES ADRETS, FRANCOIS DE BEAUMONT, Baron (c. 1512- 1587), French Protestant leader, was born in 1512 or 1513 at the chateau of La Frette (Isere) . During the reign of Henry II. of France he served with distinction in the royal army and became colonel of the " legions " of Dauphine, Provence and Languedoc. In 1562, however, he joined the Huguenots, not from religious conviction but probably from motives of ambition and personal dislike of the house of Guise. His campaign against the Catholics in 1562 was eminently successful. In June of that year Des Adrets was master of the greater part of Dauphine. But his brilliant military qualities were marred by his revolting atrocities. The reprisals he exacted from the Catholics after their massacres of the Huguenots at Orange have left a dark stain upon his name. The garrisons that resisted him were butchered with every cir- cumstance of brutality, and at Montbrison, in Forez, he forced eighteen prisoners to precipitate themselves from the top of the keep. Having alienated the affections of the Huguenots by his pride and violence, he entered into communication with the Catholics, and declared himself openly in favour of conciliation. On the 10th of January 1563 he was arrested on suspicion by some Huguenot officers and confined in the citadel of Nimes. He was liberated at the edict of Amboise in the following March, and, distrusted alike by Huguenots and Catholics, retired to the chateau of La Frette, where he died, a Catholic, on the 2nd of February 1587. Authorities. — J. Roman, Documents inSdits sur le baron des Adrets (1878); and memoirs and histories of the time. See also Guy Allard, Vie de Francois de Beaumont (1675) ; l'abbe J. C. Martin, Histoire politique et militaire de Francois de Beaumont (1803) ; Eugene and Emile Haag, La France protestante (2nd ed., 1877 seq.). DESAIX DE VEYGOUX, LOUIS CHARLES ANTOINE (1768-1800), French general, was born of a noble though im- poverished family. He received a military education at the school founded by Marshal d'Effiat, and entered the French royal army. During the first six years of his service the young officer devoted himself assiduously to duty and the study of his profession, and at the outbreak of the Revolution threw himself whole-heartedly into the cause of liberty. In spite of the pressure put upon him by his relatives, he refused to " emigrate," and in 1792 is found serving on Broglie's staff. The disgrace of this general nearly cost young Desaix his life, but he escaped the guillotine, and by his conspicuous services soon drew upon himself the favour of the Republican government. Like many other members of the old ruling classes who had accepted the new order of things, the instinct of command, joined to native ability, brought Desaix rapidly to high posts. By 1794 he had attained the rank of general of division. In the campaign of 1795 he commanded Jourdan's right wing, and in Moreau's invasion of Bavaria in the following year he held an equally important command. In the retreat which ensued when the archduke Charles won the battles of Amberg and Wiirzburg (see French Revolutionary Wars) Desaix commanded Moreau's rearguard, and later the fortress of Kehl, with the highest distinction, and his name became a household word, like those of Bonaparte, Jourdan, Hoche, Marceau and Kleber. Next year his initial successes were interrupted by the Preliminaries of Leoben, and he procured for himself a mission into Italy in order to meet General Bonaparte, who spared no pains to captivate the brilliant young general from the almost rival camps of Germany. Provisionally appointed commander of the " Army of England," Desaix was soon transferred by Bonaparte to the expeditionary force intended for Egypt. It was his division which bore the brunt of the Mameluke attack at the battle of the Pyramids, and he crowned his reputation by his victories over Murad Bey in Upper Egypt. Amongst the fellaheen he acquired the significant appellation of the " Just Sultan." When his chief handed over the command to K16ber and prepared to return to France, Desaix was one of the small party selected to accompany the future emperor. But, from various causes, it was many months before he could join the new Consul. The campaign of 1800 was well on its way to the climax when Desaix at last reported himself for duty in Italy. He was immediately assigned to the command of a corps of two infantry divisions. Three days later (June 14), detached, with Boudet's division, at Rivalta, he heard the cannon of Marengo on his right. Taking the initiative he marched at once towards the sound, meeting Bonaparte's staff officer, who had come to recall him, half way on the route. He arrived with Boudet's division at the moment when the Austrians were victorious all along the line. Exclaiming, " There is yet time to win another battle! " he led his three regiments straight against the enemy's centre. At the moment of victory Desaix was killed by a musket ball. Napoleon paid a just tribute to the memory of one of the most brilliant soldiers of that brilliant time by erecting the monuments of Desaix on the Place Dauphine and the Place des Victoires in Paris. See F. Martha-Beker, Comte de Mons, Le General L. C. A. Desaix (Paris, 1852). DESAUGIERS, MARC ANTOINE MADELEINE (1772-1827), French dramatist and song-writer, son of Marc Antoine D6saugiers, a musical composer, was born at Frejus (Var) on the 17th of November 1772. He studied at the Mazarin college in Paris, where he had for one of his teachers the critic Julien Louis Geoffroy. He entered the seminary Saint Lazare with a view to the priesthood, but soon gave up his intention. In his nineteenth year he produced in collaboration with his father a light opera (1791) adapted from the MSdecin malgri lui of Moliere. During the Revolution he emigrated to St Domingo, and during the negro revolt he was made prisoner, barely escaping with his life. He took refuge in the United States, where he supported himself by teaching the piano. In 1 797 he returned to his native country, and in a very few years he became famous as a writer of comedies, operas and vaudevilles, which were produced in rapid succession at the Theatre des Varietes and the Vaudeville. He also wrote convivial and satirical songs, which, though different in character, can only worthily be compared with those of Beranger. He was at one time president of the Caveau, a con- vivial society whose members were then chiefly drawn from literary circles. He had the honour of introducing Beranger as a member. In 1815 Desaugiers succeeded Pierre Yves Barre as manager of the Vaudeville, which prospered under his manage- ment until, in 1820, the opposition of the Gymnase proved too strong for him, and he resigned. He died in Paris on the 9th of August 1827. Among his pieces maybe mentioned Le Valet d'emprunt (1807); Monsieur Vautour (181 1); and-Le Regne d'un terme et le termed'un regne, aimed at Napoleon. An edition of Desaugiers' Chansons et Poesies diverses appeared in 1827. A new selection with a notice by Alfred de Bougy appeared in 1858. See also Sainte-Beuve's Portraits contemporains, vol. v. DESAULT, PIERRE JOSEPH (1744-1795), French anatomist and surgeon, was born at Magny-Vernois (Haute Sa6ne) on the 6th of February 1744. He was destined for the church, but his own inclination was towards the study of medicine; and, after learning something from the barber-surgeon of his native village, he was settled as an apprentice in the military hospital of Belfort, where he acquired some knowledge of anatomy and military surgery. Going to Paris when about twenty years of age, he opened a school of anatomy in the winter of 1766, the success of which excited the jealousy of the established teachers and professors, who endeavoured to make him give up his lectures. In 1776 he was admitted a member of the corporation of surgeons; and in 1782 he was appointed surgeon-major to the hospital De la CharitS. Within a few years he was recognized as one of the leading surgeons of France. The clinical school of surgery which he instituted at the H6tel Dieu attracted great numbers of students, not only from every part of France but also from other countries; and he frequently had an audience of about 600. He introduced many improvements into the practice of surgery, as well as into the construction of various surgical DES BARREAUX— DESCARTES 79 instruments. In 1791 he established a Journal de chirurgerie, edited by his pupils, which was a record of the most interesting cases that had occurred in his clinical school, with the remarks which he had made upon them in the course of his lectures. But in the midst of his labours he became obnoxious to some of the revolutionists, and he was, on some frivolpus charge, denounced to the popular sections. After being twice examined, he was seized on the 28th of May 1 793 , while delivering a lecture, carried away from his theatre, and committed to prison in the Luxem- bourg. In three days, however, he was liberated, and permitted to resume his functions. He died in Paris on the 1st of June 1795, the story that his death was caused by poison being disproved by the autopsy carried out by his pupil, M. F. X. Bichat. A pension was settled on his widow by the republic. Together with Francois Chopart (1 743-1 795) he published a Traits des maladies chirurgicales (1779), and Bichat published a digest of his surgical doctrines in (Euvres chirurgicales de Desault (1 798-1 799). DES BARREAUX, JACQUES VALLEE, Sieur (1602-1673), French poet, was born in Paris in 1602. His great-uncle, Geoff roy-Va!16e, had been hanged in 1574 for the authorship of a book called Le FISau de la joy. His nephew appears to have inherited his scepticism, which on one occasion nearly cost him his life. The peasants of Touraine attributed to the presence of the unbeliever an untimely frost that damaged the vines, and proposed to stone him. His authorship of the sonnet on " Penitence," by which he is generally known, has been disputed. He had the further distinction of being the first of the lovers of Marion Delorme. He died at Chalon-sur-Saone on the 9th of May 1673. See Poesies de Des Barreaux (1904), edited by F. Lachevre. DESBOROUGH, JOHN (1608-1680), English soldier and politician, son of James Desborough of Eltisley, Cambridgeshire, and of Elizabeth Hatley of Over, in the same county, was baptized on the 13th of November 1608. He was educated for the law. On the 23rd of June 1636 he married Eltisley Jane, daughter of Robert Cromwell of Huntingdon, and sister of the future Protector. He took an active part in the Civil War when it broke out, and showed considerable military ability. In 1645 he was present as major in the engagement at Langport on the 10th of July, at Hambleton Hill on the 4th of August, and on the 10th of September he commanded the horse at the storming of Bristol. Later he took part in the operations round Oxford. In 1648 as colonel he commanded the forces at Great Yarmouth. He avoided all participation in the trial of the king in June 1649, being employed in the settlement of the west of England. He fought at Worcester as major-general and nearly captured Charles II. near Salisbury. After the establishment of the Commonwealth he was chosen, on the 17th of January 1652, a member of the committee for legal reforms. In 1653 he became a member of the Protectorate council of state, and a com- missioner of the treasury, and was appointed one of the four generals at sea and a commissioner for the army and navy. In 1654 he was made constable of St Briavel's Castle in Gloucester- shire. Next year he was appointed major-general over the west. He had been nominated a member of Barebones' parliament in 1653, and he was returned to the parliament of 1654 for Cambridgeshire, and to that of 1656 for Somersetshire. In July 1657 he became a member of the privy council, and in 1658 he accepted a seat in Cromwell's House of Lords. In spite of his near relationship to the Protector's family, he was one of the most violent opponents of the assumption by Cromwell of the royal title, and after the Protector's death, instead of supporting the interests and government of his nephew Richard Cromwell, he was, with Fleetwood, the chief instigator and organizer of the hostility of the army towards his administration, and forced him by threats and menaces to dissolve his parliament in April 1659. He was chosen a member of the council of state by the restored Rump, and made colonel and governor of Plymouth, but pre- senting with other officers a seditious petition from the army council, on the 5th of October, was about a week later dismissed. After the expulsion of the Rump by Fleetwood on the 13 th of October he was chosen by the officers a member of the new administration and commissary-general of the horse. The new military government, however, rested on no solid foundation, and its leaders quickly found themselves without any influence. Desborough himself became an object of ridicule, his regiment even revolted against him, and on the return of the Rump he was.ordered to quit London. At the restoration he was excluded from the act of indemnity but not included in the clause of pains and penalties extending to life and goods, being therefore only incapacitated from public employment. Soon afterwards he was arrested on suspicion of conspiring to kill the king and queen, but was quickly liberated. Subsequently he escaped to Holland, where he engaged in republican intrigues. Accordingly he was ordered home, in April 1666, on pain of incurring the charge of treason, and obeying was imprisoned in the Tower till February 1667, when he was examined before the council and set free. Desborough died in 1680. By his first wife, Cromwell's sister, he had one daughter and seven sons; he married a second wife in April 1658 whose name is unrecorded. Desborough was a good soldier and nothing more; and his only conception of govern- ment was by force and by the army. His rough person and manners are the constant theme of ridicule in the royalist ballads, and he is caricatured in Butler's Hudibras and in the Parable 0] the Lion and Fox. DESCARTES, RENE! (1596-1650), French philosopher, was born at La Haye, in Touraine, midway between Tours and Poitiers, on the 31st of March 1596, and died at Stockholm on the nth of February 1650. The house where he was born is still shown, and a mUairie about 3 m. off retains the name of Les Cartes. His family on both sides was of Poitevin .descent. Joachim Descartes, his father, having purchased a commission as counsellor in the parlement of Rennes, introduced the family into that demi-noblesse of the robe which, between the bourgeoisie and the high nobility, maintained a lofty rank in French society. He had three children, a son who afterwards succeeded to his father in the parlement, a daughter who married a M. du Crevis, and Rene, after whose birth the mother died. Descartes, known as Du Perron, from a small estate destined for his inheritance, soon showed an inquisitive mind. From 1604 to 1612 he studied at the school of La Fleche, which Henry IV. had lately founded and endowed for ye ^ s . the Jesuits. He enjoyed exceptional privileges; his feeble health excused him from the morning duties, and thus early he acquired the habit of reflection in bed, which clung to him throughout life. Even then he had begun to distrust the authority of tradition and his teachers. Two years before he left school he was selected as one of the twenty-four who went forth to receive the heart of Henry IV. as it was bome to its resting-place at La Fleche. At the age of sixteen he went home to his father, who was now settled at Rennes, and had married again. During the winter of 1612 he completed his preparations for the world by lessons in horsemanship and fencing; and then started as his own master to taste the pleasures of Parisian life. Fortunately he went to no perilous lengths; the worst we hear of is a passion for gaming. Here, too, he made the acquaintance of Claude Mydorge, one of the foremost mathematicians of France, and renewed an early intimacy with Marin Mersenne (g.v.), now Father Mersenne, of the order of Minim friars. The withdrawal of Mersenne in 1614 to a post in the provinces was the signal for Descartes to abandon social life and shut himself up for nearly two years in a secluded house of the faubourg St Germain. Accident betrayed the secret of his retirement; he was com- pelled to leave his mathematical investigations, and to take part in entertainments, where the only thing that chimed in with his theorizing reveries was the music. French politics were at that time characterized by violence and intrigue to such an extent that Paris was no fit place for a student, and there was little honourable prospect for a soldier. Accordingly, in May 1617, Descartes set out for the Netherlands and took service in the army of Prince Maurice of Orange. At Breda he enlisted as a volunteer, and the first and only pay which he accepted he kept: as a curiosity through life. There was a lull in the war, and the 8o DESCARTES Netherlands was distracted by the quarrels of Gomarists and Arminians. During the leisure thus arising, Descartes one day had his attention drawn to a placard in the Dutch tongue; as the language, of which he never became perfectly master, was then strange to him, he asked a bystander to interpret it into either French or Latin. The stranger, Isaac Beeckman, principal of the college of Dort, offered to do so into Latin, if the inquirer would bring him a solution of the problem, — for the advertise- ment was one of those challenges which the mathematicians of the age were accustomed to throw down to all comers, daring them to discover a geometrical mystery known as they fancied to themselves alone. Descartes promised and fulfilled; and a friendship grew up between him and Beeckman — broken only by the dishonesty of the latter, who in later years took credit for the novelty contained in a small essay on music (Compendium Musicae) which Descartes wrote at this period and entrusted to Beeckman. 1 After spending two years in Holland as a soldier in a period of peace, Descartes, in July 1610, attracted by the news of the impending struggle between the house of Austria and the Protestant princes, consequent upon the election of the palatine of the Rhine to the kingdom of Bohemia, set out for upper Germany, and volunteered into the Bavarian service. The winter of 1610, spent in quarters at Neuburg on the Danube, was the critical period in his life. Here, in his warm room {dans un poele), he indulged those meditations which afterwards led to the Discourse of Method. It was here that, on the eve of St Martin's day, he " was filled with enthusiasm, and discovered the founda- tions of a marvellous science." He retired to rest with anxious thoughts of his future career, which haunted him through the night in three dreams that left a deep impression on his mind. The date of his philosophical conversion is thus fixed to a day. But as yet he had only glimpses of a logical method which should invigorate the syllogism by the co-operation of ancient geometry and modern algebra. For during the year that elapsed before he left Swabia (and whilst he sojourned at Neuburg and Ulm), and amidst his geometrical studies, he would fain have gathered some knowledge of the mystical wisdom attributed to the Rosicrucians; but the Invisibles, as they called themselves, kept their secret. He was present at the battle of Weisser Berg (near Prague), where the hopes of the elector palatine were blasted (November 8, 1620), passed the winter with the army in southern Bohemia, and next year served in Hungary under Karl Bonaventura de Longueval, Graf von Buquoy or Boucquoi (1571-1621). On the death of this general Descartes quitted the imperial service, and in July 162 1 began a peaceful tour through Moravia, the borders of Poland, Pomerania, Brandenburg, Holstein and Friesland, from which he reappeared in February 1622 in Belgium, and betook himself directly to his father's home at Rennes in Brittany. At Rennes Descartes found little to interest him; and, after he had visited the maternal estate of which his father now put him in possession, he went to Paris, where he found the Rosi- crucians the topic of the hour, and heard himself credited with partnership in their secrets. A short visit to Brittany enabled him, with his father's consent, to arrange for the sale of his property in Poitou. The proceeds were invested in such a way at Paris as to bring him in a yearly income of between 6000 and 7000 francs (equal now to more than £500). Towards the end of the year Descartes was on his way to Italy. The natural phenomena of Switzerland, and the political complications in the Valtellina, where the Catholic inhabitants had thrown off the yoke of the Grisons and called in the Papal and Spanish troops to their assistance, delayed him some time; but he reached Venice in time to see the ceremony of the doge's wedlock with the Adriatic. After paying his vows at Loretto, he came to Rome, which was then on the eve of a year of jubilee — an occasion which Descartes seized to observe the variety of men and manners which the city then embraced within its walls. In the spring of 1625 1 It was only published after the author's death ; and of it, besides the French version, there exists an English translation " by a Person of Quality." he returned home by Mont Cenis, observing the avalanches,' instead of, as his relatives hoped, securing a post in the French army in Piedmont. For an instant Descartes seems to have concurred in the plan of purchasing a post at Chatellerault, but he gave up the idea, and settled in Paris (June 1625), in the quarter where he had sought seclusion before. By this time he had ceased to devote himself to pure mathematics, and in company with his friends Mersenne and Mydorge was deeply interested in the theory of the refraction of light, and in the practical work of grinding glasses of the best shape suitable for optical instruments. But all the while he was engaged with reflections on the nature of man, of the soul and of God, and for a while he remained invisible even to his most familiar friends. But their importunity made a hermitage in Paris impossible; a graceless friend even surprised the philosopher in bed at eleven in the morning meditating and taking notes. In disgust, Descartes started for the west to take part in the siege of La Rochelle, and entered the city with the troops (October 1628) . A meeting at which he was present after his return to Paris decided his vocation. He had expressed an opinion that the true art of memory was not to be gained by technical devices, but by a philosophical apprehension of things; and the cardinal de Berulle, the founder of the Congregation of the Oratory, was so struck by the tone of the remarks as to impress upon the speaker the duty of spending his life in the examination of truth. Descartes accepted the philosophic mission, and in the spring of 1629 he settled in Holland. His financial affairs he had entrusted to the care of the abb6 Picot, and as his literary and scientific representative he adopted Mersenne. Till 1649 Descartes lived in Holland. Thrice only did he revisit France — in 1644, 1647 and 1648. The first of these occasions was in order to settle family affairs after the death of his father in 1640. The second brief visit, in 1647, partly on literary, partly on family business, was signalized by the award of a pension of 3000 francs, obtained from the royal bounty by Cardinal Mazarin. The last visit in 1648 was less fortunate. A royal order summoned him to France for new honours — an additional pension and a permanent post — for his fame had by this time gone abroad, and it was the age when princes sought to attract genius and learning to their courts. But when Descartes arrived, he found Paris rent asunder by the civil war of the Fronde. He paid the costs of his royal parchment, and left without a word of reproach. The only other occasions on which he was out of the Netherlands were in 1630, when he made a flying visit to England to observe for himself some alleged magnetic phenomena, and in 1634, when he took an excursion to Denmark. During his residence in Holland he lived at thirteen different places, and changed his abode twenty-four times. In the choice of these spots two motives seem to have influenced him — the neighbourhood of a university or college, and the amenities of the situation. Among these towns were Franeker in Friesland, Harderwyk, Deventer, Utrecht, Leiden, Amersfoort, Amster- dam, Leeuwarden in Friesland. His favourite residences were Endegeest, Egmond op den Hoef and Egmond the Abbey (west of Zaandam). The time thus spent seems to have been on the whole happy, even allowing for warm discussions with the mathematicians and metaphysicians of France, and for harassing controversies in the Netherlands. Friendly agents — chiefly Catholic priests — were the intermediaries who forwarded his correspondence from Dort, Haarlem, Amsterdam and Leiden to his proper address, which he kept completely secret; and Father Mersenne sent him objections and questions. His health, which in his youth had been bad, improved. " I sleep here ten hours every night," he writes from Amsterdam, " and no care ever shortens my slumber." " I take my walk every day through the confusion of a great multitude with as much freedom and quiet as you could find in your rural avenues." 3 At his first coming to Franeker he arranged to get a cook acquainted with French cookery; but, 2 (Euvres, v. 255. * lb. vi. 199. DESCARTES 81 to prevent misunderstanding, it may be added that his diet was mainly vegetarian, and that he rarely drank wine. New friends gathered round him who took, a keen interest in his researches. Once only do we find him taking an interest in the affairs of his neighbours, — to ask pardon from the government for a homicide. 1 He continued the profession of his religion. Sometimes from curiosity he went to the ministrations of anabaptists, 2 to hear the preaching of peasants and artisans. He carried few books to Holland with him, but a Bible and the Summa of Thomas Aquinas were amongst them. 3 One of the recommendations of Egmond the Abbey was the free exercise there allowed to the Catholic religion. At Franeker his house was a small chateau, " separated by a moat from the rest of the town, where the mass could be said in safety." * And one motive in favour of accepting an invitation to England lay in the alleged leanings of Charles I. to the older church. The best account of Descartes's mental history during his life in Holland is contained in his letters, which extend over the whole period, and are particularly frequent in the latter half. The majority of them are addressed to Mersenne, and deal with problems of physics, musical theory (in which he took a special interest), and mathematics. Several letters between 1643 and 1649 are addressed to the princess Elizabeth, the eldest daughter of the ejected elector palatine, who lived at The Hague, where her mother maintained the semblance of a royal court. The princess was obliged to quit Holland, but kept up a philosophical corre- spondence with Descartes. It is to her that the Principles of Philosophy were dedicated; and in her alone, according to Descartes, were united those generally separated talents for metaphysics and for mathematics which are so characteristically co-operative in the Cartesian system. Two Dutch friends, Constantijn Huygens (von Zuylichem), father of the more celebrated Huygens, and Hoogheland, figure amongst the correspondents, not to mention various savants, professors and churchmen (particularly Jesuits). His residence in the Netherlands fell in the most prosperous and brilliant days of the Dutch state, under the stadtholdership of Frederick Henry (1625-1647). Abroad its navigators mono- polized the commerce of the world, and explored unknown seas; at home the Dutch school of painting reached its acme in Rembrandt (1607-1669); and the philological reputation of the country was sustained by Grotius, Vossius and the elder Heinsius. And yet, though Rembrandt's " Nightwatch " is dated the very year after the publication of the Meditations, not a word in Descartes breathes of any work of art or historical learning. The contempt of aesthetics and erudition is characteristic of the most typical members of what is known as the Cartesian school, especially Malebranche. Descartes was not in any strict sense a reader. His wisdom grew mainly out of his own reflections and experiments. The story of his disgust when he found that Queen Christina devoted some time every day to the study of Greek under the tuition of Vossius is at least true in substance. 6 It gives no evidence of science, he remarks, to possess a tolerable knowledge of the Roman tongue, such as once was possessed by the populace of Rome. 6 In all his travels he studied only the phenomena of nature and human life. He was a spectator rather than an actor on the stage of the world. He entered the army, merely because the position gave a vantage-ground from which to make his observations. In the political interests which these contests involved he took no part; his favourite disciple, the princess Elizabeth, was the daughter of the banished king, against whom he had served in Bohemia; and Queen Christina, his second royal follower, was the daughter of Gustavus Adolphus. Thus Descartes is a type of that spirit of science to which erudition and all the heritage of the past seem but elegant trifling. The science of Descartes was physics in all its branches, but especially as applied to physiology. Science, he says, may be compared to a tree; metaphysics is the root, physics is the trunk, and the three chief branches are mechanics, medicine and 1 CEuvres, viii. 59. 4 lb. vi. 123. 2 76. viii. 173. 5 76. x. 375. 3 lb. viii. 181. • lb. ix. 6. morals, — the three applications of our knowledge to the outward world, to the human body, and to the conduct of life. 7 Such then was the work that Descartes had in view in Holland. His residence was generally divided into two parts — one his workshop for science, the other his reception-room for society. " Here are my books," he is reported to have told a visitor, as he pointed to the animals he had dissected. He worked hard at his book on refraction, and dissected the heads of animals in order to explain imagination and memory, which he considered physical processes. 8 But he was not a laborious student. " I can say with truth," he writes to the princess Elizabeth, 9 " that the principle which I have always observed in my studies, and which I believe has helped me most to gain what knowledge I have, has been never to spend beyond a very few hours daily in thoughts which occupy the imagination, and a very few hours yearly in those which occupy the understanding, and to give all the rest of my time to the relaxation of the senses and the repose of the mind." But his expectations from the study of anatomy and physiology went a long way. " The conservation of health," he writes in 1646, " has always been the principal end of my studies." 10 In 1629 he asks Mersenne to take care of himself " till I find out if there is any means of getting a medical theory based on infallible demonstrations, which is what I am now inquiring." 11 Astronomical inquiries in connexion with optics, meteorological phenomena, and, in a word, the whole field of natural laws, excited his desire to explain them. His own observation, and the reports of Mersenne, furnished his data. Of Bacon's demand for observation and collection of facts he is an imitator; and he wishes (in a letter of 1632) that " some one would undertake to give a history of celestial phenomena after the method of Bacon, and describe the sky exactly as it appears at present, without introducing a single hypothesis." 12 He had several writings in hand during the early years of his residence in Holland, but the main work of this period was a physical doctrine of the universe which he termed The World. Shortly after his arrival he writes to Mersenne that it will prob- ably be finished in 1633, but meanwhile asks him not to disclose the secret to his Parisian friends. Already anxieties appear as to the theological verdict upon two of his fundamental views— the infinitude of the universe, and the earth's rotation round the sun. 13 But towards the end of year 1633 we find him writing as follows: — " I had intended sending you my World as a New Year's gift, and a fortnight ago I was still minded to send you a fragment of the work, if the whole of it could not be transcribed in time. But I have just been at Leyden and Amsterdam to ask after Galileo's cosmical system as I imagined I had heard of its being printed last year in Italy. I was told that it had been printed, but that every copy had been at the same time burnt at Rome, and that Galileo had been himself condemned to some penalty." 14 He has also seen a copy of Galileo's condemnation at Liege (September 20, 1633), with the words "although he professes that the [Copernican] theory was only adopted by him as a hypothesis." His friend Beeckman lent him a copy of Galileo's work, which he glanced through in his usual manner with other men's books; he found it good, and " failing more in the points where it follows received opinions than where it diverges from them." 15 The consequence of these reports of the hostility of the church led him to abandon all thoughts of publishing. The World was consigned to his desk; and although doctrines in all essential respects the same constitute the physical portion of his Principia, it was not till after the death of Descartes that fragments of the work, including Le Monde, or ? treatise on light, and the physiological tracts L' Homme and La Formation du foetus, were given to the world by his admirer Claude Clerselier (1614-1684) in 1664. Descartes was not disposed to be a martyr; he had a sincere respect for the church, and had no wish to begin an open conflict with established doctrines. In 1636 Descartes had resolved to publish some specimens of the fruits of his method, and some general observations on its 7 76. iii. 24. 10 lb. ix. 341. 13 lb. vi. 73. * lb. vi. 234. 11 lb. vi. 89. 14 lb. vi. 239, 9 lb. ix. 131. 12 76. vi. 210. i 6 76, vi. 248, 82 DESCARTES nature which, under an appearance of simplicity, might sow the good seed of more adequate ideas on the world and man. " I should be glad," he says, when talking of a publisher, 1 " if the whole book were printed in good type, on good paper, and I should like to have at least 200 copies for distribution. The book will contain four essays, all in French, with the general title of ' Project of a Universal science, capable of raising our nature to its highest perfection; also Dioptrics, Meteors and Geometry, wherein the most curious matters which the author could select as a proof of the universal science which he proposes are explained in such a way that even the unlearned may understand them.' " The work appeared anonymously at Leiden (published by Jean Maire) in 1637, under the modest title of Essais philosophiques; and the project of a universal science becomes the Diseours de la methode pour Men conduire sa raison et chercher la virile" dans les sciences. In 1644 it appeared in a Latin version, revised by Descartes, as Specimina philosophica. A work so widely circu- lated by the author naturally attracted attention, but in France it was principally the mathematicians who took it up, and their criticisms were more pungent than complimentary. Fermat, Roberval and Desargues took exception in their various ways to the methods employed in the geometry, and to the demonstra- tions of the laws of refraction given in the Dioptrics and Meteors. The dispute on the latter point between Fermat and Descartes was continued, even after the philosopher's death, as late as 1662. In the youthful Dutch universities the effect of the essays was greater. The first public teacher of Cartesian views was Henri Renery, a Belgian, who at Deventer and afterwards at Utrecht had introduced the new philosophy which he had learned Spread of f rom personal intercourse with Descartes. Renery slanism. on ty survived five years at Utrecht, and it was reserved for Heinrich Regius (van Roy) — who in 1638 had been appointed to the new chair of botany and theoretical medicine at Utrecht, and who visited Descartes at Egmond in order more thoroughly to learn his views — to throw down the gauntlet to the adherents of the old methods. With more eloquence than judgment, he propounded theses bringing into relief the points in which the new doctrines clashed with the old. The attack was opened by Gisbert Voet, foremost among the orthodox theo- logical professors and clergy of Utrecht. In 1639 he published a series of arguments against atheism, in which the Cartesian views were not obscurely indicated as perilous for the faith, though no name was mentioned. Next year he persuaded the magistracy to issue an order forbidding Regius to travel beyond the received doctrine. The magisterial views seem to have prevailed in the professoriate, which formally in March 1642 expressed its dis- approbation of the new philosophy as well as of its expositors. As yet Descartes was not directly attacked. Voet now issued, under the name of Martin Schoock, one of his pupils, a pamphlet with the title of Methodus novae philosophiae Renati Descartes, in which atheism and infidelity were openly declared to be the effect of the new teaching. Descartes replied to Voet directly in a letter, published at Amsterdam in 1643. He was summoned before the magistrates of Utrecht to defend himself against charges of irreligion and slander. What might have happened we cannot tell; but Descartes threw himself on the protection of the French ambassador and the prince of Orange, and the city magistrates, from whom he vainly demanded satisfaction in a dignified letter, 2 were snubbed by their superiors. About the same time (April 1645) Schoock was summoned before the university of Groningen, of which he was a member, and forthwith disavowed the more abusive passages in his book. So did the effects of the odium theologicum, for the meanwhile at least, die away. In the Discourse of Method Descartes had sketched the main points in his new views, with a mental autobiography which Discourse m isht explain their origin, and with some suggestions of Method, as to their applications. His second great work,. aadMedl- Meditations on the First Philosophy, which had been tatiocs. begun soon after his settlement in the Netherlands, expounded in more detail the foundations of his system, 1 CEuvres, vi. 276. 2 lb. ix. 250. laying especial emphasis on the priority of mind to body, and on the absolute and ultimate dependence of mind as well as body on the existence of God. In 1640 a copy of the work in manuscript was despatched to Paris, and Mersenne was requested to lay it before as many thinkers and scholars as he deemed desirable, with a view to getting their views upon its argument and doctrine. Descartes soon had a formidable list of objections to reply to. Accordingly, when the work was published at Paris in August 1 64 1, under the title of Meditationes de prima philosophia ubi de Dei existentia et animae immortalitate (though it was in fact not the immortality but the immateriality of the mind, or, as the second edition described it, animae humanae a cor pore distinctio, which was maintained), the title went on to describe the larger part of the book as containing various objections of learned men, with the replies of the author. These objections in the first edition are arranged under six heads: the first came from Caterus, a theologian of Louvain; the second and sixth are anonymous criticisms from various hands; whilst the third, fourth and fifth belong respectively to Hobbes, Arnauld and Gassendi. In the second edition appeared the seventh — objec- tions from Pere Bourdin, a Jesuit teacher of mathematics in Paris; and subsequently another set of objections, known as those of Hyperaspistes, was included in the collection of Descartes's letters. The anonymous objections are very much the statement of common-sense against philosophy; those of Caterus criticize the Cartesian argument from the traditional theology of the church; those of Arnauld are an appreciative inquiry into the bearings and consequences of the meditations for religion and morality; while those of Hobbes (q.v.) and Gassendi — both somewhat senior to Descartes and with a dogmatic system of their own already formed— are a keen assault upon the spiritualism of the Cartesian position from a generally " sensational " standpoint. The criticisms of the last two are the criticisms of a hostile school of thought; those of Arnauld are the difficulties of a possible disciple. In 1644 the third great work of Descartes, the Principia philosophiae, appeared at Amsterdam. Passing briefly over the conclusions arrived at in the Meditations, it deals in its second, third and fourth parts with the general It*™"' principles of physical science, especially the laws of motion, with the theory of vortices, and with the phenomena of heat, light, gravity, magnetism, electricity, &c, upon the earth. This work exhibits some curious marks of caution. Undoubtedly, says Descartes, the world was in the beginning created in all its perfection. "But yet as it is best, if we wish to understand the nature of plants or of men, to consider how they may by degrees proceed from seeds, rather than how they were created by God in the beginning of the world, so, if we can excogitate some extremely simple and comprehensible principles, out of which, as if they were seeds, we can prove that stars, and earth and all this visible scene could have originated, although we know full well that they never did originate in such a way, we shall in that way expound their nature far better than if we merely described them as they exist at present." 3 The Copernican theory is rejected in name, but retained in substance. The earth, or other planet, does not actually move round the sun; yet it is carried round the sun in the subtle matter of the great vortex, where it lies in equilibrium, — carried like the passenger in a boat, who may cross the sea and yet not rise from his berth. In 1647 the difficulties that had arisen at Utrecht were repeated on a smaller scale at Leiden. There the Cartesian innovations had found a patron in Adrian Heerebord, and were openly discussed in theses and lectures. The theological professors took the alarm at passages in the Meditations; an attempt to prove the existence of God savoured, as they thought, of atheism anc heresy. When Descartes complained to the authorities of this unfair treatment, 4 the only reply was an order by which all mention of the name of Cartesianism, whether favourable or adverse, was forbidden in the university. This was scarcely what Descartes wanted, and again he had to apply to the prince of Orange, whereupon the theologians were asked to behave with 3 Princip. L. iii. S. 45. * CEuvres, x. 26. DESCARTES 83 civility, and the name of Descartes was no longer proscribed. But other annoyances were not wanting from unfaithful disciples and unsympathetic critics. The Instantiae of Gassendi appeared at Amsterdam in 1644 as a reply to the reply which Descartes had published of his previous objections; and the publication by Heinrich Regius of his work on physical philosophy (Fundamenta physices, 1646) gave the world to understand that he had ceased to be a thorough adherent of the philosophy which he had so enthusiastically adopted. It was about 1648 that Descartes lost his friends Mersenne and Mydorge by death. The place of Mersenne as his Parisian representative was in the main taken by Claude Clerselier (the French translator of the Objections and Responses), whom he had become acquainted with in Paris. Through Clerselier he came to know Pierre Chanut, who in 1645 was sent as French ambassador to the court of Sweden. Queen Christina was not yet twenty, and took a lively if a somewhat whimsical interest in literary and philosophical culture. Through Chanut, with whom she was on terms of familiarity, she came to hear of Descartes, and a correspondence which the latter nominally carried on with the ambassador was in reality intended for the eyes of the queen. The correspondence took an ethical tone. It began with a long letter on love in all its aspects (February 1647) >' a topic suggested by Chanut, who had been discussing it with the queen; and this was soon followed by another to Christina herself on the chief good. An essay on the passions of the mind (Passions de I'ame), which had been written originally for the princess Elizabeth, in development of some ethical views suggested by the De vita beata of Seneca, was enclosed at the same time for Chanut. It was a draft of the work published in 1650 under the same title. Philosophy, particularly that of Descartes, was becoming a fashionable divertissement for the queen and her courtiers, and it was felt that the presence of the sage himself was necessary to complete the good work of education. An invitation to the Swedish court was urged upon Descartes, and after much hesitation accepted; a vessel of the royal navy was ordered to wait upon him, and in September 1649 he left Egmond for the north. The position on which he entered at Stockholm was unsuited for a man who wished to be his own master. The young queen wanted Descartes to draw up a code for a proposed ea ' academy of the sciences, and to give her an hour of philosophic instruction every morning at five. She had already determined to create him a noble, and begun to look out an estate in the lately annexed possessions of Sweden on the Pomeranian coast. But these things were not to be. His friend Chanut fell dangerously ill; and Descartes, who devoted himself to attend in the sick-roonij was obliged to issue from it every morning in the chill northern air of January, and spend an hour in the palace library. The ambassador recovered, but Descartes fell a victim to the same disease, inflammation of the lungs. The last time he saw the queen was on the 1st of February 1650, when he handed to her the statutes he had drawn up for the proposed academy. On the 1 ith of February he died. The queen wished to bury him at the feet of the Swedish kings, and to raise a costly mausoleum in his honour; but' these plans were overruled, and a plain monument in the Catholic cemetery was all that marked the place of his rest. Sixteen years after his death the French treasurer d'Alibert made arrangements for the conveyance of the ashes to his native land; and in 1667 they were interred in the church of Ste Genevieve du Mont, the modern Pantheon. In 1819, after being temporarily deposited in a stone sarcophagus in the court of the Louvre during the Revolutionary epoch, they were transferred to St Germain-des-Pres, where they now repose between Montfaucon and Mabillon. A monument was raised to his memory at Stockholm by Gustavus III.; and a modern statue has been erected to him at Tours, with an inscription on the pedestal: " Je pense, done je suis." Descartes never married, and had little of the amorous in his temperament. He has alluded to a. childish fancy for a young girl with a slight obliquity of vision; but he only mentions it 1 CEuvres, x. 3. a propos of the consequent weakness which led him ta associate such a defect with beauty. 2 In person he was small, with large head, projecting brow, prominent nose, and eyes wide apart, with black hair coming down almost to his eyebrows. His voice was feeble. He usually dressed in black, with unobtrusive propriety. Philosophy. — The end of all study, says Descartes, in one of his earliest writings, ought to be to guide the mind to form true and sound judgments on every thing that may be presented to it. 3 The sciences in their totality are but the intelligence of man; and all the details of knowledge have no value save as they strengthen the understanding. The mind is not for the sake of knowledge, but knowledge for the sake of the mind. This is the reassertion of a principle which the middle ages had lost sight of — that knowledge, if it is to have any value, must be intelligence, and not erudition. But how is intelligence, as opposed to erudition, possible? The answer to that question is the method of Descartes. That idea of a method grew up with his study of geometry _ and arithmetic, — the only branches of knowledge mattes. which he would allow to be " made sciences." But they did not satisfy his demand for intelligence. " I found in them," he says, " different propositions on numbers of which, after a calculation, I perceived the truth; as for the figures, I had, so to speak, many truths put before my eyes, and many others concluded from them by analogy; but it did not seem to me that they told my mind with sufficient clearness why the things were as I was shown, and by what means their discovery was attained." 4 The mathematics of which he thus speaks included the geometry of the ancients, as it had been handed down to the modern world, and arithmetic with the developments it had received in the direction of algebra. The ancient geometry, as we know it, is a wonderful monument of ingenuity — a series of tours de force, in which each problem to all appearance stands alone, and, if solved, is solved by methods and principles peculiar to itself. Here and there particular curves, for example, had been obliged to yield the secret of their tangent; but the ancient geometers apparently had no consciousness of the general bearings of the methods which they so successfully applied. Each problem was something unique; the elements of transition from one to another were.Jvanting; and the next step which mathematics had to make was to find some method of reducing, for instance, all curves to a common notation. When that was found, the solution of one problem would immediately entail the solution of all others which belonged to the same series as itself. The arithmetical half of mathematics, which had been gradually growing into algebra, and had decidedly established itself as such in the Ad logisticen speciosam notae prior es of Francois Vieta (1540-1603), supplied to some extent the means of generalizing geometry." And the algebraists or arithmeticians of the 16th century, such as Luca Pacioli (Lucas de Borgo), Geronimo or Girolamo Cardano (1501-1576), and Niccola Tartaglia (1506- 1559), had used geometrical constructions to throw light on the solution of particular equations. But progress was made difficult, in consequence of the clumsy and irregular nomenclature employed. With Descartes the use of exponents as now employed for denoting the powers of a quantity becomes systematic; and without some such step by which the homogeneity of successive powers is at once recognized, the binomial theorem could scarcely have been detected. The restriction of the early letters of the alphabet to known, and of the late letters to unknown, quantities is also his work. In this and other details he crowns and com- pletes, in a form henceforth to be dominant for the language of algebra, the work of numerous obscure predecessors, such as Etienne de la Roche, Michael Stifel or Stiefel (1487-1567), and others. Having thus perfected the instrument, his next step was to apply it in such a way as to bring uniformity of method into the isolated and independent operations of geometry. " I had no intention," 6 he says in the Method., " of attempting to master all 1 Regulae, CEuvres, xi. 202. 6 Disc, de methode, part ii. 2 lb. x. 53. 4 CEuvres, id. 219. 8 4 DESCARTES the particular sciences commonly called mathematics; but as I observed that, with all differences in their objects, they agreed in considering merely the various relations or proportions subsisting among these objects, I thought it best for my purpose to consider these relations in the most general form possible, without refer- ring them to any objects in particular except such as would most facilitate the knowledge of them. Perceiving further, that in order to understand these relations I should sometimes have to consider them one by one, and sometimes only to bear them in mind or embrace them in the aggregate, I thought that, in order the better to consider them individually, I should view them as subsisting between straight lines, than which I could find no objects more simple, or capable of being more distinctly repre- sented to my imagination and senses; and on the other hand that, in order to retain them in the memory or embrace an aggregate of many, I should express them by certain characters, the briefest possible." Such is the basis of the algebraical or modern analytical geometry. The problem of the curves is solved by their reduction to a problem of straight lines; and the locus of any point is determined by its distance from two given straight lines — the axes of co-ordinates. Thus Descartes gave to modern geometry that abstract and general character in which consists its superiority to the geometry of the ancients. In another question connected with this, the problem of drawing tangents to any curve, Descartes was drawn into a controversy with Pierre (de) Fermat (1601-1663), Gilles Persone de Roberval (1602-1675), and Girard Desargues (1593-1661). Fermat and Descartes agreed in regarding the tangent to a curve as a secant of that curve with the two points of intersection coinciding, while Roberval regarded it as the direction of the composite movement by which the curve can be described. Both these methods, differing from that now employed, are interesting as preliminary steps towards the method of fluxions and the differential calculus. In pure algebra Descartes expounded and illustrated the general methods of solving equations up to those of the fourth degree (and believed that his method could go beyond), stated the law which connects the positive and negative roots of an equation with the changes of sign in the consecutive terms, and introduced the method of indeterminate coefficients for the solution of equations. 1 These innovations have been attributed on in- adequate evidence to other algebraists, e.g. William Oughtred (1575-1660) and Thomas Harriot (1560-1621). The Geometry of Descartes, unlike the other parts of his essays, is not easy reading. It dashes at once into the middle of the subjects with the examination of a problem which had baffled the ancients, and seems as if it were tossed at the heads of the French geometers as a challenge. An edition of it ap- peared subsequently, with notes by his friend Florimond de Beaune (1601-1652), calculated to smooth the difficulties of the work. All along mathematics was regarded by' Descartes rather as the envelope than the foundation of his method; and the " universal mathematical science " which he sought after was only the prelude of a universal science of all-embracing character. 2 The method of Descartes rests upon the proposition that all the objects of our knowledge fall into series, of which the members ( are more or less known by means of one another. In method. every such series or group there is a dominant element, simple and irresoluble, the standard on which the rest of the series depends, and hence, so far as that group or series is concerned, absolute. The other members of the group are relative and dependent, and only to be understood as in various degrees subordinate to the primitive conception. The characteristic by which we recognize the fundamental element in a series is its intuitive or self-evident character; it is given by " the evident conception of a healthy and attentive mind so clear and distinct that no doubt is left." 3 Having discovered this prime or absolute member of the group, we proceed to consider the degrees in which the other members enter into relation with it. Here deduction comes into play to show the dependence of one term upon the others; and, in the case of a long chain of intervening links, the 1 Geomitr ie, book iii. ' (Euvres, xi. 224. * lb. xi. 212. problem for intelligence is so to enunciate every element, and sc to repeat the connexion that we may finally grasp all the links of the chain in one. In this way we, as it were, bring the causal or primal term and its remotest dependent immediately together, and raise a derivative knowledge into one which is primary and intuitive. Such are the four points of Cartesian method: — (1) Truth requires a clear and distinct conception of its object, excluding all doubt; (2) the objects of knowledge naturally fall into series or groups; (3) in these groups investigation must begin with a simple and indecomposable element, and pass from it to the more complex and relative elements; (4) an exhaustive and immediate grasp of the relations and interconnexion of these elements is necessary for knowledge in the fullest sense of that word. 4 " There is no question," he says in anticipation of Locke and Kant, " more important to solve than that of knowing what human knowledge is and how far it extends." " This is a question which ought to be asked at least once in their lives by all who seriously wish to gain wisdom. The inquirer will find that the first thing to know is intellect, because on it depends the knowledge of all other things. Examining next what immediately follows the knowledge of pure intellect, he will pass in review all the other means of knowledge, and will find that they are two (or three) , the imagination and the senses (and the memory) . He will therefore devote all his care to examine and distinguish these three means of knowledge; and seeing that truth and error can, properly speaking, be only in the intellect, and that the two other modes of knowledge are only occasions, he will carefully avoid whatever can lead him astray." 6 This separation of intellect from sense, imagination and memory is the cardinal precept of the Cartesian logic; it marks off clear and distinct (i.e. adequate and vivid) from obscure, fragmentary and incoherent conceptions. The Discourse of Method and the Meditations apply what the Rules for the Direction of the Mind had regarded in particular instances to our conceptions of the world as a whole. p ua( / a . They propose, that is, to find a simple and indecom- mental posable point, or absolute element, which gives to the principles world and thought their order and systematization. 0/ P* /to ' The grandeur of this attempt is perhaps unequalled in sophy ' the annals of philosophy. The three main steps in the argument are the veracity of our thought when that thought is true to itself, the inevitable uprising of thought from its fragmentary aspects in our habitual consciousness to the infinite and perfect existence which God is, and the ultimate reduction of the material universe to extension and local movement. There are the central dogmas of logic, metaphysics and physics, from which start the subsequent inquiries of Locke, Leibnitz and Newton. They are also the direct antitheses to the scepticism of Montaigne and Pascal, to the materiaiism of Gassendi and Hobbes, and to the superstitious anthropomorphism which defaced the reawakening sciences of nature. Descartes laid down the lines on which modern philosophy and science were to build. But himself no trained metaphysician, and unsusceptible to the lessons of history, he gives but fragments of a system which are held together, not by their intrinsic consistency, but by the Vigour of his personal conviction transcending the weaknesses and collisions of his several arguments. " All my opinions," he says, " are so conjoined, and depend so closely upon one another, that it would be impossible to appropriate one without knowing them all." 6 Yet every disciple of Cartesianism seems to disprove the dictum by his example. The very moment when we begin to think, says Descartes, when we cease to be merely receptive, when we draw back and fix our attention on any point whatever of our belief, — that moment doubt begins. If we even stop for an instant to ask ourselves how a word ought to be spelled, the deeper we ponder that one word by itself the more hopeless grows the hesitation. The doubts thus awakened must not be stifled, but pressed systematically on to the point, if such a point there be, where ■doubt confutes itself. The doubt as to the details is natural; it *Disc. de mithode, part. ii. 6 CEuv res, xi. 243. 'lb. vii. 381. DESCARTES 85 Cogtto ergo sum. is no less natural to have recourse to authority to silence the doubt. The remedy proposed by Descartes is (while not neglect- ing our duties to others, ourselves and God) to let doubt range unchecked through the whole fabric of our customary convictions. One by one they refuse to render any reasonable account of themselves; each seems a mere chance, and the whole tends to elude us like a mirage which some malignant power creates for our illusion. Attacked in detail, they vanish one after another into as many teasing spectra of uncertainty. We are seeking from them what they cannot give. But when we have done our worst in unsettling them, we come to an ultimate point in the fact that it is we who are doubting, we who are thinking. We may doubt that we have hands or feet, that we sleep or wake, and that there is a world of material things around us; but we cannot doubt that we are doubting. We are certain that we are thinking, and in so far as we are thinking we are. Je pense, done je suis. In other words, the criterion of truth is a clear and distinct conception, excluding all pos- sibility of doubt. The fundamental point thus established is the veracity of consciousness when it does not go beyond itself, or does not postulate something which is external to itself. At this point Gassendi arrested Descartes and addressed his objections to him as pure intelligence,— O mens! But even this mens, or mind, is but a point — we have found no guarantee as yet for its continuous existence. The analysis must be carried deeper, if we are to gain any further conclusions. Amongst the elements of our thought there are some which we can make and unmake at our pleasure; there are others which come and go without our wish; there is also a third class which is of the very essence of our thinking, and which dominates our conceptions. We find that all our ideas of limits, sorrows and weaknesses presuppose an infinite, perfect and ever-blessed something beyond them and including them, — that all our ideas, in all their series, converge to one central idea, in which they find their explanation. The formal fact of thinking is what constitutes our being; but this thought leads us back, when we consider its concrete contents, to the necessary pre-supposition on which our ideas depend, the permanent cause on which they and we as conscious beings depend. We have therefore the idea of an in- finite, perfect and all-powerful being — an idea which cannot be the creation of ourselves, and must be given by some being who really possesses all that we in idea attribute to him. Such a being he identifies with God. But the ordinary idea of God can scarcely be identified with such a conception. " The majority of men," he says himself, " do not think of God as an infinite and incomprehensible being, and as the sole author from whom all things depend; they go no further than the letters of his name." 1 " The vulgar almost imagine him as a finite thing." ofaod. The God of Descartes is not merely the creator of the material universe; he is also the father of all truth in the intellectual world. " The metaphysical truths," he says, " styled eternal have been established by God, and, like the rest of his creatures, depend entirely upon him. To say that these truths are independent of him is to speak of God as a Jupiter or a Saturn, — to subject him to Styx and the Fates." 2 The laws of thought, the truths of number, are the decrees of God. The expression is anthropomorphic, no less than the dogma of material creation; but it is an attempt to affirm the unity of the intellectual and the material world. Descartes establishes a philosophic monotheism, — by which the medieval polytheism of substantial forms, essences and eternal truths fades away before God, who is the ruler of the intellectual world no less than of the kingdom of nature and of grace. To attach a clear and definite meaning to the Cartesian doctrine of God, to show how much of it comes from the Christian theology and how much from the logic of idealism, how far the conception of a personal being as creator and preserver mingles with the pantheistic conception of an infinite and perfect some- thing which is all in all, would be to go beyond Descartes and to ask for a solution of difficulties of which he was 1 (Euvres, vi. 132. ! lb. vi. 109. scarcely aware. It seems impossible to deny that the tendency of his principles and his arguments is mainly in the line of a metaphysical absolute, as the necessary completion and founda- tion of all being and knowledge. Through the truthfulness of that God as the author of all truth he derives a guarantee for our perceptions in so far as these are clear and distinct. And it is in guaranteeing the veracity of our clear and distinct conceptions that the value of his deduction of God seems in his own estimate to rest. All conceptions which do not possess these two attri- butes—of being vivid in themselves and discriminated from all others — cannot be true. But the larger part of our conceptions are in such a predicament. We think of things not in the abstract elements of the things themselves, but in connexion with, and in language which presupposes, other things. Our idea of body, e.g., involves colour and weight, and yet when we try to think carefully, and without assuming anything, we find that we cannot attach any distinct idea to these terms when applied to body. In truth therefore these attributes do not belong to body at all; and if we go on in the same way testing the received qualities of matter, we shall find that in the last resort we understand nothing by it but extension, with the secondary and derivative characters of divisibility and mobility. But it would again be useless to ask how extension as the characteristic attribute of matter is related to mind which thinks, and how God is to be regarded in reference to extension. The force of the universe is swept up and gathered in God, who com- municates motion to the parts of extension, and sustains that motion from moment to moment; and in the same way the force of mind has really been concentrated in God. Every moment one expects to find Descartes saying with Hobbes that man's thought has created God, or with Spinoza and Malebranche that it is God who really thinks in the apparent thought of man. After all, the metaphysical theology of Descartes, however essential in his own eyes, serves chiefly as the ground for constructing his theory of man and of the universe. His fundamental hypothesis relegates to God all forces in their ultimate origin. Hence the world is left open for the free play of mechanics and geometry. The dis- turbing conditions of will, life and organic forces are eliminated from the problem; he starts with the clear and distinct idea of extension, figured and moved, and thence by mathematical laws he gives a hypothetical explanation of all things. Such ex- planationof physical phenomena is themain problemof Descartes, and it goes on encroaching upon territories once supposed proper to the mind. Descartes began with the certainty that we are thinking beings; that region remains untouched; but up to its very borders the mechanical explanation of nature reigns unchecked. The physical theory, in its earlier form in The World, and later in the Principles of Philosophy (which the present account follows), rests upon the metaphysical conclusions of the Meditations. It proposes to set forth the genesis of the theory! existing universe from principles which can be plainly understood, and according to the acknowledged laws of the trans- mission of movement. The idea of force is one of those obscure conceptions which originate in an obscure region, in the sense of muscular power. The true physical conception is motion, the ultimate ground of which is to be sought in God's infinite power. Accordingly the quantity of movement in the universe, like its mover, can neither increase nor diminish. The only circum- stance which physics has to consider is the transference of move- ment from one particle to another, and the change of its direction. Man himself cannot increase the sum of motion; he can only alter its direction. The whole conception of force may disappear from a theory of the universe; and we can adopt a geometrical definition of motion as the shifting of one body from the neigh- bourhood of those bodies which immediately touch it, and which are assumed to be at rest, to the neighbourhood of other bodies. Motion, in short, is strictly locomotion, and nothing else: Descartes has laid down three laws of nature, and seven secondary laws regarding impact. The latter are to a large extent incorrect. The first law affirms that every body, so far as it is altogether unaffected by extraneous causes, always 86 DESCARTES perseveres in the same state of motion or of rest; and the second law that simple or elementary motion is always in a straight line. 1 These doctrines of inertia, and of the composite character of curvilinear motion, were scarcely apprehended even by Kepler or Galileo; but they follow naturally from the geometrical analysis of Descartes. Extended body has no limits to its extent, though the power of God has divided it in lines discriminating its parts in endless ways. The infinite universe is infinitely full of matter. Empty space, as distinguished from material extension, is a fictitious abstraction. There is no such thing really as a vacuum, any more than there are atoms or ultimate indivisible particles. In both these doctrines of d, priori science Descartes has not been subverted, but, if anything, corroborated by the results of experimental physics; for the so-called atoms of chemical theory already presuppose, from the Cartesian point of view, certain aggregations of the primitive particles of matter. Descartes regards matter as uniform in character throughout the universe; he anticipates, as it were, from his own transcendental ground, the revelations of spectrum analysis as applied to the sun and stars. We have then to think of a full universe of matter (and matter = extension) divided and figured with endless variety, and set (and kept) in motion by God; and any sort of division, figure and motion will serve the purposes of our supposition as well as another. " Scarcely any supposition," 2 he says, " can be made from which the same result, though possibly with greater difficulty, might not be deduced by the same laws of nature; for since, in virtue of these laws, matter successively assumes all the forms of which it is capable, if we consider these forms in order, we shall at one point or other reach the existing form of the world, so that no error need here be feared from a false supposition." As the movement of one particle in a closely -packed universe is only possible if all other parts move simultaneously, so that the last in the series steps into the place of the first; and as the figure and division of the particles varies in each point in the universe, there will inevitably at the same instant result through- out the universe an innumerable host of more or less circular movements, and of vortices or whirlpools of material particles varying in size and velocity. Taking for convenience a limited portion of the universe, we observe that in consequence vortices °f t ' ie circular movement, the particles of matter have their corners pared off by rubbing against each other; and two species of matter thus arise, — one consisting of small globules which continue their circular motion with a (centrifugal) tendency to fly off from the centre as they swing round the axis of rotation, while the other, consisting of the fine dust—the filings and parings of the original particles — gradually becoming finer and finer, and losing its velocity, tends (centripetally) to accumulate in the centre of the vortex, which has been gradually left free by the receding particles of globular matter. This finer matter which collects in the centre of each vortex is the first matter of Descartes — it constitutes the sun or star. The spherical particles are the second matter of Descartes, and their tendency to propel one another from the centre in straight lines towards the circumference of each vortex is what gives rise to the phenomenon of light radiating from the central star. This second matter is atmosphere or firmament, which envelops and revolves around the central accumulation of first matter. A third form of matter is produced from the original particles. As the small filings produced by friction seek to pass through the interstices between the rapidly revolving spherical particles in the vortex, they are detained and become twisted and chan- nelled in their passage, and when they reach the edge of the inner ocean of solar dust they settle upon it as the froth and foam produced by the agitation of water gathers upon its surface. These form what we term spots in the sun. In some cases they come and go, or dissolve into an aether round the sun; but in other cases they gradually increase until they form a dense crust round the central nucleus. In course of time the star, with its expansive force diminished, suffers encroachments from the neighbouring vortices, and at length they catch it up. If the 1 Princip. part ii. 37. 2 lb. part iii. 47. I velocity of the decaying star be greater than that of any part of the vortex which has swept it up, it will ere long pass out of the range of that vortex, and continue its movement from one to another. Such a star is a comet. But in other cases the en- crusted star settles in that portion of the revolving vortex which has a velocity equivalent to its own, and so continues to revolve in the vortex, wrapped in its own firmament. Such a reduced and impoverished star is a planet; and the several planets of our solar system are the several vortices which from time to time have been swept up by the central sun-vortex. The same considera- tions serve to explain the moon and other satellites. They too were once vortices, swallowed up by some other, which at a later day fell a victim to the sweep of our sun. Such in mere outline is the celebrated theory of vortices, which for about twenty years after its promulgation reigned supreme in science, and for much longer time opposed a tenacious resist- ance to rival doctrines. It is one of the grandest hypotheses which ever have been formed to account by mechanical processes for the movements of the universe. While chemistry rests in the acceptance of ultimate heterogeneous elements, the vortex-theory assumed uniform matter through the universe, and reduced cosmical physics to the same principles as regulate terrestrial phenomena. It ended the old Aristotelian distinction between the sphere beneath the moon and the starry spaces beyond. It banished the spirits and genii, to which even Kepler had assigned the guardianship of the planetary movements; and, if it supposes the globular particles of the envelope to be the active force in carrying the earth round the sun, we may remember that Newton himself assumed an aether for somewhat similar purposes. The great argument on which the Cartesians founded their opposition to the Newtonian doctrine was that attraction was an occult quality, not wholly intelligible by the aid of mere mechanics. The Newtonian theory is an analysis of the elementary movements which in their combination determine the planetary orbits, and gives the formula of the proportions according to which they act. But the Cartesian theory, like the later speculations of Kant and Laplace, proposes to give a hypothetical explanation of the circumstances and motions which in the normal course of things led to the state of things required by the law of attraction. In the judgment of D'Alembert the Cartesan theory was the best that the observations of the age admitted; and " its explanation of gravity was one of the most ingenious hypotheses which philosophy ever imagined." That the explanation fails in detail is undoubted: it does not account for the ellipticity of the planets; it would place the sun, not in one focus, but in the centre of the ellipse; and it would make gravity directed towards the centre only under the equator. But these defects need not blind us to the fact that this hypothesis made the mathematical progress of Hooke, Borelli and Newton much more easy and certain. Descartes professedly assumed a simplicity in the phenomena which they did not present. But such a hypothetical simplicity is the necessary step for solving the more complex problems of nature. The danger lies not in forming such hypotheses, but in regarding them as final, or as more than an attempt to throw light upon our observation of the phenomena. In doing what he did, Descartes actually exemplified that reduction of the processes of nature to mere transposition of the particles of matter, which in different ways was a leading idea in the minds of Bacon, Hobbes and Gassendi. The defects of Descartes lie rather in his apparently imperfect apprehension of the principle of movements uniformly acceler- ated which his contemporary Galileo had illustrated and insisted upon, and in the indistinctness which attaches to his views of the transmission of motion in cases of impact. It should be added that the modern theory of vortex-atoms (Lord Kelvin's) to explain the constitution of matter has but slight analogy with Cartesian doctrine, and finds a parellel, if anywhere, in a modification of that doctrine by Malebranche. Besides the last two parts of the Principles of Philosophy, the physical writings of Descartes include the Dioptrics and Meteors, as well as passages in the letters. His optical investigations are perhaps the subject in which he most contributed to the progress DESCARTES 87 of science; and the lucidity of exposition which marks his Dioptrics stands conspicuous even amid the generally luminous style of his works. Its object is a practical one, to theories, determine by scientific considerations the shape of lens best adapted to improve the capabilities of the tele- scope, which had been invented not long before. The conclusions at which he arrives have not been so useful as he imagined, in consequence of the mechanical difficulties. But the investiga- tion by which he reaches them has the merit of first prominently publishing and establishing the law of the refraction of light. Attempts have been made, principally founded on some remarks of Huygens, to show that Descartes had learned the principles of refraction from the manuscript of a treatise by Willebrord Snell, but the facts are uncertain; and, so far as Descartes founds his optics on any one, it is probably on the researches of Kepler. In any case the discovery is to some extent his own, for his proof of the law is founded upon the theory that light is the propagation of the aether in straight fines from the sun or luminous body to the eye (see Light). Thus he approximates to the wave theory of light, though he supposed that the transmission of light was instantaneous. The chief of his other contributions to optics was the explanation of the rainbow — an explanation far from com- plete, since the unequal refrangibility of the rays of light was yet undiscovered — but a decided advance upon his predecessors, notablv on the De radiis visus et lucis (1611) of Marc- Antonio de Dominis, archbishop of Spalato. If Descartes had contented himself with thus explaining the phenomena of gravity, heat, magnetism, fight and similar forces by means of the molecular movements of his vortices, even such a theory would have excited admiration. But he did not stop short in the region of what is usually termed physics. Chemistry and biology are alike swallowed up in the one science of physics, and reduced to a problem of mechanism. This theory, he believed, would afford an explanation of every phenomenon whatever, and in nearly every department of knowledge he has given specimens of its power. But the most remarkable and daring application of the theory was to account for the phenomena of organic life, especially in animals and man. " If we possessed a thorough knowledge," he says, 1 " of all the parts of the seed of any species of animal {e.g. man), we could from that alone, by reasons entirely mathematical and certain, deduce the whole figure and conforma- tion of each of its members, and, conversely, if we knew several peculiarities of this conformation, we could from these deduce the nature of its seed." The organism in this way is regarded as a machine, constructed from the particles of the seed, which in virtue of the laws of motion have arranged themselves (always under the governing power of God) in the particular animal shape in which we see them. The doctrine of the circulation of the blood, which Descartes adopted from Harvey, supplied additional arguments in favour of his mechanical theory, and he probably did much to popularize the discovery. A fire without light, compared to the heat which gathers in a haystack when the hay has been stored before it was properly dry— heat, in short, as an agitation of the particles — is the motive cause of the contraction and dilatations of the heart. Those finer particles of the blood which become extremely rarefied during this process pass off in two directions — one portion, and the least important in the theory, to the organs of generation, the other portion to the cavities of the brain. There not merely do they serve to nourish the organ, they also give rise to a fine ethereal flame or wind through the action of the brain upon them, and thus form the so-called " animal " spirits. From the brain these spirits are conveyed through the body by means of the nerves, regarded by Descartes as tubular vessels, resembling the pipes conveying the water of a spring to act upon the mechanical appliances in an artificial fountain. The nerves conduct the animal spirits to act upon the muscles, and in their turn convey the impressions of the organs to the brain. Man and the animals as thus described are compared to automata, and termed machines. The vegetative and sensitive souls which the Aristotelians had introduced to break the leap 1 CEuvres, iv. 494. between inanimate matter and man are ruthlessly swept away; only one soul, the rational, remains, and that is restricted to man. One hypothesis supplants the various principles of life; the rule of absolute mechanism is as complete in maOsm. the animal as in the cosmos. Reason and thought, the essential quality of the soul, do not belong to the brutes; there is an impassable gulf fixed between man and the lower animals. The only sure sign of reason is the power of language — i.e. of giving expression to general ideas; and language in that sense is not found save in man. The cries of animals are but the working of the curiously-contrived machine, in which, when one portion is touched in a certain way, the wheels and springs concealed in the interior perform their work, and, it may be, a note supposed to express joy or pain is evolved; but there is no consciousness or feeling. " The animals act naturally and by springs, like a watch." 2 " The greatest of all the prejudices we have retained from our infancy is that of believing that the beasts think." 3 If the beasts can properly be said to see at all, " they see as we do when our mind is distracted and keenly applied else- where; the images of outward objects paint themselves on the retina, and possibly even the impressions made in the optic nerves determine our limbs to different movements, but we feel nothing of it all, and move as if we were automata." 4 The sentience of the animal to the lash of his tyrant is not other than the sensi- tivity of the plant to the influences of fight and heat. It is not much comfort to learn further from Descartes that " he denies life to no animal, but makes it consist in the mere heat of the heart. Nor does he deny them feeling in so far as it depends on the bodily organs." 5 Descartes, with an unusual fondness for the letter of Scripture, quotes oftener than once in support of this monstrous doctrine the dictum, " the blood is the life "; and he remarks, with some sarcasm possibly, that it is a comfortable theory for the eaters of animal flesh. And the doctrine found acceptance among some whom it enabled to get rid of the difficulties raised by Montaigne and those who allowed more difference between animal and animal than between the higher animals and man. It also encouraged vivisection — a practice common with Descartes himself. 8 The recluses of Port Royal seized it eagerly, discussed automatism, dissected living animals in order to show to a morbid curiosity the circulation of the blood, were careless of the cries of tortured dogs, and finally embalmed the doctrine in a syllogism of their logic, — No matter thinks; every soul of beast is matter: there- fore no soul of beast thinks. But whilst all the organic processes in man go on mechani- cally, and though by reflex action he may repel attack uncon- sciously, still the first affirmation of the system was that man was essentially a thinking being; and, while we retain this original dictum, it must not be supposed that the mind is a mere spectator, or like the boatman in the boat. Of course a unity of nature is impossible between mind and body so described. And yet there is a unity of composition, a unity so o/„/nd close that the compound is " really one and in a sense and body. indivisible." You cannot in the actual man cut soul and body asunder; they interpenetrate in every member. But there is one point in the human frame — a point midway in the brain, single and free, which may in a special sense be called the seat of the mind. This is the so-called c narion, or pineal gland, where in a minimized point the mind on one hand and the vital spirits on the other meet and communicate. In that gland the mystery of creation is concentrated; thought meets extension and directs it; extension moves towards thought and is per- ceived. Two clear and distinct ideas, it seems, produce an absolute mystery. Mind, driven from the field of extension, erects its last fortress in the pineal gland. In such a state of despair and destitution there is no hope for spiritualism, save in God; and Clauberg, Geulincx and Malebranche all take refuge under the shadow of his wings to escape the tyranny of extended matter. In the psychology of Descartes there are two fundamental 2 75. ix. 426. 3 lb. x. 204. 4 lb. vi. 339. 6 lb. x. 208. 6 lb. iv. 452 and 454. 88 DESCARTES modes of thought, — perception and volition. " It seems to me," he says, " that in receiving such and such an idea the mind is passive, and that it is active only in volition; that its tow!"'' ideas are put in it partly by the objects which touch the senses, partly by the impressions in the brain, and partly also by the dispositions which have preceded in the mind itself and by the movements of its will." 1 The will, therefore, as being more originative, has more to do with true or false judgments than the understanding. Unfortunately, Descartes is too lordly a philosopher to explain distinctly what either under- standing or will may mean. But we gather that in two directions our reason is bound up with bodily conditions, which make or mar it, according as the will, or central energy of thought, is true to itself or not. In the range of perception, intellect is subjected to the material conditions of sense, memory and imagination; and in infancy, when the will has allowed itself to assent precipitately to the conjunctions presented to it by these material processes, thought has become filled with obscure ideas. In the moral sphere the passions or emotions (which Descartes reduces to the six primitive forms of admiration, love, hatred, desire, joy and sadness) are the perceptions or sentiments of the mind, caused and maintained by some movement of the vital spirits, but specially referring to the mind only. The presentation of some object of dread, for example, to the eye has or may have a double effect. On one hand the animal spirits "reflected" 2 from the image formed on the pineal gland proceed through the nervous tubes to make the muscles turn the back and lift the feet, so as to escape the cause of the terror. Such is the reflex and mechanical movement independent of the mind. But, on the other hand, the vital spirits cause a movement in the gland by which the mind perceives the affection of the organs, learns that something is to be loved or hated, admired or shunned. Such perceptions dispose the mind to pursue what nature dictates as useful. But the estimate of goods and evils which they give is indistinct and unsatisfactory. The office cf reason is to give a true and distinct appreciation of the values of goods and evils; or firm and determinate judgments touching the knowledge of good and evil are our proper arms against the influence of the passions. 3 We are free, therefore, through knowledge: ex magna luce in intellectu sequitur magna propensio in voluntate, and omnis peccans est ignorans. " If we clearly see that what we are doing is wrong, it would be impossible for us to sin, so long as we saw it in that light." 4 Thus the highest liberty, as distinguished from mere indifference, proceeds from clear and distinct knowledge, and such knowledge can only be attained by firmness and resolution, i.e. by the continued exercise of the will. Thus in the perfection of man, as in the nature of God, will and intellect must be united. For thought, will is as necessary as understanding. And innate ideas therefore are mere capacities or tendencies, — possibilities which apart from the will to think may be regarded as nothing at all. The Cartesian School.— The philosophy of Descartes fought its first battles and gained its first triumphs in the country of his adoption. In his lifetime his views had been taught in Utrecht and Leiden. In the universities of the Netherlands and of lower Germany, as yet free from the conservatism of the old-established seats of learning, the new system gained an easy victory over Aristotelianism, and, as it was adapted for lectures and exam- inations, soon became almost as scholastic as the doctrines it had supplanted. At Leiden, Utrecht, Groningen, Franeker, Breda, Nimeguen, Harderwyk, Duisburg and Herborn, and at the Catholic university of Louvain, Cartesianism was warmly expounded and defended in seats of learning, of which many are now left desolate, and by adherents whose writings have for the most part long lost interest for any but the antiquary. The Cartesianism of Holland was a child of the universities, and its literature is mainly composed of commentaries upon the original texts, of theses discussed in the schools, and of systematic expositions of Cartesian philosophy for the benefit of the student. Three names stand out in this 2 Passions de I'dme, 36. Holland. 1 (Euvres, ix. 166. 3 lb. 48. 4 CEuvres, ix. 170. Cartesian professoriate, — Wittich, Claubergand Geulincx. Chris- toph Wittich (1625-1687), professor at Duisburg and Leiden, is a representative of the moderate followers who professed to reconcile the doctrines of their school with the faith of Christendom and to refute the theology of Spinoza. Johann Clauberg (q.v.) commented clause by clause upon the Meditations of Descartes; but he specially claims notice for his work De corporis et animae in homine conjunctione, where he maintains that the bodily movements are merely procatarctic causes {i.e. antecedents, but not strictly causes) of the mental action, and sacrifices the independence of man to the omnipotence of God. The same tendency is still more pronounced in Arnold Geulincx (q.v.). With him the reciprocal action of mind and body is altogether denied; they resemble two clocks, so made by the artificer as to strike the same hour together. The mind can act only upon itself; beyond that limit, the power of God must intervene to make any seeming interaction possible between body and soul. Such are the half-hearted attempts at consistency in Cartesian thought, which eventually culminate in the pantheism of Spinoza (see Cartesianism). Descartes occasionally had not scrupled to interpret the Scriptures according to his own tenets, while still maintaining, when their letter contradicted him, that the Bible was not meant to teach the sciences. Similar tendencies are found amongst his followers. Whilst Protestant opponents put him in the list of atheists like Vanini, and the Catholics held him as dangerous as Luther or Calvin, there were zealous adherents who ventured to prove the theory of vortices in harmony with the book of Genesis. It was this rationalistic treatment of the sacred writings which helped to confound the Cartesians with the allegorical school of John Cocceius, as their liberal doctrines in theology justified the vulgar identification of them with the heresies of Socinian and Arminian. The chief names in this advanced theology connected with Cartesian doctrines are Ludwig Meyer, the friend and editor of Spinoza, author of a work termed Philosophia scripturae interpres (1666); Balthasar Bekker, whose World Bewitched helped to discredit the superstitious fancies about the devil; and Spinoza, whose Tractatus theologico-politicus is in some respects the classical type of rational criticism up to the present day. Against this work and the Ethics of Spinoza the orthodox Cartesians (who were in the majority), no less than sceptical hangers-on like Bayle, raised an all but universal howl of repro- bation, scarcely broken for about a century. In France Cartesianism won society and literature before it penetrated into the universities. Clerselier (the friend of Descartes and his literary executor), his son-in-law p Rohault (who achieved that relationship through his Cartesianism), and others, opened their houses for readings to which the intellectual world of Paris — its learned professors not more than the courtiers and the fair sex, — flocked to hear the new doctrines explained, and possibly discuss their value. Grand seigneurs, like the prince of Conde, the due de Nevers and the marquis de Vardes, were glad to vary the monotony of their feudal castles by listening to the eloquent rehearsals of Male- branche or Regis. And the salons of Mme de Sevigne, of her daughter Mme de Grignan, and of the duchesse de Maine for a while gave the questions of philosophy a place among the topics of polite society, and furnished to Moliere the occasion of his Femmes savantes. The Chateau of the due de Luynes, the trans- lator of the Meditations, was the home of a Cartesian club, that discussed the questions of automatism and of the comDosition of the sun from filings and parings, and rivalled Port Royal in its vivisections. The cardinal de Retz in his leisurely age at Commercy found amusement in presiding at disputations between the more moderate Cartesians and Don Robert Desgabets, who interpreted Descartes in an original way of his own. Though rejected by the Jesuits, who found peripatetic formulae a faithful weapon against the enemies of the church, Cartesianism was warmly adopted by the Oratory, which saw in Descartes some- thing of St Augustine, by Port Royal, which discovered a connexion between the new system and Jansenism, and by some amongst the Benedictines and the order of Ste Genevieve- DESCARTES 89 The popularity which Cartesianism thus gained in the social and literary circles of the capital was largely increased by the labours of Pierre-Sylvain Regis (1632-1707). On his visit to Toulouse in 1665, with a mission from the Cartesian chiefs, his lectures excited boundless interest; ladies threw themselves with zeal and ability into the study of philosophy; and Regis himself was made the guest of the civic corporation. In 167 1 scarcely, less enthusiasm was roused in Montpellier; and in 1680 he opened a course of lectures at Paris, with such acceptance that hearers had to take their seats in advance. Regis, by removing the paradoxes and adjusting the metaphysics to the popular powers of apprehension, made Cartesianism popular, and reduced it to a regular system. But a check was at hand. Descartes, in his correspondence with the Jesuits, had shown an almost cringing eagerness to have their powerful organization on his side. Especially he had written to Pere Mesland, one of the order $ to show how the Catholic doctrine of the eucharist might be made compatible with his theories of matter. But his undue haste to arrange matters with the church only served to compromise him more deeply. Unwise admirers and malicious opponents exaggerated the theological bearings of his system in this detail; and the efforts of the Jesuits succeeded in getting the works of Descartes, in November 1663, placed upon the index of prohibited books, — donee corrigantur. Thereupon the power of church and state enforced by positive enactments the passive resistance of old institutions to the novel theories. In 1667, the oration at the interment was forbidden by royal order. In 1669, when the chair of philosophy at the College Royal fell vacant, one of the four selected candidates had to sustain a thesis against " the pretended new philosophy of Descartes." In 167 1 the archbishop of Paris, by the king's order, summoned the heads of the university to his presence, and enjoined them to take stricter measures against philosophical novelties dangerous to the faith. In 1673 a decree of the parlement against Cartesian and other unlicensed theories was on the point of being issued, and was only checked in[time by the appearance of a burlesque mandamus against the intruder Reason, composed by Boileau and some of his brother-poets. Yet in 1675 the university of Angers was empowered to repress all Cartesian teaching within its domain, and actually appointed a commission charged to look for such heresies in the theses and the students' note-books of the college of Anjou belonging to the Oratory. In 1677 the university of Caen adopted not less stringent measures against Cartesianism. And so great was the influence of the Jesuits, that the congregation of St Maur, the canons of Ste Genevieve, and the Oratory laid their official ban on the obnoxious doctrines. From the real or fancied rapproche- ments between Cartesianism and Jansenism, it became for a while impolitic, if not dangerous, to avow too loudly a preference for Cartesian theories. Regis was constrained to hold back for ten years his System of Philosophy; and when it did appear, in i6go, the name of Descartes was absent from the title-page. There were other obstacles besides the mild persecutions of the church. Pascal and other members of Port Royal openly expressed their doubts about the place allowed to God in the system; the adherents of Gassendi met it by resuscitating atoms; and the Aristotelians maintained their substantial forms as of old; the Jesuits argued against the arguments for the being of God, and against the theory of innate ideas; whilst Pierre Daniel Huet (1630-1721), bishop of Avranches, once aCartesian himself, made a vigorous onslaught on the contempt in which his former comrades held literature and history, and enlarged on the vanity of ail human aspirations after rational truth. The greatest and most original of the French Cartesians was Malebranche (q.v.). His Recherche de la vSriti, in 1674, was the baptism of the system into a theistic religion which borrowed its imagery from Augustine; it brought into prominence the metaphysical base which Louis Delaforge, Jacques Rohault and Regis had neither cared for nor understood. But this doctrine was a criticism and a divergence, no less than a consequence, from the principles in Descartes; and it brought upon Malebranche the opposition, not merely of the Cartesian physicists, but also of Arnauld, Fenelon and Bossuet, who found, or hoped to find, in the Meditations, as properly understood, an ally for theology. Popular enthusiasm, however, was with Malebranche, as twenty years before it had been with Descartes; he was the fashion of the day; and his disciples rapidly increased both in France and abroad. In 1705 Cartesianism was still subject to prohibitions from the authorities; but in a project of new statutes, drawn up for the faculty of arts at Paris in 1720, the Method and Meditations of Descartes were placed beside the Organon and the Metaphysics of Aristotle as text-books for philosophical study. And before 1725, readings, both public and private, were given from Cartesian texts in some of the Parisian colleges. But when this happened, Cartesianism was no longer either interesting or dangerous; its theories, taught as ascertained and verified truths, were as worthless as the systematic verbiage which preceded them. Already antiquated, it could not resist the wit and raillery with which Voltaire, in his Lettres sur les Anglais (1728), brought against it the principles and results of Locke and Newton. The old Cartesians, Jean Jacques Dortous de Mairan (1678-1771) and especially Fontenelle, with his Thiorie des tourbillons (1752), struggled in vain to refute Newton by styling attraction an occult quality. Fortunately the Cartesian method had already done its service, even where the theories were rejected. The Port Royalists, Pierre Nicole (1625-1695) and Antoine Arnauld (161 2-1694), na d applied it to grammar and logic; Jean Domat or Daumat (1625-1696) and Henri Francois Daugesseau (1668-1751) to jurisprudence; Fontenelle, Charles Perrault (1628-1703) and Jean Terrasson (1670-1750) to literary criticism, and a worthier estimate of modern literature. Though it never ceased to influence individual thinkers, it had handed on to Condillac its popularity with the masses. A Latin abridgment of philosophy, dated 1784, tells us that the innate ideas of Descartes are founded on no arguments, and are now universally abandoned. The ghost of innate ideas seems to be all that it had left. ^ In Germany a few Cartesian lecturers taught at Leipzig and Halle, but the system took no root, any more than in Switzerland, where it had a brief reign at Geneva after 1669. In „ Italy the effects were more permanent. What is termed the iatro-mechanical school of medicine, with G. A. Borelli (1608-1679) as its most notable name, entered in a way on the mechanical study of anatomy suggested by Descartes, but was probably much more dependent upon the positive researches of Galileo. At Naples there grew up a Cartesian school, of which the best known members are Michel Angelo Fardella (1650-1708) and Cardinal Gerdil (1718-1802), both of whom, however, attached themselves to the characteristic views of Malebranche. In England Cartesianism took but slight hold. Henry More, who had given it a modified sympathy in the lifetime of the author, became its opponent in later years; and Eazland Cudworth differed from it in most essential points. Antony Legrand, from Douai, attempted to introduce it into Oxford, but failed. He is the author of several works, amongst others a system of Cartesian philosophy, where a chapter on " Angels " revives the methods of the schoolmen. His chief opponent was Samuel Parker (1640-1688) , bishop of Oxford, who, in his attack on the irreligious novelties of the Cartesian, treats Descartes as a fellow-criminal in infidelity with Hobbes and Gassendi. Rohault's version of the Cartesian physics was translated into English; and Malebranche found an ardent follower in John Norris (1667-1711). Of Cartesianism towards the close of the 17th century the only remnants were an over- grown theory of vortices, which received its death-blow from Newton, and a dubious phraseology anent innate ideas, which found a witty executioner in Locke. For an account of the metaphysical doctrines of Descartes, in their connexions with Malebranche and Spinoza, see Cartesianism. BibLioGRaphV.— I. Editions and Translations.— -The collected works of Descartes were published in Latin in 8 vols, at Amsterdam (1670-1683), in 7 vols, at Frankfort (1697) and in 9 vols, by Elzevir 9° DESCHAMPS (1713); in French in 13 vols. (Paris, 1724-1729), republished by Victor Cousin (Paris, 1824-1826) in 11 vols., and again under the authority of the minister of public instruction by C. Adam and P. Tannery (1897 foil.). These-include his so-called posthumous works. The Rules for the Direction of the Mind, The Search for Truth by the Light of Nature, and other unimportant fragments, published (in Latin) in 1701. In 1859-1860 Foucher de Careil published in two Earts some unedited writings of Descartes from copies taken by eibnitz from the original .papers. Six editions of the Opera philo- sophica appeared at Amsterdam between 1650 and 1678; a two- volume edition at Leipzig in 1843; there are also French editions, CEuvres philosophiques, by A. Gamier, 3 vols. (1834-1835), and L. Aime-Martin (1838) and CEuvres morales et philosophiques by Aime- Martin with an introduction on life and works by Amedee Prevost (Paris, 1855); CEuvres choisies (1850) by Jules Simon. A complete French edition of the collected works was begun in the Romance Library (1907 foil.). German translations by J. H. von Kirchmann under the title Philosophische Werke (with biography, &c, Berlin, 1868; 2nd ed , 1882-1891), by Kuno Fischer, Die Hauptschriften zur Grundlegung seiner Philosophie (1863), with introduction by Ludwig Fischer (1892). There are also numerous editions and trans- lations of separate works, especially the Method, in French, German, Italian, Spanish and Hungarian. There are English translations by J. Veitch, Method, Meditations and Selections from the Principles (1850-1853; nthed., 1897; New York, 1899); by H. A. P. Torrey (New York, 1892). II. Biographical. — A. Baillet, La Vie de M. Des Cartes (Paris, 1691 ; Eng. trans., 1692), exhaustive but uncritical; notices in the editions of Gamier and Aime-Martin; A. Hoffmann, Rene Descartes (1905); Elizabeth S. Haldane, Descartes, his Life and Times (1905), contain- ing full bibliography ; A. Barbier, Rene Descartes, sa famille, son lieu de naissance, &c. (1901); Richard Lowndes, Rene Descartes, his Life and Meditations (London, 1878) ; J. P. Mahaffy, Descartes (1902), with an appendix on Descartes 's mathematical work by Frederick Purser; Victor de Swarte, Descartes directeur spirituel (Paris, 1904), correspondence with the Princess Palatine; C. J. Jeannel, Descartes et la princesse palatine (Paris, 1869); Lettres de M. Descartes, ed Claude Clerselier (1657). A useful sketch of recent biographies is to be found in The Edinburgh Review (July 1906). III. Philosophy.— Beside the histories of philosophy, the article Cartesianism, and the above works, consult J. B. Bordas-Demoulini Le Cartesianisme (2nd ed., Paris, 1874); J. P. Damiron, Histoire de la philosophie du X VII' siecle (Paris, 1846) ; C. B. Renouvier, Manuel de philosophie moderne (Paris, 1842); V. Cousin, Fragments philo- sophiques, vol. ii. (3rd ed., Paris, 1838), Fragments de philosophie cartesienne (Paris, 1845), and in the Journal des savants (1860-1861) ; F. Bouiliier, Hist, de la philosophie cartesienne (Paris, 1854), 2 vols., and Hist, el critique de la revolution cartesienne (Paris, 1842) ; J. Millet, Descartes, sa vie, ses travaux, ses decouvertes avant 1637 (Paris, 1867), and Hist, de Descartes depuis 1637 (Paris, 1870); L. Liard, Descartes (Paris, 1882); A. Fouillee, Descartes (Paris, 1893); Revue de metaphysique et de morale (July, 1896, Descartes number) ; Norman Smith, Studies in the Cartesian Philosophy (1902); R. Keussen, Bewusstsein und Erkenntnis bei Descartes (1906) ; A. Kayserling, Die Idee der Kausalitat in den Lehren der Occasionalisten (1896); J. Iverach, Descartes, Spinoza and the New Philosophy (1904); R. Joerges, Die Lehre von den Empfindungen bei Descartes (1901); Kuno Fischer, Hist, of Mod. Phil. Descartes a,nd his School (Eng. trans ., 1887) ; B. Christiansen, Das Urteil bei Descartes (1902) ; E. Boutroux, '' Descartes and Cartesianism " in Cambridge Modern History, vol. iv. (1906), cbap. 27, with a very full bibliography, pp. 950-953; P. Natorp, Descartes' Erkenntnisstkeorie (Marburg, 1882) ; L. A. Prevost-Paradol, Les Moralistes francais (Paris, 1865); C. Schaar- schmidt, Descartes und Spinoza (Bonn, 1850); R. Adamson, The Development of Modern Philosophy (Edinburgh, 1903); J. Miiller, Der Begriff der siltlichen Unvollkomrnenheit bei Descartes und Spinoza (1890); J. H. von Kirchmann, R. Descartes' Prinzipien der Philos. (1863); G. Touchard, La Morale de Descartes (1898); Lucien Levy- Bruhl, Hist, of Mod. Philos. in France (Eng. trans., 1899), pp. 1-76. IV. Science and Mathematics. — F. Cajori, History of Mathematics (London, 1894); M. Cantor, Vorlesungen uber die Geschichte der Malhemalik (Leipzig, 1 894-1901); Sir Michael Foster, Hist, of Physiol, during the Sixteenth, Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (1901); Duboux, La Physique de Descartes (Lausanne, 1881); G, H. Zeuthen, Geschichte der Mathematik im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert (1903); Chasles, j4^erf« historique sur Vorigine et le developpement des methodes en geometrie (3rd ed., 1889). (W. W. ; X.) DESCHAMPS, EMILE (1791-1871), French poet and man of letters, was born at Bourges on the 20th of February 1791. The son of a civil servant, he adopted his father's career, but as early as 1812 he distinguished himself by an ode, La Paix conquise, which won the praise of Napoleon. In 1818 he collaborated with Henri de Latouche in two verse comedies, Selmours de Florian and Le Tour defaveur. He and his brother were among the most enthusiastic disciples of the cenacle gathered round Victor Hugo, and in July 1823 Emile founded with' his master the Muse irancaise, which during the year of its existence was the special organ of the romantic party. His iLtudes francaises et Uranglres (1&28) were preceded by a preface which may be regarded as one of the manifestos of the romanticists. The versions ol Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet (1839) and of Macbeth (1844), important as they were in the history of the romantic movement, were never staged. He was the author of several libretti, among which may be mentioned the Romeo et Juliette of Berlioz. The list of his more important works is completed by his two volumes of stories, Contes physiologiques (1854) and Rialit&s fantastiques (1854). He died at Versailles in April 1871. His CEuvres completes were published in 1872-1874 (6 vols.). His brother, Antoine Francois Marie, known as Antony Deschamps, was born in Paris on the 12th of March 1800 and died at Passy on the 29th of October 1869. Like his brother, he was an ardent romanticist, but his production was limited by a nervous disorder, which has left its mark on his melancholy work. He translated the Divina Commedia in 1829, and his poems, Dernieres Paroles and Resignation, were republished with his brother's in 1 84 1. DESCHAMPS, EUSTACHE, called Morel (1346 ?-i 4 o6 ?), French poet, was born at Vertus in Champagne about 1346. He studied at Reims, where he is said to have received some lessons in the art of versification from Guillaume de Machaut, who is stated to have been his uncle. From Reims he proceeded about 1360 to the university of Orleans to study law and the seven liberal arts. He entered the king's service as royal messenger about 1367, and was sent on missions to Bohemia, Hungary and Moravia. In 1372 he was made huissier d'armes to Charles V. He received many other important offices, was bailli of Valois, and afterwards of Senlis, squire to the Dauphin, and governor of Fismes. In 1380 his patron, Charles V., died, and in the same year the English burnt down his house at Vertus. In his child- hood he had been an eye-witness of the English invasion of 1358; he had been present at the siege of Reims and seen the march on Chartres; he had witnessed the signing of the treaty of Bretigny; he was now himself a victim of the English fury. His violent hatred of the English found vent in numerous appeals to carry the war into England, and in the famous prophecy 1 that England would be destroyed so thoroughly that no one should be able to point to her ruins. His own misfortunes and the miseries of France embittered his temper. He complained continually of poverty, railed against women and lamented the woes of his country. His last years were spent on his Miroir de mariage, a satire of 13,000 lines against women, which contains some real comedy. The mother-in-law of French farce has her prototype in the Miroir. The historical and patriotic poems of Deschamps are of much greater value. He does not, like Froissart, cast a glamour over the miserable wars of the time but gives a faithful picture of the anarchy of France, and inveighs ceaselessly against the heavy taxes, the vices of the clergy and especially against those who enrich themselves at the expense of the people. The terrible ballad with the refrain " Sa, de V argent; sa, de V argent " is typical of his work. Deschamps excelled in the use of the ballade and the chant royal. In each of these forms he was the greatest master of his time. In ballade form he expressed his regret for the death of Du Guesclin, who seems to have been the only man except his patron, Charles V., for whom he ever felt any admira- tion. One of his ballades (No. 285) was sent with a copy of his works to Geoffrey Chaucer, whom he addresses with the words: — " Tues d'amours mondains dieux en Albie Et de la Rose en la terre Angelique." Deschamps was the author of an Art poetique, with the title of V Art de dictier et de fere chancons, balades, virelais et rondeaulx. Besides giving rules for the composition of the kinds of verse mentioned in the title he enunciates some curious theories on poetry. He divides music into music proper and poetry. Music proper he calls artificial on the ground that everyone could by dint of study become a musician; poetry he calls natural because 1 " De la prophetie Merlin sur la destruction d'Angleterre qui doit brief advenir " {CEuvres, No. 211). DESCHANEL— DESCRIPTIVE POETRY 9 1 he say? it is not an art that can be acquired but a gift. He lays immense stress on the harmony of verse, because, as was the fashion of his day, he practically took it for granted that all poetry was to be sung. The work of Deschamps marks an important stage in the history of French poetry. With him and his contemporaries the long, formless narrations of the trjuveres give place to complicated and exacting kinds of verse. He was perhaps by nature a moralist and satirist rather than a poet, and the force and truth of his historical pictures gives him a unique place in 14th-century poetry. M. Raynaud fixes the date of his death in 1406, or at latest, 1407. Two years earlier he had been relieved of his charge as bailli of Senlis, his plain-spoken satires having made him many enemies at court. His CEuvres completes were edited (10 vols., 1878-1901) for the Societe des anciens textes francais by Queux de Saint-Hilaire and Gaston Raynaud. A supplementary volume consists of an Introduc- tion by G. Raynaud. See also Dr E. Hoeppner, Eustache Deschamps (Strassburg, 1904). DESCHANEL, PAUL EUGENE LOUIS (1856- ), French statesman, son of Emile Deschanel (1819-1904), professor at the College de France and senator, was born at Brussels, where his father was living in exile (1851-1859), owing to his opposition to Napoleon III. Paul Deschanel studied law, and began his career as secretary to Deshayes de Marcere (1876), and to Jules Simon (1876-1877). In October 1885 he was elected deputy for Eure and Loire. From the first he took an important place in the chamber, as one of the most notable orators of the Progressist Republican group. In January 1896 he was elected vice-president of the chamber, and henceforth devoted himself to the struggle against the Left, not only in parliament, but also in public meetings throughout France. His addresses at Marseilles on the 26th of October 1896, at Carmaux on the 27th of December 1896, and at Roubaix on the 10th of April 1897, were triumphs of clear and eloquent exposition of the political and social aims of the Progressist party. In June 1898 he was elected president of the chamber, and was re-elected in 1901, but rejected in 1902. Nevertheless he came forward brilliantly in 1904 and 1905 as a supporter of the law on the separation of church and state. He was elected a member of the French Academy in 1899, his most notable works being Orateurs et hommes d'Uat (1888), Figures de femm-es (1889), La Decentralization (1895), La Question sociale (1898). DES CLOIZEAUX, ALFRED LOUIS OLIVIER LEGRAND (1817-1897), French mineralogist, was born at Beauvais, in the department of Oise, on the 17th of October 1817. He became professor of mineralogy at the Ecole Normale Superieure and afterwards at the Musee d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris. He studied the geysers of Iceland, and wrote also on the classification of some of the eruptive rocks; but his main work consisted in the systematic examination of the crystals of numerous minerals, in researches on their optical properties and on the subject of polar- ization. He wrote specially on the means of determining the different felspars. He was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society of London in 1886. He died in May 1897. His best-known books are Lecons de cristallographie (1861); Manuel de miniralogie (2 vols., Paris, 1862, 1874 and 1893). DESCLOIZITE, a rare mineral species consisting of basic lead and zinc vanadate, (Pb, Zn) 2 (OH)VOi, crystallizing in the ortho- rhombic system and isomorphous with olivenite. It was dis- covered by A. Damour in 1854, and named by him in honour of the French mineralogist Des Cloizeaux. It occurs as small prismatic or pyramidal crystals, usually forming drusy crusts and stalactitic aggregates ; also as fibrous encrusting masses with a mammillary surface. The colour is deep cherry-red to brown or black, and the crystals are transparent or translucent with a greasy lustre; the streak is orange-yellow to brown; specific gravity 5-9 to 6-2; hardness 3J. A variety known as cupro- descloizite is dull green in colour; it contains a considerable amount of copper replacing zinc and some arsenic replacing Vanadium. Descloizite occurs in veins of lead ores in association with pyromorphite, vanadinite, wulfenite, &c. Localities are the Sierra de Cordoba in Argentina, Lake Valley in Sierra county, New Mexico, Arizona, Phoenixville in Pennsylvania, and Kappel (Eisen-Kappel) near Klagenfurt in Carinthia. Other names which have been applied to this species are vanadite, tritochorite and ramirite; the uncertain vanadates eusynchite, araeoxene and dechenite are possibly identical with it. DESCRIPTIVE POETRY, the name given to a class of literature, which may be defined as belonging mainly to the 16th, 17th and 1 8th centuries in Europe. From the earliest times, all poetry which was not subjectively lyrical was apt to indulge in ornament which might be named descriptive. But the critics of the 17th century formed a distinction between the representations of the ancients and those of the moderns. We find Boileau emphasizing the statement that, while Virgil paints, Tasso describes. This may be a useful indication for us in defining not what should, but what in practice has been called " descriptive poetry." It is poetry in which it is not imaginative passion which prevails, but a didactic purpose, or even something of the instinct of a sublimated auctioneer. In other words, the land- scape, or architecture, or still life, or whatever may be the object of the poet's attention, is not used as an accessory, but is itself the centre of interest. It is, in this sense, not correct to call poetry in which description is only the occasional ornament of a poem, and not its central subject, descriptive poetry. The land- scape or still life must fill the canvas, or, if human interest is introduced, that must be treated as an accessory. Thus, in the Hero and Leander of Marlowe and in the Alastor of Shelley, description of a very brilliant kind is largely introduced, yet these are not examples of what is technically called " descriptive poetry," because it is not the strait between Sestos and Abydos, and it is not the flora of a tropical glen, which concentrates the attention of the one poet or of the other, but it is an example of physical passion in the one case and of intellectual passion in the other, which is diagnosed and dilated on. On the other hand Thomson's Seasons, in which landscape takes the central place, and Drayton's Polyolbion, where everything is sacrificed to a topographical progress through Britain, are strictly descriptive. It will be obvious from this definition that the danger ahead of all purely descriptive poetry is that it will lack intensity, that it will be frigid, if not dead. Description for description's sake, especially in studied verse, is rarely a vitalized form of literature. It is threatened, from its very conception, with languor and coldness; it must exercise an extreme art or be condemned to immediate sterility. Boileau, with his customary intelligence, was the first to see this, and he thought that the danger might be avoided by care in technical execution. His advice to the poets of his time was: — and:- Soyez riches et pompeux dans vos descriptions ; C'est-la qu'i! faUt des vers etaler l'elegance," " De figure sans nombre egayez votre ouvrage ; Que toute y fasse aux yeux une riante image," and in verses of brilliant humour he mocked the writer who, too full of his subject, and describing for description's sake, will never quit his theme until he has exhausted it : — " Fuyez de ces auteurs l'abondarfce sterile Et ne vous chargez point d'un detail inutile." This is excellent advice, but Boileau's humorous sallies do not quite meet the question whether such purely descriptive poetry as he criticizes is legitimate at all. In England had appeared the famous translation (1592-1611), by Josuah Sylvester, of the Divine Weeks and Works of Du Bartas, containing such lines as those which the juvenile Dryden admired so much: — " But when winter's keener breath began To crystallize the Baltic ocean, To glaze the lakes, and bridle up the floods, And perriwig with wool the bald-pate woods." There was also the curious physiological epic of Phineas Fletcher, The Purple Island (1633). But on the whole it was not until French influences had made themselves felt on English poetry, 9 2 DESERT that description, as Boileau conceived it, was cultivated as a distinct art. The Cooper's Hill (1642) of Sir John Denham may be contrasted with the less ambitious Penshurst of Ben Jonson, and the one represents the new no less completely than the other dees the old generation. If, however, we exa mine Cooper's Hill carefully, we perceive that its aim is after all rather philosophical than topographical. The Thames is described indeed, but not very minutely, and the poet is mainly absorbed in moral reflec- tions. Marvell's long poem on the beauties of Nunappletoncomes nearer to the type. But it is hardly until we reach the 18th century that we arrive, in English literature, at what is properly known as descriptive poetry. This was the age in which poets, often of no mean capacity, began to take such definite themes as a small country estate (Pomfret's Choice, 1700), the cultivation of the grape (Gay's Wine, 1708), a landscape (Pope's Windsor Forest, 17 13), a military manoeuvre (Addison's Campaign, 1704), the industry of an apple-orchard (Philip's Cyder, 1708) or a piece of topography (Tickell's Kensington Gardens, 1722), as the sole subject of a lengthy poem, generally written in heroic or blank verse. These tours de force were supported by minute efforts in miniature-painting, by touch applied to touch, and were often monuments of industry, but they were apt to lack personal interest, and to suffer from a general and deplorable frigidity. They were infected with the faults which accompany an artificial style; they were monotonous, rhetorical and symmetrical, while the uniformity of treatment which was inevitable to their plan rendered them hopelessly tedious, if they were prolonged to any great extent. This species of writing had been cultivated to a considerable degree through the preceding century, in Italy and (as the remarks of Boileau testify) in France, but it was in England that it reached its highest importance. The classic of descriptive poetry, in fact, the specimen which the literature of the world presents which must be considered as the most important and the most successful, is The Seasons (1726-1730) of James Thomson (q.v.). In Thomson, for the first time, a poet of considerable eminence appeared, to whom external nature was all sufficient, and who succeeded in conducting a long poem to its close by a single appeal to landscape, and to the emotions which it directly evokes. Coleridge, somewhat severely, described The Seasons as the work of a good rather than of a great poet, and it is an in- disputable fact that, at its very best, descriptive poetry fails to awaken the highest powers of the imagination. A great part of Thomson's poem is nothing more nor less than a skilfully varied catalogue of natural phenomena. The famous description of twi- light in " the fading many-coloured woods " of autumn may be taken as an example of the highest art to which purely descriptive poetry has ever attained. It is obvious, even here, that the effect of these rich and sonorous lines, in spite of the splendid effort of the artist, is monotonous, and leads us up to no final crisis of passion or rapture. Yet Thomson succeeds, as few other poets of his class have succeeded, in producing nobly-massed effects and comprehensive beauties such as were utterly unknown to his predecessors. He was widely imitated in England, especially by Armstrong, by Akenside, by Shenstone (in The Schoolmistress, 1742), by the anonymous author of Albania, 1737, and by Goldsmith (in The Deserted Village, 1770). No better example of the more pedestrian class of descriptive poetry could be found than the last-mentioned poem, with its minute and Dutch-like painting: — " How often have I paused on every charm : The sheltered cot, the cultivated farm ; The never-failing brook, the busy mill, The decent church that topped the neighbouring hill: The hawthorn-bush, with seats beneath the shade. For talking age and whispering lovers made." On the continent of Europe the example of Thomson was almost immediately fruitful. Four several translations of The Seasons into French contended for the suffrages of the public, and J. F. de Saint-Lambert (1716-1803) imitated Thomson in Les Saisons (1769), a poem which enjoyed popularity for half a century, and of which Voltaire said that it was the only one of its generation which would reach posterity. Nevertheless, as Madame du Deffand told Walpole, Saint-Lambert is " froid, fade et faux," and the same may be said of J. A. Roucher (1745-1704), who wrote Les Mois in 1779, a descriptive poem famous in its day. The Abbe Jacques Delille (1738-1813), perhaps the most ambitious descriptive poet who has ever lived, was treated as a Virgil by his contemporaries; he published Les GSorgiques in 1769, Les Jardins in 1782, and L'Homme des champs in 1803, but he went furthest in his brilliant, though artificial, Trois regnes de la nature (1809), which French critics have called the masterpiece of this whole school of descriptive poetry. Delille, however, like Thomson before him, was unable to avoid mono- tony and want of coherency. Picture follows picture, and no progress is made. The satire of Marie Joseph Ch6nier, in his famous and witty Discours sur les polmes descriptifs, brought the vogue of this species of poetry to an end. In England, again, Wordsworth, who treated the genius of Thomson with unmerited severity, revived descriptive poetry in a form which owed more than Wordsworth realized to the model of The Seasons. In The Excursion and The Prelude, as well as in many of his minor pieces, Wordsworth's philosophical and moral intentions cannot prevent us from perceiving the large part which pure description takes; and the same may be said of much of the early blank verse of S. T. Coleridge. Since their day, however, purely descriptive poetry has gone more and more completely out of fashion, and its place has been taken by the richer and directer effects of such prose as that of Ruskin in English, or of Fromentin and Pierre Loti in French. It is almost impossible in descriptive verse to obtain those vivid and impassioned appeals to the imagination which are of the very essence of genuine poetry, and it is unlikely that descrip- tive poetry, as such, will again take a prominent place in living literature. (E. G.) DESERT, a term somewhat loosely employed to describe those parts of the land surface of the earth which do not produce sufficient vegetation to support a human population. Few areas of large extent in any part of the world are absolutely devoid of vegetation, and the transition from typical desert conditions is often very gradual and ill-defined. (" Desert " comes from Lat. deserere, to abandon; distinguish " desert," merit, and " dessert," fruit eaten after dinner, from de and servier, to serve.) Deserts are conveniently divided into two classes according to the causes which give rise to the desert conditions. In " cold deserts " the want of vegetation is wholly due to the prevailing low temperature, while in " hot deserts " the surface is uroro- ductive because, on account of high temperature and deficient rainfall, evaporation is largely in excess of precipitation. Cold deserts accordingly occur in high latitudes (see Tundra and Polar Regions). Hot desert conditions are primarily found along the tropical belts of high atmospheric pressure in which the conditions of warmth and dryness are most fully realized, and on their, equatorial sides, but the zonal arrangement is considerably modified in some regions by the monsooual influence of elevated land. Thus we have in the northern hemisphere the Sahara desert, the deserts of Arabia, Iran, Turan, Takla Makan and Gobi, and the desert regions of the Great Basin in North America; and in the southern hemisphere the Kalahari desert in Africa, the desert of Australia, and the desert of Atacama in South America. Where the line of elevated land runs east and west, as in Asia, the desert belt tends to be displaced into higher latitudes, and where the line runs north and south, as in Africa, America and Australia, the desert zone is cut through on the windward side of the elevation and the arid conditions intensified on the lee side. Desert conditions also arise from local causes, as in the case of the Indian desert situated in a region inaccessible to either of the two main branches of the south-west monsoon. Although rivers rising in more favoured regions may traverse deserts on their way to the sea, as in the case of the Nile and the Colorado, the fundamental physical condition of an arid area is that it contributes nothing to the waters of the ocean. The rain- fall chiefly occurs in violent cloudbursts, and the soluble matter in the soil is carried down by intermittent streams to salt lakes DESERTION— DESFORGES 93 around which deposits are formed as evaporation takes place. The land form* of a desert are exceedingly characteristic. Surface erosion is chiefly due to rapid changes of temperature through a wide range, and to the action of wind transferring sand and dust, often in the form of " dunes " resembling the waves of the sea. Dry valleys, narrow and of great depth, with precipitous sides, and ending in " cirques," are probably formed by the intense action of the occasional cloud-bursts. When water can be obtained and distributed over an arid region by irrigation, the surface as a rule becomes extremely productive. Natural springs give rise to oases at intervals and make the crossing of large deserts possible. Where a river crosses a desert at a level near that of the general surface, irrigation can be carried on with extremely profitable results, as has been done in the valley of the Nile and in parts of the Great Basin of North America; in cases, however, where the river has cut deeply and flows far below the general surface, irrigation is too expensive. Much has been done in parts of Australia by means of artesian wells. For a general account of deserts see Professor Johannes Walther, Das Gesetz der Wiistenbildung (Berlin, 1900), in which many references to other original authorities will be found. (H. N. D.) DESERTION, the act of forsaking or abandoning; more particularly, the wilful abandonment of an employment or of duty, in violation of a legal or moral obligation. The offence of naval or military desertion is constituted when a man absents himself with the intention either of not returning or of escaping some important service, such as embarkation for foreign service, or service in aid of the civil power. In the United Kingdom desertion has always been recognized by the civil law, and until 1827 (7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 28) was a felony punishable by death. It was subsequently dealt with by the various Mutiny Acts, which were replaced by the Army Act 1881, renewed annually by the Army (Annual) Act. By § 12 of the act every person subject to military law who deserts or attempts to desert, or who persuades or procures any person to desert, shall, on conviction by court martial, if he committed the offence when on active service or under orders for active service, be liable to suffer death, or such less punishment as is mentioned in the act. When the offence is committed under any other circumstances, the punishment for the first offence is imprison- ment, and for the second or'any subsequent offence penal servi- tude or such less punishment as is mentioned in the act. § 44 contains a scale of punishments, and §§ 175-184 an enumeration of persons subject to military law. By § 153 any person who persuades a soldier to desert or aids or assists him or conceals him is liable, on conviction, to be imprisoned, with or without hard labour, for not more than six months. § 154 makes provision for the apprehension of deserters. § 161 lays down that where a soldier has served continuously in an exemplary manner for not less than three years in any corps of regular forces he is not to be tried or punished for desertion which has occurred before the commencement of the three years. Desertion from the regular forces can only be tried by a military court, but in the case of the militia and reserve forces desertion can be tried by a civil court. The Army Act of 1881 made a welcome distinction between actual desertion, as defined at the commencement of this article, and the quitting one regiment in order to enlist in another. This offence is now separately dealt with as fraudulent enlistment; formerly, it was termed "desertion and fraudulent enlistment," and the statistics of desertion proper were consequently and erroneously magnified. The gross total of desertions in the British Army in an average year (1903-1904) was nearly 4000, or 1*4% of the average strength of the army, but owing to men rejoining from desertion, fraudulent enlistment, &c, the net loss was no more than 1286, i.e. less than -5%. The army of the United States suffers very severely from desertion, and very few deserters rejoin or are recaptured (see Journal of the Roy. United Service Inst., December 1905, p. 1469). In the year 1900-1901, 3 1 10 men deserted (4-3% of average strength); in 1901-1902, 4667 (or 5-9%); in 1904-1905, 6553 (or 6-8%); and in 190 5-1906, 6258 out of Jess than 60,000 men, or 7-4%. In all armies desertion while on active service is punishable by death; on the continent of Europe, owing to the system of compulsory service, desertion is infrequent, and takes place usually when the deserter wishes to leave his country altogether. It was formerly the practice in the English army to punish a man convicted of desertion by tattooing on him the letter " D " to prevent his re-enlistment, but this has been long abandoned in deference to public opinion, which erroneously adopted the idea that the " marking " was effected by red-hot irons or in some other manner involving torture. The Navy Discipline Act 1866, and the Naval Deserters Act 1847, contain similar provisions to the Army Act of 1881 for dealing with desertions from the navy. In the United States navy the term " straggling " is applied to absence without leave, where the probability is that the person does not intend to desert. The United States government offers a monetary reward of between $20 and $30 for the arrest and delivery of deserters from the army and navy. In the British merchant service the offence of desertion is defined as the abandonment of duty by quitting the ship before the termination of the engagement, without justification, and with the intention of not returning. Desertion is also the term applied to the act by which a man abandons his wife and children, or either of them. Desertion of a wife is a matrimonial offence; under the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857, a decree of judicial separation may be obtained in England by either husband or wife on the ground of desertion, without cause, for two years and upwards (see also Divorce). For the desertion of children see Children, Law relating to; Infant. (T. A. I.) DES ESSARTS, EMMANUEL ADOLPHE (1839- ), French poet and man of letters, was born at Paris on the 5th of Febru- ary 1839. His father, Alfred Stanislas Langlois des Essarts (d. 1893), was a poet and novelist of considerable reputation. The son was educated at the ficole Normale Superieure, and became a teacher of rhetoric and finally professor of literature at Dijon and at Clermont. His works are: PoSsies parisiennes (1862), a volume of light verse on trifling subjects ; Les Elevations (1864), philosophical poems; Origines de la poSsie lyrique en France au XV I' siecle (187 3); Du genie de Chateaubriand (187 6); Pobmes de la Revolution (1879); Pallas AtMne" (1887); Portraits de maitres (1888), &c. DESFONTAINES, REN6 LOUICHE (1750-1833), French botanist, was born at Tremblay (lle-et-Vilaine) on the 14th of February 1750. After graduating in medicine at Paris, he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1783. In the same year he set out for North Africa, on a scientific exploring expedition, and on his return two years afterwards brought with him a large collection of plants, animals, &c, comprising, it is said, 1600 species of plants, of which about 300 were described for the first time. In 1786 he was nominated to the post of professor at the Jardin des Plantes, vacated in his favour by his friend, L. G. Lemonnier. His great work, Flora Atlanlica sive historia plantarum quae in Atlante, agro Tunetano el Algeriensi crescunt,wns published in 2 vols. 4to in 1798, and he produced in 1804 a Tableau de V&cole botanique du museum d'histoire naturelle de Paris, of which a third edition appeared in 1831, under the new title Catalogus plantarum horti regii Parisiensis. He was also the author of many memoirs on vegetable anatomy and physiology, descriptions of new genera and species, &c, one of the most important being a " Memoir on the Organization of the Monocotyledons." He died at Paris on the 16th of November 1833. His Barbary collection was bequeathed to the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, and his general collection passed into the hands of the English botanist, Philip Barker Webb. DESFORGES, PIERRE JEAN BAPTISTE CHOUDARD (1746- (1806), French dramatist and man of letters, natural son of Dr Antoine Petit, was born in Paris on the 15th of September 1746. He was educated at the College Mazarin and the College de Beauvais, and at his father's desire began the study of medicine. Dr Petit's death left him dependent on his own resources, and after appearing on the stage of the Comedie Italienne in Paris he joined a troupe of wandering actors, whom he served in the 94 DESGARCINS— DESIDERIO DA SETTIGNANO capacity of playwright. He married an actress, and the two spent three years in St Petersburg, where they were well received. In 1782 he produced at the Comedie Italienne an adaptation of Fielding's novel with the title Tom Jones d Londres. His first great success was achieved with L'Epreuve villageoise (1785) to the music of Gretry. La Femme jalouse, a five-act comedy in verse (1785), Joconde (1790) for the music of Louis Jaden, Les Epoux divorcSs (1799), a comedy, and other pieces followed. Desforges was one of the first to avail himself of the new facilities afforded under the Revolution for divorce and re-marriage. The curious record of his Own early indiscretions in Le Poete, ou mimoires d'un homme de lettres icrits par lui-meme (4 vols., 1798) is said to have been undertaken at the request of Madame Desforges. He died in Paris on the 13 th of August 1806. DESGARCINS, MAGDELEINE MARIE [Louise] (1760-1797), French actress, was born at Mont Dauphin (Hautes Alpes). In her short career she became one of the greatest of French tragedi- ennes, the associate of Talma, with whom she nearly always played. Her debut at the Comedie Frangaise occurred on the 24th of May 1788, in Bajazet, with such success that she was at once made societaire. She was one of the actresses who left the Comedie Frangaise in 1791 for the house in the rue Richelieu, soon to become the Theatre de la Republique, and there her triumphs were no less — in King Lear, Othello, La Harpe's Milanie et Virginie, &c. Her health, however, failed, and she died insane, in Paris, on the 27th of October 1797. DESHAYES, GERARD PAUL (1795-1875), French geologist and conchologist, was born at Nancy on the 13th of May 1797, his father at that time being professor of experimental physics in the ficole Centrale of the department of la Meurthe. He studied medicine at Strassburg, and afterwards took the degree of bachelier es lettres in Paris in 182 1; but he abandoned the medical profession in order to devote himself to natural history. For some time he gave private lessons on geology, and subse- quently became professor of natural history in the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle. He was distinguished for his researches on the fossil mollusca of the Paris Basin and of other Tertiary areas. His studies on the relations of the fossil to the recent species led him as early as 1829 to conclusions somewhat similar to those arrived at by Lyell, to whom Deshayes rendered much assistance in connexion with the classification of the Tertiary system into Eocene, Miocene and Pliocene. He was one of the founders of the Society G6ologique de France. In 1839 he began the publica- tion of his Traite elementaire de conchyliologie, the last part of which was not issued until 1858. In the same year (1839) he went to Algeria for the French Government, and spent three years in explorations in that country. His principal work, which resulted from the collections he made, Mollusques de I Algirie, was issued (incomplete) in 1848. In 1870 the Wollaston medal of the Geological Society of London was awarded to him. He died at Boran on the 9th of June 1875. His publications included Description des coquilles fossiles des environs de Paris (2 vols, and atlas, 1824-1837); Description des animaux sans vertebres dScouverts dans le bassin de Paris (3 vols, and atlas, 1856-1866); Catalogue des mollusques de I'Uede la Riunion (1863). DESHOULIERES, ANTOINETTE DU LIGIER DE LA GARDE (1638-1694), French poet, was born in Paris on the 1st of January 1638. She was the daughter of Melchior du Ligier, sieur de la Garde, mattre d'hoiel to the queens Marie de' Medici and Anne of Austria. She received a careful and very complete education, acquiring a knowledge of Latin, Spanish and Italian, and study- ing prosody under the direction of the poet Jean Hesnault. At the age of thirteen she married Guillaume de Boisguerin, seigneur Deshoulieres, who followed the prince of Conde as lieutenant-colonel of one of his regiments to Flanders about a year after the marriage. Madame Deshoulieres returned for a time to the house of her parents, where she gave herself to writing poetry and studying the philosophy of Gassendi. She rejoined her husband at Rocroi, near Brussels, where, being distinguished for her personal beauty, she became the object of embarrassing attentions on the part of the prince of Conde. Having made herself obnoxious to the government by her urgent demand for the arrears of her husband's pay, she was imprisoned in the chateau of Wilworden. After a few months she was freed by her husband, who attacked the chateau at the head of a small band of soldiers. An amnesty having been proclaimed, they returned to France, where Madame Deshoulieres soon became a conspicu- ous personage at the court of Louis XIV. and in literary society. She won the friendship and admiration of the most eminent literary men of the age — some of her more zealous flatterers even going so far as to style her the tenth muse and the French Calliope. Her poems were very numerous, and included specimens of nearly all the minor forms, odes, eclogues, idylls, elegies, chansons, ballads, madrigals, &c. Of these the idylls alone, and only some of them, have stood the test of time, the others being entirely forgotten. She wrote several dramatic works, the best of which do not rise to mediocrity. Her friend- ship for Corneille made her take sides for the Ph'edre of Pradon against that of Racine. Voltaire pronounced her the best of women French poets; and her reputation with her contempor- aries is indicated by her election as a member of the Academy of the Ricovrati of Padua and of the Academy of Aries. In 1688 a pension of 2000 livres was bestowed upon her by the king, and she was thus relieved from the poverty in which she had long lived. She died in Paris on the 17th February 1694. Complete editions of her works were published at Paris in 1695, J 747> & c - These include a few poems by her daughter, Antoine Therese Deshoulieres (1656-1718), who inherited her talent. DESICCATION (from the Lat. desiccare, to dry up), the operation of drying or removing water from a substance. It is of particular importance in practical chemistry. If a substance admits of being heated to say 100°, the drying may be effected by means of an air-bath, which is simply an oven heated by gas or by steam. Otherwise a desiccator must be employed; this is essentially a closed vessel in which a hygroscopic substance is placed together with the substance to be dried. The process may be accelerated by exhausting the desiccator; this so-called vacuum desiccation is especially suitable for the concentration of aqueous solutions of readily decomposable substances. Of the hygroscopic substances in common use, phosphoric anhydride, concentrated sulphuric acid, and dry potassium hydrate are almost equal in power; sodium hydrate and calcium chloride are not much behind. Two common types of desiccatoP are in use. In one the absorbent is placed at the bottom, and the substance to be dried above. Hempel pointed out that the efficiency would be increased by inverting this arrangement, since water vapour is lighter than air and consequently rises. Liquids are dried either by means of the desiccator, or, as is more usual, by shaking with a substance which removes the water. Fused calcium chloride is the commonest absorbent; but it must not be used with alcohols and several other compounds, since it forms compounds with these substances. Quicklime, barium oxide, and dehy- drated copper sulphate are especially applicable to alcohol and ether; the last traces of water may be removed by adding metallic sodium and distilling. Gases are dried by leading them through towers or tubes containing an appropriate drying material. The experiments of H. B. Baker on the influence of moisture on chemical combination have shown the difficulty of removing the last traces of water. In chemical technology, apparatus on the principle of the laboratory air-bath are mainly used. Crystals and precipitates, deprived of as much water as possible by centrifugal machines or filter-presses, are transported by means of a belt, screw, or other form of conveyer, on to trays staged in brick chambers heated directly by flue gases or steam pipes; the latter are easily controlled, and if the steam be superheated a temperature of 300 and over may be maintained. In some cases the material traverses the chamber from the coolest to the hottest part on a conveyer or in wagons. Rotating cylinders are also used; the material to be dried being placed inside, and the cylinder heated by a steam jacket or otherwise. DESIDERIO DA SETTIGNANO (1428-1464), Italian sculptor, was born at Settignano, a village on the southern slope of the hill DESIDERIUS^DESK 95 of Fiesole, still surrounded by the quarries of sandstone of which the hill is formed, and inhabited by a race of " stone-cutters." Desiderio was for a short time a pupil of Donatello, whom, according to Vasari, he assisted in the work on the pedestal of David, and he seems to have worked also with Mino da Fiesole, with the delicate and refined style of whose works those of Desiderio seem to have a closer affinity than with the perhaps more masculine tone of Donatello. Vasari particularly extols the sculptor's treatment of the figures of . women and children. It does not appear that Desiderio ever worked else- where than at Florence; and it is there that those who are interested in the Italian sculpture of the Renaissance must seek his few surviving decorative and monumental works, though a number of his delicately carved marble busts of women and children are to be found in the museums and private collections of Germany and France. The most prominent of his works are the tomb of the secretary of state, Marsuppini, in Santa Croce, and the great marble tabernacle of the Annunciation in San Lorenzo, both of which belong to the latter period of Desiderio's activity; and the cherubs' heads which form the exterior frieze of the Pazzi Chapel. Vasari mentions a marble bust by Desiderio of Marietta degli Strozzi, which for many years was held to be identical with a very beautiful bust bought in 1878 from the Strozzi family for the Berlin Museum. This bust is now, however, generally acknowledged to be the work of Francesco Laurana; whilst Desiderio's bust of Marietta has been recognized in another marble portrait acquired by the Berlin Museum in 1842. The Berlin Museum also owns a coloured plaster bust of an Urbino lady by Desiderio, the model for which is in the possession of the earl of Wemyss. Other important busts by the master are in the Bargello, Florence, the Louvre in Paris, the collections of M. Figdor and M. Benda in Vienna, and of M. Dreyfus in Paris. Like most of Donatello's pupils, Desiderio worked chiefly in marble, and not a single work in bronze has been traced to his hand. See Wilhelm Bode, Die iialienische Plastik (Berlin, 1893). DESIDERIUS, the last king of the Lombards, is chiefly known through his connexion with Charlemagne. He was duke of Tuscany and became king of the Lombards after the death of Aistulf in 756. Seeking, like his predecessors, to extend the Lombard power in Italy, he came into collision with the papacy, and about 772 the new pope, Adrian I., implored the aid of Charlemagne against him. Other causes of quarrel already existed between the Frankish and the Lombard kings. In 770 Charlemagne had married a daughter of Desiderius; but he soon put this lady away, and sent her back to her father. Moreover, Gerberga, the widow of Charlemagne's brother Carloman, had sought the protection of the Lombard king after her husband's death in 771 ; and in return for the slight cast upon his daughter, Desiderius had recognized Gerberga's sons as the lawful Frankish kings, and had attacked Adrian for refusing to crown them. Such was the position when Charlemagne led his troops across the Alps in 773, took the Lombard capital, Ticinum, the modern Pa via, in June 774, and added the kingdom of Lombardy to his own dominions. Desiderius was carried to France, where he died, and his son, Adalgis, spent his life in futile attempts to recover his father's kingdom. The name of Desiderius appears in the romances of the Carolingian period. See S. Abel, Untergang des Langobardenreichs (Gottingen, 1859) ; and Jahrbucher des frdnkischen Retches unter Karl dent Grossen (Leipzig, 1865); L. M. Hartmann, Geschichte Italiens im Mittelalter (Gotha, 1903) ; and Paulus Diaconus, Historia Langobardorum, edited by L. Bethmana and G. Waitz (Hanover, 1878). DESIGN (Fr. dessin, drawing; Lat. designate, to mark out), in the arts, a drawing, more especially when made as a guide for the execution of work; that side of drawing which deals with arrangement rather than representation; and generally, by analogy, a deliberate planning, scheming or purpose. Modern use has tended to associate design with the word " original " in the sense of new or abnormal. The end of design, however, is properly utility, fitness and delight. If a discovery, it should be a discovery of what seems inevitable, an inspiration arising out of the conditions, and parallel to invention in the sciences. The laculty of design has best flourished when an almost spontaneous development was taking place in the arts, and while certain classes of arts, more or less noble, were generally demanded and the demand copiously satisfied, as in the production of Greek vases, Byzantine mosaics, Gothic cathedrals, and Renaissance paintings. Thus where a " school of design " arises there is much general likeness in the products but also a general progress. The common experience — " tradition " — is a part of each artist's stock in trade; and all are carried along in a stream of continuous exploration. Some of the arts, writing, for instance, have been little touched by conscious originality in design, all has been progress, or, at least, change, in response to conditions. Under such a system, in a time of progress, the proper limitations react as intensity; when limitations are removed the designer has less and less upon which to react, and unconditioned liberty gives him nothing at all to lean on. Design is response to needs, conditions and aspirations. The Greeks so well understood this that they appear to have consciously restrained themselves to the development of selected types, not only in architecture and literature, but in domestic arts, like pottery. Design with them was less the new than the true. For the production of a school of design it is necessary that there should be a considerable body of artists working together, and a large demand from a sympathetic public. A process of continuous development is thus brought into being which sustains the individual effort. It is necessary for the designer to know familiarly the processes, the materials and the skilful use of the tools involved in the productions of a given art, and properly only one who practises a craft can design for it. It is necessary to enter into the traditions of the art, that is, to know past achievements. It is necessary, further, to be in relation with nature, the great reservoir of ideas, for it is from it that fresh thought will flow into all forms of art. These conditions being granted, the best and most useful meaning we can give to the word design i« exploration, experiment, consideration of possibilities. Putting too high a value on originality other than this is to restrict natural growth from vital roots, in which true originality consists. To take design in architecture as an example, we have rested too much on definite precedent (a different thing from living tradition) and, on the other hand, hoped too much from newness. Exploration of the possibilities in arches, vaults, domes and the like, as a chemist or a mathematician explores, is little accepted as a method in architecture at this time, although in antiquity it was by such means that the great master-works were produced: the Pantheon, Santa Sophia, Durham and Amiens cathedrals. The same is true of all forms of design. Of course the genius and inspiration of the individual artist is not here ignored, but assumed. What we are concerned with is a mode of thought which shall make it most fruitful. (W. R. L.) DESIRE, in popular usage, a term for a wishing or longing for something which one has not got. For its technical use see Psychology. The word is derived through the French from Lat. desiderare, to long or wish for, to miss. The substantive desiderium has the special meaning of desire for something one has once possessed but lost, hence regret or grief. The usual explanation of the word is to connect it with sidus, star, as in considerare, to examine the stars with attention, hence, to look closely at. If this is so, the history of the transition in meaning is unknown. J. B. Greenough (Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, i. 96) has suggested that the word is a military slang term. According to this theory desiderare meant originally to miss a soldier from the ranks at roll-call, the root being that seen in sedere, to sit, sedes, seat, place, &c. DESK (from Lat. discus, quoit, in med. sense of " table," cf. " dish " and Ger. Tisch, table, from same source), any kind of flat or sloping table for writing or reading. Its earliest shape was probably that with which we are familiar in pictures of the monastic scriptorium— rather high and narrow with a sloping slab. The primitive desk had little accommodation for writing materials, and no storage room for papers; drawers, cupboards and pigeon-holes were the evolution of periods when writing grew common, and when letters and other documents requiring preservation became numerous. It 9 6 DESLONGCHAMPS was long the custom to secure papers in chests or cabinets, whereas the modern desk serves the double purpose of a writing-table and a storehouse for documents. The first development from the early stall-like desk consisted of the addition of a drawer; then the table came to be supported upon legs or columns, which, as in the many beautiful examples constructed by Boulle and his school, were often of elaborate grace. Eventually the legs were replaced by a series of superimposed drawers forming pedestals — hence the familiar pedestal writing-table. For a long period there were two distinct contemporary forms of desk — the table and the bureau or escritoire. The latter shape attained a popularity so great that, especially in England and America, it was found even in houses in which there was little occasion for writing. The English-speaking people of the 18th century were amazingly fond of pieces of furniture which served a double or triple purpose. The bureau — the word is the French generic appellation for a desk — derives its name from the material with which it was originally covered (Fr. bure, woollen cloth). It consists of an upright carcass sloping inward at the top, and provided with long drawers below. The upper part is fitted with small drawers and pigeon-holes, and often with secret places, and the writing space is formed by a hinged slab supported on runners; when not in use this slab closes up the sloping top. During the 18th century innumerable thousands of these bureaux were made on both sides of the Atlantic — indeed, if we except tables and chairs, no piece of old furniture is more common. In the first part of that period they were usually of oak, but when mahogany was introduced into Europe it speedily ousted the heavier-looking wood. Its deep rich colour and the high polish of which it was capable added appreciably to its ornamental appearance. While the pigeon-holes and small drawers were used for papers, the long drawers were often employed for purposes other than literary. In time the bureau- secretaire became a bureau-bookcase, the glazed shelves, which were often a separate erection, resting upon the top of the bureau. The cabinetmakers of the second half of the 18th century, the period of the greatest floraison of this combination, competed with each other in devising elegant frets for the glass fronts. Solid and satisfying to the eye, if somewhat severe in form, the mahogany bureau was usually an exceedingly presentable piece of furniture. Occasionally it had a bombi front which mitigated its severity; this was especially the case in the Dutch varieties, which were in a measure free adaptations of the French Louis Quinze commode. These Dutch bureaux, and the English ones made in imitation of them, were usually elaborately inlaid with floral designs in coloured woods; but whereas the Batavian marquetry was often rough and crude, the English work was usually of considerable excellence. Side by side with this form of writing apparatus was one variety or another of the writing-table proper. In so far as it is possible to generalize upon such a detail it would appear that the bureau was the desk of the yeoman and what we now call the lower middle class, and that the slighter and more table-like forms were preferred by those higher in the social scale. This probably means no more than that while the one class preserved the old English affection for the solid and heavy furniture which would last for generations, those who were more free to follow the fashions and fancies of their time were, as the pecuniarily easy classes always have been, ready to abandon the old for the new. Just about the time when the flat table with its drawers in a single row, or in nests serving as pedestals, was finally assuming its familiar modern shape, an invention was introduced which was destined eventually, so far as numbers and convenience go, to supersede all other forms of desk. This was the cylinder-top writing-table. Nothing is known of the originator of this device, but it is certain that if not French himself he worked in France. The historians of French furniture agree in fixing its introduction about the year 1750, and we know that a desk worked on this principle was in the possession of the French crown in the year 1760. Even in its early days the cylinder took more than one form. It sometimes consisted of a solid piece of curved wood, and sometimes of a tambour frame — that is to say, of a series of narrow jointed strips of wood mounted on canvas; the revolving shutters of a shop-front are an adaptation of the idea. For a long period, however, the cylinder was most often solid, and remained so until the latter part of the 10th century, when the " American roll-top desk " began to be made in large numbers. This is indeed the old French form with a tambour cylinder, and it is now the desk that is most frequently met with all over the world for commercial purposes. Its popularity is due to its large accommodation, and to the facility with which the closing of the cylinder conceals all papers, and automatically locks every drawer. To France we owe not only the invention of this ubiquitous form, but the construction of many of the finest and most historic desks that have survived — the characteristic marquetry writing-tables of the Boulle period, and the gilded splendours of that of Louis Quinze have never been surpassed in the history of furniture. Indeed, the " Bureau du roi " which was made for Louis XV. is the most famous and magnificent piece of furniture that, so far as we know, was ever constructed. This desk, which is now one of the treasures of the Louvre, was the work of several artist-artificers, chief among whom were Oeben and Riesener — Oeben, it may be added here as a matter of artistic interest, became the grand- father of Eugene Delacroix. The bureau is signed " Riesener fa. 1769 a l'Arsenal de Paris," but it has been established that, however great may have been the share of its construction which fell to him, the conception was that of Oeben. The work was ordered in 1760; it would thus appear that nine years were consumed in perfecting it, which is not surprising when we learn from the detailed account of its construction that the work began with making a perfect miniature model followed by one of full size. The " bureau du roi " is a large cylinder desk elaborately inlaid in marquetry of woods, and decorated with a wonderful and ornate scries of mounts consisting of mouldings, plaques, vases and statuettes of gilt bronze cast and chased. These bronzes are the work of Duplessis, Winant and Hervieux. The desk, which shows plainly the transition between the Louis Quinze and Louis Seize styles, is as remarkable fqr the boldness of its conception as for the magnificent finish of its details. Its lines are large, flowing and harmonious, and although it is no longer exactly as it left the hands of its makers (Oeben died before it was finished) the alterations that have been made have hardly interfered with the general effect. For the head of the king for whom it was made that of Minerva in a helmet was substituted under his successor. The ciphers of Louis XV. have been removed and replaced by Sevres plaques, and even the key which bore the king's initial crowned with laurels and palm leaves, with his portrait on the one side, and the fleur de lys on the other, has been interfered with by an austere republicanism. Yet no tampering with details can spoil the monumental nobility of this great conception. (J. P.-B.) DESLONGCHAMPS, JACQUES AMAND EUDES- (1794-1867), French naturalist and palaeontologist, was born at Caen in Normandy on the 17th of January 1794. His parents, though poor, contrived to give him a good education, and he studied medicine in his native town to such good effect that in 1812 he was appointed assistant-surgeon in the navy, and in 1815 surgeon assistant major to the military hospital of Caen. Soon after- wards he proceeded to Paris to qualify for the degree of doctor of surgery, and there the researches and teachings of Cuvier attracted his attention to subjects of natural history and palaeontology. In 1822 he was elected surgeon to the board of relief at Caen, and while he never ceased to devote his energies to the duties of this post, he sought relaxation in geological studies. Soon he dis- covered remains of Teleosaurus in one of the Caen quarries, and he became an ardent palaeontologist. He was one of the founders of the museum of natural history at Caen, and acted as honorary curator; he was likewise one of the founders of the Societi HnnSenne de Normandie (1823), to the transactions of which society he communicated papers on Teleosaurus, Poekilopleuron (Megalosaurus), on Jurassic mollusca and brachiopoda. In 1825 he became professor of zoology to the faculty of sciences, and in 1847, dean. He died on the 17th of January 1867. His son Eugene Eudes-Deslongchamps (1830-1889), French DESMAISEAUX— DESMARETS, N. 97 palaeontologist, was born in 1830. He succeeded his father about the year 1856 as professor of zoology at the faculty of sciences at Caen, and in 1861 he became also professor of geology and dean. After the death of his father in 1867, he devoted himself to the completion of a memoir on the Teleosaurs: the joint labours being embodied in his Prodrome des Tileosauriens du Calvados. To the Societe Linn6enne de Normandie he contributed memoirs on Jurassic brachiopods, on the geology of the department of La Manche (1856), of Calvados (1856-1863), on the Terrain callovien (1859), on Nouvelle-Caltdonie (1864), and Htudes sur les Mages jurassiques infirieurs de la Normandie (1864). His work Le Jura normand was issued in 1877-1878 (incomplete). He died at Chateau Matthieu, Calvados, on the 21st of December 1889. DESMAISEAUX, PIERRE (1673-1745); French writer, was born at Saillat, probably in 1673. His father, a minister of the reformed church, had to leave France on the revocation of the edict of Nantes, and took refuge in Geneva, where Pierre was educated. Bayle gave him an introduction to the 3rd Lord Shaftesbury, with whom, in 1699, he came to England, where he engaged in literary work. He remained in close touch with the religious refugees in England and Holland, and constantly in correspondence with the leading continental savants and writers, who were in the habit of employing him to conduct such business as they might have in England. In 1720 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. Among his works are Vie de St Evremond (1711), Vie de Boileau-Despriaux (1712), Vie de Bayle (1730). He also took an active part in preparing the Bibliothbque raisonnee des ouvrages de I'Europe (1728-1753), and the Bibliotheque britannique (1733-1747), and edited a selection of St Evremond's writings (1706). Part of Desmaiseaux's correspondence is pre- served in the British Museum, and other letters are in the royal library at Copenhagen. He died on the nth of July 1745. DESMAREST, NICOLAS (1725-1815), French geologist, was born at Soulaines, in the department of Aube, on the 16th of September 1725. Of humble parentage, he was educated at the college of the Oratorians of Troyes and Paris. Taking full advantage of the instruction he received, he was able to support himself by teaching, and to continue his studies independently. Buffon's Theory of the Earth interested him, and in 1753 he successfully competed for a prize by writing an essay on the ancient connexion between England and France. This attracted much attention, and ultimately led to his being employed in studying and reporting on manufactures in different countries, and in 1788 to his appointment as inspector-general of the manufactures of France. He utilized his journeys, travelling on foot, so as to add to his knowledge of the earth's structure. In 1763 he made observations in Auvergne, recognizing that the prismatic basalts were old lava streams, comparing them with the columns of the Giant's Causeway in Ireland, and referring them to the operations of extinct volcanoes. It was not, however, until 1774 that he published an essay on the subject, accompanied by a geological map, having meanwhile on several occasions revisited the district. He then pointed out the succession of volcanic outbursts and the changes the rocks had undergone through weathering and erosion. As remarked by Sir A. Geikie, the doctrine of the origin of valleys by the erosive action of the streams which flow through them was first clearly taught by Desmarest. An enlarged and improved edition of his map of the volcanic region of Auvergne was published after his death, in 1823, by his son Anselme Gaetan Desmarest (1 784-1838), who was distinguished as a zoologist, and author of memoirs on recent and fossil Crustacea. He died in Paris on the 20th of September 1815. See The Founders of Geology, by Sir A. Geikie (1897), pp. 48-78. (H. B. Wo.) DESMARETS (or Desmaretz), JEAN, Sieur de Saint- Sorlin (1595-1676), French dramatist and miscellaneous writer, was born in Paris in 1595. When he was about thirty he was introduced to Richelieu, and became one of the band of writers who carried out the cardinal's literary ideas. Desmarets's own inclination was to novel-writing, and the success of his romance Ariane in 163 1 led to his formal admission to the circle that met <-in. — 4 at the house of Valentine Conrart and later developed into the Academie Francaise. Desmarets was its first chancellor. It was at Richelieu's request that he began to write for the theatre. In this kind he produced a comedy long regarded as a masterpiece, Les Visionnaires (1637); a prose- tragedy, £rigone (1638); and Scipion (1639), a tragedy in verse. His success led to official preferment, and he was made conseiller du roi, contrdleur-gSnhal de V extraordinaire des guerres, and secretary-general of the fleet of the Levant. His long epic Clovis (1657) is noteworthy because Desmarets rejected the traditional pagan background, and maintained that Christian imagery should supplant it. With this standpoint he contributed several works in defence of the moderns in the famous quarrel between the Ancients and Moderns. In his later years Desmarets devoted himself chiefly to producing a quantity of religious poems, of which the best- known is perhaps his verse translation of the Office de la Vierge (1645). He was a violent opponent of the Jansenists, against whom he wrote a Reponse d I'insolente apologie de Port-Royal . . . (1666). He died in Paris on the 28th of October 1676. See also H. Rigault, Histoire de la querelle des anciens et des modernes (1856), pp. 80-103. DESMARETS, NICOLAS, Sieur de Maillebois (1648-1721), French statesman, was born in Paris on the 10th of September 1648. His mother was the sister of J. B. Colbert, who took him into his offices as a clerk. He became counsellor to the parlement in 1672, master of requests in 1674 and intendant of finances in 1678. In these last functions he had to treat with the financiers for the coinage of new silver pieces of four sous. After Colbert's death he was involved in the legal proceedings taken against those financiers who had manufactured coins of bad alloy. The prosecution, conducted by the members of the family of Le Tellier, rivals of the Colberts, presented no proof against Desmarets. Nevertheless he was stripped of his offices and exiled to his estates by the king, on the 23rd of December 1683. In March 1686 he was authorized to return to Paris, and again entered into relations with the controllers-general of finance, to whom he furnished for more than ten years remarkable memoirs on the economic situation in France. As early as 1687 he showed the necessity for radical reforms in the system of taxation, insisting on the ruin of the people and the excessive expenses of the king. By these memoirs he established his claim to a place among the great economists of the time, Vauban, Boisguilbert and the comte de Boulainvilliers. When in September 1699 Chamillart was named controller-general of finances, he took Desmarets for counsellor; and when he created the two offices of directors of finances, he gave one to Desmarets (October 22, 1703). Henceforth Desmarets was veritable minister of finance. Louis XIV. had long conversations with him. Madame de Maintenon protected him. The economists Vauban and Boisguilbert ex- changed long conversations with him. When Chamillart found his double functions too heavy, and retaining the ministry of war resigned that of finance in 1708, Desmarets succeeded him. The situation was exceedingly grave. The ordinary revenues of the year 1708 amounted to 81,977,007 livres, of which 57,833,233 livres had already been spent by anticipation, and the expenses to meet were 200,251,447 livres. In 1709 a famine reduced still more the returns from taxes. Yet Desmarets's reputation re- newed the credit of the state, and financiers consented to advance money they had refused to the king. The emission of paper money, and a reform in the collection of taxes, enabled him to tide over the years 1 709 and 1 7 10. Then Desmarets decided upon an " extreme and violent remedy," to use his own expression, — an income tax. His " tenth " was based on Vauban's plan; but the privileged classes managed to avoid it, and it proved no better than other expedients. Nevertheless Louis XIV. managed to meet the most urgent expenses, and the deficit of 1715, about 350,000,000 livres, was much less than it would have been had it not been for Desmarets's reforms. The honourable peace which Louis was enabled to conclude at Utrecht with his enemies was cer- tainly due to the resources which Desmarets procured for him. After the death of Louis XIV. Desmarets was dismissed by the regent along with all the other ministers. He withdrew to 11 98 DES MOINES— DESMOND, EARL OF his estates. To justify his ministry he addressed to the regent a Compie rendu, which showed clearly the difficulties he had to meet. His enemies even, like Saint Simon, had to recognize his honesty and his talent. He was certainly, after Colbert, the greatest finance minister of Louis XIV. See Forbonnais, Recherches et considerations sur les finances de la France (2 vols., Basel, 1758); Montyon, Particula rites et observations sur les ministres des finances de la France (Paris, 1812) ; De Boislisle, Correspondanr.e des controleurs-gineraux des finances (3 vols., Paris, 1873-1897) ; and the same author's " Desmarets et l'affaire des pieces de quatre sols " in the appendix to the seventh volume of his edition of the Memoires de Saint-Simon. (E. Es.) DES MOINES, the capital and the largest city of Iowa, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Polk county, in the south central part of the state, at the confluence of the Raccoon with the Des Moines river. Pop. (1890) 50,093; (1900) 62,139, °f whom 7946 were foreign-born, including 1907 from Sweden and 1432 from Germany; (1910 census) 86,368. Des Moines is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & North-Western, the Chicago Great Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Wabash, the Minneapolis & St Louis, and the Des Moines, Iowa Falls & Northern railways; also by several interurban electric lines. The chief building in Des Moines is the State Capitol, erected at a cost of about $3,000,000; other important buildings are the public library (containing, in 1908, 40,415 volumes), the court house, the post office, the Iowa State Historical building, a large auditorium and two hospitals. As a manufacturing centre the city has considerable importance. Among the leading products are those of the furnaces, foundries and machine shops, flour and grist mills, planing mills, creameries, bridge and iron works, publishing houses and a packing house; and brick, tile, pottery, patent medicines, furniture, caskets, tombstones, carriages, f a rm machinery, Portland cement, glue, gloves and' hosiery. The value of the factory product in 1905 was $15^084,958, an increase of 79" 7 % in nve years. The city is in one of the most productive coal regions of the state, has a large jobbing trade, and is an important centre for the insurance business. The Iowa state fair is held here annually. In 1908 this city had a park system of 750 acres. Des Moines is the seat of Des Moines College, a Baptist institution, co-educational, founded in 1865 (enrolment, 1907-1908, 214); of Drake University (co-educational; founded in 188 1 by the Disciples of Christ; now non-sectarian), with colleges of liberal arts, law, medicine, dental surgery and of the Bible, a conservatory of music, and a normal school, in which are departments of oratory and commercial training, and having in 1007-1908 1764 students, of whom 520 were in the summer school only; of the Highland Park College, founded in 1890; of Grand View College (Danish Lutheran), founded in 1895; and of the Capital City commercial college (founded 1884). A new city charter, embodying what has become known as the " Des Moines Plan " of municipal government, was adopted in 1907. It centralizes power in a council of five (mayor and four council- men), nominated at a non-partisan primary and voted for on a non-partisan ticket by the electors of the entire city, ward divisions having been abolished. Elections are biennial. Other city officers are chosen by the council, and city employees are selected by a civil service commission of three members, ap- pointed by the council. The mayor is superintendent of the department of public affairs, and each of the other adminis- trative departments (accounts and finances, public safety, streets and public improvements, and parks and public property) is under the charge of one of the councilmen. • After petition sighed by a number of voters not less than 25% of the number voting at the preceding municipal election, any member of the council may be removed by popular vote, to which all public franchises must be submitted, and by which the council may be compelled to pass any law or ordinance. A fort called Fort Des Moines was established on the site of the city in 1843 to protect the rights of the Sacs and Foxes. In 1843 the site was opened to settlement by the whites; in 1851 Des Moines was incorporated as a town; in 1857 it was first chartered as a city, and, for the purpose of a more central location, the seat of government .was removed hither from Iowa City. A fort was re-established here by act of Congress in 1900 and named Fort Des Moines. It is occupied by a full regiment of cavalry. The name of the city was taken from that of the river, which in turn is supposed to represent a corruption by the French of the original Indian name, Moingona,— the French at first using the abbreviation " moin," and calling the river " la riviere des moins " and then, the name haying become associated with the Tfappist monks, changing it into " la riviere des moines." DESMOND, GERALD FITZGERALD, 15TH Earl of (d. 1583), Irish leader, was son of James, 14th earl, by his second wife More O' Carroll. His father had agreed in January 1 541, as one of the terms of his submission to Henry VIII. , to send young Gerald to be educated in England. At the accession of Edward VI. proposals to this effect were renewed; Gerald was to be the companion of the young king. Unfortunately for the subsequent peace of Munster these projects were not carried out. The Desmond estates were held by a doubtful title, and claims on them were made by the Butlers, the hereditary enemies of the Geraldines, the 9th earl pf Ormonde having married Lady Joan Fitzgerald, daughter and heiress-general of the nth earl of Desmond. On Ormonde's death she proposed to marry Gerald Fitzgerald, and eventually did so, after the death of her second husband, Sir Francis Bryan. The effect of this marriage was a temporary cessation of open hostility between the Desmonds and her son, Thomas Butler, 10th earl of Ormonde. Gerald succeeded to the earldom in 1558; he was knighted by the lord deputy Sussex, and did homage at Waterford. He soon established close relations with his namesake Gerald Fitzgerald, nth earl of Kildare (1525-1585), and with Shane O'Neill. In spite of an award made by Sussex in August 1560 regulating the matters in dispute between Ormonde and the Fitzgeralds, the Geraldine outlaws were still plundering their neighbours. Desmond neglected a summons to appear at Elizabeth's court for some time on the plea that he was at war with his uncle Maurice. When. he did appear in London in May 1562 his insolent conduct before the privy council resulted in a short imprisonment in the Tower. He was detained in England until 1 564, and soon after his return his wife's death set him free from sUch restraint as was provided by her Butler connexion. He now raided Thomond, and in Waterford he sought to enforce his feudal rights on Sir Maurice Fitzgerald of Decies, who invoked the help of Ormonde. The two nobles thereupon resorted to open war, fighting a battle at Affane on the Blackwater, where Desmond was defeated and taken prisoner. Ormonde and Desmond were bound over in London to keep the peace, being allowed to return early in 1566 to Ireland, where a royal commission was appointed to settle the matters in dispute between them. Desmond and his brother Sir John of Desmond were sent over to England, where they surrendered their lands to the queen after a short experienca of the Tower. In the meanwhile Desmond's cousin, James Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald, caused himself to be acclaimed captain of Desmond in defiance of Sidney, and in the evident expectation of usurping the earldom. He sought to give the movement an ultra-Catholic character, with the idea of gaining foreign assistance, and allied himself with John Burke, son of the earl of Clanricarde, with Connor O'Brien, earl of Thomond, aad even secured Ormonde's brother, Sir Edmund Butler, whom Sidney had offended. Piers and Edward Butler also joined the rebellion, but the appearance of Sidney and Qrnionde in the south-west was rapidly followed by the submission of the Butlers. Most of the Geraldines were subjugated by Humphrey Gilbert, but Fitzmaurice remained in arms, and in 1571 Sir John Perrot undertook to reduce him. Perrot hunted him down, and at last on the 23rd of February 1573 he made formal submission at Kilmallock, lying prostrate on the floor of the church by way of proving his sincerity. Against the advice of the queen's Irish counsellors Desmond was allowed to return to Ireland in 1573, the earl promising not to exercise palatinate jurisdiction in Kerry until his rights to it were proved. He was detained for six months in Dublin, but in November slipped through the hands of the government, and DESMOND— DESMOULINS 99 within a very short time had reduced to a state of anarchy the province which Perrot thought to have pacified by his severities. Edward Fitzgerald, brother of the earl of Kildare, and lieutenant of the queen's pensioners in London, was sent to remonstrate with Desmond, but accomplished nothing. Desmond asserted that none but Brehon law should be observed between Geraldines; and Fitzmaurice seized Captain George Bourchier, one of Elizabeth's officers in the west. Essex met the earl near Water- ford in July, and Bourchier was surrendered, but Desmond refused the other demands made in the queen's name. A document offering £500 for his head, and £1000 to any one who would take him alive, was drawn up but was vetoed by two members of the council. On the 18th of July 1 574 the Geraldine chiefs signed the " Combination " promising to support the. earl unconditionally; shortly afterwards Ormonde and the lord deputy, Sir William Fitzwilliam, marched on Munster, and put Desmond's garrison at Derrinlaur Castle to the sword. Desmond submitted at Cork on the 2nd of September, handing over his estates to trustees. Sir Henry Sidney visited Munster in 1575, and affairs seemed to promise an early restoration of order. But Fitzmaurice had fled to Brittany in company with other leading Geraldines, John' Fitzgerald, seneschal of Imokilly, who had held Ballymartyr against Sidney in 1567, and Edmund Fitzgibbon, the son of the White Knight who had been attainted in 1571. He intrigued at the French and Spanish courts for a foreign invasion of Ireland, and at Rome met the adventurer Stucley, with whom he projected an expedition which was to make a nephew of Gregory XIII. king of Ireland. In 1579 he landed in Smerwick Bay, where he was joined later by some Spanish soldiers at the Fort del Ore. His ships were captured on the 29th of July and he himself was slain in a skirmish while on his way to Tipperary. Nicholas Sanders, the papal legate who had accompanied Fitzmaurice, worked on Desmond's weakness, and sought to draw him into open rebellion: Desmond had perhaps been restrained before by jealousy of Fitzmaurice; his inde- cisions ceased when on the 1st of November Sir William; Pelham proclaimed him a traitor. The sack of Youghal and Kinsale by the Geraldines was speedily followed by the successes of Ormonde and Pelham acting in concert with Admiral Winter. In June 1581 Desmond had to take to the woods, but he maintained a considerable following for some time, which, however, in June 1583, when Ormonde set a price on his head; was reduced to four persons. Five months later, on the nth of November, he was seized and murdered by a small party of soldiers. His brother Sir John of Desmond had been caught and killed in December 1 58 1, and the seneschal of Imokilly had surrendered on the 14th of June 1583. After his submission the seneschal acted loyally, but his lands excited envy; he was arrested in 1587, and died in Dublin Castle two days later. By his second marriage with Eleanor Butler, the 15th earl left two sons, the elder of whom, James, 16th earl (1570-1601), spent most of his life in prison. After an unsuccessful attempt in 1600-1601 to recover his inheritance he returned to England, where he died, the title becoming extinct. See G. E. C(okayne,) Complete Peerage; R. Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors (1885-1890); Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters (ed. J. O'Donovan, 1851) ; and the article Fitzgerald. DESMOND (Des-Mumha) , an ancient territorial division of Ireland, covering the eastern part of the modern Co. Kerry and the western part of Co. Cork. Its creation as a kingdom is placed in the year 248,. when Oliol Olum, king of Munster, divided his territory between his two sons, giving Desmond to Eoghan, and Thomond or North Munster to Cormac. In 1329 Maurice Fitzthomas or Fitzgerald (d. 1356), lord of Decies and Desmond, was created 1st earl of Desmond by Edward III.; like other earls created about that time he ruled his territory as a palatinate, and his family acquired enormous powers and a large measure of independence. Meanwhile native kings continued to reign in a restricted territory until 1596. In 1583 came the attainder of Gerald Fitzgerald, 1 5th earl of Desmond (q.v.) , and in 1 $86 an act of parliament declared the forfeiture of the Desmond estates to the crown. In 1571 a commission provided for the formation of Desmond into a county, and it was regarded as such for a few years, but by the beginning of the 17th century it was joined to Co. Kerry. In 1619 the title of earl of Desmond was conferred on Richard Preston, Lord Dingwall, at whose death in 1628 it again became extinct. It was then bestowed on George Feilding, second son of William, earl of Denbigh, who had held the reversion of the earldom from 1622. His son William Feilding succeeded as earl of Denbigh in 1675, and thenceforward the title of Desmond was held in conjunction with that honour. DESMOSCOLECIDA, a group of minute marine worm-like creatures. The body tapers towards each end and is marked by a number of well-defined ridges. These ridges resemble on a small scale those which surround the body of a Poro- cephalus (Linguatulida) , and like them have no segmental significance. Their number varies in the different species. The head bears four setae, and some of the ridges bear a pair either dorsally or ventrally. The setae are movable. Two pigment spots between the fourth and fifth ridges are regarded as eyes. The Desmoscolecida move by looping their bodies like geometrid caterpillars or leeches, as well as by creeping on their setae. The mouth is terminal, and leads into a muscular oesophagus which opens into a straight intestine terminat- ing in an anus, which is said to be dorsal in position. The sexes are dis- tinct. The testis is single, and its duct opens into the intestine and is provided with two chitinous spicules. The ovary is also single, opening independently and anterior to the anus. The nervous system is as yet unknown. There are several species. D. minutus Clap, has been met with in the English Channel. Others are D. nematoides Greef , D. adelphus Greef, D. chaetogaster Greef, D. elongatus Panceri, D. lanugi- nosa Panceri. Trichoderma oxycaudatum Greef is 0-3 mm. long, and is also a " ringed creature with long hair-like bristles." The male has two spicules, and there is some doubt as to whether it should be placed with the Desmos- colecida or with the Nematoda. With regard to the systematic position of the group, it certainly comes nearest — especially in the structure of its reproductive organs — to the Nematoda. We still, however, are very ignorant of the internal anatomy of these forms, and until we know more it is impossible to arrive at a very definite conclusion as to their position in the animal kingdom. See Panceri, Atti Ace, Napoli. vii. (1878); Greef, Arch. Naturg. 35 (i.) (1869), p. 112. (A. E. S.) DESMOULINS, LUCIE SIMPLICE CAMILLE BENOIST (1760- 1794), French journalist and politician, who played an important part in the French Revolution, was born at Guise, in Picardy, on the 2nd of March 1760. His father was lieutenant-general of the bailliage of Guise, and through the efforts of a friend obtained a bourse for his son, who at the age of fourteen left home for Paris, and entered the college of Louis le Grand. In this school, in which Robespierre was also a bursar and a distinguished student, Camille Desmoulins laid the solid foundation of his learning. Destined by his father for the law, at the completion of his legal studies he was admitted an advocate of the parlement of Paris in 1785. His professional success was not great; his manner was violent, his appearance unattractive, and his speech impaired by a painful stammer. He indulged, however, his love for litera- ture, was closely observant of public affairs, and thus gradually Natural Worms," Mac- millan & Co. Female Desmoscolex elongatus Panceri, vent- ral view. a, Ovary. (From Panceri.) IOO DESMOULINS prepared himself for the main duties of his life — those of a political litterateur. In March 1789 Desmoulins began his political career. Having been nominated deputy from the bailliage of Guise, he appeared at Laon as one of the commissioners for the election of deputies to the States-General summoned by royal edict of January 24th. Camille heralded its meeting by his Ode to the States-General. It is, moreover, highly probable that he was the author of a radical pamphlet entitled La Philosophie au peuple fratiQais, published in 1788, the text of which is not known. His hopes of pro- fessional success were now scattered, and he was living in Paris in extreme poverty. He, however, shared to the full the excite- ment which attended the meeting of the States-General. As appears from his letters to his father, he watched with exultation the procession of deputies at Versailles, and with violent indigna- tion the events of the latter part of June which followed the closing of the Salle des Menus to the deputies who had named themselves the National Assembly. It is further evident that Desmoulins was already sympathizing, not only with the enthusi- asm, but also with the fury and cruelty, of the Parisian crowds. The sudden dismissal of Necker by Louis XVI. was the event which brought Desmoulins to fame. On the 12th of July 1789 Camille, leaping upon a table outside one of the cafes in the garden of the Palais Royal, announced to the crowd the dismissal of their favourite. Losing, in his violent excite- ment, his stammer, he inflamed the passions of the mob by his burning words and his call " To arms! " " This dismissal," he said, " is the tocsin of the St Bartholomew of the patriots." Drawing, at last, two pistols from under his coat, he declared that he would not fall alive into the hands of the police who were watching his movements. He descended amid the embraces of the crowd, and his cry " To arms! " resounded on all sides. This scene was the beginning of the actual events of the Revolution. Following Desmoulins the crowd surged through Paris, procuring arms by force; and on the 13th it was partly organized as the Parisian militia which was afterwards to be the National Guard. On the 14th the Bastille was taken. Desmoulins may be said to have begun on the following day that public literary career which lasted till his death. In May and June 1789 he had written La France libre, which, to his chagrin, his publisher refused to print. The taking of the Bastille, however, and the events by which it was preceded, were a sign that the times had changed; and on the 18th of July Desmoulins's work was issued. Considerably in advance of public opinion, it already pronounced in favour of a republic. By its erudite, brilliant and courageous examination of the rights of king, of nobles, of clergy and of people, it attained a wide and sudden popularity; it secured for the author the friendship and pro- tection of Mirabeau, and the studied abuse of numerous royalist pamphleteers. Shortly afterwards, with his vanity and love of popularity inflamed, he pandered to the passions of the lower orders by the publication of his Discours de la lanterne aux Parisiens which, with an almost fiendish reference to the excesses of the mob, he headed by a quotation from St John, Qui male agit odit lucem. Camille was dubbed " Procureur-general de la lanterne." In November 1789 Desmoulins began his career as a journalist by the issue of the first number of a weekly publication, Les Revolutions de France et de Brabant. The title of the publication changed after the 73rd number. It ceased to appear at the end of July 1791. 1 Success attended the Revolutions from its first to its last number, Camille was everywhere famous, and his poverty was relieved. These numbers are valuable as an exhibition not so much of events as of the feelings of the Parisian people; they are adorned, moreover, by the erudition, the wit and the genius of the author, but they are disfigured, not only by the most biting personalities and the defence and even advocacy of the excesses of the mob, but by the entire absence of the forgiveness and pity for which the writer was afterwards so eloquently to plead. 1 In April 1792 Desmoulins founded with Stanislas Freron a new journal, La Tribune des patriotes, but only four numbers appeared. Desmoulins was powerfully swayed by the influence of more vigorous minds; and for some time before the death of Mirabeau, in April 1791, he had begun to be led by Danton, with whom he remained associated during the rest of his fife. In July 1791 Camille appeared before the municipality of Paris as head of a deputation of petitioners for the deposition of the king. In that month, however, such a request was dangerous; there was excitement in the city over the presentation of the petition, and the private attacks to which Desmoulins had often been subject were now followed by a warrant for the arrest of himself and Danton. Danton left Paris for a little; Desmoulins, however, remained there, appearing occasionally at the Jacobin club. Upon the failure of this attempt of his opponents, Desmoulins published a pamphlet, Jean Pierre Brissot dimasque, which abounded in the most violent personalities. This pamphlet, which had its origin in a petty squabble, was followed in 1793 by a Fragment de I'histoire secrete de la Revolution, in which the party of the Gironde, and specially Brissot, were most mercilessly attacked. Desmoulins took an active part on the 10th of August and became secretary to Danton, when the latter became minister of justice. On the 8th of September he was elected one of the deputies for Paris to the National Convention, where, however, ' he was not successful as an orator. He was of the party of the " Mountain," and voted for the abolition of royalty and the death of the king. With Robespierre he was now more than ever associated, and the Histoire des Brissotins, the fragment above alluded to, was inspired by the arch-revolutionist. The success of the brochure, so terrible as to send the leaders of the Gironde to the guillotine, alarmed Danton and the author. Yet the r6le of Desmoulins during the Convention was of but secondary importance. In December 1793 was issued the first number of the Vieux Cordelier, which was at first directed against the Hebertists and approved of by Robespierre, but which soon formulated Danton's idea of a committee of clemency. Then Robespierre turned against Desmoulins and took advantage of the popular indigna- tion roused against the Hebertists to send them to death. The time had come, however, when Saint Just and he were to turn their attention not only to les enrages, but to les indulgents — the powerful faction of the Dantonists. On the 7th of January 1 794 Robespierre, who on a former occasion had defended Camille when in danger at the hands of the National Convention, in addressing the Jacobin club counselled not the expulsion of Desmoulins, but the burning of certain numbers of the Vieux Cordelier. Camille sharply replied that he would answer with Rousseau, — " burning is not answering," and a bitter quarrel thereupon ensued. By the end of March not only were Hebert and the leaders of the extreme party guillotined, but their opponents, Danton, Desmoulins and the best of the moderates, were arrested. On the 31st the warrant of arrest was signed and executed, and on the 3rd, 4th and 5th of April the trial took place befqre the Revolutionary Tribunal. It was a scene of terror not only to the accused but to judges and to jury. The retorts of the prisoners were notable. Camille on being asked his age, replied, " I am thirty-three, the age of the sans-culotte Jesus, a critical age for every patriot." This was false; he was thirty-four. 2 The accused were prevented from defending themselves; a decree of the Convention denied them the right of speech. Armed with this and the false report of a spy, who charged the wife of Desmoulins with conspiring for the escape of her husband and the ruin of the republic, Fouquier-Tinville by threats and entreaties obtained from the jury a sentence of death. It was passed in absence of the accused, and their execution was appointed for the same day. Since his arrest the courage of Camille had miserably failed. He had exhibited in the numbers of the Vieux Cordelier almost a disregard of the death which he must have known hovered over him. He had with consummate ability exposed the terrors of 2 This is borne out by the register of his birth and baptism, and by words in his last letter to his wife, — " I die at thirty-four." The dates (1762-1794) given in so many biographies of Desmoulins ara certainly inaccurate. DESNOYERS— DESPENSER IOI the Revolution, and had adorned his pages with illustrations from Tacitus, the force of which the commonest reader could feel. In his last number, the seventh, which his publisher refused to print, he had dared to attack even Robespierre, but at his trial it was found that he was devoid of physical courage. He had to be torn from his seat ere he was removed to prison, and as he sat next to Danton in the tumbrel which conveyed them to the guillotine, the calmness of the great leader failed to impress him.. In his violence, bound as he was, he tore his clothes into shreds, and his bare shoulders and breast were exposed to the gaze of the surging crowd. Of the fifteen guillotined together, including among them Marie Jean Herault de Sechelles, Francois Joseph Westeirmann and Pierre Philippeaux, Desmoulins died third; Danton, the greatest, died last. On the 29th of December 1790 Camille had married Lucile Duplessis, and among the witnesses of the ceremony are observed the names of Brissot, Petion and Robespierre. The only child of the marriage, Horace Camille, was born on the 6th of July 1792. Two days afterwards Desmoulins brought it into notice by appearing with it before the municipality of Paris to demand " the formal statement of the civil estate of his son." The boy was afterwards pensioned by the French government, and died in Haiti in 1825. Lucile, Desmoulins's accomplished and affec- tionate wife, was, a. few days after her husband; and on a false charge, condemned to the guillotine. She astonished allonlookers by the calmness with which she braved death (April 13, 1794). See J. Claretie, (Euvres de Camille Desmoulins avec une etude biographique . . . &c. (Paris, 1874), and Camille Desmoulins, Lucile Desmoulins, etude sur les Dantonistes (Paris, 1875; Eng. trans., London, 1876); F. A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de la Legislative et dela Convention (Paris, 1905, 2nd ed.) : G. Lenfitre, " La Maisonde Camille Desmoulins " (Le Temps, March 25, 1899). DESNOYERS, JULES PIERRE FRANCOIS STANISLAS (1800- 1887), French geologist and archaeologist, was born at Nogent-le- Rotrou, in the department of Eure-et-Loir, on the 8th of October 1800. Becoming interested in geology at an early age, he was one of the founders of the Societe Geologique de France in 1830. In 1834 he was appointed librarian of the Museum of Natural History in Paris. His contributions to geological science com- prise memoirs on the Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary Strata of the Paris Basin and of Northern France, and other papers relating to the antiquity of man, and to the question of his co-existence with extinct mammalia. His separate books were Sur la Crate et sur les terrains tertiaires du Cptenttn (1825), Recherches giologiques et historiques sur les cavernes (1845). He died in 1887. DESOR, PIERRE JEAN EDOUARD (1811-1882), Swiss geologist, was born at Friedrichsdorf, near Frankfort-on-Main, on .the 13th of February 1811. Associated in early years with Agassiz he studied palaeontology and glacial phenomena, and in company with J. D. Forbes ascended the Jungfrau in 1841. Desor afterwards became professor of geology in the academy at Neuchatel, continued his studies on the structure of glaciers, but gave special attention to the study of Jurassic Echinoderms. He also investigated the old lake-habitations of Switzerland, and made important observations on the physical features of the Sahara. Having inherited considerable property he retired to Combe Varin in Val Travers. He died at Nizza on the 23rd of February 1882. His chief publications were: Synopsis des Achinides fossiles (1858), Aus Sahara (1865), Der Gebirgsbau der Alpen (1865), Die Pfahlbauten des Neuenburger Sees (1866), Echinologie hehetique (2 vols., 1868-1873, with P. de Loriol). DE SOTO, a city of Jefferson county, Missouri, U.S.A., on Joachim Creek, 42 m. S.S.W. of St Louis. Pop. (1890) 3960; (1900) 5611 (33 2 being foreign-born and 364 negroes); (1910)4721. It is served by the St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern railway, which has extensive repair shops here. About 25 m, from De Soto is the Bochert mineral spring. In De Soto are Mount St Clement's College (Roman Catholic, 1900), a theological seminary of the Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer under the charge of the Redemptorist Fathers, and a Young Men's Christian Associa- tion building. De Soto is in a good agricultural and fruit-growing region, which produces Indian corn, apples, plums, pears and small fruit. Lead and zinc are mined in the vicinity and shipped from the city in considerable quantities; and among the city's manufactures are shoes, flour and agricultural implements. The municipality owns the water- works, the water supply of- which is furnished by artesian wells. De Soto was laid out in 1855 and was incorporated in 1869. DESPARD, EDWARD MARCUS (1751-1803), Irish conspirator, was born in Queen's Co., Ireland, in 1751. In 1766 he entered the British navy, was promoted lieutenant in 1772, and stationed at Jamaica, where he soon proved himself to have considerable engineering talent. He served in the West Indies with credit, being promoted captain after the San Juan expedition (1779), then made governor of the Mosquito Shore and the Bay of Honduras, and in 1782 commander of a successful expedition against the Spanish possessions on the Black river. In 1784 he took over the administration of Yucatan. Upon frivolous charges he was suspended by Lord Grenville, and recalled to England. From 1790 to 1792 these charges were held over him, and when dismissed no compensation was forthcoming. His complaints caused him to be arrested in 1798; and with a short interval he remained in gaol until 1800. By that time Despard was desperate, and engaged in a plot to seize the Tower of London and Bank of England and assassinate George III. The whole idea was patently preposterous, but Despard was arrested, tried before a special commission, found guilty of high treason, and, with six of his fellow-conspirators, sentenced in 1803 to be hanged, drawn and quartered. These were the last men to be so sentenced in England. Despard was executed on the 21st of February 1803. His eldest brother, John Despard (1745-1829), had a long and distinguished career in the British army; gazetted an ensign in 1760, he was promoted through the various intermediate grades and became general in 1814. His most active service was in the American War of Independence, during which he was twice made prisoner. DESPENSER, HUGH LE (d. 1265), chief justiciar of England, first plays an important part in 1258, when he was prominent on the baronial side in the Mad Parliament of Oxford. In 1260 the barons chose him to succeed Hugh Bigod as justiciar, and in 1 263 the king was further compelled to put the Tower of London in his hands. On the outbreak of civil war he joined the party of Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, and led the Londoners when they sacked the manor-house of Isleworth, belonging to Richard, earl of Cornwall, king of the Romans. Having fought at Lewes (1264) he was made governor of six castles after the battle, and was then appointed one of the four arbitrators to mediate between Simon de Montfort and Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester. He was summoned to Simon de Montfort's parlia- ment in 1264, and acted as justiciar throughout the earl's dictatorship. Despenser was killed at Evesham in August 1265. See C. Bemont, Simon de Montfort (Paris, 1884); T. F. Tout in Owens College Historical Essays, pp. 76 ff. (Manchester, 1902). DESPENSER, HUGH LE (1262-1326), English courtier, was a son of the English justiciar who died at Evesham. He fought for Edward I. in Wales, France and Scotland, and in 1295 was summoned to parliament as a baron. Ten years later he was sent by the king to Pope Clement V. to secure Edward's release from the oaths he had taken to observe the charters in 1297. Almost alone Hugh spoke out for Edward II. 's favourite, Piers Gaveston, in 1308; but after Gaveston's death in 13 12 he himself became the king's chief adviser, holding power and influence until Edward's defeat at Bannockburn in 13 14. Then, hated by the barons, and especially by Earl Thomas of Lancaster, as a deserter from their party, he was driven from the council, but was quickly restored to favour and loaded with lands and honours, being made earl of Winchester in 1322. Before this time Hugh's son, the younger Hugh le Despenser, had become associated with his father, and having been appointed the king's chamberlain was enjoying a still larger share of the royal favour. About 1306 this baron had married Eleanor (d. 1337), one of the sisters and heiresses of Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester, who was slain at 102 DES PERIERS-^BESPORTES Bannockburn; and after a division of the immense Clare lands had been made in 13 17 violent quarrels broke out between the Despensers and the husbands of the other heiresses, Roger of Amory and Hugh of Audley. Interwoven with this dispute was another between the younger Despenser and the Mowbrays, who were supported by Humphrey Bohun, earl of Hereford, about some lands in Glamorganshire. Fighting having begun in Wales and on the Welsh borders, the English barons showed themselves decidedly hostile to the Despensers, and in 1321 Edward II. was obliged to consent to their banishment. While the elder Hugh left England the younger one remained; soon the king persuaded the clergy to annul the sentence against them, and father and son were again at court. They fought against the rebellious barons at Boroughbridge, and after Lancaster's death in 1322 they were practically responsible for the government of the country, which they attempted to rule in a moderate and con- stitutional fashion. But their next enemy, Queen Isabella, was more formidable, or more fortunate, than Lancaster. Returning to England after a sojourn in France in 1326 the queen directed her arms against her husband's favourites. The elder Despenser was seized at Bristol, where he was hanged on the 27th of October 1326, and the younger was taken with the king at Llantrisant and hanged at Hereford on the 24th of November following. The attainder against the Despensers was reversed in 1398. The intense hatred with which the barons regarded the Despensers was due to the enormous wealth which had passed into their hands, and to the arrogance and rapacity of the younger Hugh. The younger Despenser left two sons, Hugh (1308-1349), and Edward, who was killed at Vannes in 1342. The latter's son Edward le Despenser (d. 1375) fought at the battle of Poitiers, and then in Italy for Pope Urban V.; he was a patron of Froissart, who calls him le grand sire Despensier. His son, Thomas le Despenser (1373-1400), the husband of Constance (d. 1416), daughter of Edmund of Langley, duke of York, supported Richard II. against Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester, and the other lords appellant in 1397, when he himself was created earl of Gloucester, but he deserted the king in 1399. Then, degraded from his earldom for participating in Gloucester's death, Despenser joined the conspiracy against Henry IV., but he was seized and was executed by a mob at Bristol in January 1400. The elder Edward le Despenser left another son, Henry (c. 1341-1406), who became bishop of Norwich in 1370. In early life Henry had been a soldier, and when the peasants revolted in 1381 he took readily to the field, defeated the insur- gents at North Walsham, and suppressed the rising in Norfolk with some severity. More famous, however, was the militant bishop's enterprise on behalf of Pope Urban VI., who in 1382 employed him to lead a crusade in Flanders against the supporters of the anti-pope Clement VII. He was very successful in captur- ing towns until he came before Ypres, where he was checked, his humiliation being completed when his army was defeated by the French and decimated by a pestilence. Having returned to England the bishop was impeached in parliament and was deprived of his lands; Richard II., however, stood by him, and he soon regained an influential place in the royal council, and was employed to defend his country on the seas. Almost alone among his peers Henry remained true to Richard in 1399; he was then imprisoned, but was quickly released and reconciled with the new king, Henry IV. He died on the 23rd of August 1406. Despenser was an active enemy of the Lollards, whose leader, John Wycliffe, had fiercely denounced his crusade in Flanders. The barony of Despenser, called out of abeyance in 1604, was held by the Fanes, earls of Westmorland, from 1626 to 1762; by the notorious Sir Francis Dashwood from 1763 to 1781; and by the Stapletons from 1788 to 1891. In 1891 it was inherited, through his mother, by the 7th Viscount Falmouth. DES PERIERS, BONAVENTURE (c. 1500-1544), French author, was born of a noble family at Arnay-le-duc in Burgundy at the end of the 15th century. The circumstances of his educa- tion are uncertain, but he became a good classical scholar, and was' attached to various noble houses in the capacity of tutor. In 1533 or 1534 Des Periers visited Lyons, then the most en- lightened town of France, and a refuge for many liberal scholars who might elsewhere have had to suffer for their opinions. He gave some assistance to Robert Olivetan and Lef&vre d'Etaples in the preparation of the vernacular version of the Old Testament, and to Etienne Dolet in the Commentarii linguae latinae. In 1536 he put himself under the protection of Marguerite d'Angoul6me, queen of Navarre, who made him her valet-de- chambre. He acted as the queen's secretary, and transcribed the Heptam&ron for her. It is probable that his duties extended beyond those of a mere copyist, and some writers have gone so far as to say that the Heptameron was his work. The free discussions permitted at Marguerite's court encouraged a licence of thought as displeasing to the Calvinists as to the Catholics. This free inquiry became scepticism in Bonaventure's Cymbalum Mundi . . . (1537), and the queen of Navarre thought it prudent to disavow the author, though she continued to help him privately until 1541. The book consisted of four dialogues in imitation of Lucian. Its allegorical form did not conceal its real meaning, and, when it was printed by Morin, probably early in 1538, the Sorbonne secured the suppression of the edition before it was offered for sale. The dedication provides a key to the author's intention: Thomas duClevier {or Clenier) a son ami Pierre Tryocan was recognized by 19th-century editors to be an anagram for Thomas I'Incridule a son ami Pierre Croyant. The book was reprinted in Paris in the same year. It made many bitter enemies for the author. Henri Estienne called it detestable, and Etienne Pasquier said it deserved to be thrown into the fire with its author if he were still living. Des Periers prudently left Paris, and after some wanderings settled at Lyons, where he lived in poverty, until in 1544 he put an end to his existence by falling on his sword. In 1544 his collected works were printed at Lyons. The volume, Recueil des ceuvres de feu Bonaventure des Periers, included his poems, which are of small merit, the Traill des quatre vertus cardinales apres SSneque, and a translation of the Lysis of Plato. In 1558 appeared at Lyons the collection of stories and fables entitled the Nouvelles rScrialions etjoyeux devis. It is on this work that the claim put forward for Des Periers as one of the early masters of French prose rests. Some of the tales are attributed to the editors, Nicholas Denisot and Jacques Pelletier, but their share is certainly limited to the later ones. The book leaves something to be desired on the score of morality, but the stories never lack point and are models of simple, direct narration in the vigorous and picturesque French of the 16th century. His CEuvres francaises were published by Louis Lacour (Paris, 2 vols., 1856). See also the preface to the Cymbalum Mundi . . . ,(ed. F. Franck, 1874); A. Cheneviere, Bonaventure Desperiers, savie, ses poesies (1885) ; and P. Toldo, Contributo alio studio della novella francese del XV. e XVI. secolo (Rome, 1895). DESPORTES, PHILIPPE (1546-1606), French poet, was born at Chartres in 1546. As secretary to the bishop of Le Puy he visited Italy, where he gained a knowledge of Italian poetry afterwards turned to good account. On his return to France he attached himself to the duke of Anjou, and followed him to Warsaw on his election as king of Poland. Nine months in Poland satisfied the civilized Desportes, but in 1574 his patron became king of France as Henry III. He showered favours on the poet, who received, in reward for the skill with which he wrote occasional poems at the royal request, the abbey of Tiron and four other valuable benefices. A good example of the light and dainty verse in which Desportes excelled is furnished by the -well-known villanelle with the refrain " Qui premier s'en repentira," which was on the lips of Henry, duke of Guise, just before his tragic death. Desportes was above all an imitator. He imitated Petrarch, Ariosto, Sannazaro, and still more closely the minor Italian poets, and in T604 a number of his plagiarisms were exposed in the Rencontres des Muses de France et d'ltalie. As a sonneteer he showed much grace and sweetness, and English poets borrowed freely from him. In his old age Desportes acknowledged his ecclesiastical preferment by a translation of DESPOT— DESSAU 103 the Psalms remembered chiefly for the brutal mot of Malherbe: " Votre potage vaut mreux que vos psaumes. " Desportes died on the 5th of October 1606. He had published in 1573 an edition of his works including Diane, Les Amours d'Hippolyte, Elegies, Bergeries, (Euvres chretiennes, &c. An edition of his (Euvres, by Alfred Michiels, appeared in 1858. DESPOT (Gr. htairorrfs, lord or master; the origin of the first part of the Gr. word is unknown, the second part is cognate with irixris, husband, Lat. potens, powerful), in Greek usage the master of a household, hence the ruler of slaves. It was also used by the Greeks of their gods, as was the feminine form deo-iroiva. It was, however, principally applied by the Greeks to the absolute monarchs of the eastern empires with which they came in contact; and it is in this sense that the word, like its equivalent " tyrant," is in current usage for an absolute sovereign whose rule is not restricted by any constitution. In the Roman empire of the East " despot " was early used as a title of honour or address of the emperor, and was given by Alexius I. (1081-1118) to the sons, brothers and sons-in-law of the emperor (Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ed. Bury, vol. vi. 80). It does not seem that the title was confined to the heir-apparent by Alexius II. (see Selden, Titles of Honour, part ii. chap. i. s. vi.). Later still it was adopted by the vassal princes of the empire. This gave rise to the name " despotats " as applied to these tributary states, which survived the break-up of the empire in the independent " despotats " of Epirus, Cyprus, Trebizond, &c. Under Ottoman rule the title was preserved by the despots of Servia and of the Morea, &c. The early use of the term as a title of address for ecclesiastical dignitaries survives in its use in the Greek Church as the formal mode of addressing a bishop. DES PRES, JOSQUIN (c. 1445-1521), also called Depres or Desprez, and by a latinized form of his name, Jodocus Pratensis or A Prato, French musical composer, was born, probably in Conde in the Hennegau, about 1445. He was a pupil of Ockenheim, and himself one of the most learned musicians of his time. In spite of his great fame, the accounts of his life are vague and the dates contradictory. Fetis contributed greatly towards elucidating the doubtful points in his Biographie universelle. In his early youth Josquin seems to have been a member of the choir of the collegiate church at St Quentin; when his voice changed he went (about 1455) to Ockenheim to take lessons in counterpoint; afterwards he again lived at his birth- place for some years, till Pope Sixtus IV. invited him to Rome to teach his art to the musicians of Italy, where musical know- ledge at that time was at a low ebb. In Rome Des Pres lived till the death of his protector (1484), and it was there that many of his works were written. His reputation grew rapidly, and he was considered by his contemporaries to be the greatest master of his age. Luther, who was a good judge, is credited with the saying that " other musicians do with notes what they can, Josquin what he likes. " The composer's journey to Rome marks in a manner the transference of the art from its Gallo-Belgian birthplace to Italy, which for the next two centuries remained the centre of the musical world. To Des Pres and his pupils Arcadelt, Mouton and others, much that is characteristic in modern music owes its rise, particularly in their influence upon Italian developments under Palestrina. After leaving Rome Des Pres went for a time to Ferrara, where the duke Hercules I. offered him a home; but before long he accepted an invitation of King Louis XII. of France to become the chief singer of the royal chapel. According to another account, he was for a time at least in the service of the emperor Maximilian I. The date of his death has by some writers been placed as early as 1501. But this is sufficiently disproved by the fact of one of his finest compositions, A Dirge (Deploralion) for Five Voices, being written to commemorate the death of his master Ockenheim, which took place after 1512. The real date of Josquin's decease has since been settled as the 27th of August 1521. He was at that time a canon of the cathedral of Conde (see Victor Delzant's Sepultures de Flandre, No. 118). The most complete list of his compositions — consisting of masses, motets, psalms and other pieces of sacred music — will be found in Fetis. The largest collection of his MS. works, containing no less than twenty masses, is in the possession of the papal chapel in Rome. In his lifetime Des Pres was honoured as an eminent composer, and the musicians of the 16th century are loud in his praise. During the 17th and 18th centuries his value was ignored, nor does his work appear in the collections of Martini and Paolucci. Burney was the first to recover him from oblivion, and Forkel continued the task of rehabilitation. Ambros furnishes the most exhaustive account of his achievements. An admirable account of Josquin's art, from the rare point of view of a modern critic who knows how to allow for modern difficulties, will be found in the article " Josquin," in Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, new ed. vol. ii. The Repertoire des chanteurs de St Gervais contains an excellent modern edition of Josquin's Miserere. DESPRES, SUZANNE (1875- ), French actress, was born at Verdun, and trained at the Paris Conservatoire, where in 1897 she obtained the first prize for comedy, and the second for tragedy. She then became associated with, and subsequently married, Aurelien Lugne-Poe (b. 1870), the actor-manager, who had founded a new school of modern drama, L'CEuvre, and she had a brilliant success in several plays produced by him. ' In succeeding years she played at the Gymnase and at the Porte Saint-Martin, and in 1902 made her debut at the Comedie Frangaise, appearing in Fhedre and other important parts. DESRUES, ANTOINE FRANQOIS (1744 -1777), French poisoner, was born at Chartres in 1744, of humble parents. He went to Paris to seek his fortune, and started in business as a grocer. He was known as a man of great piety and devotion, and his business was reputed to be a flourishing one, but when, in 1773, h<* gave up his shop, his finances, owing to personal extravagance, were in a deplorable condition. Nevertheless he entered into negotiations with a Madame de la Mothe for the purchase from her of a country estate, and, when the time came for the payment of the purchase money, invited her to stay with him in Paris pending the transfer. While she was still his guest, he poisoned first her and then her son, a youth of sixteen. Then, having forged a receipt for the purchase money, he endeavoured to obtain possession of the property. But by this time the dis- appearance of Madame de la Mothe and her son had aroused suspicion. Desrues was arrested, the bodies of his victims were discovered, and the crime was brought home to him. He was tried, found guilty and condemned to be torn asunder alive and burned. The sentence was carried out (1777), Desrues repeating hypocritical protestations of his innocence to the last. The whole affair created a great sensation at the time, and as late as 1828 a dramatic version of it was performed in Paris. DESSAIX, JOSEPH MARIE, Count (1764-1834), French general, was born at Thonon in Savoy on the 24th of September 1764. He studied medicine, took his degree at Turin, and then went to Paris, where in 1789 he joined the National Guard. In 1 791 he tried without success to raise an tmeute in Savoy, in 1792 he organized the " Legion of the Allobroges," and in the follow- ing years he served at the siege of Toulon, in the Army of the Eastern Pyrenees, and in the Army of Italy. He was captured at Rivoli, but was soon exchanged. In the spring of 1 798 Dessaix was elected a member of the Council of Five Hundred. He was one of the few in that body who opposed the coup d'etat of the 18th Brumaire (November 9, 1799). In 1803 he was promoted general of brigade, and soon afterwards commander of the Legion of Honour. He distinguished himself greatly at the battle of Wagram (1809), and was about this time promoted general of division and named grand officer of the Legion of Honour, and in 1810 was made a count. He took part in the expedition to Russia, and was twice wounded. For several months he was commandant of Berlin, and afterwards delivered the department of Mont Blanc from the Austrians. After the first restoration Dessaix held a command under the Bourbons. He nevertheless joined Napoleon in the Hundred Days, and in 1816 he was imprisoned for five months. The rest of his life was spent in retirement. He died on the 26th of October 1834. See Le Gineral Dessaix, sa vie politique et militaire, by his nephew Joseph Dessaix (Paris, 1879). DESSAU, a town of Germany, capital of the duchy of Anhalf, on the left bank of the Mulde, 2 m. from its confluence with the 104 DESSEWFFY— DESTRUCTORS Elbe, 67 m. S.W. from Berlin and at the junction of lines to Cothen and Zerbst. Pop. (1905) 55,134. Apart from the old quarter lying on the Mulde, the town is well built, is surrounded by pleasant gardens and contains many handsome streets and spacious squares. Among the latter is the Grosse Markt with a statue of Prince Leopold I. of Anhalt-Dessau, " the old Dessauer." Of the six churches, the Schlosskirche, adorned with paintings by Lucas Cranach, in one of which (" The Last Supper ") are portraits of several reformers, is the most interesting. The ducal palace, standing in extensive grounds, contains a collection of historical curiosities and a gallery of pictures, which includes works by Cimabue, Lippi,Rubens,Titian and Van Dyck. Among other buildings are the town hall (built 1 899-1 900), the palace of the hereditary prince, the theatre, the administration offices, the law courts, the Amalienstift, with a picture gallery, several high-grade schools, a library of 30,000 volumes and an excellently appointed hospital. There are monuments to the philosopher Moses Mendelssohn (born here in 1729), to the poet Wilhelm Miiller, father of Professor Max Mtiller, also a native of the place, to the emperor William I., and an obelisk commemorating the war of 1870-71. The industries of Dessau include the pro- duction of sugar, which is the chief manufacture, woollen, linen and cotton goods, carpets, hats, leather, tobacco and musical instruments. There is also a considerable trade in corn and garden produce. In the environs are the ducal villas of Georgium and Luisium, the gardens of which, as well as those of the neighbouring town of WQrlitz, are much admired. Dessau was probably founded by Albert the Bear; it had attained civic rights as early as 1213. It first began to grow into importance at the close of the 17th century, in consequence of the religious emancipation of the Jews in 1686, and of the Lutherans in 1697. See Wurdig, Chronik der Stadt Dessau (Dessau, 1876). DESSEWFFY, AUREL, Count (1808 -1842), Hungarian journalist and politician, eldest son of Count Jozsef Dessewffy and Eleonora Sztaray, was born at Nagy-Mihaly, county Zemplen, Hungary. Carefully educated at his father's house, he was accustomed to the best society of his day. While still a child he could declaim most of the Iliad in Greek without a book, and read and quoted Tacitus with enthusiasm. Under the noble influence of Ferencz Kazinczy he became acquainted with the chief masterpieces of European literature in their original tongues. He was particularly fond of the English, and one of his early idols was Jeremy Bentham. He regularly accompanied his father to the diets of which he was a member, followed the course of the debates, of which he kept a journal, and made the acquaint- ance of the great Szechenyi, who encouraged his aspirations. On leaving college, he entered the royal aulic chancellery, and in 1832 was appointed secretary of the royal stadtholder at Buda. The same year he turned his attention to politics and was regarded as one of the most promising young orators of the day, especially during the sessions of the diet of 1832-1836, when he had the courage to oppose Kossuth. At the Pressburg diet in 1840 Dessewffy was already the leading orator of the more enlightened and progressive Conservatives, but incurred great unpopularity for not going far enough, with the result that he was twice defeated at the polls. But his reputation in court circles was increasing; he was appointed a member of the com- mittee for the reform of the criminal law in 1840; and, the same year with a letter of recommendation from Metternich in his pocket, visited England and France, Holland and Belgium, made the acquaintance of Thiers and Heine in Paris, and returned home with an immense and precious store of practical information. He at once proceeded to put fresh life into the despondent and irresolute Conservative party, and the Magyar aristocracy, by gallantly combating in the Vildg the opinions of Kossuth's paper, the Pesti Hirlap. But the multiplicity of his labours was too much for his feeble physique, and he died on the 9th of February 1842, at the very time when his talents seemed most indispensable. See Aus den Papieren des Graf en Aurel Dessewffy (Pest, 1843); Memorial Wreath to Count Aurel Dessewffy (Hung.), (Budapest, 1857); Collected Works of Count Dessewffy , with a Biography (Hung.) , (Budapest, 1887). (R. N. B.) DESSOIR, LUDWIG (1810-1874), German actor, whose name was originally Leopold Dessauer, was born on the 15th of December 1810 at Posen, the son of a Jewish tradesman. He made his first appearance on the stage there in 1824 in a small part. After some experience at the theatre in Posen and on tour, he was engaged at Leipzig from 1834 to 1836. Then he was attached to the municipal theatre of Breslau, and in 1837 appeared at Prague, Briinn, Vienna and Budapest, where he accepted an engagement which lasted until 1839. He succeeded Karl Devrient at Karlsruhe, and went in 1847 to Berlin, where he acted Othello and Hamlet with such extraordinary success that he received a permanent engagement at the Hof-theater. From 1849 to 1872, when he retired on a pension, he played no parts, frequently on tour, and in 1853 acting in London. He died on the 30th of December 1874 in Berlin. Dessoir was twice married; his first wife, Theresa, a popular actress (1810-1866), was separated from him a year after marriage; his second wife went mad on the death of her child. By his first wife Dessoir had one son, the actor Ferdinand Dessoir (1836-1892). In spite of certain physical disabilities Ludwig Dessoir's genius raised him to the first rank of actors, especially as interpreter of Shakespeare's characters. G. H. Lewes placed Dessoir's Othello above that of Kean, and the Athenaeum preferred him in this part to Brooks or Macready. DESTOUCHES, PHILIPPE (1680-1754), French dramatist, whose real name was Nericault, was born at Tours in April 1680. When he was nineteen years of age he became secretary to M. de Puysieux, the French ambassador in Switzerland. In 1716 he was attached to the French embassy in London, where he remained for six years under the abbe Dubois. He contracted with a Lancashire lady, Dorothea Johnston, a marriage which was not avowed for some years. He drew a picture later of his own domestic circumstances in Le Philosophe maris (1726). On his return to France (1723) he was elected to the Academy, and in 1727 he acquired considerable estates, the possession of which conferred the privileges of nobility. He spent his later years at his chateau of Fortoiseau near Melun, dying on the 4th of July 1754. His early comedies were: Le Curieux Impertinent (1710), L'Ingrat (1712), L'Irresolu (1713) and Le MSdisant (1715). The best 1 of these is L'IrrSsolu, in which Dorante, after hesitating throughout the play between Julie and Celimene, marries Julie, but concludes the play with the reflection: — " J'aurais mieux fait, je crois, d'epouser Celimene." After eleven years of diplomatic service Destouches returned to the stage with the Philosophe maris (1727), followed in 1732 by his masterpiece Le Glorieux, a picture of the struggle then beginning between the old nobility and the wealthy parvenus who found their opportunity in the poverty of France. Destouches wished to revive the comedy of character as understood by Moliere, but he thought it desirable that the moral should be directly expressed. This moralizing tendency spoilt his later comedies. Among them may be mentioned: Le Tambour nocturne (1736), La Force du nalurel (1750) and Le Dissipateur (i736). His works were issued in collected form in 1755, 1757, 1811 and, in a limited edition (6 vols.), 1822. DESTRUCTORS. The name destructors is applied by English municipal engineers to furnaces, or combinations of furnaces, commonly called " garbage furnaces " in the United States, con- structed for the purpose of disposing by burning of town refuse, which is a heterogeneous mass of material, including, besides general household and ash-bin refuse, small quantities of garden refuse, trade refuse, market refuse and often street sweepings. The mere disposal of this material is not, however, by any means the only consideration in dealing with it upon the destructor system. For many years past scientific experts, municipal engineers and public authorities have been directing careful attention to the utilization of refuse as fuel for steam production, and such progress in this direction has been made that in many towns its calorific value is now being utilized daily for motive- power purposes. On the other hand, that proper degree of caution which is obtained only by actual experience must be DESTRUCTORS 105 exercised in the application of refuse fuel to steam-raising. When its value as a low-class fuel was first recognized, the idea was disseminated that the refuse of a given population was of itself sufficient to develop the necessary steam-power for supply- ing that population with the electric light. The economical importance of a combined destructor and electric undertaking of this character naturally presented a somewhat fascinating stimulus to public authorities, and possibly had much to do with the development both of the adoption of the principle of dealing with refuse by fire, and of lighting towns by electricity. However true this phase of the question may be as the statement of a theoretical scientific fact, experience so far does not show it to be a basis upon which engineers may venture to calculate, although, as will be seen later, under certain circumstances of equalized load, which must be considered upon their merits in each case, a well-designed destructor plant can be made to perform valuable commercial service to an electric or other power-using undertaking. Further, when a system, thermal or otherwise, for the storage of energy can be introduced and applied in a trustworthy and economical manner, the degree of advantage to be derived from the utilization of the waste heat from destructors will be materially enhanced. The composition of house refuse, which must obviously affect its calorific value, varies considerably in different localities, Compost' according to the condition, habits and pursuits of the tioaaad people. Towns situated in coal-producing districts quantity invariably yield a refuse richer in unconsumed carbon of refuse, ftan those remote therefrom. It is also often found that the refuse from different parts of the same town varies considerably — that from the poorest quarters frequently proving of greater calorific value than that from those parts occupied by the rich and middle classes. This has been attributed to the more extravagant habits of the working classes in neglecting to sift the ashes from their fires before disposing of them in the ash-bin. In Bermondsey, for example, the refuse has been found to possess an unusually high calorific value, and this experience is confirmed in other parts of the metropolis. Average refuse consists of breeze (cinder and ashes), coal and coke, fine dust, vegetable and animal matters, straw, shavings, cardboard, bottles, tins, iron, bones, broken crockery and other matters in very variable pro- portions according to the character of the district from which it is collected. In London the quantity of house refuse amounts approximately to ij million tons per annum, which is equivalent to from 4 cwt. to 5 cwt. per head per annum, or to from 200 to 250 tons per 1000 of the population per annum. Statistics, however, vary widely in different districts. In the vicinity of the metropolis the amount varies from 2-5 cwt. per head per annum at Ley ton to 3-5 cwt. at Hornsey, and to as much as 7 cwt. at Ealing. In the north of England the total house refuse collected, exclusive of street sweepings, amounts on the average to 8 cwt. per head per annum. Speaking generally, throughout the country an amount of from s cwt. to 10 cwt. per head per annum should be allowed for. A cubic yard of ordinary house refuse weighs from 12 J to 15 cwt. Shop refuse is lighter, frequently containing a large pro- portion of paper, straw and other light wastes. It sometimes weighs as little as 71 cwt. per cubic yard. A load, by which refuse is often estimated, varies in weight from 15 cwt. to if tons. The question how a town's refuse shall be disposed of must be considered both from a commercial and a sanitary point of view. Various methods have been practised. Sometimes the household ashes, &c, are mixed with pail excreta, or with sludge from a sewage farm, or with lime, and disposed of for agricultural purposes, and sometimes they are conveyed in carts or by canal to outlying and country districts, where they are shot on waste ground or used to fill up hollows and raise the level of marshland. Such plans are economical when suitable outlets are available. To take the refuse out to sea in hopper barges and sink it in deep water is usually expensive and frequently unsatisfactory. At Bermondsey, for instance, the cost of barging is about 2s. od. a ton, while the material may be destroyed by fire at a cost of from iod. to is. a ton, exclusive of interest and sinking fund on the cost of the works. In other Refuse disposal. cases, as at Chelsea and various dust contractors' yards, the refuse is sorted and its ingredients are sold; the fine dust may be utilized in connexion with manure manufactories, the pots and pans employed in forming the foundations of roads, and the cinders and vegetable refuse burnt to generate steam. In the Arnold system, carried out in Philadelphia and other American towns, the refuse is sterilized by steam under pressure, the grease and fertilizing substances being extracted at the same time; while in other systems, such as those of Weil and Porno, and of Defosse, distillation in closed vessels is practised. But the destructor system, in which the refuse is burned to an innocuous clinker in specially constructed furnaces, is that which must finally be resorted to, especially in districts which have become well built up and thickly populated. Various types of furnaces and apparatus have from time to time been designed, and the subject has been one of much experiment and many failures. The principal towns in England which took the lead in the adoption of the destruv- refuse destructor system were Manchester, Birming- tors. ham, Leeds, Heckmondwike, Warrington, Blackburn, Bradford, Bury, Bolton, Hull, Nottingham, Salford, Ealing and London. Ordinary furnaces, built mostly by dust contractors, began to come into use in London and in the north of England in the second half of the 19th century, but they were not scientific- ally adapted to the purpose, and necessitated the admixture of coal or other fuel with the refuse to ensure its cremation. The Manchester corporation erected a furnace of this description about the year 1873, and Messrs Mead & Co. made an unsatis- factory attempt in 1870 to burn house refuse in closed furnaces at Paddington. In 1876 Alfred Fryer erected his destructor at Manchester, and several other towns adopted this furnace shortly afterwards. Other furnaces were from time to time brought before the public, among which may be mentioned those of Pearce and Lupton, Pickard, Healey, Thwaite, Young, Wilkinson, Burton, Hardie, Jacobs and Odgen. In addition to these the " Beehive " and the " Nelson " destructors became well known. The former was introduced by Stafford and Pearson Fig. 1. — Fryer's Destruccor. of Burnley, and one was erected in 1884 in the parish yard at Richmond, Surrey, but the results being unsatisfactory, it was closed during the following year. The " Nelson " furnace, patented in 1885 by Messrs Richmond and Birtwistle, was erected at Nelson-in-Marsden, Lancashire, but being very costly in working was abandoned. The principal types of destructors now in use are those of Fryer, Whiley, Horsfall, Warner, Meldrum, Beaman and Deas, Heenan and Froude, and the " Sterling " destructor erected by Messrs Hughes and Stirling. The general arrangement of the destructor patented l by Alfred Fryer in 1876 is illustrated in fig. I. An installation upon this principle consists of a number of furnaces or cells, usu- Fryer's. ally arranged in pairs back to back, and enclosed in a rectangular block of brickwork having a flat top, upon which the house refuse is tipped from the carts. 1 Patent No. 3125 (1876). io6 DESTRUCTORS A large main flue, which also forms the dust chamber, is placed underneath the furnace hearths. The Fryer furnace ordinarily burns from 4 to 6 tons of refuse per cell per 24 hours. It will be observed that the outlets for the products of combustion are placed at the back near the refuse feed opening, an arrangement \yhich is imperfect in design, inasmuch as while a charge of refuse is burning upon the furnace bars the charge which is to follow lies on the dead hearth near the outlet flue. Here it undergoes drying and partial decomposition, giving off offensive empyreumatic vapours which pass into theflue without being exposed to sufficient heat to render them entirely f"/mo Hole feetJinp floor te^gj P Fig. 2. — Horsfall's improved Destructor. inoffensive. The serious nuisances thus produced in some instances led to the introduction of a second furnace, or " cremator," patented by C. Jones of Ealing in 1885, which was placed in the main flue leading to the chimney-shaft, for the purpose of resolving the organic matters present in the vapour, but the greatly increased cost of burning due to this device led to its abandonment in many cases. This type of cell was largely used during the early period of the history of destructors, but has to a considerable extent given place to furnaces of more modern design. A furnace 1 patented in 1891 by Mr Henry Whiley, superintendent of the scavenging department of the Manchester corporation, is t automatic in its action and was designed primarily with a Whiley s. v j ew t saving labour — the cells being fed, stoked and clinkered automatically. There is no drying hearth, and the refuse carts tip direct into a shoot or hopper at the back which conducts the material directly on to movable eccentric grate bars. These auto- matically traverse the material forward into the furnace, and finally push it against a flap-door which opens and allows it to fall out. This apparatus is adapted for dealing with screened rather than unscreened refuse, since it suffers from the objection that the motion of the bars tends to allow fine particles to drop through unburnt. Some difficulty has been experienced from the refuse sticking in the ripping platform : Retaining Mall Steam Boiler Ground line Refuse is shovelled from this opening into furnace -> - Fig. 3. — Meldrum's Destructor at Darwen hopper, and exception may also be taken to the continual flapping of the door when the clinker passes out, as cold air is thereby admitted into the furnace. As in the Fryer cell, the outlet for the products of combustion into the main flue is close to the point where the crude refuse is fed into the furnace, and the escape of unburnt vapours is thus facilitated. Forced draught is applied by means of a Roots blower. The Manchester corporation has 28 cells of this type in use, and the approximate amount of refuse burnt per cell per 24 hours is from 6 to 8 tons at a cost per ton for labour of 3-47 pence. Horsfall's destructor* (fig. 2) is a high-temperature furnace of modern type which has been adopted largely in Great Britain and on the continent of Europe. In it some of the general features Horsfall's. Q f ^.j, e Fryer cell are retained, but the details differ con- siderably from those of the furnaces already described. Important 1 Patent No. 8271 (1891). 2 Patents No. 8999 (1887) ; No. 14,709 (1888) ; No. 22,531 (1891). points in the design are the arrangement of the flues and flue outlets for the products of combustion, and the introduction of a blast duct through which air is forced into a closed ash-pit. The feeding-hole is situated at the back of and above the furnace, while the flue opening for the emission of the gaseous products is placed at the front of the furnace over the dead plate; thus the gases distilled from the raw refuse are caused to pass on their way to the main flue over the hottest part of the furnace and through the flue opening in the red- hot reverberatory arch. The steam jet, which plays an important part in the Horsfall furnace, forces air into the closed ash-pit at a pressure of about f to 1 in. of water, and in this way a temperature varying from 1500 to 2000" F., as tested by a thermo-electric pyrometer, is maintained in the main flue. In a battery of cells the gases from each are delivered into one main flue, so that a uniform temperature is maintained therein sufficiently high to prevent noxious vapours from reaching the chimney. The cells being charged and clinkered in rotation, when the fire in one is green, in the others it is at its hottest, and the products of combustion do not reach the boiler surfaces until after they have been mixed in the main flue. The cast iron boxes which are provided at the sides of the furnaces, and through which the blast air is conveyed on its way to the grate, prevent the adhesion of clinker to the side walls of the cells, and very materially preserve the brickwork, which otherwise becomes damaged by the tools used to remove the clinker. The wide clinkering doors are suspended by counterbalance weights and open vertically. The rate of working of these cells varies from 8 tons per cell per 24 hours at Oldham to 10 tons per cell at Bradford, where the furnaces are of a later type. The cost of labour in stoking and clinkering is about 6d. per ton of the refuse treated at Bradford, and gd. per ton at Oldham, where the rate of wages is higher. Weil-constructed and properly- worked plants of this type should give rise to no nuisance, and may be located in populous neighbourhoods without danger to the public health or comfort. Installations were put down at Fulham (1901), Hammerton Street, Bradford (1900), West Hartlepool (1904), and other places, and the surplus power generated is employed in the pro- duction of electric energy. Warner's destructor, 3 known as the " Perfectus," is, in general arrangement, similar to Fryer's, but differs in being provided with special charging hoppers, dampers in flues, dust-catching arrangements, rocking grate bars and other improvements, "^tier's. The refuse is tipped into feeding-hoppers, consisting of rectangular cast iron boxes over which plates are placed to prevent the escape of smoke and fumes. At the lower portion of the feeding-hopper is a flap-door working on an axis and controlled by an iron lever from the tipping platform. When refuse is to be fed into the furnace the lever is thrown over, the contents of the hopper drop on to the sloping firebrick hearth beneath, and the door is at once closed again. The door should be kept open as short a time as possible in order to prevent the admission of cold air into the furnace at the back end, since this leads to the lowering of the temperature of the cells and main flue, and also to paper and other light refuse being carried into the flues and chim- ney. The flues of each furnace are provided with dampers, which are closed during the process of clinkering in order to keep up the heat. The cells are each 5 ft. wide and 1 1 ft. deep, the rearmost portion consisting of a firebrick drying hearth, and the front of rocking grate bars upon which the combus- tion takes place. The crown of each cell is formed of a rever- beratory firebrick arch having openings for the emission of the products of combustion. The flap dampers which are fitted to these openings are operated by horizontal spindles passing through the brickwork to the front of the cell, where they are provided with levers or handles; thus each cell can be worked independently of the others. With the view of increasing the steam-raising capabilities of the furnace, forced draught is sometimes applied and a tubular boiler is placed close to the cells. The amount of refuse consumed varies from 5 tons to 8 tons per cell per 24 hours. At Hornsey, where 12 cells of this type are in use, the cost of labour for burning the refuse is 9Jd. per ton. The Meldurm " Simplex " destructor (fig. 3), a type of furnace which yields good steam-raising results, is in successful operation at Rochdale, Hereford, Darwen, Nelson, Plumstead and lHmm's Woolwich, at each of which towns the production of steam is an important consideration. Cells have also been laid down at Burton, Hunstanton, Blackburn and Shipley, and more recently at Burnley, Cleckheaton, Lancaster, Nelson, Shcerness and Weymouth. In general arrangement the destructor differs considerably from 8 Patent No. 18.719 (1 DESTRUCTORS 107 those previously described. The grates are placed side by side without separation except by dead plates, but, in order to localize the forced draught, the ash-pit is divided into parts corresponding with the different grate areas. Each ash-pit is closed air-tight by a cast iron plate, and is provided with an air-tight door for removing the fine ash. Two patent Meldrum steam-jet blowers are provided for each furnace, supplying any required pressure of blast up to 6 in. water column, though that usually employed does not exceed I j in. The furnaces are designed for hand-feeding from the front, but hopper-feeding can be applied if desirable. The products of combustion either pass away from the back of each fire-grate into a common flue leading to boilers and the chimney-shaft, or are con- veyed sideways over the various grates and a common fire-bridge to the boilers or chimney. The heat in the gases, after passing the boilers, is still further utilized to heat the air supplied to the furnaces, the gases being passed through an air heater or continuous regenerator consisting of a number of cast iron pipes from which the air is delivered through the Meldrum " blowers " at a temperature of about 300° F. That a high percentage (15 to 18 %) of C0 2 isobtained in the furnaces proves a small excess of free oxygen, and no doubt explains the high fuel efficiency obtained by this type of destructor. High-pressure Boilers of ample capacity are provided for the accumu- lation during periods of light load of a reserve of steam, the storage being obtained by utilizing the difference between the highest and lowest water-levels and the difference between the maximum and working steam-pressure. Patent locking fire-bars, to prevent lifting when clinkering, are used in the furnace and have a good life. At Rochdale the Meldrum furnaces consume from 53R) to 66 lb of refuse per square foot of grate area per hour, as compared with 22-4 lb per square foot in a low-temperature destructor burning 6 tons per cell per 24 hours with a grate area of 25 sq. ft. The evaporative efficiency of the Rochdale furnaces varies from 1-39 lb to 1-87 lb of water (actual) per I lb of refuse burned, and an average steam-pressure of about 1 14 lb per square inch is maintained. The cost of labour and Fig. 4. — Beaman and Deas Destructor at Leyton. supervision amounts to iod. per ton of refuse dealt with. A Lancashire boiler (22 ft. by 6 ft. 6 in.) at the Sewage Outfall Works, Hereford, evaporates with refuse fuel 2980 lb of water per hour, equal to 149 indicated horse-power. About 54 lb of refuse are burnt per square foot of grate area per hour with an evaporation of 1-82 lb of water per pound of refuse. The Beaman and Deas destructor 1 (fig. 4) has attracted much attention from public authorities, and successful installations are in operation at Warrington, Dewsbury, Leyton, Bea J t n" Canterbury, Llandudno, Colne, Streatham, Rotherhithe, and Deas. w; m b[ et ] oni Bolton and elsewhere. Its essential features include a level-fire grate with ordinary type bars, a high-temperature combustion chamber at the back of the cells, a closed ash-pit with forced draught, provision for the admission of a secondary air-supply at the fire-bridge, and a firebrick hearth sloping at an angle of about 52 °. From the refuse storage platform the material is fed into a hopper mouth about 18 in. square, and slides down the firebrick hearth, supported by T-irons, to the grate bars, over which it is raked and spread with the assistance of long rods manipulated through clinkering doors placed at the sides of the cells. A secondary door in the rear of the cell facilitates the operation. The fire-bars, spaced only fa in. apart, are of the ordinary stationary type. Vertically, under the fire-bridge, is an air-conduit, from the top of which lead air blast pipes 12 in. in diameter discharging into a hermetically closed ash-pit under the grate area. The air is supplied from fans (Schiele's patent) at a pressure of from 1 f to 2 in. of water, and is con- trolled by means of baffle valves worked by handles on either side of the furnace, conveniently placed for the attendant. The forced draught tends to keep the bars cool and lessen wear and tear. The fumes from the charge drying on the hearth pass through the fire and over the red-hot fire-bridge, which is perforated longitudinally with air-passages connected with a small flue leading from a grated opening on the face of the brickwork outside; in this way an auxiliary supply of heated oxygen is fed into the combustion chamber. This 1 Patents No. 15,598 (1893) and 23,712 (1893); also Beaman and Deas Sludge Furnace, Patent No. 13,029 (1894). chamber, in which a temperature approaching 2000° F. is attained, is fitted with large iron doors, sliding with balance weights, which allow the introduction of infected articles, bad meat, &c, and also- give access for the periodical removal of fine ash f om the flues. The high temperatures attained are utilized by install ng one boiler, preferably of the Babcock & Wilcox water-tube type, for each pair of cells, so that the gases, on their way from the combustion chamber to the main flue, pass three times between the boiler tubes. A secondary furnace is provided under the boiler for raising steam by coal, if required, when the cells are out of use. The grate area of each cell is 25 sq. ft., and the consumption varies from 16 up to 20 tons of refuse per cell per 24 hours. In a 24-hours' test made by the super- intendent of the cleansing department, Leeds, at the Warrington installation, the quantity of water evaporated per pound of refuse was 1-14 lb, the average temperature in the combustion chamber 2000 ' F. by copper-wire test, and the average air pressure with forced draught 2J in. (water-gauge). At Leyton, which has a population of over 100,000, an 8-cell plant of this type is successfully dealing with house refuse and filter press cakes of sewage sludge from the sewage disposal works adjoining, and even with materialof this low calorific value the total steam-power produced is considerable. Each cell burns about 16 tons of the mixture in 24 hours and develops about 35 indicated horse-power continuously, at an average steam- pressure in the boilers of 105 lb. The cost of labour at Leyton for burning the mixed refuse is about is. 7d. per ton; at Llandudno, where four cells were laid down in connexion with the electric-light station in 1898, it is is. 3id., and at Warrington 9§d. per ton of refuse consumed. Combustion is complete, and the destructor may be installed in populous districts without nuisance to the inhabitants. Further patents (Wilkie's improvements) have been obtained by Meldrum Brothers (Manchester) in connexion with this destructor. The Heenan furnaces are in operation at Farn worth, Gloucester, Barrow-in-Furness, Northampton, Mansfield, Wakefield, Blackburn, Levenshulme, Kings Norton, Worthing, Birmingham and H eeaaB other places, and are now dealing with over 1200 tons of refuse per day. The general arrangement of this destructor some- what resembles that of the Meldrum type. The cells intercommuni- cate, and the mechanical mixture of the gases arising from the furnace grates of the various cells is sought by the introduction of a special design of reverberatory arch overlying the grates. The standard arrangement of this destructor embodies all modern arrangements for high-temperature refuse destruction and steam- power generation. Destructors of the " Sterling " type, combined with electric- power generating stations, are installed at Hackney (1901), Bermondsey (1902) and Frederiksberg (1903) — the first- sterllnr named plant being probably the most powerful com- *' bined destructor and electricity station yet erected. In these modern stations the recognized requirements of an up-to-date refuse- destruction plant have been well considered and good calorific results are also obtained. In addition to the above-described destructors, other forms have been introduced from time to time, but adopted to a less degree ; amongst these may be mentioned Baker's destructor, Willshear's, Hanson's Utilizer, Mason's Gasifier, the Bennett-Phythian, Cracknell's (Melbourne, Victoria), Coltman's (Loughborough), Willoughby's, and Healey's improved destructors. On the continent of Europe systems for the treatment of refuse have also been devised. Among these may be mentioned those of M. Defosse and M. Helouis. The former has endeavoured to burn the refuse in large quantities by using a forced draught and only washing the smoke. 2 Helouis has extended the operation by using the heat from the combustion of the refuse for drying and distilling the material which is brought gradu- ally on to the grate. Boulnois and Brodie's improved charging tank is a labour-saving apparatus consisting of a wrought iron truck, 5 ft. wide by 3 ft. deep, and of sufficient length to hold not less than 12 hours' D es tructor supply for the two cells which it serves. The truck, acces . which moves along a pair of rails across the top of the sor i es . destructor, may be worked by one man. It is divided into compartments holding a charge of refuse in each, and is provided with a pair of doors in the bottom, opening downwards, which are supported by a series of small wheels running on a central rail. A special feeding opening in the reverberatory arch of the cell of the width of the truck, situated over the drying hearth, is formed by a firebrick arch fitted into a frame capable of being moved backwards and forwards by means of a lever. The charging truck, when empty, is brought under the tipping platform, and the carts tip directly into it. When one of the cells has to be fed, the truck is moved along, so that one of the divisions is immediately over the feeding opening, and the wheel holding up the bottom doors rests upon the central rail, which is continued over the movable covering arch. Then the movable arch is rolled back, the doors are released, and the contents are discharged into the cell, so that no handling of the refuse is required from tipping to feeding. This apparatus is in operation at Liverpool, Shoreditch, Cambridge and elsewhere. Various forms of patent movable fire-bars have been employed 2 Compte Rendu des Trmiaux de la Societi des Ingenieurs Civils de France, folio 775 (June 1897). io8 DESTRUCTORS in destructor furnaces. Among these may be mentioned Settle's, 1 Vicar's, 2 Riddle's rocking bars, 3 Horsfall's self-feeding apparatus, 4 and Healey's movable bars ; 5 but complicated movable arrangements are not to be recommended, and experience greatly favours the use of a simple stationary type of fire-bar. A dust-catching apparatus has been designed and erected at Edinburgh, by the Horsfall Furnace Syndicate, in order to over- come difficulties in regard to the escape of flue dust, &c, from the destructor chimney. Externally, it appears a large circular block of brickwork, 18 ft. in diameter and 13 ft. 7 in. high, connected with the main flue, and situated between the destructor cells and the boiler. Internally it consists of a spiral flue traversing the entire circumference and winding upwards to the top of the chamber. There is an interior well or chamber 6 ft. diameter by 12 ft. high, having a domed top, and communicating with the outer spiral flue by four ports at the top of the chamber. Dust traps, baffle walls Other accessory plant in use at most modern destructor stations includes machinery for the removal, crushing and various means of utilization of the residual clinker, stoking tools, air heaters or regenerators for the production of hot-air blast to the furnaces, superheaters and thermal storage arrangements for equalizing the output of power from the station during the 24-hours' day. The general arrangement of a battery of refuse cells at a destructor station is illustrated by fig. 5. The cells are arranged either side by side, with a common main flue in the rear, or back to back with the main flue placed in the ^"f^f"* centre and leading to a tall chimney-shaft. The heated structors. gases on leaving the cells pass through the combustion chamber into the main flue, and thence go forward to the boilers, where their heat is absorbed and utilized. Forced draught, or Fig. 5. — Leyton Destructor. Block Plan, and cleaning doors are also provided for the retention and subsequent weekly removal of the flue dust. The apparatus forms a large reservoir of heat maintained at a steady temperature of from 1500 to 1800 F., and is useful in keeping up steam in the boiler at an equable pressure for a long period. It requires no attention, and has proved successful for its purpose. Travelling cranes for transporting refuse and feeding cells are sometimes employed at destructor stations, as, for example, at Hamburg. Here the transportation of the refuse is effected by means of specially constructed water-tight iron wagons, containing detachable boxes provided with two double-flap doors at the top for loading, and one flap-door at the back for unloading. There are thirty-six_ furnaces of the Horsfall type placed in two ranks, each arranged in three blocks of six in the large furnace hall. An electric crane running above each rank lifts the boxes off the wagons and carries them to the feeding-hole of each well. Here the box is tipped up by an electric pulley and emptied on to the furnace platform. When the travelling crane is used, the carts (four-wheeled) bringing the refuse may be constructed so that the body of the carriage can be taken off the wheels, lifted up and tipped direct over the furnace as required, and returned again to its frame. The adoption of the travelling crane admits of the reduction in size of the main building, as less platform space for unloading refuse carts is required; the inclined roadway may also be dispensed with. Where a destructor site will not admit of an inclined roadway and platform, the refuse may be discharged from the collecting carts into a lift; and thence elevated into the feeding-bins. 1 Patent No. 15,482 (1885). 2 Patents No. 1955 (1867) and No. 378 (1879). 3 Patent No. 4896 (189 1). * Patent No. 20,207 (!892). 6 Patents No. 18,398 (1892) and No. 12,990 (1892). showing general arrangement of the Works, in many cases, hot blast, is supplied from fans through a conduit commanding the whole of the cells. An inclined roadway, of as easy gradient as circumstances will admit, is provided for the conveyance of the refuse to the tipping platform, from which it is fed through feed-holes into the furnaces. In the installation of a destructor, the choice of suitable plant and the general design of the works must be largely dependent upon local refluirements, and should be entrusted to an engineer experienced in these matters. The following primary considerations, however, may be enumerated as materially affecting the design of such works: — (a) The plant must be simple, easily worked without stoppages, and without mechanical complications upon which stokers may lay the blame for bad results, (b) It must be strong, must withstand variations of temperature, must not be liable to get out of order, and should admit of being readily repaired, (c) It must be such as can be easily understood by stokers or firemen of average intelligence, so that the continuous working of the plant may not be disorganized by change of workmen, (d) A sufficiently high temperature must be attained in the cells to reduce the refuse to an entirely innocuous clinker, and all fumes or gases should pass either through an adjoining red-hot cell or through a chamber whose temperature is maintained by the ordinary working of the destructor itself at a degree sufficient to exclude the possibility of the escape of any unconsumed gases, vapours or particles. The temperature may vary between 1 500 a nd 2000 . (e) The plant must be so worked that while some of the cells are being recharged, others are at a glowing red heat, in order that a high temperature may be uniformly maintained. (/) The design of the furnaces must admit of clinkering and recharging being easily and quickly performed, the furnace doors being open for a minimum of time so as to obviate the inrush of cold air to lower the temperature DESTRUCTORS rot) in main flues, &c. (g) The chimney draught must be assisted with forced draught from fans or steam jet to a pressure of i§ in. to 2 in. under grates by water-gauge, (h) Where a destructor is required to work without risk of nuisance to the neighbouring inhabitants, its efficiency as a refuse destructor plant must be primarily kept in view in designing the works, steam-raising being regarded as a secondary consideration. Boilers should not be placed immediately over a furnace so as to present a large cooling surface, whereby the temperature of the gases is reduced before the organic matter has been thoroughly burned, (i) Where steam-power and a high fuel efficiency are desired a large percentage of C0 2 should be sought in the furnaces with as little excess of air as possible, and the flue gases should be utilized in heating the air-supply to the grates, and the feed-water to the boilers, (j) Ample boiler capacity and hot-water storage feed-tanks should be included in the design where steam- power is required. As to the initial cost of the erection of refuse destructors, few trustworthy data can be given. The outlay necessarily depends, amongst other things, upon the difficulty of preparing tost j-jjg s j|- ej U p on tjj e nature of the foundations required, the height of the chimney-shaft, the length of the inclined or approach roadway, and the varying prices of labour and materials in different localities. As an example may be mentioned the case of Bristol, where, in 1892, the total cost of constructing a 16-cell Fryer de- structor was £1 1,418, of which £2909 was expended on foundations, and £1689 on the chimney-shaft; the cost of the destructor proper, buildings and approach road was therefore £6820, or about £426 per cell. The cost per ton of burning refuse in destructors depends mainly upon — (a) The price of labour in the locality, and the number of " shifts " or changes of workmen per day; (b) the type of furnace adopted; (c) the nature of the material to be consumed; (d) the interest on and repayment of capital outlay. The cost of burning ton for ton consumed, in high-temperature furnaces, including labour and repairs, is not greater than in slow-combustion destructors. The average cost of burning refuse at twenty-four different towns through- out England, exclusive of interest on the cost of the works, is Is. ijd. per ton burned ; the minimum cost is 6d. per ton at Bradford, and the maximum cost 2s. iod. per ton at Battersea. At Shoreditch the cost per ton for the year ending on the 25th of March 1899, including labour, supervision, stores, repairs, &c. (but exclusive of interest on cost of works), was 2s. 6-9d. The quantity of refuse burned per cell per day of 24 hours varies from about 4 tons up to 20 tons. The ordinary low-temperature destructor, with 25 sq. ft. grate area, burns about 2oH> of refuse per square foot of grate area per hour, or between S and 6 tons per cell per 24 hours. The Meldrum destructor furnaces at Rochdale burn as much as 66 lb per square foot of grate area per hour, and the Beaman and Deas destructor at Llandudno 71-7 lb per square foot per hour. The amount, however, always depends materially on the care observed in stoking, the nature of the material, the frequency of removal of clinker, and on the question whether the whole of the refuse passed into the furnace is thoroughly cremated. The amount of residue in the shape of clinker and fine ash varies from 22 to 37 % of the bulk dealt with. From 25 to 30 % is a very _ usual amount. At Shoreditch, where the refuse consists Residues.- Q f about 8 % of straw, paper, shavings, &c, the residue contains about 29% clinker, 2-7% fine ash, -5% flue dust, and -6% old tins, making a total residue of 32-8%. As the residuum amounts to from one-fourth to one-third of the total bulk of the refuse dealt with, it is a question of the utmost importance that some profitable, or at least inexpensive, means should be devised for its regular disposal. Among other purposes, it has been used for bottoming for macadam- ized roads, for the manufacture of concrete, for making paving slabs, for forming suburban footpaths or cinder footwalks, and for the manu- facture of mortar. The last is a very general, and in many places profitable, mode of disposal. An entirely new outlet has also arisen for the disposal of good well-vitrified destructor clinker in connexion with the construction of bacteria beds for sewage disposal, and in many districts its value has, by this means, become greatly enhanced. Through defects in the design and management of many of the early destructors complaints of nuisance frequently arose, and these have, to some extent, brought destructor installations into disrepute. Although some of the older furnaces were decided offenders in this respect, that is by no means the case with the modern improved type of high-temperature furnace; and often, were it not for the great prominence in the landscape of a tall chimney-shaft, the existence of a refuse destructor in a neighbourhood would not be generally known to the inhabitants. A modern furnace, properly designed and worked, will give rise to no nuisance, and may be safely erected in the midst of a populous neighbourhood. To ensure the perfect crema- tion of the refuse and of the gases given off, forced draught is essential. This is supplied either as air draught delivered from a Forced raoidly revolving fan, or as steam blast, as in the Horsfall draught. s te a m jet or the Meldrum blower. With a forced blast less air is required to obtain complete combustion than by chimney draught. The forced draught grate requires little more than the quantity theoretically necessary, while with chimney draught more than double the theoretical amount of air must be supplied. With forced draught, too, a much higher temperature is attained, and if it is properly worked, little or no cold air will enter the furnaces during stoking operations. As far as possible a balance of pressure in the cells during clinkering should be maintained just sufficient to pre- vent an inrush of cold air through the flues. The forced draught pressure should not exceed 2 in. water-gauge. The efficiency of the combustion in the furnace is conveniently measured by the " Econometer," which registers continuously and automatically the proportion of C0 2 passing away in the waste gases; the higher the percentage of CO2 the more efficient the furnace, provided there is no formation of CO, the presence of which would indicate incomplete combustion. The theoretical maximum of C0 2 for refuse burning is about 20 % ; and, by maintaining an even clean fire, by admitting secondary air over the fire, and by regulating the dampers or the air- pressure in the ash-pit, an amount approximating to this percentage may be attained in a well-designed furnace if properly worked. If the proportion of free oxygen {i.e. excess of air) is large, more air is passed through the furnace than is required for complete combustion, and the heating of this excess is clearly a waste of heat. The position of the econometer in testing should be as near the furnace as possible, as there may be considerable air leakage through the brickwork of the flues. The air supply to modern furnaces is usually delivered hot, the inlet air being first passed through an air-heater the temperature of which is maintained by the waste gases in the main flue. The modern high-temperature destructor, to render the refuse and gases perfectly innocuous and harmless, is worked at a temperature varying from 1250 to 2000° F., and the maintenance of such temperatures has very naturally suggested the possi- Calorific bility of utilizing this heat-energy for the production of v "tu*- steam-power. Experience shows that a considerable amount of energy may be derived from steam-raising destructor stations, amply justifying a reasonable increase of expenditure on plant and labour. The actual calorific value of the refuse material necessarily varies, but, as a general average, with suitably designed and properly managed plant, an evaporation of 1 lb of water per pound of refuse burned is a result which may be readily attained, and affords a basis of calculation which engineers may safely adopt in practice. Many destructor steam-raising plants, however, give considerably higher results, evaporations approaching 2 lb of water per pound of refuse being often met with under favourable conditions. From actual experience it may be accepted, therefore, that the calorific value of unscreened house refuse varies from 1 to 2 lb of water evaporated per pound of refuse burned, the exact proportion depending upon the quality and condition of the material dealt with. Taking the evaporative power of coal at 10 lb of water per pound of coal, this gives for domestic house refuse a value of from ^ to i that of coal; or, with coal at 20s. per ton, refuse has a commercial value of from 2s. to 4s. per ton. In London the quantity of house refuse amounts to about I J million tons per annum, which is equivalent to from 4 cwt. to 5 cwt. per head per annum. If it be burned in furnaces giving an evaporation of 1 ft) of water per pound of refuse, it would yield a total power annually of about 138 million brake horse-power hours, and equivalent cost of coal at 20s. per ton for this amount of power even when calculated upon the very low estimate of 2 lb J of coal per brake horse-power hour, works out at over £123,000. On the same basis, the refuse of a medium-sized town, with, say, a population of 70,000 yielding refuse at the rate of 5 cwt. per head per annum, would afford 112 indicated horse-power per ton burned, and the total indicated horse-power hours per annum would be 70,000X5 P wt : xi 12 = 1,960,000 I.H.P. hours annually. If this were applied to the production of electric energy, the electrical horse-power hours would be (with a dynamo efficiency of 90 %) 1,960 000X90 = I|764|OO0 E .h.P. hours per annum ; 100 and the watt-hours per annum at the central station would be 1,764,000X746 = 1,315.944,000. Allowing for a loss of 10% in distribution, this would give 1,184,349,600 watt-hours available in lamps, or with 8-candle-power lamps taking 30 watts of current per lamp, we should have I ,i84,349,6oowatt-hours = 39478)320 g . c p Iamp . hours per annum; that is, 39.47 .3 — =563 8-c.p.' lamp-hours per annum per 70,000 population "» ^ £ popula P tion . Taking the loss due to the storage which would be necessary at 20 % on three-quarters of the total or 15% upon the whole, there would be 478 8-c.p. lamp-hours per annum per head of the population: i.e. if the power developed from the refuse were fully utilized, it would supply electric light at the rate of one 8-c.p. lamp per head of the population for about ij hours for every night of the year. In actual practice, when the electric energy is for the purposes of lighting only, difficulty has been experienced in fully utilizing the thermal energy from a destructor plant owing to the want of adequate means of storage either of the thermal or of J5; the electric energy. A destructor station usually yields a cutties. fairly definite amount of thermal energy uniformly throughout the 24 hours, while the consumption of electric-lighting current is extremely 1 With medium-sized, steam plants, a consumption of 4 lb of coal per brake horse-power per'hour is a very usual performance. IIP DE TABLEY— DETAILLE irregular, the maximum demand being about four times the mean .demand. The period during which the demand exceeds the mean is comparatively short, and does not exceed about 6 hours out of the 24, while for a portion of the time the demand may not exceed 2 Vth of the maximum. This difficulty, at first regarded as somewhat grave, is substantially minimized by the provision of ample boiler capacity, or by the introduction of feed thermal storage vessels in which hot feed-water may be stored during the hours of light load (say 18 out of the 24), so that at the time of maximum load the boiler may be filled directly from these vessels, which work at the same pressure and temperature as the boiler. Further, the difficulty above mentioned will disappear entirely at stations where there is a fair day load which practically ceases at about the hour when the illuminating load comes on, thus equalizing the demand upon both destructor and electric plant throughout the 24 hours. This arises in cases where current is consumed during the day for motors, fans, lifts, electric tramways, and other like purposes, and, as the employ- ment of electric energy for these services is rapidly becoming general, no difficulty need be anticipated in the successful working of com- bined destructor and electric plants where these conditions prevail. The more uniform the electrical demand becomes, the more fully may the power from a destructor station be utilized. In addition to combination with electric-lighting works, refuse destructors are now very commonly installed in conjunction with various other classes of power-using undertakings, including tram- ways, water-works, sewage-pumping, artificial slab-making and clinker-crushing works ana others; and the increasingly large sums which are being yearly expended in combined undertakings of this character is perhaps the strongest evidence of the practical value of such combinations where these several classes of work must be carried on. For further information on the subject, reference should be made to William H. Maxwell, Removal and Disposal of Town Refuse, with an exhaustive treatment of Refuse Destructor Plants (London, 1899), with a special Supplement embodying later results (London, 1905). See also the Proceedings of the Incorporated Association of Municipal and County Engineers, vols. xiii. p. 216, xxii. p. 211, xxiv. p. 214 and xxv. p. 138; also the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vols, cxxii. p. 443, cxxiv. p. 469, cxxxi. p. 413, cxxxviii. p. 508, cxxix. p. 434, cxxx. pp. 213 and 347, cxxiii. pp. 369 and 498, cxxviii. p. 293 and cxxxv. p. 300. (W. H. Ma.) DE TABLEY, JOHN BYRNE LEICESTER WARREN, 3RD Baron (1835-1895), English poet, eldest son of George Fleming Leicester (afterwards Warren) , 2nd Baron De Tabley, was born on the 26thof April 1835. HewaseducatedatEtonand Christ Church, Oxford, where he took his degree in 1856 with second classes in classics and in law and modern history. In the autumn of 1858 he went to Turkey as unpaid attache to Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, and two years later was called to the bar. He became an officer in theCheshireYeomanry,andunsuccessfullycontestedMid-Cheshire in 1868 as a Liberal. After his father's second marriage in 187 1 he remoyed to London, where he became a close friend of Tennyson for several years. From 1877 till his succession to the title in 1887 he was lost to his friends, assuming the life of a recluse. It was not till 1892 that he returned to London life, and enjoyed a sort of renaissance of reputation and friendship. During the later years of his life Lord De Tabley made many new friends, besides reopening old associations, and he almost seemed to be gathering around him a small literary company when his health broke, and he died on the 22nd of November 1895 at Ryde, in his sixty-first year. He was buried at Little Peover in Cheshire. Although his reputation will live almost exclusively as that of a poet, De Tabley was a man of many studious tastes. He was at one time an authority on numismatics; he wrote two novels; published A Guide to the Study of Book Plates (1880); and the fruit of his careful researches in botany was printed posthumously in his elaborate Flora of Cheshire (1899). Poetry, however, was his first and last passion, and to that he devoted the best energies of his life. De Tabley's first impulse towards poetry came from his friend George Fortescue, with whom he shared a close com- panionship during his Oxford days, and whom he lost, as Tennyson lost Hallam, within a few years of their taking their degrees. Fortescue was killed by falling from the mast of Lord Drogheda's yacht in November 1859, and this gloomy event plunged De Tabley into deep depression. Between 1859 and 1862 De Tabley issued four little volumes of pseudonymous verse (by G. F. Preston), in the production of which he had been greatly stimu- lated by the sympathy of Fortescue. Once more he assumed a pseudonym— his Praelerita (1863) bearing the name of William Lancaster. In the next year he published Eclogues and Mono- dramas, followed in 1865 by Studies in Verse. These volumes all displayed technical grace and much natural beauty; but it was not till the publication of Philoctetes in 1866 that De Tabley met with any wide recognition. Philoctetes bore the initials " M.A.," which, to the author's dismay, were interpreted as meaning Matthew Arnold. He at once disclosed his identity, and received the congratulations of his friends, among whom were Tennyson, Browning and Gladstone. In 1867 he published Orestes, in 1870 Rehearsals and in 1873 Searching the Net. These last two bore his own name, John Leicester Warren. He was somewhat disappointed by their lukewarm reception, and when in 1876 The Soldier of Fortune, a drama on which he had bestowed much careful labour, proved a complete failure, he retired altogether from the literary arena. It was not until 1893, that he was persuaded to return, and the immediate success in that year of his Poems, Dramatic and Lyrical, encouraged him to publish a second series in 1895, the year of his death. The genuine interest with which these volumes were welcomed did much to lighten the last years of a somewhat sombre and solitary life. His posthumous poems were collected in 1902. The characteristics of De Tabley's poetry are pre-eminently magnificence of style, derived from close study of Milton, sonority, dignity, weight and colour. His passion for detail was both a strength and a weak- ness: it lent a loving fidelity to his description of natural objects, but it sometimes involved him in a loss of simple effect from over-elaboration of treatment. He was always a student of the classic poets, and drew much of his inspiration directly from them. He was a true and a whole-hearted artist, who, as a brother poet well said, " still climbed the clear cold altitudes of song." His ambition was always for the heights, a region naturally ice-bound at periods, but always a country of clear atmosphere and bright, vivid outlines. See an excellent sketch by E. Gosse in his Critical Kit-Kats (1896). (A. Wa.) DETAILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE EDOUARD (1848- ), French painter, was born in Paris on the 5th of October 1848. After Working as a pupil of Meissonier's, he first exhibited, in the Salon of 1867, a picture representing " A Corner of Meissonier's Studio." Military life was from the first a principal attraction to the young painter, and he gained h^s reputation by depicting the scenes of a soldier's life with every detail truthfully rendered. He exhibited "A Halt " (1868); " Soldiers at rest, during the Manoeuvres at the Camp of Saint Maur " (1869); " Engagement between Cossacks and the Imperial Guard, 1814 " (1870). The war of 1870-71 furnished him with a series of subjects which gained him repeated successes. Among his more important pictures may be named "The Conquerors" (1872); "The Retreat " (1873); " The Charge of the 9th Regiment of Cuirassiers in the Village of Morsbronn, 6th August 1870 " (1874); " The Marching Regiment, Paris, December 1874" (1875); "A Reconnaissance" (1876); "Hail to the Wounded!" (1877); " Bonaparte in Egypt " (1878); the " Inauguration of the New Opera House " — a water-colour; the " Defence of Champigny by Faron's Division " (1879). He also worked with Alphohse de Neuville on the panorama of Rezonville. In 1884 he exhibited at the Salon the " Evening at Rezonville," a panoramic study, and " The Dream " (1888), now in the Luxemburg. Detaille recorded other events in the military history of his country: the " Sortie of the Garrison of Huningue " (now in the Luxem- burg), the " Vincendon Brigade," and " Bizerte," reminiscences of the expedition to Tunis. After a visit to Russia, Detaille exhibited " The Cossacks of the Ataman " and " The Hereditary Grand Duke at the Head of the Hussars of the Guard." Other important works are: " Victims to Duty," " The Prince of Wales and the Duke of Connaught " and " Pasteur's Funeral." In his picture of" Chalons, 9th October 1896," exhibited in the Salon, 1898, Detaille painted the emperor and empress of Russia at a review, with M. Felix Faure. Detaille became a member of the French Institute in 1898. • See Marius Vachon, Detaille (Paris, 1898); ~ Frederic Masson, Edouard Detaille and his work (Paris and London, 1891) ; J. Claretie, Peintres et sculpteurs eontemporains (Paris, 1876); G. Goetschy. Les Jeunes peintres militaires (Paris, 1878). DETAINER—DETERMINANT in DETAINER (horn detain, Lat. detinere), in law, the act of keeping a person against his will, or the wrongful keeping of a person's goods, or other real or personal property. A writ of detainer was a form for the beginning of a personal action against a person already lodged within the walls of a prison; it was superseded by the Judgment Act 1838. DETERMINANT, in mathematics, a function which presents itself in the solution of a system of simple equations. 1. Considering the equations ax +by +cz =d , a'x+b'y+c'z=d', a"x+b"y+c"z=d", and proceeding to solve them by the so-called method of cross multiplication, we multiply the equations by factors selected in such a manner that upon adding the results the whole coefficient of y becomes = o, and the whole coefficient of z becomes = o; the factors in question are b'c" — b"c', b"c— be", be'— b'c. (values which, as at once seen, have the desired property); we thus obtain an equation which contains on the left-hand side only a multiple of *, and on the right-hand side a constant term; the coefficient of x has the value a(b'c" -b"c')+a'(b"c-bc")+a"(bc' -b'c), and this function, represented in the form a , b c a' b' c' a", b", c" is said to be a determinant; or, the number of elements being 3 2 , it is called a determinant of the third order. It is to be noticed that the resulting equation is a , b , c x = d , b , c a',b',c' d',b',c' a", b", c" d", b", c" where the expression on the right-hand side is the like function with d, d', d" in place of a, a', a" respectively, and is of course also a determinant. Moreover, the functions b'c" — b"c', b"e.— bc", be' — b'c used in the process are themselves the determinants of the second order \b',c' \b",c" We have herein the suggestion of the rule for the derivation of the determinants of the orders 1, 2, 3, 4, &c, each from the preceding one, viz. we have = a, = #'! b',c' b", c" a%" , c"\ +a"\b , \b ,c\ \b', b ,c ,d b',c',d' b",c",d" W k b I =#'| -a^. b ,c =ab' , c'\ + V ,c' b",c" ,b ,c ,d =a(6' ,c' ,d' -a'b" ,c" ,d" +a"\b",c",d" ,b' ,c' ,d' b" ,c" ,d" b",c",d'" \b ,c ,d ,b" ,c'\d" b'",c",d'" b ,c ,d \b' ,c' ,d' ,b'",c'",d"i and so on, the terms being all + for a determinant of an odd order, but alternately + and — for a determinant of an even order. 2. It is easy, by induction, to arrive at the general results: — A determinant of the order n is the sum of the i.2.3...« pro- ducts which can be formed with n elements out of n 2 elements arranged in the form of a square, no two of the n elements being in the same line or in the same column, and each such product having the coefficient =*= unity. The products in question may be obtained by permuting in every possible manner the columns (or the lines) of the determin- ant, and then taking for the factors the n elements in the dexter diagonal. And we thence derive the rule for the signs, viz. con- sidering the primitive arrangement of the columns as positive, then an arrangement obtained therefrom by a single interchange (inversion, or derangement) of two columns is regarded as nega- tive; and so in general an arrangement is positive or negative according as it is derived from the primitive arrangement by an even or an odd number of interchanges. iThis implies the theorem that a given arrangement can be derived from the primitive arrangement only by an odd number, or else only by an even number of interchanges,-— a theorem the verification of which may be easily obtained from the theorem (in fact a particular case of the general one), an arrangement can be derived from itself only by an even number of interchanges.] And this being so, each product has the sign belonging to the corresponding arrange- ment of the columns; in particular, a determinant contains with the sign -f the product of the elements in its dexter diagonal. It is to be observed that the rule gives as many positive as negative arrangements, the number of each being = 5 1. 2...». The rule of signs may be expressed in a different form. Giving to the columns in the primitive arrangement the numbers 1, 2,3. . . n, to obtain the sign belonging to any other arrangement we take, as often as a lower number succeeds a higher one, the sign — , and, compounding together all these minus signs, obtain the proper sign, + or — as the case may be. Thus, for three columns, it appears by either rule that 123, 231, 312 are positive; 213, 321, 132 are negative; and the developed expression of the foregoing determinant of the third order is = ab'c"-ab"c'+a'b"c-a'bc"-a"bc'-a"b'c. 3. It further appears that a determinant is a linear function 1 of the elements of each column, thereof, and also a linear function of the elements of each line thereof; moreover, that the de- terminant retains the same value, only its sign being altered, when any two columns are interchanged, or when any two lines are interchanged; more generally, when the columns are permuted in any manner, or when the lines are permuted in any manner, the determinant retains its original value", with the sign + or — according as the new arrangement (considered as derived from the primitive arrangement) is positive or negative according to the foregoing rule of signs. It at once follows that, if two columns are identical, or if two lines are identical, the value of the determinant is = o. It may be added, that if the lines are converted into columns, and the columns into lines, in such a way as to leave the dexter diagonal unaltered, the value of the determinant is unaltered; the determinant is in this case said to be transposed. 4. By what precedes it appears that there exists a function of the » 2 elements, linear as regards the terms of each column (or say, for shortness, linear as to each column), and such that only the sign is altered when any two columns are interchanged; these properties completely determine the function, except as to a common factor which may multiply all the terms. If, to get rid of this arbitrary common factor, we assume that the product of the elements in the dexter diagonal has the coefficient + 1, we have a complete definition of the determinant, and it is interesting to show .how from these properties, assumed for the definition of the determinant, it at once appears that the determinant is a function serving for the solution of a system of linear equations. Observe that the properties show at once that if any column is = (that is, if the elements in the column are each = o), then the determinant is = o; and further, that if any two columns ate identical, then the determinant is = o. 5. Reverting to the system of linear equations written down at the beginning of this article, consider the determinant ax +by -\-cz —d , b , c a'x+b'y+c'z-d ', b' , c' a"x+b"y+c"z-d", b", c" it appears that this is +y b , c b',c' b", c" b , b , c b',b',c' b", b", c" +4c b ,c b',c' b", c" d , b , c d', b',c' d", b", c" viz. the second and third terms each vanishing, it is a , b , c a', b',c' a", b", c" d , b , c d', b';C' d", b", c" But if the linear equations hold good, then the first column of the 1 The expression, a linear function , is here > used in its narrowest sense, a linear function without constant term; what is meant is that the determinant is in regard to the elements a, a', a", . . of any column or line thereof, a function of the form Ao+^4'o'.+A*a*-l- .... without any term independent of a, a', a" . -. ." 112 DETERMINANT original determinant is = o, and therefore the determinant itself is ■= o; that is, the linear equations give a ,b , c a',b',c' a', b", c" d t b , c d', b', c' d", b', c" =o; which is the result obtained above. We might in a similar way find the values of y and z, but there is a more symmetrical process. Join to the original equations the new equation ax+Py + yz=S; a like process shows that, the equations being satisfied, we have =o; « , 0,7 ■ * a , b , c d a',b',c' d' a", b", c" d" or, as this may be written, a ,0,7 -i a , b , c a , b , c , d a l ,b',c' a',b',c',d' a", b", c" a", b", c", d" which, considering S as standing herein for its value ax+fiy+yz, is a consequence of the original equations only: we have thus an expression for ax+Py+yz, an arbitrary linear function of the unknown quantities x, y, z; and by comparing the coefficients of a, /3, y on the two sides respectively, we have the values of x,y,z; in fact, these quantities, each multiplied by I a , 6l , c a',b',c" a', b', c" are in the first instance obtained in the forms i a , b , c , d a'. b',c',d l a", b", c", d" i a , b , c , d a',b',c',d' a'.b'.c'd' a , b , c , d a',b',c',d' a",b",c",d" but these are b , c , d — c , d , o t d a , b b',c',d' c',d',a' d' a', b' b", c", d" c", d", a" d" a', b' or, what is the same thing, b ,c ,d c , a , d t a ,b ,d b',c',d' c',a',d' a',b' d' b", c", d" c",a",d" a'.b'd" respectively. 6. Multiplication of two Determinants of the same Order. — The theorem is obtained very easily from the last preceding definition of a determinant. It is most simply expressed thus — (a.a',a'),(,f},f>',e"),(y,y',y") a , b , c a', ,7 a', b',c' a',0',7' a", b", c" a', 0", y" (a ,b ,c ) (a',b',c') (a\ b", c") where the expression on the left side stands for a determinant, the terms of the first line being {a, b, c)(o, a', a"), that is, aa+ba'+ ca", (a, b, c)(j3, 0', /3"), that is, ap+bp'+cp", (a, b, c){y,y',y"), that is ay+by'+cy"; and similarly the terms in the second and third lines are the life functions with (a', b', c') and (a", b", c") respectively. There is an apparently arbitrary transposition of lines and columns; the result would hold good if on the left-hand side we had written (a, /3, 7), (a', /?', 7'), (a*, P", 7"), or what is the same thing, if on the right-hand side we had transposed the second determinant; and either of these changes would, it might be thought, increase the elegance of the form, but, for a reason which need not be explained, 1 the form actually adopted is the pre- ferable one. To indicate the method of proof, observe that the determinant on the left-hand side, qua linear function of its columns, may be 1 The reason is the connexion with the corresponding theorem for the multiplication of two matrices. broken up into a sum of (3* =») 27 determinants, each of which is either of some such form as ±0/87' a b a' a' b' a" a" b" where the term ajSy' is not a term of the aj87-determinant, and its coefficients a determinant with two identical columns)vanishes; or else it is of a form such as = a/3V a , b , c a',b',c' a", b", c" that is, every term which does not vanish contains as a factor the oJc-determinarit last written down; the sum of all other factors ±a(i'y" is the a/37-determinant of the formula; and the final result then is, that the determinant on the left-hand side is equal to the product on the right-hand side of the formula. 7. Decomposition of a Determinant into complementary Deter- minants.— Consider, for simplicity, a determinant of the fifth order, 5 = 2+3, and let the top two lines be a , b , c , d , a', V, c', d', then, if we consider how these elements enter into the deter- minant, it is at once seen that they enter only through the determinants of the second order "/' ^ , &c, which can be formed by selecting any two columns at pleasure. Moreover, representing the remaining three lines by a" , b" , c" , d" , e" a", b" , c" , d" , e" ■ a"", b"\ c", d"", e" it is further seen that the factor which multiplies the determinant formed with any two columns of the first set is the determinant of the third order formed with the complementary three columns of the second set; and it thus appears that the determinant of the fifth order is a sum of all the products of the form a h 1 c" d" , e" a' b"\ c" d"', e" -fftt d", e" the sign =•= being in each case such that the sign of the term *±ab'.c*d'"e"" obtained from the diagonal elements of the com- ponent determinants may be the actual sign of this term in the determinant of the fifth order; for the product written down the sign is obviously +. Observe that for a determinant of the »-th order, taking the decomposition to be 1 + in— 1), we fallback upon the equations given at the commencement, in order to show the genesis of a determinant. 8. Any determinant ^' j» formed out of the elements of the original determinant, by selecting the lines and columns at pleasure, is termed a minor of the original determinant; and when the number of lines and columns, or order of the deter- minant, is n— 1, then such determinant is called a, first minor; the number of the first minors is = « 2 , the first minors, in fact, corre- sponding to the several elements of the determinant — that is, the coefficient therein of any term whatever is the corresponding first minor. The first minors, each divided by the determinant itself, form a system of elements inverse to the elements of the determinant. A determinant is symmetrical when every two elements symmetrically situated in regard to the dexter diagonal are equal to each other; if they are equal and opposite (that is, if the sum of the two elements be = o), this relation not extending to the diagonal elements themselves, which remain arbitrary, then the determinant is skew; but if the relation does extend to the diagonal terms (that is, if these are each = o), then the deter- minant is skew symmetrical; thus the determinants a, h, g ; 0, V, — n j 0, v, — M h, b,f -v, b, X — v, 0, X g< /. c li, — X, c n, — X, are respectively symmetrical, skew and skew symmetrical: DETERMINISM— DETROIT IJ 3 The theory admits of very extensive algebraic developments, and applications in algebraical geometry and other parts of mathematics. For further developments of the theory of deter- minants see Algebraic Forms. (.A. Ca.) 9. History. — These functions were originally known as "re- sultants," a name applied to them by Pierre Simon Laplace, but now replaced by the title " determinants," a name first applied to certain forms of them by Carl Friedrich Gauss. The germ of the theory of determinants is to be found in the writings of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1693), who incidentally discovered certain properties when reducing the eliminant of a system of linear equa- tions. Gabriel Cramer, in a note to his Analyse des lignes courbes algebriques (1 750) , gave the rule which establishes the sign of a product as plus or minus according as the number of displacements from the typical form has been even or odd. Determinants were also em- ployed by Etienne Bezout in 1764, but the first connected account of these functions was published in 1772 by Charles Auguste Vander- monde. Laplace developed a theorem of Vandermonde for the expansion of a determinant, and in 1773 Joseph Louis Lagrange, in his memoir on Pyramids, used determinants of the third order, and proved that the square of a determinant was also a determinant. Although he obtained results now identified with determinants, Lagrange did not discuss these functions systematically. In 1801 Gauss published his Disquisitiones arithmeticae, which, although written in an obscure form, gave a new impetus to investigations on this and kindred subjects. To Gauss is due the establishment of the important theorem, that the product of two determinants both of the second and third orders is a determinant. The formulation of the general theory is due to Augustin Louis Cauchy, whose work was the forerunner of the brilliant discoveries made in the following decades by Hoene-Wronski and J. Binet in France, Carl Gustav Jacobi in Germany, and James Joseph Sylvester and Arthur Cayley in England. Jacobi's researches were published in Crelle's Journal (1826-1841). In these papers the subject was recast and enriched by new and important theorems, through which the name of Jacobi is indissolubly associated with this branch of science. The far- reaching discoveries of Sylvester and'Cayley rank as one of the most important developments of pure mathematics. Numerous new fields were opened up, and have been diligently explored by many mathematicians. Skew-determinants were studied by Cayley; axisymmetric-determinants by Jacobi, V. A. Lebesque, Sylvester and O. Hesse, and centro-symmetric determinants by W. R. F. Scott and G. Zehfuss. Continuants have been discussed by Sylvester; alternants by Cauchy, Jacobi, N. Trudi, H. Nagelbach and G. Garbieri; circulants by E. Catalan, W. Spottiswoode and J. W. L. Glaisher, and Wronskians by E. B. Christoffel and G. Frobenius. Determinants composed of binomial coefficients have been studied by V. von Zeipel ; the expression of definite integrals as determinants by A. Tissot and A. Enneper, and the expression of continued fractions as determinants by Jacobi, V. Nachreiner, S. Giinther and E. Fiirstenau. (See T. Muir, Theory of Determinants, 1906). DETERMINISM (Lat. determinate, to prescribe or limit), in ethics, the name given to the theory that all moral choice, so called, is the determined or necessary result of psychological and other conditions. It is opposed to the various doctrines of Free- will, known as voluntarism, libertarianism, indeterminism, and is from the ethical standpoint more or less akin to necessitarianism and fatalism. There are various degrees of determinism. It may be held that every action is causally connected not only externally with the sum of the agent's environment, but also internally with his motives and impulses. In other words, if we could know exactly all these conditions, we should be able to forecast with mathematical certainty the course which the agent would pursue. In this theory the agent cannot be held responsible for his action in any sense. It is the extreme antithesis of Indeterminism or Indifferentism, the doctrine that a man is absolutely free to choose between alternative courses (the liberum arbitrium indifferentiae) . Since, however, the evidence of ordinary consciousness almost always goes to prove that the individual, especially in relation to future acts, regards himself as being free within certain limitations to make his own choice of alternatives, many determinists go so far as to admit that there may be in any action which is neither reflex nor determined by external causes solely an element of freedom. This view is corroborated by the phenomenon of remorse, in which the agent feels that he ought to, and could, have chosen a different course of action. These two kinds of determinism are sometimes distinguished as " hard " and " soft " determinism. The con- troversy between determinism and libertarianism hinges largely on the significance of the word " motive "; indeed in no other philosophical controversy has so much difficulty been caused by purely verbal disputation and ambiguity of expression. How far, and in what sense, can action which is determined by motives be said to be free? For a long time the advocates of free-will, in their eagerness to preserve moral responsibility, went so far as to deny all motives as influencing moral action. Such a contention, however, clearly defeats its own object by reducing all action to chance. On the other hand, the scientific doctrine of evolution has gone far towards obliterating the distinction between external and internal compulsion, e.g. motives, character and the like. In so far as man can be shown to be the product of, and a link in, a long chain of causal development, so far does it become impossible to regard him as self-determined. Even in his motives and his impulses, in his mental attitude towards outward surroundings, in his appetites and aversions, inherited tendency and environment have been found to play a very large part; indeed many thinkers hold that the whole of a man's development, mental as well as physical, is determined by external conditions. In the Bible the philosophical-religious problem is nowhere discussed, but Christian ethics as set forth in the New Testament assumes throughout the freedom of the human will. It has been argued by theologians that the doctrine of divine fore-knowledge, coupled with that of the divine origin of all things, necessarily implies that all human action was fore-ordained from the beginning of the world. Such an inference is, however, clearly at variance with the whole doctrine of -in, repentance and the atonement, as also with that of eternal reward and punishment, which postulates a real measure of human responsibility. For the history of the free-will controversy see the articles, Will, Predestination (for the theological problems), Ethics. DETINUE (O. Fr. detenue, from detenir, to hold back), in law, an action whereby one who has an absolute or a special property in goods seeks to recover from another who is in actual possession and refuses to redel'ver them. If the plaintiff succeeds in an action of detinue, the judgment is that he recover the chattel or, if it cannot be had, its value, which is assessed by the judge and jury, and also certain damages for detaining the same. An order for the restitution of the specific goods may be enforced by a special writ of execution, called a writ of delivery. (See Contract; Trover.) DETMOLD, a town of Germany, capital of the principality of Lippe-Detmold, beautifully situated on the east slope of the Teutoburger Wald, 25 m. S. of Minden, on the Herford-Alten- beken line of the Prussian state railways. Pop. (1905) 13,164. The residential chateau of the princes of Lippe-Detmold (1550), in the Renaissance style, is an imposing building, lying with its pretty gardens nearly in the centre of the town; whilst at the entrance to the large park on the south is the New Palace (1708-1718), enlarged in 1850, used as the dower-house. Detmold possesses a natural history museum theatre, high school, library, the house in which the poet Ferdinand Freiligrath (1810-1876) was born, and that in which the dramatist Christian Dietrich Grabbe ( 1 801-1 836) , also a native, died. The leading industries are linen- weaving, tanning, brewing, horse-dealing and the quarrying of marble and gypsum. About 3 m. to the south-west of the town is the Grotenburg, with Ernst von BandePs colossal statue of Hermann or Arminius, the leader of the Cherusci. Detmold (Thiatmelli) was in 783 the scene of a conflict between the Saxons and the troops of Charlemagne. DETROIT, the largest city of Michigan, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Wayne county, on the Detroit river opposite Windsor, Canada, about 4 m. W. from the outlet of Lake St Clair and 18 m. above Lake Erie. Pop. (1880) 116,340; (1890) 205,876; (1900) 285,704, of whom 96,503 were foreign-born and 41 1 1 were negroes; (1910 census) 465,766. 01 the foreign- born in 1900, 32,027 were Germans and 10,703 were German Poles, 25,403 were English Canadians and 3541 French Canadians, 6347 were English and 6412 were Irish. Detroit is served by the Michigan Central, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Wabash, the Grand Trunk, the Pere Marquette, the Detroit & Toledo Shore Line, the Detroit, Toledo & Ironton and the Canadian Pacific railways. Two belt lines, one 2 m. to 3 m., and ii4 DETROIT the other 6 m. from the centre of the city, connect the factory- districts with the main railway lines. Trains are ferried across the river to Windsor, and steamboats make daily trips to Cleveland, Wyandotte, Mount Clemens, Port Huron, to less important places between, and to several Canadian ports. Detroit is also the S. terminus for several lines to more remote lake ports, and electric lines extend from here to Port Huron, Flint, Pontiac, Jackson, Toledo and Grand Rapids. The city extended in 1907 over about 41 sq. m., an increase from 29 sq. m. in 1900 and 36 sq. m. in 1905. Its area in pro- portion to its population is much greater than that of most of the larger cities of the United States. Baltimore, for example, had in 1904 nearly 70% more inhabitants (estimated), while its area at that time was a little less and in 1907 was nearly one-quarter less than that of Detroit. The ground within the city limits as well as that for several miles farther back is quite level, but rises gradually from the river bank, which is only a few feet in height. The Detroit river, along which the city extends for about 10 m., is here 5 m. wide and 30 ft. to 40 ft. deep; its current is quite rapid; its water, a beautiful clear blue; at its mouth it has a width of about 10 m., and in the river there are a number of islands, which during the summer are popular resorts. The city has a 3 m. frontage on the river Rouge, an estuary of the Detroit, with a 16 ft. channel. Before the fire by which the city was destroyed in 1805, the streets were only 12 ft. wide and were unpaved and extremely dirty. But when the rebuilding began, several avenues from 100 ft. to 200 ft. wide were — through the influence of Augustus B. Woodward (c. 1775-1827), one of the territorial judges at the time and an admirer of the plan of the city of Washington — made to radiate from two central points. From a half circle called the Grand Circus there radiate avenues 120 ft. and 200 ft. wide. About J m. toward the river from this was established another focal point called the Campus Martius, 600 ft. long and 400 ft. wide, at which commence radiating or cross streets 80 ft. and 100 ft. wide. Running north from the river through the Campus Martius and the Grand Circus is Woodward Avenue, 120 ft. -wide, dividing the present city, as it did the old town, into nearly equal parts. Parallel with the river is Jefferson Avenue, also 120 ft. wide. The first of these avenues is the principal retail street along its lower portion, and is a residence avenue for 4 m. beyond this. Jefferson is the principal wholesale street at the lower end, and a fine residence avenue E. of this. Many of the other residence streets are 80 ft. wide. The setting of shade trees was early encouraged, and large elms and maples abound. The intersections of the diagonal streets left a number of small, triangular parks, which, as well as the larger ones, are well shaded. The streets are paved mostly with asphalt and brick, though cedar and stone have been much used, and kreodone block to some extent. In few, if any, other American cities of equal size are the streets and avenues kept so clean. The Grand Boulevard, 1 50 ft. to 200 ft. in width and 12 m. in length, has been constructed around the city except along the river front. A very large proportion of the inhabitants of Detroit own their homes: there are no large congested tenement-house districts; and many streets in various parts of the city are faced with rows of low and humble cottages often having a garden plot in front. Of the public buildings the city hall (erected 1868-1871), overlooking the Campus Martius, is in Renaissance style, in three storeys; the flagstaff from the top of the tower reaches a height of 200 ft. On the four corners above the first section of the tower are four figures, each 14 ft. in height, to represent Justice, Industry, Art and Commerce, and on the same level with these is a clock weighing 7670 lb — one of the largest in the world. In front of the building stands the Soldiers' and Sailors' monument, 60 ft. high, designed by Randolph Rogers (1825-1892) and unveiled in 1872. At each of the four corners in each of three sections rising one above the other are bronze eagles and figures representing the United States Infantry, Marine, Cavalry and Artillery, also Victory, Union, Emancipation and History; the figure by which the monument is surmounted was designed to symbolize Michigan. A larger and more massive and stately building than the city hall is the county court house, facing Cadillac Square, with a lofty tower surmounted by a gilded dome. The Federal building is a massive granite structure, finely decorated in the interior. Among the churches of greatest architectural beauty are the First Congregational, with a fine Byzantine interior, St John's Episcopal, the Woodward Avenue Baptist and the First Presbyterian, all on Woodward Avenue, and St. Anne's and Sacred Heart of Mary, both Roman Catholic. The municipal museum of art, in Jefferson Avenue, contains some unusually interesting Egyptian and Japanese collections, the Scripps' collection of old masters, other valuable paintings, and a small library: free lectures on art are given here through the winter. The public library had 228,500 volumes in 1908, includ- ing one of the best collections of state and town histories in the country. A large private collection, owned by C. M. Burton and relating principally to the history of Detroit, is also open to the public. The city is not rich in outdoor works of art. The principal ones are the Merrill fountain and the soldiers' monu- ment on the Campus Martius, and a statue of Mayor Pingree in West Grand Circus Park. The parks of Detroit are numerous and their total area is about 1200 acres. By far the most attractive is Belle Isle, an island in the river at the E. end of the city, purchased in 1879 and having an area of more than 700 acres. The Grand Circus Park of 45 acres, with its trees, flowers and fountains, affords a pleasant resting place in the busiest quarter of the city. Six miles farther, out on Woodward Avenue is Palmer Park of about 140 acres, given to the city in 1894 and named in honour of the donor. Clark Park (28 acres) is in the W. part of the city, and there are various smaller parks. The principal cemeteries are Elmwood (Protestant) and Mount Elliott (Catholic), which lie adjoining in the E. part of the city; Woodmere in the W. and Woodlawn in the N. part of the city. Charity and Education. — Among the charitable institutions are the general hospitals (Harper, Grace and St Mary's) ; the Detroit Emergency, the Children's Free and the United States Marine hospitals; St Luke's hospital, church home, and orphanage; the House of Providence (a maternity hospital and infant asylum); the Woman's hospital and foundling's home; the Home for convalescent children, &c. In 1894 the mayor, Hazen Senter Pingree (1842-1901), instituted the practice of preparing, through municipal aid and supervision, large tracts of vacant land in and about the city for the growing of potatoes and other vegetables and then, in conjunction with the board of poor commissioners, assigning it in small lots to families of the un- employed, and furnishing them with seed for planting. This plan served an admirable purpose through three years of industrial depression, and was copied in other cities; it was abandoned when, with the renewal of industrial activity, the necessity for it ceased. The leading penal institution of the city is the Detroit House of Correction, noted for its efficient reformatory work; the inmates are employed ten hours a day, chiefly in making furniture. The house of correction pays the city a profit of $35,000 to $40,000 a year. The educational institutions, in addition to those of the general public school system, include several parochial schools, schools of art and of music, and commercial colleges; Detroit College (Catholic), opened in 1877; the Detroit College of Medicine, opened in 1885; the Michigan College of Medicine and Surgery, opened in 1888; the Detroit College of law, founded in 1891, and a city normal school. Commerce. — Detroit's location gives to the city's shipping and shipbuilding interests a high importance. All the enormous traffic between the upper and lower lakes passes through the Detroit river. In 1907 the number of vessels recorded was 34,149, with registered tonnage of 53,959,769, carrying 71,226,895 tons of freight, valued at $697,311,302. This includes vessels which delivered part or all of their cargo at Detroit. The largest item in the freights is iron ore on vessels bound down. The next is coal on vessels up bound. Grain and lumber are the next largest items.- Detroit is a port of entry, and its foreign commerce, chiefly with Canada, is of growing importance. The city's exports increased from $11,325,807 in 1896 to $37,085,027 m DETROIT 115 1909. The imports were $3,153,609 in 1896 and $7,160,659 in 1909. ! As a manufacturing city, Detroit holds high rank. The total number of manufacturing establishments in 1890 was 1746, with a product for the year valued a't $77,351,546; in 1900 there were 2847 establishments with a product for the year valued at $106,892,838) or an increase of 30-4% in the decade. In 1900 the establishments under the factory system, omitting the hand trades and neighbourhood industries, numbered 1259 and pro- duced goods valued at $88,365,924; in 1904 establishments under the factory system numbered 1363 and the product had increased 45-7% to $128,761,658. In the district subsequently annexed the product in 1904 was about $12,000,000, making a total of $140,000,000. The output for 1906 was estimated at $180,000,000. The state factory inspectors in 1905 visited 1721 factories having 83,231 employees. In 1906 they inspected 1790 factories with 93,071 employees. Detroit is the leading city in the country in the manufacture of automobiles. In 1904 the value of its product was one-fifth that for the whole country. In 1906 the city had twenty automobile factories, with an out- put of 11,000 cars, valued at $12,000,000. Detroit is probably the largest manufacturer in the country of freight cars, stoves, pharmaceutical preparations, varnish, soda ash and similar alkaline products. Other important manufactures are ships, paints, foundry and machine shop products, brass goods, furniture, boots and shoes, clothing, matches, cigars, malt liquors and fur goods; and slaughtering and meat packing is an important industry. The Detroit Board of Commerce, organized in 1903, brought into one association the members of three former bodies, making a compact organization with Civic as well as commercial aims. The board has brought into active co-operation nearly all the leading business men of the city and many of the professional men. Their united efforts have brought many new industries to the city, have improved industrial conditions, and have exerted a beneficial influence upon the municipal administration. Other business organizations are the Board of Trade, devoted to the grain trade and kindred lines, the Employers' Association, which seeks to maintain satisfactory relations between employer and employed, the Builders' & Traders' Exchange, and the Credit Men's Association. Administration. — Although the city received its first charter in 1806, and another in 181 5, the real power rested in the hands of the governor and judges of the territory until 1824; the charters of 1824 and 1827 centred the government in a council and made the list of elective officers long; the charter of 1827 was revised in 1857 and again in 1859 and the present charter dates from 1883. Under this charter only three administrative officers are elected, — the mayor, the city clerk and the city treasurer, — elections being biennial. The administration of the city depart- ments is largely in the hands of commissions. There is one commissioner each, appointed by the mayor, for the parks and boulevards, police and public works departments. The four members of the health board are nominated by the governor and confirmed by the state senate. The school board is an independent body, consisting of one elected member from each ward holding office for four years, but the mayor has the veto power over its proceedings as well as those of the common council. In each case a two-thirds vote overrules his veto. The other principal officers and commissions, appointed by the mayor and confirmed by the council, are controller, corporation counsel, board of three assessors, fire commission (four members), public lighting commission (six members), water commission (five members), poor commission (four members), and inspectors of the house of correction (four in number) . The members of the public library commission, six in number, are elected by the board of education. Itemized estimates of expenses for the next fiscal year are furnished by the different departments to the controller in February. He transmits them to the common council with his recommendations. The council has four weeks in which to consider them. It may reduce or increase the amounts asked, and may add new items. The budget then goes to the board of estimates, which has a month for its consideration. This body consists of two members elected from each ward and five elected at large. The mayor and heads of departments are advisory members, and may speak but not vote. The members of the board of estimates can hold no other office and they have no appointing power, the intention being to keep them as free as possible from all political motives and influences. They may reduce or cut out any estimates submitted, but cannot increase any or add new ones. No bonds can be issued without the assent of the board of estimates. The budget is apportioned among twelve committees which have almost invariably given close and conscientious examination to the actual needs of the departments. A reduction of $1,000,000 to $1, 500,000, without impairing the service, has been a not unusual result of their deliberations. Prudent management under this system has placed the city in the highest rank financially. Its debt limit is 2 % on the assessed valuation, and even that low maximum is not often reached. The debt in 1907 was only about $5,500,000, a smaller per capita debt than that of any other city of over 100,000 inhabitants in the Country; the assessed valuation was $330,000,000; the city tax, $14.70 on the thousand dollars of ' assessed valuation. Both the council and the estimators are hampered in their work by legislative interference. Nearly all the large salaries and many of those of the second grade are made mandatory by the legislature, which has also determined many affairs of a purely administrative character. ■ Detroit has made three experiments with municipal ownership. On account of inadequate and unsatisfactory service by a private company, the city bought the water- works as long ago as 1836. The works have been twice moved and enlargements have been made in advance of the needs of the city. In 1907 there were six engines in the works with a pumping capacity of 152,000,000 gallons daily. The daily average of water used during the pre- cede year was 6^357,000 gallons. The water is pumped from Lake' St Clair and is of exceptional purity. The city began its own public lighting in April 1895, having a large plant on the river near the centre of the city. It lights the streets and public buildings, but makes no provision for commercial business. The lighting is excellent, and the cost is probably less than could be obtained from a private company. The street lighting is done partly from pole and arm lights, but largely from steel towers from 100 ft. to 180 ft. in height, with strong reflected lights at the top. The city also owns two portable asphalt plants, and thus makes a saving in the cost of street repairing and resurfacing. With a view of effecting the reduction of street car fares to three cents, the state legislature in 1899 passed an act for purchasing or leasing the street railways of the city, but the Supreme Court pronounced this act unconstitutional on the ground that, as the constitution prohibited the state from engaging in a work of internal improvement, the state could not empower a munici- pality to do so. Certain test votes indicated an almost even division on the question of municipal ownership of the railways. History.— Detroit was founded in 1701 by Antoine Laumet de la Mothe Cadillac (c. 1661-1730), who had pointed out the importance of the place as a strategic point for determining the control of the fur trade and the possession of the North-west and had received assistance from the French government soon after Robert Livingston (1654-1725), the secretary of the Board of Indian Commissioners in New York, had urged the Eaglish government to establish a fort at the same place. Cadillac arrived on the 24th of July with about 100 followers. They at once built a palisade fort about 200 ft. square S. of what is now Jefferson Avenue and between Griswold and Shelby streets, and named it Fort Pontchartrain in honour of the French colonial minister. Indians at once came to the place in large numbers, but they soon complained of the high price of French goods; there was serious contention between Cadillac and the French Canadian Fur Company, to which a monopoly of the trade had been granted, as well as bitter rivalry between him and the Jesuits. After the several parties had begun to complain to the home government the monopoly of the fur trade was transferred to Cadillac and he was exhorted to cease quarrelling with the n6 DETTINGEN— DEUS, J. DE Jesuits. Although the inhabitants then increased to ,200 or more, dissatisfaction with the paternal rule of the founder increased until 17 10, when he was made governor of Louisiana. The year before, the soldiers had been withdrawn; by the second year after there was serious trouble with the Indians, and for several years following the population was greatly reduced and the post threatened with extinction. But in 1722, when the Mississippi country was opened, the population once more in- creased, and again in 1748, when the settlement of the Ohio Valley began, the governor-general of Canada offered special inducements to Frenchmen to settle at Detroit, with the result that the population was soon more than 1000 and the culti- vation of farms in the vicinity was begun. In 1760, however, the place was taken by the British under Colonel Robert Rogers and an English element was introduced into the population which up to this time had been almost exclusively French. Three years later, during the conspiracy of Pontiac, the fort first narrowly escaped capture and then suffered from a siege lasting from the 9th of May until the 12th of October. Under English rule it continued from this time on as a military post with its population usually reduced to less than 500. In 1778 a new fort was built and named Fort Lernault, and during the War of Independence the British sent forth from here several Indian expeditions to ravage the frontiers. With the ratification of the treaty which concluded that war the title to the post passed to the United States in 1783, but the post itself was not surrendered until the nth of January 1796, in accordance with Jay's Treaty of 1794. It was then named Fort Shelby; but in 1802 it was incorporated as a town and received its present name. In 1805 all except one or two buildings were destroyed by fire. General William Hull (1753-1825), a veteran of the War of American Independence, governor of Michigan territory in 1805-1812, as commander of the north-western army in 1812 occupied the city. Failing to hear immediately of the declaration of war between the United States and Great Britain, he was cut off from his supplies shipped by Lake Erie. He made from Detroit on the 12th of July an awkwardandfutile advance into Canada, which, if more vigorous, might have resulted in the capture of Maiden and the estab- lishment of American troops in Canada, and then retired to his fortifications. On the 16th of August 1812, without any resistance and without consulting his officers, he surrendered the city to General Brock, for reasons of humanity, and afterwards attempted to justify himself by criticism of the War Department in general and in particular of General Henry Dearborn's armistice with Prevost, which had not included in its terms Hull, whom Dearborn had been sent out to reinforce. l After Perry's victory on the 14th of September on Lake Erie, Detroit on the 29th of September was again occupied by the forces of the United States. Its growth was rather slow until 1830, but since then its progress has been unimpeded. Detroit was the capital of Michigan from 1805 to 1847. Authorities. — Silas Farmer, The History of Detroit and Michigan (Detroit, 1884 and 1889), and " Detroit, the Queen City," in L. P. Powell's Historic Towns of the Western Slates (New York and London, 1901); D. F. Wilcox, "Municipal Government in Michigan and Ohio," in Columbia University Studies (New York, 1896); C. M. Burton, " Cadillac's Village ' or Detroit under Cadillac (Detroit, 1896) ; Francis Parkman, A Half Century of Conflict (Boston, 1897) ; and The Conspiracy of Pontiac (Boston, 1898); and the annual Reports of the Detroit Board of Commerce (1904 sqq.). DETTINGEN, a village of Germany in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the Main, and on the Frankfort-on-Main-Aschaffenburg rail- way, 10 m. N.W. of Aschaffenburg. It is memorable as the scene of a decisive battle on the 27th of June 1743, when the English, Hanoverians and Austrians (the " Pragmatic army "), 42,000 men under the command of George II. of England, routed the numerically superior French forces under' the due de Noailles. It was in memory of tbis victory that Handel composed his Dettingen Te Deunt. 1 Hull was tried at Albany in 1 8 1 4 by court martial, General Dearborn presiding, was found guilty of treason, cowardice, neglect of duty and unofficerlike conduct, and was sentenced to be shot; the president remitted the sentence because of Hull's services in the Revolution. DEUCALION, in Greek legend, son of Prometheus, king ol Phthia in Thessaly, husband of Pyrrha, and father of Hellen, the mythical ancestor of the Hellenic race. When Zeus had resolved to destroy ajl mankind by a flood, Deucalion constructed a boat or ark, in which, after drifting nine days and nights, he landed on Mount Parnassus (according to others, Othrys, Aetna or Athos) with his wife. Having offered sacrifice and inquired how to renew the human race, they were ordered to cast behind them the " bones of the great mother," that is, the stones from the hill- side. The stones thrown by Deucalion became men, those thrown by Pyrrha, women. See Apollodorus i. 7, 2; Ovid, Metam. i. 243-415; Apollonius Rhodius iii. 1085 ff. ; H. Usener, Die Sintflutsagen (1899). DEUCE (a corruption of the Fr. deux, two), a term applied to the " two "■ of any suit of cards, or of dice. It is also a term used in tennis when both sides have each scored three points in a game, or five games in a set; to win the game or set two points or games must then be won consecutively. The earliest instances in English of the use of the slang expression " the deuce," in exclamations and the like, date from the middle of the 17th century. The meaning was similar to that of " plague " or " mischief " in such phrases as " plague on you," " mischief take you " and the like. The use of the word as an euphemism for " the devil " is later. According to the New English Dictionary the most probable derivation is from a Low German das daus, i.e. the " deuce " in dice, the lowest and therefore the most unlucky throw. The personification, with a consequent change of gender, to der daus, came later. The word has also been identified with the name of a giant or goblin in Teutonic mythology. DEUS, JOAO DE (1830-1896), the greatest Portuguese poet of his generation, was born at San Bartholomeu de Messines in the province of Algarve on the 8th of March 1830. Matriculating in the faculty of law at the university of Coimbra, he did not proceed to his degree but settled in the city, dedicating himself wholly to the composition of verses, which circulated among professors and undergraduates in manuscript copies. In the volume of his art, as in the conduct of life, he practised a rigorous self-control. He printed nothing previous to 1855, and the first of his poems to appear in a separate form was La Lata, in i860. In 1862 he left Coimbra for Beja, where he was appointed editor of Bejense, the chief newspaper in the province of Alemtejo, and four years later he edited the Folha do Sul. As the pungent satirical verses entitled Eleicfies prove, he was not an ardent politician, and, though he was returned as Liberal deputy for the constituency of Silves in 1869, he acted independently of all political parties and promptly resigned his mandate. The renunciation implied in the act, which cut him off from all advancement, is in accord with nearly all that is known of his lofty character. In the year of his election as deputy, his friend Jose Antonio Garcia Blanco collected from local journals the series of poems, Flores do campo, which is supplemented by the Ramo de flores (1869). This is Joao de Deus's masterpiece. Pires de Marmalada (1869) is an improvisation of no great merit. The four theatrical pieces — Amemos nosso proximo, Ser apresentado, Ensaio de Casamento, and A Viuva inconsolavel — are prose translations from Mery, cleverly done, but not worth the doing. Horacio e Lydia (1872), a translation from Ronsard, is a good example of artifice in manipulating that dangerously monotonous measure, the Portuguese couplet. As an indication of a strong spiritual reaction three prose fragments (1873) — Anna, Mae de Maria, A Virgem Maria and A Mulher do Levita de Ephrain — translated from Darboy's Femmes de la Bible, are full of signific- ance. The Folhas soltas (1876) is a collection of verse in the manner of Flores do campo, brilliantly effective and exquisitely refined. Within the next few years the writer turned his atten- tion to educational problems, and in his Cartilha maternal (1876) first expressed the conclusions to which his study of Pestalozzj and Frobel had led him. This patriotic, pedagogical apostolate was a misfortune for Portuguese literature; his educational mission absorbed Joao de Deus completely, and is responsible for numerous controversial letters, for a translation of Theodore- Henri Barrau's treatise, Des devoirs des enfants envers lews DEUTERONOMY 117 parents, for a prosodic dictionary and for many other publications of no literary value. A copy of verses in Antonio Vieira's Grinalda de Maria (1877), the Loas a Virgem (1878) and the Proverbios de Salomao are evidence of a complete return to orthodoxy during the poet's last years. By a lamentable error of judgment some worthless pornographic verses entitled Cryptinas have been inserted in the completest edition of Joao de Deus's poems — Campo de Flores (Lisbon, 1893). He died at Lisbon on the 1 1 th of January 1 896, was accorded a public funeral and was buried in the National Pantheon, the Jeronymite church at Belem, where repose the remains of Camoens, Herculano and Garrett. His scattered minor prose writings and correspondence have been posthumously published by Dr Theophilo Braga (Lisbon, 1898). Next to Camoens and perhaps Garrett, no Portuguese poet has been more widely read, more profoundly admired than Joao de Deus; yet no poet in any country has been more indifferent to public opinion and more deliberately careless of personal fame. He is not responsible for any single edition of his poems, which were put together by pious but ill-informed enthusiasts, who ascribed to him verses that he had not written; he kept no copies of his compositions, seldom troubled to write them himself, and was content for the most part to dictate them to others. He has no great intellectual force, no philosophic doctrine, is limited in theme as in outlook, is curiously uncertain in his touch, often marring a fine poem with a slovenly rhyme or with a misplaced accent; and, on the only occasion when he was induced to revise a set of proofs, his alterations were nearly all for the worse. And yet, though he never appealed to the patriotic spirit, though he wrote nothing at all comparable in force or majesty to the restrained splendour of Os Lusiadas, the popular instinct which links his name with that of his great predecessor is eminently just. For Camoens was his model; not the Camoens of the epic, but the Camoens of the lyrics and the sonnets, where the passion of tenderness finds its supreme utterance. Braga has noted five stages of development in Joao d*e Deus's artistic life — the imita- tive, the idyllic, the lyric, the pessimistic and the devout phases. Under each of these divisions is included much that is of extreme interest, especially to contemporaries who have passed through the same succession of emotional experience, and it is highly probable that Caturras and Gaspar, pieces as witty as anything in Bocage but free from Bocage's coarse impiety, will always interest literary students. But it is as the singeroflove that Joao de Deus will delight posterity as he delighted his own generation. The elegiac music of Rachel and of M&ina, the melancholy of Adeus and of Remoinho, the tenderr8» and sincerity of Meu casto lirio, of Lagrima celeste, of Descaloa} and a score more songs are distinguished by the large, vital simplicity which withstands time. It is precisely in the quality of unstudied simplicity that Joao de Deus is incomparably strong. The temptations to a dis- play of virtuosity are almost irresistible for a Portuguese poet; he has the tradition of virtuosity in his blood, he has before him the example of all contemporaries, and he has at hand an in- strument of wonderful sonority and compass. Yet not once is Joao de Deus clamorous or rhetorical, not once does he indulge in idle ornament. His prevailing note is that of exquisite sweet- ness and of reverent purity; yet with all his caressing softness he is never sentimental, and, though he has not the strength for a long fight, emotion has seldom been set to more delicate music. Had he included among his other gifts the gift of selection, had he continued the poetic discipline of his youth instead of dedicating his powers to a task which, well as he performed it, might have been done no less well by a much lesser man, there is scarcely any height to which he might not have risen. See also Maxime Formont, Le Mouvement poetique conlemporain en Portugal (Lyon, 1892). (J. F.-K.) DEUTERONOMY, the name of one of the books of the Old Testament. This book was long the storm-centre of Pentateuchal criticism, orthodox scholars boldly asserting that any who questioned its Mosaic authorship reduced it to the level of a pious fraud. But Biblical facts have at last triumphed over tradition, and the non-Mosaic authorship of Deuteronomy is now a commonplace of criticism. It is still instructive, however, to note the successive phases through which scholarly opinion regarding the composition and date of his book has passed. In the 17 th century the characteristics which so clearly mark off Deuteronomy from the other four books of the Pentateuch were frankly recognized, but the most advanced critics of that age were inclined to pronounce it the earliest and most authentic of the five. In the beginning of the 19th century de Wette startled the religious world by declaring that Deuteronomy, so far from being Mosaic, was not known till the time of Josiah. This theory he founded on 2 Kings xxii.; and ever since, this chapter has been one of the recognized foci of Biblical criticism. The only other single chapter of the Bible which is responsible for having brought about a somewhat similar revolution in critical opinion is Ezek. xliv. From this chapter, some seventy years after de Wette's discovery, Wellhausen with equal acumen inferred that Leviticus was not known to Ezekiel, the priest, and therefore could not have been in existence in his day; for had Leviticus been the recognized Law-book of his nation Ezekiel could not have represented as a degradation the very position which that Law-book described as a special honour conferred on the Levites by Yahweh himself. Hence Leviticus, so far from belonging to an earlier stratum of the Pentateuch than Deuteronomy, as de Wette thought, must belong to a much later stratum, and be at least exilic, if not post-exilic. The title " Deuteronomy " is due to a mistranslation by the Septuagint of the clause in chap. xvii. 18, rendered " and he shall write out for himself this Deuteronomy." The Hebrew really means " and he [the king] shall write out for himself a copy of this law," where there is not the slightest suggestion that the author intended to describe " this law " delivered on the plains of Moab as a second code in contradistinction to the first code given on Sinai thirty-eight years earlier. Moreover the phrase " this law " is so ambiguous as to raise a much greater diffi- culty than that caused by the Greek mistranslation of the Hebrew word for " copy." How much does " this law " include? It was long supposed to mean the whole of our present Deuteronomy; indeed, it is on that supposition that the traditional view of the Mosaic authorship is based. But the context alone can determine the question; and that is often so ambiguous that a sure infer- ence is impossible. We may safely assert, however, that nowhere need " this law " mean the whole book. In fact, it invariably means very much less, and sometimes, as in xxvii. 3, 8, so little that it could all be engraved in large letters on a few plastered stones set up beside an altar. Deuteronomy is not the work of any single writer but the result of a long process of development. The fact that it is legislative as well as hortatory is enough to prove this, for most of the laws it contains are found elsewhere in the Pentateuch, sometimes in less developed, sometimes in more developed forms, a fact which is conclusive proof of prolonged historical develop- ment. According to the all-pervading law of evolution, the less complex form must have preceded the more complex. Still, the book does bear the stamp of one master-mind. Its style is as easily recognized as that of Deutero-Isaiah, being as remarkable for its copious diction as. for its depths of moral and religious feeling. The original Deuteronomy, D, read to King Josiah, cannot have been so large as our present book, for not only could it be read at a single sitting, but it could be easily read twice in one day. On the day it was found, Shaphan first read it himself, and then went to the king and read it aloud to him. But perhaps the most conclusive proof of its brevity is that it was read publicly to the assembled people immediately before they, as well as their king, pledged themselves to obey it; and not a word is said as to the task of reading it aloud, so as to be heard by such a great multitude, being long or difficult. The legislative part of D consists of fifteen chapters (xii.-xxvi.), which, however, contain many later insertions. But the impression made upon Josiah by what he heard was far too deep to have been produced by the legislative part alone. The king must have listened. to the curses as well as the blessings in chap, xxviii.; and ij: DEUTERONOMY no doubt also to the exhortations in chaps., v.-xi. Hence we may conclude that the original book consisted of a central mass of religious, civil and social laws, preceded by a hortatory intro- duction and followed by an effective peroration. The book read to Josiah must therefore have comprised most of what is found in Deut. v.-xxvi., xxvii. 9, 10 and xxviii. But something like two centuries elapsed before the book reached its present form, for in the closing chapter, as well as elsewhere, e.g. i. 41-43 (where the joining is not so deftly done as usual) and xxxii. 48-52, there are undoubted traces of the Priestly Code, P, which is generally acknowledged to be post-exilic, The following is an analysis of the main divisions of the book as we now have it. There are two introductions, the first i.-iv. 44, . more historical than hortatory; the. second v.-xi., more hortatory than historical. These may at first have been prefixed to separate editions of the legislative portion, but were eventu- ally combined. Then, before D was united to P, five appendices of very various dates and embracing poetry as well as prose, were added so as to give a fuller account of the last days of Moses and thus lead up to the narrative of his death with which the book closes. (1) Chap, xocvii., where the elders of Israel are introduced for the first time as acting along with Moses (xxvii. 1) and then the priests, the Levites (xxvii. 9). Some of the curses refer to laws given not in D but in Lev. xxx., so that the date of this chapter must be later than Leviticus or at any rate than the laws codified in the Law of Holiness (Lev. xvii-xxvi.)* (2) The second appendix, chaps, xxix.-xxxi. 29, xxxii. 45-47, gives us the farewell address of Moses and is certainly : later than D. Moses is represented as speaking not with any hope of preventing Israel's apostasy but because he knows that the people will eventually prove apostate (xxxi. 29), a point of view very different from D's. (3) The Song of Moses, chap, xxxii. That this didactic poem must have been written late in the nation's history, and not at its very beginning, is evident from v. 7: " Remember the days of old, Consider the years of many genera- tions." Such words cannot be interpreted so as to fit the lips of Moses. It must have been composed in a time of natural gloom and depression, after Yahweh's anger had been provoked by "a very froward generation," certainly not before the Assyrian Empire had loomed up against the political horizon, aggressive and menacing. Some critics bring the date down even to the time of Jeremiah and Ezekiel. (4) The Blessing of Moses, chap, xxxiii. The first line proves that this poem is not by D, who speaks invariably of Horeb, never of Sinai. The situation depicted is in striking contrast with that of the Song. Everything is bright because of promises fulfilled, and the future bids fair to be brighter still. Bruston maintains with reason that the Blessing, strictly so called, consists only of vv. 6-25, and has been inserted in a Psalm celebrating the goodness of Jehovah to his people on their entrance into Canaan (vv. 1-5, 26^29). The special prominence given to Joseph (Ephraim and Manasseh) in vv. 13-17 has led many critics to assign this poem to the time of the greatest warrior-king of Northern Israel, Jeroboam II. (5) The account of Moses' death, chap, xxxiv. This appendix, containing, as it does, manifest traces of P, proves that even Deuteronomy was not put into its present form until after the exile. From the many coincidences between D and the Book of the Covenant (Ex. xx.-xxiii.) it is clear that D was acquainted with E, the prophetic narrative of the Northern kingdom; but it is not quite clear whether D knew E as an independent work, or after its combination with J, the somewhat earlier prophetic narrative of the Southern kingdom, the combined form of which is now indicated by the symbol JE. Kittel certainly puts it too strongly when he asserts that D quotes always from E and never from J, for some of the passages alluded to in D may just as readily be ascribed to J as to E, cf . Deut. i. 7 and Gen. xv. 18; Deut. x. 14 and Ex. xxxiv. 1-4. Consequently D must have been written certainly after E and possibly after E was combined with J. ■ In Amos, Hosea and Isaiah there are no traces of D's ideas, whereas in Jeremiah and Ezekiel their influence is everywhere manifest. Hence this school of thought arose between the age of Isaiah and that of Jeremiah; but how long D itself may have been in existence before it was read in 622 to Josiah cannot be determined with certainty. Many argue that D was written immediately before it was found and that, in fact, it was put into the temple for the purpose of being " found." This theory gives Some plausibility to the charge that the book is a pious fraud. But the narrative in 2 Kings xxii. warrants no such inference. The more natural explanation is that it was written not in the early years of Josiah's reign, and with the cognizance of the temple priests then in office, but some time during the long reign of Manasseh, probably when his policy was most reactionary and when he favoured the worship of the " host of heaven " and set up altars to strange gods in Jerusalem itself. This explains why the author did not publish his work immediately, but placed it where he hoped it would be safely preserved till opportunity should arise for its publication. One need not suppose that he actually foresaw how favourable that Opportunity would prove, and that, as soon as discovered, his work would be promulgated as law by the king and willingly accepted by the people. The author believed that everything he wrote was in full accordance with the mind of Moses, and would contribute to the national weal of Yahweh's covenant people, and therefore he did not scruple to represent Moses as the speaker. It is not to be expected, that modern scholars should be able to fix the exact year or even decade in which such a book was written. It is enough to determine with something like probability the century or half -century which best fits its historical data; and these appear to point to the reign of Manasseh. Between D and P there are no verbal parallels; but in the historical r6sumes JE is followed closely, whole clauses and even verses being copied practically verbatim. As Dr Driver points out in his careful analysis, there are only three facts in D which are not also found in JE, viz. the number of the spies, the number of souls that went down into Egypt with Jacob, and the ark being made of acacia wood. But even these may have been in J or E originally, and left out when JE was combined with P. Steuernagel divides the legal as well as the hortatory parts of D between two authors, one of whom uses the 2nd person plural when addressing Israel, and the other the 2nd person singular; but as a similar alternation is constantly found in writings universally acknowledged to be by the same author, this clue seems anything but trustworthy, depending as it does on the presence or absence of a single Hebrew letter, and resulting, as it frequently does, in the division of verses which otherwise seem to be from the same penjfcf. xx. 2). The inference as to diversity of authorship is much wtk conclusive when difference of stand- point can be proved, cffv. 3, xi. 2 ff. with viii. 2. The first two passages represent Moses as addressing the generation that was alive at Horeb, whereas the last represents him as speaking to those who were about to pass over Jordan a full generation later; and it may well be that the one author may, in the historical and hortatory parts, have preferred the 2nd plural and the other the 2nd singular; without the further inference being justified that every law in which the 2nd singular is used must be assigned to the latter, and every law in which the 2nd plural occurs must be due to the former. The law of the Single Sanctuary, one of D's outstanding characteristics, is, for him, an innovation, but an innovation towards which events had long been tending. 2 Kings xxiii. 9 shows that even the zeal of Josiah could not carry out the instructions laid down in D xviii. 6-8. Josiah's acceptance of D made it the first canonical book of scripture. Thus the religion of Judah betame henceforward a religion which enabled its adherents to learn from a book exactly what was required of them. D requires the destruction not only of the high places and the idols, but of the Asheras (wooden posts) and the Mazzebas (stone pillars) often set up beside the altar of Jehovah (xvi. 21). These reforms made too heavy demands upon the people, as was proved by the reaction which set in at Josiah's death. Indeed the country people would look on the destruction of the high places with their Asheras and Mazzebas as sacrilege and would consider Josiah's death in battle as a divine punishment for his DEUTSCH— DEUX-SEVRES 119 sacrilegious deeds. On the other hand, the destruction of Jerusalem and the exile of the people would appear to those who had obeyed D's instructions as a well-merited punishment for national apostasy. Moreover, D regarded religion as of the utmost moment to each individual Israelite; and it is certainly not by accident that the declaration of the individual's duty towards God immediately follows the emphatic intimation to Israel of Yahweh's unity. " Hear, O Israel, Yahweh is our God, Yahweh is one: and thou shalt love Yahweh thy God with all thine heart and with all thy soul and with all thy strength " (vi. 4, 5). In estimating the religious value of Deuteronomy it should never be forgotten that upon this passage the greatest eulogy ever pronounced on any scripture was pronounced by Christ himself, when he said " on these words hang all the law and the prophets," and it is also well to remember that when tempted in the wilderness he repelled each suggestion of the Tempter by a quotation from Deuteronomy. Nevertheless even such a writer as D could not escape the influence of the age and atmosphere in which he lived; and despite the spirit of love which breathes so strongly throughout the book, especially for the poor, the widow and the fatherless, the stranger and the homeless Levite (xxiv. 10-22), and the humanity shown towards both beasts and birds (xxii. 1,4, 6 f., xxv. 4), there are elements in D which go far to explain the intense exclusiveness and the religious intolerance characteristic of Judaism. Should a man's son or friend dear to him as his own soul seek to tempt him from the faith of his fathers, D's pitiless order to that man is " Thou shalt surely kill him; thine hand shall be first upon him to put him to death." From this single instance we see not only how far mankind has travelled along the path of religious toleration since Deuteronomy was written, but also how very far the criticism implied in Christ's method of dealing with what " was said to them of old time " may be legitimately carried. (J- A. p *) DEUTSCH, IMMANUEL OSCAR MENAHEM (1820-1873), German oriental scholar, was born on the 28th of October 1829, at Neisse in Prussian Silesia, of Jewish extraction. On reaching his sixteenth year he began his studies at the university of Berlin, paying special attention to theology and the Talmud. He also mastered the English language and studied English literature. In 1855 Deutsch was appointed assistant in the library of the British Museum. He worked intensely on the Talmud and contributed no less than 190 papers to Chambers's Encyclopaedia, in addition to essays in Kitto's and Smith's Biblical Dictionaries, and articles in periodicals. In October 1867 his article on" The Talmud," published in the Quarterly Review, made him known. It was translated into French, German, Russian, Swedish, Dutch and Danish. He died at Alexandria on the 12th of May 1873. His Literary Remains, edited by Lady Strangford, were published in 1874, consisting of nineteen papers on such subjects as "The Talmud," " Islam,"' " Semitic Culture," " Egypt, Ancient and Modern," " Semitic Languages," " The Targums," " The Samaritan Pentateuch," and " Arabic Poetry." DEUTSCHKRONE, a town of Germany, kingdom of Prussia, between the two lakes of Arens and Radau, 15 m. N.W. of Schneidemuhl, a railway junction 60 m. north of Posen. Pop. (1905) 7282. It is the seat of the public offices for the district, possesses an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, a synagogue, and a gymnasium established in the old Jesuit college, and has manufactures of machinery, woollens, tiles, brandy and been DEUTZ (anc. Divitio), formerly an independent town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, on the right bank of the Rhine, opposite to Cologne, with which it has been incorpor- ated since 1888. It contains the church of St Heribert, built in the 17th century, cavalry barracks, artillery magazines, and gas, porcelain, machine and carriage factories. It has a handsome railway station on the banks of the Rhine, negotiating the local traffic with Elberfeld and KSnigswinter. The fortifications of the town form part of the defences of Cologne. To the east is the manufacturing suburb of Kalk. The old castle in Deutz was in T002 made a Benedictine monastery by Heribert, archbishop of C logne. Permission tc fortify the town was in 1 230 granted to the citizens by the arch- bishop of Cologne, between whom and the counts of Berg it was in 1240 divided. It was burnt in 1376, 1445 and 1583; and in 1678, after the peace of Nijmwegen, the fortifications were dismantled; rebuilt in 1816, they were again razed in 1888. DEUX-SEVRES, an inland department of western France, formed in 1 790 mainly of the three districts of Poitou, Thouarsais, Gatine and Niortais, added to a small portion of Saintonge and a still smaller portion of Aunis. Area, 2337 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 339,466. It is bounded N. by Maine-et-Loire, E. by Vienne, S.E. by Charente, S. by Charente-Inferieure and W. by Vendee. The department takes its name from two rivers — the Sevre of Niort which traverses the southern portion, and the Sevre of Nantes (an affluent of the Loire) which drains the north-west. There are three regions — the Gatine, occupying the north and centre of the department, the Plaine in the south and the Marais, — distinguished by their geological character and their general physical appearance. The Gatine, formed of primitive rocks (granite and schists), is the continuation of the " Socage " of Vendee and Maine-et-Loire. Its surface is irregular and covered with hedges and clumps of wood or forests. The systematic application of lime has much improved the soil, which is naturally poor. The Plaine, resting on oolite limestone, is treeless but fertile. The Marais, a low-lying district in the extreme south- west, consists of alluvial clays which also are extremely pro- ductive when properly drained. The highest points, several of which exceed 700 ft., are found in a line of hills which begins in the centre of the department, to the south of Parthenay, and stretches north-west into the neighbouring department of Vendee. It divides the region drained by the Sevre Nantaise and the Thouet (both affluents of the Loire) in the north from the basins of the Sevre Niortaise and the Charente in the south. The climate is mild, the annual temperature at Niort being 54° Fahr., and the rainfall nearly 25 in. The winters are colder in the Gatine, the summers warmer in the Plaine. Three-quarters of the entire area of Deux-Sevres, which is primarily an agricultural department, consists of arable land. Wheat and oats are the main cereals. Potatoes and mangold- wurzels are the chief root-crops. Niort is a centre for the growing of vegetables (onions, asparagus, artichokes, &c.) and of angelica. Considerable quantities of beetroot are raised to supply the distilleries of Melle. Colza, hemp, rape and flax are also culti- vated. Vineyards are numerous in the neighbourhood of Bressuire in the north, and of Niort and Melle in the south. The department is well known for the Parthenay breed of cattle and the Poitou breed of horses; and the mules reared in the southern arrondissements are much sought after both in France and in Spain. The system of co-operative dairying is practised in some localities. The apple-trees of the Gatine and the walnut-trees of the Plaine bring a good return. Coal is mined, and the depart- ment produces building-stone and lime. A leading industry is themanufactureof textiles (serges, druggets, linen, handkerchiefs, flannels, swan-skins and knitted goods). Tanning and leather- dressing are carried on at Niort and other places, and gloves are made at Niort. Wool and cotton spinning, hat and shoe making, distilling, brewing, flour-milling and oil-refining are also main industries. The department exports cattle and sheep to Paris and Poitiers; also cereals, oils, wines, vegetables and its industrial products. The Sevre Niortaise and its tributary the Mignon furnish 19 m. of navigable waterway. The department is served by the Ouest- Etat railway. It contains a large proportion of Protestants, especially in the south-east. The four arrondissements are Niort, Bressuire, Melle and Parthenay; the cantons number 31, and the communes 356. Deux-Sevres is part of the region of the IX. army corps, and of the diocese and the academie (educational circumscription) of Poitiers, where also is its court of appeal. Niort (the capital), Bressuire, Melle, Parthenay, St Maixent, Thouars and Oiron are the principal places. in, the department. Several other towns contain features of interest. Among these 120 DEVA— DEVENTER are Airvault, where there is a church of the 12th and 14th centuries which once belonged to the abbey of St Pierre, and an ancient bridge built by the monks; Celles-sur-Belle, where there is an old church rebuilt by Louis XI., and again in the 17th century; and St Jouin-de-Marnes, with a fine Romanesque church with Gothic restoration, which belonged to one of the most ancient abbeys of Gaul.. DEVA (Sanskrit " heavenly "), in Hindu and Buddhist mythology, spirits of the light and air, and minor deities generally beneficent. In Persian mythology, however, the word is used for evil spirits or demons. According to Zoroaster the devas were created by Ahriman. DEVA (mod. Chester), a Roman legionary fortress in Britain on the Dee. It was occupied by Roman troops about A.D. 48 and held probably till the end of the Roman dominion. Its garrison was the Legio XX. Valeria Victrix, with which another legion (II. Adjutrix) was associated for a few years, about a.d. 75-85. It never developed, like many Roman legionary fortresses, into a town, but remained military throughout. Parts of its north and east walls (from Morgan's Mount to Peppergate) and numerous inscriptions remain to indicate its character and area. See F. J. Haverfield, Catalogue of the Grosvenor Museum, Chester (Chester, 1900), Introduction. DEVADATTA, the son of Suklodana, who was younger brother to the father of the Buddha (Mahdvastu, iii. 76). Both he and his brother Ananda, who were considerably younger than the Buddha, joined the brotherhood in the twentieth year of the Buddha's ministry. Four other cousins of theirs, chiefs of the Sakiya clan, and a barber named Upali, were admitted to the order at the same time; and at their own request the barber was admitted first, so that as their senior in the order he should take precedence of them (Vinaya Texts, iii. 228). All the others continued loyal disciples, but Devadatta, fifteen years afterwards, having gained over the crown prince of Magadha, Ajatasattu, to his side, made a formal proposition, at the meeting of the order, that the Buddha should retire, and hand over the leadership to him, Devadatta (Vinaya Texts, iii. 238; Jataka, i. 142). This proposal was rejected, and Devadatta is said in the tradition to have successfully instigated the prince to the execution of his aged father and to have made three abortive attempts to bring about the death of the Buddha {Vinaya Texts, iii. 241-250; Jaiaka, vi. 131), shortly afterwards, relying upon the feeling of the people in favour of asceticism, he brought forward f6ur propositions for ascetic rules to be imposed on the order. These being refused, he appealed to the people, started an order of his own, and gained over 500 of the Buddha's community to join in the secession. We hear nothing further about the success or otherwise of the new order, but it may possibly be referred to under the name of the Gotamakas, in the Anguttara (see Dialogues of the Buddha i. 222), for Devadatta's family name was Gotama. But his community was certainly still in existence in the 4th century a.d., for it is especially mentioned by Fa Hien, the Chinese pilgrim (Legge's translation, p. 62). And it possibly lasted till the 7th century, for Hsiian Tsang mentions that in a monastery in Bengal the monks then followed a certain regulation of Devadatta's (T. Watters, On Yuan Chwang, ii, 191). There is no mention in the canon as to how or when Devadatta died; but the commentary on the Jataka, written in the 5th century a.d., has preserved a tradition that he was swallowed up by the earth near Savatthi, when on his way to ask pardon of the Buddha (Jataka, iv. 158). The spot where this occurred was shown to both the pilgrims just mentioned (Fa Hien, loc. cit. p. 60; and T. Watters, On Yuan Chwang, i. 390). It is a striking example of the way in which such legends grow, that it is only the latest of these authorities, Hsiian Tsang, who says that, though ostensibly approaching the Buddha with a view to reconciliation, Devadatta had concealed poison in his nail with the object of murdering the Buddha. Authorities. — Vinaya Texts, translated by Rhys Davids and H. Oldenberg (3 vols., Oxford, 1881-1885); The Jataka, edited by V. Fausboll (7 vols., London, 1877-1897); T. Watters, On Yuan Chwang (ed. Rhys Davids and Bushell, 2 vols., London, 1904-1905) ; Fa Hian, translated by J. Legge (Oxford, 1886) ; Mahdvastu (ed. Tenant, 3 vols., Paris, 1882-1897). (T. W. R. D.) DEVAPRAYAG (Deoprayag), a village in Tehri State of the United Provinces, India. It is situated at the spot where the rivers Alaknanda and Bhagirathi unite and form the Ganges, and as one of the five sacred confluences in the hills is a great place of pilgrimage for devout Hindus. Devaprayag stands at an elevation of 2265 ft. on the side of a hill which rises above it 800 ft. On a terrace in the upper part of the village is the temple of Raghunath, built of huge uncemented stones, pyramidical in form and capped by a white cupola. DEVENS, CHARLES (1820-1891), American lawyer and jurist, was born in Charlestown, Massachusetts, on the 4th of April 1820. He graduated at Harvard College in 1838, and at the Harvard law school in 1840, and was admitted to the bar in Franklin county, Mass., where he practised from 1841 to 1849. In the year 1848 he was a Whig member of the state senate, and from 1849 t° 1853 was United States marshal for Massachusetts, in which capacity he was called upon in 1851 to remand the fugitive slave, Thomas Sims, to slavery. This he felt constrained to do, much against his personal desire; and subsequently he attempted in vain to purchase Sims's freedom, and many years later appointed him to a position in the department of justice at Washington. Devens practised law at Worcester from 1853 until 1 86 1, and throughout the Civil War served in the Federal army, becoming colonel of volunteers in July 1861 and brigadier- general of volunteers in April 1862. At the battle of Ball's Bluff (1861) he was severely wounded; he was again wounded at Fair Oaks (1862) and at Chancellorsville (1863), where he com- manded a division. He later distinguished himself at Cold Harbor, and commanded a division in Grant's final campaign in Virginia (1864-65), his troops being the first to occupy Richmond after its fall. Breveted major-general in 1865, he remained in the army for a year as commander of the military district of Charleston, South Carolina. He was a judge of the Massachusetts superior court from 1867 to 1873, and was an associate justice of the supreme court of the state from 1873 to 1877, an< i again from 1881 to 1891. From 1877 to 1881 he was attorney-general of the United States in the cabinet of President Hayes. He died at Boston, Mass., on the 7th of January 1891. See his Orations and Addresses, with a memoir by John Codman Ropes (Boston, 1891). DEVENTER, a town in the province of Overysel, Holland, on the right bank of the Ysel, at the confluence of the Schipbeek, and a junction station 10 m. N. of Zutphen by rail. It is also connected by steam tramway S.E. with Brokulo. Pop. (1900) 26,212. Deventer is a neat and prosperous town situated in the midst of prettily wooded environs, and containing many curious old buildings. There are three churches of special interest: the Groote Kerk (St Lebuinus), which dates from 1334, and occupies the site of an older structure of which the nth-century crypt remains; the Roman Catholic Broederkerk, or Brothers' Church, containing among its relics three ancient gospels said to have been written by St Lebuinus (Lebwin), the English apostle of the Frisians and Westphalians (d. c. 773); and the Bergkerk, dedicated in 1206, which has two late Romanesque towers. The town hall (1693) contains a remarkable painting of the town council by Terburg. In the fine square called the Brink is the old weigh-house, now a school (gymnasium), built in 1 528, with a large external staircase (1644). The gymnasium is descended from the Latin school of which the celebrated Alexander Hegius was master in the third quarter of the 15th century, when the young Erasmus was sent to it, and at which Adrian Floreizoon, after- wards Pope Adrian VI., is said to have been a pupil about the same time. Another famous educational institution was the " Athenaeum " or high school, founded in 1630, at which Henri Renery (d. 1639) taught philosophy, while Johann Friedrich Gronov (Gronovius) (1611-1671) taught rhetoric and history in the middle of the same century. The " Athenaeum " disap- pered in 1876. In modern. times Deventer possessed a famous teacher in Dr Burgersdyk (d. 1900), the Dutch translator of Shakespeare. The town library, also called the library of the DE VERE— DEVIL 121 Athenaeum, includes many MSS. and incunabula, and a 13th- century copy of Reynard the Fox. The archives of the town are of considerable value. Besides a considerable agricultural trade, Deventer has important iron foundries and carpet factories (the royal manufactory of Smyrna carpets being especially famous) ; while cotton-printing, rope-making and the weaving of woollens and silks are also carried on. A public official is appointed to supervise the proper making of a form of gingerbread known as " Deventer Koek," which has a reputation throughout Holland. In the church of Bathmen, a village 5 m. E. of Deventer, some 14th-century frescoes were discovered in 1870. In the 14th century Deventer was the centre of the famous religious and educational movement associated with the name of Gerhard Groot (q.v.), who was a native of the town (see Brothers or Common Life). DE VERE, AUBREY THOMAS (1814-1902), Irish poet and critic, was born at Curragh Chase, Co. Limerick, on the 10th of January 18 14, being the third son of Sir Aubrey de Vere Hunt (1788-1846). In 1832 his father dropped the final name by royal licence. Sir Aubrey was himself a poet. Wordsworth called his sonnets the " most perfect of the age." These and his drama, Mary Tudor, were published by his son in i87sand 1884. Aubrey de Vere was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and in his twenty-eighth year published The Waldenses, which he followed up in the next year by The Search after Proserpine. Thence- forward he was continually engaged, till his death on the 20th of January 1902, in the production of poetry and criticism. His best-known works are: in verse, The Sisters (1861); The Infant Bridal (1864); Irish Odes (i860); Legends of St Patrick (1872); and Legends of the Saxon Saints (1879); and in prose, Essays chiefly on Poetry (1887); and Essays chiefly Literary and Ethical (1889). He also wrote a picturesque volume of travel-sketches, and two dramas in verse, Alexander the Great (1874); and St Thomas of Canterbury (1876); both of which, though they contain fine passages, suffer from diffuseness and a lack of dramatic spirit. The characteristics of Aubrey de Vere's poetry are " high seriousness " and a fine religious enthusiasm. His research in questions of faith led him to the Roman Church; and in many of his poems, notably in the volume of sonnets called St Peter's Chains (1888), he made rich additions to devotional verse. He was a disciple of Wordsworth, whose calm meditative serenity he often echoed with great felicity; and his affection for Greek poetry, truly felt and understood, gave dignity and weight to his own versions of mythological idylls. But perhaps he will be chiefly remembered for the impulse which he gave to the study of Celtic legend and literature. In this direction he has had many followers, who have sometimes assumed the appearance of pioneers; but after Matthew Arnold's fine lecture on " Celtic Literature," nothing perhaps did more to help the Celtic revival than Aubrey de Vere's tender insight into the Irish character, and his stirring reproductions of the early Irish epic poetry. A volume of Selections from his poems was edited in 1894 (New York and London) by G. E. Woodberry. DEVICE, a scheme, plan, simple mechanical contrivance; also a pattern or design, particularly an heraldic design or emblem, often combined with a motto or legend. " Device " and its doublet " devise " come from the two Old French forms devis and devise of the Latin divisa, things divided, from dividere, to separate, used in the sense of to arrange, set out, apportion. " Devise," as a substantive, is now only used as a legal term for a disposition of property by will, by a modern convention restricted to a disposition of real property, the term " bequest " being used of personalty (see Will). This use is directly due to the Medieval Latin meaning of dividere = testamento disponere. In its verbal form, " devise " is used not only in the legal sense, but also in the sense of to plan, arrange, scheme. DEVIL (Gr. &d|SoXos, " slanderer," from 8i.al3a.WeLv, to slander), the generic name for a spirit of evil, especially the supreme spirit of evil, the foe of God and man. The word is used for minor evil spirits in much the same sense as " demon." From the various characteristics associated with this idea, the term has come to be applied by analogy in many different senses. From the idea of evil as degraded, contemptible and doomed to failure, the term is applied to persons in evil plight, or of slight considera- tion. In English legal phraseology " devil " and " devilling " are used of barristers who act as substitutes for others. Any remuneration which the legal " devil " may receive is purely a matter of private arrangement between them. In the chancery division such remuneration is generally in the proportion of one half of the fee which the client pays; " in the king's bench division remuneration for ' devilling ' of briefs or assisting in drafting and opinions is not common " (see Annual Practice, 1907, p. 717). In a similar sense an author may have his materials collected and arranged by a literary hack or " devil." The term " printer's devil " for the errand boy in a printing office probably combines this idea with that of his being black with ink. The common notions of the devil as black, ill-favoured, malicious, destructive and the like, have occasioned the application of the term to certain animals (the Tasmanian devil, the devil-fish, the coot), to mechanical contrivances (for tearing up cloth or separat- ing wool), to pungent, highly seasoned dishes, broiled or fried. In this article we are concerned with the primary sense of the word, as used in mythology and religion. The primitive philosophy of animism involves the ascription of all phenomena to personal agencies. As phenomena are good or evil, produce pleasure or pain, cause weal or woe, a distinction in the character of these agencies is gradually recognized; the agents of good become gods, those of evil, demons. A tendency towards the simplification and organization of the evil as of the good forces, leads towards belief in outstanding leaders among the forces of evil. When the divine is most completely conceived as unity, the demonic is also so conceived; and over against God stands Satan, or the devil. Although it is in connexion with Hebrew and Christian mono- theism that this belief in the devil has been most fully developed, yet there are approaches to the doctrine in other religions. In Babylonian mythology " the old serpent goddess ' the lady Nina ' was transformed into the embodiment of all that was hostile to the powers of heaven " (Sayce's Hibbert Lectures, p. 283) , and was confounded with the dragon Tiamat, " a terrible monster, reap- pearing in the Old Testament writings as Rahab and Leviathan, the principle of chaos, the enemy of God and man " (Tennaht's The Fall and Original Sin, p. 43), and according to Gunkel (Schopfung und Chaos, p. 383) " the original of the ' old serpent ' of Rev. xii. 9." In Egyptian mythology the serpent Apap with an army of monsters strives daily to arrest the course of the boat of the luminous gods. While the Greek mythology described the Titans as " enchained once for all in their dark dungeons " yet Prometheus' threat remained to disturb the tranquillity of the Olympian Zeus. In the German mythology the army of darkness is led by Hel, the personification of twilight, sunk to the goddess who enchains the dead and terrifies the living, and Loki, originally the god of fire, but afterwards " looked upon as the father of the evil powers, who strips the goddess of earth of her adornments, who robs Thor of his fertilizing hammer, and causes the death of Balder the beneficent sun." In Hindu mythology the Maruts, Indra, Agni and Vishnu wage war with the serpent Ahi to deliver the celestial cows or spouses, the waters held captive in the caverns of the clouds. In the Trimurti, Brahma (the impersonal) is manifested as Brahma (the personal creator), Vishnu (the preserver), and Siva (the destroyer). In Siva is perpetuated the belief in the god of Vedic times Rtidra, who is represented as " the wild hunter who storms over the earth with his bands, and lays low with arrows the men who displease him " (Chantepie de la Saussaye's Religions geschichte, 2nd ed., vol. ii. p. 25). The evil character of Siva is reflected in his wife, who as Kali (the black) is the wild and cruel goddess of destruction and death. The opposition of good and evil is most fully carried out in Zoroastrianism. Opposed to Ormuzd, the author of all good, is Ahriman, the source of all evil; and the opposition runs through the whole universe (D'Alviella's Hibbert Lectures, pp. 158- 164). The conception of Satan (Heb. 195?, the adversary, Gr. 'Eara.vas, or Xarav, 2 Cor. xii. 7) belongs to the post -exilic period of Hebrew development, and probably shows traces of the 122 DEVIL influence of Persian on Jewish thought, but it has also its roots in much older beliefs. An " evil spirit " possesses Saul (i Sam. xvi. 14), but it is " from the Lord." The same agency produces discord between Abimelech and the Shechemites (Judges ix. 23). " A lying spirit in the mouth of all his prophets " as Yahweh's messenger entices Ahab to his doom (1 Kings xxii. 22). Growing human corruption is traced to the fleshy union of angels and women (Gen. vi. 1-4). But generally evil, whether as misfortune or as sin, is assigned to divine causality (1 Sam. xviii. 10; 2 Sam. xxiv. 1; 1 Kings xxii. 20: Isa. vi. 10, Ixiii. 17). After the Exile there is a tendency to protect the divine transcendence by the introduction of mediating angelic agency, and to separate all evil from God by ascribing its origin to Satan, the enemy of God and man. In the prophecy of Zechariah (iii. 1-2) he stands as the adversary of Joshua, the high priest, and is rebuked by Yahweh for desiring that Jerusalem should be further punished. In the book of Job he presents himself before the Lord among the sons of God (ii. 1), yet he is represented both as accuser and tempter. He disbelieves in Job's integrity, and desires him to be so tried that he may fall into sin. While, according to 2 Sam. xxiv. 1, God himself tests David in regard to the numbering of the people, according to 1 Chron. xxi, 1 it is Satan who tempts him. The development of the conception continued in later Judaism, which was probably more strongly influenced by Persian dualism. It is doubtful, however, whether the Asmodeus (q.v.) of the book of Tobit is the same as the Aeshma Dagwa of the Bundahesh. He is the evil spirit who slew the seven husbands of Sara (iii. 8), and the name probably means " Destroyer." In the book of Enoch Satan is represented as the ruler of a rival kingdom of evil, but here are also mentioned Satans, who are distinguished from the fallen angels and who have a threefold function, to tempt, to accuse and to punish. Satan possesses the ungodly (Ecclesi- asticus xxi. 27), is identified with the serpent of Gen. iii. (Wisdom ii. 24), and is probably also represented by Asmodeus, to whom lustful qualities are assigned (Tobit vi. 14) ; Gen. iii. is probably referred to in Psalms of Solomon xvii. 49, " a serpent speaking with the words of transgressors, words of deceit to pervert wisdom." The Book of the Secrets of Enoch not only identifies Satan with the Serpent, but also describes his revolt against God, and expulsion from heaven. In the Jewish Targums Sammael, " the highest angel that stands before God's throne, caused the serpent to seduce the woman "; he coalesces with Satan, and has inferior Satans as his servants. The birth of Cain is ascribed to a union of Satan with Eve. As accuser affecting man's standing before God he is greatly feared. This doctrine, stripped of much of its grossness, is reproduced in the New Testament. Satan is the &d|3oAos (Matt. xiii. 39; John xiii. 2; Eph. iv. 27; Heb. ii. 14; Rev. ii. 10), slanderer or accuser, the 7retpdf coi> (Matt. iv. 3; iThess. iii. 5), the tempter, the Trovqpbs (Matt. v. 37; John xvii. 15; Eph. vi. 16), the evil one, and the exdpbs (Matt. xiii. 39), the enemy. He is apparently identified with Beelzebub (or Beelzebul) in Matt. xii. 26, 27. Jesus appears to recognize the existence of demons belonging to a kingdom of evil under the leadership of Satan " the prince of demons " (Matt. xii. 24, 26, 27), whose works in demonic posses- sions it is his function to destroy (Mark i. 34, iii. n, vi. 7; Luke x. 17-20). But he himself conquers Satan in resisting his tempta- tions (Matt. iv. 1-11). Simon is warned against him, and Judas yields to him as tempter (Luke xxii. 31; John xiii. 27). Jesus's cures are represented as a triumph over Satan (Luke x. 18). This Jewish doctrine is found in Paul's letters also. Satan rules over a world of evil, supernatural agencies, whose dwelling is in the lower heavens (Eph. vi. 12): hence he is the "prince of the power of the air " (ii. 2). He is the tempter (1 Thess. iii. 5; 1 Cor. vii. 5), the destroyer (x. 10), to whom the offender is to be handed over for bodily destruction (v. 5), identified with the serpent (Rom. xvi. 20; 2 Cor. xi. 3), and probably with Beliar or Belial (vi. 15); and the surrender of man to him brought death into the world (Rom. v. 17). Paul's own " stake in the flesh " is Satan's messenger (2 Cor. xii. 7). According to Hebrews Satan's power over death Jesus destroys by dying (ii. 14) . Revela- tion describes the war in heaven between God with his angels and Satan or the dragon, the " old serpent," the deceiver of the whole world (xii. 9), with his hosts of darkness. After the over- throw of the Beast and the kings of the earth, Satan is imprisoned in the bottomless pit a thousand years (xx. 2),. Again loosed to deceive the nations, he is finally cast into the lake of fire and brimstone (xx. 10; cf. Enoch liv. 5, 6; 2 Peter ii. 4). In John's Gospel and Epistles Satan is opposed to Christ. Sinner and murderer from the beginning (1 John iii. 8) and liar by nature (John viii. 44), he enslaves men to sin (viii. 34), causes death (verse 44), rules the present world (xiv. 30), but has no power over Christ or those who are his (xiv. 30, xvi. n; 1 John v. 18). He will be destroyed by Christ with all his works (John xvi. 33; 1 John iii. 8). In the common faith of the Gentile churches after the Apostolic Age " the present dominion of evil demons, or of one evil demon, was just as generally presupposed as man's need of redemption, which was regarded as a result of that dominion. The tenacity of this belief may be explained among other things by the living impression of the polytheism that surrounded the communities on every side. By means of this assumption too, humanity seemed to be unburdened, and the presupposed capacity for redemption could, therefore, be justified in its widest range " (Harnack's History of Dogma, i. p. 181). While Christ's First Advent delivered believers from Satan's bondage, his overthrow would be completed only by the Second Advent. The Gnostics held that " the present world sprang from a fall of man, or from an undertaking hostile to God, and is, therefore, the product of an evil or intermediate being " (p. 257). Some taught that while the future had been assigned by God to Christ, the devil had received the present age (p. 309). The fathers traced all doctrines not held by the Catholic Church to the devil, and the virtues of heretics were regarded as an instance of the devil transforming himself into an angel of light (ii. 91). Irenaeus ascribes Satan's fall to " pride and arrogance and envy of God's creation "; and traces man's deliverance from Satan to Christ's victory in re- sisting his temptations; but also, guided by certain Pauline passages, represents the death of Christ " as a ransom paid to the ' apostasy ' for men who had fallen into captivity " (ii. 290). He does not admit that Satan has any lawful claim on man, or that God practised a deceit on him, as later fathers taught. This theory of the atonement was formulated by Origen. " By his successful temptation the devil acquired a right over men. God offered Christ's soul for that of men. But the devil was duped, as Christ overcame both him and death " (p. 367). It'was held by Gregory of Nyssa, Ambrose, who uses the phrase pia fraus, Augustine, Leo I., and Gregory I., who expresses it in its worst form. " The humanity of Christ was the bait; the fish, the devil, snapped at it, and was left hanging on the invisible hook, Christ's divinity " (iii. 307). In Athanasius the relation of the work of Christ to Satan retires into the background, Gregory of Nazianzus and John of Damascus felt scruples about this view. It is expressly repudiated by Anselm and Abelard. Peter the Lombard asserted it, disregarding these objections. Bernard represents man's bondage to Satan " as righteously permitted as a just retribution for sin," he being " the executioner of the divine justice." ^Another theory of Origen's found less accept- ance. The devil, as a being resulting from God's will, cannot always remain a devil. The possibility of his redemption, however, was in the 5th century branded as a heresy. Persian dualism was brought into contact with Christian thought in the doctrine of Mani; and it is permissible to believe that the gloomy views of Augustine regarding man's condition are due in some measure to this influence. Mani taught that Satan with his demons, sprung from the kingdom of darkness, attacked the realm of light, the earth, defeated man sent against him by the God of light, but was overthrown by the God of light, who then delivered the primeval man (iii. 324). " During the middle ages," says Tulloch, " the belief in the devil was absorbing- saints conceived themselves and others to be in constant conflict with him." This superstition, perhaps at its strongest in the 13th to the 15th century, passed into Protestantism. Luther DEVIZES 123 was always conscious of the presence and opposition of Satan. " As I found he was about to begin again," says Luther, "I gathered together my books, and got into bed. Another time in the night I heard him above my cell walking on the cloister, but as I knew it was the devil I paid no attention to him and went to sleep." He held that this world will pass away with its pleasures, as there can be no real improvement in it, for the devil continues in it to ply his daring and seductive devices (vii. 191). I. A. Dorner (Christian Doctrine, iii. p. 93) sums up Protestant doctrine as follows: — " He is brought into relation with natural sinfulness, and the impulse to evil thoughts and deeds is ascribed to him. The dominion of evil over men is also represented as a slavery to Satan, and this as punishment. He has his full power in the extra- Christian world. But his power is broken by Christ, and by his word victory over him is to be won. The power of creating anything is also denied the devil, and only the power of corrupting substances is conceded to him. But it is only at the Last Judg- ment that his power is wholly annihilated; he is himself delivered up to eternal punishment." This belief in the devil was specially strong in Scotland among both clergy and laity in the 17th century. " The devil was always and literally at hand," says Buckle, " he was haunting them, speaking to them, and tempting them. Go where they would he was there." In more recent times a great variety of opinions has been expressed on this subject. J. S. Semler denied the reality of demonic possession, and held that Christ in his language accom- modated himself to the views of the sick whom he was seeking to cure. Kant regarded the devil as a personification of the radical evil in man. Daub in his Judas Ishcarioth argued that a finite evil presupposes an absolute evil, and the absolute evil as real must be in a person. Schelling regarded the devil as, not a person, but a real principle, a spirit let loose by the freedom of man. Schleiermacher was an uncompromising opponent of the common belief. " The problem remains to seek evil rather in self than in Satan, Satan only showing the limits of our self- knowledge." Dorner has formulated a theory which explains the development of the conception of Satan in the Holy Scriptures as in correspondence with an evolution in the character of Satan. " Satan appears in Scripture under four leading char- acters: — first as the tempter of freedom, who desires to bring to decision, secondly as the accuser, who by virtue of the law retorts criminality on man; thirdly as the instrument of the Divine, which brings evil and death upon men; fourthly and lastly he is described, especially in the New Testament, as the enemy of God and man." He supposes " a change in Satan in the course of the history of the divine revelation, in conflict with which he came step by step to be a sworn enemy of God and man, especially in the New Testament times, in which, on the other hand, his power is broken at the root by Christ." He argues that " the world-order, being in process as a moral order, permits breaches everywhere into which Satan can obtain entrance " (pp. 99, 102). H. L. Martensen gives even freer rein to speculation. " The evil principle," he says, " has in itself no personality, but attains a progressively universal personality in its kingdom; it has no individual personality, save only in individual creatures, who in an especial manner make themselves its organs; but among these is one creature in whom the principle is so hypostasized that he has become the centre and head of the kingdom of evil " {Dogmatics, p. 199). A. Ritschl gives no place in his construc- tive doctrine to the belief in the devil; but recognizes that the mutual action of individual sinners on one another constitutes a kingdom of sin, opposed to the Kingdom of God (A. E. Garvie, The Ritschlian Theology, p. 304). Kaftan affirms that a " doctrine about Satan can as little be established as about angels, as faith can say nothing about it, and nothing is gained by it for the dogmatic explanation of evil. This whole province must be left to the immediate world-view of the pious. The idea of Satan will on account of the Scriptures not disappear from it, and it would be arrogant to wish to set it aside. Only let everyone keep the thought that Satan also stands under the commission of the Almighty God, and that no one must suppose that by leading back his sins to a Satanic temptation he can get rid of his own guilt. To transgress these limits is to assail faith " (Dogmatik, p. 348). In the book entitled Evil and Evolution there is " an attempt to turn the light of modern science on to the ancient mystery of evil." The author contends that the existence of evil is best explained by assuming that God is confronted with Satan, who in the process of evolution interferes with the divine designs, an interference which the instability of such an evolving process makes not incredible. Satan is, however, held to be a creature who has by abuse of his freedom been estranged from, and opposed to his Creator, and who at last will be conquered by moral means. W. M. Alexander in his book on demonic possession maintains that " the confession of Jesus as the Messiah or Son of God is the classical criterion of genuine demonic possession " (p. 150), and argues that as " the Incarnation indicated the establishment of the kingdom of heaven upon earth," there took place " a : counter movement among the powers of darkness," of which " genuine demonic possession was one of the manifesta* tions " (p. 249). Interesting as these speculations are, it may be confidently affirmed that belief in Satan is not now generally regarded as an essential article of the Christian faith, nor is it found to be an indispensable element of Christian experience. On the one hand science has so explained many of the processes of outer nature and of the inner life of man as to leave no room for Satanic agency. On the other hand the modern view of the inspiration of the Scriptures does not necessitate the acceptance of the doctrine of the Scriptures on this subject as finally and absolutely authori- tative. The teaching of Jesus even in this matter may be ac- counted for as either an accommodation to the views of those with whom he was dealing, or more probably as a proof of the limitation of knowledge which was a necessary condition of the Incarnation, for it cannot be contended that as revealer of God and redeemer of men it was imperative that he should either correct or confirm men's beliefs in this respect. The possibility of the existence of evil spirits, organized under one leader Satan , to tempt man and oppose God, cannot be denied; the sufficiency of the evidence for such evil agency may, however, be doubted ; the necessity of any such belief for Christian thought and life cannot, therefore, be affirmed. (See also Demonology; Possession.) (A. E. G.*) DEVIZES, a market town and municipal borough in the Devizes parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 86 m. W. by S. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 6532. Its castle was built on a tongue of land flanked by two deep ravines, and behind this the town grew up in a semicircle on a stretch of bare and exposed tableland. Its main streets, in which a few ancient timbered houses are left, radiate from the market place, where stands a Gothic cross, the gift of Lord Sidmouth in 1814. The Kennet and Avon Canal skirts the town on the N., passing over the high ground through a chain of thirty- nine locks. St John's church, one of the most interesting in Wiltshire, is cruciform, with a massive central tower, based upon two round and two pointed arches. It was originally Norman of the 12th century, and the chancel arch and low vaulted chancel, in this style, are very fine. In the interior several ancient monuments of the Suttons and Heathcotes are preserved, besides some beautiful carved stone work, and two rich ceilings of oak over the chapels. St Mary's, a smaller church, is partly Norman, but was rebuilt in the 15th and again in the 19th cen- tury. Its lofty clerestoried nave has an elaborately carved timber roof, and the south porch, though repaired in 161 2, preserves its Norman mouldings. The woollen industries of Devizes have lost their prosperity; but there is a large grain trade, with engineering works, breweries, and manufactures of silk, snuff, tobacco and agricultural implements. The town is governed by a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors. Area, 906 acres. Devizes (Divisis, la Devise, De Vies) does not appear in any historical document prior to the reign of Henry I., when the construction of a castle of exceptional magnificence by Roger, bishop of Salisbury, at once constituted the town an important political centre, and led to its speedy development. After thfe. 124 DEVOLUTION, WAR OF— DEVONIAN SYSTEM disgrace of Roger in 1139 the castle was seized by the Crown; in the 14th century it formed part of the dowry of the queens of England, and figured prominently in history until its capture and demolition by Cromwell in the Civil War of the 17th century. Devizes became a borough by prescription, and the first charter from Matilda, confirmed by successive later sovereigns, merely grants exemption from certain tolls and the enjoyment of un- disturbed peace. Edward III. added a clause conferring on the town the liberties of Marlborough, and Richard II. instituted a coroner. A gild merchant was granted by Edward I., Edward II. and Edward III., and in 1614 was divided into thethree companies of drapers, mercers and leathersellers. The present governing charters were issued by James I. and Charles I., the latter being little more than a confirmation of the former, which instituted a common council consisting of a mayor, a town clerk and thirty-six capital burgesses. These charters were surrendered to Charles II. , and a new one was conferred by James IL, but abandoned three years later in favour of the original grant. Devizes returned two members to parliament from 1295, until deprived of one member by the Representation of the People Act of 1867, and of the other by the Redistribution Act of 1885. The woollen manufacture was the staple industry of the town from the reign of Edward III. until the middle of the 18th century, when complaints as to the decay of trade began to be prevalent. In the reign of Elizabeth the market was held on Monday, and there were two annual fairs at the feasts of the Purification of the Virgin and the Decollation of John the Baptist. The market was transferred to Thursday in the next reign, and the fairs in the 18th century had become seven in number. See Victoria County History, Wiltshire; History of Devizes (Devizes, 1859). DEVOLUTION, WAR OF (1667-68), the name applied to the war which arose out of Louis XIV. 's claims to certain Spanish territories in right of his wife Maria Theresa, upon whom the ownership was alleged to have " devolved." (See, for the military operations, Dutch Wars.) The war was ended by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668. DEVON, EARLS OF. From the family of De Redvers (De Ripuariis; Riviers), who had been earls of Devon from about 1100, this title passed to Hugh de Courtenay (c. 1275-1340), the representative of a prominent family in the county (see Gibbon's " digression " in chap. lxi. of the. Decline and Fall, ed. Bury), but was subsequently forfeited by Thomas Courtenay (1432-1462), a Lancastrian who was beheaded after the battle of Towton. It was revived in 1485 in favour of Edward Courtenay (d. 1509), whose son Sir William (d. 1511) married Catherine, daughter of Edward IV. Too great proximity to the throne led to his attainder, but his son Henry (c. 1498-1539) was restored in blood in 1517 as earl of Devon, and in 1525 was created marquess of Exeter; his second wife was a daughter of William Blount, 4th Lord Mountjoy. The title again suffered forfeiture on Henry's execution, but in 1553 it was recreated for his son Edward (1526-1556). At the latter's death it became dormant in the Courtenay family, till in 183 1 a claim by a collateral branch was allowed by the House of Lords, and the earldom of Devon was restored to the peerage, still being held by the head of the Courtenays. The earlier earls of Devon were referred to occasionally as earls of Devonshire, but the former variant has prevailed, and the latter is now solely used for the earldom and dukedom held by the Cavendishes (see Devonshire, Earls and Dukes or, and also the article Courtenay). DEVONIAN SYSTEM, in geology, the name applied to series of stratified fossiliferous and igneous rocks that were formed during the Devonian period, that is, in the interval of time between the close of the Silurian period and the beginning of the Carboniferous; it includes the marine Devonian and an estuarine Old Red Sandstone series of strata. The name " Devonian " was introduced in 1829 by Sir R. Murchison and A. Sedgwick to describe the older rocks of Cornwall and Devon which W. Lonsdale had shown, from an examination of the fossils, to be intermediate between the Silurian and Carboniferous. The same two workers also carried on further researches upon the same rocks of the European continent, where already several others, F. Roemer, H. E* Beyrich, &c, were endeavouring to elucidate the succession of strata in this portion of the " Transition Series." The labours of these earlier workers, including in addition to those already mentioned, the brothers F. and G. von Sandberger, A. Dumont, J. Gosselet, E.J. A. d'Archiac, E. P. de Verneuil and H. von Distribution of „ #• Devonian Rocks ,■" V H Areas in u/hlch the Earlier Devonianjtocks are found H Additional areas In which Mid. Devonian Rooks lire found fUgS „ „ „ „ Later „ „ „ tt I \Deoonlan flocks abient ar unknown Suggested limits of Land & Sea in Earlier Devonian time -— ' Modifications introduced about the middle of Devonian time —•-•Later Modifications __ e.w.m. Dechen, although somewhat modified by later students, formed the foundation upon which the modern classification of the Devonian rocks is based. Stratigraphy of the Devonian Fades. Notwithstanding the fact that it was in Devonshire and Cornwall that the Devonian rocks were first distinguished, it is in central Europe that the succession of strata is most clearly made out, and here, too, their geological position was first indicated by the founders of the system, Sedgwick and Murchison. Continental Europe. — Devonian rocks occupy a large area in the centre of Europe, extending from the Ardennes through the south of Belgium across Rhenish Prussia to Darmstadt. They are best known from the picturesque gorges which have been cut through them by the Rhine below Bingen and by the Moselle below Treves. They reappear from under younger formations in Brittany, in the Harz and Thuringia, and are exposed in Franconia, Saxony, Silesia, North Moravia and eastern Galicia. The principal subdivisions of the system in the more typical areas are indicated in Table I. This threefold subdivision, with a central mass of calcareous strata, is traceable westwards through Belgium (where the Calcaire de Givet represents the Stringocephalus limestone of the Eifel) and eastwards into the Harz. The rocks reappear with local petrographical modifications, but with a remarkable persistence of general palaeonto- logical characters, in Eastern Thuringia, Franconia, Saxony, Silesia, the north of Moravia and East Galicia. Devonian rocks have been detected among the crumpled rocks of the Styrian Alps by means of the evidence of abundant corals, cephalopods, gasteropods, lamelli- branchs and other organic remains. Perhaps in other tracts of the Alps, as well as in the Carpathian range, similar shales, limestones and dolomites, though as yet unfossiliferous, but containing ores of silver, lead, mercury, zinc, cobalt and other metals, may be referable to the Devonian system. In the centre of Europe, therefore, the Devonian rocks consist of a vast thickness of dark-grey sandy and shaly rocks, with occasional seams of limestone, and in particular with one thick central calcareous zone. These rocks are characterized in the lower zones by numerous broad-winged spirifers and by peculiar trilobites (Phacops, Homa- lonotus, &c.) which, though generically like those of the Silurian system, are specifically distinct. The central calcareous zone abounds in corals and crinoids as well as in numerous brachiopods. In the highest bands a profusion of coiled cephalopods (Clymenia) occurs in some of the limestones, while the shales are crowded with a small but characteristic ostracod crustacean (Cypridina). Here and there traces of fishes have been found, more especially in the Eifel, but seldom in such a state of preservation as to warrant their being assigned to any definite place in the zoological scale. Subsequently, however, £, Beyrich has described from Gerolstein in the Eifel an undoubted species of Pterichthys, which, as it cannot be certainly- identified with any known form, he names P. Rhenanus. A Coccosteus has been described by F. A. Roemer from the Harz, and still later one has been cited from Bicken near Herborn by V. Koenen ; but, as Beyrich points out, there may be some doubt as to whether the latter is not a Pterichthys. A Ctenacanlhus, seemingly undistinguish- able from the C. Bohemicus of Barrande's Etage G, has also been DEVONIAN SYSTEM 125 obtained from the Lower Devonian " Nereitenschichten " : of Thuringia. The characteristic Holoptychius nobilissimus has been : detected in the Psammite de Condroz, which in Belgium forms a characteristic sandy portion of the Upper Devonian rocks. These are interesting facts, as helping to link the Devonian and Old Red Sandstone types together. But they are as yet too few.and unsupported to warrant any large deduction as to the correlations between these types. It is in the north-east of Europe that the Devonian and Old Red Sandstone appear to be united into one system, where the limestones and marine organisms of the one are interstratified with the fish- bearing sandstones and shales of the other. In Russia, as was of the Silurian rocks on which they rest, for they are found gradually to overlap Upper and Lower Silurian formations. The chief interest of the Russian rocks of this age lies in the fact, first signalized by Murchison and his associates, that they unite within themselves the characters of the Devonian and the Old Red Sandstone types. In some districts they consist largely of lime- stones, in others of red sandstones and marls. In the former they present molluscs and other marine organisms of known Devonian species; in the latter they afford remains of fishes, some of which are specifically identical with those of the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland. The distribution of these two palaeontological types in Russia is traced by Murchison to the lithological characters of the Table I. Stages. Ardennes. Rhineland. Brittany and Normandy. Bohemia. Harz. Famennien (Clymenia beds). Limestone of Etrceungt. Psammites of Condroz (sandy series). Slates of Famenne (shaly series). Cypridina slates. Pon sandstone (Sauerland). Crumbly limestone (Kramen- zelkalk) with Clymenia. Neheim slates in Sauerland, and diabases, tuffs, &c, in Dillmulde, &c. Slates of Rostellec. Cypridina slates. Clymenia limestone and limestone of Altenau. Frasnien (Intumes- cens beds). Slates of Matagne. Limestones, marls and shale of Frasne, and red marble of Flan- ders. Adorf limestone of Waldeck and shales with Goniatites (Eifel and AixJ = Budes- heimer shales. Marls, limestone and dolomite with Rhynchonella cuboides (Flinz in part). Iberg limestone of Dillmulde. Limestone of Cop- Choux and green slates of Travuliors. Iberg limestone and Winterberg lime- stone ; also Adorf limestone and shales (Budesheim). Givetien (Stringo- cephalus beds). Limestone of Givet. Stringocephalus limestone, ironstone of Brilon and Lahnmulde. Upper Lenne shales, crinoidal limestone of Eifel, red sand- stones of Aix. Tuffs and diabases of Brilon and Lahnmulde. Red conglomerate of Aix. Limestones of Cha- lonnes, Montjean and l'Ecochere. H 2 (ofBarrande) dark plant- bearing shales. Stringocephalus shales with Flaser and Knollenkalk. Wissenbach slates. Eifclien (Calceola beds). Calceola slates and limestones of Couvin. Greywacke with Spir- ifer cultrijugatus. Calceola beds, Wissenbach slates, Lower Lenne beds, Guntroder limestone and clay slate of Lahnmulde, Dillmulde, Wildungen, Grie- fenstein limestone, Ballers- bach limestone. Slates of Porsguen, greywacke of Fret. G3 Cephalopod limestone. G2 Tentaculite limestone. Gi Knollenkalk and mottled Mnenian lime- stone. Calceola beds. Nereite slates, slates of Wieda and lime- stones of Hasselfeld. Coblentzien. Greywacke of Hierges. Shales and conglomer- ate of Burnot with quartzite, of Bierl6 and red slates of Vireux, greywacke of Vireux, greywacke of Montigny, sand- stone of Anor. Upper Coblentz slates. Red sandstone of Eifel, Cob- lentz quartzite, lower Cob- lentz slates. Hunsruck and Siegener grey- wacke and slates. Taunus quartzite and grey- wacke. Limestones of Er- bray, Brulon, Vir6 and Nehou, grey- wacke of Faou, sandstone of Ga- hard. F 2 of Barrande. White Konje- prus limestone with Hercyn- ian fauna. Haupt quartzite (of Lossen) = Rammels- berg slates, Schalker slates = Kahleberg sandstone. Hercynian slates and limestones. G&linnien. Slates of St Hubert and Fooz, slates of Mon- drepuits, arkose of Weismes, conglomer- ate of Fepin. Slates of G6dinne. Slates and quartzites of Plbugastel. shown in the great workRussiaandtheUral Mountainsby Murchison, De Verneuil and Keyserling, rocks intermediate between the Upper Silurian and Carboniferous Limestone formations cover an extent of surface larger than the British Islands. This wide development arises not from the thickness but from the undisturbed horizontal character of the strata. Like the Silurian formations described else- where, they remain to this day nearly as flat and unaltered as they were originally laid down. Judged by mere vertical depth, they present but a meagre representative of the massive Devonian grey- wacke and limestone of Germany, or of the Old Red Sandstone of Britain. Yet vast though the area is over which they form the surface rock, it is probably only a small portion of their total extent ; for they are found turned up from under the newer formations along the flank of the Ural chain. It would thus seem that they spread continuously across the whole breadth of- Russia in Europe. Though almost everywhere undisturbed, they afford evidence of some terrestrial oscillation between the time of their formation and that rocks, and consequent original diversities of physical conditions, rather than to differences of age. Indeed cases occur where in the same band of rock Devonian shells and Old Red Sandstone fishes lie commingled. In the belt of the formation which extends south- wards from Archangel and the White Sea, the strata consist of sands and marls, and contain only fish remains. Traced through the Baltic provinces, they are found to pass into red and green marls, clays, thin limestones and sandstones, with beds of gypsum. ' In some of the calcareous bands such fossils occur 'as Orthis striatula, Spiriferina prisca, Leptaena productoides , Spirifer calcaratus, Spirorbis omphaloides and Orthoceras subfusiforme. In the higher beds Holoptychius and other well-known fishes of the Old Red Sandstone occur. Followed still farther to the south, as far as the watershed between Orel and Voronezh, the Devonian rocks lose their red colour and sandy character, and become thin-bedded yellow lime- stones, and dolomites with soft green and blue marls. Traces of salt deposits are indicated by occasional saline springs. It is evident 126 DEVONIAN SYSTEM that the geographical conditions of the Russian area during the Devonian period must have closely resembled those, of the Rhine basin and central England during the Triassic period. The Russian Devonian rocks have been classified in Table II. There is an unquestionable passage of the uppermost Devonian rocks of Russia into the base of the Carboniferous system. The Lower Devonian of the Harz contains a fauna which is very different from that of the Rhenish region; to this facies the name The fossil evidence clearly shows the close agreement of the Rhenish and south Devonshire areas. In north Devonshire the Devonian rocks pass upward without break into the Culm. North America. — In North America the Devonian rocks are extensively developed ; they have been studied most closely in the New York region, where they are classified according to Table IV. The classification below is not capable of application over the states generally and further details are required from many of the Table II. North-West Russia. Central Russia. Petchoraland. Ural Region. Red sandstone (Old Limestones with Spir- Limestones with Area Domanik slates and Cypridina slates, Cly- Red). ifer Verneuili and oreliana. limestones with Sp. menia limestones (Fa- 1 Sp. Archiaci. Limestones with Sp. Verneuili and Sp. Archiaci. Verneuili. mennien). Limestones with Gephy- oceras intumescens and *- Rhynchonella cuboides (Frasnien). Dolomites and limestones Marl with Limestones and slates with Spirifer Anossofi with Sp. Anossofi (Giv- Spirifer Anossofi. and corals. etien). Limestones and slates with Pentamerus basch- Lower sandstone (Old Red). kiricus (Eifelien). r Limestones and slates of the Yuresan and Ufa Absent. rivers, slate and quartz- ite, marble of Byelaya and of Bogoslovsk, phyllitic schists and L quartzite. " Hercynian " has been applied, and the correlation of the strata has been a source of prolonged discussion among continental geologists. A similar fauna appears in Lower Devonian of Bohemia, in Brittany (limestone of Erbray) and in the Urals. The Upper Devonian of the Harz passes up into the Culm. In the eastern Thuringian Fichtelgebirge the upper division is represented by Clymenia limestone and Cypridina slates with Adorf limestone, diabase and Planschwitzer tuff in the lower part. The middle division has diabases and tuffs at the top with Tentaciilite and Nereite shales and limestones below. The upper part of the Lower Devonian, the sandy shale of Steinach, rests unconformably upon Silurian rocks. In the Carnic Alps'are coral reef limestones, the equivalents of the Iberg limestone, which attain an enormous thickness; these are underlain by coral limestones with fossils similar to those of the Konjeprus limestone of Bohemia; below these are shales and nodular limestones with goniatites. The Devonian rocks of Poland are sandy in the lower, and more calcareous in the upper parts. They are of interest because while the upper portions agree closely with the Rhenish facies, from the top of the Coblentzien upwards, in the sandy beds near the base Old Red Sandstone fishes {Coccosteus, &c.) are found. In France Devonian rocks are found well developed in Brittany, as indicated in the table, also in Normandy and Maine; in the Boulonnais district only the middle and upper divisions are known. In south France in the neighbourhood of Cabrieres, about Montpellier and in the Montagne Noire, all three divisions are found in a highly calcareous condition. Devonian rocks are recognized, though frequently much meta- morphosed, on both the northern and southern flanks of the Pyrenees; while on the Spanish peninsula they are extensively developed. In Asturias they are no less than 3280 ft. thick, all three divisions and most of the central European subdivisions are present. In general, the Lower Devonian fossils of Spain bear a marked resemblance to those of Brittany. Asia. — From the Ural Mountains eastward, Devonian rocks have been traced from point to point right across Asia. In the Altai Mountains they are represented by limestones of Coblentzien age with a fauna possessing Hercynian features. The same features are observed in the Devonian of the Kougnetsk basin, and in Turkestan. Well-developed quartzites with slates and diabases are found south of Yarkand and Khotan. Middle and Upper Devonian strata are widespread in China. Upper Devonian rocks are recorded from Persia, and from the Hindu Kush on the right bank of the Chitral river. England. — In England the original Devonian rocks are developed in Devon and Cornwall and west Somerset. In north Devonshire these rocks consist of sandstones, grits and slates, while in south Devon there are, in addition, thick beds of massive limestone, and intercalations of lavas and tuffs. The interpretation of the strati- graphy in this region is a difficult matter, partly on account of the absence of good exposures with fossils, and partly through the disturbed condition of the rocks. The system has been subdivided as shown in Table III. regions where Devonian rocks have been recognized, but every- where the broad threefold division seems to obtain. In Maryland the following arrangement has been adopted — (1) Helderberg = Coeymans; (2) Oriskany; (3) Romney = Erian; (4) Jennings = Genesee and Portage; (5) Hampshire = Catskill in part. In the Table III. North Devon and West Somerset. South Devon. Pilton group. Grits, slates and thin limestones. Baggy group. Sandstones and slates. Pickwell Down group. Dark slates and grits. Morte slates (?). Ashburton slates. Livaton slates. Red and green Entomis slates (Famennien). Red and grey slates with tuffs. Chudleigh goniatite limestone Petherwyn beds (Frasnien). Ilfracombe slates with len- ticles of limestone. Combe Martin grits and slates. Torquay and Plymouth lime- stones and Ashprington volcanic series. (Givetien and Eifelien.) Slates and limestones of Hope's Nose. Hangman grits and slates. Lynton group, grits and cal- careous slates. Foreland grits and slates. Looe beds (Cornwall). Meadfoot, Cockington and Warberry series of slates and greywackes. (Coblent- zien and Gedinnien.) interior the Helderbergian is missing and the system commences with (1) Oriskany, (2) Onondaga, (3) Hamilton, (4) Portage (and Genesee), (5) Chemung. The Helderbergian series is mainly confined to the eastern part of the continent; there is a northern development in Maine, and in Canada (Gaspe, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Montreal); an Appalachian belt, and a lower Mississippian region. The series as a whole is mainly calcareous (2000 ft. in Gaspe), and thins out towards the west. The fauna has Hercynian affinities. The Oriskany formation consists largely of coarse sandstones; it is thin in New York, but in Maryland and Virginia it is several hundred feet thick. It is more widespread than the underlying Helderbergian. The Lower Devonian appears to be thick in northern Maine and in Gasp6, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, but neither the palaeon- tology nor the stratigraphy has been completely worked out. DEVONIAN SYSTEM 127 In the Middle Devonian the thin clastic deposits at the base, Esopus and Schoharie grits, have not been differentiated west of the Appalachian region; but the Onondaga limestones are much more extensive. The Erian series is often described as the Hamilton series outside the New York district, where the Marcellus shales are grouped together with the Hamilton shales, and numerous local subdivisions are included, as in Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee. The rocks are mostly shales or slates, but limestones predominate in the western development. In Pennsylvania the Hamilton series is from 1500 ft. to 5000 ft. thick, but in the more calcareous western extension it is much thinner. The Marcellus shales are bituminous in places. The Senecan series is composed of shallow- water_ deposits; the Tully limestone, a local bed in New York, thins out in places into a layer of pyrites which contains a remarkable dwarfed fauna. The bituminous Genesee shales are thickest in Pennsylvania (300 ft.) ; 25 ft. on Lake Erie. The shales and sandstones of the Portage formation reach 1000 ft. to 1400 ft. in western New York. In the Chautauquan series the Chemung formation is not always clearly separable from the Portage beds, it is a sandstone and conglomerate Table IV. ^ H o Groups. Formations. Probable European Equivalent. Chautauquan. s— j Chemung beds with Catskill as a local facies. Portage beds (Naples, Ithaca and Oneonta shales as local facies). Genesee shales. Tully limestone. Famennien. Frasnien. Erian. $ Ulsterian. 1 Hamilton shale. Marcellus shale. Onondaga (Corniferous) limestone. Schoharie grit. Esopus grit (Caudagalligrit). Giv&ien. Eifelien. Oriskanian. r Helderbergian 1 Oriskany sandstone. Kingston beds. Becraft limestone. New Scotland beds. Coeymans limestone. Coblentzien. G6dinnien. formation which reaches its maximum thickness (8000 ft.) in Pennsylvania, but thins rapidly towards the west. In the Catskill region the Upper Devonian has an Old Red facies — red shales and sandstones with a freshwater and brackish fauna. Although the correlation of the strata has only advanced a short distance, there is no doubt as to the presence of undifferentiated Devonian rocks in many parts of the continent. In the Great Plains this system appears to be absent, but it is represented in Colorado, Utah, Nevada, Wyoming, Montana, California and Arizona ; Devon- ian rocks occur between the Sierras and the Rocky Mountains, in the Arbuckle Mountains of Oklahoma and in Texas. In the western interior limestones predominate; 6000 ft. of limestone are found at Eureka, Nevada, beneath 2000 ft. of shale. On the Pacific coast metamorphism of the rocks is common, and lava-flows and tuffs occur in them. In Canada, besides the occurrences previously mentioned in the eastern region, Devonian strata are found in considerable force along the course of the Mackenzie river and the Canadian Rockies, whence they stretch out into Alaska. It is probable, however, that much that is now classed as Devonian in Canada will prove on fossil evidence to be Carboniferous. South America, Africa, Australia, &c. — In South America the Devonian is well developed ; in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Peru and the Falkland Islands, the palaeontological horizon is about the junction of the Lower and Middle divisions, and the fauna has affinities with the Hamilton shales of North America. Nearly allied to the South American Devonian is that of South Africa, where they are represented by the Bokkeveld beds in the Cape system. In Australia we find Lower Devonian consisting of coarse littoral deposits with volcanic rocks; and a Middle division with coral limestones in Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland ; an Upper division has also been observed. In New Zealand the Devonian is well exposed in the Reefton mining field ; and it has been suggested that much of the highly metamorphosed rock may belong to this system. Stratigraphy of the Old Red Sandstone Facies. The Old Red Sandstone of Britain, according to Sir Archibald Geikie, " consists of two subdivisions, the lower of which passes down conformably into the Upper Silurian deposits, the upper shading off in the same manner into the base of the Carboniferous system, while they are separated from each other by an unconformability." The Old Red strata appear to have been deposited in a number of elongated lakes or lagoons, approximately parallel to one another, with a general alignment in a N.E.-S.W. direction. To these areas of deposit Sir A. Geikie has assigned convenient distinctive names. In Scotland the two divisions of the system are sharply separated by a pronounced unconformability which is probably indicative of a prolonged interval of erosion. In the central valley between the base of the Highlands and the southern uplands lay "Lake Caledonia." Here the lower division is made up of some 20,000 ft. of shallow-water deposits, reddish-brown, yellow and grey sand- stones and conglomerates, with occasional " cornstones," and thin limestones. The grey flagstones with shales are almost confined to Forfarshire, and are known as the " Arbroath flags." Interbedded volcanic rocks, andesites, dacites, diabases, with agglomerates and tuffs constitute an important feature, and attain a thickness of 6000 ft. in the Pentland and Ochil hills. A line of old volcanic vents may be traced in a direction roughly parallel to the trend of the great central valley. On the northern side of the Highlands was " Lake Orcadie," presumably much larger than the foregoing lake, though its boundaries are not determinable. It lay over Moray • Firth and the east of Ross and Sutherland, and extended from Caithness to the Orkney Islands and S. Shetlands. It may even have stretched across to Norway, where similar rocks are found in Sognef jord and Dalsf jord, and may have had communications with some parts of northern Russia. Very characteristic of this area are the Caithness flags, dark grey and bituminous, which, with the red sandstones and conglomerates at their base, probably attain a thickness of 16,000 ft. The somewhat peculiar fauna of this series led Murchison to class the flags as Middle Devonian. In the Shetland Islands contempo- raneous volcanic rocks have been observed. Over the west of Argyll- shire lay " Lake Lome " ; here the volcanic rocks predominate, they are intercalated with shallow-water deposits. A similar set of rocks occupy the Cheviot district. The upper division of the Old Red Sandstone is represented in Shropshire and South Wales by a great series of red rocks, shales, sandstones and marls, some 10,000 ft. thick. They contain few fossils, and no break has yet been found in the series. In Scotland this series was deposited in basins which correspond only partially with those of the earlier period. They are well developed in central Scotland over the lowlands bordering the Moray Firth. Inter- bedded lavas and tuffs are found in the island of Hoy. An interesting feature of this series is the occurrence of great crowds of fossil fishes in some localities, notably at Dura Den in Fife. In the north of England this series rests unconformably upon the Lower Old Red and the Silurian. Flanking the Silurian high ground of Cumberland and Westmor- land, and also in the Lammermuir hills and in Flint and Anglesey, a brecciated conglomerate, presenting many of the characters of a glacial deposit in places, has often been classed with the Old Red Sandstone, but in parts, at least, it is more likely to belong to the base of the Carboniferous system. In Ireland the lower division appears to be represented by the Dingle beds and Glengariff grits, while the Kerry rocks and the Kiltorcan beds of Cork are the equivalents of the upper division. Rocks of Old Red type, both lower and upper, are found in Spitzbergen and in Bear Island. In New Brunswick and Nova Scotia the Old Red facies is extensively developed. The Gasp6 sandstones have been estimated at 7036 ft. thick. In parts of western Russia Old Red Sandstone fossils are found in beds intercalated with others containing marine fauna of the Devonian facies. Devonian and Old Red Sandstone Faunas. The two types of sediment formed during this period— the marine Devonian and the lagoonal Old Red Sandstone — representing as they do two different but essentially contemporaneous phases of physical condition, are occupied by two strikingly dissimilar faunas. Doubt- less at all times there were regions of the earth that were marked off no less clearly from the normal marine conditions of which we have records; but this period is the earliest in which these variations of environment are made obvious. In some respects the faunal break between the older Silurian below and the younger Carboniferous above is not strongly marked; and in certain areas a very close relationship can be shown to exist between the older Devonian and the former, and the younger Devonian and the latter. Nevertheless, taken as a whole, the life of this period bears a distinct stamp of individuality. The two most prominent features of the Devonian seas are pre- sented by corals and brachiopods. The corals were abundant individually and varied in form ; and they are so distinctive of the period that no Devonian species has yet been found either in the Silurian or in the Carboniferous. They built reefs, as in the present day, and contributed to the formation of limestone masses in Devonshire, on the continent of Europe and in North America. Rugose and tabulate forms prevailed; among the former the cyathophyllids (Cyathophyllum) were important, Phillipsastraea, Zaphrentis, Acervularia and the curious Calceola (sanaalina), an operculate genus which has given palaeontologists much trouble in its diagnosis, for it has been regarded as a pelecypod (hippurite) and 128 DEVONIAN SYSTEM a brachiopod. The tabulate corals were represented by Favosites, Michelinia, Pleurodictyum, Fistulipora, Pachypora and others. Heliolites and Plasmopora represent the aleyonarians. Stromato- poroids were important reef builders. A well-known fossil is Receptaculites, a genus to which it has been difficult to assign a definite place; it has been thought to be a. sponge, it may be a calcareous alga, or a curious represeatative of the foraminifera. In the Devonian period the brachiopods reached the climax of their development : they compose three-quarters of the known fauna, and more than noo species have been described. Changes were taking place from the beginning of the period in the relative importance of genera; several Silurian forms dropped out, and new types were coming in. A noticeable feature was the development of broad-winged shells in the genus Spirifer, other spiriferids were Ambocoelia, Uncites, Vemeuilia. Orthids and pentamerids were waning in importance, while the productids (Productella, Chonetes, Strophalosia) were increasing. The stroph- omenids were still flourishing, represented by the genera Leptaena, Stropheodonta, Kayserella, and others. The ancient Lingula, along with Crania and Orbiculoidea, occur among the inarticulate forms. Another long-lived and wide-ranging species is A try pa reticularis. The athyrids were very numerous (Athyns, Retzia, Merista, Meristella, Kayserina, &c); and the rhynchonellids were well represented by Pugnax, Hypothyris, and several other genera. The important, group of terebratulids appears in this system; amongst them Stringocephalus is an eminently characteristic Devonian brachiopod ; others are Dielasma, Cryptonella, Rensselaeria and Orishania. The pelecypod molluscs were represented by Pterinea, abundant in the lower members along with other large-winged forms, and by Cucullella, Buchiola and Curtonotus in the upper members of the %stem. Other genera are A ctinodesma, Cardiola, Nucula, Megalodcm, liculopecUn, &c. Gasteropods were becoming more important, but the simple capulid forms prevailed: Platyceras {Capuliis), Strapar- ottus, Pleurotomaria, Murchisonia, Macrocheilina, Euomphalus. Among the pteropods, Tentaculites was very abundant in some quarters; others were Conularia and Styliolina. In the Devonian period the cephalopods began to make a distinct advance in numbers, and in development. The goniatites appear with the genera Anarcestes, A goniatites, Tornoceras, Bactrites and others; and in the upper strata the clymenoids, forerunners of the later ammonoids, began to take definite shape. While several new nautiloids (Homa- loceras, Ryticeras, &c.) made their appearance several of the older genera still lived on (Orthocetas, Poterioceras , Actinoceras) . Crinoids were very abundant in some parts of the Devonian sea, though they were relatively scarce in others; they include the genera Melocrinus, Haplocrinus, Cupressocrinus, Calceocrinus and Eleuthrocrinus. The cystideans were falling off (Proteocystis, Tiaracrinus), but blastoids were in the ascendant {Nucleocrinus, Codaster, &c). Both brittle-stars, Ophiura, Palaeophiura, Eugaster, and true starfishes, Palaeaster, Aspidosoma, were present, as well as urchins (Lepidocentrus). When we turn to the crustaceans we have to deal with two distinct assemblages, one purely marine, trilobitic, the other mainly lacustrine or lagoonal with a eurypteridian facies. The trilobites had already begun to decline in importance, and as happens not infrequently with degenerating races of beasts and men, they began to develop strange eccentricities of ornamentation in some of their genera. A number of Silurian genera lived on into the Devonian period, and some gradually developed into new and distinctive forms; such were Proetus, Harpes, Cheirurus, Bronteus and others. Distinct species of Phacops mark the Lower and Upper Devonian respectively, while the genus Dalmania {Odontochile) was represented by species with an almost world-wide range. The Ostracod Entomis (Cypridina) was extremely abundant in places — Cypridinen-Schiefer — while the true Cypridina was also present along with Beyrichia, Leperditia, &c. The Phyllocarids, Echinocaris, Eleuthrocaris, Tropidocaris, are common in the United States. It is in the Old Red Sandstone that the eurypterids are best preserved; foremost among these was Pterygotus; P. anglicus has been found in Scotland with a length of nearly 6 ft. ; Eurypttrus, Slimonia, Stylonurus were other genera. Insects appear well developed, including both orthopterous and neuropterous forms, in the New Brunswick rocks. Mr Scudder believed he had obtained a specimen of Orthoptera in which a stridulating organ was present. A species of Ephemera, allied to the modern may-fly, had a spread of wing extending to 5 in. In the Scottish Old Red Sandstone myriapods, Kampecaris andArchidesmus, have been described; they are somewhat simpler than more recent forms, each segment being separate, and supplied with only one pair of walking legs. Spiders and scorpions also lived upon the land. The great number of fish remains in the Devonian and Old Red strata, coupled with the truly remarkable characters possessed by some of the forms, has caused the period to be described as the "age of fishes." As in the case of the crustaceans, referred to above,we find one assemblage more or less peculiar to the freshwater orbrackish conditions of the Old Red, and another characteristic of the marine Devonian; on the whole the former is the richer in variety, but there seems little doubt that quite a number of genera were capable of living in either environment, whatever may have been the real condition of the Old Red waters. Foremost in interest are the curious ostracoderms, a remarkable group of creatures possessing many of the characteristics of fishes, but more probably belonging to a distinct class of organisms, which appears to link the vertebrates with the arthropods. They had come into existence late in Silurian times ; but it is in the Old Red strata that their remains are most fully preserved. They were abundant in the fresh or brackish waters of Scotland, England, Wales, Russia and Canada, and are represented by such forms as Pteraspis, Cephalaspis, Cyathaspis, Tremataspis, Bothriolepis and Pterichthys. In the lower members of the Old Red series Dipterus, and in the upper members Phaneropleuron, represented the dipnoid lung-fishes; and it is of extreme interest to note that a few of these curious forms still survive in the African Protopterus, the Australian Ceratodus and the South American Lepidosiren, — all freshwater fishes. Distantly related to the lung-fishes were the singular arthrodirans, a group possessing the unusual faculty of moving the head in a vertical plane. These comprise the wide-ranging Coccosteus with Homosteus and Dinichthys, the largest fish of the period. The latter probably reached 20 ft. in length; it was armed with exceedingly powerful jaws provided with turtle-like beaks. Sharks were fairly prominent denizens of the sea ; some were armed with cutting teeth, others with crushing dental plates ; and although they were on the whole marine fishes, they were evidently able to live in fresher waters, like some of their modern representatives, for their remains, mostly teeth and large dermal spines, are found both in the Devonian and Old Red rocks. _ Mesacanthus, Diplacanthus, Climatius, Cheiracanthus are characteristic genera. The crossopterygians, ganoids with a scaly lobe in the centre of the fins, were represented by Holoptychius and Glypwpomus in the Upper Old Red, and by such genera asDiplopterus, Osteolepis, Gyroptychius in the lower division. The Polypterus of the Nile and Calamoichthys of South Africa are the modern exemplars of this group. Cheirolepis, found in the Old Red of Scotland and Canada, is the only Devonian representative of the actinopterygian fishes. The cyclostome fishes have, so far, been discovered only in Scotland, in the tiny Palaeospondylus. Amphibian remains have been found in the Devonian of Belgium ; and footprints supposed to belong to a creature of the same class (Thinopus antiquus) have been described by Professor Marsh from the Chemung formation of Pennsylvania. Plant Life. — In the lacustrine deposits of the Old Red Sandstone we find the earliest well-defined assemblage of terrestrial plants. In some regions so abundant are the vegetable remains that in places they form thin seams of veritable coal. These plants evidently flourished around the shores of the lakes and lagoons in which their remains were buried along with the other forms of life. Lycopods and ferns were the predominant types ; and it is important to notice that both groups were already highly developed. The ferns include the genera Sphenopteris, Megalopteris, Archaeopleris, Neuropteris. Among the Lycopods are Lycopodites, Psilophyton, Lepidodendron. Modern horsetails are represented by Calamocladus, Aslerocalamites, Annularia. Of great interest are the genera Cordaites, Araucari- oxylon, &c, which were synthetic types, uniting in some degree the Coniferae and the Cycadofilicales. With the exception of obscure markings, aquatic plants are not so well represented as might have been expected; Parka, a common fossil, has been regarded as a water plant with a creeping stem and two kinds of sporangia in sessile sporocarps. Physical Conditions, &"c. — Perhaps the most striking fact that is brought out by a study of the Devonian rocks and their fossils is the gradual transgression of the sea over the land, which took place quietly in every quarter of the globe shortly after the beginning of the period. While in most places the Lower Devonian sediments succeed the Silurian formations in a perfectly conformable manner, the Middle and Upper divisions, on account of this encroachment of the sea, rest unconformably upon the older rocks, the Lower division being unrepresented. This is true over the greater part of South America, so far as our limited knowledge goes, in much of the western side of North America, in western Russia, in Thuringia and other parts of central Europe. Of the distribution of land and sea and the position of the coast lines in Devonian times we can state nothing with precision. The known deposits all point to shallow waters of epicontinental seas; no abyssal formations have been recognized. E. Kayser has pointed out the probability of a Eurasian sea province extending through Europe towards the east, across north and central Asia towards Manitoba in Canada, and an American sea province embracing the United States, South America and South Africa. At the same time there existed a great North Atlantic land area caused partly by the uplift of the Caledonian range just before the beginning of the period, which stretched across north Europe to eastern Canada; on the fringe of this land the Old Red Sandstone was formed. In the European area C. Barrois has indicated the existence of three zones of deposition: (1) A northern, Old Red, region, DEVONPORT 129 including Great Britain, Scandinavia, European Russia and Spitzbergen; here the land was close at hand; great brackish lagoons prevailed, which communicated more or less directly with the open sea. In European Russia, during its general advance, the sea occasionally gained access to wide areas, only to be driven off again, during pauses in the relative subsidence of the land, when the continued terrigenous sedimentation once more established the lagoonal conditions. These alternating phases were frequently repeated. (2) A middle region, covering Devonshire and Cornwall, the Ardennes, the northern part of the lower Rhenish mountains, and the upper Harz to the Polish Mittelgebirge; here we find evidence of a shallow sea, clastic deposits and a sublittoral fauna. (3) A southern region reaching from Brittany to the south of the Rhenish mountains, lower Harz, Thuringia and Bohemia; here was a deeper sea with a more pelagic fauna. It must be borne in mind that the above- mentioned regions are intended to refer to the time when the extension of the Devonian sea was near its maximum. In the case of North America it has been shown that in early and middle Devonian time more or less distinct faunas invaded the continent from five different centres, viz. the Helderberg, the Oriskany, the Onondaga, the southern Hamilton and the north-western Hamilton; these reached the interior approxi- mately in the order given. Towards the close of the period, when the various local faunas had mingled one with another and a more generalized life assemblage had been evolved, we find many forms with a very wide range, indicating great uniformity of conditions. Thus we find identical species of brachiopods inhabiting the Devonian seas of England, France, Belgium, Germany, Russia, southern Asia and China; such are, Hypothyris (Rhynchonella) cuboides, Spirifer disjunctus and others. The fauna of the Calceola shales can be traced from western Europe to Armenia and Siberia; the Stringocephalus limestones are represented in Belgium, England, the Urals and Canada; and the (Gephyroceras) intumescens shales are found in western Europe and in Manitoba. The Devonian period was one of comparative quietude; no violent crustal movements seem to have taken place, and while some changes of level occurred towards its close in Great Britain, Bohemia and Russia, generally the passage from Devonian to Carboniferous conditions was quite gradual. In later periods these rocks have suffered considerable movement and meta- morphism, as in the Harz, Devonshire and Cornwall, and in the Belgian coalfields, where they have frequently been thrust over the younger Carboniferous rocks. Volcanic activity was fairly widespread, particularly during the middle portion of the period. In the Old Red rocks of Scotland there is a great thickness (6000 ft.) of igneous rocks, including diabases and andesitic lavas with agglomerates and tuffs. In Devonshire diabases and tuffs are found in the middle division. In west central Europe volcanic rocks are found at many horizons, the most common rocks are diabases and diabase tuffs, schalstein. Felsitic lavas and tuffs occur in the Middle Devonian of Australia. Contemporaneous igneous rocks are generally absent in the American Devonian, but in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick there appear to be some. There is little evidence as to the climate of this period, but it is interesting to observe that local glacial conditions may have existed in places, as is suggested by the coarse conglomerate with striated boulders in the upper Old Red of Scotland. On the other hand, the prevalence of reef-building corals points to moderately warm temperatures in the Middle Devonian seas. The economic products of Devonian rocks are of some import- ance: in many of the metamorphosed regions veins of tin, lead, copper, iron are exploited, as in Cornwall, Devon, the Harz; in New Zealand, gold veins occur. Anthracite of Devonian age is found in China and a little coal in Germany, while the Upper Devonian is the chief source of oil and gas of western Pennsylvania and south-western New York. In Ontario the middle division is oil-bearing. Black phosphates are worked in central Tennessee, and in England the marls of the " Old Red " are employed for brick-making. vm.— 5 References. — The literature of the Devonian rocks and fossils is very extensive; important papers have been contributed by the following geologists: J. Barrande, C. Barrois, F. Beclard, E. W. Benecke, L. Beushausen, A. Champernowne, J. M. Clarke, Sir J. W. Dawson, A. Denckmann, J. S. Diller, E. Dupont, F. Freeh, J. Fournet, Sir A. Geikie, G. Giirich, R. Hoemes, E. Kayser, C. and M. Koch, A. von Koenen, Hugh Miller, D. P. Oehlert, C. S. Prosser, P. de Rouville, C. Schuchert, T. Tschernyschew, E. O. Ulrich, W. A. E. Ussher, P. N. Wenjukoff, G. F. Whidborne, J. F. Whiteaves and H. S. Williams. Sedgwick and Murchison's original description appeared in the Trans. Geol. Soc. (2nd series, vol. v., 1839). Good general accounts will be found in Sir A. Geikie 's Text-Book of Geology (vol. ii., 4th ed., 1903), in E. Kayser's Lehrbuch der Geologie (vol. ii., 2nd ed. , 1902) , and, for North America, in Chamberlin and Salisburv's Geology (vol. ii., 1906). See the Index to the Geological Magazine (1864-1903), and insubsequent annual volumes ; Geological Literature added to the Geological Society's Library (London), annually since 1893; and the Neues Jahrbuch fur Min., Geologie und Palaonlologie (Stuttgart, 2 annual volumes). The U.S. Geological Survey publishes at intervals a Bibliography and Index of North American Geology, &c, and this (e.g: Bulletin 301, — the Bibliog. and Index for 1901-1905) contains numerous references for the Devonian system in North America. (J. A. H.) DEVONPORT, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Devonshire, England, contiguous to East Stonehouse and Plymouth, the seat of one of the royal dockyards, and an im- portant naval and military station. Pop. (1901) 70,437. It is situated immediately above the N.W. angle of Plymouth Sound, occupying a triangular peninsula formed by Stonehouse Pool on the E. and the Hamoaze on the W. It is served by the Great Western and the London & South Western railways. The town proper was formerly enclosed by a line of ramparts and a ditch excavated out of the limestone, but these are in great part demolished. Adjoining Devonport are East Stonehouse (an urban district, pop. 15,111), Stoke and Morice Town, the two last being suburbs of Devonport. The town hall, erected in 1821-1822 partly after the design of the Parthenon, is distinguished by a Doric portico; while near it are the public library, in Egyptian style, and a conspicuous Doric column built of Devonshire granite. This monument, which is 100 ft. high, was raised in commemoration of the naming of the town in 1824. Other institutions are the Naval Engineering College, Keyham (1880); the municipal technical schools, opened in 1899, the majority of the students being connected with the dockyard; the naval barracks, Keyham (1885); the Raglan barracks and the naval and military hospitals. On Mount Wise, which was formerly defended by a battery (now a naval signalling station), stands the military residence, or Government House, occupied by the commander of the Plymouth Coast Defences; and near at hand is the principal naval residence, the naval commander-in- chief 's house. The prospect from Mount Wise over the Hamoaze to Mount Edgecumbe on the opposite shore is one of the finest in the south of England. The most noteworthy feature of Devon- port, however, is the royal dockyard, originally established by William III. in 1689 and until 1824 known as Plymouth Dock. It is situated within the old town boundary and contains four docks. To this in 1853 was added Keyham steamyard, situated higher up the Hamoaze beyond the old boundary and connected with the Devonport yard by a tunnel. In 1 896 further extensions were begun at the Keyham yard, which became known as Devonport North yard. Before these were begun the yard comprised two basins, the northern one being 9 acres and the southern 7 acres in area, and three docks, having floor-lengths of 2 95> 347 and 413 ft., together with iron and brass foundries, machinery shops, engineer students' shop, &c. The new ex- tensions, opened by the Prince of Wales on the 21st of February 1907, cover a total area of 118 acres lying to the northward in front of the Naval Barracks, and involved the reclamation of 77 acres of mudflats lying below high-water mark. The scheme presented three leading features->-a tidal basin, a group of three graving docks with entrance lock, and a large enclosed basin with a coaling dep6t at the north end. The tidal basin, close to the old Keyham north basin, is 740 ft. long with a mean width of 590 ft., and has an area of 10 acres, the depth being 32 ft. at low water of spring tides. It affords access to two graving docks, one with a floor-length of 745 ft. and 20§ ft. of water over the sill, and 11 i3° DEVONPORT— DEVONSHIRE, DUKES OF the other with a length of 741 ft. and 32 ft. of water over the sill. Each of these can be subdivided by means of an intermediate caisson, and (when unoccupied) may serve as an entrance to the closed basin. The lock which leads from the tidal to the closed basin is 730 ft. long, and if necessary can be used as a dock. The closed basin, out of which opens a third graving dock, 660 ft. long, measures 155° ft. by 1000 ft. and has an area of 35^ acres, with a depth of 32 ft. at low- water springs; it has a direct entrance from the Hamoaze, closed by a caisson. The founda- tions of the walls are carried down to the rock, which in some places lies covered with mud 100 ft. or more below coping level. Compressed air is used to work the sliding caissons which close the entrances of the docks and closed basin. A ropery at Devonport produces half the hempen ropes used in the navy. By the Reform Act of 1832 Devonport was erected into a parliamentary borough including East Stonehouse and returning two members. The ground on which it stands is for the most part the property of the St Aubyn family (Barons St Levan), whose steward holds a court leet and a court baron annually. The town is governed by a mayor, sixteen aldermen and forty- eight councillors. Area, 3044 acres. DEVONPORT, EAST and WEST, a town of Devon county, Tasmania, situated on both sides of the mouth of the river Mersey, 193 m. by rail N.W. of Hobart. Pop. (1001), East Devonport, 673, West Devonport, 2101. There is regular com- munication from this port to Melbourne and Sydney, and it ranks as the third port in Tasmania. A celebrated regatta is held on the Mersey annually on New Year's day. DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The Devonshire title, now in the Cavendish family, had previously been held by Charles Blount (1563-1606), 8th Lord Mountjoy, great-grandson of the 4th Lord Mountjoy (d. 1534), the pupil of Erasmus; he was created earl of Devonshire in 1603 for his services in Ireland, where he became famous in subduing the rebellion between 1600 and 1603; but the title became extinct at his death. In the Cavendish line the 1st earl of Devonshire was William (d. 1626), second son of Sir William Cavendish (q.v.), and of Elizabeth Hardwick, who afterwards married the 6th earl of Shrewsbury. He was created earl of Devonshire in 1618 by James I., and was succeeded by William, 2nd earl (1591-1628), and the latter by his son William (1617-1684), a prominent royalist, and one of the original members of the Royal Society, who married a daughter of the 2nd earl of Salisbury. William Cavendish, 1st duke of Devonshire (1640-1707), English statesman, eldest son of the earl of Devonshire last mentioned, was born on the 25th of January 1640. After com- pleting his education he made the tour of Europe according to the custom of young men of his rank, being accompanied on his travels by Dr Killigrew. On his return he obtained, in 1661, a seat in parliament for Derbyshire, and soon became conspicuous as one of the most determined and daring opponents of the general policy of the court. In 1678 he was one of the committee appointed to draw up articles of impeachment against the lord treasurer Danby. In 1679 he was re-elected for Derby, and made a privy councillor by Charles II.; but he soon withdrew from the board with his friend Lord Russell, when he found that the Roman Catholic interest uniformly prevailed. He carried up to the House of Lords the articles of impeachment against Lord Chief- Justice Scroggs, for his arbitrary and illegal proceedings in the court of King's bench; and when the king declared his resolution not to sign the bill for excluding the duke of York, afterwards James II., he moved in the House of Commons that a bill might be brought in for the association of all his majesty's Protestant subjects. He also openly denounced the king's counsellors, and voted for an address to remove them. He appeared in defence of Lord Russell at his trial, at a time when it was scarcely more criminal to be an accomplice than a witness. After the condemnation he gave the utmost possible proof of his attachment by offering to exchange clothes with Lord Russell in the prison, remain in his place, and so allow him to effect his escape. In Novembr 1684 he succeeded to the earldom on the death of his father. He opposed arbitrary government under James II. with the same consistency and high spirit as during the previous reign. He was withdrawn from public life for a time, however, in consequence of a hasty and imprudent act of which his enemies knew how to avail themselves. Fancying that he had received an insulting look in the presence chamber from Colonel Colepepper, a swaggerer whose attendance at court the king encouraged, he immediately avenged the affront by challeng- ing the colonel, and, on the challenge being refused, striking him with his cane. This offence was punished by a fine of £30,000, which was an enormous sum even to one of the earl's princely fortune. Not being able to pay he was imprisoned in the king's bench, from which he was released only on signing a bond for the whole amount. This was afterwards cancelled by King William. After his discharge the earl went for a time to Chatsworth, where he occupied himself with the erection of a new mansion, designed by William Talman, with decorations by Verrio, Thornhill and Grinling Gibbons. The Revolution again brought him into prominence. He was one of the seven who signed the original paper inviting the prince of Orange from Holland, and was the first nobleman who appeared in arms to receive him at his landing. He received the order of the Garter on the occasion of the coronation, and was made lord high steward of the new court. In 1690 he accompanied King William on his visit to Holland. He was created marquis of Hartington and duke of Devonshire in 1694 by William and Mary, on the same day on which the head of the house of Russell was created duke of Bedford. Thus, to quote Macaulay, " the two great houses of Russell and Cavendish, which had long been closely connected by friendship and by marriage, by common opinions, common sufferings and common triumphs, received on the same day the highest honour which it is in the power of the crown to confer." His last public service was assisting to conclude the union with Scotland, for negotiating which he and his eldest son, the marquis of Hartington, had been appointed among the commissioners by Queen Anne. He died on the 18th of August 1707, and ordered the following inscription to be put on his monument: — Willielmus Dux Devon, Bonorum Principum Fidelis Subditus, Inimicus et Invisus Tyrannis. He had married in 1661 the daughter of James, duke of Ormonde, and he was succeeded by his eldest son William as 2nd duke, and by the latter's son William as 3rd duke (viceroy of Ireland, 1737-1744). The latter's son William (1720-1764) succeeded in 1755 as 4th duke; he married the daughter and heiress of Richard Boyle, earl of Burlington and Cork, who brought Lismore Castle and the Irish estates into the family; and from November 1756 to May 1757 he was prime minister, mainly in order that Pitt, who would not then serve under the duke of Newcastle, should be in power. His son William (1748-1811), 5 th duke, is memorable as the husband of the beautiful Georgiana Spencer, duchess of Devonshire (1757-1806), and of the intellec- tual Elizabeth Foster, duchess of Devonshire (1758-1824), both of whom Gainsborough painted. His son William, 6th duke (1790-1858), who died unmarried, was sent on a special mission to the coronation of the tsar Nicholas at Moscow in 1826, and became famous for his expenditure on that occasion; and it was he who employed Sir Joseph Paxton at Chatsworth. The title passed in 1858 to his cousin William (1808-1891), 2nd earl of Burlington, as 7th duke, a man who, without playing a prominent part in public affairs, exercised great influence, not only by his position but by his distinguished abilities. At Cambridge in 1829 he was second wrangler, first Smith's prizeman, and eighth classic, and subsequently he became chancellor of the university. Spencer Compton Cavendish, 8th duke (1833-1908), born on the 23rd of July 1833, was the son of the 7th duke (then earl of Burlington) and his wife Lady Blanche Howard (sister of the earl of Carlisle). In 1854 Lord Cavendish, as he then was, took his degree at Trinity College, Cambridge; in 1856 he was attached to the special mission to Russia for the new tsar's accession; and in 1857 he was returned to parliament as Liberal member for North Lancashire. At the opening of the new parliament of 1859 the DEVONSHIRE, DUKES OF 1:3-1 marquis of Hartington (as he had now become) moved the amend- ment to the address which overthrew the government of Lord Derby. In 1863 he became first a lord of the admiralty, and then under-secretary for war, and on the formation of the Russell- Gladstone administration at the death of Lord Palmerston he entered it as war secretary. He retired with his colleagues in July 1866; but upon Mr Gladstone's return to power in 1868 he became postmaster-general, an office which he exchanged in 187 1 for that of secretary for Ireland. When Mr Gladstone, after his defeat and resignation in 1874, temporarily withdrew from the leadership of the Liberal party in January 1875, Lord Hartington was chosen Liberal leader in the House of Commons, Lord Granville being leader in the Lords. Mr W. E. Forster, who had taken a much more prominent part in public life, was the only o.ther possible nominee, but he declined to stand. Lord Hartington's rank no doubt told in his favour, and Mr Forster's education bill had offended the Nonconformist members, who would probably have withheld their support. Lord Hartington's prudent management in difficult circumstances laid his followers under great obligations, since not only was the opposite party in the ascendant, but his own former chief was indulging in the freedom of independence. After the complete defeat of the Conservatives in the general election of 1880, a large pro- portion of the party would have rejoiced if Lord Hartington could have taken the Premiership instead of Mr Gladstone, and the queen, ,in strict conformity with constitutional usage (though Gladstone himself thought Lord Granville should have had the preference), sent for him as leader of the Opposition. Mr Gladstone, however, was clearly master of the situation: no cabinet could be formed without him, nor could he reasonably be expected to accept a subordinate post. Lord Hartington, there- fore, gracefully abdicated the leadership, and became secretary of state for India, from which office, in December 1882, he passed to the war office. His administration was memorable for the expeditions of General Gordon and Lord Wolseley to Khartum, and a considerable number of the Conservative party long held him chiefly responsible for the "betrayal of Gordon." His lethargic manner, apart from his position as war minister, helped to associate him in their minds with a disaster which emphasized the fact that the 'government acted " too late " ; but Gladstone and Lord Granville were no less responsible than he. In June 1885 he resigned along with his colleagues, and in December was elected for the Rossendale Division of Lancashire, created by the new reform bill. Immediately afterwards the great political oppor- tunity of Lord Hartington's life came to him in Mr Gladstone's conversion to home rule for Ireland. Lord Hartington's refusal to follow his leader in this course inevitably made him the chief of the new Liberal Unionist party, composed of a large and influential section of the old Liberals. In this capacity he moved the first resolution at the famous public meeting at the opera house, and also, in the House of Commons, moved the rejection of Mr Gladstone's Bill on the second reading. D uring the memorable electoral contest which followed, no election excited more interest than Lord Hartington's for the Rossendale division, where he was returned by a majority of nearly 1500 votes. In the new parliament he held a position much resembling that which Sir Robert Peel had occupied after his fall from power, the leader of a small, compact party, the standing and ability of whose members were out of all proportion to their numbers, generally esteemed and trusted beyond any other man in the country, yet in his own opinion forbidden to think of office. Lord Salisbury's offers to serve under him as prime minister (both after the general election, and again when Lord Randolph Churchill resigned) were declined, and Lord Hartington continued to discharge the delicate duties of the leader of a middle party with no less judgment than he had shown when leading the Liberals during the interregnum of 1875-1880. It was not until 1895, when the differences between Conservatives and Liberal Unionists had become almost obliterated by changed circumstances, and the habit of acting together, that the duke of Devonshire, as he had become by the death of his father in 1891, consented to enter Lord Salisbury's third ministry as president of the council. The duke thus was the nominal representative of education in the cabinet at a time when educational questions were rapidly becoming of great importance; and his own technical knowledge of this difficult and intricate question being admittedly superficial, a good deal of criticism from time to time resulted. He had however by thi£ time an established position in public life, and a reputation for weight of character, which procured for him universal respect and confidence, and exemoted him from bitter attack, even from his most determined political opponents. Wealth and rank combined with character to place him in a measure above party; and his succession to his father as chancellor of the university of Cambridge in 1892 indicated his eminence in the life of the country. In the same year he had married the widow of the 7 th duke of Manchester. He continued to hold the office of lord president of the council till the 3rd of October 1903, when he resigned on account of differences with Mr Balfour (q.v.) over the latter's attitude towards free trade. As Mr Chamberlain had retired from the cabinet, and the duke had not thought it necessary to join Lord George Hamilton and Mr Ritchie in resigning a fortnight earlier, the defection was unanticipated and was sharply criticized by Mr Balfour, who, in the rearrangement of his ministry, had only just appointed the duke's nephew and heir, Mr Victor Cavendish, to be secretary to the treasury. But the duke had come to the conclusion that while he himself was substantially a free-trader, 1 Mr Balfour did not mean the same thing by the term. He necessarily became the leader of the Free Trade Unionists who were neither Balfourites nor Chamberlainites, and his weight was thrown into the scale against any association of Unionism with the constructive policy of tariff reform, which he identified with sheei Protection. A struggle at once began within the Liberal Unionist organization between those who followed the duke and those who followed Mr Chamberlain (q.v.); but the latter were in the majority and a reorganization in the Liberal Unionist Association took place, the Unionist free-traders seceding and becoming a separate body. The duke then- became president of the new organizations, the Unionist Free Food League and the Unionist Free Trade Club. In the subsequent developments the duke played a dignified but somewhat silent part, and the Unionist rout in 1906 was not unaffected by his open hostility to any taint of compromise with the tariff reform movement. But in the autumn of 1907 his health gave way, and grave symptoms of cardiac weakness necessitated his abstaining from public effort and spending the winter abroad. He died, rather suddenly, at Cannes on the 24th of March 1908. The head of an old and powerful family, a wealthy territorial magnate, and an Englishman with thoroughly national tastes for sport, his weighty and disinterested character made him a statesman of the first rank in his time, in spite of the absence of showy or brilliant qualities. He had no self-seeking ambitions, and on three occasions preferred not to become prime minister. Though his speeches were direct and forcible, he was not an orator, nor " clever "; and he lacked all subtlety of intellect; but he was conspicuous for solidity of mind and straightforwardness of action, and for conscientious application as an administrator, whether in his public or private life. The fact that he once yawned in the middle of a speech of his own was commonly quoted as characteristic; but he combined a great fund of common sense and knowledge of the average opinion with a patriotic sense of duty towards the state. Throughout his career he remained an old-fashioned Liberal, or rather Whig, of a type which in his later years was becoming gradually more and more rare. There was no issue of his marriage, and he was succeeded as 9th duke by his nephew Victor Christian Cavendish (b. 1868), who had been Liberal Unionist member for West Derbyshire since 1891, and was treasurer of the household (1900 to 1903) and 1 His own words to Mr Balfour at the time were: " I believe that our present system of free imports is on the whole the most advan- tageous to the country, though I do not contend that the principles on which it rests possess any such authority or sanctity as to forbid any departure from it, for sufficient reasons." 1:32 DEVONSHIRE financial secretary to the treasury (1963 to 1905); in 1892 he married a daughter of the marquess of Lansdowne, by whom he had two sons. (H. Ch.) DEVONSHIRE (Devon), a south-western county of England, bounded N.W. and N. by the Bristol Channel, N.E. by Somerset and Dorset, S.E. and S. by the English Channel, and W. by Cornwall. The area, 2604-9 S Q- m -> i s exceeded only by those of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire among the English counties. Nearly the whole of the surface is uneven and hilly. The county contains the highest landin England south of Derbyshire (excepting points on the south Welsh border) ; and the scenery, much varied, is in most parts striking and picturesque. The heather-clad uplands of Exmoor, though chiefly within the borders of Somerset, extend into North Devon, and are still the haunt of red deer, and of the small hardy ponies called after the district. Here, as on Dart- moor, the streams are rich in trout. Dartmoor, the principal physical feature of the county, is a broad and lofty expanse of moorland which rises in the southern part. Its highest point, 2039 ft., is found in the north-western portion. Its rough wastes contrast finely with the wild but wooded region which immediately surrounds the granite of which it is composed, and with the rich cultivated country lying beyond. Especially noteworthy in this fertile tract are the South Hams, a fruitful district of apple orchards, lying between the Erme and the Dart; the rich meadow-land around Crediton, in the vale of Exeter; and the red rocks near Sidmouth. Two features which lend a character- istic charm to the Devonshire landscape are the number of picturesque old cottages roofed with thatch; and the deep lanes, sunk below the common level of the ground, bordered by tall '■ hedges, and overshadowed by an arch of boughs. The north and south coasts of the county differ much in character, but both have grand cliff and rock scenery, not surpassed by any in England or Wales, resembling the Mediterranean seaboard in its range of colour. As a rule the long combes or glens down which the rivers flow seaward are densely wooded, and the country immediately inland is of great beauty. Apart from the Tamar, which consti- tutes the boundary between Devon and Cornwall, and flows into the English Channel, after forming in its estuary the harbours of Devonport and Plymouth, the principal rivers rise on Dartmoor. These include the Teign, Dart, Plym and Tavy, falling into the English Channel, and the Taw flowing north towards Bideford Bay. The river Torridge, also discharging northward, receives part of its waters from Dartmoor through the Okement, but itself rises in the angle of high land near Hartland point on the north coast, and makes a wide sweep southward. The lesser Dartmoor streams are the Avon, the Erme and the Vealm, all running south. The Exe rises on Exmoor in Somersetshire; but the main part of its course is through Devonshire (where it gives name to Exeter), and it is joined on its way to the English Channel by the lesser streams of the Culm, the Creedy and the Clyst. The Otter, rising on the Blackdown Hills, also runs south, and the Axe, for part of its course, divides the counties of Devon and Dorset. These eastern streams are comparatively slow; while the rivers of Dartmoor have a shorter and more rapid course. Geology. — The greatest area occupied by any one group of rocks in Devonshire is that covered by the Culm, a series of slates, grits and greywackes, with some impure limestones and occasional radioiarian cherts as at Codden Hill; beds of " culm," an impure variety of coal, are found at Bideford and elsewhere. This series of rocks occurs at Bampton, Exeter and Chudleigh and extends thence to the western boundary. North and south of the Culm an older series of slates, grits and limestones appears; it was considered so characteristic of the county that it was called the Devonian system (q.v.), the marine equivalent of the Old Red Sandstone of Hereford and Scotland. It lies in the form of a trough with its axis running east and west. In the central hollow the Culm reposes, while the northern and southern rims rise to the surface respectively north of the latitude of Barn- staple and South Molton and south of the latitude of Tavistock. These Devonian rocks have been subdivided into upper, middle and lower divisions, but the stratigraphy is difficult to follow as the beds have suffered much crumpling; fine examples of contorted strata may be seen almost anywhere on the north coast, and in the south, at Bolt Head and Start Point they have undergone severe meta- . moronism. Limestones are only poorly developed in the north, but in the south important masses occur, in the middle and at the base of the upper subdivisions, about Plymouth, Torquay, Brixham and between Newton Abbot and Totnes. Fossil corals abound in these limestones, which are largely quarried and when polished are known as Devonshire marbles. On the eastern side of the county is found an entirely different set of rocks which cover the older series and dip away from them gently towards the east. The lower and most westerly situated members of the younger rocks is a series of breccias, conglomerates, sandstones and marls which are probably of lower Bunter age, but by some geologists have been classed as Permian. These red rocks are beautifully exposed on the coast by Dawlish and Teignmouth, and they extend inland, producing a red soil, past Exeter and Tiverton. A long narrow strip of the same formation reaches out westward on the top of the Culm as far as Jacobstow. Farther east, the Bunter pebble beds are represented by the well-known pebble deposit of Budleigh Salterton, whence they are traceable inland towards Rockbeare. These are succeeded by the Keuper marls and sand- stones, well exposed at Sidmouth, where the upper Greensand plateau is clearly seen to overlie them. The Greensand • covers all the high ground northward from Sidmouth as far as the Black- down Hills. At Beer Head and Axmouth the Chalk is seen, and at the latter place is a famous landslip on the coast, caused by the springs which issue from the Greensand below the Chalk. The Lower Chalk at Beer has been mined for building stone and was formerly in considerable demand. At the extreme east of the county, Rhaetic and Lias beds make their appearance, the former with a " bone " bed bearing the remains of saurians and fish. Dartmoor is a mass of granite that was intruded into the Culm and Devonian strata in post-Carboniferous times and subsequently exposed by denudation. Evidences of Devonian volcanic activity are abundant in the masses of diabase, dolerite, &c., at Bradford and Trusham, south of Exeter, around Plymouth and at Ashprington. Perhaps the most interesting is the Carboniferous volcano of Brent Tor near Tavistock. An Eocene deposit, the product of the denuda- tion of the Dartmoor Hills, lies in a small basin at Bovey Tracey (see Bovey Beds) ; it yields beds of lignite and valuable clays. Raised beaches occur at Hope's Nose and the Thatcher Stone near Torquay and at other points, and a submerged forest lies in the bay south of the same place. The caves and fissures in the Devonian limestone at Kent's Hole near Torquay, Brixham and Oreston are famous for the remains of extinct mammals ; bones of the elephant, rhinoceros, bear and hyaena have been found as well as flint implements of early man. Minerals. — Silver-lead was formerly worked at Combe Martin near the north coast, and elsewhere. Tin has been worked on Dartmoor (in stream works) from an unknown period. Copper was not much worked before the end of the 18th century. Tin occurs in the granite of Dartmoor, and along its borders, but rather where the Devonian than where the Carboniferous rocks border the granite. It is found most plentifully in the district which surrounds Tavistock, which, for tin and other ores, is in effect the great mining district of the county. Here, about 4 m. from Tavistock, are the Devon Great Consols mines, which from 1843 to 187 1 were among the richest copper mines in the world, and by far the largest and most profitable in the kingdom. The divided profits during this period amounted to £1,192,960. But the mining interests of Devonshire are affected by the same causes, and in the same way, as those of Cornwall. The quantity of ore has greatly diminished, and the cost of raising it from the deep mines prevents competition with foreign markets. In many mines tin underlies the general depth of the copper, and is worked when the latter has been exhausted. The mineral products of the Tavistock district are various, and besides tin and copper, ores of zinc and iron are largely distributed. Great quantities of refined arsenic have been produced at the Devon Great Consols mine, by elimination from the iron pyrites contained in the various lodes. Manganese occurs in the neighbourhood of Exeter, in the valley of the Teign and in N. Devon ; but the most profitable mines, which are shallow, are, like those of tin and copper, in the Tavistock district. The other mineral productions of the county consist of marbles, building stones, slates and potters' clay. Among building stones, the granite of Dartmoor holds the foremost place. It is much quarried near Princetown, near Moreton Hampstead on the N.E. of Dartmoor and elsewhere. The annual export is considerable. Hard traps, which occur in many places, are also much used, as are the lime- stones of Buckfastleigh and of Plymouth. The Roborough stone, used from an early period in Devonshire churches, is found near Tavistock, and is a hard, porphyritic elvan, taking a fine polish. Excellent roofing slates occur in the Devonian series round the southern part of Dartmoor. The chief quarries are near Ashburton and Plymouth (Cann quarry). Potters clay is worked at King's Teignton, whence it is largely exported; at Bovey Tracey; and at Watcombe near Torquay. The Watcombe clay is of the finest quality. China clay or kaolin is found on the southern side of Dartmoor, at Lee Moor, and near Trowlesworthy. There is a large deposit of umber close to Ashburton. Climate and Agriculture.— The climate varies greatly in different parts of the county, but everywhere it is more humid DEVONSHIRE !33 than that of the eastern or south-eastern parts of England. The mean annual temperature somewhat exceeds that cf the mid- lands, but the average summer heat is rather less than that of the southern counties to the east. The air of the Dartmoor highlands is sharp and bracing. Mists are frequent, and snow often lies long. On the south coast frost is little known, and many half hardy plants, such as hydrangeas, myrtles, geraniums and helio- tropes, live through the winter without protection. The climate of Sidmouth, Teignmouth, Torquay and other watering places on this coast is very equable, the mean temperature in January being 43-6° at Plymouth. The north coast, exposed to the storms and swell of the Atlantic, is more bracing; although there also, in the more sheltered nooks (as at Combe Martin), myrtles of great size and age flower freely, and produce their annual crop of berries. Rather less than three-quarters of the total area of the county is under cultivation; the cultivated area falling a little below the average of the English counties. There are, however, about 160,000 acres of hill pasture in addition to the area in permanent pasture, which is more than one-half that of the cultivated area. The Devon breed of cattle is well adapted both for fattening and for dairy purposes; while sheep are kept in great numbers on the hill pastures. Devonshire is one of the chief cattle-farming and sheep-farming counties. It is specially famous for two products of the dairy — the clotted cream to which it gives its name, and junket. Of the area under grain crops, oats occupy about three times the acreage under wheat or barley. The bulk of the acreage under green crops is occupied by turnips, swedes and mangold. Orchards occupy a large acreage, and consist chiefly of apple-trees, nearly every farm maintaining one for the manufacture of cider. Fisheries. — Though the fisheries of Devon are less valuable than those of Cornwall, large quantities of the pilchard and herrings caught in Cornish waters are landed at Plymouth. Much of the fishing is carried on within the three-mile limit; and it may be asserted that trawling is the main feature of the Devon- shire industry, whereas seining and driving characterize that of Cornwall. Pilchard, cod, sprats, brill, plaice, soles, turbot, shrimps, lobsters, oysters and mussels are met with, besides herring and mackerel, which are fairly plentiful. After Ply- mouth, the principal fishing station is at Brixham, but there are lesser stations in every bay and estuary. Other Industries. — The principal industrial works in the county are the various Government establishments at Plymouth and Devonport. Among other industries may be noted the lace- works at Tiverton; the manufacture of pillow-lace for which Honiton and its neighbourhood has long been famous; and the potteries and terra-cotta works of Bovey Tracey and Watcombe. Woollen goods and serges are made at Buckfastleigh and Ashburton, and boots and shoes at Crediton. Convict labour is employed in the direction of agriculture, quarrying, &c, in the great prison of Dartmoor. Communications. — The main line of the Great Western railway, entering the county in the east from Taunton, runs to Exeter, skirts the coast as far as Teignmouth, and continues a short distance inland by Newton Abbot to Plymouth, after which it crosses the estuary of the Tamar by a great bridge to Saltash in Cornwall. Branches serve Torquay and other seaside resorts of the south coast; and among other branches are those from Taunton to Barnstaple and from Plymouth northward to Tavistock and Launceston. The main line of the London & South- Western railway between Exeter and Plymouth skirts the north and west of Dartmoor by Okehampton and Tavistock. A branch from Yeoford serves Barnstaple, Ilfracombe, Bideford and Torrington, while the Lynton & Barnstaple and the Bideford, Westward Ho & Appledore lines serve the districts indicated by their names. The branch line to Princetown from the Plymouth-Tavistock line of the Great Western company in part follows the line of a very early railway — that constructed to connect Plymouth with the Dartmoor prison in 1819-1825, which was worked with horse cars. The only waterways of any importance are the Tamar, which is navigable up to Gunnislake (3 m. S.W. of Tavistock), and the Exeter ship canal, noteworthy as one of the oldest in England, for it was originally cut in the reign of Elizabeth. Population and Administration. — Theareaof theancient county is 1,667,154 acres, with a population in 1891 of 631,808, and 1901 of 661,314. The area of the administrative county is 1,671,168 acres. The county contains 33 hundreds. The municipal boroughs are Barnstaple (pop. 14,137), Bideford (8754), Dart- mouth (6579), Devonport, a county borough (70,437), Exeter, a city and county borough (47,185), Torrington, officially Great Torrington(3 241), Honiton(327i),Okehampton(2569), Plymouth, a county borough (107,636), South Molton (2848), Tiverton (10,382), Torquay (33,625), Totnes (403-5). The other urban districts are Ashburton (2628), Bampton (1657), Brixham (8092), Buckfastleigh (2520), Budleigh Sal terton (1883), Crediton (3974), Dawlish (4003), East Stonehouse (15,111), Exmouth (10,485), Heavitree (7529), Holsworthy (1371), Ilfracombe (8557), Ivy- bridge (1575), Kingsbridge (3025), Lynton (1641), Newton Abbot (12,517), Northam (5355), Ottery St Mary (3495), Paignton (8385), Salcombe (1710), Seaton (1325), Sidmouth (4201), Tavistock (4728), Teignmouth (8636). The county is in the western circuit, and assizes are held at Exeter. It has one court of quarter sessions, and is divided into twenty-four petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Barnstaple, Bideford, Devonport, Exeter, Plymouth, South Molton, and Tiverton have separate commissions of the peace and courts of quarter sessions, and those of Dartmouth, Great Torrington, Torquay and Totnes have commissions of the peace only. There are 46 1 civil parishes. Devonshire is in the diocese of Exeter, with the exception of small parts in those of Salisbury and Truro; and there are 516 ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within the county. The parliamentary divisions are the Eastern or Honiton, North-eastern or Tiverton, Northern or South Molton, North- western or Barnstaple, Western or Tavistock, Southern or Totnes, Torquay, and Mid or Ashburton, each returning one member; and the county also contains the parliamentary boroughs of Devonport and Plymouth, each returning two members, and that of Exeter, returning one member. History.— The Saxon conquest of Devonshire must have begun some time before the 8th century, for in 700 there existed at Exeter a famous Saxon school. By this time, however, the Saxons had become Christians, and established their supremacy, not by destructive inroads, but by a gradual process of coloniza- tion, settling among the native Welsh and allowing them to hold lands under equal laws. The final incorporation of the district which is now Devonshire with the kingdom of Wessex must have taken place about 766, but the county, and even Exeter, remained partly Welsh until the time of /Ethelstan. At the beginning of the 9th century Wessex was divided into definite pagi, probably corresponding to the later shires, and the Saxon Chronicle mentions Devonshire by name in 823, when a battle was fought between the Welsh in Cornwall and the people of Devonshire at Camelford. During the Danish invasions of the 9th century aldermen of Devon are frequently mentioned. In 851 the invaders were defeated by the fyrd and aldermen of Devon, and in 878, when the Danes under Hubba were harrying the coast with a squadron of twenty-three ships, they were again defeated with great slaughter by the fyrd. The modern hundreds of Devonshire correspond in position very nearly with those given in the Domesday Survey, though the names have in many cases been changed, owing generally to alterations in their places of meeting. The hundred of Bampton formerly included estates west of the Exe, now transferred to the hundred of Witheridge. Ten of the modern hundreds have been formed by the union of two or more Domesday hundreds, while the Domesday hundred of Liston has had the new hundred of Tavistock severed from it since 11 14. Many of the hundreds were separated by tracts of waste and forest land, of which Devonshire contained a vast extent, until in 1204 the inhabitants paid 5000 marks to have the county disafforested, with the exception only of Dartmoor and Exmoor; Devonshire in the 7th century formed part of the vast bishopric *34 DEVRIENT of Dorchester-on-Thames. In 705 it was attached to the newly created diocese of Sherborne, and in 910 Archbishop Plegmund constituted Devonshire a separate diocese, and placed the see at Crediton. About 1030 the dioceses of Devonshire and Cornwall were united, and in 1049 the see was fixed at Exeter. The arch- deaconries of Exeter, Barnstaple and Totnes are all mentioned in the 12th century and formerly comprised twenty-four deaneries. The deaneries of Three Towns, Collumpton and Ottery have been created since the 16th century, while those of Tamerton, Dunkeswell, Dunsford and Plymptre have been abolished, bring- ing the present number to twenty-three. At the time of the Norman invasion Devonshire showed an active hostility to Harold, and the easy submission which it rendered to the Conqueror accounts for the exceptionally large number of Englishmen who are found retaining lands after the Conquest. The many vast fiefs held by Norman barons were known as honours, chief among them being Plympton, Oke- hampton, Barnstaple, Harberton and Totnes. The honour of Plympton was bestowed in the 12th century on the Redvers family, together with the earldom of Devon; in the 13th century it passed to the Courtenay family, who had already become possessed of the honour of Okehamoton, and who in 1335 obtained the earldom. The dukedom of Exeter was bestowed in the 14th century on the Holland family, which became extinct in the reign of Edward IV. The ancestors of Sir Walter Raleigh, who was born at Budleigh, had long held considerable estates in the county. Devonshire had an independent sheriff, the appointment being at first hereditary, but afterwards held for one year only. In 1 3 20 complaint was made that all the hundreds of Devonshire were in the hands of the great lords, who did not appoint a sufficiency of bailiffs for their proper government. The miners of Devon had independent courts, known as stannary courts, for the regulation of mining affairs, the four stannary towns being Tavistock, Ashburton, Chagford, and Plympton. The ancient miners' parliament was held in the open air at Crockern's Tor. The castles of Exeter and Plympton were held against Stephen by Baldwin de Redvers, and in the 14th and 15th centuries the French made frequent attacks on the Devonshire coast, being repulsed in 1404 by the people of Dartmouth. In the Wars of the Roses the county was much divided, and frequent skirmishes took place between the earl of Devon and Lord Bonville, the respective champions of the Lancastrian and Yorkist parties. Great dis- turbances in the county followed the Reformation of the 16th century and in 1549 a priest was compelled to say mass at Sampford Courtney. On the outbreak of the Civil War the county as a whole favoured the parliament, but the prevailing desire was for peace, and in 1643 a treaty for the cessation of hostilities in Devonshire and Cornwall was agreed upon. Skirmishes, however, continued until the capture of Dartmouth and Exeter in 1S46 put an end to the struggle. In 1688 the prince of Orange landed at To bay and was entertained for several days at Ford and at Exeter. The tin mines of Devon have been worked from time im- memorial, and in the 14th century mines of tin, copper, lead, gold and silver are mentioned. Agriculturally the county was always poor, and before the disafforestation rendered especially so through the ravages committed by the herds of wild deer. At the time of the Domesday Survey the salt industry was important, and there were ninety-nine mills in the county and thirteen fisheries. From an early period the chief manufacture was that of woollen cloth, and a statute 4 Ed. IV. permitted the manu- facture of cloths of a distinct make in certain parts of Devonshire. About 1505 Anthony Bonvis, an Italian, introduced an improved method of spinning into the county, and cider-making is mentioned in the 16th century. In 1680 the lace industry was already flourishing at Colyton and Ottery St Mary, and flax, hemp and malt were largely produced in the 17th and 18th centuries. Devonshire returned two members to parliament in 1290, and in 1 295 Barnstaple, Exeter, Plympton, Tavistock, Torrington and Totnes were also represented. In 1831 the county with its boroughs returned a total of twenty-six members, but under the Reform Act of 1832 it returned four members in two divisions, and with ten boroughs was represented by a total of eighteen members. Under the act of 1868 the county returned six members in three divisions, and four of the boroughs were dis- franchised, making a total of seventeen members. Antiquities. — In primeval antiquities Devonshire is not so rich as Cornwall; but Dartmoor abounds in remains of the highest interest, the most peculiar of which are the long parallel align- ments of upright stones, which, on a small scale, resemble those of Carnac in Brittany. On Dartmoor the lines are invariably straight, and are found in direct connexion with cairns, and with circles which are probably sepulchral. These stone avenues are very numerous. Of the so-called sacred circles the best examples are the " Longstones " on Scorhill Down, and the " Grey Wethers " under Sittaford Tor. By far the finest cromlech is the " Spinster's Rock " at Drewsteignton, a three- pillared cromlech which may well be compared with those of Cornwall. There are numerous menhirs or single upright stones; a large dolmen or holed stone lies in the bed of the Teign, near the Scorhill circle; and rock basins occur on the summit of nearly every tor on Dartmoor (the largest are on Kestor, and on Heltor, above the Teign). It is, however, tolerably evident that these have been produced by the gradual disintegration of the granite, and that the dolmen in the Teign is due to the action of the river. Clusters of hut foundations, circular, and formed of rude granite blocks, are frequent; the best example of such a primitive village is at Batworthy, near Chagford; the type resembles that of East Cornwall. Walled enclosures, or pounds, occur in many places; Grimspound is the most remarkable. Boundary lines, also called trackways, run across Dartmoor in many directions; and the rude bridges, formed of great slabs of granite, deserve notice. All these remains are on Dartmoor. Scattered over the county are numerous large hill castles and camps,— all earthworks, and all apparently of the British period. Roman relics have been found from time to time at Exeter (Isca Damnoniorum), the only large Roman station in the county. The churches are for the most part of the Perpendicular period, dating from the middle of the 14th to the end of the 1 5th century. Exeter cathedral is of course an exception, the whole (except the Norman towers) being very beautiful Decorated work. The special features of Devonshire churches, however, are the richly carved pulpits and chancel screens of wood, in which this county exceeded every other in England, with the exception of Norfolk and Suffolk. The designs are rich and varied, and the skill dis- played often very great. Granite crosses are frequent, the finest and earliest being that of Coplestone, near Crediton. Monastic remains are scanty; the principal are those at Tor, Buckfast, Tavistock and Buckland Abbeys. Among domestic buildings the houses of Wear Gifford, Bradley and Dartington of the 15th century; Bradfield and Holcombe Rogus (Elizabethan), and Forde (Jacobean), deserve notice. The ruined castles of Okehampton (Edward I.), Exeter, with its vast British earth- works, Berry Pomeroy (Henry III., with ruins of a large Tudor mansion), Totnes (Henry III.) and Compton (early 15th century), are all interesting and picturesque. Authorities. — T. Westcote, Survey of Devon, written about 1630, and first printed in 1845; J. Prince, Worthies of Devon (Exeter, 1701); Sir W. Pole, Collections towards a History of the County of Devon (London, 1 791); R. Polwhele, History of Devonshire (3 vols. Exeter, 1797, 1 798-1 800); T. Moore, History of Devon from the Earliest Period to the Present Time (vols, i., ii., London, 1829-1831) ; G. Oliver, Historic Collections relating to the Monasteries in Devon (Exeter, 1820); D. and S. Lysons, Magna Britannia (vol. vi., London, 1822); Ecclesiastical Antiquities in Devon (Exeter, 1844); Mrs Bray, Traditions of Devonshire, in a series of "letters to Robert Southey (London, 1838) ; G. C. Boase, Devonshire Bibliography (London, 1883); Sir W. R. Drake, Devonshire Notes and Notelets (London, 1888) ; S. Hewett, Peasant Speech of Devon (London, 1892) ; R. N. Worth, History of Devonshire (London, 1886, new edition, 1895); C. Worthy, Devonshire Parishes (Exeter, 1887); Devonshire Wills (London, 1896); Victoria County History, Devonshire. DEVRIENT, the name of a family of German actors. Ludwig Devrient (1784-1832), born in Berlin on the 15th of December 1784, was the son of a silk merchant. He was DEW 135 apprenticed to an upholsterer, but, suddenly leaving his employ- ment, joined a travelling theatrical company, and made his first appearance on the stage at Gera in 1804 as the messenger in Schiller's Braut von Messina. By the interest of Count Brtihl, he appeared at Rudolstadt as Franz Moor in Schiller's Rduber, so successfully that he obtained a permanent engagement at the ducal theatre in Dessau, where he played until 1809. He then received a call to Breslau, where he remained for six years. So brilliant was his success in the title-parts of several of Shake- speare's plays, that Iffland began to fear for his own reputation; yet that great artist was generous enough to recommend the young actor as his only possible successor. On Inland's death Devrient was summoned to Berlin, where he was for fifteen years the popular idol. He died there on the 30th of December 1832. Ludwig Devrient was equally great in comedy and tragedy. Falstaff, Franz Moor, Shylock, King Lear and Richard II. were among his best parts. Karl von Holtei in his Reminiscences has given a graphic picture of him and the " demoniac fascination " of his acting. See Z. Funck, Aus dent Leben zweier Schauspieler, Ifflands und Devrients (Leipzig, 1838); H. Smidt in Devrient- Novellen (3rd ed., Berlin, 1882); R. Springer in the novel Devrient und Hoffmann (Berlin, 1873), and Eduard Devrient's Geschichte der deutschen Schauspielkunst (Leipzig, 1861). Three of the nephews of Ludwig Devrient, sons of his brother, a merchant, were also connected with the stage. Karl August Devrient (1797-1872) was born at Berlin on the 5th of April 1797. After being for a short time in business, he entered a cavalry regiment as volunteer and fought at Waterloo. He then joined the stage, making his first appearance on the stage in 1819 at Brunswick. In 182 1 he received an engagement at the court theatre in Dresden, where, in 1823, he married Wilhelmine Schroder (see Schroder-Devrient). In 1835 he joined the company at Karlsruhe, and in 1839 that at Hanover. His best parts were Wallenstein and King Lear. He died on the 5th of April 1872. His brother Philipp Eduard Devrient (1801-1877), born at Berlin on the nth of August 1801, was for a time an opera singer. Turning his attention to theatrical management, he was from 1844 to 1846 director of the court theatre in Dresden. Appointed to Karlsruhe in 1852, he began a thorough reorganization of the theatre, and in the course of seventeen years of assiduous labour, not only raised it to a high position, but enriched its repertory by many noteworthy librettos, among which Die Gunst des Augenblicks and Verirrungen are the best known. But his chief work is his history of the German stage — Geschichte der deutschen Schauspielkunst (Leipzig, 1848- 1874). He died on the 4th of October 1877. A complete edition of his works — Dramatische und dramaturgische Schriften — was published in ten volumes (Leipzig, 1846-1873). The youngest and the most famous of the three nephews of Ludwig Devrient was Gustav Emil Devrient (1803-1872), born in Berlin on the 4th of September 1803 . He made his first appear- ance on the stage in 1821, at Brunswick, as Raoul in Schiller's Jungfrau von Orleans. After a short engagement in Leipzig, he received in 1829 a call to Hamburg, but after two years accepted a permanent appointment at the court theatre in Dresden, to which he belonged until his retirement in 1868. His chief characters were Hamlet, Uriel Acosta (in Karl Gutzkow's play), Marquis Posa (in Schiller's Don Carlos), and Goethe's Torquato Tasso. He acted several times in London, where his Hamlet was considered finer than Kemble's or Edmund Kean's. He died on the 7th of August 1872. Otto Devrient (1838-1894), another actor, born in Berlin on the 3rd of October 1838, was the son of Philipp Eduard Devrient. He joined the stage in 1856 at Karlsruhe, and acted successively in Stuttgart, Berlin and Leipzig, until he received a fixed appointment at Karlsruhe, in 1863. In 1873 he became stage manager at Weimar, where he gained great praise for his mise en scene of Goethe's Faust. After being manager of the theatres in Mannheim and Frankfort he retired to Jena, where in 1883 he was given the honorary degree of doctor of philosophy. In 1884 he was appointed director of the court theatre in Oldenburg, and in 1889 director of dramatic plays in Berlin. He died at Stettin on the 23rd of June 1894. DEW. The word "dew" (O.E. deaw ; cf. Ger. Tau) is a very ancient one and its meaning must therefore be defined on historical principles. According to the New English Dictionary, it means " the moisture deposited in minute drops upon any cool surface by condensation of the vapour of the atmosphere; formed after a hot day, during or towards night and plentiful in the early morning." Huxley in his Physiography makes the addition " without production of mist." The formation of mist is not necessary for the formation of dew, nor does it necessarily prevent it. If the deposit of moisture is in the form of ice instead of water it is called hoarfrost. The researches of Aitken suggest that the words " by condensation of the vapour in the atmo- sphere " might be omitted from the definition. He has given reasons for believing that the large dewdrops on the leaves of plants, the most characteristic of all the phenomena of dew, are to be accounted for, in large measure at least, by the exuding of drops of water from the plant through the pores of the leaves themselves. The formation of dewdrops in such cases is the con- tinuation of the irrigation process of the plant for supplying the leaves with water from the soil. The process is set up in full vigour in the daytime to maintain tolerable thermal conditions at the surface of the leaf in the hot sun, and continued after the sun has gone. On the other hand, the most typical physical experiment illus- trating the formation of dew is the production of a deposit oi moisture, in minute drops, upon the exterior surface of a glass or polished metal vessel by the cooling of a liquid contained in the vessel. If the liquid is water, it can be cooled by pieces of ice; if volatile like ether, by bubbling air through it. No deposit is formed by this process until the temperature is reduced to a point which, from that circumstance, has received a special name, although it depends upon the state of the air round the vessel. So generally accepted is the physical analogy between the natural formation of dew and its artificial production in the manner described, that the point below which the temperature of a surface must be reduced in order to obtain the deposit is known as the " dew-point." In the view of physicists the dew-point is the temperature at which, by being cooled without change of pressure, the air becomes saturated with water vapour, not on account of any increase of supply of that compound, but by the diminution of the capacity of th" air for holding it in the gaseous condition. Thus, when the dew-point temperature has been determined, the pressure of water vapour in the atmosphere at the time of the deposit is given by reference to a taole of saturation pressures of water vapour at different temperatures. As it is a well-established proposition that the pressure of the water vapour in the air does not vary while the air is being cooled without change of its total external pressure, the saturation pressure at the dew-point gives the pressure of water vapour in the air when the cooling commenced. Thus the artificial formation of dew and consequent determination of the dew-point is a recognized method of measuring the pressure, and thence the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. The dew-point method is indeed in some ways a fundamental method of hygrometry. The dew-point is a matter of really vital consequence in the question of the oppressiveness of the atmosphere or its reverse. So long as the dew-point is low, high temperature does not matter, but when the dew-point begins to approach the normal tempera- ture of the human body the atmosphere becomes insupportable. The physical explanation of the formation of dew consists practically in determining the process or processes by which leaves, blades of grass, stones, and other objects in the open air upon which dew may be observed, become cooled " below the dew-point." Formerly, from the time of Aristotle a I least, dew was supposed to " fall." That view of the process was not extinct at the time of Wordsworth and poets might ever now use the figure without reproach. To Dr Charles Wells of London belongs ttte credit of bringing to a focus the ideas which originated with the study of 136 DEW radiation at the beginning of the 19th century, and which are expressed by saying that the cooling necessary to produce dew on exposed surfaces is to be attributed to the radiation from the surfaces to a clear sky. He gave an account of the theory of automatic cooling by radiation, which has found a place in all text-books of physics, in his first Essay on Dew published in 1818. The theory is supported in that and in a second essay by a number of well-planned observations, and the essays are indeed models of scientific method. The process of the formation of dew as represented by Wells is a simple one. It starts from the point of view that all bodies are constantly radiating heat, and cool automatically unless they receive a corresponding amount of heat from other bodies by radiation or conduction. Good radiators, which are at the same time bad conductors of heat, such as blades of grass, lose heat rapidly on a clear night by radiation to the sky and become cooled below the dew-point of the atmosphere. The question was very fully studied by Melloni and others, but little more was added to the explanation given by Wells until 1885, when John Aitken of Falkirk called attention to the question whether the water of dewdrops on plants or stones came from the air or the earth, and described a number of experiments to show that under the conditions of observation in Scotland, it was the earth from which the moisture was probably obtained, either by the operation of the vascular system of plants in the formation of exuded dewdrops, or by evaporation and subsequent condensa- tion in the lowest layer of the atmosphere. Some controversy was excited by the publication of Aitken's views, and it is inter- esting to revert to it because it illustrates a proposition which is of general application in meteorological questions, namely, that the physical processes operative in the evolution of meteorological phenomena are generally complex. It is not radiation alone that is necessary to produce dew, nor even radiation from a body which does not conduct heat. The body must be surrounded by an atmosphere so fully supplied with moisture that the dew- point can be passed by the cooling due to radiation. Thus the conditions favourable for the formation of dew are (1) a good radiating surf ace, (2) a still atmosphere, (3) aclearsky, (4) thermal insulation of the radiating surface, (5) warm moist ground or some other provision to produce a supply of moisture in the surface layers of air. Aitken's contribution to the theory of dew shows that in considering the supply of moisture we must take into con- sideration the ground as well as the air and concern ourselves with the temperature of both. Of the five conditions mentioned, the first four may be considered necessary, but the fifth is very important for securing a copious deposit. It can hardly be maintained that no dew could form unless there were a supply of water by evaporation from warm ground, but, when such a supply is forthcoming, it is evident that in place of the limited process of condensation which deprives the air of its moisture and is therefore soon terminable, we have the process of distillation which goes on as long as conditions are maintained. This distinction is of some practical importance for it indicates the protecting power of wet soil in favour of young plants as against night frost. If distillation between the ground and the leaves is set up, the temperature of the leaves cannot fall much below the original dew-point because the supply of water for condensation is kept up; but if the compensation for loss of heat by radiation is dependent simply on the condensation of water from the atmosphere, without renewal of the supply, the dew-point will gradually get lower as the moisture is deposited and the process of cooling will go on. In these questions we have to deal with comparatively large changes taking place within a small range of level. It is with the layer a few inches thick on either side of the surface that we are principally concerned, and for an adequate comprehension of the conditions close consideration is required. To illustrate this point reference may be made to figs. 1 and 2, which represent the condition of affairs at 10-40 p.m. on about the 20th of October 1885, according to observations by Aitken. Vertical distances represent heights in feet, while the temperatures of the air and Soil 3 a' i I i / « / S' a I i I C> 1*3 M 1 I 4 ' 1 u 3 X Groun d'\ level Earth 1 emperat ureV Grass the dew-point are represented by horizontal distances and their variations with height by the curved lines of the diagram. The line marked o is the ground level itself, a rather indefinite quantity when the surface is grass. The whole vertical distance represented is from 4 ft. above ground to 1 ft. below ground, and the special phenomena which we are consider- ing take place in the layer which represents the rapid transition be- tween the temperature of the ground 3 in. below the surface and that of the air a few inches above ground. The point of interest is to determine where the dew-point curve and dry-bulb curve will cut. If they cut above the 40° Fig. 1. -S' 13 Q,j 1 v. h EartiV Temper iturei Fig. 2. surface, mist will result; if they cut at the surface, dew will be formed. Below the surface, it may be assumed that the air is saturated with moisture and any difference in temperature of the dew-point is accompanied by distillation. It may be remarked, by the way, that such distillation between soil layers of different temperatures must be productive of the transference of large quantities of water between different levels in the soil either upward or downward according to the time of year. These diagrams illustrate the importance of the warmth and moisture of the ground in the phenomena which have been con- sidered. From the surface there is a continual loss of heat going on by radiation and a continual supply of warmth and moisture from below. But while the heat can escape, the moisture cannot. Thus the dry-bulb line is deflected to the left as it approaches the surface, the dew-point line to the right. Thus the effect of the moisture of the ground is to cause the lines to approach. In the case of grass, fig; 2, the deviation of the dry-bulb line to the left to form a sharp minimum of temperature at the surface is well shown. The dew-point line is also shown diverted to the left to the same point as the dry-bulb; but that could only happen if there were so copious a condensation from the atmosphere' as actually to make the air drier at the surface than up above. In diagram 1, for soil, the effect on air temperature and moisture is shown; the two lines converge to cut at the surface where a dew deposit will be formed. Along the underground line there must be a gradual creeping of heat and moisture towards the surface by distillation, the more rapid the greater the temperature gradient. The amount of dew deposited is considerable, and, in tropical countries, is sometimes sufficiently heavy to be collected by gutters and spouts, but it is not generally regarded as a large percentage of the total rainfall. Loesche estimates the amount of dew for a single night on the Loango coast at 3 mm., but the estimate seems a high one. Measurements go to show that the depth of water corresponding with the aggregate annual deposit of dew is 1 in. to 1-5 in. near London (G. Dines), 1-2 in. at Munich (Wollny), 0-3 in. at Montpellier (Crova), i-6 in. at Tenbury, Worcestershire (Badgley). With the question of the amount of water collected as dew, that of the maintenance of " dew ponds " is intimately associated. The name is given to certain isolated ponds on the upper levels of the chalk downs of the south of England and elsewhere. Some of these ponds are very ancient, as the title of a work on Neolithic Dewponds by A. J. and G. Hubbard indicates. Their name seems to imply the hypothesis that they depend upon dew and not entirely upon rain for their maintenance as a source of water supply for cattle, for which they are used. The question has been discussed a good deal, but not settled; the balance of evidence seems to be against the view that dew deposits make any important contribution to the supply of water. The construction of dew ponds is, however, still practised on traditional lines, and it is said that a new dew pond has first to be filled artificially. DEWAN— D'EWES 137 It does not come into existence by the gradual accumulation of water in an impervious basin. Authorities. — For Dew, see the two essays by Dr Charles Wells (London, 1818), also " An Essay on Dew," edited by Casella (London, 1866), Longmans', with additions by Strachan; Melloni, Pogg. Ann. Ixxi. pp. 416, 424 and lxxiii. p. 467; Jamin, " Comple- ments a la theorie de la rosee," Journal de physique, viii. p. 41; J. Aitken, on " Dew," Trans. Roy. Soc. of Edinburgh, xxxiii., part i. 2, and " Nature," vol. xxxiii. p. 256; C. Tomlinson, " Remarks on a new Theory of Dew," Phil. Mag. (1886), 5th series, vol. 21, p. 483 and vol. 22, p. 270; Russell, Nature, voL 47, p. 210; also Met. Zeit. (1893), p. 390; Homen, Bodenphysikalische und meteoro- logische Beobachtungen (Berlin, 1894), iii. ; Taubildung, p. 88, &c. ; Rubenson, " Die Temperatur- und Feuchtigkeitsverhaltnisse in den unteren Luftschichten bei der Taubildung," Met. Zeit. xi. (1876), p. 65; H. E. Hamberg, " Temperature et humidite de l'air k differ- entes hauteurs a Upsal," Soc. R. des sciences d'Upsal (1876); review in Met. Zeit. xii. (1877), p. 105. For Dew Ponds, see Stephen Hales, Statical Essays, vol. i., experi- ment xix., pp. 52-57 (2nd ed., London, 1731) ; Gilbert White, Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne, letter xxix. (London, 1789) ; Dr C. Wells, An Essay on Dew (London, 1818, 1821 and 1866); Rev. J. C. Clutterbuck, " Prize Essay on Water Supply," Journ. Roy. Agric. Soc, 2nd series, vol. i. pp. 271-287 (1865); Field and Symons, " Evaporation from the Surface of Water," Brit. Assoc. Rep. (1869), sect., pp. 25, 26; J. Lucas, " Hydrogeology : One of the Develop- ments of Modern Practical Geology," Trans. Inst. Surveyors, vol. ix. pp. 153-232 (1877); H. P. Slade, " A Short Practical Treatise on Dew Ponds" (London, 1877); Clement Reid, "The Natural History of Isolated Ponds," Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists' Society, vol. v. pp. 272-286 (1892) ; Professor G. S. Brady, On the Nature and Origin of Freshwater Faunas (1899) ; Professor L. C. Miall, " Dew Ponds," Reports of the British Association (Bradford Meeting, 1900), pp. 579-585; A. J. and G. Hubbard, " Neolithic Dewponds and Cattle-Ways " (London, 1904, 1907). (W. N. S.) DEWAN or Diwan, an Oriental term for finance minister. The-word is derived from the Arabian diwan, and is commonly used in India to denote a minister of the Mogul government, or in modern days the prime minister of a native state. It was in the former sense that the grant of the dewanny to the East India Company in 1765 became the foundation of the British empire in India. DEWAR, SIR JAMES (1842- ), British chemist and physicist, was born at Kincardine-on-Forth, Scotland, on the 20th of September 1842. He was educated at Dollar Academy and Edinburgh University, being at the latter first a pupil, and afterwards the assistant, of Lord Playfair, then professor of chemistry; he also studied under Kekule at Ghent. In 1875 he was elected Jacksonian professor of natural experimental philosophy at Cambridge, becoming a fellow of Peterhouse, and in 1877 he succeeded Dr J. H. Gladstone as Fullerian professor of chemistry in the Royal Institution, London. He was president of the Chemical Society in 1897, and of the British Association in 1902, served on the Balfour Commission on London Water Supply (1893-1894), and as a member of the Committee on Explosives (1888-1891) invented cordite jointly with Sir Frederick Abel. His scientific work covers a wide field. Of his earlier papers, some deal with questions of organic chemistry, others with Graham's hydrogenium and its physical constants, others with high temperatures, e.g. the temperature of the sun and of the electric spark, others again with electro-photometry and the chemistry of the electric arc. With Professor J. G. M'Kendrick, of Glasgow, he investigated the physiological action of light, and examined the changes which take place in the electrical condition of the retina under its influence. With Professor G. D. Liveing, one of his colleagues at Cambridge, he began in 1878 a long series of spectroscopic observations, the later of which were devoted to the spectroscopic examination of various gaseous constituents separated from atmospheric air by the aid of low temperatures; and he was joined by Professor J. A. Fleming, of University College, London, in the investigation of the electrical behaviour of substances cooled to very low temperatures. His name is most widely known in connexion with his work on the liquefaction of the so-called permanent gases and his researches at temperatures approaching the zero of absolute temperature. His interest in this branch of inquiry dates back at least as far as 1874, when he discussed the " Latent Heat of Liquid Gases " before the British Association. In 1878 he devoted a Friday evening lecture at the Royal Institution to the then recent work of L. P. Cailletet and R. P. Pictet, and exhibited for the first time in Great Britain the working of the Cailletet apparatus. Six years later, in the same place, he described the researches of Z. F. Wroblewski and K. S. Olszewski, and illustrated for the first time in public the liquefaction of oxygen and air, by means of apparatus specially designed for optical projection so that the actions taking place might be visible to the audience. Soon afterwards he constructed a machine from which the liquefied gas could be drawn off through a valve for use as a cooling agent, and he showed its employment for this purpose in connexion with some researches on meteorites ; about the same time he also obtained oxygen in the solid state. By 1891 he had designed and erected at the Royal Institution an apparatus which yielded liquid oxygen by the pint, and towards the end of that year he showed that both liquid oxygen and liquid ozone are strongly attracted by a magnet. About 1892 the idea occurred to him of using vacuum-jacketed vessels for the storage of liquid gases, and so efficient did this device prove in preventing the influx of external heat that it is found possible not only to preserve the liquids for comparatively long periods, but also to keep them so free from ebullition that examination of their optical properties becomes possible. He next experimented with a high- pressure hydrogen jet by which low temperatures were realized through the Thomson-Joule effect, and the successful results thus obtained led him to build at the Royal Institution the large refrigerating machine by which in 1898 hydrogen was for the first time collected in the liquid state, its solidification following in 1899. Later he investigated the gas-absorbing powers of charcoal when cooled to low temperatures, and applied them to the production of high vacua and to gas analysis (see Liquid Gases). The Royal Society in 1894 bestowed the Rumford medal upon him for his work in the production of low tempera- tures, and in 1899 he became the first recipient of the Hodgkins gold medal of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, for his contributions to our knowledge of the nature and properties of atmospheric air. In 1904 he was the first British subject to receive the Lavoisier medal of the French Academy of Sciences, and in 1906 he was the first to be awarded the Matteucci medal of the Italian Society of Sciences. He was knighted in 1904, and in 1908 he was awarded the Albert medal of the Society of Arts. DEWAS, two native states of India, in the Malwa Political Charge of Central India, founded in the first half of the 18th century by two brothers, Punwar Mahrattas, who came into Malwa with the peshwa, Baji Rao, in 1728. Their descendants are known as the senior and junior branches of the family, and since 1841 each has ruled his own portion as a separate state, though the lands belonging to each are so intimately entangled, that even in Dewas, the capital town, the two sides of the main street are under different administrations and have different arrangements for water supply and lighting. The senior branch has an area of 446 sq. m. and a population of 62,312, while the area of the junior branch is 440 sq. m. and its population 54,904. DEWBERRY, Rubus caesius, a trailing plant, allied to the bramble, of the natural order Rosaceae. It is common in woods, hedges and the borders of fields in England and other countries of Europe. The leaves have three leaflets, are hairy beneath, and of a dusky green; the flowers which appear in June and July are white, or pale rose-coloured. The fruit is large, and closely embraced by the calyx, and consists of a few drupules, which are black, with a glaucous bloom; it has an agreeable acid taste. DEW-CLAW, the rudimentary toes, two in number, or the "false hoof" of the deer, sometimes also called the "nails." In dogs the dew-claw is the rudimentary toe or hallux (corre- sponding to the big toe in man) hanging loosely attached to the skin, low down on the hinder part of the leg. The origin of the word is unknown, but it has been fancifully suggested that, while the other toes touch the ground in walking, the dew-claw merely brushes the dew from the grass. D'EWES, SIR SIMONDS, Bart. (1602- 1650), English anti- quarian, eldest son of Paul D'Ewes of Miiden, Suffolk, and of i 3 8 DE WET^DE WETTE Cecilia, daughter and heir of Richard Simonds, of Coaxdon or Coxden, Dorsetshire, was bora on the 18th of December 1602, and educated at the grammar school of Bury St Edmunds, and at St John's College, Cambridge. He had been admitted to the Middle Temple in 1611, and was called to the bar in 1623, when he immediately began his collections of material and his studies in history and antiquities. In 1626 he married Anne, daughter and heir of Sir William Clopton, of Luton's Hall in Suffolk, through whom he obtained a large addition to his already considerable fortune. On the 6th of December he was knighted. He took an active part as a strong Puritan and member of the moderate party in the opposition to the king's arbitrary govern- ment in the Long Parliament of 1640, in which he sat as member for Sudbury. On the 15th of July he was created a baronet by the king, but nevertheless adhered to the parliamentary party when war broke out, and in 1643 took the Covenant. He was one of the members expelled by Pride's Purge in 1648, and died on the 18th of April 1650. He had married secondly Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Henry Willoughby, Bart., of Risley in Derbyshire, by whom he had a son, who succeeded to his estates and title, the latter becoming extinct on the failure of male issue in 1731. D'Ewes appears to have projected a work of very ambitious scope, no less than the whole history of England based on original documents. But though excelling as a collector of materials, and as a laborious, conscientious and accurate transcriber, he had little power of generalization or construction, and died without publishing anything except an uninteresting tract, The Primitive Practice for Preserving Truth (1645), ar[ d some speeches. His Journals of all the Parliaments during the Reign of Queen Elizabeth, however, a valuable work, was published in 1682. His large collections, including transcripts from ancient records, many of the originals of which are now dispersed or destroyed, are in the Harleian collection in the British Museum. His unprinted Diaries from 1621-^1624 and from 1643-1647, the latter valuable for the notes of proceedings in parliament, a^e often the only authority for incidents and speeches during that period, and are amusing from the glimpses the diarist affords of his own character, his good estimation of himself and his little jealousies; some are in a cipher and some in Latin. Extracts from his Autobiography and Correspondence from the MSS. in the British Museum were published by J. O. Halliwell- Phillips in 1845, by Hearne in the appendix to his Historia vitae et regni Ricardi II. (1729), and in the Bibliotheca topographica Britan- nica, No. xv. vol. vi. (1783) ; and from a Diary of later date, College Life in the Time of James I. ( 1 85 1 ) . His Diaries have been extensively drawn upon by Forster, Gardiner, and by Sanford in his Studies of the Great Rebellion. Some of his speeches have been reprinted in the Harleian Miscellany and in the Somers Tracts. DE WET, CHRISTIAN (1854- ), Boer general and poli- tician, was born on the 7th of October 1854 at Leeuwkop, Smithfield district (Orange Free State), and later resided at Dewetsdorp. He served in the first Anglo-Boer War of 1880-81 as a field cornet, and from 1881 to 1896 he lived on his farm, becoming in 1897 member of the Volksraad. He took part in the earlier battles of the Boer War of 1899 in Natal as a commandant and later, as a general, he went to serve under Cronje in the west. His first successful action was the surprise of Sanna's Post near Bloemfontein, which was followed by the victory of Reddersburg a little later. Thenceforward he came to be regarded more and more as the most formidable leader of the Boers in their guerrilla warfare. Sometimes severely handled by the British, sometimes escaping only by the narrowest margin of safety from the columns which attempted to surround him, and falling upon and annihilat- ing isolated British posts, De Wet continued to the end of the war his successful career, striking heavily where he could do so and skilfully evading every attempt to bring him to bay. He took an active part in the peace negotiations of 1902, and at the conclusion of the war he visited Europe with the other Boer generals. While in England the generals sought, unavailingly, a modification of the terms of peace concluded at Pretoria. De Wet wrote an account of his campaigns, an English version of which appeared in November 1902 under the title Three Years' War. In November, 1907 he was elected a member of the first parliament of the Orange River Colony and was appointed minister' of agriculture. In 1908-9 he was a delegate to the Closer Union Convention. DE WETTE, WILHELM MARTIN LEBERECHT (1780-1849), German theologian, was born on the 12th of January 1780, at Ulla, near Weimar, where his father was pastor. He was sent to the gymnasium at Weimar, then at the height of its literary glory. Here he was much influenced by intercourse with Johann Gottfried Herder, who frequently examined at the school. In 1799 he entered on his theological studies at Jena, his principal teachers being J. J. Griesbach and H. E. G. Paulus, from the latter of whom he derived his tendency to free critical inquiry. Both in methods and in results, however, he occupied an almost solitary position among German theologians. Having taken his doctor's degree, he became privat-docent at Jena; in 1807 professor of theology at Heidelberg, where he came under the influence of J. F. Fries (1773-1843); and in 1810 was transferred to a similar chair in the newly founded university of Berlin, where he enjoyed the friendship of Schleiermacher. He was, however, dismissed from Berlin in 1819 on account of his having written a letter of consolation to the mother of Karl Ludwig Sand, the murderer of Kotzebue. A petition in his favour presented by the senate of the university was unsuccessful, and a decree was issued not only depriving him of the chair, but banishing him from the Prussian kingdom. He retired for a time to Weimar, where he occupied his leisure in the preparation of his edition of Luther, and in writing the romance Theodor oder die Weihe des Zweiflers (Berlin, 1822), in which he describes the education of an evan- gelical pastor. During this period he made his first essay in preaching, and proved himself to be possessed of very popular gifts. But in 1822 he accepted the chair of theology in the university of Basel, which had been reorganized four years before . Though his appointment had been strongly opposed by the orthodox party, De Wette soon won for himself great influence both in the university and among the people generally. He was admitted a citizen, and became rector of the university, which owed to him much of its recovered strength, particularly in the theological faculty. He died on the 16th of June 1849. De Wette has been described by Julius Wellhausen as " the epoch-making opener of the historical criticism of the Penta- teuch." He prepared the way for the Supplement-theory. But he also made valuable contributions to other branches of theology. He had, moreover, considerable poetic faculty, and wrote a drama in three acts, entitled Die Entsagung (Berlin, 1823). He had an intelligent interest in art, and studied ecclesiastical music and architecture. As a Biblical critic he is sometimes classed with the destructive school, but, as Otto Pfleiderer says {Development of Theology, p. 102), he " occupied as free a position as the Rationalists with regard to the literal authority of the creeds of the church, but that he sought to give their due value to the religious feelings, which the Rationalists had not done, and, with a more unfettered mind towards history, to maintain the con- nexion of the present life of the church with the past." His works are marked by exegetical skill, unusual power of condensation and uniform fairness. Accordingly they possess value which is little affected by the progress of criticism. The most important of his works are: — Beitrage zur Einleitung in das Alte Testament (2 vols., 1806-1807); Kommentar iiber die Psalmen (181 1), which has passed through several editions, and is still regarded as of high authority ; Lehrbuch der hebrdisch-judischen Archaologie (1814); Ober Religion und Theologie (18 15); a work of great importance as showing its author's general theological position ; Lehrbuch der christlichen Dogmatik (1813-1816); Lehrbuch der hislorisch-krilischen Einleitung in die Bibel (1817); Christliche Sittenlehre (1819-1821); Einleitung in das Neue Testament (1826); Religion, ihr Wesen, ihre Erscheinungsform, und ihr Einfiuss auf das Leben (1827); Das Wesen des christlichen Glaubens (1846); and Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Neuen Testament (1836- 1848). De Wette also edited Luther's works (5 vols., 1825-1828). See K. R. Hagenbach in Herzog's Realencyklopadie; G. C. F. Lucke's W. M. L. De Wette, zur freundschaftlicher Erinnerung (1850) ; and D. Schenkel's W. M. L. De Wette und die Bedeutung seiner Theologie ftir unsere Zeit (1849). Rudolf Stahelin, De Wette nach seiner theol. Wirksamkeit und Bedeutung (1880); F. Lichtenberger, History of German Theology in the Nineteenth Century (1889); Otto Pfleiderer, Development of Theology (1890), pp. 97 ff. ; T. K. Cheyne, Founders of the Old Testament Criticism, pp. 31 ff. DEWEY— DE WINTER J 39 DEWEY, DAVIS RICH (1858-. ), American economist and statistician, was born at Burlington, Vermont,' U.S.A., on the 7th of April 1858. He was. educated at the university of Vermont and at Johns Hopkins University, and afterwards became professor of economics and statistics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He was chairman of the state board on the question of the unemployed (1895), member of the Massachusetts com- mission on public, charitable and reformatory interests (1897), special expert agent on wages for the 12th census, and member of a state commission (1904) on industrial relations. He wrote an excellent Syllabus on Political History since 1815 (1887), a Financial History oftheU.S. (1902), and National Problems (1907) . DEWEY, GEGRGE (1837- ), American naval officer, was born at Montpelier, Vermont, on the 26th of December 1837. He studied at Norwich University, then at Norwich, Vermont, and graduated at the United States Naval Academy in 1858. He was commissioned lieutenant in April 1861, and in the Civil War served on the steamsloop " Mississippi " (1861-1863) during Farragut's passage of the forts below New Orleans in April 1862, and at Port Hudson in March 1863; took part in the fighting below Donaldsonyille, Louisiana, in July 1863; and in 1864-1865 served on the steam-gunboat " Agawam " with the North Atlantic blockading squadron and took part in the attacks on Fort Fisher in December 1864 and January 1865. In March 1865 he became a lieutenant-commander. He was with the European squadron in 1866-1867; was an instructor in the United States Naval Academy in 1868-1869; was in command of the " Nar- ragansett " in 1870-1871 and 1872-1875, being commissioned commander in 1872; was light-house inspector in 1876-1877; and was secretary of the light-house board in 1877-1882. In 1884 he became a captain; in 1889-1893 was chief of the bureau of equipment and recruiting; in 1 893-1 895 was a member of the light-house board; and in 1895-1897 was president of the board of inspection and survey, being promoted to the rank of com- modore in February 1896. In November 1897 he was assigned, at his own request, to sea service, and sent to Asiatic waters. In April 1898, while with his fleet at Hong Kong, he was notified by cable that war had begun between the United States and Spain, and was ordered to " capture or destroy the Spanish fleet " then in Philippine waters. On the 1st of May he overwhelmingly defeated the Spanish fleet under Admiral Montojo in Manila Bay, a victory won without the loss of a man on the American ships (see Spanish-American War). Congress, in a joint resolution, tendered its thanks to Commodore Dewey, and to the officers and men under his command, and authorized " the secretary of the navy to present a sword of honor to Commodore George Dewey, and cause to be struck bronze medals commemorating the battle of Manila Bay, and to distribute such medals to the officers and men of the ships of the Asiatic squadron of the United States." He was promoted rear-admiral on the 10th of May 1898. On the 1 8th of August his squadron assisted in the capture of the city of Manila. After remaining in the Philippines under orders from his government to maintain control, Dewey received the rank of admiral (March 3, 1899) — that title, formerly borne only by Farragut and Porter, having been revived by act of Congress (March 2, 1899), — and returned home, arriving in New York City, where, on the 3rd of October 1899, he received a great ovation. He was a member (1899) of the Schurman Philippine Commission, and in 1899 and 1900 was spoken of as a possible Democratic candidate for the presidency. He acted as president of the Schley court of inquiry in 1901, and submitted a minority report on a few details. , . ' DEWEY, MELVIL (1851- ), American librarian, was born at Adams Center, New York, on the 10th of December 1851. He graduated in 1874 at Amherst College, where he was assistant librarian from 1874 to 1877. In 1877 he removed to Boston, where he founded and became editor of The Library Journal, which became an influential factor in the development of libraries in America, and in the reform of their administration. He was also one of the founders of the American Library Associa- tion, of which he was secretary from 1876 to 1891, and president in 1891 and 1893. In 1883 he became librarian of Columbia College, and in the following year founded there the School of Library Economy, the first institution for the instruction of librarians ever organized. This school, which was very successful, was removed to Albany in 1890, where it was re-established as the State Library School under his direction; from 1888 to 1906 he was director of the New York State Library and from 1888 to 1900 was secretary of the University of the State of New York, completely reorganizing the state library, which he made one of the most efficient in America, and establishing the system of state travelling libraries and picture collections. His " Decimal System of Classification " for library cataloguing, first proposed in 1876, is extensively used. DEWING, THOMAS WILMER (1851- ), American figure painter, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 4th of May 1851. He was a pupil of Jules Lefebvre in Paris from 1876 to 1879; was elected a full member of the National Academy of Design in 1888; was a member of the society of Ten American Painters, New York; and received medals at the Paris Exhibition (1889), at Chicago (1893), at Buffalo (1901) and at St Louis (1904). His decorative genre pictures are notable for delicacy and finish. Among his portraits are those of Mrs Stanford White and of his own wife. Mrs Dewing (b, 1855), nee Maria Oakey, a figure and flower painter, was a pupil of John La Farge in New York, and of Couture in Paris. DE WINT, PETER (1784-1849), English landscape painter, of Dutch extraction, son of an English physician, was born at Stone, Staffordshire, on the 21st of January 1784. He studied art in London, and in 1809 entered the Academy schools. In 18 1 2 he became a member of the Society of Painters in Water- colours, where he exhibited largely for many years, as well as at the Academy. He married in 1810 the sister of William Hilton, R.A. He died in London on the 30th of January 1849. De Wint's life was devoted to art; he painted admirably in oils, and he ranks as one of the chief English water-colourists. A number of his pictures are in the National Gallery and the Victoria and Albert Museum. DE WINTER, JAN WILLEM (1750-1812), Dutch admiral, was born at Kampen, and in 1761 entered the naval service at the age of twelve years. He distinguished himself by his zeal and courage, and at the revolution of 1787 he had reached the rank of lieutenant. The overthrow of the " patriot " party forced him to fly for his safety to France. Here he threw himself heart and soul into the cause of the Revolution, and took part under Dumouriez and Pichegru in the campaigns of 1792 and 1 793, and was soon promoted to the rank of brigadier-general. When Pichegru in 1795 overran Holland, De Winter returned with the French army to his native country. The states-general now uti- lized the experience he had gained as a naval officer by giving him the post of adjunct-general for the reorganization of the Dutch navy. In 1796 he was appointed vice-admiral and commander- in-chief of the fleet. He spared no efforts to strengthen it and improve its condition, and on the nth of October 1797 he ventured upon an encounter off Camperdown with the British fleet under Admiral Duncan. After an obstinate struggle the Dutch were defeated, and De Winter himself was taken prisoner. He remained in England until December, when he was liberated by exchange. His conduct in the battle of Camperdown was declared by a court-martial to have nobly maintained the honour of the Dutch flag. From 1798 to 1802 De Winter filled the post of ambassador to the French republic, and was then once more appointed com- mander of the fleet. lie was sent with a strong squadron to the Mediterranean to repress the Tripoli piracies, and negotiated a treaty of peace with the Tripolitan government. He enjoyed the confidence of Louis Bonaparte, when king of Holland, and, after the incorporation of the Netherlands in the French empire, in an equal degree of the emperor Napoleon. By the former he was created marshal and count of Huessen, and giver> the command of the armed forces both by sea and land. Napoleon gave him the grand cross of the Legion of Honour and appointed him inspector- general of the northern coasts, and in 181 1 he placed him at the head of the fleet he had collected at the Texel. Soon afterwards 140 DE WITT— DEWLAP De Winter was seized with illness and compelled to betake himself to Paris, where he died on the 2nd of June 1812. He had a splendid public funeral and was buried in the Pantheon. His heart was enclosed in an urn and placed in the Nicolaas Kerk at Kampen. DE WITT, CORNELIUS (1623-1672), brother of John de Witt (q.v.), was born at Dort in 1623. In- 1650 he became burgo- master of Dort and member of the states of Holland and West Friesland. He was afterwards appointed to the important post of ruwaard or governor of the land of Putten and bailiff of Beierland. He associated himself closely with his greater brother, the grand pensionary, and supported him throughout his career with great ability and vigour. In 1667 he was the deputy chosen by the states of Holland to accompany Admiral de Ruyter in his famous expedition to Chatham. Cornelius de Witt on this occasion distinguished himself greatly by his coolness and intrepidity. He again accompanied De Ruyter in 1672 and took an honourable part in the great naval fight at Sole Bay against the united English and French fleets. Compelled by illness to leave the fleet, he found on his return to Dort that the Orange party were in the ascendant, and he and his brother were the objects of popular suspicion and hatred. An account of his imprisonment, trial and death, is given below. DE WITT, JOHN (1625-1672), Dutch statesman, was born at Dort, on the 24th of September 1625. He was a member of one of the old burgher-regent families of his native town. His father, Jacob de Witt, was six times burgomaster of Dort, and for many years sat as a representative of the town in the states of Holland. He was a strenuous adherent of the republican or oligarchical states-right party in opposition to the princes of the house of Orange, who represented the federal principle and had the support of the masses of the people. John was educated at Leiden, and early displayed remarkable talents, more especially in mathe- matics and jurisprudence. In 1645 he and his elder brother Cornelius visited France, Italy, Switzerland and England, and on his return he took up his residence at the Hague, as an advocate. In 1650 he was appointed pensionary of Dort, an office which made him the leader and spokesman of the town's deputation in the state of Holland. In this same year the states of Holland found themselves engaged in a struggle for provincial supremacy, on the question of the disbanding of troops, with the youthful prince of Orange, William II. William, with the support of the states-general and the army, seized five of the leaders of the states-right party and imprisoned them in Loevestein castle; among these was Jacob de Witt. The sudden death of William, at the moment when he had crushed opposition, led to a reaction. He left only a posthumous child, afterwards William III. of Orange, and the principles advocated by Jacob de Witt triumphed, and the authority of the states of Holland became predominant in the republic. At this time of constitutional crisis such were the eloquence, sagacity and business talents exhibited by the youthful pensionary of Dort that on the 23rd of July 1653 he was appointed to the office of grand pensionary (Raadpensionaris) of Holland at the age of twenty-eight. He was re-elected in 1658, 1663 and 1668, and held office until his death in 1672. During this period of nineteen years the general conduct of public affairs and administration, and especially of foreign affairs, such was the confidence inspired by his talents and industry, was largely placed in his hands. He found in 1653 his country brought to the brink of ruin through the war with England, which had been caused by the keen commercial rivalry of the two maritime states. The Dutch were unprepared, and suffered severely through the loss of their carrying trade, and De Witt resolved to bring about peace as soon as possible. The first demands of Cromwell were impossible, for they aimed at the absorption of the two republics into a single state, but at last in the autumn of 1654 peace was concluded, by which the Dutch made large concessions and agreed to the striking of the flag to English ships in the narrow seas. The treaty included a secret article, which the states-general refused to entertain, but which De Witt succeeded in inducing the states of Holland to accept, by which the provinces of Holland pledged themselves not to elect a stadtholder or a captain-general of the union. This Act of Seclusion, as it was called, was aimed at the young prince of Orange, whose close relationship to the Stuarts made him an object of suspicion to the Protector. De Witt was personally favourable to this exclusion of William III. from his ancestral dignities, but there is no truth in the suggestion that he prompted the action of Cromwell in this matter. The policy of De Witt after the peace of 1654 was eminently successful. He restored the finances of the state, and extended its commercial supremacy in the East Indies. In 1658-59 he sustained Denmark against Sweden, and in 1662 concluded an advantageous peace with Portugal. The accession of Charles II. to the English throne led to the rescinding of the Act of Seclusion; nevertheless De Witt steadily refused to allow the prince of Orange to be appointed stadtholder or captain-general. This led to ill-will between the English and Dutch governments, and to a renewal of the old grievances about maritime and commercial rights, and war broke out in 1665. The zeal, industry and courage displayed by the grand pensionary during the course of this fiercely contested naval struggle could scarcely have been surpassed. He himself on more than one occasion went to sea with the fleet, and inspired all with whom he came in contact by the example he set of calmness in danger, energy in action and inflexible strength of will. It was due to his exertions as an organizer and a diplomatist quite as much as to the brilliant seamanship of Admiral de Ruyter, that the terms of the treaty of peace signed at Breda (July 31, 1667), on the principle of uti possidetis, were so honourable to the United Provinces. A still greater triumph of diplomatic skill was the conclusion of the Triple Alliance (January 17, 1668) between the Dutch Republic, England and Sweden, which checked the attempt of Louis XIV. to take possession of the Spanish Netherlands in the name of his wife, the infanta Maria Theresa. The check, however, was but temporary, and the French king only bided his time to take vengeance for the rebuff he had suffered. Meanwhile William III. was growing to manhood, and his numerous adherents throughout the country spared no efforts to undermine the authority of De Witt, and secure for the young prince of Orange the dignities and authority of his ancestors. In 1672 Louis XIV. suddenly declared war, and invaded the United Provinces at the head of a splendid army. Practically no resistance was possible. The unanimous voice of the people called William III. to the head of affairs, and there were violent demonstrations against John de Witt. His brother Cornelius was (July 24) arrested on a charge of conspiring against the prince. On the 4th of August John de Witt resigned the post of grand pensionary that he had held so long and with such distinction. Cornelius was put to the torture, and on the 19th of August he was sentenced to deprivation of his offices and banish- ment. He was confined in the Gevangenpoort, and his brother came to visit him in the prison. A vast crowd on hearing this collected outside, and finally burst into the prison, seized the two brothers and literally tore them to pieces. Their mangled remains were hung up by the feet to a lamp-post. Thus perished, by the savage act of an infuriated mob, one of the greatest statesmen of his age. John de Witt married Wendela Bicker, daughter of an influ- ential burgomaster of Amsterdam, in 1655, by whom he had two sons and three daughters. Bibliography. — J. Geddes, History of the Administration of John de Witt, (vol. i. only, London, 1879) ; A. Lefevre-Pontalis, Jean de Witt, grand pensionnaire de Hollande (2 vols., Paris, 1884) ; P. Simons, Johan de Witt en zijn tijd (3 vols., Amsterdam, 1832-1842); W. C. Knottenbelt, Geschiedenis der Staatkunde van J. de Witt (Amsterdam, 1862); J. de Witt, Brieven . . . gewisselt tusschen den Heer Johan de Witt . . . ende de gevolgmaghtigden v. d. staedt d. Vereen. Neder- landen so in Vranckryck, Engelandt, Sweden, Denemarken, Poolen, enz. 16^2-69 (6 vols., The Hague, 1723-1725); Brieven . . . 1650- l657 (1658) eerste deel bewerkt den R. Fruin uitgegeven d., C. W. Kernkamp (Amsterdam, 1906). DEWLAP (from the O.E. Imppa, a lappet, or hanging fold; the first syllable is of doubtful origin and the popular explana- tion that the word means " the fold which brushes the dew " is not borne out, according to the New English Dictionary, by the DEWSBURY— DHAMMAPALA 141 equivalent words such as the Danish doglaeb, in Scandinavian languages), the loose fold of skin hanging from the neck of cattle, also applied to similar folds in the necks of other animals and fowls, as the dog, turkey, &c. The American practice of branding cattle by making a cut in the neck is known as a " dewlap brand." The skin of the neck in human beings often becomes pendulous with age, and is sometimes referred to humorously by the same name. DEWSBURY, a market town and municipal and parliamentary borough in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on the river Calder, 8 m. S.S.W. of Leeds, on the Great Northern, London & North- Western, and Lancashire & Yorkshire railways. Pop. (iqoi) 28,060. . The parish church of All Saints was for the most part rebuilt in the latter half of the 18th century; the portions still preserved of the original structure are mainly Early English. The chief industries are the making of blankets, carpets, druggets and worsted yarn ; and there are iron foundries and machinery works. Coal is worked in the neighbourhood. The parliamentary borough includes the adjacent municipal borough of Batley, and returns one member. The municipal borough, incorporated in 1862, is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 1471 acres. Paulinus, first archbishop of York, about the year 627 preached in the district of Dewsbury, where Edwin, king of Northumbria, whom he converted to Christianity, had a royal mansion. At Kirklees, in the parish, are remains of a Cistercian convent of the 12th century, in an extensive park, where tradition relates that Robin Hood died and was buried. DEXIPPUS, PUBLIDS HERENNIUS (c. a.d. 210-273), Greek historian, statesman and general, was an hereditary priest of the Eleusinian family of the Kerykes, and held the offices of archon basileus and eponymus in Athens. When the Heruli overran Greece and captured Athens (269), Dexippus showed great personal courage and revived the spirit of patriotism among his degenerate fellow-countrymen. A statue was set up in his honour, the base of which, with an inscription recording his services, has been preserved (Corpus Inscrr. Atticarum, iii. No. 716). It is remarkable that the inscription is silent as to his military achievements. Photius (cod. 82) mentions three historical works by Dexippus, of which considerable fragments remain: (1) Td fier 'A\f^av8pov, an epitome of a similarly named work by Arrian; (2) Sku^iko., a history of the wars of Rome with the Goths (or Scythians) in the 3rd century; (3) Xpovucrj laTOpla, a chronological history from the earliest times to the emperor Claudius Gothicus (270), frequently referred to by the writers of the Augustan history. The work was continued by Eunapius of Sardis down to 404. Photius speaks very highly of the style of Dexippus, whom he places on a level with Thucydides, an opinion by no means confirmed by the fragments (C. W.'Miiller, F.H.G. iii. 666-687). DEXTER, HENRY MARTYN (1821-1890), American clergy- man and author, was born in Plympton, Massachusetts, on the 13th of August 1821. He graduated at Yale in 1840 and at the Andover Theological Seminary in 1844; was pastor of a Congregational church in Manchester, New Hampshire, in 1844-1849, and of the Berkeley Street Congregational church, Boston, in 1849-1867; was an editor of the Congregationalist in 1851-1866, of the Congregational Quarterly in 1859-1866, and of the Congregationalist, with which the Recorder was merged, from 1867 until his death in New Bedford, Mass., on the 13th of November 1890. He was an authority on the history of Congregationalism and was lecturer on that subject at the Andover Theological Seminary in 1877-1879 ; he left his fine library on the Puritans in America to Yale University. Among his works are: Congregationalism, What it is, Whence it is, How it works, Why it is better than any other Form of Church Government, and its consequent Demands (1865), The Church Polity of the Puritans the Polity of the New Testament (1870), As to Roger Williams and His " Banishment " from the Massa- chusetts Colony (1876), Congregationalism of the Last Three Hundred Years, as seen in its Literature (1880), his most important work, A Handbook of Congregationalism (1880), The True Story of John Smyth, the "Se-Baptist " (1881), Common Sense as to Woman Suffrage (1885), and many reprints of pamphlets bearing on early church history in New England, especially Baptist controversies. His The England and Holland of the Pilgrims was completed by his son, Morton Dexter (b. 1846), and published in 1905. DEXTER, TIMOTHY (1 747-1806), American merchant, re- markable for his eccen tri cities, wasborn at Maiden , Massachusett s, on the 22nd of February 1747. He acquired considerable wealth by buying up quantities of the depreciated continental currency, which was ultimately redeemed by the Federal government at par. He assumed the title of Lord Dexter and built extraordinary houses at Newburyport, Mass., and Chester, New Hampshire. He maintained a poet laureate and collected inferior pictures, besides erecting in one of his gardens some forty colossal statues carved in wood to represent famous men. A statue of him- self was included in the collection, and had for an inscription " I am the first in the East, the first in the West, and the greatest philosopher in the Western World." He wrote a book entitled Pickle for the Knowing Ones. It was wholly without punctuation marks, and as this aroused comment, he published a second edition, at the end of which was a page displaying nothing but commas and stops, from which the readers were invited to " peper and solt it as they plese." He beat his wife for not weeping enough at the rehearsal of his funeral, which he himself carried out in a very elaborate manner. He died at Newburyport on the 26th of October 1806. DEXTRINE (British Gum, Starch Gum, Leiocome), (QHioOs)*, a substance produced from starch by the action of dilute acids, or by roasting it at a temperature between 170 and 240 C. It is manufactured by spraying starch with 2 % nitric acid, drying in air, and then heating to about 110°. Different modifications are known, e.g. amylodextrine, erythrodextrine and achroodextrine. Its name has reference to its powerful dextro- rotatory action on polarized light. Pure dextrine is an insipid, odourless, white substance; commercial dextrine is sometimes yellowish, and contains burnt or unchanged starch. It dissolves in water and dilute alcohol; by strong alcohol it is precipitated from its solutions as the hydrated compound, C6H 10 O5-H 2 O. Diastase converts it eventually into maltose, C12H22OH; and by boiling with dilute acids (sulphuric, hydrochloric, acetic) it is transformed into dextrose, or ordinary glucose, C 6 Hi 2 6 . It does not ferment in contact with yeast, and does not reduce Fehling's solution. If heated with strong nitric acid it gives oxalic, and not mucic acid. Dextrine much resembles gum arabic, for which it is generally substituted. It is employed for sizing paper, for stiffening cotton goods, and for thickening colours in calico printing, also in the making of lozenges, adhesive stamps and labels, and surgical bandages. See Otto Lueger, Lexikon der gesamten Technik. DEY (an adaptation of the Turk, dai, a maternal uncle), an honorary title formerly bestowed by the Turks on elderly men, and appropriated by the janissaries as the designation of their commanding officers. In Algeria the deys of the janissaries became in the 17th century rulers of that country (see Algeria: History). From the middle of the 16th century to the end of the 17th century the ruler of Tunisia was also called dey, a title frequently used during the same period by the sovereigns of Tripoli. DHAMMAPALA, the name of one of the early disciples of the Buddha, and therefore constantly chosen as their name in religion by Buddhist novices on their entering the brotherhood. The most famous of the Bhikshus so named was the great commentator who lived in the latter half of the 5th century a.d. at the Badara Tittha Vihara, near the east coast of India, just a little south of where Madras now stands. It is to him we owe the commentaries on seven of the shorter canonical books, consisting almost entirely of verses, and also the commentary on the Netti, perhaps the oldest Pali work outside the canon. Extracts from the latter work, and the whole of three out of the seven others, have been published by the Pali Text Society. These works show great learning, exegetical skill and sound judgment. But as Dhammapala confines himself rigidly either to questions of 142 DHANIS— DHARAMPUR the meaning of words, or to discussions of the ethical import of his texts, very little can be gathered from his writings of value for the social history of his time. For the right interpretation of the difficult texts on which he comments, they are indispensable. Though in all probability a Tamil by birth, he declares, in the opening lines of those of his works that have been edited, that he followed the tradition of the Great Minster at Anuradhapura in Ceylon, and the works themselves confirm this in every respect. Hsiian Tsang, the famous Chinese pilgrim, tells a quaint story of a Dhammapala of Kanchipura (the modern Konjevaram). He was a son of a high official, and betrothed to a daughter of the king, but escaped on the eve of the wedding feast, entered the order, and attained to reverence and distinction. It is most likely that this story, whether legendary or not (and Hsiian Tsang heard the story at Kanchipura nearly two centuries after the date of Dhammapala), referred to this author. But it may also refer, as Hsiian Tsang refers it, to another author of the same name. Other unpublished works, besides those mentioned above, have been ascribed to Dhammapala, but it is very doubtful whether they are really by him. Authorities. — T.Watters, On Yuan Chwang (ed. Rhys Davidsand Bushell, London, 1905), ii. 169, 228; Edmund Hardy in Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenldndischen Gesellschaft (1898), pp. 97 foil.; Netti (ed. E. Hardy, London, Pali Text Society, 1902), especially the Introduction, passim', Theri Gaiha Commentary, Peta Vatthu Commentary, and Vimana Vatthu Commentary, all three published by the Pali Text Society. (T. W. R. D.) DHANIS, FRANCIS, Baron (1861-1909), Belgian adminis- trator, was born in London in 1861 and passed the first fourteen years of his life at Greenock, where he received his early educa- tion. He was the son of a Belgian merchant and of an Irish lady named Maher. The name Dhanis is supposed to be a varia- tion of D' An vers. Having completed his education at the ficole Militaire he entered the Belgian army, joining the regiment of grenadiers, in which he rose to the rank of major. As soon as he reached the rank of lieutenant he volunteered for service on the Congo, and in 1887 he went out for a first term. He did so well in founding new stations north of the Congo that, when the government decided to put an end to the Arab domination on the Upper Congo, he was selected to command the chief expedition sent against the slave dealers. The campaign began in April 1892, and it was not brought to a successful conclusion till January 1894. The story of this war has been told in detail by Dr Sydney Hinde, who took part in it, in his book The Fall of the Congo Arabs. The principal achievements of the campaign were the captures in succession of the three Arab strongholds at Nyangwe, Kassongo and Kabambari. For his services Dhanis was raised to the rank of baron, and in 1895 was made vice- governor of the Congo State. In 1896 he took command of an expedition to the Upper Nile. His troops, largely composed of the Batetela tribes who had only been recently enlisted, and who had been irritated by the execution of some of their chiefs for indulging their cannibal proclivities, mutinied and murdered many of their white officers. Dhanis found himself confronted with a more formidable adversary than even the Arabs in these well-armed and half-disciplined mercenaries. During two years (1897-1898) he was constantly engaged in a life-and- death struggle with them. Eventually he succeeded in breaking up the several bands formed out of his mutinous soldiers. Although the incidents of the Batetela operations were less striking than those of the Arab war, many students of both think that the Belgian leader displayed the greater ability and fortitude in bringing them to a successful issue. In 1899 Baron Dhanis returned to Belgium with the honorary rank of vice governor-general. He died on the 14th of November 1909. DHAR, a native state of India, in the Bhopawar agency, Central India. It includes many Rajput and Bhil feudatories, and has an area of 1775 sq. m. The raja is a Punwar Mahratta. The founder of the present ruling family was Anand Rao Punwar, a descendant of the great Paramara clan of Rajputs who from the 9th to the 13 th century, when they were driven out by the Mahommedans, had ruled over Malwa from their capital at Dhar. In 1742 Anand Rao received Dhar as a fief from Baji Rao, the peshwa, the victory of the Mahrattas thus restoring the sovereign power to the family whkh seven centuries before had been expelled from this very city and country. Towards the close of the 1 8th and in the early part of the 19th century, the state was subject to a series of spoliations by Sindia and Holkar, and was only preserved from destruction by the talents and courage of the adoptive mother of the fifth raja. By a treaty of 18 19 Dhar passed under British protection, and bound itself to act in sub- ordinate co-operation. The state was confiscated for rebellion in 1857, but in i860 was restored to Raja Anand Rao Punwar, then a minor, with the exception of the detached district of Bairusia, which was granted to the begum of Bhopal. Anand Rao, who received the personal title Maharaja and the K. C.S.I, in 1877, died in 1898, and was succeeded by Udaji Rao Punwar. In 1901 the population was 142,115. The state includes the ruins of Mandu, or Mandogarh, the Mahommedan capital of Malwa. The Town of Dhar is 33 m. W. of Mhow, 908 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1901) 17,792. It is picturesquely situated among lakes and trees surrounded by barren hills, and possesses, besides its old walls, many interesting buildings, Hindu and Mahommedan, some of them containing records of a great historical importance. The Lat Masjid, or Pillar Mosque, was built by Dilawar Khan in 1405 out of the remains of Jain temples. It derives its name from an iron pillar, supposed to have been originally set up at the beginning of the 13th century in commemoration of a victory, and bearing a later inscription recording the seven days' visit to the town of the emperor Akbar in 1598. The pillar, which was 43 ft. high, is now overthrown and broken. The Kamal Maula is an enclosure containing four tombs, the most notable being that of Shaikh Kamal Maulvi (Kamal-ud-din), a follower of the famous 13th-century Mussulman saint Nizam-ud-din Auliya. 1 The mosque known as Raja Bhoj's school was built out of Hindu remains in the 14th or 15th century: its name is derived from the slabs, covered with inscriptions giving rules of Sanskrit grammar, with which it is paved. On a small hill to the north of the town stands the fort, a conspicuous pile of red sandstone, said to have been built by Mahommed ben Tughlak of Delhi in the 14th century. It contains the palace of the raja. Of modern institutions may be mentioned the high school, public library, hospital, and the chapel, school and hospital of the Canadian Presbyterian mission. There is also a government opium depot for the payment of duty, the town being a considerable centre for the trade in opium as well as in grain. The town, the name of which is usually derived from Dhara Nagari (the city of sword blades), is of great antiquity, and was made the capital of the Paramara chiefs of Malwa by Vairisinha II., who trans- ferred his headquarters hither from Ujjain at the close of the 9th century. Duringthe rule of the Paramara dynasty Dhar was famous throughout India as a centre of culture and learning; but, after suffering various vicissitudes, it was finally conquered by the Mussulmans at. the beginning of the 14th century. At the close of the century Dilawar Khan, the builder of the Lat Masjid, who had been appointed governor in 1399, practically established his independence, his son Hoshang Shah being the first Mahommedan king of Malwa. Under this dynasty Dhar was second in importance to the capital Mandu. Subsequently, in the time of Akbar, Dhar fell under the dominion of the Moguls, in whose hands it remained till 1730, when it was conquered by the Mahrattas. See Imperial Gazetteer of India (Oxford, 1908). DHARAMPUR, a native state of India, in the Surat political agency division of Bombay, with an area of 704 sq. m. The population in 1901 was 100,430, being a decrease of 17% during the decade ; the estimated gross revenue is £25,412 ; and the tribute £600. Its chief is a Sesodia Rajput. The state has been surveyed for land revenue on the Bombay system. It contains one town, Dharampur (pop. in 1901, 63,449), and 272 villages. Only a small part of the state, the climate of which is very unhealthy, is capable of cultivation ; the rest is covered with rocky hills, forest and brushwood. 1 Nizam-ud-din, whose beautiful marble tomb is at Indarpat near Delhi, was, according to some authorities, an assassin of the secret society of Khorasan. By some modern authorities he is supposed to have been the founder of Thuggism, the Thugs having a special reverence for his memory. DHARMSALA— DHOW H3 DHARMSALA, a hill-station and sanatorium of the Punjab, India, situated on a spur of the Dhaola Dhar, 16 m. N".E. of Kangra town, at an elevation of some 6000 ft. Pop. (1901) 6971. The scenery of Dharmsala is of peculiar grandeur. The spur on which it stands is thickly wooded with oak and other trees; behind it the pine-clad slopes of the mountain tower towards the jagged peaks of the higher range, snow-clad for half the year; while below stretches the luxuriant cultivation of the Kangra valley. In 1855 Dharmsala was made the headquarters of the Kangra district of the Punjab in place of Kangra, and became the centre of a European settlement and cantonment, largely occupied by Gurkha regiments. The station was destroyed by the earth- quake of April 1905, in which 1625 persons, including 25 Europeans and 112 of the Gurkha garrison, perished {Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1908). DHARWAR, a town and district of British India, in the southern division of Bombay. The town has a station on the Southern Mahratta railway. The population in 1901 was 31,279. It has several ginning factories and a cotton-mill; two high schools, one maintained by the Government and the other by the Basel German Mission. The District of Dharwar has an area of 4602 sq. m. In the north and north-east are great plains of black soil, favourable to cotton-growing; in the south and west are successive ranges of low hills, with flat fertile valleys between them. The whole district lies high and has no' large rivers. In 1901 the population was 1,113,298, showing an increase of 6 % in the decade. The most influential classes of the community are Brahmans and Lingayats. The Lingayats number 436,968, or 46% of the Hindu population; they worship the symbol of Siva, and males and females both carry this emblem about their person in a silver case. The principal crops are millets, pulse and cotton. The centres of the cotton trade are Hubli and Gadag, junctions on the Southern Mahratta railway, which traverses the district in several directions. The early history of the territory comprised within the district of Dharwar has been to a certain extent reconstructed from the inscription slabs and memorial stones which abound there. From these it is clear that the country fell in turn under the sway of the various dynasties that ruled in the Deccan, memorials of the Chalukyan dynasty, whether temples or inscriptions, being especially abundant. In the 14th century the district was first overrun by the Mahommedans, after which it was annexed to the newly established Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar, an official of which named Dhar Rao, according to local tradition, built the fort at Dharwar town in 1403. After the defeat of the king of Vijayanagar at Talikot (1565), Dharwar was for a few years practically independent under its Hindu governor; but in 1573 the fort was captured by the sultan of Bijapur, and Dharwar was annexed to his dominions. In 1685 the fort was taken by the emperor Aurangzeb, and Dharwar, on the break-up of the Mogul empire, fell under the sway of the peshwa of Poona. In 1764 the province was overrun by Hyder Ali of Mysore, who in 1778 captured the fort of Dharwar. This was retaken in 1791 by the Mahrattas. On the final overthrow of the peshwa in 1817, Dharwar was incorporated with the territory of the East India Company. DHOLPUR, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency, with an area of 11 55 sq. m. It is a crop-producing country, without any special manufactures. All along the bank of the river Chambal the country is deeply intersected by ravines; low ranges of hills in the western portion of the state supply inexhaustible quarries of fine-grained and easily-worked red sandstone. In 1901 the population of Dholpur was 270,973, showing a decrease of 3 % in the decade. The estimated revenue is £83,000. The state is crossed by the Indian Midland railway from Jhansi to Agra. In recent years it has suffered severely from drought. In 1896-1897 the expenditure on famine relief amounted to £8190. The town of Dholpur is 34 m. S. of Agra by rail. Pop. (1901) 19,310. The present town, which dates from the 16th century, stands somewhat to the north of the site of the older Hindu town built, it is supposed, in the nth century by the Tonwar Rajput Raja Dholan (or Dhawal) Deo, and named after him Dholdera or Dhawalpuri. Among the objects of interest in the town may be mentioned the fortified sarai built in the reign of Akbar, within which is the fine tomb of Sadik Mahommed Khan (d. 1595), one of his generals. The town, from its position on the railway, is growing in importance as a centre of trade. Little is known of the early history of the country forming the state of Dholpur. Local tradition affirms that it was ruled by the Tonwar Rajputs, who had their seat at Delhi from the 8th to the 12th century. In 1450 it had a raja of its own; but in 1 501 the fort of Dholpur was taken by the Mahommedans under Sikandar Lodi and in 1504 was transferred to a Mussulman governor. In 1527, after a strenuous resistance, the fort was captured by Baber and with the surrounding country passed under the sway of the Moguls, being included by Akbar in the province of Agra. During the dissensions which followed the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, Raja Kalyan Singh Bhadauria obtained possession of Dholpur, and his family retained it till 1 761, after which it was taken successively by the Jat raja, Suraj Mai of Bharatpur, by Mirza Najaf Khan in 1775, by Sindhia in 1782, and in 1803 by the British. It was restored to Sindhia by the treaty of Sarji Anjangaon, but in consequence of new arrangements was again occupied by the British. Finally, in 1806, the territories of Dholpur, Bari and Rajakhera were handed over to the maharaj rana Kirat Singh, ancestor of the present chiefs of Dholpur, in exchange for his state of Gohad, which was ceded to Sindhia. The maharaj rana of Dholpur belongs to the clan of Bamraolia Jats, who are believed to have formed a portion of the Indo- Scythian wave of invasion which swept over northern India about a.d. 100. An ancestor of the family appears to have held certain territories at Bamraoli near Agra c. 1195. His descendant in 1505, Singhan Deo, having distinguished himself in an expedi- tion against the freebooters of the Deccan, was rewarded by the sovereignty of the small territory of Gohad, with the title of rana. In 1779 the rana of Gohad joined the British forces against Sindhia, under a treaty which stipulated that, at the conclusion of peace between the English and Mahrattas, all the territories then in his possession should be guaranteed to him, and protected from invasion by Sindhia. This protection was subsequently withdrawn, the rana having been guilty of treachery, and in 1783 Sindhia succeeded in recapturing the fortress of Gwalior, and crushed his Jat opponent by seizing the whole of Gohad. In 1804, however, the family were restored to Gohad by the British government; but, owing to the opposition of Sindhia, the rana agreed in 1805 to exchange Gohad for his present territory of Dholpur, which was taken under British protection, the chief binding himself to act in subordinate co-operation with the para- mount power, and to refer all disputes with neighbouring princes to the British government. Kirat Singh, the first maharaj rana of Dholpur, was succeeded in 1836 by his son Bhagwant Singh, who showed great loyalty during the Mutiny of 1857, was created a K.C.S.I., and G. C.S.I, in 1869. He was succeeded in 1873 by his grandson Nihal Singh, who received the C.B. and frontier medal for services in the Tirah campaign. He died in 1901, and was succeeded by his eldest son Ram Singh (b. 1883). See Imperial Gazetteer of India (Oxford, 1908) and authorities there given. DHOW, the name given to a type of vessel used throughout the Arabian Sea. The language to which the word belongs is unknown. According to the New English Dictionary the place of origin may be the Persian Gulf, assuming that the word is identical with the tava mentioned by Athanasius Nikitin (India in the 15th Century, Hakluyt Society, 1858). Though the word is used generally of any craft along the East African coast, it is usually applied to the vessel of about 150 to 200 tons burden with a stem rising with a long slope from the water; dhows generally have one mast with a lateen sail, the yard being of enormous length. Much of the coasting trade of the Red Sea and Persian Gulf is carried on by these vessels. They were the regular vessels employed in the slave trade from the east coast of Africa. 144 DHRANGADRA— DIABASE DHRANGADRA, a native state of India, in the Gujarat division of Bombay, situated in the north of the peninsula of Kathiawar. Its area is 1156 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 70,880. The estimated gross revenue is £38,000 and the tribute £3000. A state railway on the metre gauge from Wadhwan to the town of Dhrangadra, a distance of 21 m., was opened for traffic in 1898. Some cotton is grown, although the soil is as a whole poor; the manufactures include salt, metal vessels and stone hand- mills. The chief town, Dhrangadra, has a population (1901) of 14,770. The chief of Dhrangadra, who bears the title of Raj Sahib, with the predicate of His Highness, is head of the ancient clan of Jhala Rajputs, who are said to have entered Kathiawar from Sind in the 8th century. Raj Sahib Sir Mansinghji Ranmalsinghji (b. 1837), who succeeded his father in 1869, was distinguished for the enlightened character of his administration, especially in the matter of establishing schools and internal communications. He, was created a K. C.S.I, in 1877. He died in 1900, and was succeeded by his grandson Ajitsinghji Jaswatsinghji (b. 1872). DHULEEP SINGH (1837-1893), maharaja of Lahore, was born in February 1837, and was proclaimed maharaja on the 18th of September 1843, under the regency of his mother the rani Jindan, a woman of great capacity and strong will, but extremely inimical to the British. He was acknowledged by Ranjit Singh and recognized by the British government. After six years of peace the Sikhs invaded British territory in 1845, but were defeated in four battles, and terms were imposed upon them at Lahore, the capital of the Punjab. Dhuleep Singh retained his territory, but it was administered to a great extent by the British government in his name. This arrangement increased the regent's dislike of the British, and a fresh outbreak occurred in 1848-49. In spite of the valour of the Sikhs, they were utterly routed at Gujarat, and in March 1849 Dhuleep Singh was deposed, a pension of £40,000 a year being granted to him and his dependants. He became a Christian and elected to live in England. On coming of age he made an arrangement with the British government by which his income was reduced to £25,000 in consideration of advances for the purchase of an estate, and he finally settled at Elvedon in Suffolk. While passing through Alexandria in 1864 he met Miss Bamba Miiller, the daughter of a German merchant who had married an Abyssinian. The maharaja had been interested in mission work by Sir John Login, and he met Miss Miiller at one of the missionary schools where she was teaching. She became his wife on the 7th of June 1864, and six children were the issue of the marriage. In the year after her death in 1890 the maharaja married at Paris, as his second wife, an English lady, Miss Ada Douglas Wetherill, who survived him. The maharaja was passionately fond of sport, and his shooting parties were celebrated, while he himself became a persona grata in English society. The result, however, was financial difficulty, and in 1882 he appealed to the government for assistance, making various claims based upon the alleged possession of private estates in the Punjab, and upon the surrender of the Koh-i-nor diamond to the British Crown. His demand was rejected, where- upon he started for India, after drawing up a proclamation to his former subjects. But as it was deemed inadvisable to allow him to visit the Punjab, he remained for some time as a guest at the residency at Aden, and was allowed to receive some of his relatives to witness his abjuration of Christianity, which actually took place within the residency itself. As the climate began to affect his health, the maharaja at length left Aden and returned to Europe. He stayed for some time in Russia, hoping that his claim against England would be taken up by the Russians; but when that expectation proved futile he proceeded to Paris, where he lived for the rest of his life on the pension allowed him by the Indian government. His death from an attack of apoplexy took place at Paris on the 22nd of October 1893. The maharaja's eldest son, Prince Victor Albert Jay Dhuleep Singh (b. 1866), was educated at Trinity and Downing Colleges, Cambridge. In 1888 he obtained a commission in the 1st Royal Dragoon Guards. In 1898 he married Lady Anne Coventry, youngest daughter of the earl of Coventry. (G. F. B.) DHULIA, a town of British India, administrative headquarters of West Khandesh district in Bombay, on the right bank of the Panjhra river. Pop. (1901) 24,726. Considerable trade is done in cotton and oil-seeds, and weaving of cotton. A railway connects Dhulia with Chalisgaon, on the main line of the Great Indian Peninsula railway. DIABASE, in petrology, a rock which is a weathered form of dolerite. It was long widely accepted that the pre-Tertiary rocks of this group differed from their Tertiary and Recent representa- tives in certain essential respects, but this is now admitted to be untenable, and the differences are known to be merely the result of the longer exposure to decomposition, pressure and shearing, which the older rocks have experienced. Their olivine tends to become serpentinized; their augite changes to chlorite and uralite; their felspars are clouded by formation of zeolites, calcite, sericite and epidote. The rocks acquire a green colour (from the development of chlorite, uralite and epidote); hence the older name of " greenstones," which is now little used. Many of them become somewhat schistose from pressure (" greenstone-schists," meta-diabase, &c). Although the original definition of the group can no longer be justified, the name is so well established in current usage that it can hardly be discarded. The terms diabase and dolerite are employed really to designate distinct facies of the same set of rocks. The minerals of diabase are the same as those of dolerite, viz. olivine, augite, and plagioclase felspar, with subordinate quantities of hornblende, biotite, iron oxides and apatite. There are olivine-diabases and diabases without olivine; quartz- diabases, analcite-diabases (or teschenites) and hornblende diabases (or proterobases). Hypersthene (or bronzite) is characteristic of another group. Many of them are ophitic, especially those which contain olivine, but others are intersertal, like the intersertal dolerites. The last include most quartz-diabases, hypersthene- diabases and the rocks which have been described as tholeites. Porphyritic structure appears in the diabase-porphyrites, some of which are highly vesicular and contain remains of an abundant fine-grained or partly glassy ground-mass (diabas-mandelstein, amygdaloidal diabase). The somewhat ill-defined spilites are re- garded by many as modifications of diabase-porphyrite. In the intersertal and porphyrite diabases, fresh or devitrified glassy base is not infrequent. It is especially conspicuous in some tholeites (hyalo-tholeites) and in weisselbergites. These rocks consist of augite and plagioclase, with little or no olivine, on a brown, vitreous, interstitial matrix. Devitrified forms of tachylyte (sor- dawilite, &c.) occur at the rapidly chilled margins of dolerite sills and dikes, and fine-grained spotted rocks with large spherulites of grey or greenish felspar, and branching growths of brownish-green augite (variolites). To nearly every variety in composition and structure presented by the diabases, a counterpart can be found among the Tertiary dolerites. In the older rocks, however, certain minerals are more common than in the newer. Hornblende, mostly of pale green colours and somewhat fibrous habit, is very frequent in diabase; it is in most cases secondary after pyroxene, and is then known as uralite ; often it forms pseudomorphs which retain the shape of the original augite. Where diabases have been crushed or sheared, hornblende readily develops at the expense of pyroxene, sometimes replacing it completely. In the later stages of alteration the amphibole becomes compact and well crystallized; the rocks consist of green horn- blende and plagioclase felspar, and are then generally known as epidiorites or amphibolites. At the same time a schistose structure is produced. But transition forms are very common, having more or less of the augite remaining, surrounded by newly formed horn- blende which at first is rather fibrous and tends to spread outwards through the surrounding felspar. Chlorite also is abundant both in sheared and unsheared diabases, and with it calcite may make its appearance, or the lime set free from the augite may combine with the titanium of the iron oxide and with silica to form incrustations or borders of sphene around the original crystals of ilmenite. Epidote is another secondary lime-bearing mineral which results from the decomposition of the soda lime felspars and the pyroxenes. Many diabases, especially those of the teschenite sub-group, are filled with zeolites. Diabases are exceedingly abundant among the older rocks of all parts of the globe. Popular names for them are " whinstone," " greenstone," " toadstone " and " trap." They form excellent road- mending stones and are much quarried for this purpose, being tough, durable and resistant to wear, so long as they are not extremely decomposed. Many of them are to be preferred to the fresher dolerites as being less brittle. The]quality of the Cornish greenstones appears to have been distinctly improved by a smaller amount of recrystallization where they have been heated by contact with intrusive masses of granite. (J. S. F.) DIABETES HS DIABETES (from Gr. Sia, through, and ffalvew, to pass), a constitutional disease characterized by a habitually excessive discharge of urine. Two forms of this complaint are described, viz. Diabetes Mellitus, or Glycosuria, where the urine is not only increased in quantity, but persistently contains a greater or less amount of sugar, and Diabetes Insipidus, or Polyuria, where the urine is simply increased in quantity, and contains no abnormal ingredient. This latter, however, must be distinguished from the polyuria due to chronic granular kidney, lardaceous disease of the kidney, and also occurring in certain cases of hysteria. Diabetes mellitus is the disease to which the term is most commonly applied, and is by far the more serious and important ailment. It is one of the diseases due to altered metabolism (see Metabolic Diseases) . It is markedly hereditary, much more prevalent in towns and especially modern city life than in more primitive rustic communities, and most common among the Jews. The excessive use of sugar as a food is usually considered one cause of the disease, and obesity is supposed to favour its occurrence, but many observers consider that the obesity so often met with among diabetics is due to the same cause as the disease itself. No age is exempt, but it occurs most commonly in the fifth decade of life. It attacks males twice as frequently as females, a,nd fair more frequently than dark people. The symptoms are usually gradual in their onset, and the patient may suffer for a length of time before he thinks it necessary to apply for medical aid. The first symptoms which attract attention are failure of strength, and emaciation, along with great thirst and an increased amount and frequent passage of urine. From the normal quantity of from 2 to 3 pints in the 24 hours it may be increased to 10, 20 or 30 pints, or even more. It is usually of pale colour, and of thicker consistence than normal urine, possesses a decidedly sweet taste, and is of high specific gravity (1030 to 1050). It frequently gives rise to considerable irritation of the urinary passages. By simple evaporation crystals of sugar may be obtained from diabetic urine, which also yields the characteristic chemical tests of sugar, while the amount of this substance can be accurately estimated by certain analytical processes. The quantity of sugar passed may vary from a few ounces to two or more pounds per diem, and it is found to be markedly increased after saccharine or starchy food has been taken. Sugar may also be found in the blood, saliva, tears, and in almost all the excretions of persons suffering from this disease. One of the most distressing symptoms is intense thirst, which the patient is constantly seeking to allay, the quantity of liquid consumed being in general enormous, and there is usually, but not invariably, a voracious appetite. The mouth is always parched, and a faint, sweetish odour may be evolved from the breath. The effect of the disease upon the general health is very marked, and the patient becomes more and more emaciated. He suffers from increasing muscular weakness, the temperature of his body is lowered, and the skin is dry and harsh. There is often a peculiar flush on the face, not limited to the malar eminences, but extending up to the roots of the hair. The teeth are loosened or decay, there is a tendency to bleeding from the gums, while dyspeptic symptoms, constipation and loss of sexual power are common accompaniments. There is in general great mental depression or irritability. Diabetes as a rule advances comparatively slowly except in the case of young persons, in whom its progress is apt to be rapid. The complications of the disease are many and serious. It may cause impaired vision by weakening the muscles of accommodation, or by lessening the sensitiveness of the retina to light. Also cataract is very common. Skin affections of all kinds may occur and prove very intractable. Boils, carbuncles, cellulitis and gangrene are all apt to occur as life advances, though gangrene is much more frequent in men than in women. Diabetics are especially liable to phthisis and pneumonia, and gangrene of the lungs may set in if the patient survives the crisis in the latter disease. Digestive troubles of all kinds, kidney diseases and heart failure due to fatty heart are all of common occurrence. Also patients seem curiously susceptible to the poison of enteric fever, though the attack usually runs a mild course. The sugar temporarily disappears during the fever. But the most serious complication of all is known as diabetic coma, which is very commonly the final cause of death. The onset is often insidious, but may be indicated by loss of appetite, a rapid fall in the quantity of both urine and sugar, and by either consti- pation or diarrhoea. More rarely there is most acute abdominal pain. At first the condition is rather that of collapse than true coma, though later the patient is absolutely comatose. The patient suffers from a peculiar kind of dyspnoea, and the breath and skin have a sweet ethereal odour. The condition may last from twenty-four hours to three days, but is almost invariably the precursor of death. Diabetes is a very fatal form of disease, recovery being ex- ceedingly rare. Over 50% die of coma, another 25% of phthisis or pneumonia, and the remainder of Bright's disease, cerebral haemorrhage, gangrene, &c. The most favourable cases are those in which the patient is advanced in years, those in which it is associated with obesity or gout, and where the social conditions are favourable. A few cures have been recorded in which the disease supervened after some acute illness. The unfavourable cases are those in which there is a family history of the disease and in which the patient is young. Nevertheless much may be done by appropriate treatment to mitigate the severity of the symptoms and to prolong life. There are two distinct lines of treatment, that of diet and that of drugs, but each must be modified and determined entirely by the idiosyncrasy of the patient, which varies in this condition between very wide limits. That of diet is of primary importance inasmuch as it has been proved beyond question that certain kinds of food have a powerful influence in aggravating the disease, more particularly those consisting largely of saccharine and starchy matter; and it may be stated generally that the various methods of treatment proposed aim at the elimination as far as possible of these constituents from the diet. Hence it is recom- mended that such articles as bread, potatoes and all farinaceous foods, turnips, carrots, parsnips and most fruits should be avoided; while animal food and soups, green vegetables, cream, cheese, eggs, butter, and tea and coffee without sugar, may be taken with advantage. As a substitute for ordinary bread, which most persons find it difficult to do without for any length of time, bran bread, gluten bread and almond biscuits. A patient must never pass suddenly from an ordinary to a carbohydrate- free diet. Any such sudden transition is extremely liable to bring on diabetic coma, and the change must be made quite gradually, one form of carbohydrate after another being taken out of the diet, whilst the effect on the quantity of sugar passed is being carefully noted meanwhile. The treatment may be begun by excluding potatoes, sugar and fruit, and only after several days is the bread to be replaced by some diabetic substi- tute. When the sugar excretion has been reduced to its lowest point, and maintained there for some time, a certain amount of carbohydrate may be cautiously allowed, the consequent effect on the glycosuria being estimated. The best diet can only be worked out experimentally for each individual patient. But in every case, if drowsiness or any symptom suggesting coma supervene, all restrictions must be withdrawn, and carbohydrate freely allowed. The question of alcohol is one which must be largely determined by the previous history of the patient, but a small quantity will help to make up the deficiencies of a diet poor in carbohydrate. Scotch and Irish whisky, and Hollands gin, are usually free from sugar, and some of the light Bordeaux wines contain very little. Fat is beneficial, and can be given as cream, fat of meat and cod-liver oil. Green vegetables are harmless, but the white stalks of cabbages and lettuces and also celery and endive yield sugar. Laevulose can be assimilated up to ij ozs. daily without increasing the glycosuria, and hence apples, cooked or raw, are allowable, as the sugar they contain is in this form. The question of milk is somewhat disputed; but it is usual to exclude it from the rigid diet, allowing a certain quantity when the diet is being extended. Thirst is relieved by anything that relieves the polyuria. But hypodermic injections of pilocarpine stimulate the flow of saliva, and thus relieve the dryness of the 146 DIABOLO— DIAGRAM mouth. Constipation appears to increase the thirst, and must always be carefully guarded against. The best remedies are the aperient mineral waters. Numerous medicinal substances have been employed in diabetes, but few of them are worthy of mention as possessed of any efficacy. Opium is often found of great service, its ad- ministration being followed by marked amelioration in all the symptoms. Morphia and codeia have a similar action. In the severest cases, however, these drugs appear to be of little or no use, and they certainly increase the constipation. Heroin hydro- chloride has been tried in their place, but this seems to have more power over slight than over severe cases. Salicylate of sodium and aspirin are both very beneficial, causing a diminution in the sugar excretion without counterbalancing bad effects. In diabetes insipidus there is constant thirst and an excessive flow of urine, which, however, is not found to contain any abnormal constituent. Its effects upon the system are often similar to those of diabetes mellitus, except that they are much less marked, the disease being in general very slow in its progress. In some cases the health appears to suffer very slightly. It is rarely a direct cause of death, but from its debilitating effects may predispose to serious and fatal complications. It is best treated by tonics and generous diet. Valerian has been found beneficial, the powdered root being given in 5-grain doses. DIABOLO, a game played with a sort of top in the shape of two cones joined at their apices, which is spun, thrown, andcaught by means of a cord strung to two sticks. The idea of the game appears originally to have come from China, where a top (Kouen- gen), made of two hollow pierced cylinders of metal or wood, joined by a rod — and often of immense size, — was made by rotation to hum with a loud noise, and was used by pedlars to attract customers. From China it was introduced by missionaries to Europe; and a form of the game, known as " the devil on two sticks," appears to have been known in England towards the end of the 18th century, and Lord Macartney is credited with improvements in it. But its principal vogue was in France in 1812, where the top was called " le diable." Amusing old prints exist (see Fry's Magazine, March and December 1907), depicting examples of the popular craze in France at the time. The diable of those days resembled a globular wooden dumb-bell with a short waist, and the sonorous hum when spinning — the bruit du diable — was a pronounced feature. At intervals during the century occasional attempts to revive the game of spinning a top of this sort on a string were made, but it was not till 1906 that the sensation of 1812 began to be repeated. A French engineer, Gustave Phillipart, discovering some old implements of the game, had experimented for some time with new forms of top with a view to bringing it again into popularity; and having devised the double-cone shape, and added a miniature bicycle tire of rubber round the rims of the two ends of the double-cone, with other improvements, he named it " diabolo." The use of celluloid in preference to metal or wood as its material appears to have been due to a suggestion of Mr C. B. Fry, who was consulted by the inventor on the subject. The game of spinning, throwing and catching the diabolo was rapidly elaborated in various directions, both as an exercise of skill in doing tricks, and in " diabolo tennis " and other ways as an athletic pastime. From Paris, Ostend and the chief French seaside resorts, where it became popular in 1906, its vogue spread in 1907 so that in France and England it became the fashionable " rage " among both children and adults. The mechanics of the diabolo were worked out by Professor C. V. Boys in the Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), Nov. 1907. DIACONICON, in the Greek Church, the name given to a cham- ber on the south side of the central apse, where the sacred utensils, vessels, &c, of the church were kept. In the reign of Justin II. (565-574), owing to a change in the liturgy, the diaconicon and protheses were located in apses at the east end of the aisles. Before that time there was only one apse. In the churches in cen- tral Syria of slightly earlier date, the diaconicon is rectangular, the side apses at Kalat-Seman having been added at a later date. DiADOCHI (Gr. 5iaSex«cSat, to receive from another), i.e. " Successors," the name given to the Macedonian generals who fought for the empire of Alexander after his death in 323 B.C. The name includes Antigonus and his son Demetrius Poliorcetes, Antipater and his son Cassander, Seleucus, Ptolemy, Eumenes and Lysimachus. The kingdoms into which the Macedonian empire was divided under these rulers are known as Hellenistic. The chief were Asia Minor and Syria under the Seleucid Dynasty (q.v.'j, Egypt under the Ptolemies (q.v.), Macedonia under the successors of Antigonus Gonatas, Pergamum (q v.) under the Attalid dynasty. Gradually these kingdoms were merged in the Roman empire. (See Macedonian Empire.) DIAGONAL (Gr.&d,through,7coi'ta, a corner), in geometry, aline joining the intersections of two pairs of sides of a rectilinear figure. DIAGORAS, of Melos, surnamed the Atheist, poet and sophist, flourished in the second half of the 5th century B.C. Religious in his youth and a writer of hymns and dithyrambs, he became an atheist because a great wrong done to him was left unpunished by the gods. In consequence of his blasphemous speeches, and especially his criticism of the Mysteries, he was condemned to death at Athens, and a price set upon his head (Aristoph. Clouds, 830; Birds, 1073 and Schol.). He fled to Corinth, where he is said to have died. His work on the Mysteries was called $pvyioi X6701 or 'ATrcnrvpyi^ovTes, in which he probably attacked the Phrygian divinities. DIAGRAM (Gr. Siaypafipa, from haypk^av, to mark out by lines, a figure drawn in such a manner that the geometrical relations between the parts of the figure illustrate relations between other objects. They may be classed according to the manner in which they are intended to be used, and also according to the kind of analogy which we recognize between the diagram and the thing represented. The diagrams in mathematical treatises are intended to help the reader to follow the mathe- matical reasoning. The construction of the figure is defined in words so that even if no figure were drawn the reader could draw one for himself. The diagram is a good one if those features which form the subject of the proposition are clearly represented. Diagrams are also employed in an entirely different way — namely, for purposes of measurement. The plans and designs drawn by architects and engineers are used to determine the value of certain real magnitudes by measuring certain distances on the diagram. For such purposes it is essential that the drawing be as accurate as possible. We therefore class diagrams as diagrams of illustration, which merely suggest certain relations to the mind of the spectator, and diagrams drawn to scale, from which measurements are intended to be made. There are some dia- grams or schemes, however, in which the form of the parts is of no importance, provided their connexions are oroperly shown. Of this kind are the diagrams of electrical connexions, and those belonging to that department of geometry which treats of the degrees of cyclosis, periphraxy, linkedness and knottedness. Diagrams purely Graphic and mixed Symbolic and Graphic. — Diagrams may also be classed either as purely graphical diagrams, in which no symbols are employed except letters or other marks to distinguish particular points of the diagrams, and mixed diagrams, in which certain magnitudes are represented, not by the magnitudes of parts of the diagram, but by symbols, such as numbers written on the diagram. Thus in a map the height of places above the level of the sea is often indicated by marking the number of feet above the sea at the corresponding places on the map. There is another method in which a line called a contour line is drawn through all the places in the map whose height above the sea is a certain number of feet, and the number of feet is written at some point or points of this line. By the use of a series of contour lines, the height of a great number of places can be indicated on a map by means of a small number of written symbols. Still this method is not a purely graphical method, but a partly symbolical method of expressing the third dimension of objects on a diagram in two dimensions. In order to express completely by a purely graphical method the relations of magnitudes involving more than two variables, we must use more than one diagram. Thus in the arts of con- struction we use plans and elevations and sections through different planes, to specify the form of objects having three DIAGRAM i47 dimensions. In such systems of diagrams we have to indicate that a point in one diagram corresponds to a point in another diagram. This is generally done by marking the corresponding points in the different diagrams with the same letter. If the diagrams are drawn on the same piece of paper we may indicate corresponding points by drawing a line from one to the other, taking care that this line of correspondence is so drawn that it cannot be mistaken for a real line in either diagram. (See Geometry: Descriptive.) In the stereoscope the two diagrams, by the combined use of which the form of bodies in three dimensions is recognized, are projections of the bodies taken from two points so near each other that, by viewing the two diagrams simultaneously, one with each eye, we identify the corresponding points intuitively. The method in which we simultaneously contemplate two figures, and recognize a correspondence between certain points in the one figure and certain points in the other, is one of the most powerful and fertile methods hitherto known in science. Thus in pure geometry the theories of similar, reciprocal and inverse figures have led to many extensions of the science. It is sometimes spoken of as the method or principle of Duality. (See Geometry Projective.) Diagrams in Mechanics The study of the motion of a material system is much assisted by the use of a series of diagrams representing the configuration, dis- placement and acceleration of the parts of the system. Diagram of Configuration. — In considering a material system it is often convenient to suppose that we have a record of its position at any given instant in the form of a diagram of configuration. The position of any particle of the system is defined by drawing a straight line or vector from the origin, or point of reference, to the given particle. The position of the particle with respect to the origin is determined by the magnitude and direction of this vector. If in the diagram we draw from the origin (which need not be the same point of space as the origin for the material sj'stem) a vector equal and parallel to the vector which determines the position of the particle, the end of this vector will indicate the position of the particle in the diagram of configuration. If this is done for all the particles we shall have a system of points in the diagram of configuration, each of which corresponds to a particle of the material system, and the relative positions of any pair of these points will be the same as the relative positions of the material particles which correspond to them. We have hitherto spoken of two origins or points from which the vectors are supposed to be drawn — one for the material system, the other for the diagram. These points, however, and the vectors drawn from them, may now be omitted, so that we have on the one hand the material system and on the other a set of points, each point corresponding to a particle of the system, and the whole representing the configuration of the system at a given instant. This is called a diagram of configuration. Diagram of Displacement. — Let us next consider two diagrams of configuration of the same system, corresponding to two different instants. We call the first the initial configuration and the second the final configuration, and the passage from the one configuration to the other we call the displacement of the system. We do not at present consider the length of time during which the displacement was effected, nor the intermediate stages through which it passed, but only the final result — a change of configuration. To study this change we construct a diagram of displacement. Let A, B, C be the points in the initial diagram of configuration, and A', B', C be the corresponding points in the final diagram of configuration. From 0, the origin of the diagram of displacement, draw a vector oa equal and parallel to AA', 00 equal and parallel to BB', oc to CC, and so on. The points a, b, c, &c, will be such that the vector ab indicates the displacement of B relative to A, and so on. The diagram containing the points a, b, c, &c, is therefore called the diagram of displacement. In constructing the diagram of displacement we have hitherto assumed that we know the absolute displacements of the points of the system. For we are required to draw a line equal and parallel to AA', which we cannot do unless we know the absolute final position of A, with respect to its initial position. In this diagram of displace- ment there is therefore, besides the points o, 6, c, &c, an origin, 0, which represents a point absolutely fixed in space. This is necessary because the two configurations do not exist at the same time ; and therefore to express their relative position we require to know a point which remains the same at the beginning and end of the time. But we may construct the diagram in another way which does not assume a knowledge of absolute displacement or of a point fixed in space. Assuming any point and calling it a, draw ak parallel and equal to BA in the initial configuration, and from k draw kb parallel and equal to A'B' in the final configuration. It is easy to see that the position of the point b relative to a will be the same by this construc- tion as by the former construction, only we must observe that in this second construction we use only vectors such as AB, A'B', which represent the relative position of points both of which exist simul- taneously, instead of vectors such as AA', BB', which express the position of a point at one instant relative to its position at a former instant, and which therefore cannot be determined by observation, because the two ends of the vector do not exist simultaneously. It appears therefore that the diagram of displacements, when drawn by the first construction, includes an origin 0, which indicates that we have assumed a knowledge of absolute displacements. But no such point occurs in the second construction, because we use such vectors only as we can actually observe. Hence the diagram of displacements without an origin represents neither more nor less than all we can ever know about the displacement of the material system. Diagram of Velocity. — If the relative velocities of the points of the system are constant, then the diagram of displacement corresponding to an interval of a unit of time between the initial and the final configuration is called a diagram of relative velocity. If the relative velocities are not constant, we suppose another system in which the velocities are equal to the velocities of the given system at the given instant and continue constant for a unit of time. The diagram of displacements for this imaginary system is the required diagram of relative velocities of the actual system at the given instant. It is easy to see that the diagram gives the velocity of any one point relative to any other, but cannot give the absolute velocity of any of them. Diagram of Acceleration. — By the same process by which we formed the diagram of displacements from the two diagrams of initial and final configuration, we may form a diagram of changes of relative velocity from the two diagrams of initial and final velocities. This diagram may be called that of total accelerations in a finite interval of time. And by the same process by which we deduced the diagram of velocities from that of displacements we may deduce the diagram of rates of acceleration from that of total acceleration. We have mentioned this system of diagrams in elementary kine- matics because they are found to be of use epsecially when we have to deal with material systems containing a great number of parts, as in the kinetic theory of gases. The diagram of configuration then appears as a region of space swarming with points representing molecules, and the only way in which we can investigate it is by considering the number of such points in unit of volume in different parts of that regionf and calling this the density of the gas. In like manner the diagram of velocities appears as a region con- taining points equal in number but distributed in a. different manner, and the number of points in any given portion of the region expresses the number of molecules whose velocities lie within given limits. We may speak of this as the velocity-density. Diagrams of Stress. — Graphical methods are peculiarly applicable to statical questions, because the state of the system is constant, so that we do not need to construct a series of diagrams corre- sponding to the successive states of the system. The most useful of these applications, collectively termed Graphic Statics, relates to the equilibrium of plane framed structures familiarly represented in bridges and roof-trusses. Two diagrams are used, one called the diagram of the frame and the other called the diagram of stress. The structure itself consists of a number of separable pieces or links jointed together at their extremities. In practice these joints have friction, or may be made purposely stiff, so that the force acting at the extremity of a piece may not pass exactly through the axis of the joint ; but as it is unsafe to make the stability of the structure depend in any degree upon the stiffness of joints, we assume in our calculations that all the joints are perfectly smooth, and therefore that the force acting on the end of any link passes through the axis of the joint. The axes of the joints of the structure are represented by points in the diagram of the frame. The link which connects two joints in the actual structure may be of any shape, but in the diagram of the frame it is represented by a straight line joining the points repre- senting the two joints. If no force acts on the link except the two forces acting through the centres of the joints, these two forces must be equal and opposite, and their direction must coincide with the straight line joining the centres of the joints. If the force acting on either extremity of the link is directed towards the other extremity, the stress on the link is called pressure and the link is called a " strut." If it is directed away from the other extremity, the stress on the link is called tension and the link is called a " tie." In this case, there- fore, the only stress acting in a link is a pressure or a tension in the direction of the straight line which represents it in the diagram of the frame, and all that we have to do is to find the magnitude of this stress. In the actual structure gravity acts on every part of the link, but in the diagram we substitute for the actual weight ot the different parts of the link two weights which have the same resultant acting at the extremities of the link. We may now treat the diagram of the frame as composed of links without we.ight, but loaded at each joint with a weight made up of portions of the weights of all the links which meet in that joint. If any link has more than two joints we may substitute for it in the diagram an imaginary stiff frame, consisting of links, each of which has only two joints. The diagram of the frame is now reduced to a system of points, certain pairs of which are joined by straight lines, and each point is in general acted on by a weight or other force acting between it and some point external to the system. To complete 148 DIAGRAM the diagram we may represent these external forces as links, that is to say, straight lines joining the points of the frame to points external to the frame. Thus each weight may be represented by a link joining the point of application of the weight with the centre of the earth. But we can always construct an imaginary frame having its joints in the lines of action of these external forces, and this frame, together with the real frame and the links representing external forces, which join points in the one frame to points in the other frame, make up together a complete self-strained system in equilibrium, consisting of points connected by links acting by pressure or tension. We may in this way reduce any real structure to the case of a system of points with attractive or repulsive forces acting between certain pairs of these points, and keeping them in equilibrium. The direction of each of these forces is sufficiently indicated by that of the line joining the points, so that we have only to determine its magnitude. We might do this by calculation, and then write down on each link the pressure or the tension which acts in it. We should in this way obtain a mixed diagram in which the stresses are represented graphically as regards direction and position, but symbolically as regards magnitude. But we know that a force may be represented in a purely graphical manner by a straight line in the direction of the force containing as many units of length as there are units of force in the force. The end of this line is marked with an arrow head to show in which direction the force acts. According to this method each force is drawn in its proper position in the diagram of configuration of the frame. Such a diagram might be useful as a record of the result of calculation of the magnitude of the forces, but it would be of no use in enabling us to test the correctness of the calculation. But we have a graphical method of testing the equilibrium of any set of forces acting at a point. We draw in series a set of lines parallel and proportional to these forces. If these lines form a closed polygon the forces are in equilibrium. (See Mechanics.) We might in this way form a series of polygons of forces, one for each joint of the frame. But in so doing we give up the principle of drawing the line represent- ing a force from the point of application of the force, for all the sides of the polygon cannot pass through the same point, as the forces do. We also represent every stress twice over, for it appears as a side of both the polygons corresponding to the two joints between which it acts. But if we can arrange the polygons in such a way that the sides of any two polygons which represent the same stress coincide with each other, we may form a diagram in which every stress is represented in direction and magnitude, though not in position, by a single line which is the common boundary of the two polygons which represent the joints at the extremities of the corresponding piece of the frame. We have th us obtained a pure diagram of stress in which no attempt is made to represent the configuration of the material system, and in which every force is not only represented in direction and magnitude by a straight line, but the equilibrium of the forces at any joint is manifest by inspection, for we have only to examine whether the corresponding polygon is closed or not. The relations between the diagram of the frame and the diagram of stress are as follows: — To every link in the frame corresponds a straight line in the diagram of stress which represents in magnitude and direction the stress acting in that link; and to every joint of the frame corresponds a closed polygon in the diagram, and the forces acting at that joint are represented by the sides of the polygon taken in a certain cyclical order, the cyclical order of the sides of the two adjacent polygons being such that their common side is traced in opposite directions in going round the two polygons. The direction in which any side of a polygon is traced is the direction of the force acting on that joint of the frame which corresponds to the polygon, and due to that link of the frame which corresponds to the side. This determines whether the stress of the link is a pressure or a tension. If we know whether the stress of any one link is a pressure or a tension, this determines the cyclical order of the sides of the two polygons corresponding to the ends of the links, and therefore the cyclical order of all the polygons, and the nature of the stress in every link of the frame. Reciprocal Diagrams. — When to every point of concourse of the lines in the diagram of stress corresponds a closed polygon in the skeleton of the frame, the two diagrams are said to be reciprocal. The first extensions of the method of diagrams of forces to other cases than that of the funicular polygon were given by Rankine in his Applied Mechanics (1857). The method was independently applied to a large number of cases by W. P. Taylor, a practical draughtsman in the office of J. B. Cochrane, and by Professor Clerk Maxwell in his lectures in King's College, London. In the Phil. Mag. for 1864 the latter pointed out the reciprocal properties of the two diagrams, and in a paper on " Reciprocal Figures, Frames and Diagrams of Forces," Trans. R.S. Edin. vol. xxvi., 1870, he showed the relation of the method to Airy's function of stress and to other mathematical methods. Professor Fleeming Jenkin has given a number of applications of the method to practice {Trans. R.S. Edin. vol. xxv.). L. Cremona (Le Figure reciproche nella statica grafica, 1872) deduced the construction of reciprocal figures from the theory of the two components of a wrench as developed by Mobius. Karl Culmann, in his Graphische Statik (isted. 1864-1866, 2nd ed. 1875), made great use of diagrams of forces, some of which, however, are not reciprocal. Maurice Levy in his Statique graphique (1874) has treated the whole subject in an elementary but copious manner, and R. H. Bow, in his The Economics of Construction in Relation to Framed Structures (1873), materially simplified the process of drawing a diagram of stress reciprocal to a given frame acted on by a system of equilibrating external forces. Instead of lettering the joints of the frame, as is usually done, or the links of the frame, as was the custom of Clerk Maxwell, Bow places a letter in each of the polygonal areas enclosed by the links of the frame, and also in each of the divisions of surrounding space ai Fig. 1. — Diagram of Configuration. separated by the lines of action of the external forces. When one link of the frame crosses another, the point of apparent intersection of the links is treated as if it were a real joint, and the stresses of each of the intersecting links are represented twice in the diagram of stress, as the opposite sides of the parallelogram which corresponds to the point of intersection. This method is followed in the lettering of the diagram of configura- tion (fig. 1), and the diagram of stress (fig. 2) of the linkwork which Professor Sylvester has called a quadruplane. In fig. I the real joints are distinguished from the places where one link appears to cross another by the little circles O, P, Q, R, S, T, V. The four links RSTV form a " contraparallelogram " in which RS = TV and RV = ST. The triangles ROS, RPV, TQS are similar :o each other. A fourth triangle (TNV), not drawn in the figure, would complete the quadruplane. The four points O, P, N, Q form a parallelogram whose angle POQ is constant and equal to ir — SOR. The product of the distances OP and OQ is constant. The linkwork may be fixed at O. If any figure is traced by P, Q will trace the Fig. 2. — Diagram of Stress. inverse figu;ie, but turned round O through the constant angle POQ. In the diagram forces Pp, Qq are balanced by the force Co at the fixed point. The forces Pp and Qq are necessarily inversely as OP and OQ, and make equal angles with those lines. Every closed area formed by the links or the external forces in the diagram of configuration is marked by a letter which corresponds to a point of concourse of lines in the diagram of stress. The stress in the link which is the common boundary of two areas is represented in the diagram of stress by the line joining the points corresponding to those areas. When a link is divided into two or more parts by lines crossing it, the stress in each part is represented by a different line for each part, but as the stress is the same throughout the link these lines are all equal and parallel. Thus in the figure the stress in RV is represented by the four equal and parallel lines HI, FG, DE and AB. If two areas have no part of their boundary in common the letters corresponding to them in the diagram of stress are not joined by a straight line. If, however, a straight line were drawn between them, it would represent in direction and magnitude the resultant of all the stresses in the links which are cut by any line, straight or curved, joining the two areas. For instance the areas F and C in fig. I have no common boundary, and the points F and C in fig. 2 are not joined by a straight line. But every path from the area F to the area C in fig. I passes through a series of other areas, and each passage from one area into a contiguous area corresponds to a line drawn in the diagram of stress. Hence the whole path from F DIAL 149 to C in fig. i corresponds to a path formed of lines in fig. 2 and extending from F to C, and the resultant of all the stresses in the links cut by the path is represented by FC in fig. 2. Many examples of stress diagrams are given in the article on bridges (q.v.). Automatic Description of Diagrams. There are many other kinds of diagrams in which the two co-ordin- ates of a point in a plane are employed to indicate the simultaneous values of two related quantities. If a sheet of paper is made to move, say horizontally, with a constant known velocity, while a tracing point is made to move in a vertical straight line, the height varying as the value of any given physical quantity, the point will trace out a curve on the paper from which the value of that quantity at any given time may be determined. This principle is applied to the automatic registration of phenomena of all kinds, from those of meteorology and terrestrial magnetism to the velocity of cannon- shot, the vibrations of sounding bodies, the - motions of animals, voluntary and involuntary, and the currents in electric telegraphs. In Watt's indicator for steam engines the paper does not move with a constant velocity, but its displacement is proportional to that of the piston of the engine, while that of the tracing point is proportional to the pressure of the steam. Hence the co-ordinates of a point of the curve traced on the diagram represent the volume and the pressure of the steam in the cylinder. The indicator-diagram not only supplies a record of the pressure of the steam at each stage of the stroke of the engine, but indicates the work done by the steam in each stroke by the area enclosed by the curve traced on the diagram. (J. C. M .) DIAL and DIALLING. Dialling, sometimes called gnomonics, is a branch of applied mathematics which treats of the construc- tion of sun-dials, that is, of those instruments, either fixed or portable, which determine the divisions of the day (Lat. dies) by the motion of the shadow of some object on which the sun's rays fall. It must have been one of the earliest applications of a knowledge of the apparent motion of the sun; though for a long time men would probably be satisfied with the division into morning and afternoon as marked by sun-rise, sun-set and the greatest elevation. History. — The earliest mention of a sun-dial is found in Isaiah xxxviii. 8: " Behold, I will bring again the shadow of the degrees which is gone down in the sun-dial of Ahaz ten degrees backward." The date of this would be about 700 years before the Christian era, but we know nothing of the character or con- struction of the instrument. The earliest of all sun-dials of which we have any certain knowledge was the hemicycle, or hemisphere, of the Chaldaean astronomer Berossus, who probably lived about 300 B.C. It consisted of a hollow hemisphere placed with its rim perfectly horizontal, and having a bead, or globule, fixed in any way at the centre. So long as the sun remained above the horizon the shadow of the bead would fall on the inside of the hemisphere, and the path of the shadow during the day would be approximately a circular arc. This arc, divided into twelve equal parts, determined twelve equal intervals of time for that day. Now, supposing this were done at the time of the solstices and equinoxes, and on as many intermediate days as might be considered sufficient, and then curve lines drawn through the corresponding points of division of the different arcs, the shadow of the bead falling on one of these curve lines would mark a division of time for that day, and thus we should have a sun-dial which would divide each period of daylight into twelve equal parts. These equal parts were called temporary hours; and, since the duration of daylight varies from day to day, the temporary hours of one day would differ from those of another ; but this inequality would probably be disregarded at that time, and especially in countries where the vaiiation between the longest summer day and the shortest winter day is much less than in our climates. The dial of Berossus remained in use for centuries. The Arabians, as appears from the work of Albategnius, still followed the same construction about the year a.d. 900. Four of these dials have in modern times been found in Italy. One, discovered at Tivoli in 1746, is supposed to have belonged to Cicero, who, in one of his letters, says that he had sent a dial of this kind to his villa near Tusculum. The second and third were found in 1751 — one at Castel-Nuovo and the other at Rignano; and a fourth was found in 1762 at Pompeii. G. H. Martini in his Abhandlungen von den Sonnenuhren der Alten (Leipzig, 1777), says that this dial was made for the latitude of Memphis; it may therefore be the work of Egyptians, perhaps constructed in the school of Alexandria. ( Herodotus recorded that the Greeks derived from the Baby- lonians the use of the gnomon, but the great progress made by the Greeks in geometry enabled them in later times to construct dials of great complexity, some of which remain to us, and are proof not only of extensive knowledge but also of great ingenuity. Ptolemy's Almagest treats of the construction of dials by means of his analemma, an instrument which solved a variety of astronomical problems. The constructions given by him were sufficient for regular dials, that is, horizontal dials, or vertical dials facing east, west, north or south, and these are theonly ones he treats of. It is certain, however, that the ancients were able to construct declining dials, as is shown by that most interesting monument of ancient gnomics — the Tower of the Winds at Athens. This is a regular octagon, on the faces of which the eight principal winds are represented, and over them eight different dials — four facing the cardinal points and the other four facing the intermediate directions. The date of the dials is long subse- quent to that of the tower; for Vitruvius, who describes the tower in the sixth chapter of his first book, says nothing about the dials, and as he has described all the dials known in his time, we must believe that the dials of the tower did not then exist. The hours are still the temporary hours or, as the Greeks called them, hectemoria. The first sun-dial erected at Rome was in the year 290 B.C., and this Papirius Cursor had taken from the Samnites. A dial which Valerius Messalla had brought from Catania, the latitude of which is five degrees less than that of Rome, was placed in the forum in the year 261 B.C. The first dial actually constructed at Rome was in the year 164 B.C., by order of Q. Marcius Philippus, but as no other Roman has written on gnomonics, this was perhaps the work of a foreign artist. If, too, we remember that the dial found at Pompeii was made for the latitude of Memphis, and consequently less adapted to its position than that of Catania to Rome, we may infer that mathematical knowledge was not cultivated in Italy. The Arabians were much more successful. They attached great importance to gnomonics, the principles of which they had learned from the Greeks, but they greatly simplified and diversified the Greek constructions. One of their writers, Abu'l Hassan, who lived about the beginning of the 13th century, taught them how to trace dials on cylindrical, conical and other surfaces. He even introduced equal or equinoctial hours, but the idea was not supported, and the temporary hours alone continued in use. Where or when the great and important step already conceived by Abu'l Hassan, and perhaps by others, of reckoning by equal hours was generally adopted cannot now be determined. The history of gnomonics from the 13th to the beginning of the 16th century is almost a blank, and during that time the change took place. We can see, however, that the change would neces- sarily follow the introduction of clocks and other mechanical methods of measuring time; for, however imperfect these were, the hours they marked would be of the same length in summer and in winter, and the discrepancy between these equal hours and the temporary hours of the sun-dial would soon be too important to be overlooked. Now, we know that a balance clock was put up in the palace of Charles V. of France about the year 1370, and we may reasonably suppose that the new sun-dials came into general use during the 14th and 15th centuries. Among the earliest of the modern writers on gnomonics was Sebastian Minister (q.v.), who published his Horologiographia at Basel in 153 1. He gives a number of correct rules, but with- out demonstrations. Among his inventions was a moon-dial, 1 but this does not admit of much accuracy. During the 17th century dialling was discussed at great length by many writers on astronomy. Clavius devotes a quarto 1 In one of the courts of Queens' College, Cambridge, there is an elaborate sun-dial dating from the end of the 17th or beginning of the 1 8th century, and around it a series of numbers which make it available as a moon-dial when the moon's age is known. 15° DIAL volume of 800 pages entirely to the subject. This was published in 1612, and may be considered to contain all that was known at that time. In the 1 8th century clocks and watches began to supersede sun-dials, and these have gradually fallen into disuse except as an additional ornament to a garden, cr in remote country districts where the old dial on the church tower still serves as an occasional check on the modern clock by its side. The art of constructing dials may now be looked upon as little more than a mathematical recreation. General Principles. — The diurnal and the annual motions of the earth are the elementary astronomical facts on which dialling is founded. That the earth turns upon its axis uniformly from west to east in twenty-four hours, and that it is carried round the sun in one year at a nearly uniform rate, is the correct way of expressing these facts. But the effect will be precisely the same, and it will suit our purpose better, and make our explanations easier, if we adopt the ideas of the ancients, of which our senses furnish apparent confirma- tion, and assume the earth to be fixed. Then, the sun and stars revolve round the earth's axis uniformly from east towest once a day — the sun lagging a little behind the stars, making its day some four minutes longer — so that at the end of the year it finds itself again in the same place, having made a complete revolution of the heavens relatively to the stars from west to east. The fixed axis about which all these bodies revolve daily is a line through the "earth's centre; but the radius of the earth is so small, compared with the enormous distance of the sun, that, if we draw a parallel axis through any point of the earth's surface, we may safely look on that as being the axis of the celestial motions. The error in the case of the sun would not, at its maximum, that is, at 6 A.M. and 6 P.M., exceed half a second of time, and at noon would vanish. An axis so drawn is in the plane of the meridian, and points to the.pole, its elevation being equal to tL 11 72 44 90 Vertical South Dial. — Let us take again our imaginary transparent sphere QZPA (fig. 4), whose axis PEp is parallel to the earth's axis. Let Z be the zenith, and, consequently, the great circle QZP the 152 DIAL meridian. Through E, the centre of the sphere, draw a vertical plane facing south. This will cut the sphere in the great circle ZMA, which, being vertical, will pass through the zenith, and, facing south, will be at right angles to the meridian. Let QMa be the equatorial circle, obtained by drawing a plane through E at right angles to the axis PEp. The lower portion Ep of the axis will be the style, the vertical line EA in the meridian plane will be the XII o'clock line, and the line EM, which is obviously horizontal, since M is the inter- section of two great circles ZM,QM,eachat right angles to the vertical plane QZP, will be the VI o'clock line. Now, as in the previous problem, divide the equatorial circle into 24 equal arcs of 15 each, beginning at a, viz. ab, be, &c, — each quadrant aM, MQ, &c, con- taining 6, — then through each point of division and through the 7. Fig. 4. axis Pp draw a plane cutting the sphere in 24 equidistant great circles. As the sun revolves round the axis the shadow of the axis will suc- cessively fall on these circles at intervals of one hour, and if these circles cross the vertical circle ZMA in the points A, 6, C, &c, the shadow of the lower portion Ep of the axis will fall on the lines EA, EB, EC, &c, which will therefore be the required hour-lines on the vertical dial, Ep being the style. There is no necessity for going beyond the VI o'clock hour-line on each side of noon ; for, in the winter months.the sun sets earlier than 6 o'clock, and in the summer months it passes behind the plane of the dial before that time, and is no longer available. It remains to show how the angles AEB, AEC, &c, may be calcu- lated. The spherical triangles pAB, pAC, &c, will give us a simple rule. These triangles are all right-angled at A, the side pA, equal to ZP, is the co-latitude of the place, that is, the difference between the latitude and 90 ; and the successive angles ApB, ApC, &c, are 15 , 30°, &c, respectively. Then tan AB=tan 15 sin co-latitude; or more simply, tan AB=tan 15° cos latitude, tan AC = tan 30 cos latitude, &c. &c. and the arcs AB, AC so found are the measure of the angles AEB, AEC, &c, required. In this case the angles diminish as the latitudes increase, the opposite result to that of the horizontal dial. Inclining, Reclining, fife, Dials. — We shall not enter into the calculation of these cases. Our imaginary sphere being, as before supposed, constructed with its centre at the centre of the dial, and all the hour-circles traced upon it, the intersection of these hour- circles with the plane of the dial will determine the hour-lines just as in the previous cases ; but the triangles will no longer be right-angled, and the simplicity of the calculation will be lost, the chances of error being greatly increased by the difficulty of drawing the dial plane in its true position on the sphere, since that true position will have to be found from observations which can be only roughly performed. In all these cases, and in cases where the dial surface is not a plane, and the hour-lines, consequently, are not straight lines, the only safe practical way is to mark rapidly on the dial a few points (one is sufficient when the dial face is plane) of the shadow at the moment when a good watch shows that the hour has arrived, and afterwards connect these points with the centre by a continuous line. Of course the style must have been accurately fixed in its true position before we begin. Equatorial Dial. — The name equatorial dial is given to one whose plane is at right angles to the style, and therefore parallel to the equator. It is the simplest of all dials. A circle (fig. 5) divided into 24 equal arcs is placed at right angles to the style, and hour divisions are marked upon it. Then if care be taken that the style point accurately to the pole, and that the noon division coincide with the meridian plane, the shadow of the style will fall on the other divisions, each at its proper time. The divisions must be marked Fig. 5. on both sides of the dial, because the sun will shine on opposite sides in the summer and in the winter months, changing at each equinox. To find the Meridian Plane. — We have, so far, assumed the meridian plane to be accurately known ; we shall proceed to describe some of the methods by which it may be found. The mariner's compass may be employed as a first rough approxi- mation. It is well known that the needle of the compass, when free to move horizontally, oscillates upon its pivot and settles in a direction termed the magnetic meridian. This does not coincide with the true north and south line, but the difference between them is generally known with tolerable accur- acy, and is called the variation of the compass. The variation differs widely at different parts of the surface of the earth, and is not stationary at any particular place, though the change is slow; and there is even a small daily oscillation which takes place about the mean position, but too small to need notice here (see Magnetism, Terres- trial). With all these elements of uncertainty, it is obvious that the compass can only give a rough approximation to the position of the meridian, but it will serve to fix the style so that only a small further alteration will be necessary when a more perfect determination has been made. A very simple practical method is the following : — Place a table (fig. 6), or other plane surface, in such a position that it may receive the sun's rays both in the morning and in the afternoon. Then carefully level the surface by means of a spirit-level. This must be done very accurately, and the table in that position made perfectly secure, so that there be no danger of its shifting during the day. Next, suspend a plummet SH from a point S, which must be rigidly fixed. The extremity H, where the plummet just meets the surface, should be somewhere near the middle of one end of the table. With H for centre, describe any number of concentric arcs of circles, AB, CD, EF, &c. A bead P, kept in its place by friction, is threaded on the plummet line at some convenient height above H. Everything being thus prepared, let us follow the shadow of the bead P as it moves along the surface of the table during the day. It will be found to describe a curve ACE . . . FDB, approaching the point H as the sun advances towards noon, and reced - ing from it afterwards. (The curve is a conic section — an hyperbola in these regions.) At the moment when it crosses the arc AB, mark the point A; AP is then the direction of the sun, and, as AH is horizontal, the angle PAH is the alti- tude of the sun. In the afternoon mark the point B where it crosses the same arc; then the angle PBH is the alti- tude. But the right- angled triangles PHA, PHB are obviously equal; and the sun has therefore the same alti- tudes at those two instants, the one before, the other after noon. It follows that, if the sun has not changed its declination during the interval, the two positions will be symmetrically placed one on each side of the meridian. Therefore, drawing the chord AB, and bisecting it in M, HM will be the meridian line. Each of the other concentric arcs, CD, EF, &c, will furnish its meridian line. Of course these should all coincide, but if not, the mean of the positions thus found must be taken. The proviso mentioned above, that the sun has not changed its declination, is scarcely ever realized; but the change is slight, and may be neglected, except perhaps about the time of the equinoxes, at the end of March and at the end of September. Throughout the remainder of the year the change of declination is so slow that we may safely neglect it. The most favourable times are at the end of June and at the end of December, when the sun's declination is almost stationary. If the line HM be produced both ways to the edges of the table, then the two points on the ground vertically below those on the edges may be found by a plummet, and, if permanent marks be made there, the meridian plane, which is the vertical plane passing through these two points, will have its position perfectly secured. Fig. 6. DIAL 153 To place the Style of a Dial in its True Position. — Before giving any other method of finding the meridian plane, we shall complete the construction of the dial, by showing how the style may now be accurately placed in its true position. The angle which thefetyle makes with a hanging plumb-line, being the co-latitude of the place, is known, and the north and south direction is also roughly given by the mariner's compass. The style may therefore be already adjusted approximately — correctly, indeed, as to its inclination — but prob- ably requiring a little horizontal motion east or west. Suspend a fine plumb-line from some point of the style, then the style will be properly adjusted if, at the very instant of noon, its shadow falls exactly on the plumb-line, — or, which is the same thing, if both shadows coincide on the dial. This instant of noon will be given very simply, by the meridian plane, whose position we have secured by the two permanent marks on the ground. Stretch a cord from the one mark to the other. This will not generally be horizontal, but the cord will be wholly in the meridian plane, and that is the only necessary condition. Next, suspend a plummet over the mark which is nearer to the sun, and, when the shadow of the plumb-line falls on the stretched cord, it is noon. • A signal from the observer there to the observer at the dial enables the latter to adjust the style as directed above. Other Methods of finding the Meridian Plane. — We have dwelt at some length on these practical operations because they are simple and tolerably accurate, and because they want neither watch, nor sextant, nor telescope — nothing more, in fact, than the careful observation of shadow lines. The Pole star, or Ursae Minoris, may also be employed for finding the meridian plane without other apparatus than plumb-lines. This star is now only about 1° 14' from the pole; if therefore a plumb-line be suspended at a few feet from the observer, and if he shift his position till the star is exactly hidden by the line, then the plane through his eye and the plumb-line will never be far from the meridian plane. Twice in the course of the twenty-four hours the planes would be strictly coincident. This would be when the star crosses the meridian above the pole, and again when it crosses it below. If we wished to employ the method of determining the meridian, the times of the stars crossing would have to be calculated from the data in the Nautical Almanac, and a watch would be necessary to know when the instant arrived. The watch need not, however, be very accurate, because the motion of the star is so slow that an error of ten minutes in the time would not give an error of one-eighth of a degree in the azimuth. The following accidental circumstance enables us to dispense with both calculation and watch. The right ascension of the star 17 Ursae Majoris, that star in the tail of the Great Bear which is farthest from the " pointers," happens to differ by a little more than 12 hours from the right ascension of the Pole star. The great circle which joins the two stars passes therefore close to the pole. When the Pole star, at a distance of about I ° 1 4' from the pole, is crossing the meridian above the pole, the star tj Ursae Majoris, whose polar distance is about 40°, has not yet reached the meridian below the pole. When 7; Ursae Majoris reaches the meridian, which will be within half an hour later, the Pole star will have left the meridian ; but its slow motion will have carried it only a very little distance away. Now at some instant between these two times — much nearer the latter than the former — the great circle joining the two stars will be exactly vertical; and at this instant, which the observer determines by seeing that the plumb-line hides the two stars simultaneously, neither of the stars is strictly in the meridian ; but the deviation from it is so small that it may be neglected, and the plane through the eye and the plumb-line taken for meridian plane. In all these cases it will be convenient, instead of fixing the plane by means of the eye and one fixed plummet, to have a second plummet at a short distance in front of the eye ; this second plummet, being suspended so as to allow of lateral shifting, must be moved so as always to be between the eye and the fixed plummet. The meridian plane will be secured by placing two permanent marks on the ground, one under each plummet. This method, by means of the two stars, is only available for the upper transit of Polaris; for, at the lower transit, the other star 17 Ursae Majoris would pass close to or beyond the zenith, and the observation could not be made. Also the stars will not be visible when the urjper transit takes place in the daytime, so that one-half of the year is lost to this method. Neither could it be employed in lower latitudes than 40 N., for there the star would be below the horizon at its lower transit ; — we may even say not lower than 45 ° N., for the star must be at least 5 above the horizon before it becomes distinctly visible. There are other pairs of stars which could be similarly employed, but none so convenient as these two, on account of Polaris with its very slow motion being one of the pair. To place the Style in its True Position without previous Determination of the Meridian Plane. — The various methods given above for finding the meridian plane have for ultimate object the determination of the plane, not on its own account, but as an element for fixing the instant of noon, whereby the style may be properly placed. We shall dispense, therefore, with all this preliminary work if we determine noon by astronomical observation. For this we shall want a good watch, or pocket chronometer, and a sextant or other instru- ment for taking altitudes. The local time at any moment may be determined in a variety of ways by observation of the celestial bodies. The simplest and most practically useful methods will be found described and investigated in any work on astronomy. For our present purpose a single altitude of the sun taken in the forenoon will be most suitable. At some time in the morning, when the sun is high enough to be free from the mists and uncertain refractions of the horizon — but to ensure accuracy, while the rate of increase of the altitude is still tolerably rapid, and, therefore, not later than 10 o'clock — take an altitude of the sun, an assistant, at the same moment, marking the time shown by the watch. The altitude so observed being properly corrected for refraction, parallax, &c, will, together with the latitude of the place, and the sun's declination, taken from the Nautical Almanac, enable us to calculate the time. This will be the solar or apparent time, that is, the very time we require. Comparing the time so found with the time shown by the watch, we see at once by how much the watch is fast or slow of solar time ; we know, therefore, exactly what time the watch must mark when solar noon arrives, and waiting for that instant we can fix the style in its proper position as explained before. We can dispense with the sextant and with all calculation and observation if, by means of the pocket chronometer, we bring the time from some observatory where the work is done; and, allowing for the change of longitude, and also for the equation of time, if the time we have brought is clock time, we shall have the exact instant of solar noon as in the previous case. In former times the fancy of dialists seems to have run riot in devising elaborate surfaces on which the dial was to be traced. Some- times the shadow was received on a cone, sometimes on a cylinder, or on a sphere, or on a combination of these. A universal dial was constructed of a figure in the shape of a cross ; another universal dial showed the hours by a globe and by several gnomons. These universal dials required adjusting before use, and for this a mariner's compass and a spirit-level were necessary. But it would be tedious and useless to enumerate the various forms designed, and, as a rule, the more complex the less accurate. Another class of useless dials consisted of those with variable centres. They were drawn on fixed horizontal planes, and each day the style had to be shifted to a new position. Instead of hour-lines they had hour-points ; and the style, instead of being parallel to the axis of the earth, might make any chosen angle with the horizon. There was no practical advantage in their use, but rather the reverse ; and they can only be considered as furnishing material for new mathematical problems. Portable Dials. — The dials so far described have been fixed dials, for even the fanciful ones to which reference was just now made were to be fixed before using. There were, however, other dials, made generally of a small size, so as to be carried in the pocket; and these, so long as the sun shone, roughly answered the purpose of a watch. The description of the portable dial has generally been mixed up with that of the fixed dial, as if it had been merely a special case, and the same principle had been the basis of both; whereas there are essential points of difference between them, besides those which are at once apparent. In the fixed dial the result depends on the uniform angular motion of the sun round the fixed style; and a small error in the assumed position of the sun, whether due to the imperfection of the instru- ment, or to some small neglected correction, has only a trifling effect on the time. This is owing to the angular displacement of the sun being so rapid— a quarter of a degree every minute — that for the ordinary affairs of life greater accuracy is not required, as a displace- ment of a quarter of a degree, or at any rate of one degree, can be readily seen by nearly every person. But with a portable dial this is no longer the case. The uniform angular motion is not now avail- able, because we have no determined fixed plane to which we may refer it. In the new position, to which the observer has gone, the zenith is the only point of the heavens he can at once practically find ; and the basis for the determination of the time is the constantly but very irregularly varying zenith distance of the sun. At sea the observation of the altitude of a celestial body is the only method available for finding local time ; but the perfection which has been attained in the construction of the sextant enables the sailor to reckon on an accuracy of seconds. Certain precautions have, however, to be taken. The observations must not be made within a couple of hours of noon, on account of the slow rate of change at that time, nor too near the horizon, on account of the uncertain refracticrcs there ; and the same restrictions must be observed in using a portah pay/xa, a partition). The dia- phragm or midriff (Anglo-Saxon, mid, middle, hrif, belly) in human anatomy is a large fibro-muscular partition between the cavities of the thorax and abdomen; it is convex toward the thorax, concave toward the abdomen, and consists of a central tendon and a muscular margin. The central tendon{q, fig. i) is trefoil in shape, its leaflets being right, left and anterior; of these the right is the largest and the left the smallest. The fleshy fibres rise, in front from the back of the xiphoid cartilage of the sternum (d), laterally by six serrations, from the inner surfaces of the lower six ribs, interdigitating with the transversalis, posteriorly from the arcuate ligaments, of which there are five, a pair of external, a pair of internal, and a single median one. The external arcuate ligament (h) stretches from the tip of the twelfth rib (6) to the costal process of the first lumbar vertebra in front of the quad- ratus lumborum muscle (o), the internal and middle are continua- tions of the crura which rise from the ventro-lateral aspects of the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae, the right (e) coming from three, the left (/) from two. On reaching the level of the twelfth thoracic vertebra each crus spreads out into a fan-shaped mass of fibres, of which the innermost join their fellows from the opposite crus, in front of the aortic opening (k), to form the middle arcuate Fig. I. — Abdominal Surface of the Diaphragm. ligament; the outer ones (g) arch in front of the psoas muscle («) to the tip of the costal process of the first lumbar vertebra to form the internal arcuate ligament, while the intermediate ones pass to the central tendon. There are three large openings in the diaphragm; the aortic (k) is behind the middle arcuate ligament and transmits the aorta, the vena azygos major, and the thoracic duct. In the right leaflet is an opening (sometimes called the hiatus quadratus) for the inferior vena cava and a branch of the right phrenic nerve (m), while in front and a little to the left of the aortic opening is one for the oesophagus and the two pneumo- gastric nerves (/), the left being in front and the right behind. DIARBEKR— DIARRHOEA 167 The fleshy fibres on each side of this opening act as a sphincter. Passing between the xiphoid and costal origins in front are the superior epigastric arteries, while the other terminal branches of the internal mammaries, the musculo-phrenics, pass through between two costal origins. Through the crura pass the splanchnic nerves, and in addition to these the left crus is pierced by the vena azygos minor. The sympathetic nerves usually enter the abdomen behind the internal arcuate ligaments. The phrenic nerves, which are the main supply of the diaphragm, divide before reaching the muscle and pierce it in a number of places to enter its abdominal surface, but some of the lower intercostal nerves assist in the supply. The last thoracic or subcostal nerves pass behind the external arcuate ligament. For the action of the diaphragm see Respiratory System. Embryology. — The diaphragm is at first developed intheneckregion of the embryo, and this accounts for the phrenic nerves, which supply it, rising from the fourth and fifth cervical. From the mesoderm on the caudal side of the pericardium is developed the septumtransversum, and in this the central tendon is formed. The fleshy portion is developed on each side in two parts, an anterior or sterno-costal which is derived from the longitudinal neck musculature, probably the same layer from which the sternothyroid comes, and a spinal part which is a derivative of the transversalis sheet of the trunk. Between these two parts is at one time a gap, the spino-costal hiatus, and this is obliterated by the growth of the pleuro-peritoneal membrane, which may occasionally fail to close and so may form the site of a phrenic hernia. With the growth of the body and the development of the lungs the diaphragm shifts its position until it becomes the septum between the thoracic and abdominal cavities. (See A. Keith, "On the Development of the Diaphragm," Jour, of Anat. and Phys. vol. 39.) A. Paterson has recorded cases in which the left half of the diaphragm is wanting (Proceedings of the Anatomical Society of Gt. Britain, June 1900; Jour, of Anat. and Phys. vol. 34), and occasionally deficiencies are found elsewhere, especially in the sternal portion. For further details see Quain's Anatomy, vol. i. (London, 1908). Comparative Anatomy. — A complete diaphragm, separating the thoracic from the abdominal parts of the coelom, is characteristic of the Mammalia; it usually has the human structure and relations exceptthat belowthe Anthropoids it is separated from the pericardium by the azygous lobe of the lung. In some Mammals, e.g. Echidna and Phocoena, it is entirely muscular. In theCetacea it is remarkable for its obliquity; its vertebral attachment is much nearer the tail than its sternal or ventral one ; this allows a much larger lung space in the dorsal than in the ventral part of the thorax, and may be concerned with the equipoise of the animal. (Otto Muller, " Unter- suchungen iiber die Veranderung, welche die Respirationsorgane der Saugetiere durch die Anpassung an das Leben im Wasser erlitten haben," Jen. Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., 1898, p. 93.) In the Ungulata only one crus is found (Windle and Parsons, " Muscles of the Ungulata," Proc. Zool. Soc, 1903, p. 287). Below the Mammals incomplete partitions between the pleural and peritoneal cavities are found in Chelonians, Crocodiles and Birds, and also in Amphibians (Xenopus and Pipa). (F. G. P.) DIARBEKR 1 {Kara Amid or Black Amid; the Roman Amida), the chief town of a vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, situated on a basaltic plateau on the right bank of the Tigris, which here flows in a deep open valley. The town is still surrounded by the masonry walls of black basalt which give it the name of Kara or Black Amid; they are well built and imposing on the west facing the open country, but almost in ruins where they overlook the river. A mass of gardens and orchards cover the slope down to the river on the S.W., but there are no suburbs outside the walls. The houses are rather crowded but only partially fill the walled area. The population numbers 38,000, nearly half being Christian, comprising Turks, Kurds, Arabs, Turkomans, Armenians, Chaldeans, Jacobites and a few Greeks. The streets are 10 ft to 15 ft. wide, badly paved and dirty; the houses and shops are low, mostly of stone, and some of stone and mud. The bazaar is a good one, and gold and silver filigree work is made, peculiar in character and design. , The cotton industry is declining, but manufacture of silk is increasing. Fruit is good and abundant as the rich volcanic soil is well watered from the town springs. The size of the melons is specially famous. To the south, the walls are some 40 ft. high, faced with large cut stone blocks of very solid construction, with towers and square bastions rising to 500 ft. There are four gates: on the north the Kharput gate, on the west the Rum, on the south the Mardin, and on the 1 From Diar, land, and Bekr (i.e. Abu Bekr, the caliph). east the Yeni Kapu or new gate. A citadel enclosure stands at the N. E. corner and is now partly in ruins, but the interior space is occupied by the government konak. The summer climate in the confined space within the town is excessively hot and unhealthy. Epidemics of typhus are not unknown, as well as ophthalmia. The Diarbekr boil is like the " Aleppo button," lasting a long time and leaving a deep scar. Winters are fre- quently severe but do not last long. Snow sometimes lies, and ice is stored for summer use. Scorpions noted for the virulence of their poison abound as well as horse leeches in the tanks. The town is supplied with water both by springs inside the town and by aqueducts from fountains at Ali Punar and Hamervat. The principal exports are wool, mohair and copper ore, and imports are cotton and woollen goods, indigo, coffee, sugar, petroleum, &c. The Great Mosque, Ulu Jami, formerly a Christian church, occupies the site of a Sassanian palace and was built with materials from an older palace, probably that of Tigranes II. The remains consist of the facades of two palaces 400 ft. apart, each formed by a row of Corinthian columns surmounted by an equal number of a Byzantine type. Kufic inscriptions run across the fronts under the entablature. The court of the mosque is entered by a gateway on which lions and other animals are sculptured. The churches of greatest interest are those of SS. Cosmas and Damian (Jacobite) and the church of St James (Greek). In the 19th century Diarbekr was one of the largest and most flourishing cities of Asia, and as a commercial centre it now stands at the meeting-point of several important routes. It is at the head of the navigation of the Tigris, which is traversed down stream by keleks or rafts supported by inflated skins. There is a good road to Aleppo and Alexandretta on the Mediter- ranean, and to Samsun on the Black Sea by Kharput, Malatia and Sivas. There are also routes to Mosul and Bitlis. Diarbekr became a Roman colony in a.d. 230 under the name of Amida, and received a Christian bishop in a.d. 325. It was enlarged and strengthened by Constantius II., in whose reign it was taken after a long siege by Shapur (Sapor) II., king of Persia. The historian Ammianus Marcellinus, who took part in the defence, gives a detailed account of it. In the later wars between the Persians and Romans it more than once changed hands. Though ceded by Jovian to the Persians it again became annexed to the Roman empire, and in the reign of Anastasius (a.d. 502) was once more taken by the Persians, when 80,000 of its in- habitants were slain. It was taken c. 638 by the Arabs, and afterwards passed into the hands of the Seljuks and Persians, from whom it was finally captured by Selim I. in 1515; a nd since that date it has remained under Ottoman rule. About 2 m. below the town is a masonry bridge over the Tigris; the older portion being probably Roman, and the western part, which bears a Kufic inscription, being Arab. The vilayet of Diarbekr extends south from Palu on the Euphrates toMardin and Nisibin on the edge of the Mesopotamian plain, and is divided into three sanjaks — Arghana, Diarbekr and Mardin. The headwaters of the main arm of the Tigris have their source in the vilayet. Cereals, cotton, tobacco, rice and silk are produced, but most of the fertile lands have been abandoned to semi-nomads, who raise large quantities of live stock. The richest portion of the vilayet lies east of the capital in the rolling plains watered by tributaries of the Tigris. An exceptionally rich copper mine exists at Arghana Maden, but it is very imperfectly worked; galena mineral oil and silicious sand are also found. (C. W. W.; F. R. M.) DIARRHOEA (from Gr. 81a, through, peco, flow), an exces- sive looseness of the bowels, a symptom of irritation which may be due to various causes, or may be associated with some specific disease. The treatment in such latter cases necessarily varies, since the symptom itself may be remedial, but in ordinary cases depends on the removal of the cause of irritation by the use of aperients, various sedatives being also prescribed. In chronic diarrhoea careful attention to the diet is necessary. 1 68 DIARY— DIASPORE DIARY, the Lat. diarium (from dies, a day), the book in which are preserved the daily memoranda regarding events and actions which come under the writer's personal observation, or are related to him by others. The person who keeps this record is called a diarist. It is not necessary that the entries in a diary should be made each day, since every life, however full, must contain absolutely empty intervals. But it is essential that the entry should be made during the course of the day to which it refers. When this has evidently not been done, as in the case of Evelyn's diary, there is nevertheless an effort made to give the memoranda the effect of being so recorded, and in point of fact, even in a case like that of Evelyn, it is probable that what we now read is an enlargement of brief notes jotted down on the day cited. When this is not approximately the case, the diary is a fraud, for its whole value depends on its instantaneous transcript of impressions. In its primitive form, the diary must always have existed; as soon as writing was invented, men and women must have wished to note down, in some almanac or journal, memoranda respect- ing their business, their engagements or their adventures. But the literary value of these would be extremely insignificant until the spirit of individualism had crept in, and human beings began to be interesting to other human beings for their own sake. It is not, therefore, until the close of the Renaissance that we find diaries beginning to have literary value, although, as the study of sociology extends, every scrap of genuine and unaffected record of early history possesses an ethical interest. In the 1 7th century, diaries began to be largly written in England, although in most cases without any idea of even eventual publication. Sjr William Dugdale (1605-1686) had certainly no expectation that his slight diary would ever see the light. There is no surviving record of a journal kept by Clarendon, Richard Baxter, Lucy Hutchinson and other autobiographical writers of the middle of the century, but we may take it for granted that they possessed some such record, kept from day to day. Bulstrode Whitelocke (1605- 1675), whose Memorials of the English Affairs covers the ground from 1625 to 1660, was agenuine diarist. So was the elder George Fox (1624-1600), who kept not merely " a great journal," but " the little journal books," and whose work was published in 1694. The famous diary of John Evelyn (1620-1706) professes to be the record of seventy years, and, although large tracts of it are covered in a very perfunctory manner, while in others many of the entries have the air of having been written in long after the event, this is a very interesting and amusing work; it was not published until 1818. In spite of all its imperfections there is a great charm about the diary of Evelyn, and it would hold a still higher position in the history of literature than it does if it were not overshadowed by what is unquestionably the most illustrious of the diaries of the world, that of Samuel Pepys (1633-1703). This was begun on the 1st of January 1660 and was carried on until the 29th of May 1669. The extraordinary value of Pepys' diary consists in its fidelity to the portraiture of its author's character. He feigns nothing, conceals nothing, sets nothing down in malice or insincerity. He wrote in a form of shorthand intelligible to no one but himself, and not a phrase betrays the smallest expectation that any eye but his own would ever investigate the pages of his confession. The importance of this wonderful document, in fact, lay unsuspected until 1819, when the Rev. John Smith of Baldock began to decipher the MS. in Magdalene College, Cambridge. It was not until 1825 that Lord Braybrooke published part of what was only fully edited, under the care of Mr Wheatley, in 1893-1896. In the age which suc- ceeded that of Pepys, a diary of extraordinary emotional interest was kept by Swift from i7ioto 171 3, and was sent to Ireland in the form of a " Journal to Stella "; it is a surprising amalgam of ambition, affection, wit and freakishness. John Byrom (1692-1763), the Manchester poet, kept a journal, which was published in 1854. The diary of the celebrated dissenting divine, Philip Doddridge (1702-1751), was printed in 1829. Of far greater interest are the admirably composed and vigorously written journals of John Wesley (1703-1791). But the most celebrated work of this kind produced in the latter half of the 18th century was the diary of Fanny Burney (Madame D'Arblay), published in 1 842-1 846. It will be perceived that, without exception, these works were posthumously published, and the whole conception of the diary has been that it should be written for the writer alone, or, if for the public, for the public when all prejudice shall have passed away and all passion cooled down. Thus, and thus only, can the diary be written so as to impress upon its eventual readers a sense of its author's perfect sincerity and courage. Many of the diaries described above were first published in the opening years of the 19th century, and it is unquestionable that the interest which they awakened in the public led to their imitation. Diaries ceased to be rare, but as a rule the specimens which have hitherto appeared have not presented much literary interest. Exception must be made in favour of the journals of two minor politicians, Charles Greville (1794-1865) and Thomas Creevey (1 768-1838), whose indiscretions have added much to the gaiety of nations; the papers of the former appeared in 1874- 1887, those of the latter in 1903. The diary of Henry Crabb Robinson (1775-1867), printed in 1869, contains excellent biographical material. Tom Moore's journal, published in 1856 by Lord John Russell, disappointed its rea'ders. But it is probable, if we reason by the analogy of the past, that the most curious and original diaries of the 19th century are still unknown to us, and lie jealously guarded under lock and key by the descendants of those who compiled them. It was natural that the form of the diary should appeal to a people so sensitive to social peculiarities and so keen in the observation of them as the French. A medieval document of immense value is the diary kept by an anonymous curl during the reigns of Charles VI. and Charles VII. This Journal d'un bourgeois de Paris was kept from 1409 to 143 1 , and was continued by another hand down to 1449. The marquis de Dangeau (1638-1720) kept a diary from 1684 till the year of his death; this although dull, and as Saint-Simon said " of an insipidity to make you sick," is an inexhaustible storehouse of facts about the reign of Louis XIV. Saint-Simon's own brilliant memoirs, written from 1691 to 1723, may be considered as a sort of diary. The lawyer, Edmond Barbier (1689-1771), wrote a journal of the anecdotes and little facts which came to his knowledge from i7i8to 1762. The studious care which he took to bt correct, and his manifest candour, give a singular value to Barbier's record; his diary was not printed at all until 1847, nor, in its entirety, until 1857. The song-writer, Charles Colle (1709-1783), kept a journal historique from 1758 to i782;it is full of vivacity, but very scandalous and spiteful. It saw the light in 1805, and surprised those to whom Colle, in his lifetime, had seemed the most placid and good-natured of men. Petit de Bachaumont (1690-1770) had access to remarkable sources of information, and his MSmoires secrets (a diary the publication of which began in 1762 and was continued after Bachaumont's death, until 1787, by other persons) contains a valuable mass of documents. The marquis d'Argenson (1694-1757)* kept a diary, of which a com- paratively full textwas first published in 1859. In recent times the posthumous publication of the diaries of the Russian artist, Marie Bashkirtseff (1860-1884), produced a great sensation in 1887, and revealed a most remarkable temperament. The brothers Jules and Edmond de Goncourt kept a very minute diary of all that occurred around them in artistic and literary Paris; after the death of Jules, in 1870, this was continued by Edmond, who published the three first volumes in 1 888. The publication of this work was continued, and it produced no little scandal. It is excessively ill-natured in parts, but of its vivid picturesqueness, and of its general accuracy as a transcript of conversation, there can be no two opinions. (E. G.) DIASPORE, a native aluminium hydroxide, AIO(OH), crystal- lizing in the orthorhombic system and isomorphous with gothite and manganite. It occurs sometimes as flattened crystals, but usually as lamellar or scaly masses, the flattened surface being a direction of perfect cleavage on which the lustre is markedly pearly in character. It is colourless or greyish-white, yellowish, sometimes violet in colour, and varies from translucent to DIASTYLE— DIATOMACEAE 169 transparent. It may be readily distinguished from other colour- less transparent minerals, with a perfect cleavage and pearly lustre — mica, talc, brucite, gypsum — by its greater hardness of 65-7. The specific gravity is 3-4. When heated before the blowpipe it decrepitates violently, breaking up into white pearly scales; it was because of this property that the mineral was named diaspora by R. J. Haiiy in 1801, from diacnrdptiv, " to scatter." The mineral occurs as an alteration product of corundum or emery, and is found in granular limestone and other crystalline rocks. Well-developed crystals are found in the emery deposits of the Urals and at Chester, Massachusetts, and in kaolin at Schemnitz in Hungary. If obtainable in large quantity it would be of economic importance as a source of alumina. (L. J. S.) DIASTYLE (from Gr. 5ta, through, and ctvKos, column), in architecture, a term used to designate an intercolumniation of three or four diameters. DIATOMACEAE. For the knowledge we possess of these beautiful plants, so minute as to be undiscernible by our unaided vision, we are indebted to the assistance of the microscope. It was not till towards the close of the 18th century that the first known forms of this group were discovered by O. F. M tiller. And so slow was the process of discovery in this field of scientific re- search that in the course of half a century, when Agardh published his Syslema algarum in 1824, only forty-nine species included under eight genera had been described. Since that time, however, with modern microscopes and microscopic methods, eminent botanists in all parts of the civilized world have studied these minute plants, with the result that the number of known genera and species has been greatly increased. Over 10,000 species of diatoms have been described, and about 1200 species and numerous varieties occur in the fresh waters and on the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland. Rabenhorst, in the index to his Flora Europaea algarum (1864) enumerated about 4000 forms which had up to that time been discovered throughout the continent of Europe. The diatoms are more commonly known among systematic botanists as the Bacillarieae, particularly on the continent of Europe, and although such an immense number of very diverse forms are included in it, the group as a whole exhibits a remark- able uniformity of structure. The Bacillarieae is one of the large groups of Algae, placed by some in close proximity to the Fig. 1. A and B, Melosira arenaria. E, showing formation of auxospore. C-E, Melosira varians. Conjugatae and by others as an order of the Brown Algae (or Phaeophyceae) ; but their characters are so distinctive and their structure is so uniform as to warrant the separation of the diatoms as a distinct class. The affinities of the group are doubtful. The diatoms exhibit great variety of form. While some Fig. 2.—Synedra Ulna. species are circular and more or less disk-shaped, others are oval in outline. Some are linear, as Synedra Ulna (fig. 2) ; others more or less cres- Fig. 3. — Podo- sphenia Lyngbyii. centic; others again are cuneate, as Podosphenia Lyngbyii (fig. 3); some few have a sigmoid outline, as Pleuro- sigma balticum (fig. 4); but the prevailing forms are naviculoid, as in the large family Naviculaceae, of which the genus Navicula embraces upwards of 1000 species. They vary also in their modes of growth, — some being free-floating, others attached to foreign bodies by simple or branched gelatinous stalks, which in some species are short and thick, while in others they are long and slender. In some genera the forms are simple, while in others the frustules are connected together in ribbon-like filaments, or form, as in other cases, zigzag chains. In some genera the individuals are naked, while in many others they are enclosed in a more or less definite gelatinous investment. The conditions necessary to their growth are moisture and light. Wherever these circum- stances coexist, _ „, . , , . diatomaceous FlG ' ^-P^urosrgma balticum. forms will almost invariably be found. They occur mixed with other organisms on the surface of moist rocks; in streamlets and pools, they form a brownish stratum on the surface of the mud, or cover the stems and leaves of water plants or floating twigs with a furry investment. Marine forms are usually attached to various sea-weeds, and many are found in the stomachs of molluscs, holothurians, ascidians and other denizens of the ocean. The fresh-water forms are specifically distinct from those incidental to salt or brackish water, — fresh-water species, however, are sometimes got ps| iF 1 - =A l^ lit; ESj t— £5 fc= pla£r; r — jlp^ Us gapS jrjflr i&fll fl cy i-ifnnry tfOOT ■p-y Slfe!"?! :"" j'l [ '" lly -. ^3 '•m'-tHF 8 "" ^1 z™^!^ al i ■ 1 ffi~— • ^|r r=MKr^ " " — ~~ If!!' iinfll t n ri'Knri Fig. 5. A-C, Tetracyclics lacustris. D and E, Tabellaria fenestraia. F and G, Tabellaria flocculosa. carried some distance into the sea by the force of the current, and in tidal rivers marine forms are carried up by the force of the tide. Some notion may be formed of the extreme minuteness of these forms from the fact that one the length of which is -j^th of an inch may be considered as beyond the medium size. Some few, indeed, are much larger, but by far the greater proportion are of very much smaller dimensions. Diatoms are unicellular plants distinguished from kindred forms by the fact of having their soft vegetative part covered by a siliceous case. Each individual is known as a frustule, and the cell-wall consists of two similar valves nearly parallel to each other, each valve being furnished with a rim (or connecting-band) projecting from it at a right angle. One of these valves with its rim is slightly smaller than the 170 DIATOMACEAE other, the smaller fitting into the larger pretty much as a pill-box fits into its cover. This peculiarity of structure affords ample scope for the growthof the protoplasmic cell-contents, for as the latter increase in volume the siliceous valves are pushed out, and their corresponding siliceous rims become broader. The con- necting-bands although closely fitting their respective valves are distinct from them, and together the two bands form the girdle. An individual diatom is usually described from two aspects, one in which the surface of the valve is exposed to view — the valve view, and one in which the girdle side is exposed — the girdle view. The valves are thin and transparent, convex on the outside, and generally ornamented with a variety of sculptured markings. These sculptures often present the aspect of striae across the face of the valve, and the best lenses have shown them to consist of a series of small cavities within the siliceous wall of the cell. The valves of some of the marine genera exhibit a beautiful areolated structure due to the presence of larger chambers within the siliceous cell-wall. Many diatoms possess thickenings of the cell-wall, visible in the valve view, in the centre of the valve and at each extremity. These thickenings are known as the nodules, and they are generally connected by a long median line, the raphe, which is a cleft in the siliceous valve, extending at least some part of its length. The protoplasmic contents of this siliceous box-like unicell are very similar to the contents of many other algal cells. There is a living protoplasmic layer or primordial utricle, connected either by two broad bands or by a number of anastomosing threads with a central mass of protoplasm in which the nucleus is embedded. The greater part of the cavity of the cell is occupied by one or several fluid vacuoles. The characteristic brown colour of diatoms is due to the presence of chromatophores embedded in the lining layer of protoplasm. In number and form these chromatophores are variable. They contain chlorophyll, but the green colour is masked by the presence of diatomin, a brown pigment which resembles that which occurs in the Brown Algae or Phaeophyceae. The chromatophores contain a variable number of pyrenoids, colourless proteid bodies of a crystalloidal character. One of the first phenomena which comes under the notice of the observer is the extraordinary power of motion with which the frustules are endowed. Some species move slowly backwards and forwards in pretty much the same line, but in the case of Bacillaria paradoxa the motion is very rapid, the frustules darting through the water in a zigzag course. To account for this motion various theories have been suggested, none of which appear to be altogether satisfactory. There is little doubt that the movements are connected with the raphe, and in some diatoms there is much evidence to prove that they are due to an exudation of mucilage. Classification.— The most natural system of classification of the Bacillarieae is the one put forward by Schiitt (1896), and since generally followed by systematists. He separates them into two primary divisions, the ' Centricae ' and the ' Pennatae.' The former includes all those diatoms which in the valve view possess a radial symmetry around a central point, and which are destitute of a raphe (or a pseudoraphe). The latter includes those which are zygomorphic or otherwise irregular, and in which the valve view is generally boat-shaped or needle-shaped, with the mark- ings arranged in a sagittal manner on each side of a raphe or pseudoraphe. Reproduction. — In the Diatomaceae, as well as in the Desmidieae, the ordinary mode of increase is by simple cell-division. The cell-contents within the enclosure of the siliceous case separate into two distinct masses. As these two daughter-masses become more and more developed, the valves of the mother-cell are pushed more and more widely apart. A new siliceous valve is secreted by each of the two masses on the side opposite to the original valve, the new Valves being situated within the girdle of the original frustule. When this process has been completed the girdle of the mother frustule gives way, and two distinct frustules are formed, the siliceous valves in each of these new frustules being one of the valves of the mother-cell, and a newly formed valve similar and more or less parallel to it. During the life of the plant this process of self-division is continued with an almost incredible rapidity. On this subject the observation of Professor William Smith, writing in 1853, is worthy of special notice: — ■" I have been unable to ascertain the time occupied in a single act of self-division, but supposing it to be completed in twenty-four hours we should have, as the progeny of a single frustule, the amazing number of 1,000,000,000 in a single month, a circumstance which will in some degree explain the sudden, or at least rapid, appearance of these organisms in localities where they were a short time previously either unrecognized or sparingly dif- fused " (British Diatomaceae, vol. i. p. 25). Individual diatoms when once produced by cell-division are incapable of any increase in size owing to the rigidity of their siliceous cell-walls, and since the new valves are always formed within the girdle of the old ones, it would follow that every succeeding generation is reduced in size by the thickness of the girdle. In some diatoms, however, this is not strictly true as daughter-cells are some- times produced of larger size than the parent-cells. Thus, the reduction in size of the individuals is not always proportionate to the number of cell-divisions. On the diminution in size having reached a limit in any species, the maximum size is regained by the formation of an auxospore. There are five known methods of reproduction by auxospores, but it is unneces- sary here to enter into details of these methods. Suffice it to say that a normal auxospore is produced by the conjugation of two parent-cells, its distinguishing feature being a rejuven- escence accompanied by a marked increase in size. These auxospores formed without conjugation are parthenogenetic. Mode of Preparation. — The Diatomaceae are usually gathered in small bottles, and special care should be taken to collect them as free as possible from extraneous matter. A small portion having been examined under the microscope, should the gathering be thought worthy of preservation, some of the material is boiled in acid for the purpose of cleaning it. The acids usually employed are hydrochloric, nitric or sulphuric, according as circumstances require. When the operator considers that by this process all foreign matter has been eliminated, the residuum is put into a precipitating jar of a conical shape, broader at the bottom than at the top, and covered to the brim with filtered or distilled water. When the diatoms have settled in the bottom of the jar, the supernatant fluid is carefully removed by a syringe or some similar instrument, so that the sediment be not disturbed. The jar is again filled with water, and the process repeated till the acid has been completely removed. It is, desirable afterwards to boil the sediment for a short time with supercarbonate of soda, the alkali being removed in the same manner as the acid. A small portion may then be placed with a pipette upon a slip of glass, and, when the moisture has been thoroughly evaporated, the film that remains should be covered with dilute Canada balsam, and, a thin glass cover having been gently laid over the balsam, the preparation should be laid aside for a short time to harden, and then is ready for observation. General Remarks. — Diatoms are most abundant in cold latitudes, having a general preference for cold water. In the pelagic waters of lakes and of the oceans they are often very abundant, and in the cold waters of the Arctic and Antarctic Fig. 6. — Formation of Auxospores. A. Navicula limosa. B. Achnanthes flexella C. Navicula Amphisbaena. D. Navicula viridis. DIAULOS-^DIAZ, NARCISSE 171 Oceans they exist in prodigious ^numbers. They thus form a large proportion of both the marine and the fresh-water plankton. Large numbers of fossil diatoms are known. Not only are these minute plants assisting at the present time in the accumula- tion of oceanic and lake deposits, but in former ages they have been sufficiently active to give rise to considerable deposits of diatomaceous earths. When the plant has fulfilled its natural course the siliceous covering sinks to the bottom of the water in which it had lived, and there forms part of the sediment. When in the process of ages, as it has often happened, the accumulated sediment has been hardened into solid rock, the siliceous frustules of the diatoms remain unaltered, and, if the rock be disintegrated by natural or artificial means, may be removed from the enveloping matrix and subjected to examination under the microscope. The forms found may from their character help in some degree to illustrate the conditions under which the stratum of rock had been originally deposited. These earths are generally of a white or grey colour. Some of them are hard, but most are soft and friable. Many of them are of economic importance, being used as polishing powders (" Tripoli "), as absorbents for nitroglycerin in the manufacture of dynamite (" Kieselguhr "), as a dentifrice, and more recently they have been used to a large extent in the manufacture of non-conducting and sound-proof materials. Most of these diatomaceous earths are associated with rocks of Tertiary formations, although it is generally regarded that the earliest appearance of diatoms is in the Upper Cretaceous (chalk). Vast deposits of Diatomaceous earths have been discovered in various parts of the world, — some the deposit of fresh, others of salt wa'ter. Of these deposits the most remarkable for extent, as well as for the number and beauty of the species contained in it, is that of Richmond, in Virginia, one of the United States of America. It extends for many miles, and is in some places at least 40 ft. deep. It is a remarkable fact that though the genera- tions of a diatom in the space of a few months far exceed in number the generation of man during the period usually assigned to the existence of the race, the fossil genera and species are in most respects to the most minute details identical with the numerous living representatives of their class. (E.O'M.jG.S.W.*) DIAULOS (from Gr. Si.-, double, and auXos, pipe), in archi- tecture, the peristyle round the great court of the palaestra, described by Vitruvius (v. 11), which measured two stadia (1200 ft.) in length; on the south side this peristyle had two rows of columns, so that in stormy weather the rain might not be driven into the inner part. The word was also used in ancient Greece for a foot-race of twice the usual length. DIAVOLO, FRA (1771-1806), the popular name given to a famous Italian brigand associated with the political revolutions of southern Italy at the time of the French invasion. His real name was Michele Pezza, and he was born of low parentage at Itri; he had committed many murders and robberies in the Terra di Lavoro, but by good luck combined with audacity he always escaped capture, whence his name of Fra Diavolo, popular superstition having invested him with the characters of a monk and a demon, and it seems that at one time he actually was a monk. When the kingdom of Naples was overrun by the French and the Parthenopaean Republic established (1799), Cardinal Ruffo, acting on behalf of the Bourbon king Ferdinand IV., who had fled to Sicily, undertook the reconquest of the country, and for this purpose he raised bands of peasants, gaol-birds, brigands, &c, under the name of Sanfedisti or bande della Santa Fede (" bands of the Holy Faith "). Fra Diavolo was made leader of one of them, and waged untiring war against the French troops, cutting off isolated detachments and murdering stragglers and couriers. Owing to his unrivalled knowledge of the country, he succeeded in interrupting the enemy's communications between Rome and Naples. But although, like his fellow-brigands under Ruffo, he styled himself " the faithful servant and subject of His Sicilian Majesty," wore a military uniform and held military rank, and was even created duke of Cassano, his atrocities were worthy of a bandit chief. On one occasion he threw some of his prisoners, men, women and children, over a precipice, and on another he had a party of seventy shot. His excesses while at Albano were such that the Neapolitan general Naselli had- him arrested and imprisoned in the castle of St Angelo, but he was liberated soon after. When Joseph Bonaparte was made king of Naples, extra- ordinary tribunals were established to suppress brigandage, and a price was put on Fra Diavolo's head. After spreading terror through Calabria, he crossed over to Sicily, where he concerted further attacks on the French. He returned to the mainland at the head of 200 convicts, and committed further excesses in the Terra di Lavoro; but the French troops were everywhere on the alert to capture him and he had to take refuge in the woods of Lenola. For two months he evaded his pursuers, but at length, hungry and ill, he went in disguise to the village of Baronissi, where he was recognized and arrested, tried by an extraordinary tribunal, condemned to death and shot. In his last moments he cursed both the Bourbons and Admiral Sir Sidney Smith for having induced him to engage in this reckless adventure (1806). Although his cruelty was abominable, he was not altogether without generosity, and by his courage and audacity he acquired a certain romantic popularity. His name has gained a world-wide celebrity as the title of a famous opera by Auber. The best known account of Fra Diavolo is in Pietro Colletta's Storia del reame di Napoli (2nd ed., Florence, 1848); B. Amante's Fra Diavolo e il suo tempo (Florence, 1904) is an attempted rehabili- tation; but A. Luzio, whose account in Profili e bozzetti storici (Milan, 1906) gives the latest information on the subject, has de- molished Amante's arguments. (U. V.*) DIAZ, NARCISSE VIRGILIO (1808-1876), French painter, was born in Bordeaux of Spanish parents, on the 25th of August 1808. At first a figure-painter who indulged in strong colour, in his later life Diaz became a painter of the forest and a " tone artist " of the first order. He spent much time at Barbizon; and although he is the least exalted of the half-dozen great artists who are usually grouped round that name, he sometimes produced works of the highest quality. At the age of ten Diaz became an orphan, and misfortune dogged his earlier years. His foot was bitten by „ reptile in Meudon wood, near Sevres, where he had been taken to live with some friends of his mother. The bite was badly dressed, and ultimately it cost him his leg. Afterwards his wooden stump became famous. At fifteen he entered the studios at Sevres, where the decoration of porcelain occupied him; but tiring of the restraint of fixed hours, he took to painting Eastern figures dressed in richly coloured garments. Turks and Oriental scenes attracted him, and many brilliant gems remain of this period. About 1 83 1 Diaz encountered Theodore Rousseau, for whom he entertained a great veneration, although Rousseau was four years his junior; but it was not until ten years later that the remark- able incident took place of Rousseau teaching Diaz to paint treesi At Fontainebleau Diaz found Rousseau painting his wonderful forest pictures, and determined to paint in the same way if possible. Rousseau, then in poor health, worried at home, and embittered against the world, was difficult to approach. Diaz followed him surreptitiously to the forest, — wooden leg not hindering, — and he dodged round after the painter, trying to observe his method of work. After a time Diaz found a way to become friendly with Rousseau, and revealed his anxiety to understand his painting. Rousseau was touched with the passionate words of admiration, and finally taught Diaz all he knew. Diaz exhibited many pictures at the Paris Salon, and was decorated in 1851. During the Franco-German War he went to Brussels. After 1871 he became fashionable, his works gradually rose in the estimation of collectors, and he worked constantly and successfully. In 1876 he caught cold at his son's grave, and on the 1 8th of November of that year he died at Mentone, whither he had gone to recruit his health. Diaz's finest pictures are his forest scenes and storms, and it is on these, and not on his pretty figures, that his fame is likely to rest. There are several fairly good examples of the master in the Louvre, and three small figure pictures in the Wallace collection, Hertford House. Perhaps the most notable of Diaz's works are " La Fee aux Perles " (1857), in the Louvre; " Sunset in the Forest " (1868); ." The Storm," 172 DIAZ, PORFIRIO— DIAZ DE NOVAES and " The Forest of Fontainebleau " (1870) at Leeds. Diaz had no well-known pupils, but Leon Richet followed markedly his methods of tree-painting, and J. F. Millet at one period painted small figures in avowed imitation of Diaz's then popular subjects. See A. Hustin, Les Artistes celebres: Diaz (Paris); D. Croal Thomson, The Barbizon School of Painters (London, 1890) ; J. W. Mollett, Diaz (London, 1890) ; J. Claretie, Peintres et sculpteurs conlemporains : Diaz (Paris, 1882); Albert Wolff, La Capitate de I' art: Narcisse Diaz (Paris, 1886); Ph. Burty, Maitres et petit- maitres: N. Diaz (Paris, 1877). (D.C.T.) DIAZ, PORFIRIO (1830- ), president of the republic of Mexico (q.v.), was born in the southern state of Oaxaca, on the 1 5 th of September 1 830. His father was an innkeeper in the little capital of that province, and died three years after the birth of Porfirio, leaving a family of seven children. The boy, who had Indian blood in his veins, was educated for the Catholic Church, a body having immense influence in the country at that time and ordering and controlling revolutions by the strength of their filled coffers. Arrived at the age of sixteen Porfirio Diaz threw off the authority of the priests. Fired with enthusiasm by stories told by the revolutionary soldiers continually passing through Oaxaca, and hearing about the war with the United States, a year later he determined to set out for Mexico city and join the National Guard. There being no trains, and he being too poor to ride, he walked the greater part of the 250 m., but arrived there too late, as the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo (1848) had been already signed, and Texas finally ceded to the United States. Thus his entering the army was for the time defeated. Thereupon he returned to his native town and began studying law. He took pupils in order to pay his own fees at the Law Institute, and help his mother. At this time he came under the notice and influence of Don Marcos Perez and Benito Juarez, the first a judge, the second a governor of the state of Oaxaca, and soon to become famous as the deliverer of Mexico from the priesthood (War of Reform). Diaz continued in his native town until 1854, when, refusing to vote for the dictator, Santa Anna, he was stung by a taunt of cowardice, and hastily pushing his way to the voting place, he recorded his vote in favour of Alvarez and the revolu- tionists. Orders were given for his arrest, but seizing a rifle and mounting a horse he placed himself at the head of a few revolting peasants, and from that moment became one of the leading spirits in that long struggle for reform, known as the War of Reform, which, under the leadership of Juarez, followed the over- throw of Santa Anna. Promotion succeeded promotion, as Diaz led his troops from victory to victory, amid great privations and difficulties. He was made captain (1856), lieutenant-colonel and colonel (1859), brigadier-general (1861), and general of division for the army (1863). Closely following on civil war, political strife, open rebellion and the great War of Reform, came the French invasion of 1862, and the landing of the emperor Maximilian in 1864. From the moment the French disclosed their intentions of settling in Mexico in 1862, Diaz took a prominent part against the foreign invasion. He was twice seriously wounded, imprisoned on three different occasions, had two hairbreadth escapes, and took part in many daring engagements. So important a personage did he become that both Marshal Bazaine and theemperorMaximilian made overtures to him. At the time of Maximilian's death (with which Diaz personally had nothing to do) he was carrying on the siege of Mexico city, which ended in the surrender of the town two days after the emperor was shot at Queretaro between his two leading generals. Diaz at once set to work to pay up arrears due to his soldiers, proclaimed death as the penalty of plunder and theft, and in the few weeks that followed showed his great administrative powers, the officers as well as the rank and file receiving arrears of pay. On the very day that he occupied Mexico city, the great commander of the army of the east, to everyone's surprise, sent in his resignation. He was, indeed, appointed to the command of the second division of the army by President Juarez in his military reorganization, but Diaz, seeing men who had given great and loyal service to the state dismissed from their positions in the government, and disgusted at this course, retired to the little city of Oaxaca; there he lived, helping in the reorganization of the army but taking no active part in the government until 187 1. On Juarez* death Lerdo succeeded as president, in 1872. His term of office again brought discord, and when it was known that he was attempting to be re-elected in 1876, the storm broke. Diaz came from retirement, took up the leadership against Lerdo, and after desperate struggles and a daring escape finally made a triumphal entry into Mexico city on the 24th of November 1876, as provisional president, quickly followed by the full president- ship. His term of office marks a prominent change in the history of Mexico; from that date he at once forged ahead with financial and political reform, the scrupulous settlement of all national debts, the welding together of the peoples and tribes (there are 150 different Indian tribes) of his country, the establishment of railroads and telegraphs, and all this in a land which had been upheaved for a century with revolutions and bloodshed, and which had had fifty-two dictators, presidents and rulers in fifty-nine years. In 1880 Diaz was succeeded by Gonzalez, the former minister of war, for four years (owing to the limit of the presidential office), but in 1884 he was unanimously re-elected. The government having set aside the above- mentioned limitation, Diaz was continually re-elected to the presidency. He married twice and had a son and two daughters. His gifted second wife (Carmelita), very popular in Mexico, was many years younger than himself. King Edward VII. made him an honorary grand commander of the Bath in June 1906, in recognition of his wonderful administration as perpetual presi- dent for over a quarter of a century. See also Mrs Alec Tweedie, Porfirio Diaz, Seven Times President of Mexico (1906), and Mexico as I saw it (1901) ; Dr Noll, From Empire to Republic (1890); Lieut. Seaton Schroeder, Fall of Maximilian's Empire (New York, 1887); R. de Z. Enriquez, P. Diaz (1908); and an article by Percy Martin in Quarterly Review for October 1909. (E. A. T.) DIAZ DE NOVAES, BARTHOLOMEU (fl. 1481-1500), Portuguese explorer, discoverer of the Cape of Good Hope, was probably a kinsman of Joao Diaz, one of the first Portuguese to round Cape Bojador (1434), and of Diniz Diaz, the discoverer of Cape Verde (1445)- In 1478 a Bartholomeu Diaz, probably identical with the discoverer, was exempted from certain customary payments on ivory brought from the Guinea coast. In 1481 he commanded one of the vessels sent by King John II. under Diogo d'Azambuja to the Gold Coast. In i486 he seems to have been a cavalier of the king's household, and superintendent of the royal warehouses; on the 10th of October in this year he received an annuity of 6000 reis from King John for " services to come "; and some time after this (probably about July or August 1487, rather than July i486, the traditional date) he left Lisbon with three ships to carry on the work of African explora- tion so greatly advanced by Diogo Cao (1482-1486). Passing Cao's farthest point near Cape Cross (in the modern German South-west Africa and) in 21 50' S., he erected a pillar on what is now known as Diaz Point, south of Angra Pequena or Luderitz Bay, in 26° 38' S.; of this fragments still exist. From this point (according to De Barros) Diaz ran thirteen days southwards before strong winds, which freshened to dangerous stormy weather, in a comparatively high southern latitude, considerably south of the Cape. When the storm subsided the Portuguese stood east; and failing, after several days' search, to find land, turned north, and so struck the south coast of Cape Colony at Mossel Bay (Diaz' Bahia dos Vaqueiros), half way between the Capeof Good Hope and Port Elizabeth (February 3 , 1488) . Thence they coasted eastward, passing Algoa Bay (Diaz' Bahia da Roca), erecting pillars (or perhaps wooden crosses) , it is said, on one of the islands in this bay and at or near Cape Padrone farther east; of these no traces remain. The officers and men now began to insist on return, and Diaz could only persuade them to go as far as the estuary of the Great Fish River (Diaz' Rio do Iffante, so named from his colleague, Captain Joao Iffante) . Here, howeyer, half way between Port Elizabeth and East London (and indeed from Cape Padrone), the north-easterly trend of the coast became unmistakable: the way round Africa had been laid open. On his return Diaz perhaps named Cape Agulhas after St Brandan; DIAZO COMPOUNDS 173 while on the southernmost projection of the modern Cape peninsula, who3e remarkable highlands (Table Mountain, &c.) doubtless impressed him as the practical termination of the continent, he bestowed, says De Barros, the name of Cape of Storms (Cabo Tormentoso) in memory of the storms he had experienced in these far southern waters; this name (in the ordinary tradition) was changed by King John to that of Good Hope (Cabo da Boa Esperanto). Some excellent authorities, however, make Diaz himself give the Cape its present name. Hard by this " so many ages unknown promontory " the ex- plorer probably erected his last pillar. After touching at the Ilha do Principe (Prince's Island, south-west of the Cameroons) as well as at the Gold Coast, he appeared at Lisbon in December 1488. He had discovered 1260 m. of hitherto unknown coast; and his voyage, taken with the letters soon afterwards received from Pero de Covilhao (who by way of Cairo and Aden had reached Malabar on one side and the " Zanzibar coast " on the other as far south as Sofala, in 1487-1488) was rightly considered to have solved the question of an ocean route round Africa to the Indies and other lands of South and East Asia. No record has yet been found of any adequate reward for Diaz: on the contrary, when the great Indian expedition was being prepared (for Vasco da Gama's future leadership) Bartolomeu only superintended the building and outfit of the ships; when the fleet sailed in 1497, he only accompanied da Gama to the Cape Verde Islands, and after this was ordered to El Mina on the Gold Coast. On Cabral's voyage of 1500 he was indeed permitted to take part in the discovery of Brazil (April 22), and thence should have helped to guide the fleet to India; but he perished in a great storm off his own Cabo Tormentoso. Like Moses, as Galvano says, he was allowed to see the Promised Land, but not to enter in. See Joao de Barros, Asia, Dec. I. bk. iii. ch. 4; Duarte Pacheco Pereira, Esmeraldo de situ orbis, esp. pp. 15, 90, 92, 94 and Raphael Bastos's introduction to the edition of 1892 (Pacheco met Diaz, returning from his great voyage, at the Ilha do Principe) ; a marginal note, probably by Christopher Columbus himself, on fol. 13 of a copy of Pierre d'Ailly's Imago mundi, now in the Colombina at Seville (the writer of this note fixes Diaz's return to Lisbon, December 1488, and says he was present at Diaz's interview with the king of Portugal, when the explorer described his voyage and showed his route upon the chart he had kept) ; a similar but briefer note in a copy of Pope Pius II. 's Historia rerum ubique gestarum, from the same hand; the Roteiro of Vasco da Gama's First Voyage (Journal of the First Voyage of . . . Da Gama, Hakluyt Soc, ed. E. G. Ravenstein (1898), pp. 9, 14); Ramusio, Navigation! (3rd ed.), vol. i. fol. 144; Castanheda, Historia, bk. i. ch. I ; Galvano, Descobrimentos (Discoveries of tfie World), Hakluyt Soc. (1862), p. 77 ; E. G. Ravenstein, " Voyages of . . . Cao and . . . Dias," in Geog. Journ. (London, December 1900), vol. xvi. pp. 638-655), an excellent critical summary in the light of the most recent investigations of all the material. The fragments of Diaz's only remaining pillar (from Diaz Point) are now partly at the Cape Museum, partly at Lisbon: the latter are photographed in Raven- stein's paper in Geog. Journ. (December 1900, p. 642). (C. R. B.) DIAZO COMPOUNDS, in organic chemistry, compounds of the type R-N-2-X (where R = a hydrocarbon radical, and X = an acid radical or a hydroxyl group). These compounds may be divided into two classes, namely, the true diazo compounds, characterized by the grouping — N = N — , and the diazonium compounds, characterized by the grouping N:N<. The diazonium compounds were first discovered by P. Griess (Ann., 1858, 106, pp. 123 et seq.), and may be prepared by the action of nitrous fumes on a well-cooled solution of a salt of a primary amine, C 6 H 5 NH 2 -HN0 3 + HN0 2 = C 6 H 5 N 2 .N0 3 + 2H 2 0, or, as is more usually the case (since the diazonium salts themselves are generally used only in aqueous solution) by the addition of a well-cooled solution of potassium or sodium nitrite to a well-cooled dilute acid solution of the primary amine. In order to isolate the anhydrous diazonium salts, the method of E. Knoevenagel (Ber., 1890, 23, p. 2094) may be employed. In this process the amine salt is dissolved in absolute alcohol and diazo tized by the addition of amyl nitrite; a crystalline pre- cipitate of the diazonium salt is formed on standing, or on the addition of a small quantity of ether! The diazonium salts are also formed by the action of zinc-dust and acids on the nitrates of primary amines (R. Mohlau,^^., 1883, 16, p. 3080), and by the action of hydroxylamine on nitrosobenzenes. They are colourless crystalline solids which turn brown on exposure. They dissolve easily in water, but only to a slight extent in alcohol and ether. They are very unstable, exploding violently when heated or rubbed. Benzene diazonium nitrate, C 6 H 5 N(N03) :N, crystal- lizes in long silky needles. The sulphate and chloride are similar, but they are not quite so unstable as the nitrate. The bromide may be prepared by the addition of bromine to an ethereal solution of diazo-amino-benzene (tribromaniline remaining in solution). By the addition of potassium bromide and bromine water to diazonium salts they are converted into a perbromide, e.g. C 6 H 6 N 2 Br 3 , which crystallizes in yellow plates. The diazonium salts are characterized by their great reactivity and consequently are important reagents in synthetical processes, since by their agency the amino group in a primary amine may be exchanged for other elements or radicals. The chief reactions are as follows :— 1. Replacement of-NH?. by -OH: — The amine is diazotized and the aqueous solution of the diazonium salt is heated, nitrogen being eliminated and a phenol formed. 2. Replacement of- N Hz by halogens and by the -CN and -CNO groups : — The diazonium salt is warmed with an acid solution of the corresponding cuprous salt (T. Sandmeyer, Ber., 1884, 17, p. 2650), or with copper powder (L. Gattermann, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 1218; 1892, 25, p. 1074). In the case of iodine, the substitution is effected by adding a warm solution of potassium iodide to the diazonium solution, no copper or cuprous salt being necessary; whilst for the production of nitrites a solution of potassium cuprous cyanide is used. This reaction (the so-called " Sandmeyer " reaction) has been investigated by A. Hantzsch and J. W. Blagden (Ber., 1900,33^.2544), who consider that three simultaneous reactions occur, namely, the formation of labile double salts which decompose in such a fashion that the radical attached to the copper atom wanders to the aromatic nucleus; a catalytic action, in which nitrogen is eliminated and the acid radical attaches itself to the aromatic nucleus; and finally, the formation of azo compounds. 3. Replacement of - NH2 by -NO2: — A well -cooled concen- trated solution of potassium mercuric nitrate is added to a cooled solution of benzene diazonium nitrate, when the crystalline salt 2C 6 H 5 N2-N0 3 , Hg(N0 2 ) 2 is precipitated. On warming this with copper powder, it gives a quantitative yield of nitrobenzene (A. Hantzsch, Ber., 1900, 33, p. 2551). 4. Replacement of -NHt by hydrogen: — This exchange is brought about, in some cases, by boiling the diazonium salt with alcohol; but I. Remsen and his pupils (Amer. Chem. Journ., 1888, 9, pp. 389 et seq.) have shown that the main product of this reaction is usually a phenolic ether. This reaction has also been investigated by A. Hantzsch and E. Jochem (Ber., 1901, 34, p. 3337), who arrived at the conclusion that the norma! decomposition of diazonium salts by alcohols results in the formation of phenolic ethers, but that an increase in the molecular weight of the alcohol, or the accumulation of negative groups in the aromatic nucleus, diminishes the yield of the ether and increases the amount of the hydrocarbon formed. The replacement is more readily brought about by the use of sodium stannite (P. Friedlander, Ber., 1889, 22, p. 587), or by the use of a concentrated solution of hypophosphorous acid (J. Mai, Ber., 1902, 35, p. 1 62). A. Hantzsch (Ber., 1896,29^.94751898,31^. 1253) has shown that the chlor- and brom- diazoniumthiocyanates, when dissolved in alcohol containing a trace of hydrochloric acid, become converted into the isomeric thiocyanbenzene diazonium chlorides and bromides. This change only occurs when the halogen atom is in the ortho- or para- position to the - Nj- group. Metallic Diazo Derivatives. — Benzene diazonium chloride is decom- posed by silver oxide in aqueous solution, with the formation of benzene diazonium hydroxide, C6H 5 -N(OH); N. This hydroxide, although possessing powerful basic properties, is unstable in the presence of alkalis and neutralizes them, being converted first into the isomeric benzene-diazotic acid, the potassium salt of which is obtained when the diazonium chloride is added to an excess of cold concentrated potash (A. Hantzsch and W. B. Davidson, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 1612). Potassium benzene diazotate, CeH 6 N 2 -OK, crystallizes in colourless silky needles. The free acid is not known ; by the addition of the potassium salt to 50% acetic acid at — 20 C, the acid anhydride, benzene diazo oxide, (C6HsN 2 ) 2 0, is obtained as a very unstable, yellow, insoluble compound, exploding spontaneously at o° C. Strong acids convert it into a diazonium salt, and potash converts it into the diazotate. On the constitution, of these anhy- drides see E. Bamberger, Ber., 1896, 29, p. 446, and A. Hantzsch, Ber., 1896, 29, p. 1067; 1898, 31, p. 636. By the addition of the diazonium salts to a hot concentrated solution of a caustic alkali, C. Schraube and C. Schmidt(Ber., 1894, 27, p. 52o)obtained an isomer of potassium benzene diazotate. These wo-diazotates are formed much more readily when the aromatic nucleus in the diazonium salt contains negative radicals. Potassium benzene iso-diazotate resembles the normal salt, but is more stable, and is more highly ionized. Car- bon dioxide converts it into phenyl nitrosamine, CeHsNH-NO 174 DIAZO COMPOUNDS (A. Hantzsch). The potassium salt of the iso-diazo hydroxide yields on methylation a nitrogen ether, R-N(CH 3 )-NO, whilst the silver salt yields an oxygen ether, R-N:N-OCH 3 . These results point to the conclusion that the iso-diazo hydroxide is a tautomeric substance. The same oxygen ether is formed by the methylation of the silver salt of the normal diazo hydroxide ; this points to the conclusion that the isomeric hydroxides, corresponding with the silver derivatives, have the same structural formulae, namely, R-N: N-OH. These oxygen ethers contain the grouping - N : N - , since they couple very readily with the phenols in alkaline solution to form azo compounds {q.v.) (E. Bamberger, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 225) ; they are also explosive. By oxidizing potassium benzene iso-diazotate with alkaline potassium ferricyanide, E. Bamberger {Ber., 1894, 27, p. 914) obtained the diazoic acids, R-NH-N0 2 , substances which he had previously prepared by similarly oxidizing the diazonium salts, by dehydrating the nitrates of primary amines with acetic anhydride, and by the action of nitric anhydride on the primary amines. Concentrated acids convert them into the isomeric nitro-amines, the - N0 2 group going into the nucleus in the ortho- or para- position to the amine nitrogen; this appears to indicate that the compounds are nitra- mines. They behave, however, as tautomeric substances, since their alkali salts on methylation give nitrogen ethers, whilst their silver salts yield oxygen ethers : -a potassium salt — } R'N(CH 3 ).N0 2 nitramine. R-NH-N0 2 ^ "^silver salt -> R"N:N-0-OCH 3 diazoate. Phenyl nitramine, CeHsNH NO2, is a colourless crystalline solid, which melts at 46 C. Sodium amalgam in alkaline solution reduces it to phenylhydrazine. Constitution of the Diazo Compounds. — P. Griess {Ann., 1866, 137, p. 39) considered thatthediazocompoundswereformed by theaddition of complex groupings of the type C6H4N2 - to the inorganic acids ; whilst A. Kekul6 {Zeit.f. Chemie, 1866, 2, p. 308), on account of their ready condensation to form azo compounds and their easy reduction to hydrazines, assumed that they were substances of the type R-N: N-Cl. The constitution of the diazonium group- Na-X, may be inferred from the following facts:— The group C6rI 6 N2-behaves in many respects similarly to an alkali metal, and even more so to the ammonium group, since it is capable of forming colourless neutral salts with mineral acids, which in dilute aqueous solution are strongly ionized, but do not show any trace of hydrolytic dissociation (A. Hantzsch, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 1734). Again, the diazonium chlorides combine with platinic chloride to form difficultly soluble double platinum salts, such as (CjHjNiCOs-PtCU; similar gold salts, C 6 H 6 N2Cl-AuCl 3 , are known. Determinations of the electrical con- ductivity of the diazonium chloride and nitrate also show that the diazonium radical is strictly comparable with other quaternary ammonium ions. For these reasons, one must assume the existence of pentavalent nitrogen in the diazonium salts, in order to account for their basic properties. The constitution of the isomeric diazo hydroxides has given rise to much discussion. E. Bamberger {Ber., 1895, 28, pp. 444 et seq.) and C. W. Blomstrand {Journ. prakt.Chem., 1896, 53, pp. i69etseq.) hold that the compounds are structurally different, the normal diazo- hydroxide being a diazonium derivative of the type R-N(:N)-OH. The recent work of A. Hantzsch and hispupils seems to invalidate this view {Ber., 1894, 27, pp. 1702 et seq. ; see also A. Hantzsch, DieDiazo- verbindungen). According to Hantzsch the isomeric diazo hydroxides are structurally identical, and the differences in behaviour are due to stereo-chemica 1 relations, the isomerism being comparable with that of the oximes {q.v.). On such a hypothesis, the relatively unstable normal diazo hydroxides would be the iyn-compounds, since here the nitrogen atoms would be more easily eliminated, whilst the stable iso-diazo derivatives would be the awta'-compounds, thus : R-N R-N HON N-OH Normal hydroxide Iso hydroxide (Syn-compound) (Anti-compound) In support of this theory, Hantzsch has succeeded in isolating a series of syn- and anti-diazo-cyanidesand-sulphonates (Ber., 1 895,28, p.666; 1900, 33, p. 2 161 ; 1901,34, p. 4166). By diazotizingpara-chloraniline and adding a cold solution of potassium cyanide, a salt (melting at 29° C.) is obtained, which readily loses nitrogen, and forms para- chlorbenzonitrile on the addition of copper powder. By dissolving this diazocyanide in alcohol and reprecipitating it by water, it is converted into the isomeric diazocyanide (melting at 105-106° C), which does not yield para-chlorbenzonitrile when treated with copper powder. Similar results have been obtained by using diazotized para-anisidine, a syn- and an anti- compound being formed, as well as a third isomeric cyanide, obtained by evaporating para-methoxy- benzenediazonium hydroxide in the presence of an excess of hydro- cyanic acid at ordinary temperatures. This salt is a colourless crystalline substance of composition CH 3 0-C6H4-N 2 -CN-HCN-2H20, and has the properties of a metallic salt ; it is very soluble in water and its solution is an electrolyte, whereas the solutions of the syn- and anti- compounds are not electrolytes. The isolation of these compounds is a powerful argument in favour of the Hantzsch hypothesis which requires the existence of these three different types, whilst the Bamberger-Blomstrand view only accounts for the forma- tion of two isomeric cyanides, namely, one of the normal diazonium type and one of the iso-diazocyanide type. Benzene diazonium hydroxide, although a strong base, reacts with the alkaline hydroxides to form salts with the evolution of heat, and generally behaves as a weak acid. On mixing dilute solutions of the diazonium hydroxide and the alkali together, it is found that the molecular conductivity of the mixture is much less than the sum of the two electrical conductivities of the solutions separately, from which it follows that a portion of the ions present have changed to the non- ionized condition. This behaviour is explained by consider- ing the non-ionized part of the diazonium hydroxide to exist in solution in a hydrated form, the equation of equilibrium being: C 6 H 6 -N- v C 6 H 6 -N-OH H 2 0+ fi + OH' 7» I iN ^ HO-N-H On adding the alkaline hydroxide to the solution, this hydrate is supposed to lose water, yielding the syn-diazo hydroxide, which then gives rise to a certain amount of the sodium salt (A. Hantzsch, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 1612), C 6 H 5 -N-;OH] -> C 6 H 6 -N -» C 6 H 6 -N I • El H HO-N-JH J <- HO-N N,N+|^ >N;N< -M |+HC1 -^R-X+N 2 . CI H CI ^H N = N J. Cain {Jour. Chem. Soc., 1907, 91, p. 1049) suggested a quinonoid formula for diazonium salts, which has been combated by Hantzsch {Ber., 1908, 41, pp. 3532 et seq.). G. T. Morgan and F. M. G. Mickle- thwaite {Jour. Chem. Soc, 1908, 93, p. 617; 1909, 95, p. 1319) have pointed out that the salts may possess a dynamic formula, Cain's representing the middle stage, thus: Diazoamines. — The diazoamines, R-N2-NHR, maybe prepared by the action of the primary and secondary amines on the diazonium salts, or bythe action of nitrousacid onthe free primary amine. In the latter reaction it is assumed that the isodiazohydroxide first formed is immediately attacked by a second molecule of the amine. They are yellow crystalline solids, which do not unite with acids. Nitrous acid converts them, in acid solution, into diazonium salts. C 6 H 6 N 2 - NHCH J+2HC1 +HN0 2 = 2C 6 H 6 N 2 C1 +2H 2 0. They are readily converted into the isomeric aminoazo compounds, either by standing in alcoholic solution, or by warming with a mixture of the parent base and its hydrochloride; the diazo group preferably going into the para-position to the amino group. When the para-position is occupied, the diazo group takes the ortho- position. H. Goldschmidt and R. U. Reinders {Ber., 1896, 29, p. 1369, 1899) have shown that the transformation is a monomolecular reaction, the velocity of transformation in moderately dilute solution being independent of the concentration, but proportional to the amount of the catalyst present (amine hydrochloride) and to the temperature. It has also been shown that when different salts of the amine are used, their catalytic influence varies in amount and is almost proportional to their degree of ionization in aqueous solution. Diazoaminobenzene, CeHeNrNHCeHs, crystallizes in golden yellow laminae, which meltat 96°C.and explode at a slightly higher tempera- ture. It is readily soluble in alcohol, ether and benzene. Concen- trated hydrochloric acid converts it into chlorbenzene, aniline and nitrogen. Zinc dust and alcoholic acetic acid reduce it to aniline and phenylhydrazine. Diazoimino compounds, R-N 3 , may be regarded as derivatives of azoimide {q.v.) ; they are formed by the action of ammonia on the diazoperbromides,or by the action of hydroxylamine on the diazonium sulphates (J. Mai,' Ber., 1892, 25, p. 372; T. Curtius, Ber., 1893, 26, p. 1271). Diazobenzeneimide,CeH 6 N 3 , is a yellowish oil of stupefying odour. It boils at 59 C. (12 mm.), and explodes when heated. Concentrated hydrochloric acid decomposes it with formation of DIAZOMATA— DIBDIN, T. F. 175 chloranilines and elimination of nitrogen, whilst on boiling with sulphuric acid it is converted into aminophenols. Aliphatic Diazo Compounds. — The esters of the aliphatic amino acids may be diazotized in a manner similar to the primary aromatic amines, a fact discovered by T. Curtius {Ber., 1833, 16, p. 2230). The first aliphatic diazo compound to be isolated was diazoacetic ester, CH-N2-C02C2Hs, which is prepared by the action of potassium nitrite on the ethyl ester of glycocoll hydrochloride, HC1-NH 2 -CH 2 -C02C 2 H 6 +KNO2 = CHN 2 -C0 2 C 2 H 6 + KC1+2H20. It is a yellowish oil which melts at — 24° C; it boils at 143-144° C, but cannot be distilled safely as it decomposes violently, giving nitrogen and ethyl fumarate. It explodes in contact with concentrated sulphuric acid. On reduction it yields ammonia and glycocoll (aminoacetic acid). When heated with water it forms ethyl hydroxy-acetate ; with alcohol it yields ethyl ethoxyacetate. Halogen acids convert it into monohalogen fatty acids, and the halogens themselves convert it into dihalogen fatty acids. It unites with aldehydes to form esters of ketonic acids, and with aniline yields anilido-acetic acid. It forms an addition product with acrylic ester, which on heating loses nitrogen and leaves trimethylene dicarboxylic ester. Concentrated ammonia converts it into diazoacetamide, CHN2-CONH2, which crystallizes in golden yellow plates which melt at 114 C. For other reactions see Hydrazine. The constitution of the diazo fatty esters is inferred from the fact that the two nitrogen atoms, when split off, are replaced by two monovalent elements or groups, thus leading to N the formula ^v^>CH-C02C 2 H6, for diazoacetic ester. Diazo succinic ester, N 2 -C(C02C2H 6 )2, is similarly prepared by the action of nitrous acid on the hydrochloride of aspartic ester. It is decomposed by boiling water and yields fumaric ester. Diazomethane, CH2N2, was first obtained in 1894 by H. v. Pech- mann (Ber., 1894,27, p. 1888; 1895,28, p. 855). It is prepared by the action of aqueous or alcoholic solutions of the caustic alkalis on the nitroso-acidyl derivatives of methylamine (such, for example, as nitrosomethyl urethane, NON(CH 3 )-C02C2H 6 , which is formed on passing nitrous fumes into an ethereal solution of methyl urethane). E. Bamberger (Ber., 1895, 28, p. 1682) regards it as the anhydride of iso-diazomethane, CH3-N:N-OH, and has prepared it by a method similar to that used for the preparation of iso-diazobenzene. By the action of bleaching powder on methylamine hydrochloride, there is obtained a volatile liquid (methyldichloramine, CH 3 -N-Cl2), boil- ing at 58-60° C, which explodes violently when heated with water, yielding hydrocyanic acid _ (CHsNCl 2 =*HCN+2HCl). Well-dried hydroxylamine hydrochloride is dissolved in methyl alcohol and mixed with sodium methylate; a solution of methyldichloramine in absolute ether is then added and an ethereal solution of diazomethane distils over. Diazomethane is a yellow inodorous gas, very poisonous and corrosive. It may be condensed to a liquid, which boils at about 0° C. It isapowerful methylating agent, reacting with water to form methyl alcohol, and converting acetic acid into methylacetate, hydro- chloric acid into methyl chloride, hydrocyanic acid into acetonitrile, and phenol into anisol, nitrogen being eliminated in each case. It is reduced by sodium amalgam (in alcoholic solution) to methylhydrazine, CH 3 -NH-NH 2 . It unites directly with acetylene to form pyrazole (H. v. Pechmann, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 2950) and with fumaric methyl ester it forms pyrazolin dicarboxylic ester. (F. G. P.*) See G. T.Morgan, B.A.Rep., 1902; J. Cain, Diazo Compounds, 1908. ■ DIAZOMATA (Gr. diafafia, a girdle), in architecture, the landing places and passages which were carried round the semi- circle and separated the upper and lower tiers in a Greek theatre. DIBDIN, CHARLES (1745-1814), British musician, dramatist, novelist, actor and song- writer, the son of a parish clerk, was born at Southampton on or before the 4th of March 1745, and was the youngest of a family of eighteen. His parents designing him for the church, he was sent to Winchester; but his love of music early diverted his thoughts from the clerical profession. After receiving some instruction from the organist of Winchester cathedral, where he was a chorister from 1756 to 1759, he went to London at the age of fifteen. Here he was placed in a music warehouse in Cheapside, but he soon abandoned this employment to become a singing actor at Covent Garden. On the 2 1st of May 1762 his first work, an operetta entitled The Shepherd's Artifice, with words and music by himself, was produced at this theatre. Other works followed, his reputation being firmly established by the music to the play of The Padlock, produced at Drury Lane under Garrick's management in 1768, the composer himself taking the part of Mungo with conspicuous success. He continued for some years to be connected with Drury Lane, both as composer and as actor, and produced during this period two of his best known works, The Waterman (1774) and The Quaker (1775). A quarrel with Garrick led to the termination of his engagement. In The Comic Mirror he ridiculed prominent contemporary figures through the medium of a puppet show. In 1782 he became joint manager of the Royal circus, afterwards known as the Surrey theatre. In three years he lost this position owing to a quarrel with his partner. His opera Liberty Hall, containing the suc- cessful songs " Jock Ratlin," " The Highmettled Racer," and " The Bells of Aberdovey," was produced at Drury Lane theatre on the 8th of February 1785. In 1788 he sailed for the East Indies, but the vessel having put in to Torbay in stress of weather, he changed his mind and returned to London. In a musical variety entertainment called The Oddities, he succeeded in win- ning marked popularity with a number of songs that included " 'Twas in the good ship 'Rover'," " Saturday Night at Sea," "I sailed from the Downs in the ' Nancy,' " and the immortal " Tom Bowling," written on the death of his eldest brother, Captain Thomas Dibdin, at whose invitation he had planned his visit to India. A series of monodramatic entertainments which he gave at his theatre, Sans Souci, in Leicester Square, brought his songs, music and recitations more prominently into notice, and permanently established his fame as a lyric poet. It was at these entertainments that he first introduced many of those sea-songs which so powerfully influenced the national spirit. The words breathe the simple loyalty and dauntless courage that are the cardinal virtues of the British sailor, and the music was ap- propriate and naturally melodious. Their effect in stimulating and ennobling the spirit of the navy during the war with France was so marked as to call for special acknowledgment. In 1803 Dibdin was rewarded by government with a pension of £200 a year, of which he was only for a time deprived under the ad- ministration of Lord Grenville. During this period he opened a music shop in the Strand, but the venture was a failure. Dibdin died of paralysis in London on the 25th of July 1814. Besides his Musical Tour through England (1788), his Professional Life, an autobiography published in 1 803 , a History of the Stage (179s), and several smaller works, he wrote upwards of 1400 songs and about thirty dramatic pieces. He also wrote the following novels: — The Devil (1785); Hannah Hewitt (1792); The Younger Brother (1793). An edition of his songs by G. Hogarth (1843) contains a memoir of his life. His two sons, Charles and Thomas John Dibdin (q.v.), whose works are often confused with those of their father, were also popular dramatists in their day. DIBDIN, THOMAS FROGNALL (1776-1847), English biblio- grapher, born at Calcutta in 1776, was the son of Thomas Dibdin, the sailor brother of Charles Dibdin. His father and mother both died on the way home to England in 1780, and Thomas was brought up by a maternal uncle. He was educated at St John's College, Oxford, and studied for a time at Lincoln's Inn. After an unsuccessful attempt to obtain practice as a provincial counsel at Worcester, he was ordained a clergyman at the close of 1804, being appointed to a curacy at Kensington. It was not until 1823 that he received the living of Exning in Sussex. Soon after- wards he was appointed by Lord Liverpool to the rectory of St Mary's, Bryanston Square, which he held until his death on the 1 8th of November 1847. The first of his numerous bibliographical works was his Introduction to the Knowledge of Editions of the Classics (1802), which brought him under the notice of the third Earl Spencer, to whom he owed much important aid in his bibliographical pursuits. The rich library at Althorp was thrown open to him; he spent much of his time in it, and in 1814-1815 published his Bibliotheca Spenceriana. As the library was not open to the general public, the information given in the Bibliotheca was found very useful, but since its author was unable even to read the characters in which the books he described were written, the work was marred by the errors which more or less characterize all his productions. This fault of inaccuracy how- ever was less obtrusive in his series of playful, discursive works in the form of dialogues on his favourite subject, the first of which, Bibliomania (1809), was republished with large additions in 181 1, and was very popular, passing through numerous editions. To the same class belonged the Bibliographical Decameron, a larger work, which appeared in 1817. In 1810 he began the publication of a new and much extended edition of Ames's Typographical A ntiquities. The first volume was a great success , but the publica- tion was checked by the failure of the fourth volume, and was 176 DIBDIN, T. J.— DICE never completed. In 1818 Dibdin was commissioned by Earl Spencer to purchase books for him on the continent, an expedi- tion described in his sumptuous Bibliographical, Antiquarian and Picturesque Tour in France and Germany (1821). In 1824 he made an ambitious venture in his Library Companion, or the Young Man's Guide and Old Man's Comfort in the Choice of a Library, intended to point out the best works in all departments of literature. His culture was not broad enough, however, to render him competent for the task, and the work was severely criticized. For some years Dibdin gave himself up chiefly to religious literature. He returned to bibliography in his Bibliophobia, or Remarks on the Present Depression in the State of Literature and the Book Trade (1832), and the same subject furnishes the main interest of his Reminiscences of a Literary Life (1836), and his Bibliographical, Antiquarian and Picturesque Tour in the Northern Counties of England and Scotland (1838). Dibdin was the originator and vice-president, Lord Spencer being the president, of the Roxburghe Club, founded in 18 12, — the first of the numerous book clubs which have done such service to literature. DIBDIN, THOMAS JOHN (1771-1841), English dramatist and song-writer, son of Charles Dibdin, the song-writer, and of Mrs Davenet, an actress whose real name was Harriet Pitt, was born on the 21st of March 17 71. He was apprenticed to his maternal uncle, a London upholsterer, and later to William Rawlins, afterwards sheriff of London. He summoned his second master unsuccessfully for rough treatment; and after a few years of service he ran away to join a company of country players. From 1789 to 1795 he played in all sorts of parts; he acted as scene painter at Liverpool in 1791; and during this period he com- posed more than 1000 songs. He made his first attempt as a dramatic writer in Something New, followed by The Mad Guardian in 1795. He returned to London in 1795, having married two years before; and in the winter of 1 798-1 799 his Jew and the Doctor was produced at Covent Garden. From this time he contributed a very large number of comedies, operas, farces, &c, to the public entertainment. Some of these brought immense popularity to the writer and immense profits to the theatres. It is stated that the pantomime of Mother Goose (1807) produced more than £20,000 for the management at Covent Garden theatre, and the High-mettled Racer, adapted as a pantomime from his father's play, £18,000 at Astley's. Dibdin was prompter and pantomime writer at Drury Lane until 1816, when he took the Surrey theatre. This venture proved disastrous and he became bankrupt. After this he was manager of the Haymarket, but without his old success, and his last years were passed in comparative poverty. In 1827 he published two volumes of Reminiscences; and at the time of his death he was preparing an edition of his father's sea songs, for which a small sum was allowed him weekly by the lords of the admiralty. Of his own songs " The Oak Table " and " The Snug Little Island " are well-known examples. He died in London on the 16th of September 1841. DIBRA (Slav. Debra), the capital of a sanjak bearing the same name, in the vilayet of Monastir, eastern Albania, Turkey. Pop. (1900) about 15,000. Dibra occupies a valley enclosed by mountains, and watered by the Tsrni Drin and Radika rivers, which meet 3 m. S. It is a fortified city, and the only episcopal see of the Bulgarian exarchate in Albania; most of the inhabit- ants are Albanians, but there is a strong Bulgarian colony. The local trade is almost entirely agricultural. DIBRUGARH, a town of British India, in the Lakhimpur district of eastern Bengal and Assam, of which it is the head- quarters, situated on the Dibru river about 4 m. above its confluence with the Brahmaputra. Pop. (1901) 11,227. It is the terminus of steamer navigation on the Brahmaputra, and also of a railway running to important coal-mines and petroleum wells, which connects with the Assam-Bengal system. Large quantities of coal and tea are exported. There are a military cantonment, the headquarters of the volunteer corps known as the Assam Valley Light Horse; a government high school, a training school for masters; and an aided school for girls. In 1900 a medical school for the province was established, out of a bequest left by Brigade-Surgeon J. Berry-White, which is maintained by the government, to train hospital assistants for the tea gardens. The Williamson artisan school is entirely supported by an endowment. DICAEARCHUS, of Messene in Sicily, Peripatetic philosopher and pupil of Aristotle, historian, and geographer, flourished about 320 B.C. He was a friend of Theophrastus, to whom he dedicated the majority of his works. Of his writings, which comprised treatises on a great variety of subjects, only the titles and a few fragments survive. The most important of them was his fi'uos rrjs 'EXXdSos (Life in Greece), in which the moral, political and social condition of the people was very fully discussed. In his Tripoliticos he described the best form of government as a mixture of monarchy, aristocracy and democracy, and illustrated it by the example of Sparta. Among the philosophical works of Dicaearchus may be mentioned the Lesbiaci, a dialogue in three books, in which the author endeavours to prove that the soul is mortal, to which he added a supplement called Corinthiaci. He also wrote a Description of the World illustrated by maps, in which was probably included his Measurements of Mountains. A description of Greece (150 iambics, in C. Miiller, Frag. hist. Graec. i. 238-243) was formerly attributed to him, but, as the initial letters of the first twenty-three lines show, was really the work of Dionysius, son of Calliphon. Three considerable fragments of a prose description of Greece (Miiller, i. 97-110) are now assigned to an unknown author named Heracleides. The De re publica of Cicero is supposed to be founded on one of Dicaearchus's works. The best edition of the fragments is by M. Fuhr (1841), a work of great learning ; see also a dissertation by F. G. Osann, Beitrdge zur rom. und griech. Litteratur, ii. pp. 1-117 (1839); Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopddie der Mass. Altertumswiss. v. pt. 1 (1905). DICE (plural of die, O. Fr. de, derived from Lat. dare, to give), small cubes of ivory, bone, wood or metal, used in gaming. The six sides of a die are each marked with a different number of incised dots in such a manner that the sum of the dots on any two opposite sides shall be 7. Dice seem always to have been employed, as is the case to-day, for gambling purposes, and they are also used in such games as backgammon. There are many methods of playing, from one to five dice being used, although two or three are the ordinary numbers employed in Great Britain and America. The dice are thrown upon a table or other smooth surface either from the hand or from a receptacle called a dice-box, the latter method having been in common use in Greece, Rome and the Orient in ancient times. Dice-boxes have been made in many shapes and of various materials, such as wood, leather, agate, crystal, metal or paper. Many contain bars within to ensure a proper agitation of the dice, and thus defeat trickery. Some, formerly used in England, were employed with unmarked dice, and allowed the cubes to fall through a kind of funnel upon a board marked off into six equal parts numbered from 1 to 6. It is a remarkable fact, that, wherever dice have been found, whether in the tombs of ancient Egypt, of classic Greece, or of the far East, they differ in no material respect from those in use to-day, the elongated ones with rounded ends found in Roman graves having been, not dice but tali, or knucklebones. Eight- sided dice have comparatively lately been introduced in France as aids to children in learning the multiplication table. The teetotum, or spinning die, used in many modern games, was known in ancient times in China and Japan. The increased popularity of the more elaborate forms of gaming has resulted in the decline of dicing. The usual method is to throw three times with three dice. If one or more sixes or fives are thrown the first time they may be reserved, the other throws being made with the dice that are left. The object is to throw three sixes= 18 or as near that number as possible, the highest throw winning, or, when drinks are to be paid for, the lowest throw losing. (For other' methods of throwing consult the Encyclopaedia of Indoor Games, by R. F. Foster, 1903 .) The most popular form of pure gambling with dice at the present day, particularly with the lower classes in America, is Craps, or Crap-Shooting, a simple form of Hazard, of French origin. Two dice are used. Each player puts up a stake DICETO 177 and the first caster may cover any or all of the bets. He then shoots, i.e. throws the dice from his open hand upon the table. If the sum of the dice is 7 or 1 1 the throw is a nick, or natural, and the caster wins all stakes. If the throw is either 2, 3 or 12 it is a crap, and the caster loses all. If any other number is thrown it is a point, and the caster continues until he throws the same number again, in which case he wins, or a 7, in which case he loses. The now practically obsolete game of Hazard was much more complicated than Craps. (Consult The Game of Hazard Investigated, by George Lowbut.) Poker dice are marked with ace, king, queen, jack and ten-spot. Five are used and the object is, in three throws, to make pairs, triplets, full hands or fours and fives of a kind, five aces being the highest hand. Straights do not count. In throwing to decide the payment of drinks the usual method is called horse and horse, in which the highest throws retire, leaving the two lowest to decide the loser by the best two in three throws. Should each player win one throw both are said to be horse and horse, and the next throw determines the loser. The two last casters may also agree to sudden death, i.e. a single throw. Loaded dice, i.e. dice weighted slightly on the side of the lowest number, have been used by swindlers from the very earliest times to the present day, a fact proved by countless literary allusions. Modern dice are often rounded at the corners, which are otherwise apt to wear off irregularly. History. — Dice were probably evolved from knucklebones. The antiquary Thomas Hyde, in his Syntagma, records his opinion that the game of " odd or even," played with pebbles, is nearly coeval with the creation of man. It is almost impossible to trace clearly the development of dice as distinguished from knucklebones, on account of the confusing of the two games by the ancient writers. It is certain, however, that both were played in times antecedent to those of which we possess any written records. Sophocles, in a fragment, ascribed their in- vention to Palamedes, a Greek, who taught them to his country- men during the siege of Troy, and who, according to Pausanias (on Corinth, xx.), made an offering of them on the altar of the temple of Fortune. Herodotus (Clio) relates that the Lydians, during a period of famine in the days of King Atys, invented dice, knucklebones and indeed all other games except chess. The fact that dice have been used throughout the Orient from time immemorial, as has been proved by excavations from ancient tombs, seems to point clearly to an Asiatic origin. Dicing is mentioned as an Indian game in the Rig-veda. In its primitive form knucklebones was essentially a game of skill, played by women and children, while dice were used for gambling, and it was doubtless the gambling spirit of the age which was responsible for the derivative form of knucklebones, in which four sides of the bones received different values, which were then counted, like dice. Gambling with three, sometimes two, dice (ku/Soi) was a very popular form of amusement in Greece, especially with the upper classes, and was an almost invariable accompani- ment to the symposium, or drinking banquet. The dice were cast from conical beakers, and the highest throw was three sixes, called Aphrodite, while the lowest, three aces, was called the dog. Both in Greece and Rome different modes of counting were in vogue. Roman dice were called tesserae from the Greek word for four, indicative of the four sides. The Romans were passionate gamblers, especially in the luxurious days of the Empire, and dicing was a favourite form, though it was forbidden except during the Saturnalia. The emperor Augustus wrote in a letter to Suetonius concerning a game that he had played with his friends: " Whoever threw a dog or a six paid a denarius to the bank for every die, and whoever threw a Venus (the highest) won everything." In the houses of the rich the dice-beakers were of carved ivory and the dice of crystal inlaid with gold. Mark Antony wasted his time at Alexandria with dicing, while, accord- ing to Suetonius, the emperors Augustus, Nero and Claudius were passionately fond of it, the last named having written a book on the game. Caligula notoriously cheated at the game; Domitian played it, and Commodus set apart special rooms in his palace for it. The emperor Verus, adopted son of Antonine, is known to have thrown dice whole nights together. Fashionable society followed the lead of its emperors, and, in spite of the severity of the laws, fortunes were squandered at the dicing-table. Horace derided the youth of the period, who wasted his time amid the dangers of dicing instead of taming his charger and giving him- self up to the hardships of the chase. Throwing dice for money was the cause of many special laws in Rome, according to one of which no suit could be brought by a person who allowed gambling in his house, even if he had been cheated or assaulted. Pro- fessional gamblers were common, and some of their loaded dice are preserved in museums. The common public-houses were the resorts of gamblers, and a fresco is extant showing two quarrelling dicers being ejected by the indignant host. Virgil, in the Copa generally ascribed to him, characterizes the spirit of that age in verse, which has been Englished as follows: — " What ho ! Bring dice and good wine ! Who cares for the morrow? Live — so calls grinning Death — Live, for I come to you soon!" That the barbarians were also given to gaming, whether or not they learned it from their Roman conquerors, is proved by Tacitus, who states that the Germans were passionately fond of dicing, so much so, indeed, that, having lost everything, they would even stake their personal liberty. Centuries later, during the middle ages, dicing became the favourite pastime of the knights, and both dicing schools (scholae deciorum) and gilds of dicers existed. After the downfall of feudalism the famous German mercenaries called landsknechls established a reputation as the most notorious dicing gamblers of their time. Many of the dice of the period were curiously carved in the images of men and beasts. In France both knights and ladies were given to dicing, which repeated legislation, including interdictions on the part of St Louis in 1254 and 1256, did not abolish. In Japan, China, Korea, India and other Asiatic countries dice have always been popular and are so still. See Foster's Encyclopaedia of Indoor Games (1903) ; Raymond's Illustriertes Knobelbrevier (Oramenburg, 1888) ; Les Jeux des Anciens, by L. Becq de Fouquieres (Paris, 1869) ; Das Knochelspiel der Alten, by Bolle (Wismar, 1886); Die Spiele der Griechen und Romer, by W. Richter (Leipzig, 1887); Raymond's Alte und neue Wiirfelspiele; Chinese Games with Dice, by Stewart Culin (Philadelphia, 1889); Korean Games, by Stewart Culin (Philadelphia, 1895). DICETO, RALPH DE (d. c. 1202), dean of St Paul's, London, and chronicler, is first mentioned in 1152, when he received the archdeaconry of Middlesex. He was probably born between 1120 and 1130; of his parentage and nationality we know nothing. The common statement that he derived his surname from Diss in Norfolk is a mere conjecture; Dicetum may equally well be a Latinized form of Dissai, or Dicy, or Dizy, place-names which are found in Maine, Picardy, Burgundy and Champagne. In 1152 Diceto was already a master of arts; presumably he had studied at Paris. His reputation for learning and integrity stood high; he was regarded with respect and favour by Arnulf of Lisieux and Gilbert Foliot of Hereford (afterwards of London), two of the most eminent bishops of their time. Quite naturally, the archdeacon took in the Becket question the same side as his friends. Although his narrative is colourless, and although he was one of those who showed some sympathy for Becket at the council of Northampton (n 64), the correspondence of Diceto shows that he regarded the archbishop's conduct as ill-considered, and that he gave advice to those whom Becket regarded as his chief enemies. Diceto was selected, in 1166, as the envoy of the English bishops when they protested against the excommunica- tions launched by Becket. But, apart from this episode, which he characteristically omits to record, he remained in the background. The natural impartiality of his intellect was accentuated by a certain timidity, which is apparent in his writings no less than in his life. About 1180 he became dean of St Paul's. In this office he distinguished himself by careful management of the estates, by restoring the discipline of the chapter, and by building at his own expense a deanery-house. A scholar and a man of considerable erudition, he showed a strong preference for his- torical studies; and about the time when he was preferred to the deanery he began to collect materials for the history of his 178 DICEY— DICKENS own times. His friendships with Richard Fitz Nigel, who suc- ceeded Foliot in the see of London, with William Longchamp, the chancellor of Richard I., and with Walter of Coutances, the arch- bishop of Rouen, gave him excellent opportunities of collecting information. His two chief works, the Abbreviationes Chronico- rum and the Ymagines Historiarum, cover the history of the world from the birth of Christ to the year 1202. The former, which ends in 1147, is a work of learning and industry, but almost entirely based upon extant sources. The latter, begin- ning as a compilation from Robert de Monte and the letters of Foliot, becomes an original authority about 1172, and a contem- porary record about 1181. In precision and fulness of detail the Ymagines are inferior to the chronicles of the so-called Benedict and of Hoveden. Though an annalist, Diceto is careless in his chronology; and the documents which he incorporates, while often important, are selected on no principle. He has little sense of style; but displays considerable insight when he ventures to discuss a political situation. For this reason, and on account of the details with which they supplement the more important chronicles of the period, the Ymagines are a valuable though a secondary source. See W. Stubbs' edition of the Historical Works of Diceto (Rolls ed. 1876, 2 vols.), and especially the introduction. The second volume contains minor works which are the barest compendia of facts taken from well-known sources. Diceto's fragmentary Domesday of the capitular estates has beenedited by Archdeacon Halein The Domesday of St Paul's, pp. 109 ff. (Camden Society, 1858). DICEY, EDWARD (1832- ), English writer, son of T. E. Dicey of Claybrook Hall, Leicestershire, was born in 1832. Edu- cated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took mathematical and classical honours, he became an active journalist, contribut- ing largely to the principal reviews. He was called to the bar in 1875, became a bencher of Gray's Inn in 1896, and was treasurer in 1903-1904. He was connected with the Daily Telegraph as leader writer and then as special correspondent, and after a short spell in 1870 as editor of the Daily News he became editor of the Observer, a position which he held until 1889. Of his many books on foreign affairs perhaps the most important are his England and Egypt (1884), Bulgaria, the Peasant State (1895), The Story of the Khedivate (1902), and The Egypt of the Future (1907). He was created C.B. in 1886. His brother Albert Venn Dicey (b. 1835), English jurist, was educated at Balliol College, Oxford, where he took a first class in the classical schools in 1858. He was called to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1863. He held fellowships successively at Balliol, Trinity and All Souls', and from 1882 to 1909 was Vinerian professor of law. He became Q.C. in 1890. His chief works are the Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitu- tion (1885, 6th ed. 1902), which ranks as a standard work on the subject; England's Case against Home Rule (1886); A Digest of the Law of England with Reference to the Conflict of Laws (1896), and Lectures on the Relation between Law and Public Opinion in England during the 19th century (1905). DICHOTOMY (Gr. 5i%a, apart, re/xveiv, to cut), literally a cutting asunder, the technical term for a form of logical division, consisting in the separation of a genus into two species, one of which has and the other has not, a certain quality or attribute. Thus men may be thus divided into white men, and men who are not white; each of these may be subdivided similarly. On the principle of contradiction this division is both exhaustive and exclusive; there can be no overlapping, and no members of the original genus or the lower groups are omitted. This method of classification, though formally accurate, has slight value in the exact sciences, partly because at every step one of the two groups is merely negatively characterized and therefore incapable of real subdivision; it is useful, however, in setting forth clearly the gradual descent from the most inclusive genus {summum genus) through species to the lowest class (infima species), which is divisible only into individual persons or things. (See further Division.) In astronomy the term is used for the aspect of the moon or of a planet when apparently half illuminated, so that its disk has the form of a semicircle. DICK, ROBERT (1811-1866), Scottish geologist and botanist> was born at Tullibody, in Clackmannanshire, in January 181 1. His father was an officer of excise. At the age of thirteen, after receiving a good elementary education at the parish school, Robert Dick was apprenticed to a baker, and served for three years. In these early days he became interested in wild flowers — he made a collection of plants and gradually acquired some knowledge of their names from an old encyclopaedia. When his time was out he left Tullibody and gained employment as a journeyman baker at Leith, Glasgow and Greenock. Meanwhile his father, who in 1826 had been removed to Thurso, as super- visor of excise, advised his son to set up a baker's shop in that town. Thither Robert Dick went in 1830, he started in business as a baker and worked laboriously until he died on the 24th of December 1866. Throughout this period he zealously devoted himself to studying and collecting the plants, mollusca and insects of a wide area of Caithness, and his attention was directed soon after he settled in Thurso to the rocks and fossils. In 1 83 5 he first found remains of fossil fishes; but it was not till some years later that his interest became greatly stirred. Then he obtained a copy of Hugh Miller's Old Red Sandstone (published in 1841), and he began systematically to collect with hammer and chisel the fossils from the Caithness flags. In 1845 he found remains of Holoplychius and forwarded specimens to Hugh Miller, and he continued to send the best of his fossil fishes to that geologist, and to others after the death of Miller. In this way he largely contri- buted to the progress of geological knowledge, although he him- self published nothing and was ever averse from publicity. His herbarium, which consisted of about 200 folios of mosses, ferns and flowering plants " almost unique in its completeness," is now stored, with many of his fossils, in the museum at Thurso. Dick had a hard struggle for existence, especially through competition during his late years, when he was reduced almost to beggary: but of this few, if any, of his friends were aware until it was too late. A monument erected in the new cemetery at Thurso testifies to the respect which his life-work created, when the merits of this enthusiastic naturalist came to be appreciated. See Robert Dick, Baker of Thurso, Geologist and Botanist, by Samuel Smiles (1878). DICK, THOMAS (1774-1857), Scottish writer on astronomy, was born at Dundee on the 24th of November 1774. The appearance of a brilliant meteor inspired him, when in his ninth year, with a passion for astronomy; and at the age of sixteen he forsook the loom, and supported himself by teaching. In 1794 he entered the university of Edinburgh, and set up a school on the termination of his course; then, in 1801, took out a licence to preach, and officiated for some years as probationer in the United Presbyterian church. From about 1807 to 181 7 he taught in the secession school at Methven in Perthshire, and during the ensuing decade in that of Perth, where he composed his first substantive book, The Christian Philosopher (1823, 8th ed. 1842). Its success determined his vocation as an author; he built himself, in 1827, a cottage at Broughty Ferry, near Dundee, and devoted himself wholly to literary and scientific pursuits. They proved, however, owing to his unpractical turn of mind, but slightly remunerative, and he was in 1847 relieved from actual poverty by a crown pension of £50 a year, eked out by a local subscription. He died on the 29th of July 1857. His best-known works are: Celestial Scenery (1837), The Sidereal Heavens (1840), and The Practical Astronomer (1845), in which is con- tained (p. 204) a remarkable forecast of the powers and uses of celestial photography. Written with competent knowledge, and in an agreeable style, they obtained deserved and widespread popularity. See R. Chambers's Eminent Scotsmen (ed. 1868) ; Monthly Notices Roy. Astr. Society, xviii. 98; Athenaeum (1857), p. 1008. (A. M. C.) DICKENS, CHARLES JOHN HUFFAM (1812-1870), English novelist, was born on the 7th of February 181 2 at a house in the Mile End Terrace, Commercial Road, Landport (Portsea) — a house which was opened as a Dickens Museum on 22nd July 1904. His father John Dickens (d. 1851), a clerk in the navy-pay office DICKENS 179 on a salary of £80 a year, and stationed for the time being at Portsmouth, had married in 1809 Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas Barrow, and she bore him a family of eight children, Charles being the second. In the winter of 1814 the family moved from Portsea in the snow, as he remembered, to London, and lodged for a time near the Middlesex hospital. The country of the novelist's childhood, however, was the kingdom of Kent, where the family was established in proximity to the dockyard at Chatham from i8i6toi82i. He looked upon himself in later years as a man of Kent, and his capital abode as that in Ordnance Terrace, or 18 St Mary's Place, Chatham, amid surroundings classified in Mr Pickwick's notes as " appearing " to be soldiers, sailors, Jews, chalk, shrimps, officers and dockyard men. He fell into a family the general tendency of which was to go down in the world, during one of its easier periods (John Dickens was now fifth clerk on £250 a year), and he always regarded himself as belonging by right to a comfortable, genteel, lower middle- class stratum of society. His mother taught him to read; to his father he appeared very early in the light of a young prodigy, and by him Charles was made to sit on a tall chair and warble popular ballads, or even to tell stories and anecdotes for the benefit of fellow-clerks in the office. John Dickens, however, had a small collection of books which were kept in a little room upstairs that led out of Charles's own, and in this attic the boy found his true literary instructors in Roderick Random, Peregrine Pickle, Humphry Clinker, Tom Jones, The Vicar of Wakefield, Don Quixote, Gil Bias and Robinson Crusoe. The story of how he played at the characters in these books and sustained his idea of Roderick Random for a month at a stretch is picturesquely told in David Copperfield. Here as well as in his first and last books and in what many regard as his best, Great Expectations, Dickens returns with unabated fondness and mastery to the surround- ings of his childhood. From seven to nine years he was at a school kept in Clover Lane, Chatham, by a Baptist minister named William Giles, who gave him Goldsmith's Bee as a keep- sake when the call to Somerset House necessitated the removal of the family from Rochester to a shabby house in Bayham Street, Camden Town. At the very moment when a consciousness of capacity was beginning to plump his youthful ambitions, the whole flattering dream vanished and left not a rack behind. Happiness and Chatham had been left behind together, and Charles was about to enter a school far sterner and also far more instructive than that in Clover Lane. The family income had been first decreased and then mortgaged; the creditors of the " prodigal father " would not give him time; John Dickens was consigned to the Marshalsea; Mrs Dickens started an " Educational Establishment " as a forlorn hope in Upper Gower Street; and Charles, who had helped his mother with the children, blacked the boots, carried things to the pawnshop and done other menial work, was now sent out to earn his own living as a young hand in a blacking warehouse, at Old Hungerford Stairs, on a salary of six shillings a week. He tied, trimmed and labelled blacking pots for over a year, dining off a saveloy and a slice of pudding, consorting with two very rough boys, Bob Fagin and Pol Green, and sleeping in an attic in Little College Street, Camden Town, in the house of Mrs Roylance (Pipchin), while on Sunday he spent the day with his parents in their comfortable prison, where they had the services of a " marchioness " imported from the Chatham workhouse. Already consumed by ambition, proud, sensitive and on his dignity to an extent not uncommon among boys of talent, he felt his position keenly, and in later years worked himself up into a passion of self-pity in connexion with the " degradation " and "humiliation" of this episode. The two years of childish hard- ship which ate like iron into his soul were obviously of supreme importance in the growth of the novelist. Recollections of the streets and the prison and its purlieus supplied him with a store of literary material upon which he drew through all the years of his best activity. And the bitterness of such an experience was not prolonged sufficiently to become sour. From 1824 to 1826, having been rescued by a family quarrel and by a windfall in the shape of a legacy to his father, from the warehouse, he spent two years at an academy known as Wellington House, at the corner of Granby Street and the Hampstead Road (the lighter traits of which are reproduced in Salem House), and was there known as a merry and rather mischievous boy. Fortunately he learned nothing there to compromise the results of previous instruction. His father had now emerged from the Marshalsea and was seeking employment as a parliamentary reporter. A Gray's Inn solicitor with whom he had had dealings was attracted by the bright, clever look of Charles, and took him into his office as a boy at a salary of thirteen and sixpence (rising to fifteen shillings) a week. He remained in Mr Blackmore's office from May 1827 to November 1828, but he had lost none of his eager thirst for dis- tinction, and spent all his spare time mastering Gurney's short- . hand and reading early and late at the British Museum. A more industrious apprentice in the lower grades of the literary profession has never been known, and the consciousness of opportunities used to the most splendid advantage can hardly have been absent from the man who was shortly to take his place at the head of it as if to the manner born. Lowten and Guppy, and Swiveller had been observed from this office lad's stool; he was now greatly to widen his area of study as a reporter in Doctors' Commons and various police courts, including Bow Street, working all day at law and much of the night at shorthand. Some one asked John Dickens, during the first eager period of curiosity as to the man behind " Pickwick," where his son Charles was educated. " Well really," said the prodigal father, " he may be said — haw— haw — to have educated himself." He was one of the most rapid and accurate reporters in London when, at nine- teen years of age, in 1831, he realized his immediate ambition and "entered the gallery" as parliamentary reporter to the True Sun. Later he was reporter to the Mirror of Parliament and then to the Morning Chronicle. Several of his earliest letters are concerned with his exploits as a reporter, and allude to the experiences he had, travelling fifteen miles an hour and being upset in almost every description of known vehicle in various parts of Britain between 1831 and 1836. The family was now living in Bentwick Street, Manchester Square, but John Dickens was still no infrequent inmate of the sponging-houses. With all the accessories of these places of entertainment his son had grown to be excessively familiar. Writing about 1832 to his school friend Tom Mitton, Dickens tells him that his father has been arrested at the suit of a wine firm, and begs him go over to Cursitor Street and see what can be done. On another occasion of a paternal disappearance he observes: " I own that his absence does not give me any great uneasiness, knowing how apt he is to get out of the way when anything goes wrong." In yet another letter he asks for a loan of four shillings. In the meanwhile, however, he had commenced author in a more creative sense by penning some sketches of contemporary London life, such as he had attempted in his school days in imita- tion of the sketches published in the London and other magazines of that day. The first of these appeared in the December number of the Old Monthly Magazine for 1833. By tjie following August, when the signature " Boz " was first given, five of these sketches had appeared. By the end of 1834 we find him settled in rooms in Furnival's Inn, and a little later his salary on the Morning Chronicle was raised, owing to the intervention of one of its chiefs, George Hogarth, the father of (in addition to six sons) eight charming daughters, to one of whom, Catherine, Charles was engaged to be married before the year was out. Clearly as his career now seemed designated, he was at this time or a little before it coquetting very seriously with the stage: but circumstances were rapidly to determine another stage in his career. A year before Queen Victoria's accession appeared in two volumes Sketches by Boz, Illustrative of Everyday Life and Everyday People. The book came from a prentice hand, but like the little tract on the Puritan abuse of the Sabbath entitled " Sunday under three Heads " which appeared a few months later, it contains in germ all, or almost all, the future Dickens. Glance at the headings of the pages. Here we have the Beadle and all connected with him, London streets, theatres, shows, the pawn- shop, Doctors' Commons, Christmas, Newgate, coaching, the i8o DICKENS river. Here comes a satirical picture of parliament, fun made of cheap snobbery, a rap on the knuckles of sectarianism. And what could be more prophetic than the title of the opening chapter — Our Parish? With the Parish — a large one indeed — Dickens to the end concerned himself; he began with a rapid survey of his whole field, hinting at all he might accomplish, indicating the limits he was not to pass. This year was to be still more momentous to Dickens, for, on the 2nd of April 1836, he was married to George Hogarth's eldest daughter Catherine. He seems to have fallen in love with the daughters collectively, and, judging by subsequent events, it has been suggested that perhaps he married the wrong one. His wife's sister Mary was the romance of his early married life, and another sister, Georgina, was the dearest friend of his last ten years. A few days before the marriage, just two months after the appearance of the Sketches, the first part of The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club was announced. One of the chief vogues of the day was the issue of humorous, sporting or anecdotal novels in parts, with plates, and some of the best talent of the day, repre- sented by Ainsworth, Bulwer, Marryat, Maxwell, Egan, Hook and Surtees, had been pressed into this kind of enterprise. The publishers of the day had not been slow to perceive Dickens's aptitude for this species of " letterpress." A member of the firm of Chapman & Hall called upon him at Furnival's Inn in December 1835 with a proposal that he should write about a Nimrod Club of amateur sportsmen, foredoomed to perpetual ignominies, while the comic illustrations were to be etched by Seymour, a well-known rival of Cruikshank (the illustrator of Boz). The offer was too tempting for Dickens to refuse, but he changed the idea from a club of Cockney sportsmen to that of a club of eccentric peripatetics, on the sensible grounds, first that sporting sketches were stale, and, secondly, that he knew nothing worth speaking of about sport. The first seven pictures appeared with the signature of Seymour and the letterpress of Dickens. Before the eighth picture appeared Seymour had blown his brains Out. After a brief interval of Buss, Dickens obtained the services of Hablot K. Browne, known to all as " Phiz." Author and illustrator were as well suited to one another and to the common creation of a unique thing as Gilbert and Sullivan. Having early got rid of the sporting element, Dickens found himself at once. The subject exactly suited his knowledge, his skill in arranging incidents — nay, his very limitations too. No modern book is so incalculable. We commence laughing heartily at Pickwick and his troupe. The laugh becomes kindlier. We are led on through a tangle of adventure, never dreaming what is before us. The landscape changes: Pickwick becomes the symbol of kind- heartedness, simplicity and innocent levity. Suddenly in the Fleet Prison a deeper note is struck. The medley of human relation- ships, the loneliness, the mystery and sadness of human destinies are fathomed. The tragedy of human life is revealed to us amid its most farcical elements. The droll and laughable figure of the hero is transfigured by the kindliness of human sympathy into a beneficent and bespectacled angel in shorts and gaiters. By defying accepted rules, Dickens had transcended the limited sphere hitherto allotted to his art: he had produced a book to be enshrined henceforth in the inmost hearts of all sorts and conditions of his countrymen, and had definitely enlarged the boundaries of English humour and English fiction. As for Mr Pickwick, he is a fairy like Puck or Santa Claus, while his creator is " the last of the mythologists and perhaps the greatest." When The Pickwick Papers appeared in book form at the close of 1837 Dickens's popular reputation was made. From the appearance of Sam Weller in part v. the universal hunger for the monthly parts had risen to a furore. The book was promptly translated into French and German. The author had received little assistance from press or critics, he had no influential con- nexions, his class of subjects was such as to " expose him at the outset to the fatal objections of vulgarity," yet in less than six months from the appearance of the first number, as the Quarterly Review almost ruefully admits, the whole reading world was talking about the Pickwickians. The names of Winkle, Wardle, Weller, Jingle, Snodgrass, Dodson & Fogg, were as familiar as household words. Pickwick chintzes figured in the linendrapers' windows, and Pickwick cigars in every tobacconist's; Weller corduroys became the stock-in-trade of every breeches-maker; Boz cabs might be seen rattling through the streets, and the portrait of the author of Pelham and Crichton was scraped down to make way for that pf the new popular favourite on the omni- buses. A new and original genius had suddenly sprung up, there was no denying it, even though, as the Quarterly concluded, " it required no gift of prophecy to foretell his fate — he has risen like a rocket and he will come down like the stick." It would have needed a very emphatic gift of prophecy indeed to foretell that Dickens's reputation would have gone on rising until at the present day (after one sharp fall, which reached an extreme about 1887) it stands higher than it has ever stood before. Dickens's assumption of the literary purple was as amazing as anything else about him. Accepting the homage of the luminaries of the literary, artistic and polite worlds as if it had been his natural due, he arranges for the settlement of his family, decrees, like another Edmund Kean, that his son is to go to Eton, carries on the most complicated negotiations with his publishers and editors, presides and orates with incomparable force at innumer- able banquets, public and private, arranges elaborate villegiatures in the country, at the seaside, in France or in Italy, arbitrates in public on every topic, political, ethical, artistic, social or literary, entertains and legislates for an increasingly large domestic circle, both juvenile and adult, rules himself and his time-table with a rod of iron. In his letter-writing alone, Dickens did a life's literary work. Nowadays no one thinks of writing such letters; that is to say, letters of such length and detail, for the quality is Dickens's own. He evidently enjoyed this use of the pen. Page after page of Forster's Life (750 pages in the Letters edited by his daughter and sister-in-law) is occupied with transcription from private correspondence, and never a line of this but is thoroughly worthy of print and preservation. If he makes a tour in any part of the British Isles, he writes a full description of all he sees, of everything that happens, and writes it with such gusto, such mirth, such strokes of fine picturing, as appear in no other private letters ever given to the public. Naturally buoyant in all circumstances, a holiday gave him the exhilaration of a school- boy. See how he writes from Cornwall, when on a trip with two or three friends, in 1843. " Heavens ! if you could have seen the necks of bottles, distracting in their immense variety of shape, peering out of the carriage pockets ! If you could have witnessed the deep devotion of the post-boys, the maniac glee of the waiters ! If you could have followed us into the earthy old churches we visited, and into the strange caverns on the gloomy seashore, and down into the depths of mines, and up to the tops of giddy heights, where the unspeakably green water was roaring, I don't know how many hundred feet below. ... I never laughed in my life as I did on this journey. It would have done you good to hear me. I was choking and gasping and bursting the buckles off the back of my stock, all the way. And Stanfield " — the painter — " got into such apoplectic entanglements that we were obliged to beat him on the back with portmanteaus before we could recover him." The animation of Dickens's look would attract the attention of any one, anywhere. His figure was not that of an Adonis, but his brightness made him the centre and pivot of every society he was in. The keenness and vivacity of his eye combined with his inordinate appetite for life to give the unique quality to all that he wrote. His instrument is that of the direct, sinewy English of Smollett, combined with much of the humorous grace of Goldsmith (his two favourite authors), but modernized to a certain extent under the influence of Washington Irving, Sydney Smith, Jeffrey, Lamb, and other writers of the London Magazine. He taught himself to speak French and Italian, but he could have read little in any language. His ideas were those of the inchoate and insular liberalism of the 'thirties. His unique force in literature he was to owe to no supreme artistic or intellectual quality, but almost entirely to his inordinate gift of observation, his sympathy with the humble, his power over the emotions and his incomparable endowment of unalloyed human fun. To DICKENS 181 contemporaries he was not so much a man as an institution, at the very mention of whose name faces were puckered with grins or wreathed in smiles. To many his work was a revelation, the revelation of a new world and one far better than their own. And his influence went further than this in the direction of revolution or revival. It gave what were then universally referred to as " the lower orders " a new sense of self-respect, a new feeling of citizenship. Like the defiance of another Luther, or the Declaration of a new Independence, it emitted a fresh ray of hope across the firmament. He did for the whole English-speaking race what Burns had done for Scotland — he gave it a new conceit of itself. He knew what a people wanted and he told what he knew. He could do this better than anybody else because his mind was theirs. He shared many of their " great useless virtues," among which generosity ranks before justice, and sympathy before truth, even though, true to his middle-class vein, he exalts piety, chastity and honesty in a manner somewhat alien to the mind of the low-bred man. This is what makes Dickens such a demigod and his public success such a marvel, and this also is why any exclusively literary criticism of his work is bound to be so inadequate. It should also help us to make the necessary allowances for the man. Dickens, even the Dickens of legend that we know, is far from perfect. The Dickens of reality to which Time may furnish a nearer approximation is far less perfect. But when we consider the corroding influence of adula- tion, and the intoxication of unbridled success, we cannot but wonder at the relatively high level of moderation and self-control that Dickens almost invariably observed. Mr G. K. Chesterton remarks suggestively that Dickens had all his life the faults of the little boy who is kept up too late at night. He is overwrought by happiness to the verge of exasperation, and yet as a matter of fact he does keep on the right side of the breaking point. The specific and curative in his case was the work in which he took such anxious* pride, and such unmitigated delight. He revelled in punctual and regular work; at his desk he was often in the highest spirits. Behold how he pictured himself, one day at Broadstairs, where he was writing Chuzzlewit. " In a bay- window in a one-pair sits, from nine o'clock to one, a gentleman with rather long hair and no neckcloth, who writes and grins, as if he thought he was very funny indeed. At one he disappears, presently emerges from a bathing-machine, and may be seen, a kind of salmon-colour porpoise, splashing about in the ocean. After that, he may be viewed in another bay-window on the' ground-floor eating a strong lunch; and after that, walking a dozen miles or so, or lying on his back on the sand reading a book. Nobody bothers him, unless they know he is disposed to be talked to, and I am told he is very comfortable indeed. He's as brown as a berry, and they do say he is as good as a small fortune to the innkeeper, who sells beer and cold punch." Here is the secret of such work as that of Dickens; it is done with delight — done (in a sense) easily, done with the mechanism of mind and body in splendid order. Even so did Scott write ; though more rapidly and with less conscious care: his chapter finished before the world had got up to breakfast. Later, Dickens produced novels less excellent with much more of mental strain. The effects of age could not have shown themselves so soon, but for the unfortunate loss of energy involved in his non-literary labours. While the public were still rejoicing in the first sprightly runnings of the " new humour," the humorist set to work desperately on the grim scenes of Oliver Twist, the story of a parish orphan, the nucleus of which had already seen the light in his Sketches. The early scenes are of a harrowing reality, despite the germ of forced pathos which the observant reader may detect in the pitiful parting between Oliver and little Dick; but what will strike every reader at once in this book is the direct- ness and power of the English style, so nervous and unadorned: from its unmistakable clearness and vigour Dickens was to travel far as time went on. But the full effect of the old simplicity is felt in such masterpieces of description as the drive of Oliver and Sikes to Chertsey, the condemned-cell ecstasy of Fagin, or the unforgettable first encounter between Oliver and the Artful Dodger. Before November 1837 had ended, Charles Dickens entered on an engagement to write a successor to Pickwick on similar lines of publication. Oliver Twist was then in mid-career; a Life of Grimaldi and Barnaby Rudge were already covenanted for. Dickens forged ahead with the new tale of Nicholas Nickleby and was justified by the results, for its sale far surpassed even that of Pickwick. As a conception it is one of his weakest. An unmistakably 18th-century character pervades it. Some of the vignettes are among the most piquant and besetting ever written. Large parts of it are totally unobserved conventional melo- drama; but the Portsmouth Theatre and Dotheboys Hall and Mrs Nickleby (based to some extent, it is thought, upon Miss Bates in Emma, but also upon the author's Mamma) live for ever as Dickens conceived them in the pages of Nicholas Nickleby. Having got rid of Nicholas Nickleby and resigned his editor- ship of Bentley's Miscellany, in which Oliver Twist originally appeared, Dickens conceived the idea of a weekly periodical to be issued as Master Humphrey's Clock, to comprise short stories, essays and miscellaneous papers, after the model of Addison's Spectator. To make the weekly numbers " go," he introduced Mr Pickwick, Sam Weller and his father in friendly intercourse. But the public requisitioned " a story," and in No. 4 he had to brace himself up to give them one. Thus was commenced The Old Curiosity Shop, which was continued with slight inter- ruptions, and followed by Barnaby Rudge. For the first time we find Dickens obsessed by a highly complicated plot. The tonality achieved in The Old Curiosity Shop surpassed anything he had attempted in this difficult vein, while the rich humour of Dick Swiveller and the Marchioness, and the vivid portraiture of the wandering Bohemians, attain the very highest level of Dickensian drollery; but in the lamentable tale of Little Nell (though Landor and Jeffrey thought the character-drawing of this infant comparable with that of Cordelia), it is generally admitted that he committed an indecent assault upon the emotions by exhibiting a veritable monster of piety and long- suffering in a child of tender years. In Barnaby Rudge he was manifestly affected by the influence of Scott, whose achievements he always regarded with a touching veneration. The plot, again, is of the utmost complexity, and Edgar Allan Poe (who predicted the conclusion) must be one of the few persons who ever really mastered it. But few of Dickens's books are written in a more admirable style. Master Humphrey's Clock concluded, Dickens started in 1842 on his first visit to America — an episode hitherto without parallel in English literary history, for he was received everywhere with popular acclamation as the representative of a grand triumph of the English language and imagination, without regard to distinctions of nationality. He offended the American public grievously by a few words of frank description and a few quotations of the advertisement columns of American papers illustrating the essential barbarity of the old slave system (American Notes). Dickens was soon pining for home — no English writer is more essentially and insularly English in inspiration and aspiration than he is. He still brooded over the perverseness of America on the copyright question, and in his next book he took the opportunity of uttering a few of his impressions about the objectionable sides of American democracy, the result being that " all Yankee-doodle-dom blazed up like one universal soda bottle," as Carlyle said. Martin Chuzzlewit (1843-1844) is import- ant as closing his great character period. His seve originate, as the French would say, was by this time to a considerable extent exhausted, and he had to depend more upon artistic elaboration, upon satires, upon tours de force of description, upon romantic and ingenious contrivances. But all these resources combined proved unequal to his powers as an original observer of popular types, until he reinforced himself by autobiographic reminiscence, as in David Copperfield and Great Expectations, the two great books remaining to his later career. After these two masterpieces and the three wonderful books with which he made his debut, we are inclined to rank Chuzzlewit. Nothing in Dickens is more admirably seen and presented than Todgers's, a bit of London particular cut out with a knife. Mr 182 DICKENS Pecksniff and Mrs Gamp, Betsy Prig and " Mrs Harris " have passed into the national language and life. The coach journey, the windy autumn night, the stealthy trail of Jonas, the under- tone of tragedy in the Charity and Mercy and Chuffey episodes suggest a blending of imaginative vision and physical penetration hardly seen elsewhere. Two things are specially notable about this novel — the exceptional care taken over it (as shown by the interlineations in the MS.) and the caprice or nonchalance of the purchasing public, its sales being far lower than those of any of its monthly predecessors. At the close of 1843, to pay outstanding debts of his now lavish housekeeping, he wrote that pioneer of Christmas numbers, that national benefit as Thackeray called it, A Christmas Carol. It failed to realize his pecuniary anticipations, and Dickens resolved upon a drastic policy of retrenchment and reform. He would save expense by living abroad and would punish his publishers by withdrawing his custom from them, at least for a time. Like everything else upon which he ever determined, this resolution was carried out with the greatest possible precision and despatch. In June 1844 he set out for Marseilles with his now rapidly increasing family (the journey cost him £200). In a villa on the outskirts of Genoa he wrote The Chimes, which, during a brief excursion to London before Christmas, he read to a select circle of friends (the germ of his subsequent lecture-audiences), including Forster, Carlyle, Stanfield, Dyce, Maclise and Jerrold. He was again in London in 1845, enjoying his favourite diversion of private theatricals; and in January 1846 he experimented briefly as the editor of a London morning paper — the Daily News. By early spring he was back at Lausanne, writing his customary vivid letters to his friends, craving as usual for London streets, commencing Dombey and Son, and walking his fourteen miles daily. The success of Dombey and Son completely rehabilitated the master's finances, enabled him to return to England, send his son to Eton and to begin to save money. Artistically it is less satisfactory; it contains some of Dickens's prime curios, such as Cuttle, Bunsby, Toots, Blimber, Pipchin, Mrs MacStinger and young Biler; it contains also that master- piece of sentimentality which trembles upon the borderland of the sublime and the ridiculous, the death of Paul Dombey (" that sweet Paul," as Jeffrey, the " critic laureate," called him), and some grievous and unquestionable blemishes. As a narrative, moreover, it tails off into a highly complicated and exacting plot. It was followed by a long rest at Broadstairs before Dickens returned to the native home of his genius, and early in 1849 " began to prepare for David Copperfield. " " Of all my books," Dickens wrote, " I like this the best; like many fond parents I have my favourite child, and his name is David Copperfield." In some respects it stands to Dickens in something of the same relation in which the contemporary Pendennis stands to Thackeray. As in that book, too, the earlier portions are the best. They gained in intensity by the auto- biographical form into which they are thrown; as Thackeray observed, there was no writing against such power. The tragedy of Emily and the character of Rosa Dartle are stagey and unreal; Uriah Heep is bad art; Agnes, again, is far less convincing as a consolation than Dickens would have us believe; but these are more than compensated by the wonderful realization of early boyhood in the book, by the picture of Mr Creakle's school, the Peggottys, the inimitable Mr Micawber, Betsy Trot- wood and that monument of selfish misery, Mrs Gummidge. At the end of March 1850 commenced the new twopenny weekly called Household Words, which Dickens planned to form a direct means of communication between himself and his readers, and as a means of collecting around him and encouraging the talents of the younger generation. No one was better quali- fied than he for this work, whether we consider his complete freedom from literary jealousy or his magical gift of inspiring young authors. Following the somewhat dreary and incoherent Bleak House of 1852, Hard Times (1854) — an anti-Manchester School tract, which Ruskin regarded as' Dickens's best work — was the first long story written for Household Words. About this time Dickens made his final home at Gad's Hill, near Rochester, and put the finishing touch to another long novel published upon the old plan, Little Dorrit (1855-1857). In spite of the exquisite comedy of the master of the Marshalsea and the final tragedy of the central figure, Little Dorrit is sadly deficient in the old vitality, the humour is often a mock reality, and the repetition of comic catch-words and overstrung similes and metaphors is such as to affect the reader with nervous irritation. The plot and characters ruin each other in this amorphous production. The Tale of Two Cities, commenced in All the Year Round (the successor of Household Words) in 1859, is much better: the main characters are powerful, the story genuinely tragic, and the atmosphere lurid; but enormous labour was everywhere ex- pended upon the construction of stylistic ornament. The Tale of Two Cities was followed by two finer efforts at atmospheric delineation, the best things he ever did of this kind: Great Expectations (1861), over which there broods the mournful impression of the foggy marshes of the Lower Thames; and Our Mutual Friend (1864-1865), in which the ooze and mud and slime of Rotherhithe, its boatmen and loafers, are made to per- vade the whole book with cumulative effect. The general effect produced by the stories is, however, very different. In the first case, the foreground was supplied by autobiographical material of the most vivid interest, and the lucidity of the creative impulse impelled Mm to write upon this occasion with the old simplicity, though with an added power. Nothing therefore, in the whole range of Dickens surpassed the early chapters of Great Expecta- tions in perfection of technique or in mastery of all the resources of the novelist's art. To have created Abel Magwitch alone is to be a god indeed, says Mr Swinburne, among the creators of death- less men. Pumblechook is actually better and droller and truer to imaginative life than Pecksniff; Joe Gargery is worthy to have been praised and loved at once by Fielding and by Sterne : Mr Jaggers and his clients, Mr Wemmick and his parent and his bride, are such figures as Shakespeare, when dropping out of poetry, might have created, if his lot had been cast in a later century. " Can as much be said," Mr Swinburne boldly asks, " for the creatures of any other man or god ? " In November 1867 Dickens made a second expedition to America, leaving all the writing that he was ever to complete be- hind him. He was to make a round sum of money, enough to free him from all embarrassments, by a long series of exhausting read- ings, commencing at the Tremont Temple, Boston, on the 2nd of December. The strain of Dickens's ordinary life was so tense and so continuous that it is, perhaps, rash to assume that he broke down eventually under this particular stress; for other reasons, however, his persistence in these readings, subsequent to his return, was strongly deprecated by his literary friends, led by the arbitrary and relentless Forster. It is a long testimony to Dickens's self-restraint, even in his most capricious and despotic moments, that he never broke the cord of obligation which bound him to his literary mentor, though sparring matches between them were latterly of frequent occurrence. His farewell reading was given on the 15th of March 1870, at St James's Hall. He then vanished from " those garish lights," as he called them, " for evermore." Of the three brief months that remained to him, his last book, The Mystery of Edwin Drood, was the chief occupa- tion. It hardly promised to become a masterpiece (Longfellow's opinion) as did Thackeray's Denis Duval, but contained much fine descriptive technique, grouped round a scene of which Dickens had an unrivalled sympathetic knowledge. In March and April 1870 Dickens, as was his wont, was mixing in the best society; he dined with the prince at Lord Houghton's and was twice at court, once at a long deferred private interview with the queen, who had given him a presentation copy of her Leaves from a Journal of our Life in the Highlands with the inscription " From one of the humblest of authors to one of the greatest "; and who now begged him on his persistent refusal of any other title to accept the nominal distinction of a privy councillor. He took for four months the Milner Gibsons' house at 5 Hyde Park Place, opposite the Marble Arch, where he gave a brilliant reception on the 7th of April. His last public appear- ance was made at the Royal Academy banquet early in May. DICKENS 183 He returned to his regular methodical routine of work at Gad's Hill on the 30th of May, and one of the last instalments he wrote of Edwin Brood, contained an ominous speculation as to the next two people to die at Cloisterham: " Curious to make a guess at the two, or say at one of the two." Two letters bearing the well- known superscription " Gad's Hill Place, Higham by Rochester, Kent " are dated the 8th of June, and, on the same Thursday, after a long spell of writing in the Chalet where he habitually wrote, he collapsed suddenly at dinner. Startled by the sudden change in the colour and expression of his face, his sister-in-law (Miss Hogarth) asked him if he was ill; he said " Yes, very ill," but added that he would finish dinner and go on afterwards to London. " Come and lie down," she entreated; " Yes, on the ground," he said, very distinctly; these were the last words he spoke, and he slid from her arms and fell upon the floor. He died at 6-10 p.m. on Friday, the 9th of June, and was buried privately in Poets' Corner, Westminster Abbey, in the early morning of the 14th of June. One of the most appealing memorials was the drawing by his " new illustrator " Luke Fildes in the Graphic of " The Empty Chair; Gad's Hill: ninth of June, 1870." " Statesmen, men of science, philanthropists, the acknowledged benefactors of their race, might pass away, and yet not leave the void which will be caused by the death of Charles Dickens " (The Times). In his will he enjoined his friends to erect no monument in his honour, and directed his name and dates only to be inscribed on his tomb, adding this proud provision, " I rest my claim to the remembrance of my country on my published works." Dickens had no artistic ideals worth speaking about. The sympathy of his readers was the one thing he cared about and, like Cobbett, he went straight for it through the avenue of the emotions. In personality, intensity and range of creative genius he can hardly be said to have any modern rival. His creations live, move and have their being about us constantly, like those of Homer, Virgil, Chaucer, Rabelais, Cervantes, Shakespeare, Bunyan, Moliere and Sir Walter Scott. As to the books them- selves, the backgrounds on which these mighty figures are pro- jected, they are manifestly too vast, too chaotic and too unequal ever to become classics. Like most of the novels constructed upon the unreformed model of Smollett and Fielding, those of Dickens are enormous stock-pots into which the author casts every kind of autobiographical experience, emotion, pleasantry, anecdote, adage or apophthegm. The fusion is necessarily very incomplete and the hotch-potch is bound to fall to pieces with time. Dickens's plots, it must be admitted, are strangely unintelligible, the repetitions and stylistic decorations of his work exceed all bounds, the form is unmanageable and insignificant. The diffuseness of the English novel, in short, and its extravagant didacticism cannot fail to be most prejudicial to its perpetuation. In these circumstances there is very little fiction that will stand concentration and condensation so well as that of Dickens. For these reasons among others our interest in Dickens's novels as integers has diminished and is diminishing. But, on the other hand, our interest and pride in him as a man and as a repre- sentative author of his age and nation has been steadily augmented and is still mounting. Much of the old criticism of his work, that it was not up to a sufficiently high level of art, scholarship or gentility, that as an author he is given to caricature, redundancy and a shameless subservience to popular caprice, must now be discarded as irrelevant. As regards formal excellence it is plain that Dickens labours under the double disadvantage of writing in the least disciplined of all literary genres in the most lawless literary milieu of the modern world, that of Victorian England. In spite of these defects, which are those of masters such as Rabelais, Hugo and Tolstoy, the work of Dickens is more and more instinctively felt to be true, original and ennobling. It is already beginning to undergo a process of automatic sifting, segregation and crystalliza- tion, at the conclusion of which it will probably occupy a larger segment in the literary consciousness of the English-spoken race than ever before. Portraits of Dickens, from the gay and alert " Boz " of Samuel Lawrence, and the self-conscious, rather foppish portrait by Maclise which served as frontispiece to Nicholas Nickleby, to the sketch of him as Bobadil by C. R. Leslie, the Drummond and Ary Scheffer portraits of middle age and the haggard and drawn representations of him from- photographs after his shattering experiences as a public entertainer from 1856 (the year of his separation from his wife) onwards, are reproduced in Kitton, in Forster and Gissing and in the other biographies. Sketches are also given in most of the books of his successive dwelling places at Ordnance Terrace and 18 St Mary's Place, Chatham; Bayham Street, Camden Town; 15 Furnival's Inn; 48 Doughty Street; 1 Devonshire Terrace, Regent's Park; Tavistock House, Tavistock Square; and Gad's Hill Place. The manuscripts of all the novels, with the exception of the Tale of Two Cities and Edwin Brood, were given to Forster, and are now preserved in the Dyce and Forster Museum at South Kensington. The work of Dickens was a prize for which publishers naturally contended both before and after his death. The first collective edition of his works was begun in April 1847, and their number is now very great. The most complete is still that of Messrs Chapman & Hall, the original publishers of Pickwick; others of special interest are the Harrap edition, originally edited by F. G. Kitton; Macmillan's edition with original illustrations and introduction by Charles Dickens the younger; and the edition in the World's Classics with introductions by G. K. Chesterton. Of the transla- tions the best known is that done into French by Lorain, Pichot and others, with B. H. Gausseron's excellent Pages Choisies (1903). Bibliography. — During his lifetime Dickens's biographer was clearly indicated in his guide, philosopher and friend, John Forster, who had known the novelist intimately since the days of his first triumph with Pickwick, who had constituted himself a veritable encyclopaedia of information about Dickens, and had clung to his subject (in spite of many rebuffs which his peremptory temper found it hard to digest) as tightly as ever Boswell had enveloped Johnson. Two volumes of Forster's Life of Charles Dickens appeared in 1872 and a third in 1874. He relied much on Dickens's letters to himself and produced what must always remain the authoritative work. The first two volumes are put together with much art, the portrait as a whole has been regarded as truthful, and the immediate success was extraordinary. In the opinion of Carlyle, Forster's book was not unworthy to be named after that of Boswell. A useful abridgment was carried out in 1903 by the novelist George Gissing. Gissing also wrote Charles Dickens: A Critical Study (1898), which ranks with G.K.Chesterton's Charles Dickens(igo6)&s a commentary inspired by deep insight and adorned by great literary talent upon the genius of the master-novelist. The names of other lives, sketches, articles and estimates of Dickens and his works would occupy a large volume in the mere enumeration. See R. H. Shepherd, The Bibliography of Dickens (1880) ; James Cooke's Bibliography of the Writings of Charles Dickens (1879); Dickensiana, by F. G. Kitton (1886); and Biblio- graphy by J. P. Anderson, appended to Sir F. T. Marzials's Life of Charles Dickens (1887). Among the earlier sketches may be specially cited the lives by J. C. Hotten and G. A. Sala (1870), the Anecdote- Biography edited by the American R. H. Stoddard (1874), Dr A. W. Ward in the Engjish Men of Letters Series (1878), that by Sir Leslie Stephen in the Dictionary of National Biography, and that by Pro- fessor Minto in the eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. The Letters were first issued in two volumes edited by his daughter and sister-in-law in 1880; For Dickens's connexion with Kent the following books are specially valuable : — Robert Langton's Childhood and Youth of Charles Dickens (1883); Langton's Dickens and Rochester (1880); Thomas Frost's In Kent with Charles Dickens (1880); F. G. Kitton's The Dickens Country (1905); H. S. Ward's The Real Dickens Land (1904) ; R. Allbut's Rambles in Dickens Land (1899 and 1903). For Dickens's reading tours see G. Dolby's Charles Dickens as I knew him (1884) ; J. T. Fields's In and Out of Doors with Charles Dickens (1876); Charles Kent's Dickens as a Reader (1872). And for other aspects of his life see M. Dickens's My Father as I recall him (1897) ; P. H. Fitzgerald's Life of C. Dickens as revealed in his Writings (1905), and Bozland (1895) ; F. G. Kitton's Charles Dickens, his Life, Writings and Personality, a useful compen- dium (1902) ; T. E. Pemberton's Charles Dickens and the Stage, and Dickens's London (1876) ; F. Miltoun's Dickens's London (1904) ; Kitton's Dickens and his Illustrators; W. Teignmouth Shore's Charles Dickens and his Friends (1904 and 1909) ; B. W. Matz, Story of Dickens's Life and Work (1904), and review of solutions to Edwin Drood in The Bookman for March 1908 ; the recollections of Edmund Yates, Trollope, James Payn, Lehmann, R. H. Home, Lockwood and many others. The Dickensian, a magazine devoted to Dickensian subjects, was started in 1905; it is the organ of the Dickens Fellow- ship, and in a sense of the Boz Club. A Dickens Dictionary (by G. A. Pierce) appeared in 1872 and 1878 ; another (by A. J. Philip) in 1909; and a Dickens Concordance by Mary Williams in 1907. (T. Se.) 184 DICKINSON, A. E.— DICKSON, J. R. DICKINSON, ANNA ELIZABETH (1842- ), American author and lecturer, was born, of Quaker parentage, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 28th of October 1842. She was educated at the Friends' Free School in Philadelphia, and was for a time a teacher. In 1861 she obtained a clerkship in the United States mint, but was removed for criticizing General McClellan at a public meeting. She had gradually become widely known as an eloquent and persuasive public speaker, one of the first of her sex to mount the platform to discuss the burning questions of the hour. Before the Civil War she lectured on anti-slavery topics, during the war she toured the country on behalf of the Sanitary Commission, and also lectured on reconstruction, temperance and woman's rights. She wrote several plays, in- cluding The Crown of Thorns (1876) ; Mary Tudor (1878), in which she appeared in the title role; Aurelian (1878) ; and An American Girl (1880), successfully acted by Fanny Davenport. She also published a novel, Which Answer? (1868); A Paying Investment, a Plea for Education (1876); and A Ragged Register of People, Places and Opinions (1879). DICKINSON, JOHN (1732-1808), American statesman and pamphleteer, was born in Talbot county, Maryland, on the 8th of November 1732. He removed with his father to Kent county, Delaware, in 1740, studied under private tutors, read law, and in 1 7 53 entered the Middle Temple, London. Returning to America in 1757, he began the practice of law in Philadelphia, was speaker of the Delaware assembly in 1760, and was a member of the Pennsylvania assembly in 1762-1765 and again in 1770-1776. 1 He represented Pennsylvania in the Stamp Act Congress (1765) and in the Continental Congress from 1774 to 1776, when he was defeated owing to his opposition to the Declaration of Independence. He then retired to Delaware, served for a time as private and later as brigader-general in the state militia, and was again a member of the Continental Congress (from Delaware) in 1779-1780. He was president of the executive councilor chief executive officer, of Delaware in 1781-1782, and of Pennsylvania in 1782-1785, and was a delegate from Delaware to the Annapolis convention of 1786 and the Federal Constitutional convention of 1787. Dickinson has aptly been called the "Penman of the Revolution." No other writer of the day presented arguments so numerous, so timely and so popular. He drafted the " Declara- tion of Rights " of the Stamp Act Congress, the " Petition to the King " and the " Address to the Inhabitants of Quebec " of the Congress of 1774, and the second " Petition to the King" 2 and the " Articles of Confederation " of the second Congress. Most influential of all, however, were The Letters of a Farmer in Pennsylvania, written in 1 767-1 768 in condemnation of the Townshend Acts of 1767, in which he rejected speculative natural rights theories and appealed to the common sense of the people through simple legal arguments. By opposing the Declaration of Independence, he lost his popularity and was never able entirely to regain it. As the representative of a small state, he championed the principle of state equality in the constitu- tional convention, but was one of the first to advocate the compromise, which was finally adopted, providing for equal representation, in one house and proportional representation in the other. He was probably influenced by Delaware prejudice against Pennsylvania when he drafted the clause which forbids the creation of a new state by the junction of two or more states or parts of states without the consent of the states concerned as well as of congress. After the adjournment of the convention he defended its work in a series of letters signed " Fabius," which will bear comparison with the best of the Federalist productions. It was largely through his influence that Delaware and Pennsylvania were the first two states to ratify the Constitution. Dickinson's interests were not exclusively political. He helped to found Dickinson College (named in his honour) at Carlisle, Pennsylvania, in 1783, was the first president of its board of 1 Being under the same proprietor and the same governor, Pennsylvania and Delaware were so closely connected before the Revolution that there was an interchange of public men. 2 The " Declaration of the United Colonies of North America . . . setting forth the Causes and the Necessity of their Taking up Arms " (often erroneously attributed to Thomas Jefferson). trustees, and was for many years its chief benefactor. He died on the 14th of February 1808 and was buried in the Friends' burial ground in Wilmington, Del. See C. J. Stille, Life and Times of John Dickinson, and P. L. Ford (editor), The Writings of John Dickinson, in vols. xiii. and xiv. respectively of the Memoirs of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1891 and 1895). DICKSON, SIR ALEXANDER (1777-1840), British artillerist, entered the Royal Military Academy in 1793, passing out as second lieutenant in the Royal Artillery in the following year. As a subaltern he saw service in Minorca in 1798 and at Malta in 1800. As a captain he took part in the unfortunate Montevideo Expedition of 1806-07, an d in 1809 he accompanied- Ho worth to the Peninsular War as brigade-major of the artillery. He soon obtained a command in the Portuguese artillery, and as a lieutenant-colonel of the Portuguese service took part in the various battles of 1810-n. At the two sieges of Budazoz, Ciudad Rodrigo, the Salamanca forts and Burgos, he was entrusted by Wellington (who had the highest opinion of him) with most of the detailed artillery work, and at Salamanca battle he commanded the reserve artillery. In the end he became commander of the whole of the artillery of the allied army, and though still only a substantive captain in the British service he had under his orders some 8000 men. At Vitoria, the Pyrenees battles and Toulouse he directed the movements of the artillery engaged, and at the end of the war received handsome presents from the officers who had served under him, many of whom were his seniors in the army list. He was at the disastrous affair of New Orleans, but returned to Europe in time for the Waterloo campaign. He was present at Quatre Bras and Waterloo on the artillery staff of Wellington's army, and subsequently commanded the British battering train at the sieges of the French fortresses left behind the advancing allies. For the rest of his life he was on home service, principally as a staff officer of artillery. He died, a major-general and G.C.B., in 1840. A.memorial was erected at Woolwich in 1847. Dickson was one of the earliest fellows of the Royal Geographical Society. His diaries kept in the Peninsula were the main source of informa- tion used in Duncan's History of the Royal Artillery. DICKSON, SIR JAMES ROBERT (1832-1901), Australian statesman, was born in Plymouth on the 30th of November 1832. He was brought up in Glasgow, receiving his education at the high school, and became a clerk in the City of Glasgow Bank. In 1854 he emigrated to Victoria, but after some years spent in that colony and in New South Wales, he settled in 1862 in Queensland, where he was connected with many important business enterprises, among them the Royal Bank of Queensland. He entered the Queensland House of Assembly in 1872, and became minister of works (1876), treasurer (1876-1879, and 1883- 1887), acting premier (1884), but resigned in 1887 on the question of taxing land. In 1889 he retired from business, and spent three years in Europe before resuming political life. He fought for the introduction of Polynesian labour on the Queensland sugar plantations at the general election of 1892, and was elected to the House of Assembly in that year and again at the elections of 1893 and 1896. He became secretary for railways in 1897, minister for home affairs in 1898, represented Queensland in the federal council of Australia in 1896 and at the postal conference at Hobart in 1898, and in 1898 became premier. His energies were now devoted to the formation of an Australian commonwealth. He secured the reference of the question to a plebiscite, the result of which justified his anticipations. He resigned the premiership in November 1899, but in the ministry of Robert Philp, formed in the next month, he was reappointed to the offices of chief secretary and vice-president of the executive council which he had combined with the office of premier. He represented Queensland in 1900 at the conference held in London to consider the question of Australian unity, and on his return was appointed minister of defence in the first government of the Australian Commonwealth. He did not long survive the accomplishment of his political aims, dying at Sydney on the 10th of January 1901, in the midst of the festivities attending the inauguration of the new state. DICOTYLEDONS— DICTATOR 185 DICOTYLEDONS, in botany, the larger of the two great classes of angiosperms, embracing most of the common flower-bearing plants. The name expresses the most universal character of the class, the importance of which was first noticed by John Ray, namely, the presence of a pair of seed-leaves or cotyledons, in the plantlet or embryo contained in the seed. The embryo is generally surrounded by a larger or smaller amount of foodstuff (endosperm) which serves to nourish it in its development to form a seedling when the seed germinates; frequently, however, as in pea or bean and their allies, the whole of the nourishment for future use is stored up in the cotyledons themselves, which then become thick and fleshy. In germination of the seed the root of the embryo (radicle) grows out to get a holdfast for the plant; this is generally followed by the growth of the short stem immediately above the root, the so-called " hypocotyl," which carries up the cotyledons above the ground, where they spread to the light and become the first green leaves of the plant. Protected between the cotyledons and terminating the axis of the plant is the first stem-bud (the plumule of the embryo), by the further growth and development of which the aerial portion of the plant, consisting of stem, leaves and branches, is formed, while the development of the radicle forms the root-system. The size and manner of growth of the adult plant show a great variety, from the small herb lasting for one season only, to the forest tree living for centuries. The arrangement of the conduct- ing tissue in the stem is characteristic; a transverse section of the very young stem shows a nunber of distinct conducting strands — vascular bundles — arranged in a ring round the pith; these soon become united to form a closed ring of bast and wood, separated by a layer of formative tissue (cambium). In perennials the stem shows a regular increase in thickness each year by the addition- of a new ring of wood outside the old one — for details of structure see Plants : A natomy. A similar growth occurs in the root. This increase in the diameter of stem and root is correlated with the increase in leaf -area each season, due to the continued production of new leaf -bearing branches. A character- istic of the class is afforded by the complicated network formed by the leaf -veins, — well seen in a skeleton leaf, from which the soft parts have been removed by maceration. The parts of the flower are most frequently arranged in fives, or multiples of fives; for instance, a common arrangement is as follows, — five sepals, succeeded by five petals, ten stamens in two sets of five, and five or fewer carpels; an arrangement in fours is less frequent, while the arrangement in threes, so common in monocotyledons, is rare in dicotyledons. In some orders the parts are numerous, chiefly in the case of the stamens and the carpels, as in the buttercup and other members of the order Ranunculaceae. There is a very wide range in the general structure and arrangement of the parts of the flower, associated with the means for ensuring the transference of pollen; in the simplest cases the flower consists only of a few stamens or carpels, with no enveloping sepals or petals, as in the willow, while ih the more elaborate type each series is represented, the whole forming a complicated structure closely correlated with the size, form and habits of the pollinating agent (see Flower). The characters of the fruit and seed and the means for ensuring the dispersal of the seeds are also very varied (see Fruit). DICTATOR (from the Lat. dictare, frequentative of dicere, to speak). In modern usage this term is loosely used for a personal ruler enjoying extraordinary and extra-constitutional power. The etymological sense of one who " dictates " — i.e. one whose word (dictum) is law (from which that of one who " dictates," i.e. speaks for some writer to record, is to be distinguished) — has been assisted by the historical use of the term, in ancient times, for an extraordinary magistrate in the Roman commonwealth. It is unknown precisely how the Roman word came into use, though an explanation of the earlier official title, magister populi, throws some light on the subject. That designation may mean " head of the (infantry) host " as opposed to his subordinate, the magister equitum, who was " head of the cavalry. " If this explana- tion be accepted, emphasis was thus laid in early times on the military aspect of the dictatorship, and in fact the office seems to have been instituted for the purpose of meeting a military crisis such as might have proved too serious for the annual consuls with their divided command. Later constitutional theory held that the repression of civil discord was also one of the motives for the institution of a dictatorship. Such is the view expressed by Cicero in the De legibus (iii. 3, 9) and by the emperor Claudius in his extant Oratio (i. 28). This function of the office, although it may not have been contemplated at first, is attested by the internal history of Rome. In the crisis of the agitation that gathered round the Licinian laws (367 B.C.) a dictator was ap- pointed, and in 314 B.C. we have the notice of a dictator created for purposes of criminal jurisdiction (quaestionibus exercendis). The dictator appointed to meet the dangers of war, sedition or crime was technically described as " the administrative dictator " (rei gerundae causa). Minor, or merely formal, needs of the state might lead to the creation of other types of this office. Thus we find dictators destined to hold the elections, to make out the list of the senate, to celebrate games, to establish festivals, and to drive the nail into the temple of Jupiter — an act of natural magic which was believed to avert pestilence. These dictators appointed for minor purposes were expected to retire from office as soon as their function was completed. The " administrative dictator " held office for at least six months. The powers of a dictator were a temporary revival of those of the kings; but there were some limitations to his authority. He was never concerned with civil jurisdiction, and was dependent on the senate for supplies of money. His military authority was confined to Italy; and his power of life and death over the citizens was at an early period limited by law. It was probably the lex Valeria of 300 b.c. that made him subject to the right of criminal appeal (provocatio) within the limits of the city. But during his tenure of power all the magistrates of the people were regarded as his subordinates; and it was even held that the right of assistance (auxilium) , furnished by the tribunes of the plebs to members of the citizen body, should not be effectively exercised when the state was under this type of martial law. The dictator was nominated by one of the consuls. But here as else- where the senate asserted its authority over the magistrates, and the view was finally held that the senate should not only suggest the need of nomination but also the name of the nominee. After the nomination, the imperium of the dictator was confirmed by a lex curiata (see Comitia). To emphasize the superiority of this imperium over that of the consuls, the dictator might be preceded by twenty-four lictors, not by the usual twelve; and, at least in the earlier period of the office, these lictors bore the axes, the symbols of life and death, within the city walls. Tradition represents the dictatorship as having a life of three centuries in the history of the Roman state. The first dictator is said to have been created in 501 B.C.; the last of the " administrative " dictators belongs to the year 216 B.C. It was an office that was incompatible both with the growing spirit of constitutionalism and with the greater security of the city; and the epoch of the Second Punic War was marked by experiments with the office, such as the election of Q. Fabius Maximus by the people, and the co-dictatorship of M. Minucius with Fabius, which heralded its disuse (see Punic Wars). The emergency office of the early and middle Republic has few points of contact, except those of the extraordinary position and almost unfettered authority of its holder, with the dictatorship as revised by Sulla and by Caesar. Sulla's dictatorship was the form taken by a provisional government. He was created " for the establishment of the Republic." It is less certain whether the dictatorships held by Caesar were of a consciously provisional character. Since the office represented the only supreme Imperium in Rome, it was the natural resort of the founder of a monarchy (see Sulla and Caesar) . Ostensibly to prevent its further use for such a purpose, M. Antonius in 44 b.c. carried a law abolishing the dictatorship as a part of the constitution. Bibliography. — Mommsen, Romisches Staalsrecht, ii. 141 foil. (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1887); Herzog, Geschichte und System der romi- schen Staalsverfassung, i. 718 foil. (Leipzig, 1884); Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopadie, v. 370 foil, (new edition, Stuttgart. 1893, &c.); i86 DICTIONARY and history. Lange, Romische Alterthiimer, i. 54.2 foil. (Berlin, 1856, &c.) ; Darem- berg-Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquites grecques et romaines, ii. 161 foil. (1875, &c); Haverfield, " The Abolition of the Dictatorship," in Classical Review, iii. 77. (A. H. J. G.) DICTIONARY. In its proper and most usual meaning a dictionary is a book containing a collection of the words of a language, dialect or subject, arranged alphabetically or ^ e Jl aHlon in some other definite order,and with explanations in the same or some other language. When the words are few in number, being only a small part of those belonging to the subject, or when they are given without explanation, or some only are explained, or the explanations are partial, the work is called a vocabulary; and when there is merely a list of explana- tions of the technical words and expressions in some particular subject, a glossary. An alphabetical arrangement of the words of some book or author with references to the places where they occur is called an index (q.v.). When under each word the phrases containing it are added to the references, the work is called a concordance. Sometimes, however, these names are given to true dictionaries; thus the great Italian dictionary of the Accademia della Crusca, in six volumes folio, is called Vocabolario, and Ernesti's dictionary to Cicero is called Index. When the words are arranged according to a definite system of classification under heads and subdivisions, according to their nature or their meaning, the book is usually called a classed vocabulary; but when sufficient explanations are given it is often accepted as a dictionary, like the Onomasticon of Julius Pollux, or the native dictionaries of Sanskrit, Manchu and many other languages. Dictionaries were originally books of reference explaining the words of a language or of some part of it. As the names of things, as well as those of persons and places, are words, and often require explanation even more than other classes of words, they were necessarily included in dictionaries, and often to a very great extent. In time, books were devoted to them alone, and were limited to special subjects, and these have so multiplied, that dictionaries of things now rival in number and variety those of words or of languages, while they often far surpass them in bulk. There are dictionaries of biography and history, real and fictitious, general and special, relating to men of all countries, characters and professions; the English Dictionary of National Biography (see Biography) is a great instance of one form of these; dictionaries of bibliography, relating to all books, or to those of some particular kind or country; dictionaries of geography (sometimes called gazetteers) of the whole world, of particular countries, or of small districts, of towns and of villages, of castles, monasteries and other buildings. There are dictionaries of philosophy; of the Bible; of mathematics; of natural history, zoology, botany; of birds, trees, plants and flowers; of chemistry, geology and mineralogy; of architecture, painting and music; of medicine, surgery, anatomy, pathology and physiology; of diplomacy; of law, canon, civil, statutory and criminal; of political and social sciences; of agriculture, rural economy and gardening; of commerce, navigation, horse- manship and the military arts; of mechanics, machines and the manual arts. There are dictionaries of antiquities, of chronology, of dates, of genealogy, of heraldry, of diplomatics, of abbreviations, of useful receipts, of monograms, of adulterations and of very many other subjects. These works are separately referred to in the bibliographies attached to the articles on the separate subjects. And lastly, there are dictionaries of the arts and sciences, and their comprehensive offspring, encyclopaedias (q.v.), which include in themselves every branch of knowledge. Neither under the heading of dictionary nor under that of encyclopaedia do we propose to include a mention of every work of its class, but many of these will be referred to in the separate articles on the subjects to which they pertain. And in this article we confine ourselves to an account of those dictionaries which are primarily word-books. This is practically the most convenient distinction from the subject-book or encyclopaedia; though the two characters are often combined in one work. Thus the Century Dictionary has encyclopaedic features, while the present edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, restoring its earlier tradition but carrying out the idea more systematically, also embodies dictionary features. Dictionarium is a word of low or modern Latinity; 1 dictio, from which it was formed, was used in medieval Latin to mean a word. Lexicon is a corresponding word of Greek origin, meaning a book of or for words — a dictionary. A glossary is properly a collection of unusual or foreign words requiring explanation. It is the name frequently given to English dictionaries of dialects, which the Germans usually call idiolicon, and the Italians vocabolario. W orterbuch, a book of words, was first used among the Germans, according to Grimm, by Kramer (1 719), imitated from the Dutch woordenboek. From the Germans the Swedes and Danes adopted ordbok, ordbog. The Icelandic ordabdk, like the German, contains the genitive plural. The Slavonic nations use slovar, slovnik, and the southern Slavs ryetshnik, from slovo, ryetsh, a word, formed, like dictionary and lexicon, without composition. Many other names have been given to dictionaries, as thesaurus, Sprachschalz, cornucopia, gazophylacium, comprehensorium, catholicon, to indicate their completeness ; manipulus predicantium, promptorium puerorum, liber memorialis, hortus vocabulorum, ionia (a violet bed), alveary (a beehive), kamoos (the sea), haft kulzum (the seven seas), tsze tien^(sL standard of character), onomasticon, nomenclator, biblio- theca, elucidario, Mundart-sammlung, clavis, scala, pharetra? La Crusca from the great Italian dictionary, and Calepino (in Spanish and Italian) from the Latin dictionary of Calepinus. The tendency of great dictionaries is to unite in themselves all the peculiar features of special dictionaries. A large dictionary is most useful when a word is to be thoroughly studied, or when there is difficulty in making out the meaning of a word or phrase. Special dictionaries are more useful for special purposes; for instance, synonyms are best studied in a dictionary of synonyms. And small dictionaries are more convenient for frequent use, as in translating from an unfamiliar language, for words may be found more quickly, and they present the words and their meanings in a concentrated and compact form, instead of being scattered over a large space, and separated by other matter. Dictionaries of several languages, called polyglots, are of different kinds. Some are polyglot in the vocabulary, but not in the explanation, like Johnson's dictionary of Persian and Arabic explained in English ; some in the interpretation, but not in the vocabulary or explanation, like Calepini octoglotton, a Latin dictionary of Latin, with the meanings in seven languages. Many great dictionaries are now polyglot in this sense. Some are polyglot in the vocabulary and interpretation, but are explained in one language, like Jal's Glossaire nautique, a glossary of sea terms in many languages, giving the equivalents of each word in the other languages, but the explanation in French. Pauthier's Annamese Dictionary is polyglot in a peculiar way. It gives the Chinese characters with their pronunciation in Chinese and Annamese. Special dictionaries are of many kinds. There &n'. technical dictionaries of etymology, foreign words, dialects, secret languages, slang, neology, barbarous words, faults of ex- pression, choice words, prosody, pronunciation, spelling, orators, poets, law, music, proper names, particular authors, nouns, verbs, participles, particles, double forms, difficulties and many others. Fick's dictionary (Gottingen, 1868, 8vo; 1874-1876, 8vo, 4 vols.) is a remarkable attempt to ascertain the common language of the Indo-European nations before each of their great separations. In the second edition of his Etymologische Forschungen (Lemgo and Detmoldt, 1859-1873, 8vo, 7217 pages) Pott gives a comparative lexicon of Indo-European roots, 2226 in number, occupying 5140 pages. 'Joannes de Garlandia (John Garland; fl. 1202-1252) gives the following explanation in his Dictionarius, which is a classed vocabulary: — " Dictionarius dicitur libellus iste a dictionibus magis necessariis, quas tenetur quilibet scolaris, non tantum in scrinio de lignis facto, sed in cordis armariolo firmiter retinere." This has been supposed to be the first use of the word. 2 An excellent dictionary of quotations, perhaps the first of the kind; a large folio volume printed in Strassburg about 1475 is entitled " Pharetra auctoritates et dicta doctorum, philosophorum, et poetarum continens." DICTIONARY 187 At no time was progress in the making of generaldictionaries so rapid as during the second half of the 19th century. It is to be seen in three things: in the perfecting of the theory of what Methods. a S enera l dictionary should be; in the elaboration of methods of collecting and editing lexicographic materials; and in the magnitude and improved quality of the work which has been accomplished or planned. Each of these can best be illustrated from English lexicography, in which the process of development has in all directions been carried farthest. The advance that has been made in theory began with a radical change of opinion with regard to the chief end of the general dictionary of a language. The older view of the matter was that the lexicographer should furnish a standard of usage — should register only those words which are, or at some period of the language have been, " good " from a literary point of view, with their " proper " senses and uses, or should at least furnish the means of determining what these are. In other words, his chief duty was conceived to be to sift and refine, to decide authori- tatively questions with regard to good usage, and thus to fix the language as completely as might be possible within the limits determined by the literary taste of his time. Thus the Accademia della Crusca, founded near the close of the 16th century, was established for the purpose of purifying in this way the Italian tongue, and in 1612 the Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca, long the standard of that language, was published. The Academie Francaise, the first edition of whose dictionary appeared in 1694, had a similar origin. In England the idea of constructing a dictionary upon this principle arose during the second quarter of the 18th century. It was imagined by men of letters — among them Alexander Pope — that the English language had then attained such perfection that further improvement was hardly possible, and it was feared that if it were not fixed by lexicographic authority deterioration would soon begin. Since there was no English " Academy," it was necessary that the task should fall to some one whose judgment would command respect, and the man who undertook it was Samuel Johnson. His dic- tionary, the first edition of which, in two folio volumes, appeared in 1755, was in many respects admirable, but it was inade- quate even as a standard of the then existing literary usage. Johnson himself did not long entertain the belief that the natural development of a language can be arrested in that or in any other way. His work was, however, generally accepted as a final authority, and the ideas upon which it was founded dominated English lexicography for more than a century. The first effective protest in England against the supremacy of this literary view was made by Dean (later Archbishop) Trench, in a paper on " Some Deficiencies in Existing English Dictionaries " read before the Philological Society in 1857. " A dictionary," he said, " accord- ing to that idea of it which seems to me alone capable of being logically maintained, is an inventory of the language; much more, but this primarily. ... It is no task of the maker of it to select the good words of the language. . . . The business which he has undertaken is to collect and arrange all words, whether good or bad, whether they commend themselves to his judgment or other- wise. . . . He is an historian of [the language], not a critic." That is, for the literary view of the chief end of the general dictionary should be substituted the philological or scientific. In Germany this substitution had already been effected by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm in their dictionary of the German language, the first volume of which appeared in 1854. In brief, then, the modern view is that the general dictionary of a language should be a record of all the words — current or obsolete — of that language, with all their meanings and uses, but should not attempt to be, except secondarily or indirectly, a guide to " good " usage. A " standard " dictionary has, in fact, been recognized to be an impossibility, if not an absurdity. This theoretical requirement must, of course, be modified considerably in practice. The date at which a modern language is to be regarded by the lexicographer as " beginning " must, as a rule, be somewhat arbitrarily chosen; while considerable portions of its earlier vocabulary cannot be recovered because of the incompleteness of the literary record. Moreover, not even the most complete dictionary can include all the words which the records — earlier and later— actually contain. Many words, that is to say, which are found in the literature of a language cannot be regarded as, for lexicographic purposes, belonging to that language; while many more may or may not be held to belong to it, according to the judgment — almost the whim— of the individual lexicographer. This is especially true of the English tongue. " That vast aggregate of words and phrases which constitutes the vocabulary of English-speaking men presents, to the mind that endeavours to grasp it as a definite whole, the aspect of one of those nebulous masses familiar to the astronomer, in which a clear and unmistakable nucleus shades off on all sides, through zones of decreasing brightness, to a dim marginal film that seems to end nowhere, but to lose itself imperceptibly in the surrounding darkness " (Dr J. A. H. Murray, Oxford Diet. General Explanations, p. xvii). This " marginal film " of words with more or less doubtful claims to recognition includes thousands of the terms of the natural sciences (the New-Latin classificatory names of zoology and botany, names of chemical compounds and of minerals, and the like); half-naturalized foreign words; dialectal words; slang terms; trade names (many of which have passed or are passing into common use) ; proper names and many more. Many of these even the most complete dictionary should exclude; others it should include; but where the line shall be drawn will always remain a vexed question. Another important principle upon which Trench insisted, and which also expresses a requirement of modern scientific philology, is that the dictionary shall be not merely a record, but also an historical record of words and their uses. From the literary point of view the most important thing is present usage. To that alone the idea of a " standard " has any application. Dictionaries of the older type, therefore, usually make the common, or " proper " or " root " meaning of a word the starting point of its definition, and arrange its other senses in a logical or accidental order commonly ignoring the historical order in which the various meanings arose. Still less do they attempt to give data from which the vocabulary of the language at any previous period may be determined. The philologist, however, for whom the growth, or progressive alteration, of a language is a fact of central importance, regards no record of a language as complete which does not exhibit this growth in its successive stages. He desires to know when and where each word, and each form and sense of it, are first found in the language; if the word or sense is obsolete, when it died; and any other fact that throws light upon its history. He requires, accordingly, of the lexicographer that, having ascertained these data, he shall make them the foundation of his exposition — in particular, of the division and arrangement of his definitions, that sense being placed first which appeared first in order of time. In other words, each article in the dictionary should furnish an orderly biography of the word of which it treats, each word and sense being so dated that the exact time of its appearance and the duration of its use may as nearly as possible be determined. This, in principle, is the method of the new lexicography. In practice it is subject to limitations similar to those of the vocabulary mentioned above. Incompleteness of the early record is here an even greater obstacle; and there are many words whose history is, for one reason or another, so unimportant that to treat it elaborately would be a waste of labour and space. The adoption of the historical principle involves a further note- worthy modification of older methods, namely, an important extension of the use of quotations. To Dr Johnson belongs the credit of showing how useful, when properly chosen, they may be, not only in corroborating the lexicographer's statements, but also in revealing special shades of meaning or variations of use which his definitions cannot well express. No part of Johnson's work is more valuable than this. This idea was more fully developed and applied by Dr Charles Richardson, whose New Dictionary of the English Language . . . Illustrated by Quotations from the Best Authors (1835-1836) still remains a most valuable collection of literary illustrations. Lexicographers, however, have, with i88 DICTIONARY few exceptions, until a recent date, employed quotations chiefly for the ends just mentioned — as instances of use or as illustra- tions of correct usage — with scarcely any recognition of their value as historical evidence; andHhey have taken them almost exclusively from the works of the " best " authors. But since all the data upon which conclusions with regard to the history of a word can be based must be collected from the literature of the language, it is evident that, in so far as the lexicographer is required to furnish evidence for an historical inference, a quotation is the best form in which he can give it. In fact, extracts, properly selected and grouped, are generally sufficient to show the entire meaning and biography of a word without the aid of elaborate definitions. The latter simply save the reader the trouble of drawing the proper conclusions for himself. A further rule of the new lexicography, accordingly, is that quotations should be used, primarily, as historical evidence, and that the history of words and meanings should be exhibited by means of them. The earliest/instance of use that can be found, and (if the word or sense is obsolete) the latest, are as a rule to be given; while in the case of an important word or sense, instances taken from successive periods of its currency also should be cited. Moreover, a quotation which contains an important bit of historical evidence must be used, whether its source is "good," from the literary point of view, or not — whether it is a classic of the language or from a daily newspaper; though where choice is possible, preference should, of course, be given to quotations extracted from the works of the best writers. This rule does not do away with the illustrative use of quotations, which is still recognized as highly important, but it subordinates it to their historical use. It is necessary to add that it implies that the extracts must be given exactly, and in the original spelling and capitalization, accurately dated, and furnished with a precise reference to author, book, volume, page and edition; for insistence upon these requirements — which are obviously im- portant, whatever the use of the quotation may be — is one of the most noteworthy of modern innovations. Johnson usually gave simply the author's name, and often quoted from memory and inaccurately; and many of his successors to this day have followed — altogether or to some extent — his example. The chief difficulty in the way of this use of quotations — after the difficulty of collection — is that of finding space for them in a dictionary of reasonable size. Preference must be given to those which are essential, the number of those which are cited merely on methodical grounds being made as small as possible. It is hardly necessary to'add that the negative evidence furnished by quotations is generally of little value; one can seldom, that is, be certain that the lexicographer has actually found the earliest or the latest use, or that the word or sense has not been current during some intermediate period from which he has no quotations. Lastly, a much more important place in the scheme of the ideal dictionary is now assigned to the etymology of words. This may be attributed, in part, to the recent rapid development of ety- mology as a science, and to the greater abundance of trustworthy data; but it is chiefly due to the fact that from the historical point of view the connexion between that section of the biography of a word which lies within the language — subsequent, that is, to the time when the language may, for lexicographical purposes, be assumed to have begun, or to the time when the word was adopted or invented — and its antecedent history [has become more vital and interesting. Etymology, in other words, is essentially the history of the form of a word up to the time when it became a part of the language, and is, in a measure, an extension of the history of the development of the word in the language. More- over, it is the only means by which the exact relations of allied words can be ascertained, and the separation of words of the same form but of diverse origin (homonyms) can be effected, and is thus, for the dictionary, the foundation of all family history and correct genealogy. In fact, the attention that has been paid to these two points in the best recent, lexicography is one of its distinguishing and most important characteristics. Related to the etymology of words are the changes in their form which may have occurred while they have been in use as parts of the language — modifications of their pronunciation, corruptions by popular etymology or false associations, and the like. The facts with regard to these things which the wide research necessitated by the historical method furnishes abundantly to the modern lexicographer are often among the most novel and interesting of his acquisitions. It should be added that even approximate conformity to the theoretical requirements of modern lexicography as above out- lined is possible only under conditions similar to those under which the Oxford New English Dictionary was undertaken (see below). The labour demanded is too vast, and the necessary bulk of the dictionary too great. When, however, a language is recorded in one such dictionary, those of smaller size and more modest pretensions can rest upon it as an authority and conform to it as a model so far as their special limitations permit. The ideal thus developed is primarily that of the general dictionary of the purely philological type, but it applies also to the encyclopaedic dictionary. In so far as the latter is strictly lexicographic — deals with words as words, and not with the things they denote — it should be made after the model of the former, and is defective to the extent in which it deviates from it. The addition of encyclopaedic matter to the philological in no way affects the general principles involved. It may, however, for practical reasons, modify their application in various ways. For example, the number of obsolete and dialectal words included may be much diminished and the number of scientific terms (for instance, new Latin botanical and zoological names) be increased; and the relative amount of space devoted to etymologies and quotations may be lessened. In general, since books of this kind are designed to serve more or less as works of general reference, the making of them must be governed by considerations of practical utility which the compilers of a purely philological dictionary are not obliged to regard. The encyclopaedic type itself, although it has often been criticized as hybrid — as a mixture of two things which should be kept distinct — is entirely defensible. Between the dictionary and the encyclopaedia the dividing line cannot sharply be drawn. There are words the meaning of which cannot be explained fully without some description of things, and, on the other hand, the description of things and processes often involves the definition of names. To the combination of the two objection cannot justly be made, so long as it is effected in a way — with a selection of material — that leaves the dictionary essentially a dictionary and not an encyclopaedia. Moreover, the large vocabulary of the general dictionary makes it possible to present certain kinds of encyclopaedic matter with a degree of fulness and a convenience of arrangement which are possible in no single work of any other class. In fact, it may be said that if the encyclopaedic dictionary did not exist it would have to be invented; that its justification is its indispensableness. Not the least of its advantages is that it makes legitimate the use of diagrams and pictorial illustrations, which, if properly selected and executed, are often valuable aids to definition. On its practical side the advance in lexicography has consisted in the elaboration of methods long in use rather than in the in- vention of new ones. The only way to collect the data upon which the vocabulary, the definitions and the history are to be based is, of course, to search for them in the written monuments of the language, as all lexicographers who have not merely borrowed from their predecessors have done. But the wider scope and special aims of the new lexicography demand that the investigation shall be vastly more comprehensive, systematic and precise. It is necessary, in brief, that, as far as may be possible, the literature (of all kinds) of every period of the language shall be examined systematically, in order that all the words, and senses and forms of words, which have existed during any period may be found, and that enough excerpts (carefully verified, credited and dated) to cover all the essential facts shall be made. The books, pamphlets, journals, newspapers, and so on which must thus be searched will be numbered by thousands, and the quotations selected may (as in the. case of the Oxford New English Dictionary) be counted by millions. This task is beyond the powers of any one man, even though he be a Johnson, or a Littre or a Grimm, and it is now DICTIONARY 189 assigned to a corps of readers whose number is limited only by the ability of the editor to obtain such assistance. The modern method of editing the material thus accumulated — the actual work of compilation — also is characterized by the application of the principle of the division of labour. Johnson boasted that his dictionary was written with but little assistance from the learned, and the same was in large measure true of that of Littre. Such attempts on the part of one man to write practically the whole of a general dictionary are no longer possible, not merely because of the vast labour and philological research necessitated by modern aims, but more especially because the immense development of the vocabulary of the special sciences renders indispensable the assistance, in the work of definition, of persons who are expert in those sciences. The tendency, accordingly, has been to enlarge greatly the editorial staff of the dictionary, scores of sub-editors and contributors being now employed where a dozen or fewer were formerly deemed sufficient. In other words, the making of a " complete " dictionary has become a co-operative enterprise, to the success of which workers in all the fields of literature and science contribute. The most complete exemplification of these principles and methods is the Oxford New English Dictionary, on historical principles, founded mainly on materials collected by the Philo- logical Society. This monumental work originated in the sug- gestion of Trench that an attempt should be made, under the direction of the Philological Society, to complete the vocabulary of existing dictionaries and to supply the historical information which they lacked. The suggestion was adopted, considerable material was collected, and Mr Herbert Coleridge was appointed general editor. He died in 1861, and was succeeded by Dr F. J. Furnivall. Little, however, was done, beyond the collection of quotations — about 2,000,000 of which were gathered — until in 1878 the expense of printing and publishing the proposed dictionary was assumed by the Delegates of the University Press, and the editorship was entrusted to Dr (afterwards Sir) J. A. H. Murray. As the historical point of beginning, the middle of the 1 2th century was selected, all words that were obsolete at that date being excluded, though the history of words 'that were current both before and after that date is given in its entirety; and it was decided that the search for quotations — which, accord- ing to the original design, was to cover the entire literature down to the beginning of the 16th century and as much of the subse- quent literature (especially the works of the more important writers and works on special subjects) as might be possible — should be "made more thorough. More than 800 readers, in all parts of the world, offered their aid; and when the preface to the first volume appeared in 1888, the editor was able to announce that the readers had increased to 1300, and that 3,500,000 of quotations, taken from the writings of more than 5000 authors, had already been amassed. The whole work was planned to be completed in ten large volumes, each issued first in smaller parts. The first part was issued in 1884, and by the beginning of 1910 the first part of the letter S had been reached. The historical method of exposition, particularly by quota- tions, is applied in the New English Dictionary, if not in all cases with entire success, yet, on the whole, with a regularity and a precision which leave little to be desired. A minor fault is that excerpts from second or third rate authors have occasionally been used where better ones from writers of the first class either must have been at hand or could have been found. As was said above, the literary quality of the question is highly important even in historical lexicography, and should not be neglected un- necessarily. Other special features of the book are the complete- ness with which variations of pronunciation and orthography (with dates) are given; the fulness and scientific excellence of the etymologies, which abound in new information and corrections of old errors; the phonetic precision with which the present (British) pronunciation is indicated; and the elaborate sub- division of meanings. The definitions as a whole are marked by a high degree of accuracy, though in a certain number of cases (not explicable by the date of the volumes) the lists of meanings are not so good as one would expect, as compared (say) with the Century Dictionary. Work of such magnitude and quality is possible, practically, only when the editor of the dictionary can com- mand not merely the aid of a very large number of scholars and men of science, but their gratuitous aid. In this the New English Dictionary has been singularly fortunate. The conditions under which it originated, and its aim, have interested scholars every- where, and led them to contribute to the perfecting of it their knowledge and time. The long list of names of such helpers in Sir J. A. H. Murray's preface is in curious contrast with their absence from Dr Johnson's and the few which are given in that of Littre. The editor's principal assistants were Dr Henry Bradley and Dr W. A. Craigie. Of the dictionary as a whole it may be said that it is one of the greatest achievements, whether in literature or science, of modern English scholarship and research. The New English Dictionary furnishes for the first time data from which the extent of the English word-store at any given period, and the direction and rapidity of its growth, can fairly be estimated. For this purpose the materials furnished by the older dictionaries are quite insufficient, on account of their incompleteness and unhistorical character. For example 100 pages of the New English Dictionary (from the letter H) contain 1002 words, of which, as the dated quota- tions show, 585 were current in 1750 (though some, of course, were very rare, some dialectal, and so on), 191 were obsolete at that date, and 226 have since come into use. But of the more than 700 words — ■ current or obsolete — which Johnson might thus have recorded, he actually did record only about 300. Later dictionaries give more of them, but they in no way show their status at the date in question. It is worth noting that the figures given seem to indicate that not very many more words have been added to the vocabulary of the language during the past 150 years than had been lost by 1750. The pages selected, however, contain comparatively few recent scientific terms. A broader comparison would probably show that the gain has been more than twice as great as the loss. • In the Deutsches Worterbuch of Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm the scientific spirit, as was said above, first found expression in general lexicography. The desirability of a complete inventory and investigation of German words was recognized by Leibnitz and by various 18th-century scholars, but the plan and methods of the Grimms were the direct product of the then new scientific philology. Their design, in brief, was to give an exhaustive account of the words of the literary language (New High German) from about the end of the 15th century, including their earlier etymological and later history, with references to important dialectal words and forms; and to illustrate their use and history abundantly by quotations. The first volume appeared in ^854. Jacob Grimm (died 1863) edited the first, second (with his brother, who died in 1859), third and a part of the fourth volumes; the others have been edited by various distinguished scholars. The scope and methods of this dictionary have been broadened somewhat as the work has advanced. In general it may be said that it differs from the New English Dictionary chiefly in its omission of pronunciations and other pedagogic matter; its irregular treatment of dates; its much less systematic and less lucid statement of etymologies; its less systematic and less fruitful use of quotations; and its less convenient and less intelligible arrangement of material and typography. These general principles lie also at the foundation of the scholarly Dictionnaire de la langue francaise of E. Littre, though they are there carried out less systematically and less completely. In the arrangement of the definitions the first place is given to the most primitive meaning of the word instead of to the most common one, as in the dictionary of the Academy; but the other meanings follow in an order that is often logical rather than historical. Quotations also are frequently used merely as literary illustrations, or are entirely omitted; in the special paragraphs on the history of words before the 16th century, however, they are put to a strictly historical use. This dictionary — perhaps the greatest ever compiled by one man — was published 1863-1872. (Supplement, 1878.) The Thesaurus Linguae Latinae, prepared under the auspices of the German Academies of Berlin, Gottingen, Leipzig, Munich and Vienna, is a notable application of the principles and practical co-operative method of modern lexicography to the classical tongues. The plan of the work is to collect quotations I which shall register, with its full context, every word (except 190 DICTIONARY the most familiar particles) in the text of each Latin author down to the middle of the 2nd century a,d., and to extract all important passages from all writers of the following centuries down to the 7 th: and upon these materials to found a complete historical dictionary of the Latin language. The work of collecting quotations was begun in 1894, and the first part of the first volume has been published. In the making of all these great dictionaries (except, of course, the last) the needs of the general public as well as those of scholars have been kept in view. But the type to which the general dictionary designed for popular use has tended more and more to conform is the encyclopaedic. This combination of lexicon and encyclopaedia is exhibited in an extreme — and theoretically objectionable — form in the Grand diciionnaire universel du XIX" Steele of Pierre Larousse. Besides common words and their definitions, it contains a great many proper names, with a correspondingly large number of biographical, geographical, historical and other articles, the connexion of which with the strictly lexicographical part is purely mechanical. Its utility, which — notwithstanding its many defects — is very great, makes it, however, a model in many respects. Fifteen volumes were published (1866-1876), and supplements were brought out later (1878-1890). The Nouveau Larousse illustri started publication in iqoi, and was completed in 1904 (7 vols.). This is not an abridgment or a fresh edition of the Grand Diciionnaire of Pierre Larousse, but a new and distinct publication. The most notable, work of this class, in English, is the Century Dictionary, an American product, edited by Professor W. D. Whitney, and published 1889-1891 in six volumes, containing 7046 pages (large quarto). It conforms to the philological mode in giving with great fulness the older as well as the present vocabulary of the language, and in the completeness of its etymologies; but it does not attempt to give the full history of every word within the language. Among its other more note- worthy characteristics are the inclusion of a great number of modern scientific and technical words, and the abundance of its quotations. The quotations are for the most part provided with references, but they are not dated. Even when compared with the much larger New English Dictionary, the Century's great merit is the excellent enumeration of meanings, and the ac- curacy of its explanations; in this respect it is often better and fuller than the New English. In the application of the encyclo- paedic method this dictionary is conservative, excluding, with a few exceptions, proper names, and restricting, for the most part, the encyclopaedic matter to descriptive and other details which may legitimately be added to the definitions. Its pictorial illustrations are very numerous and well executed. In the manner of its compilation it is a good example of modern co- operative dictionary-making, being the joint product of a large number of specialists. Next to the New English Dictionary it is the most complete and scholarly of English lexicons. Bibliography. — The following list of dictionaries (from the 9th edition of this work, with occasional corrections) is given for its historical interest, but in recent years dictionary-making has been so abundant that no attempt is made to be completely inclusive of later works; the various articles on languages may be consulted for these. The list is arranged geographically by families of languages, or by regions. In each group the order, when not alphabetical, is usually from north to south, extinct languages generally coming first, and dialects being placed under their language. Dictionaries forming parts of other works, such as travels, histories, transactions, periodicals, reading-books, &c, are generally excluded. The system here adopted was chosen as on the whole the one best calculated to keep together dictionaries naturally associated. The languages to be considered are too many for an alphabetical arrangement, which ignores all relations both natural and geographical, and too few to require a strict classification by affinities, by which the European languages, which for many reasons should be kept together, would be dispersed. Under either system, Arabic, Persian and Turkish, whose dictionaries are so closely connected, would be widely separated. A wholly geographical arrangement would be in- convenient, especially in Europe. Any system, however, which attempts to arrange in a consecutive series the great network of languages by which the whole world is enclosed, must be open to some objections; and the arrangement adopted in this list has produced some anomalies and dispersions which might cause inconvenience if not pointed out. The old Italic languages are placed under Latin, all dialects of France under French (but Provencal as a distinct language), and Wallachian among Romanic languages. Low German and its dialects are not separated from High German. Basque is placed after Celtic; Albanian, Gipsy and Turkish at the end of Europe, the last being thus separated from its dialects and congeners in Northern and Central Asia, among which are placed the Kazan dialect of Tatar, Samoyed and Ostiak. Accadian is placed after Assyrian among the Semitic languages, and Maltese as a dialect of Arabic; while the Ethiopic is among African languages as it seemed undesirable to separate it from the other Abyssinian languages, or these from their neighbours to the north and south. Circassian and Ossetic are joined to the first group of Aryan languages lying to the north-west of Persia, and containing Armenian, Georgian and Kurd. The following is the order of the groups, some of the more important languages, that is, of those best provided with dictionaries, standing alone: — Europe: Greek, Latin, French, Romance, Teutonic (Scandi- navian and German), Celtic, Basque, Baltic, Slavonic, Ugrian, Gipsy, Albanian. Asia: Semitic, Armenian, Persian, Sanskrit, Indian, Indo- Chinese, Malay Archipelago, Philippines, Chinese, Japanese, Northern and Central Asia. Africa: Egypt and Abyssinia, Eastern Africa, Southern, Western, Central, Berber. Australia and Polynesia. America: North, Central (with Mexico), South. EUROPE Greek. — Athenaeus quotes 35 writers of works, known or sup- posed to be dictionaries, for, as they are all lost, it is often difficult to decide on their nature. Of these, Anticlides, who lived after the reign of Alexander the Great, wrote 'K^yririKSs, which seems to have been a sort of dictionary,perhaps explaining the words and phrases occurring in ancient stories. Zenodotus, the first superintendent of the great library of Alexandria, who lived in the reigns of Ptolemy I. andPtolemy II., wrote rx&io-om, and alsoAef«r Wvucai, a dictionary of barbarous or foreign phrases. Aristophanesof Byzantium, son of Apelles the painter, who lived in the reigns of Ptolemy II. and Ptolemy III., and had the supreme management of the Alexandrian library, wrote a number of works, as 'Arrucai Aeifets, Ka.Kavi.Kai TXSxraai. which, from the titles, should be dictionaries, but a fragment of his Ae|ets printed by Boissonade, in his edition of Herodian (London, 1869, 8vo, pp. 181-189), is not alphabetical. Artemidorus. a pupil of Aristophanes, wrote a dictionary of technical terms used in cookery. Nicander Colophonius, hereditary priest of Apollo Clarius, born at Claros, near Colophon in Ionia, in reputation for 50 years, from 181 to 135, wrote VKSxraax in at least three books. Parthenius, a pupil of the Alexandrian grammarian Dionysius (who lived in the 1st century before Christ), wrote on choice words used by historians. Didymus, called xahKivrtpos , who, according to Athenaeus, wrote 3500 books, and, according to Seneca, 4000, wrote lexicons of the tragic poets (of which book 28 is quoted), of the comic poets, of ambiguous words and of corrupt expressions. Glossaries of Attic words were written by Crates, Philemon, Philetas and Theodorus; of Cretan, by Hermon or Hermonax; of Phrygian, by Neoptolemus; of Rhodian, by Moschus; of Italian, by Diodorus of Tarsus; of foreign words, by Silenus; of synonyms, by Simaristus; of cookery, by Heracleon; and of drinking vessels, by Apollodorus of Cyrene. According to Suidas, the most ancient Greek lexicographer was Apollonius the sophist, son of Archibius. According to the common opinion, he lived in the time of Augustus at Alexandria. He com- posed a lexicon of words used by Homer, Ae£eis 'Oix-qpiKal , a very valuable and useful work, though much interpolated, edited by Villoison, from a MS. of the 10th century, Paris, 1773, 4to, 2 vols.; and by Tollius, Leiden, 1788, 8vo; ed. Bekker, Berlin, 1833, 8vo. Erotian or Herodian, physician to Nero, wrote a lexicon on Hippo- crates, arranged in alphabetical order, probably by some copyist, whom Klein calls " homo sciolus." It was first published in Greek in H. Stephani Dictionarium Medicum, Paris, 1564, 8vo; ed. Klein, Lipsiae, 1865, 8vo, with additional fragments. Timaeus the sophist, who, according to Ruhnken, lived in the 3rd century, wrote a very short lexicon to Plato, which, though much interpolated,. is of great value, 1st ed. Ruhnken, Leiden, 1754; ed. locupletior, Lugd. Bat. 1789, 8vo. Aelius Moeris, called the Atticist, lived about 190 DICTIONARY 191 A.D., and wrote an Attic lexicon, 1st ed. Hudson, Oxf. 1712, Bekker, 1833. Julius Pollux ('IouXios UoXvdeiiKTis) of Naucratis, in Egypt, died, aged fifty-eight, in the reign of Commodus (180-192), who made him professor of rhetoric at Athens. He wrote, besides other lost works, an Onomasticon in ten books, being a classed vocabulary, intended to supply all the words required by each subject with the usage of the best authors. It is of the greatest value for the knowledge both of language and of antiquities. First printed by Aldus, Venice, 1500, fol.; of ten afterwards ; ed. Lederlinus and Hemsterhuis, Amst. 1706, 2 vols.; Dindorf, 1824, 5 vols., Bethe (1900 f.). Harpocration of Alexandria, probably of the 2nd century, wrote a lexicon on the ten Attic orators, first printed by Aldus, Ven. 1503, fol.; ed. Dindorf, Oxford, 1853, 8vo, 2 vols, from 14 MSS. Orion, a grammarian of Thebes, in Egypt, who lived between 390 and 460, wrote an etymo- logical dictionary, printed by Sturz, Leipzig, 1820, 4to. Helladius a priest of Jupiter at Alexandria, when the heathen temples there were destroyed by Theophilus in 389 or 391 escaped to Constantinople, where he was living in 408. He wrote an alphabetical lexicon, now lost, chiefly of prose, called by Photius the largest (iro\v 4 to: Sanders, ib. 1860- 1865, 4to, 3 vols. 1885: Diefenbach and Wiilcker (High and Low German, to supplement Grimm), Frankf. a. M. 1874, 1885, 8vo. ; Kluge, Strassburg, 1883; Heine, Leipzig, 1 890-1 895; Weigand, Giessen, 1873. English. — Adelung, 1783-1796, 8vo, 3 vols. : Hilpert, Karlsruhe, 1828-1829, 8vo, 2 vols.; 1845-1846, 4to, 2 vols.: Flugel, Leipz. 1830, 8vo, 2 vols.; London, 1857, 8vo; Leipzig, 1870: Miiller, Cothen, 1867, 8vo, 2 vols. French. — Laveaux, Strassburg, 1812, 4to: Mozin, Stuttgard, 1811-1812, 4to, 4 vols. ; 1842-1846, 8vo, 4 vols., 3rd ed. 1 850-1 85 1, 8vo: Schuster, Strasb. 1859, 8vo: Daniel, Paris, 1877, i6mo. Old High German. — Haltaeus, Lipsiae, 1758, fol. 2 vols.: Graff, Berlin, 1 834-1 846, ato, 7 vols.: Brinckmeier, Gotha, 1850-1863, 4to, 2 vols. : Kehrein (from Latin records), Nord- hausen, 1863, 8vo. Schade, Halle, 1872-1882. Middle High German. — Ziemann, Quedlinburg, 1838, 8vo: Benecke, Miiller and Zarnche, Leipz. 1854-1866, 8vo, 3 vols.: Lexer, Leipzig, 1870, 8vo. Middle Low German. — Schilier and Liibben, Bremen, 1872, &c, 8vo, in progress. Low German. — Vollbeding, Zerbst, 1806, 8vo: Kose- garten, Griefswald, 1839, 4to; 1856, &c, 4to. Etymology. — Helvigius, Hanov. 1620, 8vo: Wachter, Lipsiae, 1737, fol. 2 vols.: Kaindl, Salzbach, 1815-1830, 8vo, 7 vols.: Heyse, Magdeburg, 1843- 1849, 8vo, 3 vols. : Kehrein, Wiesbaden, 1 847-1852, 2 vols. Synonyms. — Eberhard, Maas, and Griiber, 4th ed. Leipzig, 1 852-1 863, 8vo, 4 vols.: Aue (Engl.), Edinb. 1836, 8vo: Eberhard, uthed. Berlin, 1854, l2mo: Sanders, Hamburg, 1872, 8vo, 743 pages. Foreign Words. — Campe, Braunschweig, 1 813, 4to: Heyse, Fremdwdrterbuch, Hannover, 1848, 8vo. Names. — Pott. Leipz. 1853, 8vo: Michaelis (Taufnamen), Berlin, 1856, 8vo: Forstemann (Old Germ.) Nord- hausen, 1856-1859, 4to, 2 vols. 1573 pages, 12,000 names: Steub (Oberdeutschen), Munchen, 1871, 8vo. Luther. — Dietz, Leipzig, 1869-1872, 8vo, 2 vols. Dialects. — Popowitsch, Wien, 1780, 8vo: Fulda, Berlin, 1788, 8vo: Klein, Frankf. 1792, 8vo, 2 vols.: Kalt- schmidt, Nordlingen, 1851, 4to; 1854, 5th ed. 1865. Aix-la- Chapelle, Miiller and Weitz, Aachen, 1836, i2mo. Appenzell: Tobler, Zurich, 1837, 8vo. Austria: Hofer, Linz, 1815, 8vo; Castelli, Wien, 1847, i2mo: Scheuchensttil (mining), ib. 1856, 8vo. Bavaria: Zaupser, Munchen, 1789, 8vo: Deling, ib. 1820, 2 vols.: Schmeller, Stuttg. 1827-1837, 8vo, 4 vols. ; 2nd ed. Munchen, 1872, 4to, vol. i. 1799 pages. Berlin: Trachsel. Berlin, 1873, 8vo. Bremen: Bremisch Deutsch Gesellschaft, Bremen, 1767-1771, 1869, 8vo, 6 vols. Oelrich (anc. statutes), Frankf. a. M. 1767, 8vo. Carinthia: Ueber- felder, Klagenfurt, 1862, 8vo: Lexe, Leipzig, 1862, 8vo. Cleves: De Schueren, Teuthonista, Colon, 1477, fol.; Leiden, 1804, 4to. Gottingen: Schambach, Hannover, 1838, 8vo. Hamburg: Richey, Hamb. 1873, 4to; 1755, 8vo. Henneberg: Reinwold, Berlin and Stettin, 1793, 1801, 8vo, 2 vols.: Bruckner, Meiningen, 1843, 4to. Hesse: Vilmar, Marburg, 1868, 8vo, 488 pages. Holstein: Schiitz Hamb. 1800-1806, 8vo, 4 vols. Hungary: Schoer, Wien, 1858. Livonia: Bergmann, Salisburg, 1785, 8vo: Gutzeit, Riga, 1859-1864, 8vo, 2 parts. Upper Lusatia: Anton, Gorlitz, 1 825-1 839, 13 parts. Luxembourg: Gangler, Lux. 1847, 8vo, 406 pages. Mecklenburg and Western Pomerania: M., Leipzig, 1876, 8vo, 114 pages. Nassau: Kehrein, Weilburg, i860, 8vo. Osnaburg: Strodtmann, Leipz. 1756, 8vo. Pomerania and Riigen: Dahnert, Stralsund, 1781, 4to. Posen: Bernd, Bonn, 1820, 8vo. Prussia: Bock, Konigsb. 1759, 8vo: Hennig, ib. 1785, 8vo. Saxony- Schmeller (from Heliand, &c), Stuttg. 1840, 4to. Silesia: Berndt, Stendal, 1787, 8vo. Swabia: Schmid, Berlin, 1795, 8vo; Stuttg. 1831, 8vo. Switzerland: Stalder, Aarau, 1807-1813, 8vo, 2 vols. Thuringia: Keller, Jena, 1819, 8vo. Transylvania: Schuller, Prag, 1865, 8vo. Tirol: Schopf, Innspruck, 1866, 8vo. Venetian Alps: Schmeller, Wien, 1854, 8vo. Vienna: Hugel, ib. 1873, 8vo. Hunting. — Westerwald: Schmidt, Hadamar, 1800, 8vo; Kehrein, Wiesbaden, 1871, l2mo. Slang. — Gauner Sprache: Schott, Erlangen, 1821, 8vo: Grolmann, Giessen, 1822, 8vo: Train, Meissen, 1833, 8vo: Anton, 2nd ed. Magdeburg, 1843, 8vo; 1859: Ave-Lallemant, Das Deutsche Gaunerthun, Leipzig, 1858-1862, 8vo, vol. iv. pp. 515-628. Student Slang: Vollmann (Burschicoses), Ragaz, 1846, l6mo, 562 pages. Celtic. Celtic generally.: — Lluyd, Archaeologia Britannica, Oxford, 1707, folio: Bullet, Besangon, 1754-1860, fol. 2 vols. Irish. — Cormac, bishop of Cashel, born 831, slain in battle 903, wrote a Glossary, Sanas Cormaic, printed by Dr Whitley Stokes, London, 1862, 8vo, with another, finished in 1569, by O'Davoren, a schoolmaster at Burren Castle, Co. Clare: O'Clery, Lovanii, 1643, 8\»o: Mac Cuirtin (Eng.-Irish), Paris, 1732, 4to: O'Brien, ib. 1768, 4to; Dublin, 1832, 8vo: O'Reilly, 1817, 4to: 1821; ed. O'Donovan, it. 1864, 4to, 725 pages: Foley (Eng.-Irish), ib. 1855, 8vo: Connellan (do.), 1863, 8vo. Gaelic. — Macdonald, Edin. 1741, 8vo: Shaw, London, 1780, 4to, 2 vols.: Allan, Edin. 1804, 4to: Armstrong, London, 1825, dto: Highland Society, ib. 1828, 4to, 2 vols.: Macleod and Dewar, Glasgow, 1853, 8vo. Manx. — Cregeen, Douglas, 1835, 8vo: Kelly, ib. 1866, 8vo, 2 vols. Welsh.— Latin. — Davies, London, 1632, fol.: Boxhornius, Amstelodami, 1654, 4to. English. — Salesbury, London, 1547, 4to: 1551: Richards, Bristol, 1759, 8vo: Owen (W.), London, 1793-1794, 8vo, 2 vols.; 1803, 4to, 3 vols.: Walters, ib. 1794, 4to: Owen- Pughe, Denbigh, 1832, 8vo; 3rd ed. Pryse, ib. 1866, 8vo: D. S. Evans (Eng. -Welsh), ib. 1852-1853, 8vo; 1887. Cornish. — Pryce, Archaeologia, Sherborne, 1770, 4to: Williams, Llandovery, 1862-1865, 4to. Names. — Bannister (20,000), Truro, 1869-1871, 8vo. Breton. — Legadeuc, Le Catholicon breton, finished 1464, printed at Lantrequier, 1499, fol. 210 pages; 1501, 4to; L'Orient, 1868, 8vo: Quicquer de Roskoff, Morlaix, 1633, 8vo: Rostrenen, Rennes, 1732, 4to, 978 pages; ed. Jolivet, Gumgamps, 1834, 8vo, 2 vols.: l'A.[rmerie], Leyde, 1744, 8 vo; La Haye, 1756: Lepelletier, Paris, 1752, fol.: Legonidec, Angouleme,,l82i, 8vo; St Brieuc, 1847-1850, 4to, 924 pages. Dialect of Leon. — Troude (Fr.-Bret.), Brest, 1870, 8vo; Id. (Bret.-Fr.), ib. 1876, 8vo, 845 pages. Diocese of Vannes. — Armerie, Leyde, 1774, 8vo. Basque. Basque. — Larramendi, St Sebastian, 1745, fol. 2 vols.; ed- Zuazua, ib. 1854, fol-; Chaho, Bayonne, 1856, 4to, 1867: Fabre, ib. 1870, 8vo: Van Eys, Paris, 1873, 8vo: Egiiren, Madrid, 1877. Baltic. Lithuanian. — Szyrwid, 3rd ed., Vilnae, 1642, 8vo; 5th ed. 1713: Schleicher, Prag, 1 856-1 857, 8vo, 2 vols. : Kurmin, Wilno, 1858, 8vo: Kurschat, Halle, 1870, &c, 8vo. Lettic. — Mancelius, Riga, 1638, 4to: Elvers, ib. 1748, 8vo: Lange, Mitau, 1777, 4to: Sjogren, Petersburg, 1861, 4to: Ulmann, ed. Bielenstein, Riga, 1872, &c, 8vo. Prussian. — Bock, Konigsberg, 1759, 8vo: Hennig, ib. 1785, 8vo: Nesselmann, Berlin, 1873, 8vo; Pierson, ib. 1875, 8vo - Slavonic. Slavonic generally. — Franta-Sumavski (Russ. Bulg. Old Slav. Boh. Polish), Praga, 1857, 8vo, Miklosich, Wien, 1886. Old Slavonic. — Beruinda, Kiev, 1627, 8vo; Kuteinsk, 1653, 4to: Polycarpi (Slav. Greek, Latin), Mosque, 1704, 4to: Alexyeev, St Petersb. 1773, 8vo; 4th ed. ib. 1817-1819, 8vo, 5 vols.: Russian Imp. Academy, ib. 1847, 4to, 4 vols. : Miklosich, Vindobonae, 1850: 4to ; 1862-1865, 8vo, Mikhailovski, St Petersb. 1875, 8vo : Charkovski, Warschaw, 1873, 8vo. Russian. — Russian Academy, St Petersburg, 1789-1794, 4to, 6 vols.; 1806-1822, ib. 1869, 8vo, 3 vols. : Dahl, Moskva, 1862-1866, fol. 4 vols. ; d., ib. 1873, &c, 4to; a 3rd edition, 1903, &c. French- Germ.-Eng. — Reiff, ib. 1852-1854, 4to. German, Latin. — Holterhof, Moskva, i778,8vo,2vols.;3rded. 1 853-1 855, 8vo, 2 vols. :Weismann, ib. i73i,4to; 1782, and frequently. French, German. — Nordstet, ib. 1780-1782, 4to, 2 vols. : Heym, Moskau, 1796-1805, 4to, 4 vols. : Booch-Arkossi and Frey, Leipzig, 1871, &c, 8vo. English. — Nordstet, London, 1780, 4to: Grammatin and Parenogo, Moskva, 1 808-1817, 4to, 4 voIs.French. — Tatischeff, 2nded. St Petersb. 1798, 8vo, 2 vols. ; Moskau, 1816, 4to, 2 vols. : Reiff, St Petersb. 1835-1836, 8vo, 2 vols.: Makaroff, ib. 1872, 8vo, 2 vols, mo pages; 1873-1874, i2mo, 2 vols. German. — Pawlowski, Riga, 1859, 8vo: Lenstrom, Mitau, 1871, 8vo. Swedish. — Geitlin, Helsingfors, 1833, i2mo: Meurmann, ib. 1846, Svo. Polish. — Jakubowicz, Warsza\va, 1825- 1828, 8vo, 2 vols. : Amszejewicz, ib. 1866, 8vo : Szlezigier,i6. 1867, 8vo. Technical. — Grakov (Germ.), St Petersb. 1872, 8vo. Naval. — Butakov, ib. 1837. Dialects. — North-west Russia: Gorbachevski (old language, in Russian), Vilna, 1874, 8vo, 418 pages. White Russia: Nosovich (Russian), St Petersburg, 1870, 4to, 760 pages. Red Russia: Patritzkii (German), Lemberg, 1867, 8vo, 2 vols. 842 pages. Ukraine: Piskanov (Russian), Odessa, 1873, 4to, 156 pages. Polish.— Linde (explained in Lat. Germ, and 13 Slav dialects), Warszawie, 1807-1814, 4to, 6 vols. 4574 pages. English. — [Ryka- czewski], Complete Dictionary, Berlin, 1849-1851, 8vo, 2 vols. : Ryka- czewski, Berlin, 1866, i6mo, 1161 pages. French and German. — Troc, Leipz. 1742-1764, 8vo, 4vols. ;4thed. ib. 1 806-1822, 4to, 4vols. : Bandtke, Breslau, 1806, 8vo, 2 vols.; 1833-1839, 8vo. French. — Schmidt, Leipzig, 1870, i6mo. Russian and German. — Schmidt (J. A. E.), Breslau, 1834, 8vo. German. — Mrongovius, Konigsberg, 1765; 183S- 4to; 1837: Troianski, Berlin, 1 835-1 838, 8vo, 2 vols.: Booch-Arkossi, Leipzig, 1864-1868, 8vo, 2 vols.: Jordan, ib. 1866, 8vo. Italian. — Plazowski, Warszawa, i860. 8vo. 2 vols. 730 pages. , Russian. — Potocki, Lipsk, 1873, &c, i2mo. Wendish. — Matthai, Budissen, 1721, 8vo: Bose, Grimma, 1840, 8vo: Pfuhl, w Budzsinje, 1866, 8vo, 1210 pages. Upper Lusatian. — Pfuhl and Jordan, Leipz. 1844, 8vo. Lower Lusatian. — Zwahr, Spremberg, 1847, 8vo. Czech. — Rohn (Germ. Lat.), Prag, 1780, 4to, 4 vols. : Dobrowski and Hanka, ib. 1802-1821, 4to, 2 vols. Lat. Germ. Hungar. — Jungmann, Praze, 1835-1839, 6 vols. 4to, 5316 pages. German. — Tham, Prag. 1805-1807, 8vo, 2 vols. : Sumavski, ib. 1844- 1846, 8vo, 2 vols.: Koneney, ib. 1855, l8mo, 2 vols.: Rank (Germ. Boh.), ib. i860, i6mo, 775 pages. Technical. — Spatny, ib. 1864, 8vo: Kheil (names of goods, Germ. Boh.), ib. 1864, 8vo, 432 pages. Hunting. — Spatny, ib. 1870, 8vo, 137 pages. 196 DICTIONARY South Slavic— Richter and Ballman.Wien, 1839-1840, 8vo, 2 vols. Servian— Karaiic (Germ. Lat.), ib. 1818, 8vo; 1852: Lavrovski (Russian), St Petersb. 1870, 8vo, 814 pages. Bosnian — Micalia, Laureti, 1649, 8vo. Slovak. — Bernolak (Lat. Germ. Hung.), Budae, 1825-1827, 8vo, 6 vols.: Loos (Hung, and Germ.), Pest, 1869, &c, 3 vols. Slovene. — Gutsmann, Klagenfurt, 1789, 4to: Relkovich, Wien, 1796, 4to, 2 vols.: Murko, Gratz, 1838, 8vo, 2 vols.: Janezic, Klagenfurt, 1851, i2mo. Dalmatian. — Ardelio della Bella, Venezia, 1728, 8vo; 2nd ed. Ragusae, 1785,410: Stulli, ib. 1801-1810, 4to, 2 vols. Croatian. — Habdelich, Gratz, 1670, 8vo: Sulek, Agram, 1854-1860, 8vo, 2 vols. 1716 pages. Carinthian. — Lexer, Leipzig, 1862, 8vo. Old Servian. — Danitziye (Servian), Belgrad, 1864, 8vo, 3 vols. Bulgarian. — Daniel (Romaic, Albanian, Rumanian, and Bulgarian) , Moschopolis, 1770; Venice, 1802, 4to. English. — Morse and Vassiliev, Constantinople, i860, 8vo. Russian.— Borogoff, Vienna, 1872, &c, 8vo. Ugrian. Ugrian, Comparative. — Donner, Helsingfors, 1874, 8vo, in pro- gress: Budenz (Ugrian-Magyar), Budapest, 1872-1875, 8vo. Lappish.— Manuals, Holmiae, 1648, 8vo: Fjellstrom, ib. 1738, 8vo: Leem and Sandberg, Havn. 1768-1781, 4to, 2 parts: Lindahl and Oehrling, Holm. 1780, 8vo. North Lappish.— Stockfleht, Christiania, 1852, 8vo. Finnish.— Juslenius, Holmiae, 1745, 4to, 567 pages: Renvall, Aboae, 1826, 4to, 2 vols. : Europaeus, Helsingissa, 1852-1853, l6mo, 2 vols. 742 pages: Lunin, Derpt, 1853, 8vo: Euren, Tavashuus, i860, 8vo: Ahlman, ib. 1864, 8vo: Wiedemann, St Petersb. 1869, 4to: Godenhjelm (Germ.), Helsingfors, 1871: Lonnrot, Helsingissa, 1874. Naval. — Stjerncreutz, ib. 1863, 8vo. Esthonian. — Hupel, Mitau, 1818, 8vo, 832 pages: Korber, Dorpat, i860, 8vo: Wiedemann, St Petersb. 1869, 4to, 1002 pages: Aminoff (Esth. -Finnish), Helsingissa, 1869, 8vo: Meves (Russian), Riga, 1876, i2mo. Permian.— Rogord (Russian), St Petersb. 1869, 8vo, 420 pages. Votiak. — Wiedemann, Reval, 1847, 8vo : Ahlquist, Helsingfors, 1856, 4to. Cheremiss. — Budenz, Pest, 1866, 8vo. Ersa-Mordvine.— Wiedemann, St Petersb. 1865, 4to. Moksha- Mordvine. — Ahlquist, ib. 1862, 8vo. Magyar. — Szabo, Kassan, 1792, 8vo: Guczor and Fogarazi (Hung. Academy), Pesth, 1862, 8vo, in progress. English.— Dallos, Pesth, i860, 8vo. French. — Kiss, ib. 1844, i2mo, 2 vols. : Karady, Leipz. 1848, i2mo : Mole, Pest, 1865, 8vo, 2 vols. German. — Schuster, Wien, 1838, 8vo: Bloch, Pesth, 1857, 4to, 2 vols. : Ballagi, ib. 1857, 8vo; 6th ed. 1905, 8vo, 2 vols. : Loos, ib. 1870, 8vo, 914 pages. Etymological. — Dankovsky (Lat.-Germ.), Pressburg, 1853, 8vo: Kresznerics (under roots, in Hung.), Budan, 1831-1832, 4to, 2 vols. : Podhorsky (from Chinese roots, in Germ.), Budapest, 1877, 8vo. New Words. — Kunoss, Pesth, 1836, 8vo; 1844. Turkish.— Arab. Pers. — Esaad Effendi, Constantinople, 1802, fol. Romaic— Alexandrides, Vienna, 1812, 4to. Polyglotts.— Pianzola (Ital. Grec. volgare, e Turca), Padova, 1789, 4to: Ciakciak (Ital. Armeno, Turco), Venice, 1804, 4to; 2nd ed. 1829: Azarian (Ellenico, Ital. Arm. Turco), Vienna, 1848, 8vo: Mechitarist Congregation (Ital. Francese, Arm. Turco), ib. 1846, 8vo. Latin. — Mesgnien-Meninski, Viennae, 1680, fol. 3 vols.; ed. Jenisch and Klezl, ib. 1780-1802, fol. 4 vols. English. — Sauerwein, London, 1855, l2tno: Redhouse, ib. 1856, 8vo, 1176 pages: Id., Eng. Turkish, ib. 860, 8vo. French. — Kieffer and Bianchi (Turk.-Fr.), Pans, 1835-1837, 2 vols. 2118 pages: Bianchi (Fr.-Turk.) Paris, 1843-1846, 8vo, 2 vols. 2287 pages; 1850, 8vo, 2 vols.: Mallouf, ib. 1863-1867, 8vo, 2 vols. French and German. — Zenker (Arab. Pers.), Leipz, 1862-1876, 4to, 2 vols, 982 pages. German. — Korabinsky, Pressburg, 1788, 8vo: Vambery, Constantinople, 1858, 8vo. Italian. — Molina, Roma, 1641, 8vo: Masais, Firenze, 1677, 8vo: Ciadyrgy, Milano, 1832-1834, 4to, 2 vols. Russian. — Budagov (Comparative lexicon of the Turkish-Tartar dialects), St Petersburg, 1869, 8vo, 2 vols. Gipsy. — Bischoff, Ilmenau, 1827, 8vo: Truxillo, Madrid, 1844, 8vo: Jimenes, Sevilla, 1846, i6mo: Baudrimont, Bordeaux, 1862, 8vo: Vaillant, Paris, 1868, 8vo: Paspatf; Constantinople, 1870, 4to: Borrow, Romany Lavo Lil, London, 1874, 8vo: Smart and Crofton, London, 1875, 8vo. Albanian. — Blanchus, Romae, 1635, 8vo: Kaballioti (Romaic, Wallach. Alb.), Venice, 1770, 8vo: Xylander, Frankfurt a. M. 1835, 8vo: Hahn, Jena, 1854, 4to: Rossi da Montalto, Roma, 1866, 8vo. ASIA Semitic. — Polyglotts. — Thurneissius, Berolini, 1585, fol. : Thorndike, London, 1635, fol.: Schindler, Pentaglotton, Frankf, i-,d M. 1653, fol. : Hottinger, Heptaglotton, ib. 1661, fol. : Castellus, London, 1669, fol. 2 vols. (Hebrew, Chaldaic, Syriac, Samaritan, Aethiopic and Arabic in one alphabet; Persian separately. It occupied him for seventeen years, during which he worked sixteen to eighteen hours a day) : Otho, Frankf. a. M. 1702, 4to (the same languages with Rabbinical) i Hebrew. — About 875, Zemali, head of the school of Pum- beditha, wrote a Talmudical dictionary of words and things, arranged in alphabetical order, which is lost. About 880, Jehudah ben 'Alan, of Tiberias, and Jehudah ibnKoreish, ofTahurt, in Morocco wrote Hebrew dictionaries. Saadia ben Joseph (born 892, died 942), of Fayum, in Upper Egypt, wrote [hax idd, probably a Hebrew- Arabic dictionary. Menahem ben Jacob Ibn Saruq (born 910, died about 970), of Tortosa and Cordova, wrote a copious Hebrew dictionary, first printed by Herschell F. Filipowski, Edinburgh, 1855, 8vo, from five MSS. David ben Abraham, of Fas, wrote, in Arabic, a large Hebrew dictionary, the MS. of which, a quarto of 313 leaves on cotton paper, was found about 1830 by A. Firkowitz, of fiupatoria, in the cellar of a Qaraite synagogue in Jerusalem. The age of this work cannot be ascertained. About 1050, Ali ben Suleiman wrote a dictionary in Arabic, on the plan of that of David ben Abraham. The MS. of 429 leaves belongs to Firkowitz. Haja ben Sherira, the famous teacher of the Academy of Pumbeditha, wrote a Hebrew dictionary in Arabic, called at Havi (The Gathering), arranged alphabetically in the order of the last radical letter. This dictionary is lost, as well as that of the Spaniard Isaac ben Saul, of Lucena. Iona ibn Ganah, of Cordova, born about 985, wrote a Hebrew dictionary in Arabic called Kitab al Azul (Book of Roots). This, as well as a Hebrew translation by Samuel ibn Tabon, is extant in MS., and was used by Gesenius in his Thesaurus. Rabbi David ben Joseph Kimhi died soon after 1232. His lexicon of roots, called wtnv, was printed at Naples 1490, fol.; Constantinople, 1513, fol.; Naples, 1491, 8vo; Venice, 1552; Berolini, 1838, 4to. Tishbi (The Tishbite), by Elijah ben Asher, the Levite, so called because it con- tained 712 roots, was printed at Isny 1541, 8vo and 4to, and often afterwards. Latin. — Miinster, Basileae, 1523, 8vo; 5 editions to 1564: Zamora, Compluti, 1526, fol.: Pellicanus, Argentorati, 1540, fol.: Reuchlin, Basil, 1556,' fol. : Avenarius, Wittebergae, 1568, fol.; auctus, 1589: Pagnini, Lugd. Bat. 1575, fol.; 1577; Genevae, 1614; Buxtorf, Basil. 1607, 8vo; 1 61 5, and many other editions: Frey (Lat.-Eng.), 2nd ed. London, 1815, 8vo: Gesenius, Thesaurus, Leipz. 1829-1858, 4to, 3 vols. English. — Bale, London, 1767, 4to: Park- hurst, ib. 1792, 4to: Lee, ib. 1840, 8vo: Gesenius, translated by Robinson, ib. 1844, 8vo; by Tregelles, ib. 1846, 4to: Fuerst, 4th ed. transl. by Davidson, ib. 1866, 8vo: 1871, 8vo, 1547 pages. French. — Leigh, Amst. 1703, 4to: Glaire, Paris, 1830, 8vo; 1843. German. — Gesenius, Leipzig, 1810-1812, 8vo, 2 vols. : Fuerst, ib. 1842, i6mo: ib. 1876, 8vo, 2 vols. Italian. — Modena, Venetia, 1612, 4to; 1640; Coen, Reggio, 1811, 8vo: Fontanella, Venezia, 1824, 8vo. Dutch. — Waterman, Rotterdam, 1859, &c, 8vo. Hungarian. — Ehrentheil (Pentateuch), Pest, 1868, 8vo. Romaic. — Loundes, Melite. 1845, 8vo, 987 pages. Rabbinical and Chaldee. — Nathan ben Yeljiel of Rome wrote in the beginning of the 12th century a Talmudic dictionary, Aruch, printed 1480 (?), s. I., fol.; Pesaro, 1517, fol.; Venice, 1531; and often: Isaiah ben Loeb, Berlin, wrote a supplement to Aruch, vol. i. Breslau, 1830, 8vo; vol. ii. ("? to n), Wien, 1859, 8vo: Miinster, Basil. 1527, 4to, 1530, fol.: Elijah ben Asher, the Levite, transi. by Fagius, Isnae, 1 541, fol.; Venet. 1560: David ben Isaac de Pomis, Zama% David, Venet. 1587, fol. : Buxtorf, Basileae, 1639, fol. : ed. Fischer, Leipz. 1866-1875, 4to: Otho, Geneva, 1675, 8vo; Altona, 1757, 8vo: Zanolini, Patavii, 1747, 8vo: Hornheim, Halle, 1807, 8vo: Landau, Prag, 1819-1824, 8vo, 5 vols.: Dessauer, Erlangen, 1838, 8vo: Nork (i.e. Korn), Grimma, 1842, 4to: Schonhak, Warschau, 1858, 8vo, 2 vols. Targums. — Levy, Leipzig, 1866-68 4to, 2 vols.; 1875: Id. (Eng.), London, 1869, 8vo, 2 vols. Talmud. — Lowy (in Heb.), Wien, 1863, 8vo: Levy, Leipzig, 1876, &c, 4to. Prayer-Book. — Hecht, Kreuznach, i860, 8vo: Nathan, Berlin, 1854, l2mo. Synonyms. — Pantavitius, Lodevae, 1640, fol. Foreign Words — Rabeini, Lemberg, 1857, 8vo, &c. Jewish-German.— Callenberg, Halle, 1736, 8vo: Vollbeding, Hamburg, 1808, 8vo: Stern, Munchen, 1833, 8vo, 2 vols. : Theile, Berlin, 1842-1843, 8vo, 2 vols. : Ave-Lallemant, Das deutsche Gaunerthum, Leipzig, 1858, 8vo, 4 vols. ; vol. iv. pp. 321-512. Phoenician. — M. A. Levy, Breslau, 1864, 8vo. Samaritan. — Crinesius, Altdorphi, 1613, 4to: Morini, Parisiis, 1657, l2mo: Hilligerus, Wittebergae, 1679, 4to: Cellarius, Cizae, 1682, 4to; Frankof. 1705: Uhlemann, Leipsiae, 1837, 8vo: Nicholls, London, 1859, 8vo. Assyrian.— Norris, London, 1868, 8vo, 3 vols. Proper Names.— Menant, Paris, 1861, 8vo. Accadian. — Lenormant, Paris, 1875, 8vo. Syriac. — Joshua ben Ali, a physician, who lived about 885, made a Syro-Arabic lexicon, of which there is a MS. in the Vatican. Hoffmann printed this lexicon from Alif to Mim, from a Gotha MS., Kiel, 1874, 4to. Joshua bar Bahlul, living 963, wrote another, great part of which Castelli put into his lexicon. His MS. is now at Cambridge, and, with those at Florence and Oxford, was used b? Bernstein. Elias bar Shinaya, born 975, metropolitan of Nisibis, 1009, wrote a Syriac and Arabic lexicon, entitled Kitab ut Tarjuman fi Taalem Loghat es Surian (Book called the Interpreter for teaching the Language of the Syrians), of which there is a MS. in the British Museum. It was translated into Latin by Thomas a Novaria, a DICTIONARY 197 1612, 4to: Buxforf, Basileae, 1622, 4to: Ferrarius, Romae, 1622, 4to: Trost, Cothenis Anhaltor, 1643, 4to: Gutbir, Hamburg], 1667, 8vo: Schaaf, Lugd. Bat, 1708, 4to: Zanolini, Patavii, 1742, 4to: Castellus, ed. Michaelis, Gottingen, 1788, Ato, 2 vols.: Bernstein, Berlin, 1857, &c. fol. : Smith (Robt. Paine), Dean of Canterbury, Oxonii, 1868, &c. fol.: fasc. 1-3 contain 538 pages: Zingerle, Romae, 1873, 8vo, 148 pages. Arabic. — The native lexicons are very many, voluminous and copious. In the preface to his great Arabic-English lexicon, Lane describes 33, the most remarkable of which are — the 'Ain, so called from the letter which begins its alphabet, commonly ascribed to al Khalil (who died before a.h. 175 [a.d. 791], aged seventy-four) : the Sihah of Jauhari (died 398 [1003]) : the Mohkam of Ibn Sidah the Andalusian, who was blind, and died A.H. 458 [a.d. 1066], aged about sixty: the Asas of Zamakhshari (born 467 [1075], died 538 [1144]), " a most excellent repertory of choice words and phrases ": the Lisanel 'Arab of Ibn Mukarram (born 630 [1232], died 711 [131 1]); Lane's copy is in 28 vols. 4to : the Kamus (The Sea) of Fairuzabadi (born 729 [1328], died 816 [14.13], : the Taj el Arus, by Murtada Ez Zebadi (born a.d. 1732, died 1791) — the copy made for Lane is in 24 vols, thick 4to. The Sihah was printed Hardervici Getorum, 1774, 4to; Bulak, 1865, fol. 2 vols.: Kamus, Calcutta, 1817, fol. 2 vols.; Bombay, 1855, fol. 920 pages: Sirr el Lagal, by Farish esh Shidiac, Tunis, fol. 609 pages : Muhit al Muhit, by Beitrus Al Bustani Beirut, 1 867-1 870, 2 vols. 4to, 2358 pages (abridged as Katr Al Muhit, ib. 1 867-1 869, 2 vols. 8vo, 2352 pages), is excellent for spoken Arabic. Persian. — The Surah, by Jumal, Calcutta, 1812- 1815, 2 vols. 4to: Samachsharii Lexicon, ed. Wetzstein, Leipz. 1845, 4to; 1850: Muntakhal al Loghat, Calcutta, 1808; 16.1836; Lucknow, 1845; Bombay, 1862, 8vo, 2 vols.: Muntaha V Arabi, 4 vols. fol. 1840: Shams al Loghat, Bombay, i860, fol. 2 vols. 509 pages. Turkish. — Achteri Kabir, Constantinople. 1827, fol.: El Kamus, ib. 1816, fol. 3 vols.; translated by Acan Effendi, Bulak, fol. 3 vols.; El Sihah, translated by Al Vani, Constantinople, 1728, fol. 2 vols. : 1755-1756; Scutari, 1802, fol. 2 vols. Latin. — Raphelengius, Leiden, 1613, fol.: Giggeius, Mediolani, 1632, fol. 4 vols.: Golius Lugd. Bat. 1653, fol. (the best before Lane's): Jahn, Vindobonae, 1802, 8vo: Freytag, Halle, 1830-1838, 4 vols. 4to; abridged, ib. 1837, 4to. English. — Catafago (Arab. -Eng. and Eng.-Arab.), London, 1858, 8vo, 2 vols.; 2nd ed. 1873, 8vo: Lane, London, 1863-1893 (edited after Lane's death, from 1876, by his grandnephew, Stanley Lane-Poole. The Arabic title is Medd el Kamoos, meaning either the Flow of the Sea, or The Extension of the Kamus. It was under- taken in 1842, at the suggestion and at the cost of the 6th duke of Northumberland, then Lord Prudhoe, by Mr Lane, who returned to Egypt for the purpose, and lived in Cairo for seven years to study, and obtain copies of, the great MS. lexicons in the libraries of the mosques, few of which had ever been seen by a European, and which were so quickly disappearing through decay, carelessness and theft, that the means of composing such a work would not long have existed). Newman (modern), ib. 1872, 8vo, 2 vols. 856 pages. French. — ■ Ruphy (Fr.-Ar.), Paris, 1802, 4to: Bochtor (do.), Paris, 1828, 4to, 2 vols. ; 2nd ed. ib. 1850: Roland de Bussy (Algiers, Fr.-Ar.), Alger, (835, i6mo: Id., 1836, 8vo; 1839: Berggren (Fr.-vulg. Ar., Syria and Egypt.), Upsala, 1844, 4to: Farhat (Germanos), revu par Rochaid ed Dahdah, Marseille, 1849, 4to: Biberstein Kasimirski, Paris, 1846, 8vo,2vols. ; 1853-1856; i860, 2 vols. 3032 pages: Marcel (vulgar dialects of Africa), Paris, 1830; 1835, 8vo; 1837; enlarged, 1869, 8vo; Paulmier (Algeria), 2nd ed. Paris, i860, 8vo, 931 pages; 1872: Bernard (Egypt), Lyon, 1864, i8mo: Cuche, Beirut, 1862, 8vo; 1867: Nar Bey (A. Calfa), 2nd ed. Paris, 1872, i2mo, 1042 pages: Cherbonneau (written language), Paris, 1876, 2 vols. 8vo: Id. (Fr.-Ar.), Paris, 1872, 8vo: Beausier (Algiers, Tunis, legal, epistolary), Alger, 1871, 4to, 764 pages; 1873. German. — Seyfarth (Algeria), Grimma, 1849, i6mo: YVolff (Mod. Ar.), Leipzig, 1867, 8vo: Wahrmund (do.), Giessen, 1870-1875, 8vo, 4 vols. Italian. — Germano, Roma, 1636, 8vo; (Ar. Lat. It.), Romae, 1639, fol.: Dizionario, Bulak. 1824, 4to: Schiaparelli, Firenze, 1871, 4to, '641 pages. Spanish. — Alcala, Grenada, 1505, 4to: Canes, Madrid, 1787, fol. 3 vols. Sufi Technical Terms. — Abd Errahin, ed. Sprenger, Calcutta, 1845, 8vo. Technical Terms of the Mussul- man Sciences. — Abd al Hagg and Gholam Kadir, Calcutta, 1853- 1862, 4to, 1593 pages. Medical Terms. — PharaonandBertherand, Paris, 1S60, i2mo. Materia Medica. — Muhammed Abd Allah Shirazi, Ulfaz Udwiyeh, translated by Gladwin (Eng. Pers. Hindi), Calcutta, 1793, 4to,^ 1441 words. Noms des Vetements. — Dozy, Amst. 1845, 8vo. Worter in entgegengesetzten Bedeutungen. — Redslob, Gottingen, 1873, 8vo. - Koran. — Willmet (also in Haririum et vitam Timuri), Lugd. Bat. 1784, 4to; Amst. 1790: Fluegel, Concordantia, Leipz. 1842, 4to: Penrice, Dictionary and Glossary, London, 1873, 4to. El Tabrizi's Logic. — Mir Abufeth (French), Bulak, 1842, 8vo. Maltese. — Vassali, Romae, 1796, 4to: Falzon (Malt. Ital. Eng.), Malta, s.a. 8vo: Vella, Livorno, 1843, 8vo. Armenian. — Mechitar, Venice, 1 749-1 769, 4to, 2 vols.: Avedi- chiam, Siirmelian and Aucher (Aukerian), ib. 1836-1837, 4to, 2 vols. : Aucher, ib. 1846, 4to. Polyglot. — Villa (Arm.-vulg., litteralis, Lat. Indicae et Gallicae), Romae, 1780. Greek and Latin. — Lazarists, Venice, 1 836-1 837, 4to, 2 vols. 2217 pages. Latin. — Rivola, Medio- lani, 1621, fol.: Nierszesovicz, Romae, 1695, 4to; Villotte, ib. 1714, fol.: Mechitar, Venetiae, 1 747-1 763, 4to, 2 vols. English. — Aucher, Venice, 1821-1 825, 4to, 2 vols. French. — Aucher, Venise, 18I2-1817, 8vo, 2 vols.; (Fr.-Arm. Turc.),*. 1840,410: Eminian, Vienna, 1853, 4to: Calfa, Paris, 1861, 8vo, 1016 pages; 1872. Italian. — Ciakciak, Venezia, 1837, 4to. Russian. — Khudobashev [Khuta- pashian], Moskva, 1838, 8vo, 2 vols. Russ. Arm. — Adamdarov, ib. 1821, 8vo: Popov, ib. 1841, 8vo, 2 vols. Modern Words. — Riggs, Smyrna, 1847, 8vo. Georgian. — Paolini (Ital.), Roma, 1629, 4to: Klaproth (Fr.), Paris, 1827, 8vo: Tshubinov (Russian, French), St Petersburg, 1840, 4to; 1846, 8vo, 2 vols. 1 187 pages. Circassian. — Loewe, London, 1854, 8vo. Ossetic. — Sjorgen, St Petersb. 1844, 4to. Kurd. — Garzoni, Roma, 1787, 8vo: Lerch (German), St Peters- burg, 1857, 8vo: Id. (Russian), ib. 1856-1858, 8vo. Persian. — Burhani Qatiu, arranged by J. Roebuck, Calcutta, 1818, 4to: Burhan i Kati, Bulak, 1836, fol.: Muhammed Kazim, Tabriz, 1844, fol- : Haft Kulzum (The Seven Seas), by Ghazi ed din Haidar, King of Oude, Lucknow, 1822, fol. 7 vols. Arabic. — Shums ul Loghat, Calcutta, 1806, 4to, 2 vols. Turkish. — Ibrahim Effendi, Farhangi Shu'uri, ib. 1742, fol. 2 vols. 22,530 words, and 22,450 poetical quotations: Burhan Kati, by Ibn Kalif, translated by Ahmed Asin Aintabi, ib. 1799, fol.; Bulak, 1836, fol.: Hayret Effendi, ib. 1826, 8vo. Armenian. — Douzean. Constantinople, 1826, fol. Bengali. — Jay Gopal, Serampore, 1818, 8vo. Latin. — Vullers (Zend appendix), Bonnae ad Rhen, 1855-1868, 4to, 2 vols. 2544 pages; Supplement of Roots, 1867, 142 pages. English. — Gladwin, Malda in Bengal, 1780, 4to; Calcutta, 1797: Kirkpatrick, London, 1785, 4to: Moises, Newcastle, 1794, 4to: Rousseau, London, 1802, 8vo; 1810: Richardson (Arab, and Pers.), ib. 1780- 1800, fol. 2 vols. ; ed. Wilkins, ib. 1806-1810, 4to, 2 vols. ; ed Johnson, ib. 1829, 4to: Ramdhen Sen, Calcutta, 1829, 8vo; 1831 : Tucker (Eng.-Pers.), London, 1850, 4to: Johnson (Pers. and Arab.), ib. 1852, 4to: Palmer, ib. 1876, 8vo, 726 pages. French. — Handjeri (Pers. Arab, and Turkish), Moscou, 1841, 4to, 3 vols. 2764 pages: Berge, Leipzig, 1869, i2mo. German. — Richardson, translated by Wahl as Orientalische Bibliotheque, Lemg, 1 788-1 792, 8vo, 3 vols. Italian. — Angelusa S. Josepho [i.e. Labrosse] (Ital. Lat. Fr.), Amst. 1684, fol. Old Persian. — (Cuneiform), Benfey (German), Leipzig, 1847, 8vo: Spiegel (id.), ib. 1862, 8vo: Kossovich (Latin), Petropoli, 1872, 8vo. Zend. — Justi, Leipzig, 1864, 4to: Vullers, Persian Lexicon, Appendix: Lagarde, Leipzig, 1868, 8vo. Pahlavi. — An old Pahlavi and Pazend Glossary, translated by Destur Hoshengi Jamaspji, ed. Haug, London, 1867, 8vo; 1870, 8vo: West, Bombay, 1874, 8vo. Indian Terms. — The Indian Vocabulary, London, 1788, i6mo: Gladwin, Calcutta, 1797, 4to: Roberts, London, 1800, 8vo: Rous- seau, ib. 1802, 8vo: Roebuck (naval), ib. 1813, i2mo: C. P. Brown, Zillah Diet., Madras, 1852, 8vo: Robinson (Bengal Courts), Calcutta, 1854, 8vo; i860: Wilson, London, 1855, 4to: Fallon, Calcutta, 1858, 8vo. Sanskrit. — Amarasimha (lived before a.d. 1000), Amarakosha Calcutta, 1807, 8vo; ib. 1834, 4to; Bombay, i860, 4to; Lucknow, 1863, 4to; Madras, 1870, 8vo, in Grantha characters; Cottayam, 1873, 8vo, in Malaylim characters; Benares, 1867, fol. with Amaraviveka, a commentary by Mahesvara: Rajah Radhakanta Deva, Sabdakalpadruma, Calcutta, l82i-i857,4to, 8 vols. 8730 pages: 2nd ed. 1874, &c. : Bhattachdrya, Sabdastoma Mahanidhi, Calcutta, 1869-1870, 8vo, parts i.-vii, 528 pages: Abhidhanaratnamala, by Halayudha, ed. Aufrecht, London. 1861, 8vo: Vachaspatya, by Taranatha Tarkavachaspati, Calcutta, 1873, &c., 4to (parts i.-vii., 1680 pages). Bengali. — Sabdasindhu, Calcutta, 1808: Amarakosa, translated by Ramodoyu Bidjalunker, Calcutta, 1831, 4to: Mathurana Tarkaratna, Sabdasandarbhasindhu, Calcutta, 1863, 4to. Marathi. — Ananta Sastri Talekar, Poona, 1853, 8vo, 495 pages: Madhava Chandora, Bombay, 1870, 4to, 695 pages. Telugu. — Amarakosha, Madras, i86l,ed. Kala, with Gurubalala prabodhika, a commentary, ib. 1861, 4to; with the same, ib. 1875, 4to, 516 pages; with Amarapadaparijata (Sans, and Tel.), by Vavilla Ramasvani Sastri, ib. 1862, 4to; ib. 1863, 8vo; 3rd ed. by Jaganmohana Tarkalankara and Khetramohana, 1872, &c, parts i.-iv. 600 pages: Suria Pracasa Row, Sarva-Sabda-Sambodhini, ib. 1875, 4to, 1064 pages. Tibetan and Mongol. — Schiefner, Buddhistische Triglotte, St Petersburg, 1859, fol., the Vyupatti or Mahavyupatti from the Tanguir, vol. 123 of the Sutra. Latin. — Paulinus a Sancto Bartholomeo, Amarasinha, sectio i. de coelo, Romae, 1798, 4to: Bopp. Berlin, 1828-1830, 4to; 2nd ed. 1840-1844; 3rd, 1866, 4to. English. — Amarakosha, trans, by Colebrooke, Serampore, 1808, 4to; 1845, 8vo: Rousseau, London, 1812, 4to: Wilson, Calcutta, 1819, 4to; 2nd ed. 1832: ed. Goldstiicker, Berlin, 1862, &c, folio, to be in 20 parts: Yates, Calcutta, 1846, 4to: Benfey, London, 1865, 8vo: Ram Jasen, Benares, 1871, 8vo, 713 pages: Williams, Oxlord, 1872, 4to. English-Sanskrit. — Williams, London, 1851, 4to. French. — Amarakosha, transl. by Loiseleur Deslongchamps, Paris, 1839-1845, 8vo, 2 vols. 796 pages: Burnouf and Leupol, Nancy, 1863-1864, 8vo. German. — Bohtlingk and Roth, St Petersb. 1853, &c, 4to, 7 vols, to 1875. Italian. — Gubernatis, Torino, 1856, &c 8vo, unfinished, 2 parts. Russian. — Kossovich, St Petersburg, 185 198 DICTIONARY 8vo. Roots.— Wilkins, London, 1815, 4to: Rosen, Berolini, 1827, 8vo: Westergaard, Bonnae, 1840-1841, 8vo: Vishnu Parasurama Sastri Pandita (Sans, and Marathi), Bombay, 1865, 8vo : Taranatha Tarkavachaspati, Dhatupadarsa, Calcutta, 1869, 8vo: Leupol, Pans, 1870, 8vo. Synonyms. — Abhidhanacintamani, by Hemachadra, ed. Colebrooke, Calcutta, 1807, 8vo; translated by Bohtlingk and Rieu (German), St Petersburg, 1847, 8vo. Homonyms.— Medinikara, Medinikosha, Benares, 1865, 4to; Calcutta, 1869, 8vo; tb. 1872, 8vo. Derivatives. — Hirochand and Rooji Rangit, Dhatumanjari, Bombay, 1865, 8vo. Technical Terms of the Nyaya Philo- sophy. — Nydyakosa, by Bhimacharya Jhalakikar (Sanskrit), Bombay, 1875, 8vo, 183 pages. Rig Veda. — Grassmann, Leipzig, 1873-1875, 8vo. Bengali. — Manoel.Lisboa, i743,8vo:Forster,Calcutta, 1799-1802, 4to, 2 vols. 893 pages: Carey, Serampore, 1815-1825, 4to, 2 vols.; ed. Marshman, ib. 1827-1828, 8vo, 2 vols.; 3rd ed. ib. 1864-1867, 8 vo; abridged by Marshman, ib. 1865, 8vo; ib. 1871, 8vo, 2 vols. 936 pages: Morton, Calcutta, 1828, 8vo: Houghton, London, 1S33, 4to: Adea, Shabdabudhi, Calcutta, 1854, 604 pages. English.— Ram Comul Sen, ib. 1834, 4to, 2 vols.; London, 1835, 4to: D'Rozario, Calcutta, 1837, 8vo: Adea, Abhidan, Calcutta, 1854, 761 pages. English Lat. — Ramkissen Sen, ib. 1821, 4to. Eng.- Beng. and Manipuri. — [Gordon], Calcutta, 1837, 8vo. Canarese. — Reeve, Madras, 1824-1832, 4to,2 vols. ; ed. Sanderson, Bangalore, 1858, 8vo, 1040 pages; abridged by the same, 1858, 8vo, 276 pages: Dictionarium Canarense, Bengalori, 1855, 8vo: School Dictionary, Mangalore, 1876, 8vo, 575 pages. Dardic Languages. — Leitner (Astori,Ghilghiti, Chilasi, and dialects of Shina, viz. Arnyia, Khajuna and Kalasha), Lahore, 1868, 4to. Guzarati. — (English) Mirza Mohammed Cauzim, Bombay, 1846, 4to; Shapurji Edalji, ib. 1868, 8vo, 896 pages: Karsandas Mulji, ib. 1868, 8vo, 643 pages. Hindi. — Rousseau, London, 1812, 4to: Adam, Calcutta, 1829, 8vo: Thompson, ib. 1846, 8vo: J. D. Bate, London, 1876, 8vo, 809 pages. English.— Adam, Calcutta, 1833, 8vo. English, Urdu and Hindi. — Mathuraprasada Mirsa, Benares, 1865, 8vo, 1345 pages. Hindustani. — Ferguson, London, 1773, 4to: Gilchrist, Calcutta, 1800, 8vo; ed. Hunter, Edinb. 1810; Lond. 1825: Taylor, Calcutta, 1808, 4to, 2 vols.: Gladwin (Persian and Hind.), Calcutta, 1809, 8vo, 2 vols.: Shakesoeare, London, 181 7, 4to; 1820; 1834; 1849: Forbes, London, 1847, 8vo; 1857: Bertrand (French), Paris, 1858, 8vo: Brice, London, 1864, l2mo: Fallon, Banaras, 1876,- &c, to be in about 25 parts and 1200 pages. English. — Gilchrist, 1787- 1780, 4to, 2 parts: Thompson, Serampore, 1838, 8vo. Kashmiri. — Elmslie, London, 1872, l2mo. Khassia. — Roberts, Calcutta, 1875, i2mo. Malayalim. — Fabricius and Breithaupt, Weperg, 1779, 4to: Bailey, Cottayam, 1846, 8vo: Gundert, Mangalore, 1871, 8vo, 1171 pages. Marathi. — Carey, Serampore, 1810, 8vo: Kennedy, Bombay, 1824, fol. : Jugunnauth Shastri Kramavant, Bombay, 1829-1831, 4to, 3 vols. : Molesworth, ib. 1831, 4to; 2nd ed. 1847, 4to; ed. Candy, Bombay, 1857, 4to, 957 pages; abridged by Baba Padmanji, ib. 1863, 8vo; 2nd ed. (abridged), London, 1876, 8vo, 644 pages. English. — Molesworth, Bombay, 1847, 4to. Oriya. — Mohunpersaud Takoor, Serampore, 1811, 8vo: Sutton, Cuttack, 1841-1848, 8vo, 3 vols. 856 pages. Pali. — Clough, Colombo, 1824, 8vo: Moggallana Thero (a Sin- halese priest of the 12th century), Abhidhanappika (Pali, Eng. Sinhalese), ed. Waskeduwe Subheti, Colombo, 1865, 8vo: Childers, London, 1872-1875, 8vo, 658 pages. Roots. — Silavansa, Dhatuman- jusa (Pali Sing, and Eng.), Colombo, 1872, 8vo. Prakrit. — Delius, Radices, Bonnae ad Rh., 1839, 8vo. Punjabi. — Starkey, 1850, 8vo; Lodiana Mission, Lodiana, 1 854-1 860, 444 pages. Pushtu or Afghan. — Dorn, St Petersb. 184s, 4to: Raverty, London, i860, 4to; 2nd ed. ib. 1867, 4to: Bellew, 1867, 8vo. Sindhi. — Eastwick, Bombay, 1843, fol. 73 pages: Stack, ib. 1855, 8vo,2 vols. Sinhalese.— Clough, Colombo, 1821-1830, 8vo, 2 vols.: Calla- way (Eng., Portuguese and Sinhalese), ib. 1818, 8vo: Id., School Dictionary, ib. 1821, 8vo: Bridgenell (Sinh.-Eng.), ib. 1847, l8mo: Nicholson (Eng.-Sinh.), 1864, 32mo, 646 pages. Tamil. — Provenza (Portug.), Ambalacotae, 1679, 8vo: Sadur Agurardi, written by Beschi in 1732, Madras, 1827, fol. ; Pondicherry, 1875, 8vo: Blin (French), Paris, 1834, 8vo: Rottler, Madras, 1834- 1841, 4to, 4 vols.: Jaffna Book Society (Tamil), Jaffna, 1842, 8vo, about 58,500 words: Knight and Spaulding (Eng. Tarn.), ib. 1844, 8vo; Dictionary, ib. 1852, 4to: Pope, 2nd ed. ib. 1859, 8vo: Winslow, Madras, 1862, 4to, 992 pages, 67,452 words. Telugu. — Campbell, Madras, 1821, 4to: C. P. Brown, Madras (Eng.-Tel.), 1852, 8vo, 1429 pages: Id. (Tel.-Eng.), ib. 1852, 8vo, 13 1 9 pages. Mixed Telugu. — Id., ib. 1854, 8vo. Thuggee. — Sleeman, Calcutta, 1830, 8vo, 680 Ramasi words. Indo-Chinese Languages. — Leyden, Comparative Vocabulary of Barma, Malaya and Thai, Serampore, 1810, 8vo. Annamese: Rhodes (Portug. and Lat.), Romae, 1651, 4to: Pigneaux and Taberd, Fredericinagori, 1838, 4to; Legrand de la Liraye, Paris, 1874, 8vo: Pauthier (Chin. Ann.-Fr. Lat.), Paris, 1867, &c, 8vo. Assamese: Mrs Cutter, Saipur, 1840, 12 mo; Bronson, London, 1876, 8vo, 617 pages. Burmese: Hough (Eng.-Burm.), Serampore, 1825, Moul- main, 1845, 8vo, 2 vols. 955 pages: Judson, Calcutta, 1826, 8vo; (Eng. Burm.), Moulmain, 1849, 4to; (Burm. Eng.), ib. 1852, 8vo; 2nd ed., Rangoon, 1866, 8vo, 2 vols. 968 pages: Lane, Calcutta, 1841, Ato. Cambodian: Aymonier (Fr.-Camb.), Saigon, 1874, 4to; Id. (Camb.-Fr.), ib. 1875, fol. Karen: Sau-kau Too (Karen), Tavoy, 1847, l2mo, 4 vols. : Mason, Tavoy, 1840, 4to. Sgau-Karen: Wade, ib. 1849, 8vo. Siamese {Thai): Pallegoix (Lat. French, Eng.), Paris, 1854, 4to: Dictionarium Latinum Thai, Bangkok, 1850, 4to, 498 pages. Malay. — Latin. — Haex, Romae, 1631, 4to; Batavia, 1707. Dutch. — Houtmann (Malay and Malagasy), Amst. 1603, 4to; 1673; 1680; 1687; 1703; Batavia, 1707: Wiltens and Dankaarts, Gravenhage, 1623, 4to; Amst. 1650; 1677; Batavia, 1708, 4to: Heurnius, Amst. 1640, 4to: Gueynier, Batavia, 1677, 4to; 1708: Loder, ib. 1707-1708, 4to : Van der Worm, ib. 1708, 4to : Roorda van Eysinga (Low), ib. 1824-1825, 8vo, 2 vols.; 12th ed, 's Gravenhage, 1863, 8vo; Id. (Hof, Volks en Lagen Taal), ib. 1855, 8vo: Dispel and Lucardie (High Malay), Leiden, i860, l2mo: Pijnappel, Amst. 1863, 8vo: Badings, Schoonhoven, 1873, 8vo. English. — Hout- mann (Malay and Malagasy), translated by A. Spaulding, London, 1614, 4to: Bowrey, ib. 1701, 4to: Howison, ib. 1801, 4to: Mars- den, ib. 1812, 4to: Thomsen, Malacca, 1820, 8vo; 1827: Crawford, London, 1851, 8vo, 2 vols. French. — Boze, Paris, 1825, i6mo: Elout (Dutch-Malay and French-Malay), Harlem, 1826, 4to: Bougourd, Le Havre, 1856, 8vo: Richard, Paris, 1873, 8vo, 2 vols.: Favre, Vienna, 1875, 8vo, 2 vols. Malay Archipelago. — Batak: Van der Tuuk, Amsterdam, 1861, 8vo, 564 pages. Bugis: Mathes, Gravenh. 1874, 8vo, 1188 pages: Thomsen (Eng.-Bugis and Malay), Singapore, 1833, 8vo. Dyak: Hardeland (German), Amst. 1859, 8vo, 646 pages. Javanese: Sener- pont Domis, Samarang, 1827, 4to, 2 vols.: Roorda van Eysinga, Kampen, 1834-1835, 8vo, 2 vols.: Gericke, Amst. 1847, 8vo; ed. Taco Roorda, ib. 1871, &c. parts i.-v., 880 pages: Jansz and Klinkert, Samarang, 1851, 8vo; 1865: Favre (French), Vienne, 1870, 8vo. Macassar: Matthes, Amst. 1859, 8vo, 951 pages. Sunda: De Wilde (Dutch, Malay and Sunda), Amsterdam, 1841, 8vo: Rigg (Eng.), Batavia, 1862, 4to, 573 pages. Formosa: Happart (Favorlang dialect, written about 1650), Parrapattan, 1840, i2mo. Philippines. — Bicol: Marcos, Sampaloc, 1754, fol. Bisaya: San- chez, Manila, 1711, fol.: Bergafio, ib. 1735, fol.: Noceda, ib. 1841: Mentrida (also Hiliguena and Haraya) ib. 1637, 4T.0; 1841, fol. 827 pages: Felis de la Encarnacion, ib. 1851, 4to, 2 vols. 1217 pages. Ibanac: Bugarin, ib. 1854, d.to. Ilocana, Carro, ib. 1849, fol. Pampanga: Bergafio, ib. 1732, fol. Tagala: Santos, Toyabas, 1703, fol. ; ib. 1835, 4to, 857 pages: Noceda and San Lucar, Manila, 1754, fol.; 1832. Chinese. — Native Dictionaries are very numerous. Many are very copious and voluminous, and have passed through many editions. Shwo wan, by Hu Shin, is a collection of the ancient char- acters, about 10,000 in number, arranged under 540 radicals, published 150 B.C., usually in 12 vols.: Yu pien, by Ku Ye Wang, published A.D. 530, arranged under 542 radicals, is the basis of the Chinese Japanese Dictionaries used in Japan: Ping tseu lout pien, Peking, 1726, 8vo, 130 vols.: Peiwanyunfu (Thesaurus of Literary Phrases), 1711, 131 vols. 8vo, prepared by 66 doctors of the Han lin Academy in seven years. It contains 10,362 characters, and countless combina- tions of two, three or four characters, forming compound words and idioms, with numerous and copious quotations. According to Williams (On the word Shin, p. 79), an English translation would fill 140 volumes octavo of 1000 pages each. Kanghi tsze tien (Kanghi's Standard or Canon of the Character), the dictionary of Kanghi, the first emperor of the present dynasty, was composed by 30 members of the Han lin, and published in 1716, 40 vols. 4to, with a preface by the emperor. It contains 49,030 characters, arranged under the 214 radicals. It is generally in 12 vols., and is universally used in China, being the standard authority among native scholars for the readings as well as the meanings of characters. Latin. — De Guignes (French, Lat.), Paris, 1813, fol.; Klaproth, Supplement, 1819; ed. Bazil (Latin), Hong-Kong, 1853, 4to: Gongalves (Lat.-Chin.), Macao, 1841, fol.: Callery, Sy sterna phoneticum, Macao, 1841, 8vo: Schott, Vocabularium, Berlin, 1844, 4to. English. — Raper, London, 1807, fol. 4 vols.: Morrison, Macao, 1815-1823, 4to, 3 parts in 6 vols.: Medhurst, Batavia, 1842-1843, 8vo, 2 vols.: Thorn, Canton, 1843, 8vo: Lobscheid, Hong-Kong, 1871, 4to: Williams, Shanghai, 1874, 4to. Eng. Chinese. — Morrison, part iii. : Williams, Macao, 1844, 8vo: Medhurst, Shanghai, 1847-1848, 8vo, 2 vols.: Hung Maou, Tung yungfan hwa (Common words of the Red-haired Foreigners), 1850, 8vo. Doolittle, Foochow, 1872, 4to, vol. i. 550 pages. French, — Callery, Diet, encyclopidique, Macao and Paris, 1845 (radicals 1-20 only): M. A. H., 1876, 8vo, autographi6, 1730 pages. French- Chin. — Perny (Fr.-Latin, Spoken Mandarin), Paris, 1869, 4to; Appendice, 1770; Lemaire and Giguel, Shanghai, 1874, l6mo. Portuguese. — Gongalves (Port. -Chin.), Macao, 1830, 8vo, 2 vols.: Id. (Chin.-Port.), ib. 1833, 8vo. Idioms.— Giles, Shanghai, 1873, 4to. Phrases. — Yaou Pei-keen, Luy yih, 1742-1765, 8vo, 55 vols.: TseenTa-hin, Shingluy, 1853, 8vo, 4 vols. Classical Expressions. — Keang Yang and 30 others, Sze Shoo teen Lin, 1795, 8vo, 30 vols. Elegant Expressions. — Chang ting yuh, Fun luy tsze kin, 1722, DICTIONARY 199 8vo, 64 vols. Phrases of Three Words. — Julien (Latin), Paris, 1864, 8vo. Poetical. — Pei wan she yun, 1800, 8vo, 5 vois. Proper Names. — F. Porter Smith (China, Japan, Corea, Annam, &c, Chinese-Eng.), Shanghai, 1870, 8vo. Topography. — Williams, Canton, 1841, 8vo. Names of Towns. — Biot, Paris, 1842, 8vo. Ancient Characters. — Foo Lwantseang, Luh shoo fun luy, 1800, 8vo, 12 vols. Seal Character. — Heu Shin, Shwo wan, ed. Seu Heuen, 1527, 8vo, 12 vols. Running Hand. — St Aulaire and Groeneveld (Square Characters, Running Hand; Running, Square), Amst. 1861, 4to, 117 pages. Technical Terms (in Buddhist trans- lations from Sanskrit) — Yuen Ying, Yih 'see king pin e, 1848, 8vo. Dialects. — Amoy: Douglas, London, 1873, 4to, 632 pages: Macgowan, Hong-Kong, 1869, 8vo. Canton; Yu Heo-poo and Wan ke-shih, Keang hoo chih tuhfun yun (so yaou ho tseih, Canton, 1772, 8vo, 4 vols.; 1803, 8vo, 4 vols.; Fuh-shan, 1833, 8vo, 4 vols.: Morrison, Macao, 1828, 8vo: Wan ke shih, Canton, 1856, 8vo: Williams (tonic, Eng.-Chinese), Canton, 1856, 8vo: Chalmers, Hong- Kong, 1859, i2mo; 3rd ed. 1873, 8vo. Changchow in Fuhkeen: Seay Sew-lin, Ya suh tung shih woo yin, 1818, 8vo, 8 vols.; 1820. Foo- chow : Tseih (a Japanese general) and Lin Peih shan, Pa yin ho ting, ed. Tsin Gan, 1841, 8vo: Maclay and Baldwin, Foochow, 1870, 8vo, 1 123 pages. Hok-keen: Medhurst, Macao, 183c, 4to: Peking, Stent, Shanghai, 1871, 8vo. Corean. — Chinese, Corean and Japanese. — Cham Seen Wo Kwo tsze mei, translated by Medhurst, Batavia, 1835, 8vo. Russian. — Putzillo, St Petersburg, 1874, l2mo, 746 pages. Japanese. — SioKen Zi Ko (Examination of Words and Characters) , 1608, 8vo, 10 vols. : Wa Kan Won Se Ki Sio Gen Zi Ko, lithographed by Siebold, Lugd. Bat., 1835, fol. Jap.-Chinese. — Faga biki set yo siu. Chinese- Jap. — Kanghi Tse Tein, 30 vols. i2mo : Zi rin gioku ben. Dutch Dictionaries printed by Japanese. — Nieeuverzameld Japansch en Hollandsch Woordenbock, by the interpreter, B. Sadayok, 1810: Minamoto Masataka, Prince of Nakats (Jap. Chinese-Dutch), 5 vols. 4to, printed at Kakats by his servants: Jedo-Halma (Dutch- Jap.), Jedo, 4to, 20 vols.: Nederduitsche taal, Dutch Chinese, for the use of interpreters. Latin and Portuguese. — Calepinus, Dic- tionarium, Amacusa, 1595, 4to. Latin. — Collado, Compendium, Romae, 1632, 4to: Lexicon, Romae, 1870, 4to, from Calepinus. English. — Medhurst, Batavia, 1830, 8vo: Hepburn, Shanghai, 1867, 8vo; 1872. Eng.-Jap. — Hori Tatnoskoy, Yedo, 1862, 8vo; 2nd ed. Yeddo, 1866, 8vo: Satow and Ishibashi Masakata (spoken language), London, 1876, 8vo. French. — Rosny (Jap. Fr. Eng.), Paris, 1857, 4to, vol. i. : Pages, Paris, 1869, 4to, translated from Calepinus. Fr.-Jap. — Soutcovey, Paris, 1864, 8vo. Fr. Eng. Jap. — Mermet de Cachon, Paris, 1866, 8vo, unfinished. German. — Pfizmaier (Jap.-Ger., Eng.), Wien, 1851, 4to, unfinished. Spanish. — Vocabulario del Japon, Manila, 1630, 4to, translated from the next. Portuguese. — Vocabulario da Lingua de Japam, Nagasaki, 1603, ito. Russian. — Goshkevich, St Petersburg, 1857, 8vo, 487 pages. Chinese Characters with Japanese Pronunciation. — Rosny, Paris, 1867, 8vo. Chinese and Japanese Names of Plants. — Hoffmann, Leyde, 1864, 8vo. Aino.— Pfizmaier, Wien, 1854, 4to. Northern and Central Asia. — Buriat: Castren, St Petersburg, 1857, 8vo. Calmuck: Zwick, Villingen, 1853, 4to: Smirnov, Kazan, 1857, l2mo: Jiigl, Siddhi Kpr, Leipzig, 1866, 8vo. Chuvash: Clergy of the school of the Kazan Eparchia, Kazan, 1836, 8vo, 2481 words: Lyule (Russ.-Chuv. French), Odessa, 1846, 8vo, 244 pages: Zolotnitski, Kazan, 1875, 8vo, 287 pages. Jagatai: Mir Ali Shir, Abuska, ed. Vambery, with Hungarian translation, Pesth, 1862, 8vo: Vambery, Leipzig, 1867, 8vo: Pa vet de Courteille, Paris, 1870, 8vo. Koibal and Karagas: Castren, St Petersburg, 1857, 8vo. Manchu: Yulchi tseng ting t.sing wen kian (Manchu Chinese), 177 1, 4to, 6 vols. : Sze li hoh pik wen kian (Manchu-Mongol, Tibetan, Chinese) 10 vols. 4to, the Chinese pronunciation represented in Manchu: San hoh pien Ian (Manchu-Chinese, Mongol), 1792, 8vo, 12 vols.; — all three classed vocabularies: Langles (French), Paris, 1789-1790, 4to, 3 vols. : Gabelentz (German), Leipzig, 1864, 8vo: Zakharov (Russian), St Petersburg, 1875, 8vo, 1235 pages: Mongol: I. J. Schmidt (German, Russian), St Petersburg, 1835, 4to: Scher.gin, Kazan, 1841, 8vo: Kovalevski, Kasan, 1844-1849, 4to, 3 vols. 2703 pages. Ostiak: Castren, St Petersb. 1858, 8vo. Samoyed: Castren, St Petersb. 1855, 8vo, 308 pages. Tartar: Giganov (Tobolsk), St Petersburg, 1804, 4to; (Russ.-Tartar), ib. 1840, 4to: Troyanski (Karan), Kasan, 1835-1855, 4to. Tibetan: Minggi djamtoo (Tibet-Mongol) : Bodschi dijig togpar lama : Kad shi schand scharwi melonggi jige (Manchu- Mongol-Tibetan-Chinese), Kanghi's Dictionary with the Tibetan added in the reign of Khian lung (1 736--1 795) ; Csoma de Koros (Eng.) , Calcutta, 1834, 4to: I. J. Schmidt (German), St Petersburg, 1 841, 4to: Id. (Russian), ib. 1843, 4to: Jaeschke (Eng.), London, 1870, 8vo, 160 pages: Id. (Germ.), Gnadau, 1 87 1, 658 pages: (Bhotanta), Schroeter, Serampore, 1826, 4to. Tungusian: Castren, St Peters- burg, 1856, 8vo, 632 pages. Uigur: Vambery, Innspruck, 1870, 4to. Yakut: Bohtlingk, ib. 1854, 4to, 2 vols. Yenissei Ostiak: Castren, ib. 1849, 8vo. AFRICA Egyptian. — Young (enchorial), London, 1830-1831, 8vo: Sharpe, London, 1837, 4to: Birch, London. 1838, 4to: Champollion (died March 4, 1832), Dictionnaire loyptien, Paris, 1841, 4to: Brugsch, Hieroglyphisch-Demotisches Worterbuch, Leipzig, 1867-1868, 4to, 4 vols. 1775 pages, nearly 4700 words, arranged according to the hieroglyphic alphabet of 28 letters : Pierret, Vocabulaire hierog., Paris, 1875, 8vo, containing also names of persons and places: Birch, in vol. v. pp. 337-580 of Bunsen's Egypt's Place, 2nd ed. London, 1867, &c. 8vo, 5010 words. Proper Names. — Brugsch, Berlin, 1851, 8vo, 726 names: Parthey, ib. 1864, 8vo, about 1500 names: Lieblein, Christiania, 1871, 8vo, about 3200 from hieroglyphic texts. Book of the Dead. — Id., Paris, 1875, i2mo. Coptic. — Veyssiere de la Croze, Oxon. 1775, 8vo: Rossi, Romae, 1807, 4to: Tattam, Oxon. 1855, 8vo: Peyron, 1835, 4to (the standard) : Parthey, Berolini, 1844, 8vo. Ethiopia. — Wemmer, Romae, 1638, 4to: Ludolf, London, 1661, 4to: Francof. ad M., 1699, fol.: Dillmann (Tigre appendix), Leipzig, 1863-1865, 4to, 828 pages. Amharic. — Ludolphus, Franc, ad Maenum, 1698, fol. : Isenberg, London, 1841, 4to, 442 pages. Tigre: Munzinger, Leipzig, 1865, 8vo: Beurmann, ib. 1868, 8vo. East Coast. — Dankali: Isenberg, London, 1840, i2mo. Calla: Krapf, London, 1842, 8vo: Tutschek, Miinchen, 1844, 8vo. Engu- tuk Iloigob: Erhardt, Ludwigsberg, 1857, 8vo. Kisuaheli: Vocabu- lary of the Soahili, Cambridge, U.S. 1845, 8vo: Steere, London, 1870, 8vo, about 5800 words. Kisuaheli, Kinika, Kikamba, Kipokono, Kikian, Kigalla: Krapf, Tubingen, 1850, 8vo. Malagasy.— Houtmann (Malaysche en Madagask Talen), Amst. 1603, 2nd ed. Matthysz, ib. 1680, 8vo: Huet de Froberville, Isle de France, fol. 2 vols.: Flacourt, Paris, 1658, 8vo: Challand (Southern), Isle de France, 1773, 4to: Freeman and Johns, London, 1835, 8vo, 2 vols.: Dalmont (Malgache, Salalave, et Betsimara), 1842, 8vo: Kessler, London, 1870, 8vo. Southern Africa, — Bleek, The Languages of Mozambique, London, 1856, 8vo. Kaffre: Bennie, Lovedale, 1826, i6mo: Aylifle, Graham's Town, 1846, i2mo: Appleyard, 1850, 8vo: Bleek, Bonn, 1853, 4to, 646 pages. Zulu-Kaffre: Perrin (Kaffre-Eng.), London, 1855, 24mo, 172 pages: Id. (Eng.-Kaffre), Pietermaritzburg, 1855, 241110, 227 pages: Id. (Eng.-Zulu), ib. 1865, l2mo, 226 pages: Dohne, Cape Town, 1857, 8vo, 428 pages: Colenso, Pietermaritz- burg, 1861, 8vo, 560 pages, about 8000 words. Hottentot: Bleek, Cape Town, 1857, 4to, 261 pages. Namaqua: Tindall, ib. 1852, 8vo: Vocabulary, Barmen, 1854, 8vo: Hahn, Leipzig, 1870, i2rr.o. Sechuana: Casalis, Paris, 1841, 8vo. Herero: Hahn, Berlin, 1857, 8vo, 207 pages, 4300 words. Western Africa. — Akra or Ga: Zimmermann, Stuttgart, 1858, 8vo, 690 pages. Ashanlee: Christaller (also Akra), Basel, 1874, 8vo, 299 pages. Bullom: Nylander, London, 1814, l2mo. Bunda or Angola: Cannecatim, Lisboa, 1804, 4to, 722 pages. Dualla Grammatical Elements, &c, Cameroons, 1855, 8vo. Efik or Old Calabar: Waddell, Old Calabar, 1846, i6mo, 126 pages; Edinb, 1849, 8vo, 95 pages. Eyo: Raban, London, 1830-1831, i2mo, 2 parts. Grebo: Vocabulary, Cape Palmas, 1837, 8vo; Dictionary, ib. 1839, 8vo, 119 pages. If a: Schlegel, Stuttgart, 1857, 8vo. Mpongue: De Lorme (Franc.-Pongoue), Paris, 1876, i2mo, 354 pages. Oji: Riis, Basel, 1854, 8v °> 28 4 pages. Sherbro': Schon, .s. a. et I. 8vo, written in 1839, 42 pages. Susu: Brunton, Edinburgh, 1802, 8vo, 145 pages. Vei: Koelle, London, 1854, 8vo, 266 pages. Wolof and Bambarra: Dard, Paris, 1825, 8vo. Wolof: Roger, ib. 1829, 8vo: Missionnaires de S. Esprit, Dakar, 1855, &c. l6mo. Faidherbe (French- Wolof, Poula and Soninke), St Louis, Sene- gambia, i860, l2mo. Ycruba: Crowther, London, 1843, 8vo; 1852, 298 pages: Vidal, ib. 1852, 8vo: Bowen, Washington, 1858, 4to. Central Africa. — Barth, Vocabularies. Gotha, i862-i866,4to. Bari: Mitterreutzner, Brixen, 1867, 8vo: Reinisch, Vienna, 1874, 8vo. Dinka; Mitterreutzner, Brixen, t 866, 8 vo. Haussa: Schon (Eng.), London, 1843, 8vo. Berber. — Venture de Paradis, Paris, 1844, 8vo: Brosselard, ib. 1844, 8yo: Delaporte, ib. 1844, 4to, by order of the Minister of War: Creusat, Frang.-Kabyle (Zouaoua), Alger, 1873, 8vo. Siwah: Minutoli, Berlin, 1827, 4to. AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA Australia. — New South Wales: Threlkeld (Lake Macquarie Language), Sydney, 1834, 8vo. Victoria: Bunce, Melbourne, 1856, l2mo, about 2200 words. South Australia: Williams, South Australia, 1839, 8vo: Teichelmann and Schiirmann, Adelaide, 1840, 8vo: Meyer, ib. 1843, 8vo. Murray River: Moorhouse, ib. 1846, 8vo. Parnkalla: Schiirmann, Adelaide, 1844, 8vo. Woolner District: Vocabulary, ib. 1869, i2mo. Western Australia: Sir George Grey, Perth, 1839, 4to; London, 1840, 8vo: Moore, ib. 1843 : Brady, Roma, 1845, 24mo, 8vo, 187 pages. Tasmania: Millegan, Tasmania, 1857. Polynesia. — Hale, Grammars and Vocabularies of all the Poly- nesian Languages, Philadelphia, 1846, 4to. Marquesas, Sandwich Gambier: Mosblech, Paris, 1843, 8vo. Hawaiian: Andrews, Vocabulary, Lahainaluna, 1636, 8vo: Id., Dictionary, Honolulu, 1865, 8vo, 575 pages, about 15,500 words. Marquesas: Pierquin, de Gembloux, Bourges, 1843, 8vo: Buschmann, Berlin, 1843, 8vo. Samoan: Dictionary, Samoa, 1862, 8vo. Tahitian: A Tahilian and English Dictionary, Tahiti, 1851, 8vo, 314 pages. Tonga: Rabone, Vavau, 1845, 8vo. Fijian: Hazlewood (Fiji-Eng.), Vewa.. 1^50, 200 DICTYOGENS— DIDACHE i2mo: Id. (Eng.-Fiji), ib. 1852, l2mo: Id., London, 1872, 8vo. Maori: Kendall, 1820, i2mo: Williams, Paihia, 1844, 8vo; 3rded. London, 1871, 8vo: Taylor, Auckland, 1870, i2mo. AMERICA North America.— Eskimo : Washington, London, 1850, 8vo: Petitot (Mackenzie and Anderson Rivers), Paris, 1876, 4to. Kinai: Radloff, St Petersburg, 1874, 4to. Greenland: Egede (Gr. Dan. Lat., 3 parts), Hafn, 1750, 8vo; 1760, Fabricius, Kjobenhavn, 1804, 4to. Hudson's Bay Indians: Bowrey, London, 1701, fol. Abnaki: Rasles, Cambridge, U.S., 1833, 4to. Chippewa: Baraga, Cincinnati, 1853, l2mo, 622 pages: Petitot, Paris, 1876, 4to, 455 pages. Massachusetts or Natick: Cotton, Cambridge, U.S. 1829, 8vo. Onondaga: Shea (French-Onon.), from a MS. (of 17th century), London, i860, 4to, 109 pages. Dacota: Riggs, New York, 1851, 4to, 424 pages:] Williamson (Eng. Dae), Santos Agency, Nebraska, l2mo, 139 pages. Mohawk: Bruyas, New York, 1863, 8vo. Hidatsa (Minnetarees, Cros Ventres of the Missouri): Matthews, ib. 1874, 8vo. Choctaw: Byington, ib. 1852, i6mo. Clallam and Lummi: Gibbs, ib. 1863, 8vo. Yakatna: Pandosy, translated by Gibbs and Shea, ib. 1862, 8vo. Chinook: Gibbs, New York, 1863, 4to. Chinook Jargon, the trade language of Oregon: Id., ib. 1863, 8vo. Tatche or Telame: Sitjar, ib. 1841, ovo. Mexico and Central America. — Tepehuan: Rinaldini, Mexico, 1743, 4to. Cora- Ortega, Mexico, 1732, 4to. Tarahumara: Steffel, Briinn, 1791, 8vo. Otomi: Carochi, Mexico, 1645, 4-to: Neve y Molina, ib. 1767, 8vo: Yepes, ib. 1826, 4to: Piccolomini, Roma, 1841, 8vo. Mexican or Aztec: Molina, Mexico, 1555, 4to; 1571, fol. 2 vols.: Arenas, ib. 1583; 1611, 8vo; 1683; 1725; 1793, i2mo: Biondelli, Milan, 1869, fol. Mexican, Tontonacan, and Huastecan: Olmos, Mexico, 1555-1560, 4to, 2 vols. Huastecan: Tapia Zenteno, ib. 1767, 4to, 128 pages. Opata or Tequima: Lombardo, ib. 1702, 4to. Tarasca: Gilbert!, ib. 1559, 4to: Lagunas, ib. 1574, 8vo. Mixtecan: Alvarado, Mexico, 1593, 4to. Zapoteca: Cordova, ib. 1578, Ato. Maya: Beltran de Santa Rosa Maria, ib. 1746, 4to; Merida de Yucatan, 1859, 4to, 250 pages: Brasseur de Bourbourg, Paris, 1874, 8vo, 745 pages. Qmche: Id. (also Cak- chiquel and Trutuhil dialects), ib. 1862, 8vo. South America. — Chibcha: Uricoechea, Paris, 1871, 8vo. Chayma: Tauste, Madrid, 1680, 4to: Yanguas, Burgos, 1683, 4to. Carib: Raymond, Auxerre, 1665-1666, 8vo. Galibi: D.[e]. L.[a] S.[auvage], Paris, 1763, 8vo. Tupi: Costa Rubim, Rio de Janeiro, 1853, 8vo: Silva Guimaraes, Bahia, 1854, 8vo: Diaz, Lipsia, 1858, l6mo. Guarani: Ruiz de Montoyo, Madrid, 1639, 4*0 ; 1640; 1722, 4to; ed. Platzmann, Leipzig, 1876, &c., 8vo, to be in 4 vols. 1850 pages. Moxa: Marban, Lima, 1701, 8vo. Lule: Machoni de Corderia, Madrid, 1732, i2mo. Quichua: Santo Thomas, Ciudad de los Reyes, 1586, 8vo: Torres Rubio, Sevilla, 1603, 8vo; Lima, 1609, 8vo; ed. Figueredo, Lima, 1754, 8vo; Holguin, Ciudad de los Reyes, 1608, 8vo : Tschudi, Wien, 1853, 8vo, 2 vols. : Markham, London, 1 864, 8vo : Lopez, Les Races A ryennes de Perou, Paris, 1 87 1 , 8vo, comparative vocabulary, pp. 345-421. Aymara: Bertonio, Chicuyto, 1612, 4to, 2 vols. Chileno: Valdivia (also Allentiac and Milcocayac), Lima, 1607, 8vo: Febres, ib. 1765, l2mo; ed. Hernandez y Caluza, Santiago, 1 846, 8vo, 2 vols. Tsonecan (Patagonian) : Schmid, Bristol, i860, l2mo. The above article incorporates the salient features of the 9th- edition article by the Rev. Ponsonby A. Lyons, and the ioth-edition article by Benjamin E. Smith. DICTYOGENS (Gr. blurvov, a net, and the termination -ytvr\s, produced), a botanical name proposed by John Lindley for a class including certain families of Monocotyledons which have net-veined leaves. The class was not generally recognized. DICTYS CRETENSIS, of Cnossus in Crete, the supposed com- panion of Idomeneus during the Trojan War, and author of a diary of its events. The MS. of this work, written in Phoenician characters, was said to have been found in his tomb (enclosed in a leaden box) at the time of an earthquake during the reign of Nero, by whose order it was translated into Greek. In the 4 th century a.d. a certain Lucius Septimius brought out Dictys Cretensis Ephemeris belli Trojani, which professed to be a Latin translation of the Greek version. Scholars were not agreed whether any Greek original really existed; but all doubt on the point was removed by the discovery of a fragment in Greek amongst the papyri found by B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt in 1905-1906. Possibly the Latin Ephemeris was the work of Septimius himself. Its chief interest lies in the fact that (together with Dares Phrygius's De excidio Trojae) it was the source from which the Homeric legends were introduced into the romantic literature of the middle ages. Best edition by F. Meister (1873), with short but useful introduc- tion and index of Latinity; see also G. Korting, Diktys und Dares (1874), with concise bibliography; H. Dunger, Die Sage vom tro- janischen Kriege in den Bearbeitungen des Mittelalters und ihren antiken Quellen (1869, with a literary genealogical table) ; E. Collilieux, tLtude sur Dictys de Crete et Dares de Phrygie (1887), with biblio- graphy; W. Greif, " Die mittelalterlichen Bearbeitungen der Tro- janersage," in E. M. Stengel's Ausgaben und Abhandlungen aus dem Gebiete der romanischen Philologie, No. 61 (1886, esp. sections 82, 83, 168-172); F. Colagrosso, " Ditte Cretese " in Atti della r : Accademia di Archeologia (Naples, 1897, vo '- '8, pt. ii. 2); F. Noack, " Der griechische Dictys," in Philologus, supp. vi. 403 ff . ; N. E. Griffin, Dares and Dictys, Introduction to the Study of the Medieval Versions of the Story of Troy (1907), DICUIL (fl. 825), Irish monastic scholar, grammarian and geographer. He was the author of the De mensura orbis terrae, finished in 825, which contains the earliest clear notice of a European discovery of and settlement in Iceland and the most definite Western reference to the old freshwater canal between the Nile and the Red Sea, finally blocked up in 767. In 795 (February 1 -August 1) Irish hermits had visited Iceland; on their return they reported the marvel of the perpetual day at midsummer in " Thule," where there was then " no darkness to hinder one from doing what one would." These eremites also navigated the sea north of Iceland on their first arrival, and found it ice-free for one day's sail, after which they came to the ice-wall. Relics of this, and perhaps of other Irish religious settlements, were found by the permanent Scandinavian colonists of Iceland in the 9th century. Of the old Egyptian freshwater canal Dicuil learnt from one " brother Fidelis," probably another Irish monk, who, on his way to Jerusalem, sailed along the " Nile " into the Red Sea — passing on his way the " Barns of Joseph " or Pyramids of Giza, which are well described. Dicuil's knowledge of the islands north and west of Britain is evidently intimate; his references to Irish exploration and colonization, and to (more recent) Scandinavian devastation of the same, as far as the Faeroes, are noteworthy, like his notice of the elephant sent by Harun al-Rashid (in 801) to Charles the Great, the most curious item in a political and diplomatic intercourse of high importance. Dicuil's reading was wide; he quotes from, or refers to, thirty Greek and Latin writers, including the classical Homer, Hecataeus, Herodotus, Thucydides, Virgil, Pliny and King Juba, the sub-classical Solinus, the patristic St Isidore and Orosius, and his contemporary the Irish poet Sedulius; — in particular, he professes to utilize the alleged surveys of the Roman world executed by order of Julius Caesar, Augustus and Theodosius (whether Theodosius the Great or Theodosius II. is uncertain). He probably did not know Greek; his references to Greek authors do not imply this. Though certainly Irish by birth, it has been conjectured (from his references to Sedulius and the caliph's elephant) that he was in later life in an Irish monastery in the Frankish empire. Letronne in- clines to identify him with Dicuil or Dichull, abbot of Pahlacht, born about 760. There are seven chief MSS. of the De mensura (Dicuil's tract on grammar is lost); of these the earliest and best are (1) Paris, National Library, Lat. 4806; (2) Dresden, Regius D. 182; both are of the 10th century. Three editions exist : (1) C. A. Walckenaer's, Paris, 1807; (2) A. Letronne's, Paris, 1814, best as to commentary; (3) G. Parthey's, Berlin, 1870, best as to text. See also C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography (London, 1897), i. 317-327, 522-523, 529; T. Wright, Biographia Britannica literaria, Anglo-Saxon Period (London, 1842), pp. 372-376. (C. R. B.) DIDACHE, THE, or Teaching of the {twelve) Apostles ,— the most important of the recent recoveries in the region of early Christian literature (see Apocryphal Literature). It was previously known by name from lists of canonical and extra- canonical books compiled by Eusebius and other writers. More- over, it had come to be suspected by several scholars that a lost book, variously entitled The Two Ways or The Judgment of Peter, had been freely used in a number of works, of which mention must presently be made. In 1882 a critical reconstruction of this book was made by Adam Krawutzcky with marvellous accuracy, as was shown when in the very next year the Greek bishop and metropolitan, Philotheus Bryennius, published The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles from the same manuscript from DIDACHE 20I which he had previously published the complete form of the Epistle of Clement. 1 TheDidache, as we now have it in the Greek, falls into two marked divisions: (a) a book of moral precepts, opening with the words, " There are two ways"; (b) a manual of church ordin- ances, linked on to the foregoing by the words, "Having first said all these things, baptize, &c." Each of these must be considered separately before we approach the question of the locality and date of the whole book in its present form. i. The Two Ways. — The author of the complete work, as we now have it, has modified the original Two Ways by inserting near the beginning a considerable section containing, among other matter, passages from the Sermon on the Mount, in which the language of St Matthew's Gospel is blended with that of St Luke's. He has also added at the close a few sentences, begin- ning, " If thou canst not bear (the whole yoke of the Lord), bear what thou canst " (vi. 2) ; and among minor changes he has introduced, in dealing with confession, reference to " the church " (iv. 14). No part of this matter is to be found in the following documents, which present us in varying degrees of accuracy with The Two Ways: (i.) the Epistle of Barnabas, chaps, xix., xx. (in which the order of the book has been much broken up, and a good deal has been omitted) ; (ii.) the Ecclesiastical Canons of the Holy Apostles, usually called the Apostolic Church Order, a book which presents a parallel to the Teaching, in so far as it consists first of a form of The Two Ways, and secondly of a number of church ordinances (here, however, as in the Syriac Didascalia, which gives about the same amount of The Two Ways, various sections are ascribed to individual apostles, e.g. " John said, There are two ways," &c); (iii.) a discourse of the Egyptian monk Schnudi (d. 451), preserved in Arabic (see Iselin, Texte u. Unters., 1895); (iv.) a Latin version, of which a fragment was published by 0. von Gebhardt in 1884, and the whole by J. Schlecht in 1900. When by the aid of this evidence The Two Ways is restored to us free of glosses, it has the appearance of being a Jewish manual which has been carried over into the use of the Christian church. This is of course only a probable inference; there is no prototype extant in Jewish literature, and, comparing the moral (non-doctrinal) instruction for Christian catechumens in Hermas, Shepherd (Mand. i.-ix.), no real need to assume one. There was a danger of admitting Gentile converts to the church on too easy moral terms; hence the need of such insistence on the ideal as in The Two Ways and the Mandates. The recent recovery of the Latin version is of singular interest, as showing that, even without the distinctively Christian additions and interpolations which our full form of the Teaching presents, it was circulating under the title Doctrina apostolorum. 2 2. The second part of our Teaching might be -called a church directory. It consists of precepts relating to church life, which are couched in the second person plural; whereas The Two Ways uses throughout the second person singular. It appears to be a composite work. First (vii. i-xi. 2) is a short sacramental manual intended for the use of local elders or presbyters, though such are not named, for they were not yet a distinctive order or clergy. This section was probably added to The Two Ways before the addition of the remainder. It orders baptism in the three- fold name, making a distinction as to waters which has Jewish parallels, and permitting a threefold pouring on the head, if sufficient water for immersion cannot be had. It prescribes a fast before baptism for the baptizer as well as the candidate. Fasts are to be kept on Wednesday and Friday, not Monday and Thursday, which are the fast days of " the hypocrites," i.e. by a perversion of the Lord's words, the Jews. " Neither pray ye as 1 The MS. was found in the Library of the Jerusalem Monastery of the Most Holy Sepulchre, in Phanar, the Greek quarter of Constantinople. It is a small octavo volume of 120 parchment leaves, written throughout by Leo, " notary and sinner," who finished his task on the I Ith of June 1 156. Besides The Didache and the Epistles of Clement it contains several spurious Ignatian epistles. 2 The word twelve had no place in the original title and was inserted when the original Didache or Teaching {e.g. The Two Ways) was combined with the church manual which mentions apostles outside of the twelve. It may be noted that the division of the Didache into thapters is due to Bryennius, that into verses to A. Harnack. the hypocrites; but as the Lord commanded in His Gospel." Then follows the Lord's Prayer, almost exactly as in St Matthew, with a brief doxology — " for Thine is the power and the glory forever." This is to be said three times a day. Next come three eucharistic prayers, the language of which is clearly marked off from that of the rest of the book, and shows parallels with the diction of St John's Gospel. They are probably founded on Jewish thanksgivings, and it is of interest to note that a portion of them is prescribed as a grace before meat in (pseudo-) Athanasius' De virginitate. A trace of them is found in one of the liturgical prayers of Serapion, bishop of Thmui, in Egypt, but they have left little mark on the liturgies of the church. As in Ignatius and other early writers, the eucharist, a real meal (x. 1) of a family character, is regarded as producing immortality (cf. " spiritual food and drink and eternal life "). None are to partake of it save those who have been " baptized in the name of the Lord " (an expression which is of interest in a document which prescribes the threefold formula). The prophets are not to be confined to these forms, but may " give thanks as much as they will." This appears to show that a prophet, if present, would naturally preside over the eucharist. The next section (xi. 3-xiii.) deals with the ministry of spiritual gifts as exercised by apostles, prophets and teachers. An apostle is to be " re- ceived as the Lord "; but he must follow the Gospel precepts, stay but one or two days, and take no money, but only bread enough for a day's journey. Here we have that wider use of the term " apostle " to which Lightfoot had already drawn attention. A prophet, on the contrary, may settle if he chooses, and in that case he is to receive tithes and first-fruits; " for they are your high priests." If he be once approved as a true prophet, his words and acts are not to be criticized; for this is the sin that shall not be forgiven. Next comes a section (xiv., xv.) reflecting a somewhat later development concerning fixed services and ministry; the desire for a stated service, and the need of regular provision for it, is leading to a new order of things. The eucharist is to be celebrated every Lord's Day, and preceded by confession of sins, " that your sacrifice may be pure ... for this is that sacrifice which was spoken of by the Lord, In every place and time to offer unto Me a pure sacrifice. Appoint therefore unto yourselves bishops and deacons, worthy of the Lord, men meek and uncovetous, and true and approved; for they also minister unto you the ministration of the prophets and teachers. Therefore despise them not; for they are your honoured ones, together with the prophets and teachers." This is an arrange- ment recommended by one who has tried it, and he reassures the old-fashioned believer who clings to the less formal regime (and whose protest was voiced in the Montanist movement) , that there will be no spiritual loss under the new system. The book closes (chap, xvi.) with exhortations to steadfastness in the last days, and to the coming of the " world-deceiver " or Antichrist, which will precede the coming of the Lord. This section is perhaps the actual utterance of a Christian prophet, and may be of earlier origin than the two preceding sections. 3. It will now be clear that indications of the locality and date of our present Teaching must be sought for only in the second part, and in the Christian interpolations in the first part. We have no ground for thinking that the second part ever existed independently as a separate book. The whole work was in the hands of the writer of the seventh book of the Apostolic Consti- tutions, who embodies almost every sentence of it, interspersing it with passages of Scripture, and modifying the precepts of the second part to suit a later (4th-century) stage of church develop- ment; this writer was also the interpolator of the Epistles of Ignatius, and belonged to the Syrian Church. Whether the second part was known to the writer of the Apostolic Church Order is not clear, as his only quotation of it comes from one of the eucharistic prayers. The allusions of early writers seem to point to Egypt, but their references are mostly to the first part, so that we must be careful how we argue from them as to the provenance of the book as a whole. Against Egypt has been urged the allusion in one of the eucharistic prayers to " corn upon the mountains." . This is found in the Prayer-book of Serapion 202 DIDACTIC POETRY (c. 350) but omitted in a later Egyptian prayer; the form as we have it in The Didache may have passed into Egypt with the authority of tradition which was afterwards weakened. The anti- Jewish tone of the second part suggests the neighbourhood of Jews, from whom the Christians were to be sharply dis- tinguished. Either Egypt or Syria would satisfy this condition, and in favour of Syria is the fact that the presbyterate there was to a late date regarded as a rank rather than an office. If we can connect the injunctions(vi. 3)concerning (abstinence from certain) food and that which is offered to idols with the old trouble that arose at Antioch (Acts xv. 1) and was legislated for by the Jerusalem council, we have additional support for the Syrian claim. But all that we can safely say as to locality is that the community here represented seems to have been isolated, and out of touch with the larger centres of Christian life. This last consideration helps us in discussing the question of date. For such an isolated community may have preserved primitive customs for some time after they had generally dis- appeared. Certainly the stage of development is an early one, as is shown, e.g., by the prominence of prophets, and the need that was felt for the vindication of the position of the bishops and deacons (there is no mention at all of presbyters); moreover, there is no reference to a canon of Scripture (though the written Gospel is expressly mentioned) or to a creed. On the other hand the " apostles " of the second part are obviously not " the twelve apostles " of the title; and the prophets seem in some instances to have proved unworthy of their high position. The ministry of enthusiasm which they represent is about to give way to the ministry of office, a transition which is reflected in the New Testament in the 3rd Epistle of John. Three of the Gospels have clearly been for some time in circulation; St Matthew's is used several times, and there are phrases which occur only in St Luke's, while St John's Gospel lies behind the eucharistic prayers which the writer has embodied in his work. There are no indications of any form of doctrinal heresy as needing rebuke; the warnings against false teaching are quite general. While the first part must be dated before the Epistle of Barnabas, i.e. before a.d. 90, it seems wisest not to place the complete work much earlier than a.d. 120, and there are passages which may well be later. A large literature has sprung up round The Didache since 1884. Harnack's edition in Texte u. Unters. vol. ii. (1884) is indispensable to the student; and his discussions in Altchristl. Litteratur and Chronologie give clear summaries of his work. Other editions of the text are those of F. X. Funk, Patres Apostolici, vol. i. (Tubingen, 1901); H. Lietzmann (Bonn, 1903; with Latin version). Dr J. E. Odgers has published an English translation with introduction and notes (London, 1906). Dr C. Taylor in 1886 drew attention to some important parallels in Jewish literature; his edition contains an English translation. Dr Rendel Harris published in 1887 a complete facsimile, and gathered a great store of patristic illustration. Text and translation will also be found in Lightfoot's Apostolic Fathers (ed. min.) The fullest critical treatment in English is by Dr Vernon Bartlet in the extra volume of Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; the most complete commentary on the text is by P. Drews in Hennecke's Handbuch zu den N.T. Apocryphen (1904). Other references to the literature may be found by consulting Harnack's Altchristl. Litteratur. DIDACTIC POETRY, that form of verse the aim of which is, less to excite the hearer by passion or move him by pathos, than to instruct his mind and improve his morals. The Greek word 8i8o.k.tik6s signifies a teacher, from the verb hibkantiv, and poetry of the class under discussion approaches us with the arts and graces of a schoolmaster. At no time was it found convenient to combine lyrical verse with instruction, and there- fore from the beginning of literature the didactic poets have chosen a form approaching the epical. Modern criticism, which discourages the epic, and is increasingly anxious to limit the word " poetry " to lyric, is inclined to exclude the term " didactic poetry " from our nomenclature, as a phrase absurd in itself. It is indeed more than probable that didactic verse is hopelessly obsolete. Definite information is now to be found in a thousand shapes, directly and boldly presented in clear and technical prose. No farmer, however elegant, will- any longer choose to study agriculture in hexameters, or even in Tusser's shambling metre. The sciences and the professions will not waste their time on methods of instruction which must, from their very nature, be artless, inexact and vague. But in the morning of the world, those who taught with authority might well believe that verse was the proper, nay, the only serious vehicle of their instruction. What they knew was extremely limited, and in its nature it was simple and straightforward; it had little technical subtlety; it constantly lapsed into the fabulous and the conjectural. Not only could what early sages knew, or guessed, about astronomy and medicine and geography be conveniently put into rolling verse, but, in the absence of all written books, this was the easiest way in which information could be made attractive to the ear and be retained by the memory. ' In the prehistoric dawn of Greek civilization there appear to have been three classes of poetry, to which the literature of Europe looks back as to its triple fountain-head. There were romantic epics, dealing with the adventures of gods and heroes; these Homer represents. There were mystic chants and religious odes, purely lyrical in character, of which the best Orphic Hymns must have been the type. And lastly there was a great body of verse occupied entirely with increasing the knowledge of citizens in useful branches of art and observation; these were the beginnings of didactic poetry, and we class them together under the dim name of Hesiod. It is impossible to date these earliest didactic poems, which nevertheless set the fashion of form which has been preserved ever since. The Works and Days, which passes as the direct masterpiece of Hesiod (q.v.), is the type of all the poetry which has had education as its aim. Hesiod is supposed to have been a tiller of the ground in a Boeotian village, who determined to enrich his neighbours' minds by putting his own ripe stores of useful information into sonorous metre. Historically examined, the legend of Hesiod becomes a shadow, but the substance of the poems attributed to him remains. The genuine parts of the Works and Days, which Professor Gilbert Murray has called " a slow, lowly, simple poem," deal with rules for agriculture. The Theogony is an annotated catalogue of the gods. Other poems attributed to Hesiod, but now lost, were on astronomy, on auguries by birds, on the character of the physical world ; still others seem to have been genealogies of famous women. All this mass of Boeotian verse was composed for educational purposes, in an age when even preposterous information was better than no knowledge at all. In slightly later times, as the Greek nation became better supplied with intellectual appliances, the stream of didactic poetry flowed more and more closely in one, and that a theological, channel. The great poem of Parmenides On Nature and those of Empedocles exist only in fragments, but enough remains to show that these poets carried on the didactic method in mythology. Cleostratus of Tenedos wrote an astronomical poem in the 6th century, and Periander a medical one in the 4th, but didactic poetry did not flourish again in Greece until the 3rd century, when Aratus, in the Alexandrian age, wrote his famous Phenomena, a poem about things seen in the heavens. Other later Greek didactic poets were Nicander, and perhaps Euphorion. It was from the hands of these Alexandrian writers that the genius of didactic poetry passed over to Rome, since, although it is possible that some of the lost works of the early republic, and in particular those of Ennius, may have possessed an educational character, the first and by far the greatest didactic Latin poet known to us is Lucretius. A highly finished translation by Cicero into Latin hexameters of the principal works of Aratus is believed to have drawn the attention of Lucretius to this school of Greek poetry, and it was not without reference to the Greeks, although in a more archaic and far purer taste, that he composed, in the 1st century before Christ, his magnificent De rerum natura. By universal consent, this is the noblest didactic poem in the literature of the world. It was intended to instruct man- kind in the interpretation and in the working of the system of philosophy revealed by Epicurus, which at that time was exciting the sympathetic attention of all classes of Roman society. What gave the poem of Lucretius its extraordinary interest, and what has prolonged and even increased its vitality, vas the imaginative and illustrative insight of the author, piercing and lighting up the DIDACTIC POETRY 203 recesses of human experience. On a lower intellectual level, but of a still greater technical excellence, was the Georgics of Virgil, a poem on the processes of agriculture, published about 30 B.C. The brilliant execution of this famous work has justly made it the type and unapproachable standard of all poetry which desires to impart useful information in the guise of exquisite literature. Himself once a farmer on the banks of the Mincio, Virgil, at the apex of his genius, set himself in his Campanian villa to recall whatever had been essential in the agricultural life of his boyish home, and the result, in spite of the ardours of the subject, was what J. W. Mackail has called " the most splendid literary pro- duction of the Empire." In the rest of surviving Latin didactic poetry, the influence and the imitation of Virgil and Lucretius are manifest. Manilius, turning again to Alexandria, produced a fine Astronomica towards the close of the reign of Augustus. Columella, regretting that Virgil had omitted to sing of gardens, composed a smooth poem on horticulture. Natural philosophy inspired Lucilius junior, of whom a didactic poem on Etna survives. Long afterwards, under Diocletian, a poet of Carthage, Nemesianus, wrote in the manner of Virgil the Cynegetica, a poem on hunting with dogs, which has had numerous imitations in later European literatures. These are the most important specimens of didactic poetry which ancient Rome has handed down to us. In Anglo-Saxon and early English poetic literature, and especially in the religious part of it, an element of didacticism is not to be overlooked. But it would be difficult to say that any- thing of importance was written in verse with the sole purpose of imparting information, until we reach the 16th century. Some of the later medieval allegories are didactic or nothing. The first poem, however, which we can in any reasonable way compare with the classic works of which we have been speaking is the Hundreth Pointes of Good Husbandrie, published in 1557 by Thomas Tusser; these humble Georgics aimed at a practical description of the whole art of English farming. Throughout the early part of the 17 th century, when our national poetry was in its most vivid and brilliant condition, the last thing a poet thought of doing was the setting down of scientific facts in rhyme. We come across, however, one or two writers who were as didactic as the age would permit them to be, Samuel Daniel with his philosophy, Fulke Greville, Lord Brooke with his " treatises " of war and monarchy. After the Restoration, as the lyrical element rapidly died out of English poetry, there was more and more room left for educational rhetoric in verse. The poems about prosody, founded upon Horace, and signed by John Sheffield, 3rd earl of Mulgrave (1648-1721), and Lord Roscommon, were among the earliest purely didactic verse-studies in English. John Philips deserves a certain pre-eminence, as his poem called Cyder, in 1706, set the fashion which lasted all down the 18th century, of writing precisely in verse about definite branches of industry or employment. None of the greater poets of the age of Anne quite succumbed to the practice^ but there is a very distinct flavour of the purely didactic about a great deal of the verse of Pope and Gay. In such productions as Gilbert West's (1703- 1756) Education, Dyer's Fleece, and Somerville's Chase, we see technical information put forward as the central aim of the poet. Instead of a passionate pleasure, or at least an uplifted enthusi- asm, being the poet's object, he frankly admits that, first and foremost, he has some facts about wool or dogs or schoolmasters which he wishes to bring home to his readers, and that, secondly, he consents to use verse, as brilliantly as he can, for the purpose of gilding the pill and attracting an unwilling attention. As we descend the 18th century, these works become more and more numerous, and more dry, especially when opposed by the de- scriptive and rural poets of the school of Thomson, the poet of The Seasons. But Thomson himself wrote a huge poem of Liberty (1732), for which we have no name if we must not call it didactic. Even Gray began, though he failed to finish, a work of this class, on The Alliance of Education and Government. These poems were discredited by the publication of The Sugar-Cane (1764), a long verse-treatise about the' cultivation of sugar by iegroes in the West Indies, by James Grainger (17 21- 1766), but, though liable to ridicule, such versified treatises continued to appear. Whether so great a writer as Cowper is to be counted among the didactic poets is a question on which readers of The Task may be divided; this poem belongs rather to the class of. descriptive poetry, but a strong didactic tendency is visible in parts of it. Perhaps the latest frankly educational poem which enjoyed a great popularity was The Course of Time by Robert Pollok (1798-1827), in which a system of Calvinistic divinity is laid down with severity and in the pomp of blank verse. This kind of literature had already been exposed, and discouraged, by the teaching of Wordsworth, who had insisted on the imperative necessity of charging all poetry with imagination and passion. Oddly enough, The Excursion of Wordsworth himself is perhaps the most didactic poem of the 19th century, but it must be acknowledged that his influence, in this direction, was saner than his practice. Since the days of Coleridge and Shelley it has been almost impossible to conceive a poet of any value com- posing in verse a work written with the purpose of inculcating useful information. The history of didactic poetry in France repeats, in great measure, but in drearier language, that of England. Boileau, like Pope, but with a more definite purpose as a teacher, offered instruction in his Art pottique and in his Epistles. But his doctrine was always literary, not purely educational. At the beginning of the 18th century, the younger Racine (1692-1763) wrote sermons in verse, and at the close of it the Abbe Delille (1738-1813) tried to imitate Virgil in poems about horticulture. Between these two there lies a vast mass of verse written for the indulgence of intellect rather than at the dictates of the heart; wherever this aims at increasing knowledge, it at once becomes - basely and flatly didactic. There is nothing in French literature of the transitional class that deserves mention beside The Task or The Excursion. During the century which preceded the Romantic revival of poetry in Germany, didactic verse was cultivated in that country on the lines of imitation of the French, but with a greater dryness and oh a lower level of utility. Modern German literature began with Martin Opitz (1507-1639) and the Silesian School, who were in their essence rhetorical and educational, and who gave their tone to German verse. Albrechtvon Haller (1708- 1777) brought a very considerable intellectual force to bear on his huge poems, The Origin of Evil, which was theological, and The Alps (1729), botanical and topographical. Johann Peter Uz (1720-1796) wrote a TheodicSe, which was very popular, and not without dignity. Johann Jacob Dusch (1725-1787) undertook to put The Sciences into the eight books of a great didactic poem. Tiedge (175 2-1840) was the last of the school; in a once-famous Urania, he sang of God and Immortality and Liberty. These German pieces were the most unswervingly didactic that any modern European literature has produced. There was hardly the pretence of introducing into them descriptions of natural beauty, as the English poets did, or of grace and wit like the French. The German poets simply poured into a lumbering mould of verse as much solid information and direct instruction as the form would hold. Didactic poetry has, in modern times, been antipathetic to the spirit of the Latin peoples, and neither Italian nor Spanish literature has produced a really notable work in this class. An examination of the poems, ancient and modern, which have been mentioned above, will show that from primitive times there have been two classes of poetic work to which the epithet didactic has been given. It is desirable to distinguish these a little more exactly. One is the pure instrument of teaching, the poetry which desires to impart all that it knows about the growing of cabbages or the prevention of disasters at sea, the revolution of the planets or the blessings of inoculation. This is didactic poetry proper, and this, it is almost certain, became irrevocably obsolete at the close of the 18th century. No future Virgil will give the world a second Georgics. But there is another species which it is very improbable that criticism has entirely dislodged; that is the poetry which combines, with philosophical instruction, an im- petus of imaginative movement, and a certain definite cultivation 204 DIDEROT of, fire and beauty. In hands so noble as those of Lucretius and Goethe this species of didactic poetry has enriched the world with durable masterpieces, and, although the circle of readers which will endure scientific disquisition in the bonds of verse grows narrower and narrower, it is probable that the great poet who is also a great thinker will now and again insist on being heard. In Sully-Prudhomme France has possessed an eminent writer whose methods are directly instructive, and both La Justice (1878) and Le Bonkeur (1888) are typically didactic poems. Perhaps future historians may name these as the latest of their class. , (E. G.) DIDEROT, DENIS (1713-1784), French man of letters and encyclopaedist, was born at Langres on the 5th of October 17 13. He was educated by the Jesuits, like most of those who after- wards became the bitterest enemies of Catholicism; and, when his education was at an end, he vexed his brave and worthy father's heart by turning away from respectable callings, like law or medicine, and throwing himself into the vagabond life of a bookseller's hack in Paris. An imprudent marriage (1743) did not better his position. His wife, Anne Toinette Champion, was a devout Catholic, but her piety did not restrain a narrow and fretful temper, and Diderot's domestic life was irregular and unhappy. He sought consolation for chagrins at home in attach- ments abroad, first with a Madame Puisieux, a fifth-rate female scribbler, and then with Sophie Voland, to whom he was constant for the rest of her life. His letters to her are among the most graphic of all the pictures that we have of the daily life of the philosophic circle in Paris. An interesting contrast may be made between the Bohemianism of the famous English literary set who supped at the Turk's Head with the Tory Johnson and the Conservative Burke for their oracles, and the Bohemianism of the French set who about the same time dined once a week at the baron D'Holbach's, to listen to the wild sallies and the inspiring declamations of Diderot. For Diderot was not a great writer; he stands out as a fertile, suggestive and daring thinker, and a prodigious and most eloquent talker. Diderot's earliest writings were of as little importance as Goldsmith's Enquiry into the State of Polite Learning or Burke's Abridgement of English History. He earned 100 crowns by translating Stanyan's History of Greece (1743); with two colleagues he produced a translation of James's Dictionary of Medicine (1 746-1 748) and about the same date he published a free rendering of Shaftesbury's Inquiry Concerning Virtue and Merit (1745), with some original notes of his own. With strange and characteristic versatility, he turned from ethical speculation to the composition of a volume of stories, the Bijoux indiscrets (1748), gross without liveliness, and impure without wit. In later years he repented of this shameless work, just as Boccaccio is said in the day of his grey hairs to have thought of the sprightli- ness of the Decameron with strong remorse. From tales Diderot went back to the more congenial region of philosophy. Between the morning of Good Friday and the evening of Easter Monday he wrote the Pensies philosophiques (1746), and he presently added to this a short complementary essay on the sufficiency of natural religion. The gist of these performances is to press the ordinary rationalistic objections to a supernatural revelation; but though Diderot did not at this time pass out into the wilderness beyond natural religion, yet there are signs that he accepted that less as a positive doctrine, resting on grounds of its own, than as a convenient point of attack against Christianity. In 1747 he wrote the Promenade du sceptique, a rather poor allegory — point- ing first to the extravagances of Catholicism; second, to the vanity of the pleasures of that world which is the rival of the church; and third, to the desperate and unfathomable- uncertainty of the philosophy which professes to be so high above both church and world. Diderot's next piece was what first introduced him to the world as an original thinker, his famous Lettre sur les aveugles (1749). The immediate object of this short but pithy writing was to show the dependence of men's ideas on their five senses. It considers the case of the intellect deprived of the aid of one of the senses; and in a second piece, published afterwards, Diderot considered the case of a similar deprivation in the deaf and dumb. The Lettre sur les sourds et muels, however, is substantially a digressive examination of some points in aesthetics. The philosophic significance of the two essays is in the advance they make towards the principle of Relativity. But what interested the militant philosophers of that day was an episodic application of the principle of relativity to the master-conception of God. What makes the Lettre sur les aveugles interesting is its presenta- tion, in a distinct though undigested form, of the modern theory of variability, and of survival by superior adaptation. It is worth noticing, too, as an illustration of the comprehensive freedom with which Diderot felt his way round any subject that he approached, that in this theoretic essay he suggests the possibility of teaching the blind to read through the sense of touch. If the Lettre sur les aveugles introduced Diderot into the worshipful company of the philosophers, it also introduced him to the penalties of philosophy. His speculation was too hardy for the authorities, and he was thrown into the prison of Vincennes. Here he remained for three months; then he was released, to enter upon the gigantic undertaking of his life. The bookseller Lebreton had applied to him with a project for the publication of a translation into French of Ephraim Chambers's Cyclopaedia, undertaken in the first instance by an Englishman, John Mills, and a German, Gottfried Sellius (for particulars see Encyclopaedia) . Diderot accepted the proposal, but in his busy and pregnant intelligence the scheme became transformed. Instead of a mere reproduction of Chambers, he persuaded the bookseller to enter upon a new work, which should collect under one roof all the active writers, all the new ideas, all the new knowledge, that were then moving the cultivated class to its depths, but still were comparatively ineffectual by reason of their dispersion. His enthusiasm infected the publishers; they collected a sufficient capital for a vaster enterprise than they had at first planned; D'Alembert was persuaded to become Diderot's colleague; the requisite permission was procured from the government; in 1750 an elaborate prospectus announced the project to a delighted public; and in 1751 the first volume was given to the world. The last of the letterpress was issued in 1765, but it was 1772 before the subscribers received the final volumes of the plates. These twenty years were to Diderot years not merely of incessant drudgery, but of harassing persecution, of sufferings from the cabals of enemies, and of injury from the desertion of friends. The ecclesiastical party detested the Encyclopaedia, in which they saw a rising stronghold for their philosophic enemies. By 1757 they could endure the sight no longer. The subscribers had grown from 2000 to 4000, and this was a right measure of the growth of the work in popular influence and power. To any one who turns over the pages of these re- doubtable volumes now, it seems surprising that their doctrines should have stirred such portentous alarm. There is no atheism, no overt attack on any of the cardinal mysteries of the faith, no direct denunciation even of the notorious abuses of the church. Yet we feel that the atmosphere of the book may well have been displeasing to authorities who had not yet learnt to encounter the modern spirit on equal terms. The Encyclopaedia takes for granted the justice of religious tolerance and speculative freedom. It asserts in distinct tones the democratic doctrine that it is the common people in a nation whose lot ought to be the main concern of the nation's government. From beginning to end it is one unbroken process of exaltation of scientific knowledge on the one hand, and pacific industry on the other. All these things were odious to the old governing classes of France; their spirit was absolutist, ecclesiastical and military. Perhaps the most alarming thought of all was the current belief that the Encyclo- paedia was the work of an organized band of conspirators against society, and that a pestilent doctrine was now made truly formidable by the confederation of its preachers into an open league. When the seventh volume appeared, it contained an article on " Geneva," written by D'Alembert. The writer contrived a panegyric on the pastors of Geneva, of which every word was a stinging reproach to the abbes and prelates of Versailles. At the same moment Helv&tius's book, L' Esprit, DIDEROT 205 appeared, and gave a still more profound and, let us add, a more reasonable shock to the ecclesiastical party. Authority could brook no more, and in 1759 the Encyclopaedia was formally suppressed. The decree, however, did not arrest the continuance of the work. The connivance of the authorities at the breach of their own official orders was common in those times of distracted government. The work went on, but with its difficulties in- creased by the necessity of being clandestine. And a worse thing than troublesome interference by the police now befell Diderot. D'Alembert, wearied of shifts and indignities, withdrew from the enterprise. Other powerful colleagues, Turgot among them, declined to contribute further to a book which had acquired an evil fame. Diderot was left to bring the task to an end as he best could. For seven years he laboured like a slave at the oar. He wrote several hundred articles, some of them very slight, but many of them most laborious, comprehensive and ample. He wore out his eyesight in correcting proofs, and he wearied his soul in bringing the manuscript of less competent contributors into decent shape. He spent his days in the workshops, mastering the processes of manufactures, and his nights in reproducing on paper what he had learnt during the day. And he was incessantly harassed all the time by alarms of a descent from the police. At the last moment, when his immense work was just drawing to an end, he encountered one last and crowning mortification: he discovered that the bookseller, fearing the displeasure of the government, had struck out from the proof sheets, after they had left Diderot's hands, all passages that he chose to think too hardy. The monument to which Diderot had given the labour of twenty long and oppressive years was irreparably mutilated and defaced. It is calculated that the average annual salary received by Diderot for his share in the Encyclopaedia was about £120 sterling. " And then to think," said Voltaire, " that an army contractor makes £800 in a day! " Although the Encyclopaedia was Diderot's monumental work, he is the author of a shower of dispersed pieces that sowed nearly every field of intellectual interest with new and fruitful ideas. We find no masterpiece, but only thoughts for masterpieces; no creation, but a criticism with the quality to inspire and direct creation. He wrote plays — Le Fils naturel (1757) and Le P'ere de famille (1758) — and they are very insipid performances in the sen- timental vein. But he accompanied them by essays on dramatic poetry, including especially the Paradoxe sur le comSdien, in which he announced the principles of a new drama, — the serious, domestic, bourgeois drama of real life, in opposition to the stilted conventions of the classic French stage. It was Diderot's lessons and example that gave a decisive bias to the dramatic taste of Lessing, whose plays, and his Hamburgische Dramaturgic (1768), mark so important an epoch in the history of the modern theatre. In the pictorial art, Diderot's criticisms are no less rich, fertile and wide in their ideas. His article on " Beauty " in the Encyclopaedia shows that he had mastered and passed beyond the metaphysical theories on the subject, and the Essai sur la peinlure was justly described by Goethe, who thought it worth translating, as " a magnificent work, which speaks even more helpfully to the poet than to the painter, though to the painter too it is as a blazing torch." Diderot's most intimate friend was Grimm, one of the conspicuous figures of the philosophic body. Grimm wrote news-letters to various high personages in Germany, reporting what was going on in the world of art and literature in Paris, then without a rival as the capital of the intellectual activity of Europe. Diderot helped his friend at one time and another between 1759 and 1779, by writing for him an account of the annual exhibitions of paintings. These Salons are among the most readable of all pieces of art criticism. They have a freshness, a reality, a life, which take their readers into a different world from the dry and conceited pedantries of the ordinary virtuoso. As has been said by Sainte-Beuve, they initiated the French into a new sentiment, and introduced people to the mystery and purport of colour by ideas. " Before Diderot," Madame Necker said, " I had never seen anything in pictures except dull and lifeless colours; it was his imagination that gave them relief and life, and it is almost a new sense for which I am indebted to his genius." Greuze was Diderot's favourite among contemporary artists, and it is easy to see why. Greuze's most characteristic pictures were the rendering in colour of the same sentiment of domestic virtue and the pathos of common life, which Diderot attempted with inferior success to represent upon the stage. For Diderot was above all things interested in the life of men, — not the abstract life of the race, but the incidents of individual character, the fortunes of a particular family, the relations of real and concrete motives in this or that special case. He delighted with the enthusiasm of a born casuist in curious puzzles of right and wrong, and in devising a conflict between the generalities of ethics and the conditions of an ingeniously contrived practical dilemma. Mostly his interest expressed itself in didactic and sympathetic form; in two, however, of the most remarkable of all his pieces, it is not sympathetic, but ironical. Jacques le fataliste (written in 1773, but not published until 1796) is in manner an imitation of Tristram Shandy and The Sentimental Journey. Few modern readers will find in it any true diversion. In spite of some excellent criticisms dispersed here and there, and in spite of one or two stories that are not without a certain effective realism, it must as a whole be pronounced savourless, forced, and as leaving unmoved those springs of laughter and of tears which are the common fountain of humour. Le Neveu de Rameau is a far superior performance. If there were any in- evitable compulsion to name a masterpiece for Diderot, one must select this singular " farce- tragedy." Its intention has been matter of dispute; whether it was designed to be merely a satire on contemporary manners, or a reduction of the theory of self- interest to an absurdity, or the application of an ironical clincher to the ethics of ordinary convention, or a mere setting for a discussion about music, or a vigorous dramatic sketch of a parasite and a human original. There is no dispute as to its curious literary flavour, its mixed qualities of pungency, bitter- ness, pity and, in places, unflinching shamelessness. Goethe's translation (1805) was the first introduction of Le Neveu de Rameau to the European public. After executing it, he gave back the original French manuscript to Schiller, from whom he had it. No authentic French copy of it appeared until the writer had been nearly forty years in his grave (1823). It would take several pages merely to contain the list of Diderot's miscellaneous pieces, from an infinitely graceful trifle like the Regrets sur ma vieille robe de chambre up to Le Reve de D' Alembert, where he plunges into the depths of the controversy as to the ultimate constitution of matter and the meaning of life. It is a mistake to set down Diderot for a coherent and systematic materialist. We ought to look upon him " as a philosopher in whom all the contradictions of the time strugglewith one another" (Rosenkranz). That is to say, he is critical and not dogmatic. There is no unity in Diderot, as there was in Voltaire or in Rousseau. Just as in cases of conduct he loves to make new ethical assumptions and argue them out as a professional sophist might have done, so in the speculative problems as to the organiza- tion of matter, the origin of life, the compatibility between physiological machinery and free will, he takes a certain stand- point, and follows it out more or less digressively to its conse- quences. He seizes a hypothesis and works it to its end, and this made him the inspirer in others of materialist doctrines which they held more definitely than he did. Just as Diderot could not attain to the concentration, the positiveness, the finality of aim needed for a masterpiece of literature, so he could not attain to those qualities in the way of dogma and system. Yet he drew at last to the conclusions of materialism, and con- tributed many of its most declamatory pages to the Systeme de la nature of his friend D'Holbach, — the very Bible of atheism, as some one styled it. All that he saw, if we reduce his opinions to formulae, was motion in space: "attraction and repulsion, the only truth." If matter produces life by spontaneous generation, and if man has no alternative but to obey the compulsion of nature, what remains for God to do? In proportion as these conclusions deepened in him, the more 2o6 DIDIUS SALVIUS JULIANUS— DIDON did Diderot turn for the hope of the race to virtue; in other words, to such a regulation of conduct and motive as shall make us tender, pitiful, simple, contented. Hence his one great literary- passion, his enthusiasm for Richardson, the English novelist. Hence, also, his deepening aversion for the political system of France, which makes the realization of a natural and con- tented domestic life so hard. Diderot had almost as much to say against society as even Rousseau himself. The difference between them was that Rousseau was a fervent theist. The atheism of the Holbachians, as he called Diderot's group, was intolerable to him; and this feeling, aided by certain private perversities of humour, led to a breach of what had once been an intimate friendship between Rousseau and Diderot (1757). Diderot was still alive when Rousseau's Confessions appeared, and he was so exasperated by Rousseau's stories about Grimm, then and always Diderot's intimate, that in 1782 he transformed a life of Seneca, thathe had written four years earlier, into an Essai sur les rtgnes de Claude et de Ntr'on (1778-1782), which is much less an account of Seneca than a vindication of Diderot and Grimm, and is one of the most rambling and inept productions in literature. As for the merits of the old quarrel between Rousseau and Diderot, we may agree with the latter, that too many sensible people would be in the wrong if Jean Jacques was in the right. Varied and incessant as was Diderot's mental activity, it was not of a kind to bring him riches. He secured none of the posts that were occasionally given to needy men of letters; he could not even obtain that bare official recognition of merit which was implied by being chosen a member of the Academy. The time came for him to provide a dower for his daughter, and he saw no other alternative than to sell his library. When the empress Catherine of Russia heard of his straits, she commissioned an agent in Paris to buy the library at a price equal to about £1000 of English money,and then handsomely requested the philosopher to retain the books in Paris until she required them, and to constitute himself her librarian, with a yearly salary. In 1773 Diderot started on an expedition to thank his imperial bene- factress in person, and he passed some months at St Petersburg.. The empress received him cordially. The strange pair passed their afternoons in disputes on a thousand points of high philosophy, and they debated with a vivacity and freedom not usual in courts. " Fi, done," said Catherine one day, when Diderot hinted that he argued with her at a disadvantage, " is there any difference among men?" Diderot returned home in 1774. Ten years remained to him, and he spent them in the industrious acquisition of new knowledge, in the composition of a host of fragmentary pieces, some of them mentioned above, and in luminous declamations with his friends. All accounts agree that Diderot was seen at his best in conversation. " He who only knows Diderot in his writings," says Marmontel, " does not know him at all. When he grew animated in talk, and allowed his thoughts to flow in all their abundance, then he became truly ravishing. In his writings he had not the art of ensemble; the first operation which orders and places everything was too slow and too painful to him." Diderot himself was conscious of the want of literary merit in his pieces. In truth he set no high value on what he had done. It is doubtful whether he was ever alive to the waste that circumstance and temperament together made of an intelligence from which, if it had been free to work system- atically, the world of thought had so much to hope. He was one of those simple, disinterested and intellectually sterling workers to whom their own personality is as nothing in presence of the vast subjects that engage the thoughts of their lives. He wrote what he found to write, and left the piece, as Carlyle has said, " on the waste of accident, with an ostrich-like indifference." When he heard one day that a collected edition of his works was in the press at Amsterdam, he greeted the news with " peals of laughter," so well did he know the haste and the little heed with which those works had been dashed off. Diderot died on the 30th of July 1784, six years after Voltaire and Rousseau, one year after his old colleague D'Alembert, and five years before D'Holbach, his host and intimate for a lifetime. Notwithstanding Diderot's peals of laughter at the thought, an elaborate and exhaustive collection of his writings in twenty stout volumes, edited by MM. Assezat and Tourneux, was com- pleted in 1875-1877. Authorities. — Studies on Diderot by Scherer (1880); by E. Faguet (1890); by Sainte-Beuve in the Causeries du lundi; by F. Brunetiere in the Etudes critiques, 2nd series, may be consulted. In English, Diderot has been the subject of a biography by John Morley [Viscount Morley of Blackburn] (1878). See also Karl Rosenkranz, Diderots Leben und Werke. (1866). For a discussion of the authenticity of the posthumous works of Diderot see R. Dominic in the Revue des deux mondes (October 15, 1902). (J. Mo.) DIDIUS SALVIUS JULIANUS, MARCUS, Roman emperor for two months (March 28-June 2) during the year a.d. 193. He was the grandson of the famous jurist Salvius Julianus (under Hadrian and the Antonines), and the son of a distinguished general, who might have ascended the throne after the death of Antoninus Pius, had not his loyalty to the ruling house prevented him. Didius filled several civil and military offices with dis- tinguished success, but subsequently abandoned himself to dissipation. On the death of Pertinax, the praetorian guards offered the throne to the highest bidder. Flavius Sulpicianus, the father-in-law of Pertinax and praefect of the city, had already made an offer; Didius, urged on by the members of his family, his freedmen and parasites, hurried to the praetorian camp to contend for the prize. He and Sulpicianus bid against each other, and finally the throne was knocked down to Didius. The senate and nobles professed their loyalty; but the people made no attempt to conceal their indignation at this insult to the state, and the armies of Britain, Syria and Illyricum broke out into open revolt. Septimius Severus, the commander of the Pannonian legions, was declared emperor and hastened by forced marches to Italy. Didius, abandoned by the praetorians, was condemned and executed by order of the senate, which at once acknowledged Severus. Authorities. — Dio Cassius lxxiii. 11-17, who was actually in Rome at the time; Aelius Spartianus, Didius Julianus; Julius Capitolinus, Pertinax; Herodian ii. ; Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, 19; Zosimus i. 7; Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chap. 5. DIDO, or Elissa, the reputed founder of Carthage (q.v.), in Africa, daughter of the Tyrian king Metten (Mutto, Methres, Belus), wife of Acerbas (more correctly Sicharbas; Sychaeus in Virgil), a priest of Hercules. Her husband having been slain by her brother Pygmalion, Dido fled to Cyprus, and thence to the coast of Africa, where she purchased from a local chieftain Iarbas a piece of land on which she built Carthage. The city soon began to prosper and Iarbas sought Dido's hand in marriage, threatening her with war in case of refusal. To escape from him, Dido constructed a funeral pile, on which she stabbed herself before the people (Justin xviii. 4-7). Virgil, in defiance of the usually accepted chronology, makes Dido a contemporary of Aeneas, with whom she fell in love after his landing in Africa, and attributes her suicide to her abandonment by him at the command of Jupiter (Aeneid, iv.). Dido was worshipped at Carthage as a divinity under the name of Caelestis, the Roman counterpart of Tanit, the tutelary goddess of Carthage. According to Timaeus, the oldest authority for the story, her name was Theiosso, in Phoenician Helissa, and she was called Dido from her wanderings, Dido being the Phoenician equivalent of TrKavTJTLS (Etymo- logicum Magnum, s.v.); some modern scholars, however, translate the name by " beloved." Timaeus makes no mention of Aeneas, who seems to have been introduced by Naevius in his Bellum Poenicum, followed by Ennius in his Annates. For the variations of the legend in earlier and later Latin authors, see O. Rossbach in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopddie, v. pt. 1 (1905) ; O. Meltzer's Geschichte der Karthager, i. (1879), and his article in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie. DIDON, HENRI (1840-1900), French Dominican, was born at Trouvet, Isere, on the 17 th of March 1840. He joined the Dominicans, under the influence of Lacordaire, in 1858, and completed his theological studies at the Minerva convent at Rome. The influence of Lacordaire was shown in the zeal dis- played by Didon in favour of a reconciliation between philosophy and science. In 1871 his fame had so much grown that he was chosen to deliver the funeral oration over the murdered arch- bishop of Paris, Monseigneur G. Darboy. He also delivered some DIDOT— DIDYMI 207 discourses at the church of St Jean de Beauvais in Paris on the relations between science and religion; but his utterances, especially on the question of divorce, were deemed suspicious by his superiors, and his intimacy with Claude Bernard the physi- ologist was disapproved. He was interdicted from preaching and sent into retirement at the convent of Corbara in Corsica. After eighteen months he emerged, and travelled in Germany, publish- ing an interesting work upon that country, entitled Les Allemands (English translation by R. Ledos de Beaufort, London, 1884). On his return to France in 1890 he produced his best known work, Jesus-Christ (2 vols., Paris), for which he had qualified himself by travel in the Holy Land. In the same year he became director of the College Albert-le- Grand at Arcueil, and founded three auxiliary institutions, Ecole Lacordaire, Ecole Laplace and Ecole St Dominique. He wrote, in addition, several works on educational questions, and augmented his fame as an eloquent preacher by discourses preached during Lent and Advent. He died at Toulouse on the 13 th of March 1900. See the biographies by J. de Romano (1891), and A. de Coulanges (Paris, 1900) ; and especially the work of Stanislas Reynaud, entitled Le Pere Didon, sa vie et son ceuvre (Paris, 1904). DIDOT, the name of a family of learned French printers and publishers. Francois Didot (1689-1757), founder of the family, was born at Paris. He began business as a bookseller and printer in 17 13, and among his undertakings was a collection of the travels of his friend the Abbe Prevost, in twenty volumes (1747). It was remarkable for its typographical perfection, and was adorned with many engravings and maps. Francois Ambroise Didot (1730-1804), son of Francois, made important improvements in type-founding, and was the first to attempt printing on vellum paper. Among the works which he published was the famous collection of French classics prepared by order of Louis XVI. for the education of the Dauphin, and the folio edition of L' Art de verifier les dates. Pierre Francois Didot (1732-1795), his brother, devoted much attention to the art of type-founding and to paper-making. Among the works which issued from his press was an edition in folio of the Imitatio Christi (1788). Henri Didot (1765-1852), son of Pierre Francois, is celebrated for his " microscopic " editions of various standard works, for which he engraved the type when nearly seventy years of age. He was also the engraver of the assignats issued by the Constituent and Legislative Assemblies and the Convention. Didot Saint-Leger, second son of Pierre Francois, was the inventor of the paper-making machine known in England as the Didot machine. Pierre Didot (1760-1853), eldest son of Francois Ambroise, is celebrated as the publisher of the beautiful " Louvre " editions of Virgil, Horace and Racine. The Racine, in three volumes folio, was pronounced in 1801 to be " the most perfect typographical production of all ages." Firmin Didot (1 764-1836), his brother, second son of; Francois Ambroise, sustained the reputation of the family both as printer and type- founder. He revived (if he did not invent — a distinction which in order of time belongs to William Ged) the process of stereotyp- ing, and coined its name, and he first used the process in his edition of Callet's Tables of Logarithms (1795), in which he secured an accuracy till then unattainable. He published stereotyped editions of French, English and Italian classics at a very low price. He was the author of two tragedies — La Reine de Portugal and La Mortd' Annibal; and he wrote metrical transla- tions from Virgil, Tyrtaeus and Theocritus. Ambroise Firmin Didot (1 790-1876) was his eldest son. After receiving a classical education, he spent three years in Greece and in the East; and on the retirement of his father in 1827 he undertook, in conjunction with his brother Hyacinthe, the direction of the publishing business. Their greatest undertaking was a new edition of the Thesaurus Graecae linguae of Henri Estienne, under the editorial care of the brothers Dindorf and M. Hase (9 vols., 1855-1859). Among the numerous important works published by the brothers, the 200 volumes forming the Bibliotheque des auteurs grecs, Biblioth'eque laline, and Bibliotheque .francaise deserve special mention. Ambroise Firmin Didot was the first to propose (1823) a subscription in favour of the Greeks, then in insurrection against Turkish tyranny. Besides a translation of Thucydides (1833), he wrote the articles "Estienne " in the Nouvelle Bio- graphie gitUrale, and " Typographic " in the Ency. mod., as well as Observations sur I'orthographie francaise (1867), &c. In 1875 he published a very learned and elaborate monograph on Aldus Manutius. His collection of MSS., the richest in France, was said to have been worth, at the time of his death, not less than 2,000,000 francs. DIDRON, ADOLPHE NAPOLEON (1806-1867), French archaeologist, was born at Hautvillers, in the department of Marne, on the 13th of March 1806. At first a student of law, he began in 1830, by the advice of Victor Hugo, a study of the Christian archaeology of the middle ages. After visiting and examining the principal churches, first of Normandy, then of central and southern France, he was on his return appointed by Guizot secretary to the Historical Committee of Arts and Monu- ments (1835); and in the following years he delivered several courses of lectures on Christian iconography at the Bibliotheque Royale. In 1839 he visited Greece for the purpose of examining the art of the Eastern Church, both in its buildings and its manuscripts. In 1844 he originated the Annates archeologiques, a periodical devoted to his favourite subject, which he edited until his death. In 1845 he established at Paris a special archaeo- logical library, and at the same time a manufactory of painted glass. In the same year he was admitted to the Legion of Honour. His most important work is the Iconographie chritienne, of which, however, the first portion only, Histoirede Dieu (1843), was published. It was translated into English by E. J. Millington. Among his other works may be mentioned the Manuel d'icono- graphie chritienne grecque et latine (1845), the Iconographie des chapiteaux du palais ducal de Venise (1857), and the Manuel des objets de bronze et d'orfhrerie (1859). He died on the 13th of November 1867. DIDYMI, or Didyma (mod. Hieronta), an ancient sanctuary of Apollo in Asia Minor situated in the territory of Miletus, from which it was distant about 10 m. S. and on the promontory Poseideion. It was sometimes called Branchidae from the name of its priestly caste which claimed descent from Branchus, a youth beloved by Apollo. As the seat of a famous oracle, the original temple attracted offerings from Pharaoh Necho (in whose army there was a contingent of Milesian mercenaries), and the Lydian Croesus, and was plundered by Darius of Persia. Xerxes finally sacked and burnt it (481 B.C.) and exiled the Branchidae to the far north-east of his empire. This exile was believed to be voluntary, the priests having betrayed their treasures to the Persian; and on this belief Alexander the Great acted 150 years- later, when, finding the descendants of the Branchidae established in a city beyond the Oxus, he ordered them to be exterminated for the sin of their fathers (328). The celebrated cult-statue of Apollo by Canachus, familiar to us from reproductions on Milesian coins, was also carried to Persia, there to remain till restored by Seleucus I. in 295, and the oracle ceased to speak for a century and a half. The Milesians were not able to undertake the re- building till about 332 B.C., when the oracle revived at the bidding of Alexander. The work proved too costly, and despite a special effort made by the Asian province nearly 400 years later, at the bidding of the emperor Caligula, the structure was never quite finished: but even as it was, Strabo ranked the Didymeum the greatest of Greek temples and Pliny placed it among the four most splendid and second only to the Artemisium at Ephesus. In point of fact it was a little smaller than the Samian Heraeum and the temple of Cybele at Sardis, and almost exactly the same- size as the Artemisium. The area covered by the platform measures roughly 360X160 ft. When Cyriac of Ancona visited the spot in 1446, it seems that the temple was still standing in great part, although the cella had been converted into a fortress by the Byzantines: but when the next European visitor, the Englishman Dr Pickering, arrived in 1673, it had collapsed. It is conjectured that the cause was the great earthquake of 1493. The Society of Dilettanti sent two expeditions to explore the ruins, the first in 1764 under Richard Chandler, the second in 181 2 under Sir Wm. Gell; and the French 208 DIDYMIUM— DIE " Rothschild Expedition " of 1873 under MM. 0. Rayet and A. Thomas sent a certain amount of architectural sculpture to the Louvre. But no excavation was attempted till MM. E. Pontremoli and B. Haussoullier were sent out by the French Schools of Rome and Athens in 1895. They cleared the western facade and the prodomos, and discovered inscriptions giving information about other parts which they left still buried. Finally the site was purchased by, and the French rights were ceded to, Dr Th. Wiegand, the German explorer of Miletus, who in 1905 began a thorough clearance of what is incomparably the finest temple ruin in Asia Minor. The temple was a decastyle peripteral structure of the Ionic order, standing on seven steps and possessing double rows of outer columns 60 ft. high, twenty-one in each row on the flanks. It is remarkable not only for its great size, but (inter alia) for (1) the rich ornament of its column bases, which show great variety of design; (2) its various developments of the Ionic capital, e.g. heads of gods, probably of Pergamene art, spring from the " eyes " of the volutes with bulls' heads between them; (3) the massive building two storeys high at least, which served below for prodomos, and above for a dispensary of oracles (xp>?ffM07pa(£ia mentioned in the inscriptions) and a treasury; two flights of stairs called " labyrinths " in the inscriptions, led up to these chambers; (4) the pylon and staircase at the west; (5) the frieze of Medusa heads and foliage. Two outer columns are still erect on the north-east flank, carrying their entablature, and one of the inner order stands on the south-west. The fact that the temple was never finished is evident from the state in which some bases still remain at the west. There were probably no pedi- mental sculptures. A sacred way led from the temple to the sea at Panormus, which was flanked with rows of archaic statues, ten of which were excavated and sent to the British Museum in 1858 by C. T. Newton. Fragments of architectural monuments, which once adorned this road, have also been found. Modern Hieronta is a large and growing Greek village, the only settlement within a radius of several miles. Its harbour is Kovella, distant about 2% m., and on the N. of the promontory. See Dilettanti Society, Ionian Antiquities, ii. (1821); C. T. Newton, Hist, of Discoveries, &c. (1862) and Travels in the Levant, ii. (1865); O. Rayet and A. Thomas, Milet et le Golfe Latmique (1877) ; E. Pontremoli and B. Haussoullier, Didymes (1904). (D. G. H.) DIDYMIUM (from the Gr. SlSvfios, twin), the name given to the supposed element isolated by C. G. Mosander from cerite (1839-1841). In 1879, however, Lecoq de Boisbaudran showed that Mosander's "didymium" contained samarium; while the residual " didymium," after removal of samarium, was split by Auer v. Welsbach (Monats. f. Chemie, 1885, 6, 477) into two components (known respectively as neodymium and praseodymium) by repeated fractional crystallization of the double nitrate of ammonium and didymium in nitric acid. Neodymium (Nd) forms the chief portion of the old " didymium. " Its salts are reddish violet in colour, and give a characteristic absorption spectrum. It forms oxides of composition Nd 2 C<3 and Nd 2 05, the latter being obtained by ignition of the nitrate (B. Brauner). The atomic weight of neodymium is 143-6 (B. Brauner, Proc. Chem. Soc, 1897-1898, p. 70). Praseody- mium (Pr) forms oxides of composition Pr 2 03, Pr 2 06,xH 2 (B. Brauner), and Pri07. The peroxide, Pr-iOv, forms a dark brown powder, and is obtained by ignition of the oxalate or nitrate. The sesquioxide, Pr 2 C>3, is obtained as a greenish white mass by the reduction of the peroxide. The salts of praseodymium are green in colour, and give a characteristic spark spectrum. The atomic weight of praseodymium is 140-5. DIDYMUS (?309-?394), surnamed " the Blind," ecclesiastical writer of Alexandria, was born about the year 309. Although he became blind at the age of four, before he had learned to read; he succeeded in mastering the whole circle of the sciences then known; and on entering the service of the Church he was placed at the head of the Catechetical school in Alexandria, where he lived and worked till almost the close of the century. Among his pupils were Jerome and Rufinus. He was a loyal follower of Origen, though stoutly opposed to Arian and Macedonian teach- ing. Such of his writings as survive show a remarkable knowledge of scripture, and have distinct value as theological literature. Among them are the De Trinitale, De Spiritu Sancto (Jerome's Latin translation), Adversus MarJchaeos, and notes and exposi- tions of various books, especially the Psalms and the Catholic Epistles. See Migne, Patrol. Graec. xxxix.; O. Bardenhewer, Patrologie, pp. 290-293 (Freiburg, 1894). DIDYMUS CHALCENTERUS (c. 63 b.c.-a.d. 10), Greek scholar and grammarian, flourished in the time of Cicero and Augustus. His surname (Gr. XaKnivTtpos, brazen-bowelled) came from his indefatigable industry; he was said to have written so many books (more than 3500) that he was unable to recollect their names (/3i/3XtoXdSos). He lived and taught in Alexandria and Rome, where he became the friend of Varro. He is chiefly important as having introduced Alexandrian learning to the Romans. He was' a follower of the school of Aristarchus, upon whose recension of Homer he wrote a treatise, fragments of which have been preserved in the Venetian Scholia. He also wrote commentaries on many other Greek poets and prose authors. In his work on the lyric poets he treated of the various classes of poetry and their chief representatives, and his lists of words and phrases (used in tragedy and comedy and by orators and historians), of words of doubtful meaning, and of corrupt expressions, furnished the later grammarians with valuable material. His activity extended to all kinds of subjects : grammar (orthography, inflexions), proverbs, wonderful stories, the law-tablets (amoves) of Solon, stones, and different kinds of wood. His polemic against Cicero's De republica (Ammianus Marcellinus xxii. 16) provoked a reply from Suetonius. In spite of his stupendous industry, Didymus was little more than a compiler, of little critical judgment and doubtful accuracy, but he deserves recognition for having incorporated in his numerous writings the works of earlier critics and commentators. See M. W. Schmidt, De Didymo Chalcentero (1853) and Didymi Chalcenteri fragmenta (1854); a ' so F. Susemihl, Geschichte der griech. Literatur in der Alexandrinerzeit, ii. (1891); J. E. Sandys, History oj Classical Scholarship, i. (1906). DIE, a town of south-eastern France, capital of an arrondisse- ment in the department of Dr6me, 43 m. E.S.E. of Valence on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 3090. The town is situated in a plain enclosed by mountains on the right bank of the Dr6me below its confluence with the Meyrosse, which supplies power to some of the industries. The most interesting structures of Die are the old cathedral, with a porch of the nth century supported on granite columns from an ancient temple of Cybele; and the Porte St Marcel, a Roman gateway flanked by massive towers. The Roman remains also include the ruins of aqueducts and altars. Die is the seat of a sub-prefect, and of a tribunal of first instance. The manufactures are silk, furniture, cloth, lime and cement, and there are flour and saw mills. Trade is in timber, especially walnut, and in white wine known as clairette de Die. The mulberry is largely grown for the rearing of silkworms. Under the Romans, Die ( Dea Augusta Vocontiorum) was an important colony. It was formerly the seat of a bishopric, united to that of Valence from 1276 to 1687 and suppressed in 1790. Previous to the revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685 it had a Calvinistic university. DIE (Fr. dS, from Lat. datum, given), a word used in various senses, for a small cube of ivory, &c. (see Dice), for the engraved stamps used in coining money, &c, and various mechanical appliances in engineering. In architecture a " die " is the term used for the square base of a column, and it is applied also to the vertical face of a pedestal or podium. The fabrics known as " dice " take their name from the rectangular form of the figure. The original figures would probably be perfectly square, but to-day the same principle of weaving is applied, and the name dice is given to all figures of rectangular form. The different effects in the adjacent squares or rectangles are due to precisely the same reasons as those explained in connexion with the ground and the figure of damasks. Tht same weaves are used in both damasks and dices, but simpler DIEBITSCH— DIEPENBECK 209 11 weaves are generally employed for the commoner classes of the latter. The effect is, in every case, obtained by what are technic- ally called warp and weft float weaves. The illustration B shows the two double damask weaves arranged t© form a dice pat- tern, while A shows a similar pattern made from two four- thread twill weaves. C and D represent respectively the dis- position of the threads in A and B with the first pick, and the solid marks represent the floats of warp. The four squares, which are almost as pronounced in the cloth as those of a chess-board, may be made of any size by repeat- '" ing each weave for the amount of surface required. It is only in the finest cloths that the double damask weaves B are used for dice patterns, the single damask weaves and the twill weaves being employed to a greater extent. This class of pattern is largely employed for the production of table-cloths of lower and medium qualities. The term damask is also often applied to cloths of this character, and especially so when the figure is formed by rectangles of different sizes. DIEBITSCH, HANS KARL FRIEDRICH ANTON, count von Diebitsch and Narden, called by the Russians Ivan Ivanovich, Count Diebich-Zabalkansky (1785-1831), Russian field-marshal, was born in Silesia on the 13th of May 1785. He was educated at the Berlin cadet school, but by the desire of his father, a Prussian officer who had passed into the service of Russia, he also did the same in 1801. He served in the campaign of 1805, and was wounded at Austerlitz, fought at Eylau and Friedland, and after Friedland was promoted captain. During the next five years of peace he devoted himself to the study of military science, engaging once more in active service in the War of 181 2. He distinguished himself very greatly in Wittgenstein's campaign, and in particular at Polotzk (October 18 and 19), after which combat he was raised to the rank of major-general. In the latter part of the campaign he served against the Prussian contingent of General Yorck (von Wartenburg), with whom, through Clause witz, he negotiated the celebrated convention of Tauroggen, serving thereafter with Yorck in the early part of the War of Liberation. After the battle of Liitzen he served in Silesia and took part in negotiating the secret treaty of Reichenbach. Having distinguished himself at the battles of Dresden and Leipzig he was promoted lieutenant-general. At the crisis of the campaign of 1 814 he strongly urged the march of the allies on Paris; and after their entry the emperor Alexander conferred on him the order of St Alexander Nevsky. In 181 5 he attended the congress of Vienna, and was afterwards made adjutant-general to the emperor, with whom, as also with his successor Nicholas, he had great influence. By Nicholas he was created baron, and later count. In 1820 he had become chief of the general staff, and in 1825 he assisted in suppressing the St Petersburg imeutt. His greatest exploits were in the Russo-Turkish War of 1828- 1829, which, after a period of doubtful contest, was decided by Diebitsch's brilliant campaign of Adrianople; this won him the rank of field-marshal and the honorary title of Zabalkanski to commemorate his crossing of the Balkans. In 1830 he was appointed to command the great army destined to suppress the insurrection in Poland. He won the terrible battle of Grochow on the 25th of February, and was again victorious at Ostrolenka on the 26th of May, but soon afterwards he died of cholera (or by his own hand) at Klecksewo near Pultusk, on the 10th of June 1831. See Belmont (Schtimberg), Graf Diebitsch (Dresden, 1830); Sturmer, Der Tod des Grafen Diebitsch (Berlin, 1832); Bantych- Kamenski, Biographies of Russian Field-Marshals (in Russian, St Petersburg, 1841). DIEDENHOFEN (Fr. Thionville), a fortified town of Germany, in Alsace-Lorrc^ie, dist. Lorraine, on the Mosel, 22 m. N. from Metz by rail. Pop. (1905) 6047. It is a railway junction of some consequence, with cultivation of vines, fruit and vegetables, brewing, tanning, &c. Diedenhofen is an ancient Frank town (Theudonevilla, To tonis villa), in which imperial diets were held in the 8th century; was captured by Condein 1643 and fortified by Vauban; capitulated to the Prussians, after a severe bom- bardment, on the 25th of November 1870. DIEKIRCH, a small town in the grand duchy of Luxemburg, charmingly situated on the banks of the Sure. Pop. (1905) 3705. Its name is said to be derived from Dide or Dido, grand- daughter of Odin and niece of Thor. The mountain at the foot of which the town lies, now called Herrenberg, was formerly known as Thorenberg, or Thor's mountain. On the summit of this rock rises a perennial stream which flows down into the town under the name of Bellenflesschen. Diekirch was an important Roman station, and in the 14th century John of Luxemburg, the blind king of Bohemia, fortified it, surrounding the place with a castellated wall and a ditch supplied by the stream mentioned. It remained more for less fortified until the beginning of the 19th century when the French during their occupation levelled the old walls, and substituted the avenues of trees that now encircle the town. Diekirch is the administrative centre of one of the three provincial divisions of the grand duchy. It is visited during the summer by many thousand tourists and travellers from Holland, Belgium and Germany. DIELECTRIC, in electricity, a non-conductor of electricity; it is the same as insulator. The " dielectric constant " of a medium is its specific inductive capacity, and on the electromagnetic theory of light it equals the square of its refractive index for light of infinite wave length (see Electrostatics; Magneto-Optics). DIELMANN, FREDERICK (1847- ), American portrait and figure painter, was born at Hanover, Germany, on the 25th of December 1847. He was taken to the United States in early childhood; studied under Diez at the Royal Academy at Munich; was first an illustrator, and became a distinguished draughtsman and painter of genre pictures. His mural decora- tions and mosaic panels for the Congressional library, Washington , are notable. He was elected in 1899 president of the National Academy of Design. DIEMEN, ANTHONY VAN (1593-1645), Dutch admiral and governor-general of the East Indian settlements, was born at Kuilenburg in 1593. He was educated in commerce, and on entering the service of the East India Company speedily attained high rank. In 1631 he led a Dutch fleet from the Indies to Holland, and in 1636 he was raised to the governor-generalship. He came into conflict with the Portuguese, and took their possessions in Ceylon and Malacca from them. He greatly extended the commercial relationships of the Dutch, opening up trade with Tong-king, China and Japan. As an administrator also he showed ability, and the foundation of a Latin school and several churches in Batavia is to be ascribed to him. Exploring expeditions were sent to Australia under his auspices in 1636 and 1642, and Abel Tasman named after him (Van Diemen's Land) the island now called Tasmania. Van Diemen died at Batavia on the 19th of April 1645. DIEPENBECK, ABRAHAM VAN (1599-1675), Flemish painter, was born at Herzogenbusch, and studied painting at Antwerp, where he became one of Rubens's " hundred pupils." But he was not one of the cleverest of Rubens's followers, and he succeeded, at the best, in imitating the style and aping the peculiarities of his master. We see this in his earliest pictures — a portrait dated 1629 in the Munich Pinakothek, and a " Distribu- tion of Alms " of the same period in the same collection. Yet even at this time there were moments when Diepenbeck probably fancied that he might take another path. A solitary copperplate executed with his own hand in 1630 represents a peasant sitting under a tree holding the bridle of an ass, and this is a minute and finished specimen of the engraver's art which shows that the master might at one time have hoped to rival the animal draughts- men who flourished in the schools of Holland. However, large commissions now poured in upon him; he was asked for altar- pieces, subject-pieces and pagan allegories. He was tempted to try the profession of a glass-painter, and at last he gave up every 2IO DIEPPE^DIERX other occupation for the lucrative business of a draughtsman and designer for engravings. Most of Diepenbeck's important can- vases are in continental galleries. The best are the " Marriage of St Catherine " at Berlin and " Mary with Angels Wailing over the Dead Body of Christ " in the Belvedere at Vienna, the first a very fair specimen of the artist's skill, the second a picture of more energy and feeling than might be expected from one who knew more of the outer form than of the spirit of Rubens. Then we have thefine "Entombment" at Brunswick, and "St Francis Ador- ing the Sacrament " at the museum at Brussels, " Clelia and her Nymphs Flying from the Presence and Pursuit of Porsenna " in two examples at Berlin and Paris, and " Neptune and Amphitrite" at Dresden. In all these compositions the drawing and execution are after the fashion of Rubens, though inferior to Rubens in harmony of tone and force of contrasted light and shade. Occa- sionally a tendency may be observed to imitate the style of Van- dyck, for whom, in respect of pictures, Diepenbeck in his lifetime was frequently taken. But Diepenbeck spent much less of his leisure on canvases than on glass-painting. Though he failed to master the secrets of gorgeous tinting, which were lost, apparently for ever in the 16th century, he was constantly employed during the best years of his life in that branch of his profession. In 163 5 he finished forty scenes from the life of St Francis of Paula in the church of the Minimes at Antwerp. In 1644 he received payment for four windows in St Jacques of Antwerp, two of which are still preserved, and represent Virgins to whom Christ appears after the Resurrection. The windows ascribed to him at St Gudule of Brussels were executed from the cartoons of Theodore van Thulden. On the occasion of his matriculation at Antwerp in 1638-1639, Diepenbeck was registered in the guild of St Luke as a glass-painter. He resigned his membership in the Artist Club of the Violette in 1542, apparently because he felt hurt by a valua- tion then made of drawings furnished for copperplates to the engraver Pieter de Jode. The earliest record of his residence at Antwerp is that of his election to the brotherhood (Sodalitat) " of the Bachelors " in 1634. It is probable that before this time he had visited Rome and London, as noted in the work of Houbraken. In 1636 he was made a burgess of Antwerp. He married twice, ini637 and 1652. He died in December 1675, and was buried at St Jacques of Antwerp. DIEPPE, a seaport of northern France, capital of an arrondisse- ment in the department of Seine -Inferieure, on the English Channel, 38 m. N. of Rouen, and 105 m. N.W. of Paris by the Western railway. Pop. (1906) 22,120. It is situated at the mouth of the river Arques in a valley bordered on each side by steep white cliffs . The main part of the town lies to the west, and the fishing suburb of Le Pollet to the east of the river and harbour. The sea-front of Dieppe, which in summer attracts large numbers of visitors, consists of a pebbly beach backed by a handsome marine promenade. Dieppe has a modern aspect ; its streets are wide and its houses, in most cases, are built of brick. Two squares side by side and immediately to the west of the outer harbour form the nucleus of the town, the Place Nationale, over- looked by the statue of Admiral A. Duquesne, and the Place St Jacques, named after the beautiful Gothic church which stands in its centre. The Grande Rue, the busiest and handsomest street, leads westward from the Place Nationale. The church of St Jacques was founded in the 13th century, but consists in large measure of later workmanship and was in some portions restored in the 19th century. The castle, overlooking the beach from the summit of the western cliff, was erected in 1435- The church of Notre-Dame de Bon Secours on the opposite cliff, and the church of St Remy, of the 16th and 17th centuries, are other noteworthy buildings. A well-equipped casino stands at the west end of the sea-front. The public institutions include the sub- prefecture, tribunals of first instance and commerce, a chamber of -commerce, a communal college and a school of navigation. Dieppe has one of the safest and deepest harbours on the English Channel. A curved passage cut in .the bed of the Arques and protected by an eastern and a western jetty gives access to the outer harbour, which communicates at the east end by a lock- gate with the Bassin Duquesne and the Bassin Berigny, and at the west end by the New Channel, with an inner tidal harbour and two other basins. Vessels drawing 20 ft. can enter the new docks at neap tide. A dry-dock and a gridiron are included among the repairing facilities of the port. The harbour railway station is on the north-west quay of the outer harbour alongside which the steamers from Newhaven lie. The distance of Dieppe from Newhaven, with which there has long been daily communica- tion, is 64 m. The imports include silk and cotton goods, thread, oil- seeds, timber, coal and mineral oil; leading exports are wine, silk, woollen and cotton fabrics, vegetables and fruit and flint- pebbles. The average annual value of imports for the five years 1901-1905 was £4,916,000 (£4,301,000 for the years 1896-1900); the exports were valued at £9,206,000 (£7,023,000 for years 1896-1900). The industries comprise shipbuilding, cotton- spinning, steam-sawing, the manufacture of machinery, porcelain, briquettes, lace, and articles in ivory and bone, the production of which dates from the 15th century. There is also a tobacco factory of some importance. The fishermen of Le Pollet, to whom tradition ascribes a Venetian origin, are among the main providers of the Parisian market. The sea-bathing attracts many visitors in the summer. Two miles to the north-east of the town is the ancient camp known as the Cite de Limes, which perhaps furnished the nucleus of the population of Dieppe. It is suggested on the authority of its name, that Dieppe owed its origin to a band of Norman adventurers, who found its " diep " or inlet suitable for their ships, but it was unimportant till the latter half of the 1 2th century. Its first castle was probably built in 1 1 88 by Henry II. of England, and it was counted a place of some consideration when Philip Augustus attacked it in 1195. By Richard I. of England it was bestowed in n 97 on the arch- bishop of Rouen in return for certain territory in the neighbour- hood of the episcopal city. In 1339 it was plundered by the English, but it soon recovered from the blow, and in spite of the opposition of the lords of Hantot managed to surround itself with fortifications. Its commercial activity was already great, and it is believed that its seamen visited the coast of Guinea in 1339, and founded there a Petit Dieppe in 1365. The town was occupied by the English from 1420 to 1435. A siege undertaken in 1442 by John Talbot, first earl of Shrewsbury, was raised by the dauphin, afterwards Louis XL, and the day of the deliverance continued for centuries to be celebrated by a great procession and miracle plays. In the beginning of the 16th century Jean Parmentier, a native of the town, made voyages to Brazil and Sumatra; and a little later its merchant prince, Jacques Ango, was able to blockade the Portuguese fleet in the Tagus. Francis I. began improvements which were continued under his successor; Its inhabitants in great number embraced the reformed religion; and they were among the first to acknowledge Henry IV., who fought one of his great battles at the neighbouring village of Arques. Few of the cities of France suffered more from the revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685; and this blow was followed in 1694 by a terrible bombardment on the part of the English and Dutch. The town was rebuilt after the peace of Ryswick, but the decrease of its population and the deterioration of its port prevented the restoration of its commercial prosperity. During the 10th century it made rapid advances, partly owing to Marie Caroline, duchess of Berry, who brought it into fashion as a watering-place; and also because the establishment of railway communication with Paris gave an impetus to its trade. During the Franco-German War the town was occupied by the Germans from December 1870 till July 1871. See L. Vitet, Histoire de Dieppe (Paris, 1844) ; D. Asseline, Les Antiquites et chroniques de la ville de Dieppe, a 17th-century account published at Paris in 1874. DIERX, LEON (1838- ), French poet, was born in the island of Reunion in 1838. He came to Paris to study at the Central School of Arts and Manufactures, and subsequently settled there, taking up a post in the education office. He became a disciple of Leconte de Lisle and one of the most distinguished of the Parnassians. In the death of Stephane Mallarme in 1898 he was acclaimed "prince of poets" by " les jeunes." His works include: Poemes et poisies (1864); DIES, C. A.^-DIET 211 Levres closes (1867); Paroles d'unvaincu (1871) ; La Rencontre, a dramatic scene (1875) and Les Amants (1879). His Poisies completes (1872) were crowned by the French Academy. A com- plete edition of his -works, was published in 2 vols., 1894-1896. DIES, CHRISTOPH ALBERT (1755-1822), German painter, was born at Hanover, and learned the rudiments of art in his native place. For one year he studied in the academy of Dussel- dorf , and then he started at the age of twenty with thirty ducats in his pocket for Rome. There he lived a frugal life till 1796. Copying pictures, chiefly by Salvator Rosa, for a livelihood, his taste led him to draw and paint from nature in Tivoli, Albano and other picturesque places in. the vicinity of Rome. Naples, the birthplace of his favourite master, he visited more than once c or the same reasons. In this way he became a bold executant in water-colours and in oil, though he failed to acquire any origin- ality of his own. Lord Bristol, who encouraged him as a copyist, predicted that he would be a second Salvator Rosa. But Dies was not of the wood which makes original artists. Besides other disqualifications, he had necessities which forced him to give up the great career of an independent painter. David, then composing his Horatii at Rome, wished to take him to Paris. But Dies had reasons for not accepting the offer. He was courting a young Roman whom he subsequently married. Meanwhile he had made the acquaintance of Volpato, for whom he executed numerous drawings, and this no doubt suggested the plan, which he afterwards carried out, of publishing, in partnership with M6chan, Reinhardt and Frauenholz, the series of plates known as the Collection de vues piltoresques de I'ltalie, published in seventy-two sheets at Nuremberg in 1799. With so many irons in the fire Dies naturally lost the power of concentration. Other causes combined to affect his talent. In 1787 he swallowed by mistake three-quarters of an ounce of sugar of lead. His re- covery from this poison was slow and incomplete. He settled at Vienna, and lived vhere on the produce of his brush as a landscape painter, and on that of his pencil or graver as a draughtsman and etcher. But instead of getting better, his condition became worse, and he even lost the use of one of his hands. In this condition he turned from painting to music, and spent his leisure hours in the pleasures of authorship. He did not long survive, dying at Vienna in 1822, after long years of chronic suffering. From two pictures now in the Belvedere gallery, and from numerous engraved drawings from the neighbourhood of Tivoli, we gather that Dies was never destined to rise above a respectable mediocrity. He followed Salvator Rosa's example in imitating the manner of Claude Lorraine. But Salvator adapted the style of Claude, whilst Dies did no more than copy it. DIEST, a small town in the province of Brabant, Belgium, situated on the Demer at its junction with the Bever. Pop. (1904) 8383. It lies about half-way between Hasselt and Louvain, and is still one of the five fortified places in Belgium. It contains many breweries, and is famous for the excellence of its beer. DIESTERWEG, FRIEDRICH ADOLF WILHELM (1790-1866), German educationist, was born at Siegen on the 29th of October 1 790. Educated at Herborn and Tubingen universities, he took to the profession of teaching in 1811. In 1820 he was appointed director of the new school at Mors, where he put in practice the methods of Pestalozzi. In 1832 he was summoned to Berlin to direct the new state-schools seminary in that city. Here he proved himself a strong supporter of unsectarian religious teach- ing. In 1846 he established the Pestalozzi institution at Pankow, and the Pestalozzi societies for the support of teachers' widows and orphans. In 1850 he retired on a pension, but continued vigorously to advocate his educational views. In 1858 he was elected to the chamber of deputies as member for the city of Berlin, and voted with the Liberal opposition. He died in Berlin on the 7th of July 1866. Diesterweg was a voluminous writer on educational subjects, and was the author of various school text-books. DIET, a term used in two senses, (1) food or the regulation of feeding (see Dietary and Dietetics), (2) an assembly or council (Fr. diete; It. dieta; Low Lat. diaeta; Ger. Tag). We are here concerned only with this second sense. In modern usage, though in Scotland the term is still sometimes applied to any assembly or session, it is practically confined to the sense of an assembly of estates or of national or federal representatives. The origin of the word in this connotation is somewhat complicated. It is undoubtedly ultimately derived from the Greek diatTa (Lat. diaeta), which meant "mode of life " and thence " prescribed mode of life," the English " diet " or " regimen." This was connected with the verb Siacrav, in the sense of " to rule," " to regulate " ; compare the office of htMTr\ri\s at Athens, and dieteta, " umpire," in Late Latin. In both Greek and Latin, too, the word meant " a room," from which the transition to " a place of assembly " and so to " an assembly " would be easy. In the latter sense the word, however, actually occurs only in Low Latin, Du Cange (Glossarium,s.v.) deriving it from the late sense of " meal " or " feast," the Germans being accustomed to combine their political assemblies with feasting. It is clear, too, that the word diaeta early became confused with Lat. dies, " day " (Ger. Tag), " especially a set day, a day appointed for public business; whence, by extension, meeting for business, an assembly " (Skeat). Instances of this confusion are given by Du Cange, e.g. diaeta for dieta, " a day's journey " (also an obsolete sense of " diet " in English), and dieta for " the ordinary course of the church," i.e. " the daily office," which suggests the original sense of diaeta as " a pre- scribed mode of life." The word " diet " is now used in English for the Reichstag, " imperial diet " of the old Holy Roman Empire; for the Bundestag ," federal diet," of the former Germanic confederation; sometimes for the Reichstag of the modern German empire; for the Landtage, " territorial diets " of the constituent states of the German and Austrian empires; as well as for the former or existing federal or national assemblies of Switzerland, Hungary, Poland, &c. Although, however, the word is still sometimes used of all the above, the tendency is to confine it, so far as con- temporary assemblies are concerned, to those of subordinate importance. Thus " parliament " is often used of the German Reichstag or of the Russian Landtag, while the Landtag, e.g. of Styria, would always be rendered " diet." In what follows we confine ourselves to the diet of the Holy Roman Empire and its relation to its successors in modern Germany. The origin of the diet, or deliberative assembly, of the Holy Roman Empire must be sought in the placitum of the Frankish empire. This represented the tribal assembly of the Franks, meeting (originally in March, but after 755 in May, whence it is called the Campus Maii) partly for a military review on the eve of the summer campaign, partly for deliberation on important matters of politics and justice. By the side of this larger assembly, however, which contained in theory, if not in practice, the whole body of Franks available for war, there had developed, even before Carolingian times, a smaller body composed of the magnates of the Empire, both lay and ecclesiastical. The germ of this smaller body is to be found in the episcopal synods, which, afforced by the attendance of lay magnates, came to be used by the king for the settlement of national affairs. Under the Carolingians it was usual to combine the assembly of magnates with the generalis conventus of the " field of May," and it was in this inner assembly, rather than in the general body (whose approval was merely formal, and confined to matters momentous enough to be referred to a general vote), that the centre of power really lay. It is from the assembly of magnates that the diet of medieval Germany springs. The general assembly became meaningless and unnecessary, as the feudal array gradually superseded the old levy en masse, in which each freeman had been liable to service; and after the close of the 10th century it no longer existed. The imperial diet (Reichstag) of the middle ages might some- times contain representatives of Italy, the regnum Italicum; but it was practically always confined to the magnates of Germany, the regnum Teutonicum. Upon occasion a summons to the diet might be sent even to the knights, but the regular members were the princes ( Furs ten), both lay and ecclesiastical. In the 13th 212 DIETARY century the seven electors began to disengage themselves from the prince as a separate element, and the Golden Bull (1356) made their separation complete; from the 14th century onwards the nobles (both counts and other lords) are regarded as regular members; while after 1250 the imperial and episcopal towns often appear through their representatives. By the 14th century, therefore, the originally homogeneous diet of princes is already, at any rate practically if not yet in legal form, divided into three colleges — the electors, the princes and nobles, and the repre- sentatives of the towns (though, as we shall see, the latter can hardly be reckoned as regular members until the century of the Reformation). Under the Hohenstaufen it is still the rule that every member of the diet must attend personally, or lose his vote; at a later date the principle of representation by proxy, which eventually made the diet into a mere congress of envoys, was introduced. By the end of the 13th century the vote of the majority had come to be regarded as decisive; but in accordance with the strong sense of social distinctions which marks German history, the quality as well as the quantity of votes was weighed, and if the most powerful of the princes were agreed, the opinion of the lesser magnates was not consulted. The powers of the medieval diet extended to matters like legislation, the decision upon expeditions (especially the expeditio Romano), taxation and changes in the constitution of the principalities or the Empire. The election of the king, which was originally regarded as one of the powers of the diet, had passed to the electors by the middle of the 13th century. A new era in the history of the diet begins with the Reforma- tion. The division of the diet into three colleges becomes definite and precise; the right of the electors, for instance, to constitute a separate college is explicitly recognized as a matter of established custom in 1 544. The representatives of the towns now become regular members. In the 15th century they had only attended when special business, such as imperial reform or taxation, fell under discussion; in 1500, however, they were recognized as a separate and regular estate, though it was not until 1648 that they were recognized as equal to the other estates of the diet. The estate of the towns, or college of municipal representatives, was divided into two benches, the Rhenish and the Swabian. The estate of the princes and counts, which stood midway between the electors and the towns, also attained, in the years that followed the Reformation, its final organization. The vote of the great princes ceased to be personal, and began to be territorial. This had two results. The division of a single territory among the different sons of a family no longer, as of old, multiplied the voting power of the family; while in the opposite case, the union of various territories in the hands of a single person no longer meant the extinction of several votes, since the new owner was now allowed to give a vote for each of his terri- tories. The position of the counts and other lords, who joined with the princes in forming the middle estate, was finally fixed by the middle of the 17th century. While each of the princes enjoyed an individual vote, the counts and other lords were arranged in groups, each of which voted as a whole, though the whole of its vote (Kurialslimme) only counted as equal to the vote of a single prince (Virilstimme). There were six of these groups; but as the votes of the whole college of princes and counts (at any rate in the 18th century) numbered 100, they could exercise but little weight. The last era in the history of the diet may be said to open with the treaty of Westphalia (1648). The treaty acknowledged that Germany was no longer a unitary state, but a loose confederation of sovereign princes; and the diet accordingly ceased to bear the character of a national assembly, and became a mere congress of envoys. The " last diet " which issued a regular recess (Reichs- abschied — the term applied to the acta of the diet, as formally compiled and enunciated at its dissolution) was that of Regens- burg in 1654. The next diet, which met at Regensburg in 1663, never issued a recess, and was never dissolved; it continued in permanent session, as it were, till the dissolution of the Empire in 1806. This result was achieved by the process of turning the diet from an assembly of principals into a congress of envoys. The emperor was represented by two commissarii; the electors, princes and towns were similarly represented by their accredited agents. Some legislation was occasionally done by this body; a condusum imperii (so called in distinction from the old recessus imperii of the period before 1663) might slowly (very slowly — for the agents, imperfectly instructed, had constantly to refer matters back to their principals) be achieved; but it rested with the various princes to promulgate and enforce the conclusum in their territories, and they were sufficiently occupied in issuing and enforcing their own decrees. In practice the diet had nothing to do; and its members occupied themselves in " wrangling about chairs " — that is to say, in unending disputes about degrees and precedences. In the Germanic Confederation, which occupies the interval between the death of the Holy Roman Empire and the forma- tion of the North German Confederation (1815-1866), a diet {Bundestag) existed, which was modelled on the old diet of the 18th century. It was a standing congress of envoys at Frankfort-on- Main. Austria presided in the diet, which, in the earlier years of its history, served, under the influence of Metternich, as an organ for the suppression of Liberal opinion. In the North German Confederation (1867-1870) a new departure was made, which has been followed in the constitution of the present German empire. Two bodies were instituted — a Bundesrat, which resembles the old diet in being a congress of envoys sent by the sovereigns of the different states of the confederation, and a Reichstag, which bears the name of the old diet, but differs entirely in composition. The new Reichstag is a popular representative assembly, based on wide suffrage and elected by ballot; and, above all, it is an assembly representing, not the several states, but the whole Empire, which is divided for this purpose into electoral districts. Both as a popular assembly, and as an assembly which represents the whole of a united Germany, the new Reichstag goes back, one may almost say, beyond the diet even of the middle ages, to the days of the old Teutonic folk-moot. See R. Schroder, Lehrbuch der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte (1902), pp. 149, 508, 820, 880. Schroder gives a bibliography of monographs bearing on the history of the medieval diet. (E. Br.) DIETARY, in a general sense, a system or course of diet, in the sense of food; more particularly, such an allowance and regula- tion of food as that supplied to workhouses, the army and navy, prisons, &c. Lowest in the scale of such dietaries comes what is termed " bare existence " diet, administered to certain classes of the community who have a claim on their fellow-countrymen that their lives and health shall be preserved in statu quo { but nothing further. This applies particularly to the members of a temporarily famine-stricken community. Before the days of prison reform, too, the dietary scale of many prisons was to a certain extent penal, in that the food supplied to prisoners was barely sufficient for existence. Nowadays more humane principles apply; there is no longer the obvious injustice of applying the same scale of quantity and quality to all prisoners under varying circumstances of constitution and surroundings, and whether serving long or short periods of imprisonment. The system of dietary in force in the local and convictprisons of England and Wales is that recommended by the Home Office on the advice of a departmental committee. As to the local prison dietary, its application is based on (1) the principle of variation of diet with length of sentence; (2) the system of progressive dietary; (3) the distinction between hard labour diets and non-hard labour diets; (4) the differentiation of diet according to age and sex. There are three classes of diet, classes A, B and C. Class A diet is given to prisoners undergoing not more than seven days' imprisonment. The food is good and wholesome, but sufficiently plain and un- attractive, so as not to offer temptation to the loafer or mendicant. It is given in quantity sufficient to maintain health and strength during the single week. Prisoners sentenced to more than seven days and not more than fourteen days are given class A diet for the first seven days and class B for the remainder of the sentence. In most of the local prisons in England and Wales prisoners sentenced to hard labour received hard labour diet, although quite 60% were unable to perform the hardest forms of prison labour either through physical defect, age or infirmity. The departmental committee of 1899 in their report recommended that no distinction should be made between hard labour and non-hard labour diets. Class A diet is as follows: — Breakfast, Bread, 8 oz. daily (6 oz. for women and iuveniles) with 1 pint of gruel. Juveniles (males and females under DIETARY 213 sixteen years of age) get, in addition, J pint of milk. Dinner, 8 oz. of bread daily, with I pint of porridge on three days of the week, 8 oz. of potatoes (representing the vegetable element) on two other days, Table I. Men. Women. Juveniles. Breakfast. Daily :— Bread Gruel Milk .... 8 oz. ipt. 6 oz. ipt. 6 oz. ipt. ipt. Dinner. Sunday : — Bread . . . Potatoes . Cooked meat, pre- served by heat 6 oz. 8 „ 4 ., 6 oz. 8 „ 3 - Monday : — Bread . . . Potatoes . Beans Fat bacon 6 oz. 8 „ 10 „ 2 „ 6 oz. 8 „ 8 „ i „ Tuesday : — Bread . . Potatoes . Soup .... 6 oz. 8 „ ipt. 6 oz. & „ I Pt-. Wednesday :— • Bread Potatoes . Suet pudding 6 oz. 8 „ 10 „ 6 oz. 8 „ 8 „ Thursday : — Bread Potatoes . Cooked beef, without bone 6 oz. 8 „ 4 .. 6 oz. 8 „ 3 .. Friday : — Bread Potatoes . Soup .... 6 oz. 8 „ i pt. 6 oz. 8 „ i pt. Supper. . Saturday: — . Bread Potatoes . Suet pudding Daily:— Bread . . Porridge . Gruel Cocoa . ■ . 6 oz. 8 „ 10 „ 8 oz. ipt. 6 oz. 8 „ 8 „ 6 oz. ipt. 6 oz. ipt. and 8 oz. of suet pudding (representing the fatty element) on the other two days. Supper, the breakfast fare repeated. Class B diet, which is also given to (i) prisoners on remand or awaiting trial, (2) offenders of the 1st division who do not maintain themselves, (3) offenders of the 2nd division and (4) debtors, is as shown in Table I. Class C diet is class B amplified, and is given to those prisoners serving sentences of three months and over. The dietary of convict prisons, in which prisoners are all under long sentence, is divided into a diet for convicts employed at hard labour and a diet for convicts employed at sedentary, indoor and light labour. It will be found set forth in the Blue-book mentioned above. The sparest of all prison diets is called " punishment diet," and is administered for offences against the internal discipline of the prison. It is limited to a period of three days. It consists of 1 lb of bread and as much water as the prisoner chooses to drink. In French prisons the dietary is nearly two pounds weight of bread, with two meals of thin soup (breakfast and dinner) made from potatoes, beans or other vegetables, and on two days a week made from meat. In France the canteen system is in vogue, additional food, such as sausages, cheese, fruit, &c, may be obtained by the prisoner, according to the wages he receives for his labours. The dietary of Austrian prisons is I j lb of bread daily, a dinner of soup on four days of the week, and of meat on the other three days, with a supper of soup or vegetable stew. Additional food can be purchased by the prisoner out of his earnings. These dietaries may be taken as more or less typical of the ordinary prison fare in most civilized countries, though in some countries it may err on the side of severity, as in Sweden, prisoners being given only two meals a day, one at mid-day and one at seven p.m., porridge or gruel being the principal element in both meals. On the other hand, the prison dietaries of many of the United States prisons go to the other extreme, fresh fish, green vegetables, even coffee and fruit, figuring in the dietary. Another class of dietary is that given to paupers. In England, until 1900, almost every individual workhouse had its own special dietary, with the consequence that many erred on the side of scanti- ness and unsuitability, while others were too lavish. By an order of the Local Government Board of that year, acting on a report of a committee, all inmates of workhouses, with the exception of the sick, children under three years of age, and certain other special cases, are dieted in accordance with certain dietary tables as framed and settled by the board. The order contained a great number of different rations, it being left to the discretion of the guardians as to the final settlement of the tables. For adult inmates the dietary tables are for each sex respectively, two in number, one termed " plain diet " and the other " infirm diet." All male inmates certified as healthy able-bodied persons receive plain diet only. All inmates, however, in workhouses are kept employed according to their capacity and ability, and this is taken into consideration in giving allowances of food. For instance, for work with sustained exertion, such as stone- breaking, digging, &c, more food is given than for work without sustained exertion, such as wood-chopping, weeding or sewing. Table II. shows an example of a workhouse dietary. In the casual wards of workhouses the dietary is plainer, consisting of 8 oz. of bread, or 6 oz. of bread and one pint of gruel or broth for breakfast; the same for supper; for dinner 8 oz. of bread and i| oz. of cheese or 6 oz. of bread and one pint of soup. The American poor law system is based broadly on that of England, and the methods of relief are much the same. Each state, however, makes its own regulations, and there is considerable diversity in workhouse dietaries in consequence. The German system of poor relief is more methodical than those of England and America. The really deserving are treated L Table II. Breakfast. Dinner. Supper. s oa be 12 "C u •6 8 u CO CO « bO > I* Oh CO 8 oa J3 E 6 m % u +J O is ■9'- U •0 3 oa V 3 O J3 O u oa si en bread and | lb trade flour). 3 lb fresh meat. I lb fresh vegetables. I pint spirit. 4 oz. sugar. 3 oz. tea (or 1 oz. coffee for every J oz. tea). J oz, ordinary or soluble chocolate (or 1 oz. coffee), j oz. condensed milk. I oz. jam or marmalade. 4 oz. preserved meat on one day of the week in harbour, or on two days at sea. Mustard, pepper, vinegar, and salt as required. Substitute for soft bread when the latter is not available — 3 lb biscuit (new type) or 1 lb flour. Substitutes for fresh meat when the latter is not available : — (1) Salt pork day: — J lb salt pork. J lb split peas. Celery seed, J oz. to every 8 lb of split peas put into the coppers. 3 lb potatoes (or 1 oz. compressed vegetables). (2) Preserved meat day: — 6 oz. preserved meat. 8 oz. trade flour. \ f oz. refined suet > or 4 oz. rice. 2 oz. raisins ) I lb potatoes (or 1 oz. compressed vegetables). On shore establishments and depot ships J pt. fresh milk is issued in lieu of the f oz. of condensed milk. In the United States navy there is more liberality and variety of diet, the approximate daily cost of the rations supplied being is. 3d. per head. In the American mercantile marine, too, according to the scale sanctioned by act of Congress (December 21, 1898) for American ships, the seaman is better off than in the British merchant service. The scale is shown in Table III. Table III. On alternate days. Weekly Scale. Articles. Weekly Scale. Articles. 3i» Biscuits. f oz. Tea. 3* .- Salt beef. 21 ,, Sugar. 3 -, ,, pork. i|lb Molasses. ii ., Flour. 9 oz. Fruits, dried. 2 „ Meats, preserved. !pt. Pickles. IOj „ Bread, fresh (8 lb flour I M Vinegar. in lieu). 8 oz. Corn Meal. 1 ,, Fish, dried. 12 ,, Onions. 7 .. Potatoes or yams. 7 .. Lard. 1 ,, Tomatoes, preserved. 7 ., Butter. 2 Peas. i „ Mustard. 3 1 1, Calavances. 1 Pepper. 5 if Rice. 1 Salt. 5i oz. Coffee, green. In the British mercantile marine there is no scale of provisions prescribed by the Board of Trade ; there is, however, a traditional scale very generally adopted, having the sanction of custom only and seldom adhered to. The following dietary scale for steerage passengers, laid down in the 12th schedule of the Merchant Shipping Act 1894, is of interest. See Table IV. Certain substitutions may be made in this scale at the option of the master of any emigrant ship, provided that the substituted articles are set forth in the contract tickets of the steerage passengers. In the British army the soldier is fed partly by a system of co-opera- tion. He gets a free ration from government of 1 lb of bread and f lb of meat; in addition there is a messing allowance of 33d. per man per day. He is able to supplement his food by purchases from the canteen. Much depends on the individual management-in each regiment as to the satisfactory expenditure of the messing allowance: In some regiments an allowance is made from the canteen funds towards messing in addition to that granted by the government. The ordinary field ration of the British soldier is I \ lb of bread or 1 lb of biscuit; I lb of fresh, salt or preserved meat; 3 oz. of coffee; foz. of tea; 2 oz. of sugar; J oz. of. salt, *V oz. of pepper, the whole weighing something over 2 fb 3 oz. This cannot be looked On as a fixed ration, as it varies in different campaigns, according to the country into which the troops may be sent. The Prussian soldier during peace gets weekly from his canteen 11 lb I oz. of rye bread and not quite 2 § lb of meat. This is obviously insufficient, but under Table IV.— Weekly, per SloMte Adult. Scale A. Scale B. For voyages not ex- For voyages ex- ceeding 84 days ceeding 84 days for sailing ships for sailing ships or 50 days for or 50 days for steamships. steamships. lb oz. R> oz. Bread or biscuit, not in- ferior to navy biscuit 3 8 3 8 Wheaten flour 1 2 Oatmeal 1 8 1 Rice . 1 8 8 Peas . 1 8 1 8 Beef . 14 1 4 Pork 1 1 Butter 4 Potatoes 2 2 Sugar 1 1 Tea 2 2 Salt . 2 2 Pepper (white or black), ground oj o| Vinegar 1 gill 1 gill Preserved meat 1 Suet . 6 Raisins 8 Lime juice . 6 the conscription system it is reckoned that he will be able to make up the deficiency out of his own private means, or obtain charitable: contributions from his friends. In the French infantry of the line; each man during peace gets weekly 15 lb of bread, 3^ lb of meat, 2 § lb of haricot beans or other vegetables, with salt and pepper, and if oz. of brandy. . An Austrian under the same circumstances receives 13-9 lb of bread, 3 lb of flour and 3-3 lb of meat. The Russian conscript is allowed weekly : — Black bread .... 7 lb. Meat . Kvass (beer) Sour cabbage Barley Salts . Horse-radish Pepper Vinegar 7 lb. 7-7 quarts. 243 gills = I22J oz. 243 gills =1223 oz. 10J oz. 28 grains. 28 grains. Si gills = 263 oz. DIETEflCS, the science of diet, i.e. the food and nutrition of man in health and disease (see Nutrition). This article deals mainly with that part of the subject which has to do with the composition and nutritive values of foods and their adaptation to the use of people in health. The principal topics considered are: (1) Food and its functions; (2) Metabolism of matter and energy; (3) Composition of food materials; (4) Digestibility of food; (5) Fuel value of food; (6) Food consumption; (7) Quan- tities of nutrients needed; (8) Hygienic economy of food; (9) Pecuniary economy of food. 1. Food and its Functions.— For practical purposes, food may be denned as that which, when taken into the body, may be utilized for the formation and repair of body tissue, and the production of energy. More specifically, food meets the requirements of the body in several ways. It is used for the formation of the tissues and fluids of the body, and for the restoration of losses of sub- stance due to bodily activity. The potential energy of the food is converted into heat or muscular work or other forms of energy. In being thus utilized, food protects body substance or previously acquired nutritive material from consumption. When the amount DIETETICS 215 of food taken into the body is in excess of immediate needs, the surplus may be stored for future consumption. Ordinary food materials, such as meat, fish, eggs, vegetables, &c, consist of inedible materials, or refuse, e.g. bone of meat and fish, shell of eggs, rind and seed of vegetables; and edible material, as flesh of meat and fish, white and yolk of eggs, wheat flour, &c. The edible material is by no means a simple sub- stance, but consists of water, and some or ail of the compounds variously designated as food stuffs, proximate principles, nutritive ingredients or nutrients, which are classified as protein, fats, carbohydrates and mineral matters. These have various functions in the nourishment of the body. The refuse commonly contains compounds similar to those in the food from which it is derived, but since it cannot be eaten, it is usually considered as a non-nutrient. It is of importance chiefly in a consideration of the pecuniary economy of food. Water is also considered as a non-nutrient, because although it is a constituent of all the tissues and fluids of the body, the body may obtain the water it needs from that drunk; hence, that contained in the food materials is of no special significance as a nutrient. Mineral matters, such as sulphates, chlorides, phosphates and carbonates of sodium, potassium, calcium, &c, are found in different combinations and quantities in most food materials. These are used by the body in the formation of the various tissues, especially the skeletal and protective tissues, in digestion, and in metabolic processes within the body. They yield little or no energy, unless perhaps the very small amount involved in their chemical transformation. Protein l is a term used to designate the whole group of nitrogenous compounds of food except the nitrogenous fats. It includes the albuminoids, as albumin of egg-white, and of blood serum, myosin of meat (muscle), casein of milk, globulin of blood and of egg yolk, fibrin of blood, gluten of flour; the gelatinoids, as gelatin and allied substances of connective tissue, collagen of tendon, ossein of bone and the so-called extractives ( e.g. creatin) of meats; and the amids (e.g. asparagin) and allied compounds of vegetables and fruits. The albuminoids and gelatinoids, classed together as proteids, are the most important constituents of food, because they alone can supply the nitrogenous material necessary for the formation of the body tissues. For this purpose, the albuminoids are most valuable. Both groups of compounds, however, supply the body with energy, and the gelatinoids in being thus utilized protect the albuminoids from consumption for this purpose. When their supply in the food is in excess of the needs of the body, the surplus proteids may be converted into body fat and stored. The so-called extractives, which are the principal constituents of meat extract, beef tea and the like, act'principally as stimulants and appetizers. It has been believed that they serve neither to build tissue nor to yield energy, but recent investigations 2 indicate that creatin may be metabolized in the body. The fats of food include both the animal fats and the vegetable oils. The carbohydrates include such compounds as starches, sugars and the fibre of plants or cellulose, though the latter has but little value as food for man. The more important function of both these classes of nutrients is to supply energy to the body to meet its requirements above that which it may obtain from the proteids. It is not improbable that the atoms of their molecules as well as those from the proteids are built up into the proto- plasmic substance of the tissues. In this sense, these nutrients may be considered as being utilized also for the formation of tissue ; but they are rather the accessory ingredients, whereas the proteids are the essential ingredients for this purpose. The fats in the food in excess of the body requirements may be stored as body fat, and the surplus carbohydrates may also be converted into fat and stored. 1 The terms applied by different writers to these nitrogenous compounds are conflicting. For instance, the term " proteid " is sometimes used as protein is here used, and sometimes to designate the group here called albuminoids. The classification and terminology here followed are those tentatively recommended by the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations. 1 Folin, Festschrift fur Olaf Hammarsten, iii. (Upsala, 1906). To a certain extent, then, the nutrients of the food may substitute each other. All may be incorporated into the proto- plasmic structure of body tissue, though only the proteids can supply the essential nitrogenous ingredients; and apart from the portion of the proteid material that is indispensable for this purpose, all the nutrients are used as a source of energy. If the supply of energy in the food is not sufficient, the body will use its own proteid and fat for this purpose. The gelatinoids, fats and carbohydrates in being utilized for energy protect the body proteids from consumption. The fat stored in the body from the excess of food is a reserve of energy material, on which the body may draw when the quantity of energy in the food is insufficient for its immediate needs. What compounds are especially concerned in intellectual activity is not known. The belief that fish is especially rich in phosphorus and valuable as a brain food has no foundation in observed fact. 2. Metabolism of Matter and Energy. — The processes of nutri- tion thus consist largely of the transformation of food into body material and the conversion of the potential energy of both food and body material into the kinetic energy of heat and muscular work and other forms of energy. These various processes are generally designated by the term metabolism. The metabolism of matter in the body is governed largely by the needs of the body for energy. The science of nutrition, of which the present subject forms a part, is based on the principle that the transformations of matter and energy in the body occur in accordance with the laws of the conservation of matter and of energy. That the body can neither create nor destroy matter has long been universally accepted. It would seem that the transformation of energy must likewise be governed by the law of the conservation of energy; indeed there is every reason a priori to believe that it must; but the experimental difficulties in the way of absolute demonstration of the principle are considerable. For such demonstration it is necessary to prove that the income and expenditure of energy are equal. Apparatus and methods of inquiry devised in recent years, however, afford means for a comparison of the amounts of both matter and energy received and expended by the body, and from the results obtained in a large amount of such research, it seems probable that the law obtains in the living organism in general. The first attempt at such demonstration was made by M. Rubner 3 in 1894, experimenting with dogs doing no external muscular work. The income of energy (as heat) was computed, but the heat eliminated was measured. In the average of eight experiments continuing forty-five days, the two quantities agreed within 0-47 %, thus demonstrating what it was desired to prove — that the heat given off by the body came solely from the oxidation of food within it. Results in accordance with these were reported by Studenski 4 in 1897, and by Laulanie 5 in 1898. The most extensive and complete data yet available on the subject have been obtained by W. O. Atwater, F. G. Benedict and associates 6 in experiments with men in the respiration calori- meter, in which a subject may remain for several consecutive days and nights. These experiments involve actual weighing and analyses of the food and drink, and of the gaseous, liquid and solid excretory products; determinations of potential energy (heat of oxidation) of the oxid{zable material received and given off by the body (including estimation of the energy of the material gained or lost by the body) ; and measurements of the amounts of energy expended as heat and as external muscular work. By October 1906 eighty-eight experiments with fifteen different sub- jects had been completed. The separate experiments continued from two to thirteen days, making a total of over 270 days. 5 Ztschr. Biol. 30, 73. 4 In Russian. Cited in United States Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Bui. No. 45, A Digest of Metabolism Experiments, by W. O. Atwater and C. F. Langworthy. 6 Arch, physxol. norm, et path. (1894) 4. 6 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletins Nos. 63, 69, 109, 136, 175. For a description of the respira- tion calorimeter here mentioned see also publication No. 42 of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. 2l6 DIETETICS In some cases the subjects were at rest; in others they per- formed varying amounts of external muscular work on an apparatus by means of which the amount of work done was measured. In some cases they fasted, and in others they received body. The variations for individual days, and in the average for individual experiments as well, were in some cases appreciable, amounting to as much as 6 %, which is not strange in view of the uncertainties in physiological experimenting; but in the average Table \.— Percentage Composition of some Common Food Materials. Food Material. Refuse. Water. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Mineral Matter. Fuel Value per lb. % % % % % % Calories. Beef, fresh (medium fat) — Chuck i6- 3 52-6 15-5 15-0 o-8 910 Loin 13-3 52-5 • 16-1 17-5 09 1025 Ribs 20-8 43-8 13-9 21-2 0-7 H35 Round . 7-2 60-7 19-0 12-8 1-0 890 Shoulder i6-4 56-8 16-4 9-8 09 715 Beef, dried and smoked 4-7 537 26-4 6-9 8-9 790 Veal- Leg 14-2 6o-i 15-5 7.9 09 625 Loin 16-5 57-6 16-6 9-0 09 685 Breast 21-3 52-0 15-4 II-O 0-8 745 Mutton — Leg 18-4 5i-2 I5-I 147 o-8 890 Loin i6'0 42-0 13-5 28-3 07 1415 Flank . 9-9 39-0 13-8 36-9 06 1770 Pork- Loin 19-7 41-8 13-4 24-2 o-8 1245 Ham, fresh io-7 48-0 13-5 259 o-8 1320 Ham, smoked and s alted 13-6 34-8 14-2 33-4 4-2 1635 Fat, salt 7.9 1-9 86-2 3-9 3555 Bacon 7-7 17-4 91 62-2 4-1 2715 Lard, refined IOO-O 4100 Chicken 25-9 47-1 13-7 12-3 07 765 Turkey 22-7 42-4 1 6- 1 18-4 o-8 1060 Goose i 7 -6 38-5 13-4 29-8 07 1475 Eggs II-2 65-5 I3-I 9-3 0-9 635 Cod, fresh 2Q-Q 58-5 n-i 0-2 o-8 220 Cod, salted 24-9 40-2 16-0 0-4 18-5 325 Mackerel, fresh 447 40-4 10-2 4-2 07 37° Herring, smoked 44-4 19-2 20-5 8-8 7-4 755 Salmon, tinned 63-5 21-8 I2-I 2-6 9i5 Ovsters, shelled 88-3 6-0 1-3 3-3 i-i 225 Butter II-O 1-0 85-0 30 34i° Cheese 34-2 25-9 33-7 2-4 3-8 1885 Milk, whole 87-0 3-3 4-0 5-0 07 310 Milk, skimmed 905 3-4 o-3 5-1 07 165 Oatmeal . 7-7 16-7 7-3 66-2 2:1 1800 Corn (maize) meal 125 9-2 1-9 75-4 1-0 1635 Rye flour . 12-9 6-8 09 78-7 07 1620 Buckwheat flour 13-6 6-4 1-2 77-9 0-9 1 605 Rice 12-3 8-0 03 79-o 0-4 1620 Wheat flour, white J2-0 u-4 1-0 75-1 o-5 1635 Wheat flour, graham "•3 13-3 2-2 71-4 1-8 1645 Wheat, breakfast food 96 I2-I 1-8 75-2 i-3 1680 Wheat bread, white . 35-3 92 1-3 53-1 i-i 1200 Wheat bread, graham 35-7 8-9 i-8 52-i 1-5 "95 Rye bread 35-7 90 06 53-2 1-5 1170 Biscuit (crackers) 6-8 9.7 I2-I 69-7 i-7 1925 Macaroni . 10-3 13-4 0-9 74-i 1-3 1645 Sugar IOO-O 1750 Starch (corn starch) 90-0 1680 Beans, dried 12-6 22-5 i'-8 59-6 3-5 . 1520 Peas, dried 95 24-6 1-0 62-0 29 1565 Beets 20-0 70-0 i-3 0-1 77 0-9 160 Cabbage . i5-o 77-7 1-4 0-2 4-8 0-9 "5 Squash 500 44-2 o-7 0-2 4-5 0-4 100 Potatoes . 20-0 62-6 1-8 0-1 14-7 o-8 295 Sweet potatoes 200 55-2 1-4 o-6 21-9 09 440 Tomatoes . 94-3 09 0-4 39 o-5 100 Apples 25-0 63-3 o-3 0-3 io-8 o-3 190 Bananas 35-0 48-9 o-8 0-4 14-3 06 260 Grapes . 25-0 58-o 1-0 1-2 14-4 04 295 Oranges . • . 27-0 63-4 o-6 0-1 8-5 0-4 150 Strawberries 5-o 85-9 09 06 7-0 0-6 150 Almonds . 45-0 2-7 n-5 30-2 9-5 i-i 1515 Brazil nuts 49-6 2-6 8-6 33-7 3-5 2-0 1485 Chestnuts . . i6'0 37-8 5-2 4-5 35-4 I-I 915 Walnuts ..... 58-1 1.0 69 26-6 6-8 0-6 1250 diets generally not far from sufficient to maintain nitrogen, and usually carbon, equilibrium in the body. In these experiments the amount of energy expended by the body as heat and as external muscular work measured in terms of heat agreed on the average very closely with the amount of heat that would be produced by the oxidation of all the matter metabolized in the of all the experiments the energy of the expenditure was above 99-9% of the energy of the income, — an agreement within one part in 1000. While these results do not absolutely prove the application of the law of the conservation of energy in the human body, they certainly approximate very closely to such demonstra- tion. It is of course possible that energy may have given off DIETETICS 217 from the body in other forms than heat and external muscular work. It is conceivable, for example, that intellectual activity may involve the transformation of physical energy, and that the energy involved may be eliminated in some form now unknown. But if the body did give off energy which was not measured in these experiments, the quantity must have been extremely small. It seems fair to infer from the results obtained that the meta- bolism of energy in the body occurred in conformity with the law of the conservation of energy. 3. Composition of Food Materials. — The composition of food is determined by chemical analyses, the results of which are conventionally expressed in terms of the nutritive ingredients previously described. As a result of an enormous amount of such investigation in recent years, the kinds and proportions of nutrients in our common sorts of food are well known. Average actually digested and absorbed. Thus, two foods may contain equal amounts of the same nutrient, but the one most easily digested will really be of most value to the body, because less effort is necessary to utilize it. Considerable study of this factor is being made, and much valuable information is accumulating, but it is of more especial importance in cases of disordered digestion. The digestibility of food in the sense of thoroughness of digestion, however, is of particular importance in the present discussion. Only that portion of the food that is digested and absorbed is available to the body for the building of tissue and the production of energy. Not all the food eaten is thus actually digested; undigested material is excreted in the faeces. The thoroughness of digestion is determined experimentally by weighing and analysing the food eaten and the faeces pertaining Table 11.— Coefficients of Digestibility (or Availability) of Nutrients in Different Classes of Food Materials. Kind of Food. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Kind of Food. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Meats % 98 % 98 % Corn meal % 80 % % 99 Fish .... 96 97 Wheat meals without bran 83 93 Poultry .... 96 97 Wheat meals with bran 75 92 EggS . . : 97 98 White bread 88 98 Dairy products 97 96 98 Entire wheat bread 82 94 Total animal food of Graham bread 76 90 mixed diet . . . 97 97 98 Rice .... 76 9i Potatoes . . . 73 98 Fruits and nuts 80 86 96 Beets, carrots, &c. . 72 97 Sugars and starches 98 Cabbage, lettuce, &c. 83 Total vegetable food of Legumes ... 78 90 95 mixed diet 85 90 97 Oatmeal .... 78 90 97 Total food of mixed diet . 92 95 97 values for percentage composition of some ordinary food materials are shown in Table I. (Table I. also includes figures for fuel value.) It will be observed that different kinds of food materials vary widely in their proportions of nutrients. In general the animal foods contain the most protein and fats, and vegetable foods are rich in carbohydrates. The chief nutrient of lean meat and fish is protein ; but in medium fat meats the proportion of fat is as large as that of protein, and in the fatter meats it is larger. Cheese is rich in both protein and fat. Among the vegetable foods, dried beans and peas are especially rich in protein. The proportion in oatmeal is also fairly large, in wheat it is moderate, and in maize meal and rice it is rather small. Gats contain more oil than any of the common cereals, but in none of them is the proportion especially large. The most abundant nutrient in all the cereals is starch, which comprises from two-thirds to three-fourths or more of their total nutritive substance. Cotton-seed is rich in edible oil, and so are olives. Some of the nuts contain fairly large proportions of both protein and fat. The nutrient of potatoes is starch, present in fair proportion. Fruits contain considerable carbohydrates, chiefly sugar. Green vegetables are not of much account as sources of any of the nutrients or energy. Similar food materials from different sources may also differ considerably in composition. This is especially true of meats. Thus, the leaner portions from a fat animal may contain nearly as much fat as the fatter portions from a lean animal. The data here presented are largely those for American food products, but the available analyses of English food materials indicate that the latter differ but little from the former in composition. The analyses of meats produced in Europe imply that they commonly contain somewhat less fat and more water, and often more protein, than American meats. The meats of English production compare with the American more than with the European meats. Similar vegetable foods from the different countries do not differ so much in composition. 4. Digestibility or Availability of Food Materials. — The value of any food material for nutriment depends not merely upon the kinds and amounts of nutrients it contains, but also upon the ease and convenience with which the nutrients may be digested, and especially upon the proportion of the nutrients that will be to it. The difference between the corresponding ingredients of the two is commonly considered to represent the amounts of the ingredients digested. Expressed in percentages, these are called coefficients of digestibility. See Table II. Such a method is not strictly accurate, because the faeces do not consist entirely of undigested food but contain in addition to this the so-called metabolic products, which include the resi- duum of digestive juices not resorbed, fragments of intestinal epithelium, &c. Since there is as yet no satisfactory method of separating these constituents of the excreta, the actual digesti- bility of the food is not determined. It has been suggested that since these materials must originally come from food, they represent, when expressed in terms of food ingredients, the cost of digestion; hence that the values determined as above explained represent the portion of food available to the body for the build- ing of tissue and the yielding of energy, and what is commonly designated as digestibility should be called availability. Other writers retain the term " digestibility," but express the results as " apparent digestibility," until more knowledge regarding the metabolic products of the excreta is available and the actual digestibility may be ascertained. Experimental inquiry of this nature has been very active in recent years, especially in Europe, the United States and Japan; and the results of considerably over 1000 digestion experiments with single foods or combinations of food materials are available. These were mostly with men, but some were with women and with children. The larger part of these have been taken into account in the following estimations of the digestibility of the nutrients in different classes of food materials. The figures here shown are subject to revision as experimental data accumulate. They are not to be taken as exact measures of the digestibility (or availability) of every kind of food in each given class, but they probably represent fairly well the average digestibility of the classes of. food materials as ordinarily utilized in the mixed diet. 5. Fuel Value of Food. — The potential energy of food is commonly measured as the amount of heat evolved when the food is completely oxidized. In the laboratory this is determined by, burning the food in oxygen in a calorimeter. The results;, which are known as the heat of combustion of the food, are 2l8 DIETETICS expressed in calories, one calory being the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water one degree centigrade. But it is to be observed that this unit is Table III. — Estimates of Heats of Combustion and of Fuel Value of Nutrients in Ordinary Mixed Viet. Nutrients. Heat of Combustion. Fuel Value. One gram of protein One gram of fats . . One gram of carbohydrates Calories. 5-65 9.40 4-15 Calories. 4-°5 8-93 4-03 employed simply from convenience, and without implication as to what extent the energy of food is converted into heat in the body. The unit employed in the measurement of some other greater than that which the body will actually derive from it. In the first place, as previously shown, part of the food will not be digested and absorbed. In the second place, the nitrogenous compounds absorbed are not completely oxidized in the body, the residuum being excreted in the urine as urea and other bodies that are capable of further oxidation in the calorimeter. The total heat of combustion of the food eaten must therefore be diminished by the heat of combustion of the oxidizable material rejected by the body, to find what amount of energy is actually available to the organism for the production of work and heat. The amount thus determined is commonly known as the fuel value of food. Rubner's 1 commonly quoted estimates for the fuel value of the nutrients of mixed diet are, — for protein and carbohydrates 4-1, and for fats 9-3 calories per gram. According to the method of deduction, however, these factors were more applicable to digested than to total nutrients. Atwater 2 and associates have deduced, Table IV. — Quantities of Available Nutrients and Energy in Daily Food Consumption of Persons in Different Circumstances. Nutrients and Energy per Man per Day. Number of Studies. 4 Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Fuel Value. Persons with Active Work. Grams. Grams. Grams. Calories. English royal engineers .... 1 132 79 612 3835 Prussian machinists ..... 1 129 107 657 4265 Swedish mechanics ..... 5 174 105 693 459° Bavarian lumbermen . . 3 120 277 702 6015 American lumbermen .... 5 155 327 804 6745 Japanese rice cleaner .... 1 103 11 917 4415 Japanese jinrikshaw runner 1 137 22 1010 5050 Chinese farm labourers in California . 1 132 90 621 3980 American athletes . 19 178 192 525 4740 American working-men's families 13 156 226 694 5650 Persons with Ordinary Work. Bavarian mechanics ..... 11 112 32 553 3060 Bavarian farm labourers . 5 126 52 526 3200 Russian peasants ..... 119 3i 57i 3155 Prussian prisoners ..... 1 "7 28 620 332o Swedish mechanics ..... 6 123 75 507 3325 American working-men's families 69 105 135 426 3480 Persons with Light Work. American artisans' families . . 21 93 107 358 2880 English tailors (prisoners) 1 121 37 509 2970 German shoemakers .... 1 99 73 367 2629 Japanese prisoners ..... 1 43 6 444 2110 Professional and Business Men. Japanese professional men. 13 75 15 408 2190 Japanese students ..... 8 85 18 537 2800 Japanese military cadets .... 11 98 20 611 3185 German physicians ..... 2 121 90 317 2685 Swedish medical students .... 5 117 108 291 2725 Danish physicians ..... 1 124 133 242 2790 American professional and business men and students ...... 51 98 125 411 3285 Persons with Little or no Exercise. Prussian prisoners ..... 2 90 27 427 2400 Japanese prisoners ..... 1 36 6 360 1725 Inmates of home for aged — Germany 1 85 43 322 2097 Inmates of hospitals for insane — America . 49 80 86 353 2590 Persons in Destitute Circumstances. Prussian working people .... 13 63 43 372 2215 Italian mechanics . . . 5 70 36 384 2225 American working-men's families 11 69 75 263 2085 form of energy might be used instead, as, for example, the foot- ton, which represents the amount of energy necessary to raise one ton through one foot. The amount of energy which a given quantity of food will produce on complete oxidation outside the body, however, is from data much more extensive than those available to Rubner, factors for total nutrients somewhat lower than these, as shown 1 Ztschr. Biol. 21 (1885), p. 377. * Connecticut (Storrs) Agricultural Experiment Station Report (1899). 73- DIETETICS 219 in Table III. These estimates seem to represent the best average factors at present available, but are subject to revision as knowledge is extended. The heats of combustion of all the fats in an ordinary mixed diet would average about 9-40 calories per gram, but as only 05% of the fat would be available to the body, the fuel value per gram would be (9-40X0-95 = ) 8-93 calories. Similarly, the average heat of combustion of carbohydrates of the diet would be about 4-15 calories per gram, and as 97% of the total quantity is available to the body, the fuel value per gram would be 4-03. (It is commonly assumed that the resorbed fats and carbo- hydrates are completely oxidized in the body.) The heats of combustion of all the kinds of protein in the diet would average about 5-65 calories per gram. Since about 92% of the total protein would be available to the body, the potential energy of the available protein would be equivalent to (5-65X0-92 = ) 5-20 calories; but as the available protein is not completely oxidized allowance must be made for the potential energy of the incom- pletely oxidized residue. This is estimated as equivalent to 1 • 1 5 calories for the 0-92 gram of available protein; hence, the fuel value of the total protein is (5-20-1-15 = ) 4-05 calories per gram. Nutrients of the same class, but from different food materials, vary both in digestibility and in heat of combustion, and hence in fuel value. These factors are therefore not so applicable to the nutrients of the separate articles in a diet as to those of the diet as a whole. 6. Food Consumption. — Much information regarding the food consumption of people in various circumstances in different parts of the world has accumulated during the past twenty years, as a result of studies of actual dietaries in England, Germany, Italy, Russia, Sweden and elsewhere in Europe, in Japan and other oriental countries, and especially in the United States. These studies commonly consist in ascertaining the kinds, amounts and composition of the different food materials consumed by a group of persons during a given period and the number of meals taken by each member of the group, and computing the quantities of the different nutrients in the food on the basis of one man for one day. When the members of the group are of different age, sex, occupation, &c, account must be taken of the effect of these factors on consumption in estimating the value " per man." Men as a rule eat more than women under similar conditions, women more than children, and persons at active work more than those at sedentary occupation. The navvy, for example, who is constantly using up more nutritive material or body tissue to supply the energy required for his muscular work needs more protein and energy in his food than a bookkeeper who sits at his desk all day. In making allowance for these differences, the various indi- viduals are commonly compared with a man at moderately active muscular work, who is taken as unity. A man at hard muscular work is reckoned at 1-2 times such an individual; a man with light muscular work or a boy 15-16 years old, -9; a man at sedentary occupation, woman at moderately active muscular work, boy 13-14 or girl 15-16 years old, -8; woman at light work, boy 12 or girl 13-14 years old, -7; boy io-n or girl 10-12 years old, -6; child 6-9 years old, -5; child 2-5 years old, -4; child under 2 years, -3. These factors are by no means absolute or final, but are based in part upon experimental data and in part upon arbitrary assumption. The total number of dietary studies on record is very large, but not all of them are complete enough to furnish reliable data. Upwards of 1000 are sufficiently accurate to be included in statistical averages of food consumed by people in different circumstances, nearly half of which have been made in the United States in the past decade. The number of persons in the indi- vidual studies has ranged from one to several hundred. Some typical results are shown in Table IV. 7. Quantities of Nutrients needed. — For the proper nourish- ment of the body, the important problem is how much protein, fats and carbohydrates, or more simply, what amounts of protein and potential energy are needed under varying circumstances, to build and repair muscular and other tissues and to supply energy for muscular work, heat and other forms of energy. The answer to the problem is sought in the data obtained in dietary studies with considerable numbers of people, and in metabolism experiments with individuals in which the income and expenditure of the body are measured. From -the informa- tion thus derived,^different investigators have proposed so-called dietary standards, such as are shown in the table below, but unfortunately the experimental data are still insufficient for entirely trustworthy figures of this sort; hence the term " standard " as here used is misleading. The figures given are not to be considered as exact and final as that would suggest; they are merely tentative estimates of the average daily amounts of nutrients and energy required. (It is to be especially noted that these are available nutrients and fuel value rather than; total nutrients and energy.) Some of the values proposed by other investigators are slightly larger than these, and others are decidedly smaller, but these are the ones that have hitherto been most commonly accepted in Europe and America. Table V. — Standards for Dietaries. Available Nutrients and ' Energy per Man per Day. Carbo- Fuel Protein. Fat. hydrates. Value. Voit's Standards. Grams. 1 Grams. Grams. Calories. Man at hard work 133 95 437 3270 Man at moderate work 109 53 485 2965 Atwater's Standards. Man at very hard muscular work 161 2 2 5500 Man at hard muscular work . . . 138 4150 Man at moderately active muscular work "5 3400 Man at light to moderate muscular work 103 3050 Man at " sedentary " or woman at moder- ately active work 92 2700 Woman at light mus- cular work, or man without muscular exercise 83 2450 8. Hygienic Economy of Food. — For people in good health, there are two important rules to be observed in the regulation of the diet. One is to choose the foods that " agree " with them, and to avoid those which they cannot digest and assimilate without harm; and the other is to use such sorts and quantities of foods as will supply the kinds and amounts of nutrients needed by the body and yet to avoid burdening it with superfluous material to be disposed of at the cost of health and strength. As for the first-mentioned rule, it is practically impossible to give information that may be of more than general application. There are people who, because of some individual peculiarity, cannot use foods which for people in general are wholesome and nutritious. Some persons cannot endure milk, others suffer if they eat eggs, others have to eschew certain kinds of meat, or are made uncomfortable by fruit; but such cases are exceptions. Very little is known regarding the cause of these conditions. It is possible that in the metabolic processes to which the ingredients of the food are subjected in the body, or even during digestion before the substances are actually taken into the body, com- pounds may be formed that are in one way or another injurious. Whatever the cause may be, it is literally true in this sense that "what is one man's meat is another man's poison," and each must learn for himself what foods " agree " with him and what ones do not. But for the great majority of people in health, 1 One ounce equals 28-35 grams. 2 As the chief function of both fats and carbohydrates is to furnish energy, their exact proportion in the diet is of small account. The amount of either may vary largely according to taste, available supply, or other condition, as long as the total amount of both is sufficient, together with the protein to furnish the required energy. 220 DIETETICS suitable combinations of the ordinary sorts of wholesome food materials make a healthful diet. On the other hand, some foods are of particular value at times, aside from their use for nourish- ment. Fruits and green vegetables often benefit people greatly, not as nutriment merely, for they may have very little actual nutritive material, but because of fruit or vegetable acids or other substances which they contain, and which sometimes serve a most useful purpose. The proper observance of the second rule mentioned requires information regarding the demands of the body for food under different circumstances. To supply this information is one purpose of the effort to determine the so-called dietary standards Table VI. — Amounts of Nutrients and Energy Furnished for One Shilling in Food Materials at Ordinary Prices. Food Materials as Purchased. Prices per lb. One Shilling will buy Total Food Materials. Available Nutrients. Fuel Value. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. s. d. ft. lb. ft. lb. Calories. Beef, round ..... 10 8| 5 1-20 1-41 2-40 •22 •26 •44 ■14 •17 •29 1,155 1,235 2,105 Beef, sirloin ..... 10 9 8 5 1-20 1-33 1-50 2-40 •19 •21 •20 •22 1,225 1,360 Beef, rib ..... 9 7l 4^ 1-33 i-6o 2-67 •19 •19 ;: 1,200 Mutton, leg . . . ... 9 5 i-33 2-40 •20 •37 •20 ■35 1,245 2,245 Pork, spare-rib .... 9 7 i-33 171 •17 •22 •31 ■39 1,645 2,110 Pork, salt, fat .... 7 5 1-71 2-40 •03 ■04 1-40 1-97 • • 6,025 8,460 Pork, smoked ham . . 8 4i 1-50 2-67 •20 •36 •48 •85 2,435 4,330 Fresh cod ..... 4 3 3-00 4-00 •34 •45 •01 •01 710 945 Salt cod ...... 3i 10 3-43 I '20 ■54 •07 •07 •01 •04 1,370 275 Milk, whole, 4d. a qt. 3d. a qt. ,, 2d a qt. 2 if 1 6-oo 8-oo 12-00 •19 •26 •38 •23 •30 •46 •30 •40 •60 1,915 2,550 3,825 Milk, skimmed, 2d. a qt. . 1 I2-O0 •40 •03 ■61 2,085 Butter 1 6 1 3 1 •67 ■80 I -00 •01 •01 •01 •54 ■64 •81 2,320 2,770 3,46o Margarine ..... 4 3-00 2-37 10,080 Eggs, 2s. a dozen .... ,, 15s. a dozen .... ,, is. a dozen .... 1 4 1 8 ■75 I-OO 1-50 •10 •13 •19 •07 •09 •13 475 635 950 Cheese ...... 8 7 5 1-50 171 2-40 •38 •43 •60 •48 •55 •77 •04 •04 •06 2,865 3,265 4,585 Wheat bread ..... if 1067 •76 •13 5-57 12,421 Wheat flour ..... If ij 7-64 8-i6 •67 •72 •07 ■07 5-63 6-oi 12,110 12,935 Oatmeal ..... If l| 8-39 8-i6 i-ii 1-08 •54 •53 5-54 5-39 14.835 H,430 Rice if 6-86 •45 •02 5-27 10,795 Potatoes ..... of o\ 18-00 24-00 •25 •34 •02 •02 270 3 60 5,605 7,470 Beans ...... O 2 6-oo 1-05 ■10 3-47 8,960 Sugar I 1 1 6-86 6-86 12,760 DIETRICH, C. W. E.— DIETRICH OF BERN 221 mentioned above. It should be observed, however, that these are generally more applicable to the proper feeding of a group or class of people as a whole than for particular individuals in this class. The needs of individuals will vary largely from the average in accordance with the activity and individuality. Moreover, it is neither necessary nor desirable for the individual to follow any standard exactly from day to day. It is requisite only that the average supply shall be sufficient to meet the demands of the body during a given period. The cooking of food and other modes of preparing it for consumption have much to do with its nutritive value. Many materials which, owing to their mechanical condition or to some other cause, are not particularly desirable food materials in their natural state, are quite nutritious when cooked or other- wise prepared for consumption. It is also a matter of common experience that well-cooked food is wholesome and appetizing, whereas the same material poorly prepared is unpalatable. There are three chief purposes of cooking; the first is to change the mechanical condition of the food. Heating changes the structure of many food materials very materially, so that they may be more easily chewed and brought into a condition in which the digestive juices can act upon them more freely, and in this way probably influencing the ease and thoroughness of digestion. The second is to make the food more appetizing by improving the appearance or flavour or both. Food which is attractive to the eye and pleasing to the palate quickens the flow of saliva and other digestive juices and thus aids digestion. The third is to kill, by heat, disease germs, parasites or other dangerous organisms that may be contained in food. This is often a very important matter and applies to both animal and vegetable foods. Scrupulous neatness should always be observed in storing, handling and serving food. If ever cleanliness is desirable it must be in the things we eat, and every care should be taken to ensure it for the sake of health as well as of decency. Cleanliness in this connexion means not only absence of visible dirt, but freedom from undesirable bacteria and other minute organisms and from worms and other parasites. If food, raw or cooked, is kept in dirty places, peddled from dirty carts, prepared in dirty rooms and in dirty dishes, or exposed to foul air, disease germs and other offensive and dangerous substances may easily enter it. 9. Pecuniary Economy of Food. — Statistics of economy and of cost of living in Great Britain, Germany and the United States show that at least half, and commonly more, of the income of wage-earners and other people in moderate circumstances is expended for subsistence. The relatively large cost of food, and the important influence of diet upon health and strength, make a more widespread understanding of the subject of dietetics very desirable. The maxim that " the best is the cheapest " does not apply to food. The " best " food, in the sense of that which is the finest in appearance and flavour and which is sold at the highest price, is not generally the most economical. The price of food is not regulated largely by its value for nutriment. Its agreeableness to the palate or to the buyer's fancy is a large factor in determining the current demand and market price. There is no more nutriment in an ounce of protein or fat from the tender-loin of beef than from the round or shoulder. The protein of animal food has, however, some advantage over that of vegetable foods in that it is more thoroughly, and perhaps more easily, digested, for which reason it would be economical to pay somewhat more for the same quantity of nutritive material in the animal food. Furthermore, animal foods such as meats, fish and the like, gratify the palate as most vegetable foods do not. For persons in good health, foods in which the nutrients are the most expensive are like costly articles of adornment. People who can well afford them may be justified in buying them, but they are not economical. The most economical food is that which is at the same time most healthful and cheapest. The variations in the cost of the actual nutriment in different food materials may be illustrated by comparison of the amounts of nutrients obtained for a given sum in the materials as bought at ordinary market prices. This is done in Table VI., which show? the amounts of available nutrients contained in the quan- tities of different food materials that may be purchased for one shilling at prices common in England. When proper attention is given to the needs of the body for food and the relation between cost and nutritive value of food materials, it will be found that with care in the purchase and skill in the preparation of food, considerable control may be had over the expensiveness of a palatable, nutritious and healthful diet. Authorities. — Composition of Foods: — Konig, Chemie der menschlichen Nahrungs- und Genussmitiel; Atwater and Bryant, " Composition of American Food Materials," Bui. 28, Office of Experiment Stations, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Nutrition and Dietetics: — Armsby, Principles of Animal Nutrition; Lusk, The Science of Nutrition; Burney Yeo, Food in Health and Disease; Munk and Uffelmann, Die Ernahrung des gesunden und kranken Menschen ; Von Leyden, Erndhrungstherapie und Diatetik ; Dujardin- Beaumetz, Hygiene alimentaire; Hutchison, Food and Dietetics; R. H. Chittenden, Physiological Economy in Nutrition(igo^) , Nutrition of Man (1907) ; Atwater, " Chemistry and Economy of Food," Bui. 21, Office of Experiment Stations, U.S. Department of Agriculture. See also other Bulletins of the same office on composition of food, results of dietary studies, metabolism experiments, &c, in the United States. General Metabolism: — Voit, Physiologie des allgemeinen Stojf- wechsels und der Ernahrung; Hermann, Handbuch der Physiologie, Bd. vi. ; Von Noorden, Pathologie des Stoffwechsels; Schafer, Text- Book of Physiology, vol. i. ; Atwater and Langworthy, " Digest of Metabolism Experiments," Bull. 45, Office of Experiment Stations, U.S. Department of Agriculture. (W. O. A.; R. D. M.) DIETRICH, CHRISTIAN WILHELM ERNST (171 2-1 774), German painter, was born at Weimar, where he was brought up early to the profession of art by his father Johann George, then painter of miniatures to the court of the duke. Having been sent to Dresden to perfect himself under the care of Alexander Thiele, he had the good fortune to finish in two hours, at the age of eighteen, a picture which attracted the attention of the king of Saxony. Augustus II. was so pleased with Dietrich's readiness of hand that he gave him means to study abroad, and visit in succession the chief cities of Italy and the Netherlands. There he learnt to copy and to imitate masters of the previous century with a versatility truly surprising. Winckelmann, to whom he had been recommended, did not hesitate to call him the Raphael of landscape. Yet in this branch of his practice he merely imitated Salvator Rosa and Eveidingen. He was more successful in aping the style of Rembrandt, and numerous examples of this habit may be found in the galleries of St Petersburg, Vienna and Dresden. At Dresden, indeed, there are pictures acknowledged to be his, bearing the fictitious dates of 1636 and 1638, and the name of Rembrandt. Among Dietrich's cleverest reproductions we may account that of Ostade's manner in the " Itinerant Singers " at the National Gallery. His skill, in catching the character of the later masters of Holland is shown in candle- light scenes, such as the " Squirrel and the Peep-Show " at St Petersburg, where we are easily reminded of Godfried Schalcken. Dietrich tried every branch of art except portraits, painting Italian and Dutch views alternately with Scripture scenes and still life. In 1 741 he was appointed court painter to Augustus III. at Dresden, with an annual salary of 400 thalers (£60) , conditional on the production of four cabinet pictures a year. This condition, no doubt, accounts for the presence of fifty-two of the master's panels and canvases in one of the rooms at the Dresden museum. Dietrich, though popular and probably the busiest artist of his time, never produced anything of his own; and his imitations are necessarily inferior to the originals which he affected to copy. His best work is certainly that which he gave to engravings. A collection of these at the British Museum, produced on the general lines of earlier men, such as Ostade and Rembrandt, reveal both spirit and skill. Dietrich, after his return from the Peninsula, generally signed himself " Dietericij," and with this signature most of his extant pictures are inscribed. He died at Dresden, after he had successively filled the important appoint- ments of director of the school of painting at the Meissen porcelain factory and professor of the Dresden academy of arts. DIETRICH OF BERN, the name given in German popular poetry to Theodoric the Great. The legendary history of Dietrich differs so widely from the life of Theodoric that it has been suggested that the two were originally unconnected. Medieval 222 DIEZ, F. C. chroniclers, however, repeatedly asserted the identity of Dietrich and Theodoric, although the more critical noted the anachronisms involved in making Ermanaric (d. 376) and Attila (d. 453) con- temporary with Theodoric (b. 455). That the legend is based on vague historical reminiscences is proved by the retention of the names of Theodoric (Thiuda-reiks, Dietrich) and his father Theudemir (Dietmar), by Dietrich's connexion with Bern (Verona) and Raben (Ravenna) . Something of the Gothic king's character descended to Dietrich, familiarly called the Bemer, the favourite of German medieval saga heroes, although his story did not leave the same mark on later German literature as did that of the Nibelungs. The cycle of songs connected with his name in South Germany is partially preserved in the Heldenbuch (q.v.) in Dietrich's Flucht, the Rabenschlacht and Alpharts Tod; but it was reserved for an Icelandic author, writing in Norway in the 13th century, to compile, with many romantic additions, a consecutive account of Dietrich. In this Norse prose redaction, known as the Vilkina Saga, or more correctly the Thidrekssaga, is incorporated much extraneous matter from the Nibelungen and Wayland legends, in fact practically the whole of south German heroic tradition. There are traces of a form of the Dietrich legend in which he was represented as starting out from Byzantium, in accordance with historical tradition, for his conquest of Italy. But this early disappeared, and was superseded by the existing legend, in which, perhaps by an " epic fusion " with his father Theudemir, he was associated with Attila, and then by an easy transition with Ermanaric. Dietrich was driven from his kingdom of Bern by his uncle Ermanaric. After years of exile at the court of Attila he returned with a Hunnish army to Italy, and defeated Ermanaric in the Rabenschlacht, or battle of Ravenna. Attila's two sons, with Dietrich's brother, fell in the fight, and Dietrich returned to Attila's court to answer for the death of the young princes. This very improbable renunciation of the advantages of his victory suggests that in the original version of the story the Rabenschlacht was a defeat. In the poem of Ermenrichs Tod he is represented as slaying Ermanaric, as in fact Theodoric slew Odoacer. ' ' Otacher " replaces Ermanaric as his adversary in the Hildebrandslied; which relates how thirty years after the earlier attempt he reconquered his Lombard kingdom. Dietrich's long residence at Attila's court represents the youth and early man- hood of Theodoric spent at the imperial court and fighting in the Balkan peninsula, and, in accordance with epic custom, the period of exile was adorned with war-like exploits, with fights with dragons and giants, most of which had no essential connexion with the cycle. The romantic poems of Konig Laurin, Sigenot, Eckenlied and Virginal are based largely on local traditions originally independent of Dietrich. The court of Attila (Etzel) was a ready bridge to the Nibelungen legend. In the final catas- trophe he was at length compelled, after steadily holding aloof from the combat, to avenge the slaughter of his Amelungs by the Burgundians, and delivered Hagen bound into the hands of Kriemhild. The flame breath which anger induced from him shows the influence of pure myth, but the tales of his demonic origin and of his being carried off by the devil in the shape of a black horse may safely be put down to the clerical hostility to Theodoric's Arianism. Generally speaking, Dietrich of Bern was the wise and just monarch as opposed to Ermanaric, the typical tyrant of Germanic legend. He was invariably represented as slow of provocation and a friend of peace, but once roused to battle not even Siegfried could withstand his onslaught. But probably Dietrich's fight with Siegfried in Kriemhild's rose garden at Worms is a late addition to the Rosengarten myth. The chief heroes of the Dietrich cycle are his tutor and companion in arms, Hildebrand (see Hildebrand, Lay of), with his nephews the Wolfings Alphart and Wolf hart; Wittich, who renounced his allegiance to Dietrich and slew the sons of Attila; Heime and Biterolf. The contents of the poems dealing with the Dietrich cycle are summarized by Uhland in Schriften zur Geschichte der Dichtung und Sage (Stuttgart, 1873). The Thidrekssaga (ed. C. Unger, Christiania, 1853) is translated into German by F. H. v. der Hagen in Altdeutsche und altnordische Heldensagen (vols. i. and ii. 3rd ed., Breslau, 1872). A summary of it forms the concluding chapter of T. Hodgkin's Theodoric the Goth (1891). The variations in the Dietrich legend in the Latin historians, in Old and Middle High German literature, and in the northern saga, can be studied in W. Grimm's Deutsche Heldensage (2 nd ed. , Berlin, 1867). There is a good account in English in F. E. Sandbach's Heroic Saga-cycle of Dietrich of Bern (1906), forming No. 15 of Alfred Nutt's Popular Studies in Mythology, and another in M. Bentinck Smith's translation of Dr O. L. Jinczek's Deutsche Heldensage (Northern Legends, London, 1902). For modern German authorities and commentators see B. Symons, " Deutsche Heldensage " in H. Paul's Grd. d. german. Phil. (Strassburg, new ed,, I 9°S) I also Goedeke, Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung (i. 241-246). DIEZ, FRIEDRICH CHRISTIAN (1794-1876), German philologist, was born at Giessen, in Hesse-Darmstadt, on the 15th of March 1794. He was educated first at the gymnasium and then at the university of his native town. There he studied classics under Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker (1784-1868) who had just returned from a two years' residence in Italy to fill the chair of archaeology and Greek literature. It was Welcker who kindled in him a iove of Italian poetry, and thus gave the first bent to his genius. In 18 13 he joined the Hesse corps as a volunteer and served in the French campaign. Next year he returned to his books, and this short taste of military service was the only break in a long and uneventful life of literary labours. By his parents' desire he applied himself for a short time to law, but a visit to Goethe in 1818 gave a new direction to his studies, and determined his future career. Goethe had been reading Raynouard's Selections from the. Romance Poets, and advised the young scholar to explore the rich mine of Provencal literature which the French savant had opened up. This advice was eagerly followed, and henceforth Diezdevoted himself to Romance literature. He thus became the founder of Romance philology. After supporting himself for some years by private teaching, he removed in 1822 to Bonn, where he held the position of privat- docent. In 1823 he published his first work, An Introduction to Romance Poetry; in the following year appeared The Poetry of the Troubadours, and in 1829 The Lives and Works of the Troubadours. In 1830 he was called to the chair of modern literature. The rest of his life was mainly occupied with the composition of the two great works on which his fame rests, the Grammar of the Romance Languages (1836-1844), and the Lexicon of the Romance Languages — Italian, Spanish and French (1853); in these two works Diez did for the Romance group of languages what Jacob Grimm did for the Teutonic family. He died at Bonn on the 29th of May 1876. The earliest French philologists, such as Perion and Henri Estienne, had sought to discover the origin of French in Greek and even in Hebrew. For more than a century Menage's Etymological Dictionary held the field without a rival. Considering the time at which it was written (1650), it was a meritorious work, but philology was then in the empirical stage, and many of Menage's derivations (such as that of " rat " from the Latin " mus," or of " haricot " from " faba ") have since become bywords among philologists. A great advance was made by Raynouard, who by his critical editions of the works of the Troubadours, published in the first years of the 19th century, laid the foundations on which Diez afterwards built. The difference between Diez's method and that of his predecessors is well stated by him in the preface to his dictionary. In sum it is the difference between science and guess-work. The scientific method is to follow implicitly the discovered principles and rules of phonology, and not to swerve a foot's breadth from tlrem unless plain, actual exceptions shall justify it; to follow the genius of the language, and by cross- questioning to elicit its secrets; to gauge each letter and estimate the value which attaches to it in each position ; and lastly to possess the true philosophic spirit which is prepared to welcome any new fact, though it may modify or upset the most cherished theory. Such is the historical method which Diez pursues in his grammar and dictionary. To collect and arrange facts is, as he tells us, the sole secret of his success, and he adds in other words the famous apophthegm of Newton, " hypotheses non fingo." The introduction to the grammar consists of two parts : — the first discusses the Latin, Greek and Teutonic elements common to the Romance languages; the second treats of the six dialects separately, their origin and the elements peculiar to each. The grammar itself is divided into four books, on phonology, on flexion, on the formation of words by composition and derivation, and on syntax. His dictionary is divided into two parts. The first contains words common to two at least of the three principal groups of Romance: — Italian, Spanish and Portuguese, and Provencal and French. The Italian, as nearest the original, is placed at the head of each article. DIE2— DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF The second part treats of words peculiar to one group. There is no separate glossary of Wallachian. Of the introduction to the grammar there is an English translation by C. B. Cayley. The dictionary has been published in a remodelled form for English readers by T. C. Donkin. DIEZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse- Nassau, romantically situated in the deep valley of the Lahn, here crossed by an old bridge, 30 m. E. from Coblenz on the railway to Wetzlar. Pop. 4500. It is overlooked by a former castle of the counts of Nassau-Dillenburg, now a prison. Close by, on an eminence above the river, lies the castle of Oranien- stein, formerly a Benedictine nunnery and now a cadet school, with beautiful gardens. There are a Roman Catholic and two Evangelical churches. The new part of the town is well built and contains numerous pretty villa residences. In addition to extensive iron-works there are sawmills and tanneries. In the vicinity are Fachingen, celebrated for its mineral waters, and the majestic castle of Schaumburg belonging to the prince of WaldeckrPyrmont. DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF {Theory of Finite Differences), that branch of mathematics which deals with the successive differences of the terms of a series. 1. The most important of the cases to which mathematical methods can be applied are those in which the terms of the series are the values, taken at stated intervals (regular or irregular), of a continuously varying quantity. In these cases the formulae of finite differences enable certain quantities, whose exact value depends on the law of variation {i.e. the law which governs the relative magnitude of these terms) to be calculated, often with great accuracy, from the given terms of the series, without explicit reference to the law of variation itself. The methods used may be extended to cases where the series is a double series (series of double entry), i.e. where the value of each term depends on the values of a pair of other quantities, 2. The first differences of a series are obtained by subtracting from each term the term immediately preceding it. If these are treated as terms of a new series, the first differences of this series are the second differences of the original series; and so on. The successive differences are also called differences of the first, second, . . . order. The differences of successive orders are most conveniently arranged in successive columns of a table thus: — Term. 1st Diff. 2nd Diff. 3rd Diff. 4th Diff. a b c d e b—a c-b d—c e—d c — 2b-\-a d — 2c-\-b e—2d-\-c & — &+$>— a e-^d+y-b e— $d-\-6c — 46 +a Algebra of Differences and Sums. 3. The formal relations between the terms of the series and the differences may be seen by comparing the arrangements (A) and (B) in fig. 1. In (A) the various terms and differences are the same as in §2, but placed differently. In (B) (^ we take a new series of terms a, ft 7, S, commencing with the same term a, and take the successive sums of pairs of terms, instead of the successive I- differences, but place them to the left instead of to the right. It will be seen, in the first F IG - !• place, thit the successive terms in (A), reading downwards to the right, and the successive terms in (B), reading downwards to the left, consist each of a series of terms whose coefficients follow the binomial law ; i. e. the coefficients in b — a, c — 2b+a, d—y+^b—a, . . . and in a+ft 0+2/3+7, a+3/3+37+5, ■ • • a re respectively the same as in y—x, (y—x) 2 , (y—x) 3 , . . . and in x+y, (x+y) 2 , {x+y) 3 , . . . In the second place, it will be seen that the relations between the various terms in (A) are identical with the relations between the similarly placed terms in (B); e.g. 0+y is the difference of a+2/3+7 and a+ft just as c — b is the difference of c and b: and d—c is the sum of c — b and d— 2C+b, just as /3+27+S is the sum of /S+7 and 7+S. Hence if we take ft y, S, ... of (B) as being the same as b — a, c — 26+0, d— 3c +36— a, . . . of (A), all corresponding terms in the two diagrams will be the same. Thus we obtain the two principal formulae connecting terms and differences. If we provisionally describe 6— a, c— 2&+a, . . . as the 523 7), then first, second, . . . differences of the particular term a (L) the reth difference of a is /-»fe+...+(-i)»- 2 ^^c+(^i)-%&+(-i)»a, where/, k . . . are the (» + l)th, ttth, . . . terms of the series a, b, c, . . . ; the coefficients being those of the terms in the expansion of {y — x) n : and (ii.) the (» + l)th term of the series, i.e. the wth term after a, is a+np+- -y+... 1.2 where ft y, . . . are the first, second, . . . differences of a; the coefficients being those of the terms in the expansion of (x-\-y) n . 4. Now suppose we treat the terms a, b, c, . . . as being them- selves the first differences of another series. Then, if the first term of this series is N, the subsequent terms are N+a, N+a+6, N+a+ b-\-c, . . .; i.e. the difference between the (rc + i)th term and the first term is the sum of the first n terms of the original series. The term N, in the diagram (A), will come above and to the left of a; and we see, by (ii.) of § 3, that the sum of the first n terms of the original series is /. T , . n.n — 1. . \ XT , n.n — 1. , n.n — i.n— 2 , (N+na+— j— £+ ... ) -N = naH — j^-/H — T , 2 , 3 7+ ■•• 5. As an example, take the arithmetical series 0, a+p, a-\-2p, . . . The first differences are p, p, p, . . ., and the differences of any higher order are zero. Hence, by (ii.)of § 3,the(w + i)th term isa+»£,and, by §4, the sum of the first n terms is wa+§»(w — l)p = j«(2a + (« — l)p). 6. As another example, take the series I, 8, 27, . . . the terms of which are the cubes of 1, 2, 3, . . . The first, second and third differences of the first term are 7, 12 and 6; and it may be shown (§ 14 (i.)) that all differences of a higher order are zero. Hence the sum of the first n terms is , n.n — 1 , n.n — i.n— 2 , . n.n— i.n— 2.n— 3 1.2.3 1.2.3.4 1 +f» 11 +.!»' = as the first, 7. In § 3 we have described b—a, c — 2i+a, second, . . . differences of a. This ascription of the differences to particular terms of the series is quite arbitrary. If we read the differences in the table of § 2 upwards to the right instead of down- wards to the right, we might describe e—d, e—2d-\-c, ... as the first, Second, . . . differences of e. On the other hand, the term of greatest weight in c — 26 +a, i.e. the term which has the numerically greatest coefficient, is b, and therefore c — 2b-\-a might properly be regarded as the secbnd difference of b ; and similarly e— $d+6c— 46+0 might be regarded as the fourth difference of c. These three methods of regarding the differences lead to three different systems of notation, which are described in §§9, 10 and 11. Notation of Differences and Sums. 8. It is convenient to denote the terms a, b, c, . . . of the series by «o, Mi, «j, «j . . . . If we merely have the terms of the series, « n may be regarded as meaning the (» + l)th term. Usually, however, the terms are the values of a quantity u, which is a function of another quantity x, and the values of x, to which a, b, c, . . . corre- spond, proceed by a constant difference h. If xo and «o are a pair of corresponding values of x and u, and if any other value Xo+mh of x and the corresponding value of u are denoted by x m and u m , then the terms of the series will be. . .«„_2, Wn_i, u n , «n+i, Wn+2- ■ •> corre- sponding to values of x denoted by. . .Xn-z, Xn-i, x n , £n+i, *n+2. . . . 9. In the advancing-difference notation u n +i — u n is denoted by Au n . The differences A« > A«i, Am 2 . . . may then be regarded as values of a function Am corresponding to values of x proceeding by constant difference h ; and therefore AMn+i— Au n is denoted by AAtt„, or, more briefly, A 2 m„; and so on. Hence the table of differences in §2, with the corresponding values of x and of u placed opposite each other in the ordinary manner of mathematical tables, becomes X U 1st Diff. 2nd Diff. 3rd Diff. 4th Diff. Xn-2 Un-1 A«„_2 & 2 Un-3 A%n_3 A 4 tt„_4 . . . Xn-\ Un-1 Att„_i A 2 M^ 2 A 3 M„_2 A 4 Mn-3 ■ • ■ Xn Un A«„ A 2 M„_i A 3 W„_1 A 4 M„_2 • ■ ■ Xn+1 Un+1 AMn+j A 2 «„ A 3 u„ A 4 tt„_l . . . Xn+2 Un+2 A 2 M„+i A%„ . . . The terms of the series of which . . . Un-i, u n , u^+u . . . are the first differences are denoted by 2k, with proper suffixes, so 224 DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF that this series is . . . S«n_i, 2«„, 2a n+ i .... The suffixes are chosen so that we may have AXu„ = u n , whatever n may be; and therefore (§4) 2w„ may be regarded as being the sum of the terms of the series up to and including w„_i. Thus if we write 2«„_i = C+tt„_2, where C is any constant, we shall have 2tt„ =ZM„_i+A2tt„_i =C+U n -2+U n -l, . , 2M„ + i = C+W„_2+«„_i + « n , and so on. This is true whatever C may be, so that the knowledge of . . . tt„_i, «„,... gives us no knowledge of the exact value of 2m»; in other words, C is an arbitrary constant, the value of which must be supposed to be the same throughout any operations in which we are concerned with values of 2m corresponding to different suffixes. There is another symbol E, used in conjunction with u to denote the next term in the series. Thus Ew„ means u„+i, so that Ett„ = tt„+Att„. 10. Corresponding to the advancing-difference notation there is a receding-difference notation, in which m„ + i-m„ is regarded as a difference of w„+i, and may be denoted by A'w„+i, and similarly Un+i— 2tt„+tt„_i may be denoted by A' 2 tt„ + i. This notation is only required for certain special purposes, and the usage is not settled (§I9(H.)). . ' . , 11. The central -difference notation depends on treating u n+ i— 2u„— m„_i as the second dfference of u n , and therefore as corresponding to the value x n ; but there is no settled system of notation. The following seems to be the most convenient. Since u„ is a function of x n , and the second difference Un+z-2U n+i +u„ is a func- tion of ac+i, the first difference u„+i-u„ must be regarded as a func- tion of *„+$, i.e. of i(x n +x„ +l ). We therefore write u n+ i-u„ = Su n+ i, and each difference in the table in § 9 will have the same suffix as the value of x in the same horizontal line; or, if the difference is of an odd order, its suffix will be the means of those of the two nearest values of x. This is shown in the table below. In this notation, instead of using the symbol E, we use a symbol m to denote the mean of two consecutive values of u, or of two consecu- tive differences of the same order, the suffixes being assigned on the same principle as in the case of the differences. Thus iM n+ i = i(u n +u n+ i), n&u n = i(5u^-i+du n+ i), &c. If we take the means of the differences of odd order immediately above and below the horizontal line through any value of x, these means, with the differences of even order in that line, constitute the central differences of the corresponding value of u. Thus the table of central differences is as follows, the values obtained as means being placed in brackets to distinguish them from the actual differences : — X U 1st Diff. 2nd Diff. 3rd Diff. 4th Diff. X„-2 U n -2 (m8w„_2) 5 2 M„_2 (m5 3 w„-2 S 3 W„_? S'Un-l . . . X n -\ «n-l (m«m„-i) S 2 W»-1 (m« 3 m»-i) 8%„_i . . . Xn M„ (m5k») S*u n (fS'Un) S 3 «n+5 «%„ . . . Xn+l Mrn-l (lidUn+l) « 2 «„+l (liS 3 U n+1 ) S 3 «»+i S'Un+1 . . . Xn+Z «»+! (/x5tt„ +2 ) « 2 ttn+2 (m« 3 M„ +2 ) 5%„ + 2 . . . Similarly, by taking the means of consecutive values of u and also of consecutive differences of even order, we should get a series of terms and differences central to the intervals x^-z to x„-i, tf»_i to Kn, • ■ • The terms of the series of which the values of u are the first differ- ences are denoted by i) (E-p 2 ) . . . (E-p m ) i/ n = N. The solution, if p u pi, ... p m are all different, is »„ = Ci^>i"+ C t p 2 n + ^ . . . +C m p m n _+'Vn, where Ci, C2 . . . are constants, and v„ = V„ is any one solution of the equation. The method of finding a value for V„ depends on the form of N. Certain modifications are required when two or more of the p's are equal. It should be observed, in all cases of this kind, that, in describing Ci, C2 as " constants," it is meant that the value of any one, as Ci, is the same for all values of n occurring in the series. A " constant " may, however, be a periodic function of n. Applications to Continuous Functions. 16. The cases of greatest practical importance are those in which u is a continuous function of x. The terms u\, Ut . . . of the series then represent the successive values of u corresponding to x = x t , Xi . . . The important applications of the theory in these cases are to (i.) relations between differences and differential coefficients, (ii.) DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION 225 interpolation, or the determination of intermediate values of w, and (iii.) relations between sums and integrals. 17 Starting from any pair of values x and «o, we may suppose the interval h from x„ to xi to be divided into q equal portions It we suppose the corresponding values of w to be obtained, and their differences taken, the successive advancing differences ot wo being denoted by duo, d'uo . . ., we have (§ 3 (11.)) Ui = Uo+qdui>+ q '^~ d%o + . . . . When is made indefinitely great, this (writing /(*) for u) becomes Taylor s Theorem (Infinitesimal Calculus) ., . h? f(x+h) " * ■ 1 "' s ' which, expressed in terms of operators, is ■f(x)+hf( x y+£-r(.x)+ E-i+*D+^D'+ T ^D'+ This gives the relation between A and D. = e* D . Also we have u 1 = tH+2qdu,+ 2 ^ 2(l I 3'«o+ 1.2 ia s « + and, if p is any integer, u P U=uo+pdu + ££^ld* Uo + .... From these equations u P U could be expressed in terms of « , «i, m, . . . ; this is a particular case of interpolation (g.t).). 18. Differences and Differential Coefficients. — The various formulae are most quickly obtained by symbolical methods; i.e. by dealing with the operators A, E, D, . . . as if they were algebraical quantities. Thus the relation E = e*o (§ I7 ) gi ves H> = log.(l +A)=A-§A« + JA». h (-fa) =Awo-iA 2 «c + 3A 3 M . The formulae connecting central differences with differential coefficients are based on the relations f» = coshpD = J(eS AD +e-i hD ), 8 = 2 sinh ^AD=e4 AD — e~i hD , and may be grouped as follows: — 1*0 = Mo nSu = (hD+ih 3 D 3 + T hh 6 D 5 + . . .)«„ Pu< 1 = (h*D i +hk*D*+ Ji Uh>D< i + . . .)«o tf>uo = (h°D 3 +lh*D ! > + • • -)«o „„. = (i+l^D s + s h^D<+«k^ 6 D 6 + • taj^AD + jfcfc'D' + f ^'0'+ • • .)«} ^ 2 «j = (/t 2 D 2 +A^D*+ If H ( )^D 8 + . . .)«} «'«. = (/!»D'+P 6 D*+. . .)«! M« 4 «i = (A 4 D 1 + 2 7 ^ 6 D«+ . . .)«■ 1*0 = 1*0 ftDMo = (M«-|/"« 3 +s , l)J«S 5 - • • • )«o ft'D J «o = (8 , - J 1 8 * 4 +iiS«'- . . . )«o fc 3 D 3 Mo=(^»-^S 6 + . . .)«o ft«D**o=(a 4 -i*' + . . . )«o )«5 fcDttj = (8-5 1 4 S 3 + ( .i S 6 - . . . )«J ft'D s «t = G*« 2 - A/^+sVeVS 5 - • . . )«J A 3 D 3 «j = (a 3 -i8 5 + . . . )«j . A < D 4 »J = (jU««--ftMS , + ■ •■)«} )«1 When w is a rational integral function of x, each of the above series is a terminating series. In other cases the series will be an infinite one, and may be divergent; but it may be used for purposes of approximation up to a certain point, and there will be a " remainder," the limits of whose magnitude will be determinate. 19. Sums and Integrals.— The relation between a sum and an integral is usually expressed by the Euler-Maclaurin formula. The principle of this formula is that, if u m and « m+ i, are ordinates of a curve, distant h from one another, then for a first approximation to the area of the curve between u m and «m+i we have p(tt m +w m+ i), VIII. 8 r J X and the difference between this and the true value of the area can be expressed as the difference of two expressions, one of which is a function of x m , and the other is the same function of Xm+L Denoting these by (x m ) and {x m+1 )~(x m ) . Xm Adding a series of similar expressions, we find /" udx = h{hu m +Um+l+Um+i+ ■ . • +««-l+KI+*W" {*m)- Xm The function i>{x) can be expressed in terms either of differential coefficients of u or of advancing or central differences; thus there are three formulae. (i.) The Euler-Maclaurin formula, properly so called, (due inde- pendently to Euler and Maclaurin) is / udx- dx dUn - dx* = h.^un--\h-^+ Ti B 6! n dx' T Bi , dunj_ B 2 , , d 3 u„ ~2\ lh ~dx~ + 4\ n dx°~ where Bi, B 2 , B 3 . . . are Bernoulli's numbers. (ii.) If we express differential coefficients in terms of advancing, differences, we get a theorem which is due to Laplace : — 1 f*. udx =ii(x, y, dyjdx) =o be satisfied by any one of the curves F(x, y, e) = o, where e is an arbitrary constant, it is clear that the envelope of these curves, when existent, must also satisfy the differential equation; for this equation prescribes a relation connecting only the co-ordinates Xt y and the differential coefficient dy/dx, and these three quantities a_re the same at any point of the envelope for the envelope and for the particular curve of the family which there touches the envelope. The relation ex- pressing the equation of the envelope is called a singular solution of the differential equation, meaning an isolated solution, as not being one of a family of curves depending upon an arbitrary parameter. An extended form of Clairaut's equation expressed by • y = xF(p)+f(p) may be similarly solved by first differentiating in regard to p, when it reduces to a linear equation of which x is the dependent and p the independent variable ; from the integral of this linear equation, and the original differential equation, the quantity p is then to be eliminated. Other types of solvable differential equations of the first order are (i) Udy/dx = N, where M, N are homogeneous polynomials in x and y, of the same order; by putting v — y/x and eliminating y, the equation becomes of the first type considered above, in v and x. An equation (aB^6A) (ax + by + c) d y [dx = Ax + By + C may be reduced to this rule by first putting x+h, y+k for a; and y, and determining h, k so that ah-\-bk+c — o, A&+B&-j-C=o. (2) An equation in which y does not explicitly occur, /(*, dy/dx) =0, may, theoretically, be reduced to the type dy/dx = F(x); similarly an equation F(y, dy/dx) =0. (3) An equation f (dy/dx, x, y) =0, which is an integral polynomial in dy/dx, may, theoretically, be 6olved for dy/dx, as an algebraic equation; to any root dy/dx = Fi(x,y) corresponds, suppose, a solution i(x, y, c) —o, where c is an arbi- trary constant; the product equation i(x, y, c)4>%(x,y,c) . ... =0, consisting of as many factors as there were values of dy/dx, is effectively as general as if we wrote i(x, y; Ci)2(x, y, a) . , .=0; for, to evaluate the first form, we must necessarily consider the factors separately, and nothing is then gained by the multiple notation for the various arbitrary constants. The equation \(x,y, c)+8 = - P, the auxiliary differential equation for z, referred to above, becomes p + (8 - dv , ,-. t, 5^+P^+Qy=R; for if u be any particular solution, this has a form «=A e l?t +Boe**+U, or a form « = (A +B x)« eJ: +U; thus the general solution can be written (A-Ao)e° I +(B-B )e<«+M, or {A-Ao.+ (B-Bo)*)e»+«, where A— Ao, B— Bo, like A, B, are arbitrary constants. A similar result holds for a linear differential equation of any order, say d*» +Fl 2JF^ + • • • + p »:y = R . where Pi, P 2 , . . . P n are constants, and R is a function of x. If we form the algebraic equation 9 n +Pi0 n - 1 + . . . +Pn = o, and all the roots of this equation be different, say they are 0i, 8%, . . . 8„, the general solution of the differential equation is y=Ai«V+A*V+ • '• • +A„eV+«, where Ai, A%, . . . A» are arbitrary constants, and ,« is any DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION 227 particular solution whatever; but if there be one root 0i re- peated 7 times, the terms Aie 1 + . . . -f A,e r must be replaced by (Ai+A 2 j;+ . . . +A,x?~ 1 )e l where Ai, . . . A» are arbitrary con- stants; the remaining terms in the complementary function will similarly need alteration of form if there be other repeated roots. To complete the solution of the differential equation we need some method of determining a particular iritegral«; we explain a pro- cedure which is effective for this purpose in the cases in which R is a sum of terms of the form e ax (j>(x), where (x) is an integral poly- nomial in x; this includes cases in which R contains terms of the form cos bx.4>{x) or sin bx.(x). Denote d/dx by D ; it is clear that if « be any function of*, T>{e ax u)=e ax Du-\-ae ax u, or say, D{e ax u) = d 2 e"(D+a)w; hence D 2 (e"*w), i.e.j^{e ax u), being equal to D(e ax v), where v = (D+a)u, is equal to e ax (D+a)u, that is to e 01 (D-(-a) l «. In this way we find D*(e oa! w)=e OI (D-}-a)"K, where n is any positive integer. Hence if V'(D) be any polynomial in D with constant co- efficients, ^(D) (e M w)=e M ^(D+a)«. Next, denoting j udx by dz t>~ l u, and any solution of the differential equation j- -\-az = u by 2 = (D+o)- 1 m, we have D[e ax (D+a)- 1 u] = D(e ax z) =e ax (D+a)z = e ax u, so that we may write D~ l (e ax u) =e ax (D+a)~ l u, where the meaning is that one value of the left side is equal to one value of the right side; from this, the expression D" 2 («' ,I «), which means D-'ID -1 ^ 01 ")]. is equal to T>~ i {e ax z) and hence to e^iD+af^z, which we write e ax (D+a)^u; proceeding thus we obtain D-"(e™«) =e ax (D+a}~ n u, where n is any positive integer, and the meaning, as before, is that one value of the first expression is equal to one value of the second. More generally, if >^(D) be any polynomial in D with constant co- efficients, and we agree to denote by j,(t\\ U any solution z of the differential equation ^(D)z = u, we have, if v= ,,-q , „\ U, the identity 4>(D) (e ax v)=e ax ^(D+a)v = e'" : a, which we write in the form This gives us the first step in the method we are explaining, namely that a solution of the differential equation , . «', when u is a polynomial in x, namely one solution of the differential equation ^(D+o)z = m. Let the highest power of x entering in u be x m ; if / were a variable quantity, the rational fraction in t, ,/, , > , by first writing it as a sum of partial fractions, or otherwise, could be identic- ally written in the form K r r*+K P _,/--«+.. .+K 1 r 1 +H-|-H 1 f+. . .+H m r+t">+ 1 (l,(t)!4 / (t+a), where (f) is a polynomial in t; this shows that there exists an identity of the form 1 =i(t+a)(Kt- r + . . . +Kir»+H+H 1 t+ . . . +rW»)+$(0r+i, and hence an identity «=^(D+o)[K r D-+ . . . -r-KiD-'+H+r^D-l- . . . +H m D»]« +-fD 2 -|tD 3 -|-AD 4 -hVD s . ■ • )*', or — lc f!, (^r* 5 + i** 4 — f *" - 1** 8 + V* +|*') ; the real part of this is -KA* 8 -!** + ¥*) cos jc+KI* 4 -!* 2 +1) sin x. This expression added to the complementary function found above gives the complete integral; and no generality is lost by omitting from the particular integral the terms -\% x cos x+fe sin x, which are of the types of terms already occurring in the complementary function. The symbolical method which has been explained has wider appli- cations than that to which we have, for simplicity of explanation, restricted it. For example, if ^(x) be any function of x, and fli, 02, . . .a n be different constants, and [(<+(#) on the right side can at once be verified to be Ayj+Byj+yiM-jati, where u, v respectively denote the integrals u = jyvt>(.x) (yi'yi-yt'y^-Hx, v = j yi(x)(y 1 'y 2 -y 2 'y l )-- l dx. The equation ai? +p di + Qy-' o, by writing y = v exp. (-ijl?dx), is at once seen to be reduced to •jjj +111 = becomes 3^+I» = o, where I = Q-f^-iP 2 . If 1, = ~\-% the equation dti gj = l+1 2 , a non-linear equation of the first order. More generally the equation g =A +B„ + C„ 2 , where A, B, C are functions of *, is, by the substitution r dy Cy dx' reduced to the linear equation #y_( vt _ l _idC\d2 v- dx* The equation -(*+£ ■dx)dx +AC y =o - known as Riccati's equation, is transformed into ?.n equation of the same form by a substitution of the form ■ n = ( a Y+b)/(cY+d), where o, b, c, d are any functions of x, and this fact may be utilized to obtain a solution when A, B, C have special forms; in particular if any particular solution of the equation be known, say ijo, the 228 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION substitution i)=r|o-i/Y enables us at once to obtain the general solution ; for instance, when 2B -a£ lo *(c)' a particular solution is ijo = V ( — A/C). This is a case of the remark, often useful in practice, that the linear equation ♦wg+*22+*-o. * = x+Xy, that is dz/dt=(a+)>a')x+(b+\b')y+c+'kc', thi X being so chosen that 6+X6' = X(a+Xa ), so that where jiisa constant, is reducible to a standard form by taking a new independent variable z = j &[<£(»;) ]~s. We pass to other types of equations of which the solution can be obtained by rule. We may have cases in which there are two dependent variables, * and y, and one independent variable /, the differential coefficients dx/dt, dy/dt being given as functionsof *, y and t, Of such equations a simple case is expressed by the pair ■£ = ax+by+c, ^ = a'x+b'y+c', wherein the coefficients a, b, c, a', b', c', are constants. To integrate these, form with the constant X the differential coefficient of " ' the quantity we have dz/dt = (a+'Ka')z+c+\c'; this last equation is at once integrable in the form z{a-\-~ba')+c-\-Xc' = A.d- a+ **''>', where A is an arbitrary constant. In general, the condition 6+X6' = X(a+Xa') is satisfied by two different values of X, say Xi, X 2 ; the solutions corresponding to these give the values of x+\iy and x-{-~kiy, from which * and y can be found as functions of t, involving two arbitrary constants. If, however, the two roots of the quadratic equation for X are equal, that is, if (a-b')' i -\-^a'b = o, the method described gives only one equation, expressing x+\y in terms of t; by means of this equation y can be eliminated from dxjdt = ax-\-by-\-c, leading to an equation of the form <£*;/«, where P, Q, R are constants. The integration of this gives x, and thence y can be found. A similar process is applicable when we have three or more dependent variables whose differential coefficients in regard to the single independent variables are given as linear functions of the dependent variables with constant coefficients. Another method of solution of the equations dx/dt = ax+by+c, dy/dt — a'x+b'y+c', consists in differentiating the first equation, thereby obtaining d 2 x dx . ,dy di?- a dt +l> Tx' from the two given equations, by elimination of y, we can express dy/dt as a linear function of x and dx/dt; we can thus form an Equation of the shape d 2 x/dt i = P+Qx+Rdx/dt, where P, Q, R are constants; this can be integrated by methods previously^ ex- Elained, and the integral, involving two arbitrary constants, gives, y the equation dx/dt = ax+by+c, the corresponding value of y. Conversely it should be noticed that any single linear differential equation d 2 x , , dx w =u+vx+w Tr where u, v, w are functions of t, by writing y for dx/dt, is equivalent with the two equations dx/dt =y, dy/dt = u+vx+wy. In fact a similar reduction is possible for any system of differential equations with one independent variable. Equations occur to be integrated of the form Xdx+Ydy+Zdz = o, where X, Y, Z are functions of x, y, z. We consider only the case in which there exists an equation {x, y, z)=C whose differential is equivalent with the given differential equation; that is, /* being a proper function of *, y, z, we assume that there exist equations d v &i, . . . «„ of the partial equation establishes the existence of the specified solutions of the ordinary equations dxi/dt = i.- The following sketch of the proof of the existence of these principal integrals for the case n = 2 will show the character of more general investigations. Put xtorx—x°, &c, and consider the equation a(xyt)df/dx+b(.xyf)df/dy = df/dt, wherein the functions a, b are developable about x — o, y = o, t — o; say a(xyt) =a +tai+( i a2l2\+..., b{xyl)=b -\-tb i +t i b 2 l2\+..., so that ad/dx+bd'dy = S +tSi+ifiSi+ ..., where i =a r dldx-\-brdjdy. In order that f=p,+tpi+fp2l2\+ ... . ;■■ equations of the first order. 230 DIFFERENTIAE EQUATION existence of Inte- grals. wherein p„ pi . . . are power series in *, y, should satisfy the equa- tion, it is necessary, as we find by equating like terms,; that . Pl=5opo,p2 = $i{txi, . . . x„). Suppose we have k homogeneous linear partial equations of the first order in « independent variables, the general equation being a n dfldxi+. . .+a.(r n dfldx n = o, where {wr+\, . . . co„). It is seen at once that this result is a generalization of the theorem for r — i, and its proof is conveniently given by induction from that case. It can be verified without difficulty (1) that if from the r equations of the complete system we form r independent linear aggregates, with coefficients not necessarily constants* the new system is also a com- plete system; (2) that if in place of the independent variables *i, . . . x n we introduce any other variables which are independent functions of the former, the new equations also form a complete system. It is convenient, then, from the complete system of r equations to form r new equations by solving separately for df/dxi, . . , dfldx r ; suppose the general equation of the new system to be Qt / in regard to Xr+i . . . x n ; as it is at most a linear function of Qi/, . . . Q r /, it must be identically zero, So reduced the. system is called a Jacobian system. Of this system Qi/=o has n-i principal solutions reducing re- spectively to *»,..,. x n when Jacobian , Xl = Xl o t systems. and its form shows that of these the first r-ri are exactly x 2 . . . x,. Let these re-i functions- together with xi be introduced as n new independent variables in all the r equations. Since the first equation is satisfied by »-i of the new independent variables, it will contain no differential coefficients in regard to them, and will reduce therefore simply to df/dxi = o, expressing that any common solution of the r equations is a function only of the h-l remaining variables. Thereby the investigation of the common solutions is reduced to the same problem for r-i equations in n-i variables. Proceeding thus, we reach at length one equation in n-r+i variables, from which, by retracing the analysis, the proposition stated is seen to follow. The analogy with the case of one equation is, however, still closer. With the coefficients coj of the equations Q the r(n-r) equations dxjldxa = caj. That consistent ~ f/, with them we may be able to regard x r +i, . . . x n as teren *j aI functions of Xi, . . . x„ these being regarded as independent stations, variables, it is clearly necessary that when we differentiate c+Cf,„+idfldXr+i+ . . . +cp„df/dx n , namely, is Qp/. Thus the consistence of the n-r total equations requires the conditions QpCaj - QaCpj = o, which are, however, verified in virtue of Qp(Qo/) — Q(x, y), satisfying dz = adz+bdy and passing through (x , 3V, Zo), this plane will touch the surface, and the operations of passing along the surface from (x„, y , z ) to ' (Xo+dx , y , z +dZo) and then to (xo+dx,,, y +dy , z„-\-d l z ), ought to lead to the same value of d>z as do the operations of passing along the surface from (x<„ y», z„) to (*„, y„+dy„, z„+8zo)> and then to (x o +dx , y o +dy , z +S%), namely, S'z,, ought to be equal to d l z„. But we find d 1 z = a l> dxo+b{xo+dx , y , z +a dxo)dy<,= ~db , db Geometri- cal inter- pretation and solution. adxo+bdyo+dxdyo(^+a°fa-j • and so at once reach the condition of integrability. If now we put DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION 231 x = x -\-t, y = y„+mt, and regard nt as constant, we shall in fact be considering the section of the surface by a fixed plane y-y = m{x-x„) ; along this section dz = dt{a+bm) ; if we then integrate the equation dx/dt = a+bm, where a, b are expressed as functions of m and t, with m kept constant, finding the solution which reduces to z„ for t = o, and in the result again replace m by (y~yo)l(x-x ), we shall have the surface in question. In the general case the equations dXj=CijdXi+. X T jdx r Mayer's similarly determine through an arbitrary point Xi", . . . x n ° method of a planar manifold of r dimensions in space of n dimensions, Integra- and when the conditions of integrability are satisfied , (too. every direction in this manifold through this point is tangent to the manifold of r dimensions, expressed by a r+ i=x r ° + i, . . . w„=x n °, which satisfies the equations and passes through this point. If we put Xi-xi" = t, xtx£ = m4, ■ ■ ■ x r -x r ° = m r t, and regard m 2 , . . . «,as fixed, the (n-r) total equations take the form dxj/dt = Cij+nt2C2j+. . .+WV7, and their integration is equivalent to that of the single partial equation n df]dt+ S(ci,+m 2 C2,'+. . . +m r c r j)dfldxj = o j-r+l in the n-r + i variables t, av+i, . . . x n . Determining the solutions a+i,. . . .a. which reduce to respectively x r+ i,. . .x n when / = o, and sub- stituting t = xi—xi", nH = {xi-X2°)l(xi-Xi°), . . . m r = (x r -x r °)[(xi-Xi°), we obtain the solutions of the original system of partial equa- tions previously denoted by wr+i, . . . w n . It is to be remarked, however, that the presence of the fixed parameters urn, . . . m, in the single integration may frequently render it more difficult than if they were assigned numerical quantities. We have above considered the integration of an equation dz = adz-\-bdy on the hypothesis that the condition daldy-\-bda[dz = db/dz-\-adb/dz. Ptatflan ^ ' s na t ura l to inquire what relations among x, y, z, if any, B ores- are ' m P'' e d by, or are consistent with, a differential relation 1 ' adx+bdy+cdx = o, when a, b, c are unrestricted functions s oas. Q j x ^ y^ z This problem leads to the consideration of the so-called Pfaffian Expression adx+bdy+cdz. It can be shown (i) if each of the quantities db/dz-dc/dy, dc[dx-da/dz : da/dy-db/dz, which we shall denote respectively by u is , Un, «i2, be identically zero, the expression is the differential of a function of x, y, z, equal to dt say ; (2) that if the quantity au2s+bu 3 i+cuii is identically zero, the ex- pression is of the form udt, i.e. it can be made a perfect differential by multiplication by the factor l/u; (3) that in general the ex- pression is of the form dt+Uidti. Consider the matrix of four rows and three columns, in which the elements of the first row are a, b, c, and the elements of the (r+i)-th row, for r = i, 2, 3, are the quantities u,i, u,i, u,i, where Un = 2*22 = W33 = o. Then it is easily seen that the cases (1), (2), (3) above correspond respectively to the cases when (1) every determinant of this matrix of two rows and columns is zero, (2) every determinant of three rows and columns is zero, (3) when no condition is assumed. This result can be general- ized as follows: if ai, . . . a n be any functions of xi, . . . x n , the so- called Pfaffian expression aidxi+. . .+a n dx n can be reduced to one or other of the two forms Uidh+. . .-\-Uidtk, dt+Uidh+. . . +Uk-idtk-i, wherein t, «i, . . ., h, . . . are independent functions of xi, . . . x n , and k is such that in these two cases respectively 2k or zk-l is the rank of a certain matrix of n + i rows and n columns, that is, the greatest number of rows and columns in a non-vanishing determinant of the matrix; the matrix is that whose first row is constituted by the quantities Oi, . . . a„, whose s-th element in the (7-+l)-th row is the quantity da,\dx,-da,\dx,. The proof of such a reduced form can be obtained from the two results: (1) If t be any given function of the 2w independent variables ui, . . . u m , h, . . . t m , the expression dt-\-Uidh-\-. . .+u m dt m can be put into the form u\dt\-\-. . .+u' m dt' m . (2) If the quantities Mi, ... , u m , ti,... t m be connected by a relation, theexpression nidh+. . .+u m dt m can be put into the form dt'+u'idt'i +. . ,+u'm-idt'm-i ; and if the relation connecting «i, . . . u m , h,. . . t m be homogeneous in ui, . . . u m , then /' can be taken to be zero. These two results are deductions from the theory of contact transformations (see below), and their demonstration requires, beside elementary algebraical considerations, only the theory of complete systems of linear homogeneous partial differential equations of the first order. When the existence of the reduced form of the Pfaffian expression containing only independent quantities is thus once assured, the identification of the number k with that defined by the specified matrix may, with some difficulty, be made a posteriori. In all cases of a single Pfaffian equation we are thus led to consider what is implied by a relation dt-uidh-. . .-u m dt m = o, in which Slarfe t ' Uu ' " " Um < tl ■ ■ ■> tm are, except for this equation, linear independent variables. This is to be satisfied in virtue of Pfaffl one or severa l relations connecting the variables; these V* must involve relations connecting /, ti, . . . t m only, and equ on. j n Qne Q f t jj ese at i east 1 mus t actually enter. We can then suppose that in one actual system of relations in virtue of which the Pfaffian equation is satisfied, all the relations connecting t,h . . . i n only are given by t = ^(t, + i. . .tm), /l=l^l(/« + l. . .t m ), . . . t, = \l/,(tn.l . . . t m ); so that the equation drp-Uid^i- • ■ • -U a dtp,rUa + ldt a+ i-. . .-U m dt m =0 is identically true in regard to «i, . . . u m , t, + i . . , t m ; equating to zero the coefficients of the differentials of these variables, we thus obtain m-s relations of the form dij/ldtj-Uid^ildt— . . . ~Usdif/ s ldtj-Uj = o ; these m-s relations, with the previous s+i relations, constitute a set of m + i relations connecting the 2m -fi variables in virtue of which the Pfaffian equation is satisfied independently of the form of the functions \f>, \fo, . . . i/v There is clearly such a set for each of the values s=o, s = i, . . ., s=m-i, s = m. And for any value of i there may exist relations additional to the specified m + i relations, pro- vided they do not involve any relation connecting t, ti, . . . « m only, and are consistent with the m-s relations connecting ui, . . . u m . It is now evident that, essentially, the integration of a Pfaffian equation aidxi+ . . . +a„dxn=o, wherein a u . . . a n are functions of x it . . . x„, is effected by the processes necessary to bring it to its reduced form, involving only independent variables. And it is easy to see that if we suppose this reduction to be carried out in all possible ways, there is no need to distinguish the classes of integrals corresponding to the various values of s; for it can be verified without difficulty that by putting t'^t-Uit,-. . .-uj,„ t\=u\, . . . t' a = u„ u\=-h u',= —t„ t » + i = i« + i, . . . t m = t m , «'a+i = w, + i, . . . u' m = u m , the reduced equation becomes changed to dt'-u\dt\-. . -u' m dt' m =o, and the general relations changed to t'=W nl , . . . t'^-t'diit'.+i, . . . t' m )-. . .-t',M('»+i, ■ ■ ■ t' m ),~, say, together with u\=dldt' 1 , . . ., u' m =d/dt' m ,which contain only one relation connecting the variables t', t' u . . . t' m only. This method for a single Pfaffian equation can, strictly speaking, be generalized to a simultaneous system of (n-r) Pfaffian equations dxj = djdxi+. . .+c r jdxr only in the case already treated, when this system is satisfied by regarding Xr +U . . . x„ as *'" n " 1 ' suitable functions of the independent variables xi, . . . x r ; "" Ieous in that case the integral manifolds are of r dimensions. ptattian When these are non-existent, there may be integral mani- e Q uatlon& folds of higher dimensions ; for if d4> = r dx T +r+l(Cl„ + ldXi+ . . .+c r „ + idx r )+ r+2 ( ) + . .. be identically zero, then (r+CtT, r+ i r+ i+. . . +c$) Coatact the sum of the n terms such as ^^ - j^. For two matlolZ functions of the (2n + i) independent variables z,x u . . . x n ,pi,...p n we denote by [M] the sum of the n terms such as §± fd±,^ dt\ di, (d d\ dpi \dxi^ pi dz) dpt {dx~i + ^Tz) ■ It can at once be verified that for any three functions[/[(^]] +[<£[#]] +W]] = -£['P]+-^W]+^[f4'}, which when/, 0, ^donot containz becomes theidentity(/(^)) + (^(^/)) + (^(/ (il ))=o.Then,ifX 1 ,...X„, Pi, ... P„ be such functions of x u . . . x„, pi . . . p n that PiiXi + . . . +PnrfX„ is identically equal to pidxi+ . . . +p„dx n , it can be shown by elementary algebra, after equating coefficients of inde- pendent differentials, (1) that the functions X : , . . . P„are independ- ent functions of the 2ra variables x u . . . p n , so that the equations x * = X<, p i = Pi,]can be solved for *i, . . . x n , pi, . . . p„,and represent therefore a transformation, which we call a homogeneous contact transformation ; (2) that the X x , . . . X„ are homogeneous functions of pi,. . . p n of zero dimensions the Pi,... P„ are homogeneous functions of pi, . . . p n of dimension one, and the \n(n-\) relations (X;X<) =0 are verified. So also are the « 2 relations (P;X,) = i, (PiX,)=o, (PiP,) =0. Conversely, if Xi, . . . X„ be independent functions, each homogeneous of zero dimension in pi,... p n satisfying the \n{n-i) relations (X (P i P,)o,=(P i U)+P i =SP i , where 8 denotes the operator p l d/dpi+ . . . +p„d/dp n ; (2) If Xi, . . . X» be independent functions of Xi, . . . x n , p\, . . . p n , such that (XiX,) =0, then U can be found by a quadrature, such that (X i U)=SX i ; and when X,-, . . . X„, U satisfy these §n(«+i) conditions, then Pi, . . . P„ can be found, by solution of linear algebraic equations, to render true the identity d\J+PidXi+...+P n dX n '=pidxi+...+pndx„; (3) Functions Xi, . . . X„, Pi, . . . P„ can be found to satisfy this differential identity when U is an arbitrary given function of *i, . • • *»> Pu • ■ ■ pn', but this requires integrations. In order to see what integrations, it is only necessary to verify the statement that if U be an arbitrary given function of Xi, . . . x n , pi, . . . p n , and, for rldx', q'=d^/dy', which then will identically satisfy the trans- formed equations F' = o, G' = o, H' = o. The equation F' = o, if x',y,'z' be regarded as fixed , states that the plane Z -/ =p'(X-x')+q'(Y~y') is tangent to a certain cone whose vertex is (x', y, z'), the consecutive point (x'+dx', y'+dz', z'+dz') of the generator of contact being such that Passing in this direction on the surface z' = \j/(x', y') the tangent DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION 233 plane of the sdrface at this consecutive point is (p'+dp' t q'+dq'), where, since F'(x', y', <(/, d^ldx', e a consecutive point of this curve, we And at once , , IdF' , ^dF'X , . ,/dF' ,dF'\ thus the equations above give Sx'dp' +Sy'dq' = 0, or the tangent line of the plane curve, is, on the surface z' = ^(z', y'), in a direction con- jugate to that of the generator of the cone. Putting each of the fractions in the characteristic equations equal to dt, the equations enable us, starting from an arbitrary element x' , y'„, z'„, p'c, q\, about which all the quantities F', dF'/dp', &c, occurring in the denominators, are developable, to define, from the differential equation F' = o alone, a connectivity of 00 l elements, which we call a characteristic chain ; and it is remarkable that when we transform again to the original variables {x, y, z, p, q) , the form of the differential equations for the chain is unaltered, so that they can be written down at once from the equation F = o. Thus we have proved that the characteristic chain starting from any ordinary element of any integral of this equation F = o consists only of elements belonging to this integral. For instance, if the equation do not contain p, q, the characteristic chain, starting from an arbitrary plane through an arbitrary point of the surface F = o, consists of a pencil of planes whose axis is a tangent line of the surface F = o. Or if F = o be of the form P/>+Q{u),z c = -4'{u), determines by the two equations F(x , y«, z„, p„, g ,)=o, i£'(k) = pja'(u)+q '{u), su ch a . chain connectivity T, through which there passes _a_ perfectly definite integral of the equation F = o. By taking 00 2 initial chain connectivities T, as for instance by taking the curves x„=6, y = f, 2» = ^ to be the 00 * curves upon an arbitrary surface, we thus obtain 00 * integrals, and so 00 * elements satisfying F = o. In general, if functions G, H, independent of F, be obtained, such that the equations F = o, G = 6, H=c represent an integral for all values of the constants b, c, these equations are said to constitute a complete integral. Then 00 « elements satisfying F=o are known, and in fact every other form of integral can be obtained without further integra- tions. In the foregoing discussion of the differential equations of a characteristic chain, the denominators dF/dp, . . . may be supposed to be modified in form by means of F = o in any way conducive to a simple integration. In the immediately following explanation of ideas, however, we consider indifferently all equations F = constant; when a function of x, y, z, p, q is said to be zero, it is meant that this is so identically, not in virtue of F=o; in other words, we consider the integration of F = a, where a is an arbitrary constant. In the theory of linear partial equations we have seen that the integration of the equations of the characteristic chains, from which, ooerathna as has just been seen, that of the equation F=a follows t ^ estary at once, would be involved in completely integrating - the single linear homogeneous partial differential equation j° lb+Mm+W*]l-$.Hi+^M+%f4>r before remarked, by putting <*>=F, f=G, andthen(F/]=A(/), [G/] = B(/), that AB(/)-BA(/) = -£b (/)-^A(/), so that the two linear equations [F/]=o, [G/]=o form a complete system; as two integrals F, G are known, they have a common integral H, independent of F, G, deter- minable by an operation of order one only. The three functions F, G, H thus identically satisfy the relations (FG] = [GH] = [FH] = o. The 00 2 elements satisfying F = a, G = b, H=c, wherein a, b, c are assigned constants, can then be seen to constitute an integralpf F = a. For the conditions that a characteristic chain of G = b issuing from an element satisfying F = a, G = b, H=c should consist only of elements satisfying these three equations are simply[FG] = o,[GH] = o. Thus, starting from an arbitrary element of (F = a, G = 6, H=c),we can single out a connectivity of elements of (F = o, G = b, H=c) forming a characteristic chain of G = b; then the aggregate of the characteristic chains of F=a issuing from the elements of this characteristic chain of G = 6 will be a connectivity consisting only of elements of (F=a, G = 6, H = c), and will therefore constitute an integral of F = a; further, it will include all elements of (F =a, G = b, H =c). This result follows also from a theorem given under Contact Transformations, which shows, moreover, that though the characteristic chains of F = a are not determined by the three equations F = a, G = 6, H = c, no further integration is now necessary to find them. By this theorem, since identically [FG] = [GH] = [FH] =0, we can find, by the solution of linear algebraic equations only, a non-vanishing function a and two functions A, C, such that dG-AdF-CdH = = ?<, pf^tiian represent a characteristic chain issuing from the element *„__„... Xo, y», z„, \p , q ; we have seen that the aggregate of .. such chains issuing from the elements of an arbitrary chain satisfying dz — podx t — q„dy„ = o constitute an integral of the equation p = 4'- Let this arbitrary 234 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION chain be taken, so that x is constant; then the condition for initial values is only dz„—qody„ = o, and the elements t)f the integral constituted by the characteristic chains issuing therefrom satisfy d£ — oid^ — o. Hence this equation involves dz — \f'dx—qdy = o, or we have dz~^dx—qdy=a{d^—o>di)), where a is not zero. Conversely, the integration o(p = ^ is, essentially, the problem of writing the expression dz — \[>dx — qdy in the form aifLt—oid-q), as must be possible (from what was said under Pfaffian Expressions). To integrate a system of simultaneous equations of the first ordeV Xi = ai, . . . X r = Or in n independent variables Xi, . . . x n "' ' '' ' and one dependent variable z, we write pi for dz/dxi, &c, System of an( j attempt to find n+\ —r further functions Z, X r+ i TfJSL ••• X„, such that the equations Z = ffl, X< = a, (i = i , ... n) of the first j nvo i ve dz ^p ldxi — _ _ ,—p„dx n = o. By an argument order. already given, the common integral, if existent, must be sat- isfied by the equations of the characteristic chains of any one equation Xi = tti ; thus each of the expressions [X.-X,-] must vanish in virtue of the equations expressing the integral, and we may without loss of generality assume that each of the corresponding §r(r— i) expressions formed from the r given differential equations vanishes in virtue of these equations. The determination of the remaining n+l—r functions may, as before, be made to depend on characteristic chains, which in this case, however, are manifolds of r dimensions obtained by integrating the equations [Xi/]=o, . . . [X r /]=o; or having obtained one integral of this system other than Xi, . . . X r , say X, + i, we may consider the system [Xi/] = o, . . . [X r+ i/]=o, for which, again, we have a choice ; and at any stage we may use Mayer's method and reduce the simultaneous linear equations to one equation involving parameters; while if at any stage of the process we find some but not all of the integrals of the simultaneous system, they can be used to simplify the remaining work; this can only be clearly explained in connexion with the theory of so-called function groups for which we have no space. One result arising is that the simul- taneous system pi = u . pr = r, wherein p u . p r are not involved in r, if it satisfies the |r(r — i) relations [pi— i, pj — j]=o, has a solution z = vK*i. • • • x„), pi^d-^ldxi, . . . p„ — d4'ldx n , reducing to an arbitrary function of x r+ i, . . . x n only, when Xi = Xi°, . . . x r '■= x r ° under certain conditions as to developability ; a generalization of the theorem for linear equations. The problem of integration of this system is, as before, to put dz — fadXi — ... — tj> r dX r — p r+1 dXr+i •—'...— £n dXn into the form , . . . . . . p n , assuming that the determinant of the quantities , j. is not zero ; if, further, H denote the function of t, Xi, . . . Xn, : pi, ■ • ■ pn, numerically equal to PA+. . .+p n x n —L, it is easy to prove that dpi/dl= —dH/dxi, dXi/dt-dH/dpi. These Equations s0 . ca n e( j canonical equations form part of those for ot , the characteristic chains of the single partial equation dynamics. dz j dt+ii ( ti Xu . . . x „, dz/dx u . , ., dz/dx n ) =0, to which then the solution of the original equations for Xi . . . x„ can be reduced. It may be shown (i) that if z = ^(i, x u . . . x n , Ci, . . c n )-\-c be a complete integral of this equation, then pi=d\j/l is a complete integral of the partial equation. A system of differential equations is said to allow a certain continuous group of transformations (see Groups, Theory of) when the introduction for the variables in the differen- tial equations of the new variables given by the equations of the group leads, for all values of the parameters of the group, to the same differential equa- ous groups tions in the new variables. It would be interesting 'theories 3 ! to verif y in examples that this is the case in at least •the majority of the differential equations which are known to be integrable in finite terms. We give a theorem of very general application for the case of a simultaneous complete we put pi = -rr-_ , and so express xi, x„, pi Applica- tion ot theory of continu- system of linear partial homogeneous differential equations of the first order, to the solution of which the various differential equa- tions discussed have been reduced. It will be enough to consider whether the given differential equations allow the infinitesimal transformations of the group. It can be shown easily that sufficient conditions in order that a complete system 11!/ = o. . .n*/ = o, in n independent variables, should allow the infinitesimal transformation P/=o are expressed by k equations II;P/— Pn,/=XiiIIi/-|-. . . +X,iIIj;/. Suppose now a complete system of n—f equations in n variables to allow a group of r infinitesimal transformations (Pi/, . . ., P r /) which has an invariant subgroup of r— I parameters (Pi/, . . .,' P r _i/), it being supposed that the n quantities IIi/, . . ., n„_ r /, Pi.f, . . ., P r / are not connected by an identical linear equation (with co- efficients even depending on the independent variables). Then it can be shown that one solution of the complete system is deter- minable by a quadrature. For each of n.Po-/— P(x, y) is the solution of lz J r'l / ( x ,y) d Z = reducing to y for x = x°, are interchanged among themselves by the infinitesimal transformation, or w(x, y) can be chosen to make S-duldx-\-ridaldy = l; this, with daldx-\-\l/doildy = o, determines co as the integral of the complete differential {dy — ^dx)!^ — ^). This result itself shows that every ordinary differential equation of the first order is subject to an infinite number of infinitesimal transformations. But every infinit- esimal transformation £df/dx+ridf/dy can by change of variables (after integration) be brought to the form df/dy, and all differential equations of the first order allowing this group can then be reduced to the form F(x, dy/dx)=o. (2) In an ordinary equation of the second order y" = ^(x,y, /)>equivalent tody/dx = yi,dyi/dx = ^{x,y,yi), if H,Hi be the solutions for y and yi chosen to reduce to y° and yi" when x = x°, and the equations H=y, Hi = yi be equivalent to a = y°, wi=yi°, then a, wi are the principal solutions of nf*=df/dx+yidfldy-{-'l'dfldyi=o. If the original equation allow an infinitesimal transformation whose first extended form (see G ROU ps) is P/ = £df/dx +rjdfjdy +vidf/dyi , where tiiSt is the increment of dy/dx when %bt, t]U are the increments of x, y, and is to 1 be expressed in terms of x, y, yi, then each of P« and P«i must be functions of 01 and on, or the partial differential equation Ilf must allow the group P/. Thus by our general theorem, if the differential equation allow a group of two parameters (and such a group is always integrable), it can be solved by quadratures, our explanation sufficing, however, only provided the form n/ and the two infinitesimal transformations are not linearly connected. It can be shown, from the fact that 771 is a quadratic polynomial in y u that no differential equation of the second order can allow more than 8 really independent infinitesimal transformations, and that every homogeneous linear differential equation of the second order allows just 8, being in fact reducible to d 2 y/dx' 2 = o. Since every group of more than two parameters has subgroups of two para- meters, a differential equation of trie second order allowing a group of more than two parameters can, as a rule, be solved by quadratures. By transforming the group we see that if a differential equation of the second order allows a single infinitesimal transformation, it can be transformed to the form F(x,dy/dx, d?y/dx 2 ) ; this is not the case for every differential equation of the second order. (3) For an ordinary differential equation of the third order, allowing an integ- rable group of three parameters whose infinitesimal transformations are not linearly connected with the partial equation to which 'the solution of the given ordinary equation is reducible, the similar result follows that it can be integrated by quadratures. But if the group of three parameters be simple, this result must be replaced by the statement that the integration is reducible to quadratures and that of a so-called Riccati equation of the first order, of the ' iorm dyfdx = A+By+Cy 2 , where A, B, C are functions of x. (4) Simi- larly for the integration by quadratures of an ordinary equation y n = 4>{x, y, yi, . . . y n -i) of any order. Moreover, the group allowed by the equation may quite well consist of extended Contact transfor- mations. An important application is to the case where the differ- ential equation is the resolvent equation defining the group of DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION 235 transformations or rationality group of another differential equation (see below) ; in particular, when the rationality group of an ordinary linear differential equation is integrable, the equation can be solved by quadratures. Following the practical and provisional division of theories of differential equations, to which we alluded at starting, into transformation theories and function theories, we pass ttoaof ' now to give some account of the latter. These are both function a necessary logical complement of the former, and the theories of on ]y remaining resource when the expedients of the differea- f orm er have been exhausted. While in the former equations, investigations we have dealt only with values of the independent variables about which the functions are developable, the leading idea now becomes, as was long ago remarked by G. Green, the consideration of the neighbourhood of the values of the variables for which this developable character ceases. Beginning, as before, with existence theorems applicable for ordinary values of the variables, we are to consider the cases of failure of such theorems. • When in a given set of differential equations the number of equations is greater than the number of dependent variables, the equations cannot be expected to have common solutions unless certain conditions of compatibility, obtainable by equating different forms of the same differential coefficients deducible from the equations, are satisfied. We have had examples in systems of linear equations, and in the case of a set of equations pi = e t>h ■ ■ ■ iPr = &• For the case when the number of equations is the same as that of dependent variables, the following is a general theorem which should be referred to: Let there be r equations in r dependent variables Z\, . . . z, and n independent variables x\, . . . x„; let the differential coefficient of A general Za f highest order which enters be of order h a . and existence ° . theorem, suppose d h <'Z ff , where in the general differen- tial coefficient of z p which enters in $<,, say d k l + .... +k nZ p /dXi k l . . . dXn k n, we have hi, ... <£, are developable. Corresponding to each dependent variable z a , we take now a set of h a functions of Xi, . . .x„, say (r, 0 p reduces to b , and the differential coefficient +*, ^W/dxf* dx n k » d k 2+ . . reduces to b 9 ^ ...*„• Then the theorem is that there exists one, and only one, set of functions Si, . . . z r of x 2 , . . . x n developable about a , dz c jdx=^\ . . . d»°-h a ld*°-H=^°-*. And, moreover, if the arbitrary functions <$>„, ^ . . . contain a certain number of arbitrary variables h, ■ • ■ t m , and be de- velopable about the values t°, . . . t m ° of these variables, the solutions Zi, . . . z, will contain h, . . . t m , and be developable about t°, . . . C The proof of this theorem may be given by showing that if ordinary power series in Xi — 01, . . . x»— a„, t\ — tf, . . . t m — t m ° be substituted in the equations wherein in z a the coefficients of (xi — ai) , xi — ai, . . ., (xi— 0 • • • < t>a h ~ 1) > divided respectively by I, 1!, 2!, &c, then the differential equations determine uniquely all the other coefficients, and that the resulting series are convergent. We rely, in fact, upon the theory of monogenic analytical functions (see Function), a function being determined entirely by its development in the neighbourhood of one set of values of the independent variables, from which all its other values arise by continuation; it being of course understood that the coefficients rn the differential equations are to be continued at the same time. But it is to be remarked that there is no ground for believing, if this method of continuation be utilized, that the function is single- valued ; we may quite well return to the same values of the independent variables with a different value of the function, belonging, as we say, to a different branch of the function; and there is even no reason for s ' a gu> ar assuming that the number of branches is finite, or that P oln j s °' different branches have the same singular points and solatloas - regions of existence. Moreover, and this is the most difficult con- sideration of all, all these circumstances may be dependent upon the values supposed given to the arbitrary constants of the integral; in other words, the singular points may be either fixed, being deter- mined by the differential equations themselves, or they may be movable with the variation of the arbitrary constants of integration. Such difficulties arise even in establishing the reversion of an elliptic integral, in solving the equation = (x-a{)(x-a i )(x-a s ){x-a i ); about an ordinary value the right side is developable; if we put x—ai = h i , the right side becomes developable about h==o; if we put x = i/t, the right side of the changed equation is developable about t = o; it is quite easy to show that the integral reducing to a definite value x for a value s„ is obtainable by a series in integral powers; this, however, must be supplemented by showing that for no value of s does the value of * become entirely undetermined. These remarks will show the place of the theory now to be sketched of a particular class of ordinary linear homogeneous differential equations whose importance arises from the completeness and generality with which they can Linear be discussed. We have seen that if in the equations dlfferen- dyldx = yi,dy 1 /dx = y 1 , . . ., dyn-z/ dx = y n-u tlalequa- dy^ldx = a n y+a^ yi + . . : +a 1 y„_ 1 , %%£%. where ai, a 2 , . . . , a„ are now to be taken to be rational efficients. functions of x, the value x =x° be one for which no one of these rational functions is infinite, and y°, y°\, . . .,y°n_i be quite arbitrary finite values, then the equations are satisfied by y = y°u+y°iUi + . . . +y»-i« Wl where «, «i, . . ., «n-i are functions of x, independent of y, . .'. y°n-i, developable about x = x°; this value of y is such that for x = x° the functions y, yi . . y„_i reduce respectively to y, yf, . . . y°„-i; it can be proved that the region of existence of these series extends within a circle centre x° and radius equal to the distance from x° of the nearest point at which one of 01, . . . a„ becomes infinite. Now consider a region enclosing a; , and only one of the places, say S, at which one of 01, . . . a„ becomes infinite. When x is made to describe a closed curve in this region, including this point S in its interior, it may well happen that the continuations of the functions «, «i, . . . , «n-i give, when we have returned to the point x, values v,vi,. . ., Vn-i, so that the integral under con- sideration becomes changed to y°v-\-yi°vi+ . . . +y c »-i»»_i. At x° let this branch and the corresponding values of yi, . . . j»„_i be ri°, jj°i, . . . i)°»_i; then, as there is only one series satisfying the equation and reducing to (ij°, i)°i, ._ . . ?j n-i) for x = x°, and the coefficients in the differential equation are single-valued functions, we must have T)°u+r\i'ui+ . ._. +Tj°n-iWn_i=;y D-|-:yVi-)- . . . + y°n-iVn-i ; as this holds for arbitrary values of y°, . . . y°„_i, upon which «, . . . «„_i and v, . . . z°r-i; eliminating y°, . . . y°„_i from these linear equations, we have a determinantal equation of order n for n; let jm be one of its roots; determining the ratios of y°, yi°, . . . y°„_i to satisfy the linear equations, we have thus proved that there exists an integral, H, of the equation, which when continued round the point S and back to the starting-point, becomes changed to Hi=^iH. Let now I be the value of x at S and n one of the values of (1/277-i) log^i ; con- sider the function (*— £)~ r iH; when x makes a circuit round * = £, this becomes changed to exp(-27riri) (jf-Q-vH, that is, is unchanged; thus we may put H = (*— {) r i<£i, n- In general we obtain as many integrals of this form as there are really different roots; and the problem arises to discover, in case a root be k times repeated, k — 1 equations of as simple a form as possible to replace the k — 1 equations of the form y°v+ . . . + y n_iDn_i=(u(y°M-(- • . • +y p n_iM„_i) which would have existed had the roots been different. The most natural method of obtaining a suggestion lies probably in remarking that if r% = r\-\-h, there is.an integral [(* — £) r i + V2~ (*— 0' s i]lh, where the coefficients in ]■ or say (x-£) r i[fa+fa log (*-£)]; denoting this by 2-ri^K, and (* — £) r i \, the cases m — o, m = i being easily dealt with, and if <£(x) = (x — £1) . . . (x — £ m ), we must have a.$(x) and b.[(j>(x)f finite for all finite values" of x, equal say to the re- spective polynomials \f/(x) and 6{x), of which by the conditions at * = oothe highest respective orders possible are m — l and 2(m — i). of the second order. TheindexequationatK = |,isr(r-l)+r^(?i)/^>'({i)-|-9(£),/[0'(£i)] 8 = o, and if m, ft be its roots, we have ai+ft = i — ^fo)/<£'(£i) and aift=0(ti)/[<£'(£i)] 2 . Thus by an elementary theorem of algebra, the sum S(l — at — ft)/(x — {,•), extended to the m finite singular points, is equal to ip(x) l{x) , and the sum S(l — a< — ft) is equal to the ratio of the coefficients of the highest powers of x in 4>(x) and 4>(x), and therefore equal to i+a+ft where a, j3 are the indices at # = ao. Further, if (x, i)m_2 denote the integral part of the quotient 8{x)l{x), we haveZaift0'(£,-)/(x-£,-) equal to - Oc, l) m ^+8(x)/(x), and the coefficient of »™~ 2 in (x, i)m_2 is oft Thus the differential equation has the form y'+/2(l-a,--/SO/(*-{ i )+M(*.l)»-»+2a < ft*'(&)/(*-&)]/*(*)=0. If, however, we make a change in the dependent variable, putting y = (x — £i)"i . . . (x — { m ) a mi), it is easy to see that the equation changes into one having the same singular points about each of which it is regular, and that the indices at x — & become o and Pi — at, which we shall denote by X;, for (x — £j)"j can be developed in positive integral powers of x — & about x = {i; by this transformation the indices at x = 00 are changed to a+ai-1-...+a™, /3+ft+...+ftn which we shall denote by X, p. If we suppose this change to have been introduced, and still denote the independent variable by y, the equation has the form y'+y^(i-X0/(*-fc)+y(*,iW*(*).-o 1 while X+/H+X1+ . . . +X m = ?w — I. Conversely, it is easy to verify that if Xjt be the coefficient of x m_2 in (x, i) m _ 2 , this equation has the specified singular points and indices whatever be the other coefficients in (x, l) m _ 2 . Thus we see that (beside the cases m = o, m = i) the " Fuchsian equation " of the second order with two finite singular points is distinguished by the fact that it has a definite form when the singular points and the indices are assigned. "yP e Ve° m In that case, putting (*-&)/(*—&) =//(/ — 1), the singular met ™ points are transformed to o, 1, 00 , and, as is clear, without e 1 uatloa - change of indices. Still denoting the independent variable by x, the equation then has the form x(i -x)y"+y'[i -Xi -x(l +X+ /j.)} -Xm? = 0, which is the ordinary hypergeometric equation. Provided none of Xt, X2, X— jti be zero or integral about x — o, it has the solutions F(X, m, 1— Xi, 3c),#* 1 F(X-|-Xi, M+A lt 1+X1,*); about x = 1 it has the solutions F(X, fi, 1— X 2 , 1— x), (1— x)VF(X-r-\ 2 , m+^2, 1+X2, i—*), where X+m+Xi+X 2 = i; about 3c = oo it has the solutions *-xp(x, x + x i> x -m+i, x- 1 ), «-cF(m, m+Xi, m-X+i, x' 1 ), where F(a, ft 7, x) is the series aftc a(a + l)/3(ff+l)s 2 r 7 "I" 1.2.7(7 + 1) •••' which converges when |*| — 1 algebraically. In accordance with our general theory, logarithms are to be ex- pected in the solution when one of Xi, X 2 , X— 11 is zero or integral. Indeed when Xi is a negative integer, not zero, the second solution about x = o would contain vanishing factors in the denominators of its coefficients; in case X or m be one of the positive integers I, 2, . . . ( — Xi), vanishing factors occur also in the numerators; and then, in fact, the. second solution about x = o becomes x K i times an integral polynomial of degree ( — Xi) — X or of degree ( — Xi) — ju. But when Xi is a negative integer including zero, and neither X nor n is one of the positive integers 1,2... ( — Xi), the second solution about oc = o involves a term having the factor log x. When Xi is a positive integer, not zero, the second solution about x = o persists as a solution, in accordance with the order of arrangement of the roots of the index equation in our theory; the first solution is then replaced by an integral polynomial of degree — X or— /i, when Xor/i is one of the negative integers o, — I , — 2 1— Xi, but otherwise contains a logarithm. Similarly for the solutions about x = I or x = 00; it will be seen below how the results are deducible from those for x = o. Denote now the solutions about x = o by «i, u%; those about x = l by vi, v 2 ; and those about x = by v>i, w%; in the region (S<,Si) common to the circles S , Si of radius I whose centres are the points x = o, x = i, all the first four are valid, fT? and there exist equations «i=A»i+Bt' 2 , M2 = Cdi + Dd 2 ?l5f* , where A, B, C, D are constants; in the region (SiS) ">"*"»• lying inside the circle Si and outside the circle S a those that are valid are Vi, v 2 , w u w 2 , and there exist equations Vi = Pwi+Qw 2 , V2 = Rw!+Tw2, where P, Q, R, T are constants; thus considering any integral whose expression within the circle S is atii+bu 2 , where a, b are constants, the same integral will be represented within the circle Si by (aA+bC)'>i + (aB+bD)v 2 , and outside these circles will be represented by [(aA+&C)P + (aB+&D)R]wi+[(aA+&C)Q-r-(aB+&D)T]w,. ^ A single-valued branch of such integral can be obtained by making a barrier in the plane joining 00 to o and I to 00 ; for instance, by excluding the consideration of real negative values of x and of real DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION 237 positive values greater than I, and denning the phase of * and x-i for real values between o and 1 as respectively o and %. We can form the Fuchsian equation of the second order with three arbitrary singular points &, £ 2 , &>,. and no singular point at x = 00 , and with respective indices 01, (Si, a 2 , /3 2 , 03, fosuch Transfer- that , and, supposing logarithms not to enter about x = o, choose two quite definite integrals yi, y 2 of the equation, say yi = F(X, it, 1-X1, *), y 2 = * A iF(X+Xi, M+Xi, 1 + x i. *)> with the condition that the phase of x is zero when x is real and between o and I. Then the value of s = y 2 /yi is definite for all values of x in the divided plane, j being a single-valued monogenic branch of an analytical function existing and without singularities all over this region. If, now, the values of $ that so arise be plotted on to another plane, a value p+iq of s being represented by a point {p, q) of this s-plane, and the value of x from which it arose being mentally associated with this point of the s-plane, these points will fill a connected region therein, with a continuous boundary formed of four portions corresponding to the two sides of the two barriers of the x-pla*ie. The question is then, firstly, whether the same value of s can arise for two different values of x, that is, whether the same point (p, q) of the s-plane can arise twice, or in other words, whether the region of the s-plane overlaps itself or not. Supposing this is not so, a second part of the question presents itself. If in the x-plane the barrier joining - 00 to o be momentarily removed, and x describe a small circle with centre at x = o starting from a point x= -h-4k, where h, k are small, real, and positive and coming back to this point, the original value s at this point will be changed to a value l will be represented by a region having the angle at the common point common with the region For the branch s; (but not altogether coinciding with this last region unless Xi be real, and therefore = ±i/a; then there is only a finite number, a, of branches obtainable in this way by crossing the barrier (-» ,0). In precisely the same way, if we had begun by taking the quotient s' = (x-l)«F(X+X 2 , M+X2, 1 +Xj,'i-x) fF(X, /*, l-X 2 , l-x) of the two solutions about x = 1 , we should have found that x is not a single-valued function of s' unless X 2 is the inverse of an integer, or is zero; as s' is of the form (As + B)/(Cs-f-D), A, B, C, D constants, the same is true in our case; equally, by considering the integrals about x = we find, as a third condition necessary in order that x may be a single-valued function of s, that X-m must be the inverse of an integer or be zero. These three differences of the indices, namely, Xi, X 2 , X-/x, are the quantities which enter in the differential equation satisfied by x as a function of s, which is easily found to be _*iu+2?£» ^(h-fo-hJx-Hx-iri+hhsrt+hlhix-i)-*, Xi 3 2Xi * where x\ — dx\ds, &c; and fei = i-yi 2 , & 2 = i-X 2 2 , A 3 =i-(X-m) 2 - Into the converse question whether the three conditions are sufficient to ensure (1) that the s region corresponding to any branch does not overlap itself, (2) that no two such regions overlap, we have no space to enter. The second question clearly requires the inquiry whether the group (that is, the monodromy group) of the differential equation is properly discontinuous. ( See Groups, Theory of.) The foregoing account will give an idea of the nature of the function theories of differential equations; it appears essential not to exclude some explanation of a theory intimately related both to such theories and to transformation theories, which is a generalization of Galois's theory of algebraic equations. We deal only with the application to homogeneous linear differential equations. In general a function of variables Xi, Xi . . . is said to be rational when it can be formed from them and the integers 1, 2, 3, . . . by a finite number of additions, subtractions, multiplications # a , this poly- nomial is not the product of other polynomials in y^ h > also irreduct- of rational form ; and, secondly, the equation has no bllity of a solution satisfying also a rational equation of lower order, rational From this it follows that if an irreducible equation P =0 equation. have one solution satisfying another rational equation Q = o of the same or higher order, then all the solutions of P =0 also satisfy Q = o. For from the equation P = o we can by differentiation express jf(*+i> i y(k+2) t ... in terms of x, y, y (1) , . . . , y 1 * 5 , and so put the function Q rationally in terms of these quantities only. It is sufficient, then, to prove the result when the equation Q = is of the same order as P = o. Let both the equations be arranged as integral polynomials in y<*> ; their algebraic eliminant in regard to jrW must then vanish identically, for they are known to have one common solution not satisfying an equation of lower order; thus the equation P =0 involves Q = for all solutions of P =0. Now let 31C") = ai/" -1 ' + . . . -\-a n y be a given rational homo- geneous linear differential equation; let yi, . . . y„ be n particular functions of x, unconnected by any equation with constant co- efficients of the form c,yi + . . . +c„y„=o, all satisfying The the differential equation; let iji, . . . i)„ be linear functions of yi, . . . y„,say JK=Aj) =A(y), these being the equations of a general linear homogeneous group whose transformations may be denoted by A, B We desire to form a rational function (v), or say (A(y)), of 171, . . . rj, in which the 7j 2 constants A,-,- shall all be essential, and not. reduce effectively to a fewer number, as they would, for instance, if the yi,. . . . y„ were connected by a linear equation with constant coefficients. Such a function is in fact given, if the solutions y it . . . y n be developable variant function for a linear equation. 2 3 8 DIFFLUGIA— DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT in positive integral powers about * = a : , by <£(?;) = ij l -j-(#-a) B 7j2+ . . . + (x — a)*"- 1 '"^. Such a function, V, we call a variant. Then differentiating V in regard to x, and replacing ij;("> by its value aii)*"- 1 ' +. . . +a n y, we can arrange dV/dx, and similarly each of cPV/dx* . . . d^y/dx®, where N=ra 2 , as a linear function of There- the N quantities tji, . . . v „, . . . iji c ' l - 1, > • • • tj^-^.and " thence by elimination obtain a linear differential equation solvent £ or y Q £ or( j er jyj w ; t j 1 ra t; ona i coefficients. This we equation, denote by F=o. Further, each of %, . . .7j„ is expressible as a linear function of V, dV/dx, . . . d^-W/dx^- 1 -, w ith rational co- efficients not involving any of the n* coefficients An, since otherwise V would satisfy a linear equation of order less than N, which is impossible, as it involves (linearly) the n? arbitrary coefficients A*,-, which would not enter into the coefficients of the supposed equation. In particular, y lt . . . y„ are expressible rationally as linear functions of {y). Any solution W of the equation F = o is derivable from functions fi,. . . f„, which are linear functions of yi, . . . y n , just as V was derived from 771, . . .»;„; but it does not follow that these functions fi, ■ • fnare obtained from y lf . . . y„ by a transforma- tion of the linear group A, B, . . . ; for it may happen that the determinant - 1 ; we shall write, simply, V = r(u). Consider now the rational irreducible equation of lowest order, not necessarily a linear equation, which is satisfied by w; as yi, . . . y„ are particular functions, it may quite well be of order less than N ; we call it the resolvent equation, suppose it of order p, and denote it by y(v). Upon it the whole theory turns. In the first place, as y(v) =0 is satisfied by the solution a> of F = 0, all the solutions of y(v) are solutions F=o, and are therefore rationally expressible by a; any one may then be denoted by r(a). If this solution of F=o be not singular, it corresponds to a transformation A of the linear group (A, B, . . .), effected upon yi, . . . y„. The coefficients Ac,- of this transformation follow from the expressions before mentioned for 171. . .7j„in terms of V, dV/dx, d 2 V/dx 2 , ... by substituting V = r(u); thus they depend on the p arbitrary para- meters which enter into the general expression for the integral of the equation 7(11) =0. Without going into further details, it is then clear enough that the resolvent equation, being irreducible and such that any solution is expressible rationally, with p parameters, in terms of the solution «, enables us to define a linear homogeneous group of transformations of yi . . . y„ depending on p parameters ; and every operation of this (continuous) group corresponds to a rational transformation of the solution of the resolvent equation. This is the group called the rationality group, or the group of trans- formations of the original homogeneous linear differential equation. The group must not be confounded with a subgroup of itself, the monodromy group of the equation, often called simply the group of the equation, which is a set of transformations, not depend- ing on arbitrary variable parameters, arising for one particular fundamental set of solutions of the linear equation (|see Groups, Theory of). The importance of the rationality group consists in three proposi- tions. (1) Any rational function of yi, . . . y„ which is unaltered in value by the transformations of the group can be written in rational form. (2) If any rational function be changed in form, becoming a rational function of yi, . . . y„, a transformation of the group applied to its new form will leave its value unaltered. (3) Any homogeneous linear transformation leaving unaltered the value of every rational function of y u . . . y n which has a rational value, belongs to the group. It follows from these that any group of linear homogeneous transformations having the properties (1) (2) is identical with the group in question. It is clear that with these properties the group must be of the greatest import- ance in attempting to discover what functions of x must be regarded as rational in order that the values of yi . . . y„ may be expressed. And this is the problem of solving the equation from another point of view. Literature. — (a) Formal or Transformation Theories for Equations of the First Order: — E. Goursat, Legons sur I'integration des equa- tions aux derivies partielles du premier ordre (Paris, 1891) ; E. v. Weber, Vorlesungen ilber das Pfaff'sche Problem und die Theorie der partiellen Differentialgleichungen erster Ordnung (Leipzig, 1900); S. Lie und G. Scheffers, Geometrie der Beruhrungstransformationen, Bd. i. (Leipzig, 1896); Forsyth, Theory of Differential Equations, Part »., Exact Equations and Pfaff's Problem (Cambridge, 1890); S. Lie, "Allgemeine Untersuchungen fiber Differentialgleichungen, die eine continuirliche endliche Gruppe gestatten " (Memoir), Mathem. Annal. xxv. (1885), pp. 71-151 ; S. Lie und G. Scheffers, Vorlesungen iiber Differentialgleichungen mit bekannten infinitesimalen Transforma- lionen (Leipzig, 1891). A very full bibliography is given in the book of E. v. Weber referred to ; those here named are perhaps sufficiently representative of modern works. Of classical works may be named : Jacobi, Vorlesungen ilber Dynamik (von A. Clebsch, Berlin, 1866) ; Werke, Supplementband; G Monge, Application de V analyse & la giometrie (par M. Liouville, Paris, 1850); J. L. Lagrange, Lecons The fun' damental theorem In regard to the ration- ality group. sur le calcul des fonctions (Paris, 1806), and ThSorie des fonctions analytiqu.es (Paris, Prairial, an V) ; G. Boole, A Treatise on Differ- ential Equations (London, 1859); and Supplementary Volume (London, 1865); Darboux, Lecons sur la thkorie g&ne'rale des surfaces, tt. i.-iv. (Paris, 1887-1896); S. Lie, Theorie der transforma- tionsgruppen ii. (on Contact Transformations) (Leipzig, 1890). (0) Quantitative or Function Theories for Linear Equations: — C. Jordan, Cours d'analyse, t. iii. (Paris, 1896); E. Picard, TraitS d'analyse, tt. ii. and iii. (Paris, 1893, 1896); Fuchs, Various Memoirs, beginning with that in Crelle's Journal, Bd. lxvi. p. 121; Riemann, Werke, 2 r Aufl. (1892); Schlesinger, Handbuch der Theorie der linearen Differentialgleichungen, Bde. i.-ii. (Leipzig, 1895-1898); Heffter, Einleitung in die Theorie der linearen Differen- tialgleichungen mit einer unabhdngigen Variablen (Leipzig, 1894); Klein, Vorlesungen iiber lineare Differentialgleichungen der zweiten Ordnung (Autographed, Gottingen, 1894); and Vorlesungen iiber die hyper geometrische Function (Autographed, Gottingen, 1894); Forsyth, Theory of Differential Equations, Linear Equations. (7) Rationality Group (of Linear Differential Equations): — Picard, Traite d' Analyse, as above, t. iii.; Vessiot, Annates de I'Ecole Normale, serie III. t. ix. p. 199 (Memoir); S. Lie, Transformationsgruppen, as above, iii. A connected account is given in Schlesinger, as above, Bd. ii., erstes Theil. (5) Function Theories of Non-Linear Ordinary Equations: — Painlev6, Lecons sur la theorie analytique des equations differentielles (Paris, 1897, Autographed) ; Forsyth, Theory of Differential Equa- tions, Part ii., Ordinary Equations not Linear (two volumes, ii. and iii.) : (Cambridge, 1900) ; Konigsberger, Lehrbuch der Theorie der Differen- tialgleichungen (Leipzig, 1889); Painlev6, Lecons sur I'integration des Equations differentielles de la mecanique et applications (Paris, i8?5)- (e) Formal Theories of Partial Equations of the Second and Higher Orders: — E. Goursat, Lecons sur I'integration des Equations aux derivies partielles du second ordre, tt. i. and ii. (Paris, 1896, 1898); Forsyth, Treatise on Differential Equations (London, 1889); and Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (A.), vol. cxci. (1898), pp. 1-86. (f) See also the six extensive articles in the second volume of the German Encyclopaedia of Mathematics. (H. F. Ba.) DIFFLUGIA (L. Leclerc), a genus of lobose Rhizopoda, char- acterized by a shell formed of sand granules cemented together; these are swallowed by the animal, and during the process of bud-fission they pass to the surface of the daughter-bud and are cemented there. Centropyxis (Steia) and Lecqueureuxia (Schlumberg) differ only in minor points. DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT— 1. When light proceeding from a small source falls upon an opaque object, a shadow is cast upon a screen situated behind the obstacle, and this shadow is found to be bordered by alternations of brightness and darkness, known as " diffraction bands." The phenomena thus presented were described by Grimaldi and by Newton. Subsequently T. Young showed that in their formation interference plays an important part, but the complete explanation was reserved for A. J. Fresnel. Later investigations by Fraunhofer, Airy and others have greatly widened the field, and under the head of " diffraction " are now usually treated all the effects dependent upon the limitation of a beam of light, as well as those which arise from irregularities of any kind at surfaces through which it is trans- mitted, or at which it is reflected. 2. Shadows. — In the infancy of the undulatory theory the objection most frequently urged against it was the difficulty of explaining the very existence of shadows. Thanks to Fresnel and his followers, this department of optics is now precisely the one in which the theory has gained its greatest triumphs. The principle employed in these investigations is due to C. Huygens, and may be thus formulated. If round the origin of waves an ideal closed surface be drawn, the whole action of the waves in the region beyond may be regarded as due to the motion continually propagated across the various elements of this surface. The wave motion due to any element of the surface is called a secondary wave, and in estimating the total effect regard must be paid to the phases as well as the amplitudes of the components. It is usually convenient to choose as the surface of resolution a wave-front, i.e. a surface at which the primary vibrations are in one phase. Any obscurity that may hang over Huygens's principle is due mainly to the indefiniteness of thought and expression which we must be content to put up with if we wish to avoid pledging ourselves as to the character of the vibrations. In the application to sound, where we know what we are dealing with, the matter is simple enough in principle, although mathematical difficulties would often stand in the way of the calculations we might wish to make. DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT 239 Fig. 1. The ideal surface of resolution may be there regarded as a flexible lamina; and we know that, if by forces locally applied every element of the lamina be made to move normally to itself exactly as the air at that place does, the external aerial motion is fully determined. By the principle of superposition the whole effect may be found by integration of the partial effects due to each element of the surface, the other elements remaining at rest. We will now consider in detail the important case in which uniform plane waves are resolved at a surface coincident with a wave-front (OQ). We imagine a wave-front divided , into elementary rings or zones — often named after Huygens, but better after Fresnel — by spheres described round P (the point at which the aggregate effect is to be estimated), the first sphere, touching the plane at O, with a radius equal to PO, and the succeeding spheres with radii increasing at each step by §X. There are thus marked out a series of circles, whose radii x are given by x? -j- r 2 = ( r -|- inX) 2 , or x 2 = rihr nearly ; so that the rings are at first of nearly equal area. Now the effect upon P of each element of the plane is proportional to its area; but it depends also upon the distance from P, and possibly upon the inclination of the secondary ray to the direction of vibration and to the wave-front. The latter question can only be treated in connexion with the dynamical theory (see below, § 11); but under all ordinary circum- stances the result is independent of the precise answer that may be given. All that it is necessary to assume is that the effects of the successive zones gradually diminish, whether from the increasing obliquity of the secondary ray or because (on account of the limita- tion of the region of integration) the zones become at last more and more incomplete. The component vibrations at P due to the successive zones are thus nearly equal in amplitude, and opposite in phase (the phase of each corresponding to that of the infinitesimal circle midway between the boundaries), and the series which we have to sum is one in which the terms are alternately opposite in sign and, while at first nearly constant in numerical magnitude, gradually diminish to zero. In such a series each term may be regarded as very nearly indeed destroyed by the halves of its immediate neighbours, and thus the sum of the whole series is represented by half the first term, which stands over uncompensated. The question is thus reduced to that of finding the effect of the first zone, or central circle, of which the area is v\r. We have seen that the problem before us is independent of the law of the secondary wave as regards obliquity; but the result of the integration necessarily involves the law of the intensity and phase of a secondary wave as a function of r, the distance from the origin. And we may in fact, as was done by A. Smith (Camb. Math. Journ., 1843, 3, p. 46), determine the law of the secondary wave, by comparing the result of the integration with that obtained by sup- posing the primary wave to pass on to P without resolution. Now as to the phase of the secondary wave, it might appear natural to suppose that it starts from any point Q with the phase of the primary wave, so that on arrival at P, it is retarded by the amount corresponding to QP. But a little consideration will prove that in that case the series of secondary waves could not reconstitute the primary wave. For the aggregate effect of the secondary waves is the half of that of the first Fresnel zone, and it is the central element only of that zone for which the distance to be travelled is equal to r. Let us conceive the zone in question to be divided into infinitesimal rings of equal area. The effects due to each of these rings are equal in amplitude and of phase ranging uniformly over half a complete period. The phase of the resultant is midway between those of the extreme elements, that is to say, a quarter of a period behind that due to the element at the centre of the circle. It is accordingly necessary to suppose that the secondary waves start with a phase one-quarter of a period in advance of that of the primary wave at the surface of resolution. Further, it is evident that account must be taken of the variation of phase in estimating the magnitude of the effect at P of the first zone. The middle element alone contributes without deduction; the effect of every other must be found by. introduction of a resolv- ing factor, equal to cos 0, if 6 represent the difference of phase between this element and the resultant. Accordingly, the amplitude of the resultant will be less than if all its components had the same phase, in the ratio / +h cos 8d6 : ir, or 2: jr. Now 2 area /V = 2Xr; so that, in order to reconcile the amplitude of the primary wave (taken as unity) with the half effect of the first zone, the amplitude, at distance r, of the secondary wave emitted from the element of area dS must be taken to be dS/\r (1). By this expression, in conjunction with the quarter-period accelera- tion of phase, the law of the secondary wave is determined. That the amplitude of the secondary wave should vary as r -1 was to be expected from considerations respecting energy; but the occurrence of the factor X -1 , and the acceleration of phase, have sometimes been regarded as mysterious. It may be well therefore to remember^ that precisely these laws apply to a secondary wave of sound, which can be investigated upon the strictest mechanical principles. The recomposition of the secondary waves may also be treated analytically. If the primary wave at O be cos kat, the effect of the secondary wave proceeding from the element dS at Q is r- cos k(at— p+JX) = — r- sin k(at—p). IfdS-- 2irxdx, we have for the whole effect 2x f"° sink(at—p)xdx "xjo P ' or, since xdx = pdp, k = 2irl\ — kC"- sin h{at—p)dp= \— cos £(a< — p)j~ In order to obtain the. effect of the primary wave, as retarded by traversing the distance r, viz. cos k{al-r), it is necessary to suppose that the integrated term vanishes at the upper limit. And it is im- portant to notice that without some further understanding the integral is really ambiguous. According to the assumed law of the secondary wave, the result must actually depend upon the precise radius of the outer boundary of the region of integration, supposed to be exactly circular. This case is, however, at most very special and exceptional. We may usually suppose that a large number of the outer rings are incomplete, so that the integrated term at the upper limit may properly be taken to vanish. If a formal proof be desired, it may be obtained by introducing into the integral a factor such as e~ hl> , in which h is ultimately made to diminish without limit. When the primary wave is plane, the area of the first Fresnel zone is tt>&, and, since the secondary waves vary as r~ l , the intensity is independent of r, as of course it should be. If, however, the primary wave be spherical, and of radius a at the wave-front of resolution, then we know that at a distance r further on the amplitude of the primary wave will be diminished in the ratio a:(r-\-a). This may be regarded as a consequence of the altered area of the first Fresnel zone. For, if x be its radius, we have (C+fX) 2 -* 2 } +V |a 2 -* 2 | =r+a, so that • x* = \ar/(a+r) nearly. Since the distance to be travelled by the secondary waves is still r, we see how the effect of the first zone, and therefore of the whole series is proportional to a/(a+r). In like manner may be treated other cases, such as that of a primary wave-front of unequal principal curvatures. The general explanation of the formation of shadows may also be conveniently based upon Fresnel's zones. If the point under consideration be so far away from the geometrical shadow that, a large number of the earlier zones are complete, then the illumina- tion, determined sensibly by the first zone, is the same as if there were no obstruction at all. If, on the other hand, the point be well immersed in the geometrical shadow, the earlier zones are altogether missing, and, instead of a series of terms beginning with finite numerical magnitude and gradually diminishing to zero, we have now to deal with one of which the terms diminish to zero at both ends. The sum of such a series is very approximately zero, each term being neutralized by the halves of its immediate neighbours, which are of the opposite sign. The question of light or darkness then depends upon whether the series begins or ends abruptly. With few exceptions, abruptness can occur only in the presence of the first term, viz. when the secondary wave of least retardation is unob- structed, or when a ray passes through the point under consideration. According to the undulatory theory the light cannot be regarded strictly as travelling along a ray ; but the existence of an unobstructed ray implies that the system of Fresnel's zones can be commenced, and, if a large number of these zones are fully developed and do not terminate abruptly, the illumination is unaffected by the neighbour- hood of obstacles. Intermediate cases in whicha few zones only are formed belong especially to the province of diffraction. An interesting exception to the general rule that full brightness requires the existence of the first zone occurs when the obstacle assumes the form of a small circular disk parallel to the plane of the incident waves. In the earlier half of the 1 8th century R. Delisle found, that the centre of the circular shadow was occupied by a bright point of light, but the observation passed into oblivion until S. D. Poisson brought forward as an objection to Fresnel's theory that it required at the centre of a circular shadow a point as bright as if no obstacle were intervening, If we conceive the primary wave to be broken up at the plane of the disk, a system of Fresnel's zones can be constructed which begin from the circumference; and the first zone external to the disk plays the part ordinarily taken by the centre of the entire system. The whole effect is the 240 DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT half of that of the first existing zone, and this is sensibly the same as if there were no obstruction. When light passes through a small circular or annular aperture, the illumination at any point along the axis depends upon the precise relation between the aperture and the distance from it at which the point is taken. If, as in the last paragraph, we imagine a system of zones to be drawn commencing from the inner circular boundary of the aperture, the question turns upon the manner in which the series terminates at the outer boundary. If the aperture be such as to fit exactly an integral number of zones, the aggregate effect may be regarded as the half of those due to the first and last zones. If the number of zones be even, the action of the first and last zones are antagonistic, and there is complete darkness at the point. If on the other hand the number of zones be odd, the effects con- spire ; and the illumination (proportional to the square of the ampli- tude) is four times as great as if there were no obstruction at all*. The process of augmenting the resultant illumination at a par- ticular point by stopping some of the secondary rays may be carried much further (Soret, Pogg. Ann., 1875, 156, p. 99). By the aid of photography it is easy to prepare a plate, transparent where the zones of odd order fall, and opaque where those of even order fall. Such a plate has the power of a condensing lens, and gives an illumination out of all proportion to what could be obtained without it. An even greater effect (fourfold) can be attained by providing that the stoppage of the light from the alternate zones is replaced by a phase-reversal without loss of amplitude. R. W. Wood {Phil. Mag., 1898, 45, p 513) has succeeded in constructing zone plates upon this principle. In such experiments the narrowness of the zones renders necessary a pretty close approximation to the geometrical conditions. Thus in the case of the circular disk, equidistant (/) from the source of light and from the screen upon which the shadow is observed, the width of the first exterior zone is given by 2x being the diameter of the disk. If 2r = iooo cm., 2* = i cm., A = 6Xio~ 6 cm., then dx = -ooi5 cm. Hence, in order that this zone may be perfectly formed, there should be no error in the circum- ference of the order of -ooi cm. (It is easy to see that the radius of the bright spot is of the same order of magnitude.) The experiment succeeds in a dark room of the length above mentioned, with a threepenny bit (supported by three threads) as obstacle, the origin of light being a small needle hole in a plate of tin, through which the sun's rays shine horizontally after reflection from an external mirror. In the absence of a heliostat it is more convenient to obtain a point of light with the aid of a lens of short focus. The amplitude of the light at any point in the axis, when plane waves are incident perpendicularly upon an annular aperture, is, as above, cos k(at-ri)-cos k(at-r 2 )=2 sin kat sin k(/r-ri)> r»,ri being the distances of the outer and inner boundaries from the point in question. It is scarcely necessary to remark that in all such cases the calculation applies in the first instance to homogeneous light, and that, in accordance with Fourier's theorem, each homogeneous component of a mixture may be treated separately. When the original light is white, the presence of some components and the absence of others will usually give rise to coloured effects, variable with the precise circumstances of the case. Although the matter can be fully treated only upon the basis of a dynamical theory, it is proper to point out at once that there is an element of assumption in the application of Huygens's principle to the calculation of the effects produced by opaque screens of limited extent. Properly applied, the principle could not fail; but, as may readily be proved in the case of sonorous waves, it is not in strict- ness sufficient to assume the expression for a secondary wave suitable when the primary wave is undisturbed, with mere limitation of the integration to the transparent parts of the screen. _ But, except perhaps in the case of very fine gratings, it is probable that the error thus caused is insignificant; for the incorrect estimation of the secondary waves will be limited to distances of a few wave-lengths only from the boundary of opaque and transparent parts. 3. Fraunhofer's Diffraction Phenomena. — A very general problem in diffraction is the investigation of the distribution of light over a screen upon which impinge divergent or con- vergent spherical waves after passage through various diffracting apertures. When the waves are convergent and the recipient screen is placed so as to contain the centre of convergency — the image of the original radiant point, the calculation assumes a less complicated form. This class of phenomena was investigated by J. von Fraunhofer (upon principles laid down by Fresnel), and are sometimes called after his name. We may conveniently commence with them on account of their simplicity and great importance in respect to the theory of optical instruments. If / be the radius of the spherical wave at the place of resolution, where the vibration is represented by cos kat, then at any point M (fig. 2) in the recipient screen the vibration due to an element is situated) by x, y, z. Then Fig. 2. so that p^ = { x -^+{y-r,Y+z\ f>=x*+y*+z*; P*=f-2xl;-2yr,+l?+r,\ In the applications with which we are concerned, {, 1; are very small quantities; and we may take xj+yy P At the same time dS> may be identified with dxdy, and in the de- nominator p may be treated as constant and equal to /. Thus the expression for the vibration at M becomes P=/ 1- l f jy % si ak \at-f+^±^\dxd y . . . (1); \f. and for the intensity, represented by the square of the amplitude, ^^[//^k^dxdy]' +■ w[ff c cos£ I 12 (2). This expression for the intensity becomes rigorously applicable when / is indefinitely great, so that ordinary optical aberration disappears. The incident waves are thus plane, and are limited to a plane aper- ture coincident with a wave-front. The integrals are then properly functions of the direction in which the light is to be estimated. In experiment under ordinary circumstances it makes no differ- ence whether the collecting lens is in front of or behind the diffract- ing aperture. It is usually most convenient to employ a telescope focused upon the radiant point, and to place the diffracting apertures immediately in front of the object-glass. What is seen through the eye-piece in any case is the same as would be depicted upon a screen in the focal plane. Before proceeding to special cases it may be well to call attention to some general properties of the solution expressed by (2) (see Bridge, Phil. Mag., 1858). If when the aperture is given, the wave-length (proportional to tr 1 ) varies, the composition of the integrals is unaltered, provided £ and rj are taken universely proportional to X. A diminution of X thus leads to a simple proportional shrinkage of the diffraction pattern, attended by an augmentation of brilliancy in proportion to A- 2 . If the wave-length remains unchanged, similar effects are pro- duced by an increase in the scale of the aperture. The linear dimension of the diffraction pattern is inversely as that of the aperture, and the brightness at corresponding points is as the square of the area of aperture. If the aperture and wave-length increase in the same proportion, the size and shape of the diffraction pattern undergo no change. We will now apply the integrals (2) to the case of a rectangular aperture of width a parallel to x and of width b parallel to y. The limits of integration for x may thus be taken to be -\a and +i«, and in the second quadrant there is none because the signs of u and tan u are opposite. The first root after zero is thus in the third quadrant, corresponding to m = l. Even in this case the series converges sufficiently to give the value of the root with considerable accuracy, while for higher values of m it is all that could be desired. The actual values of «/x (calculated in another manner by F. M. Schwerd) are l-43°3. 2 '459°. 3 - 47°9. 4 - 4747, 5-4818, 6-4844, &c. Since the maxima occur when u — (m+^)ir nearly, the successive values are not very different from 4 4 4 &c ff»" 25V 357*' The application of these results to (3) shows that the field is brightest at the centre l = o, ij = o, viz. at the geometrical image of the radiant point. It is traversed by dark lines whose equations are £ = mf\/a, 7) = mf\/b. Within the rectangle formed by pairs of consecutive dark lines, and not far from its centre, the brightness rises to a maximum; but these subsequent maxima are in all cases much inferior to the brightness at the centre of the entire pattern (£ = 0, ij = o). By the principle of energy the illumination over the entire focal plane must be equal to that over the diffracting area ; and thus, in accordance with the suppositions by which (3) was obtained, its value when integrated from { = 00 to £=+00, and from j;= — 00 to »j=+co should be equal to ab. This integration, employed originally by P. Kelland (Edin. Trans. 15, p. 315) to determine the absolute intensity of a secondary wave, may be at once effected by means of the known formula It will be observed that, while the total intensity is proportional to ab, the intensity at the focal point is proportional to a?b*. If the aperture be increased, not only is the total brightness over the focal plane increased with it, but there is also a concentration of the diffraction pattern. The form of (3) shows immediately that, if a and b be altered, the co-ordinates of any characteristic point in the pattern vary as a- 1 and b- 1 . The contraction of the diffraction pattern with increase of aperture is of fundamental importance in connexion with the resolving power of optical instruments. According to common optics, where images are absolute, the diffraction pattern is supposed to be infinitely small, and two radiant points, however near together, form separated images. This is tantamount to an assumption that X is infinitely small. The actual finiteness of X imposes a limit upon the separating or resolving power of an optical instrument. This indefiniteness of images is sometimes said to be due to diffraction by the edge of the aperture, and proposals have even been made for curing it by causing the transition between the interrupted and transmitted parts of the primary wave to be less abrupt. Such a view of the matter is altogether misleading. What requires explanation is not the imperfection of actual images so much as the possibility of their being as good as we find them. At the focal point (£ = 0, »;=o) all the secondary waves agree in phase, and the intensity is easily expressed, whatever be the form of the aperture. From the general formula (2), if A be the area of aperture, Io»=AVX»/» (7). ' The formation of a sharp image of the radiant point requires that the illumination become insignificant when £, ij attain small values, and this insignificance can only arise as a consequence of discrepancies of phase among the secondary waves from various parts of the aperture. So long as there is no sensible discrepancy of phase there can be no sensible diminution of brightness as com- pared with that to be found at the focal point itself. We may go further, and lay it down that there can be no considerable loss of brightness until the difference of phase of the waves proceeding from the nearest and farthest parts of the aperture amounts to JX. When the difference of phase amounts to X, we may expect the resultant illumination to be very much reduced. In the particular case of a rectangular aperture the course of things can be readily followed, especially if we conceive / to be infinite. In the direction (suppose horizontal) for which i; = o, |//=sin B, the phases of the secondary waves range over a complete period when sin = X/a, and, since all parts of the horizontal aperture are equally effective, there is in this direction a complete compensation and consequent absence of illumination. When sin = fX/a, the phases range one and a half periods, and there is revival of illumination. We may compare the brightness with that in the direction = o. The phase of the resultant amplitude is the same as that due to the central secondary wave, and the discrepancies of phase among the components reduce the amplitude in the proportion */- +f* ■tr cos d: 1 , or — 2/3*-:i; so that the brightness in this direction is 4/91^ of the maximum at = o. In like manner we may find the illumination in any other direction, and it is obvious that it vanishes when sin is any multiple of X/a. The reason of the augmentation of resolving power with aperture will now be evident. The larger the aperture the smaller are the angles through which it is necessary to deviate from the principal direction in order to bring in specified discrepancies of phase — the more concentrated is the image. In many cases the subject of examination is a luminous line of uniform intensity, the various points of which are to be treated as independent sources of light. If the image of the line be £ = 0, the intensity at any point £ , 17 of the diffraction pattern may be represented by x: ,*qt 9 J. °i" — r7 x 2 / 2 (8), Fig. 3. the same law as obtains for a luminous point when horizontal directions are alone considered. The definition of a fine vertical line, and consequently the resolving power for contiguous vertical lines, is thus independent of the vertical aperture of the instrument, a law of great importance in the theory of the spectroscope. H The distribution of illumination in the image of a luminous line is shown by the curve ABC (fig. 3), representing the value of the function sin 2 «/« 2 from w = o to u — 2w. The part corresponding to negative values of« is similar, OA being a line of symmetry. Let us now consider the distribution of brightness in the image of a double line whose components are of equal strength, and at such an angular interval that the central line in the image of one coincides with the first zero of brightness in the image of the other. In fig. 3 the curve of brightness for one component is ABC, and for the other OA'C ; and the curve representing half the combined brightnesses is E'BE. The brightness (cor- responding to B) midway between the two central points AA' is -8 106 of the bright- ness at the central points themselves. We may consider this to be about the limit of closeness at which there could be any decided appearance of resolution, though doubtless an observer accustomed to his instrument would recognize the duplicity with certainty. The obliquity, corre- sponding to u = w, is such that the phases of the secondary Waves range over a com- plete period, i.e. such that the projection of the horizontal aperture upon this direction is one wave-length. We conclude that a double line cannot be fairly resolved unless Us components subtend an angle exceeding that subtended by the wave-length of light at a distance equal to the horizontal aperture. This rule is convenient on account of its simplicity ; and it is sufficiently accurate in view of the necessary uncertainty as to what exactly is meant by resolution. If the angular interval between the components of a double line be half as great again as that supposed in the figure, the brightness midway between is -1802 as against 1-0450 at the central lines of each image. Such a falling off in the middle must be more than sufficient for resolution. If the angle subtended by the components of a double line be twice that subtended by the wave-length at a distance equal to the horizontal aperture, the central bands are just clear of one another, and there is a line of absolute blackness in the middle of the combined images. The resolving power of a telescope with circular or rectangular aperture is easily investigated experimentally. The best object for examination is a grating of fine wires, about fifty to the inch, backed by a sodium flame. The object-glass is provided with diaphragms pierced with round holes or slits. One of these, of width equal, say, to one-tenth of an inch, is inserted in front of the object-glass, and the telescope, carefully focused all the while, is drawn gradually back from the grating until the lines are no longer seen. From a measure- ment of the maximum distance the least angle between consecutive lines consistent with resolution may be deduced, and a comparison made with the rule stated above. Merely to show the dependence of resolving power on aperture it is not necessary to use a telescope at all. It is sufficient to look at wire gauze backed by the sky or by a flame, through a piece of blackened cardboard, pierced by a needle and held close to the eye. By varying the distance the point is easily found at which resolution ceases; and the observation is as sharp as with a telescope. The 2^.2 DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT function of the telescope is in fact to allow the use of a wider, and therefore more easily measurable, aperture. An interesting modi- fication of the experiment may be made by using light of various wave-lengths. Since the limitation of the width of the central band in the image of a luminous line depends upon discrepancies of phase among the secondary waves, and since the discrepancy is greatest for the waves which come from the edges of the aperture, the question arises how far the operation of the central parts of the aperture is ad- vantageous. If we imagine the aperture reduced to, two equal narrow slits bordering its edges, compensation will evidently be complete when the projection on an oblique direction is equal to \\, instead of X as for the complete aperture. By this procedure the width of the central band in the diffraction pattern is halved, and so far an advantage is attained. But, as will be evident, the bright bands bordering the central band are now not inferior to it in brightness; in fact, a band similar to the central band is repro- duced an indefinite number of times, so long as there is no sensible discrepancy of phase in the secondary waves proceeding. from the various parts of the same slit. Under these circumstances the narrowing of the band is paid for at a ruinous price, and the arrange- ment must be condemned altogether. A more moderate suppression of the central parts is, however, sometimes advantageous. Theory and experiment alike prove that a double line, of which the components are equally strong, is better resolved when, for example, one-sixth of the horizontal aperture is blocked off by a central screen ; or the rays quite at the centre may be allowed to pass, while others a little farther removed are blocked off. Stops, each occupying one-eighth of the width, and with centres situated at the points of trisection, answer Well the required purpose. It has already been suggested that the principle of energy requires that the general expression for P in (2) when integrated over the whole of the plane ?, 17 should be equal to A, where A is the area of the aperture. A general analytical verification has been given by Sir G. G. Stokes (Edin. Trans., 1853, 20, p. 317). Analytically expressed — fJ+£¥d\dn=*ffdxdy=A (9). We have seen that I§ (the intensity at the focal point) was equal to A 2 /X 2 / 2 . If A' be the area over which the intensity must be I§ in order to give the actual total intensity in accordance with W^ffiyatdn, the relation between A and A' is AA'=X 2 / J . Since A' is in some sense the area of the diffraction pattern, it may be considered to be a rough criterion of the definition, and we infer that the definition of a point depends principally upon the area of the aperture, and only in a very secondary degree upon the shape when the area is maintained constant. 4. Theory of Circular Aperture. — We will now consider the important case where the form of the aperture is circular. Writing for brevity H!f=p, k v lf=q, . . . . . (1), we have for the general expression (§ 11) of the intensity X 2 /2p = S s +C 2 - : ...",- • (2), where S=ffsin{px+qy)dxdy, . . . (3), C=ffcos(px : \-qy)dxdy, . . . (4). When, as in the application to rectangular or circular apertures, the form is symmetrical with respect to the axes both of x and y,. S = o, and C reduces to C=Jjcospx cos qydxdy, . . . (5). In the case of the circular aperture the distribution of light is of course symmetrical with respect to the focal point p = o, g = o; and C is a function of p and q only through V (P'+q 1 ). It is thus sufficient to determine the intensity along the axis of p. Putting q — o, we get C *=ffcos px d x dy = 2/1 s cos px V (R 2 — a 2 ) dx, R being the radius of the aperture. This integral is the Bessel's function of order unity, defined by Ji(z)=- J x cos(zcos0)sin 2 0i0 . . . (6). Thus, if s = R cos <£, C = *°R 2 Mm. .... (7); pR. and the illumination at distance r from the focal point is vr«, 4 m /x ; (8) 1 X 2 / 2 / 2irRA 2 W • I n ! The ascending series for Ji(z). used by Sir G. B. Airy (Camb. Trans., 1834) in his original investigation of the diffraction of a circular object-glass, and readily obtained from (6), is .*(«)=!• 2?.4 T 2 2 .4 2 .6 r+ 2 2 .4 2 .6 2 .8 When z is great, we may employ the semi-convergent series 3.5. 7.9.1.3. 5 /l\* ) 8.16.24.32 W + "" 5 J- * / f 2 \ 1 , aS 3 * 3.5. 7.1.3 /l\ s + V .(«) C0S ( 2 -W \ § • 7 ~ 8.16.24 (z) (9). + 3.5.7.9.11.1.3.5 *©'-■••!■ (io). 8.16.24:32.40 A table of the values- of 2z -l J 1 (z) has been given by E. C. J. Lommel (Schlomilch, 1870, 15, p. 166), to whom is due the first systematic application of Bessel's functions to the diffraction integrals. The illumination vanishes in correspondence with the roots of the equation Ji(z) =0. If these be called zi,'z 2 , z 3 , . . . the radii of the dark rings in the diffraction pattern are /Xzi /Xz 2 2^R'2*R'--- being thus inversely proportional to R. The integrations may also be effected by means of polar co- ordinates, taking first the integration with respect to <£ so as to obtain the result for an infinitely thin annular aperture. Thus, if x = p cos ,~y = p sin , C =JJ cos px dx dy = /" R Jq" cos {pp Cos 0) pdp d$. Now by definition J0C2) = ^Jo " c o s ( z cos e ) ^ = 1- 2^+2T42 _ 2 2 ~4 2 ~6 2 " 1 "- • • ( 11 )- The value of C for an annular aperture of radius r and width dr is thus 337)- Lord Rayleigh has recorded that he was himself convinced by Fraunhofer's reasoning at a date antecedent to the writings of Helmholtz and Abbe. ■■■..■:■: 244 DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT increases. When the interval is very small the discrepancy, though mathematically existent, produces no practical effect; and the illumination at B due to P is as important as that due to A, the intensities of the two luminous sources being supposed equal. Under these conditions it is clear that A and P are not separated in the image. The question is to what amount must the distance AP be increased in order that the difference of situation may make itself felt in the image. This is necessarily a question of degree; but it does not require detailed calculations in order to show that the discrepancy first becomes conspicuous when the phases corresponding to the various secondary waves which travel from P to B range over a complete period. The illumination at B due to P then becomes comparatively small, indeed for some forms of aperture evanescent. The extreme discrepancy is that between the waves which travel through the outermost parts of the object-glass at L and L'; so that if we adopt the above standard of resolution, the question is where must P be situated in order that the relative retardation of the rays PL and PL' may on their arrival at B amount to a wave-length (X). In virtue of the general law that the reduced optical path is stationary in value, this retardation may be calculated without allowance for the different paths pursued on the farther side of L, L', so that the value is simply PL — PL'. Now since AP is very small, AL' — PL' = AP sin o, where a is the angular semi-aperture L'AB. In like manner PL— AL has the same value, so that PL-PL' = 2APsin a. According to the standard adopted, the condition of resolution is therefore that AP, or e, should exceed JX/sin a. It e be less than this, the images overlap too much; while if e greatly exceed the above value the images become unnecessarily separated. In the above argument the whole space between the object and the lens is supposed to be occupied by matter of one refractive index, and X represents the wave-length in this medium of the kind of light employed. If the restriction as to uniformity be violated, what we have ultimately to deal with is the wave-length in the medium immediately surrounding the object. Calling the refractive index n, we have as the critical value of e, e = |VMsin a, (1) , Xo being the wave-length in vacuo. The denominator m sin a is the quantity well known (after Abbe) as the " numerical aperture." The extreme value possible for o is a right angle, so that for the microscopic limit we have e = lXo/M ....... (2). The limit can be depressed only by a diminution in Xo, such as photography makes possible, or by an increase in p, the refractive index of the medium in which the object is situated. The statement of the law of resolving power has been made in a form appropriate to the microscope, but it admits also of immediate application to the telescope. If 2 R be the diameter of the object- glass and D the distance of the object, the angle subtended by AP is e/D, and the angular resolving power is given by X/2Dsina= X/2R (3). This method of derivation (substantially due to Helmholtz) makes it obvious that there is no essential difference of principle between the two cases, although the results are conveniently stated in different forms. In the case of the telescope we have to deal with a linear measure of aperture and an angular limit of resolution, whereas in the case of the microscope the limit of resolution is linear, and it is expressed in terms of angular aperture. It must be understood that the above argument distinctly assumes that the different parts of the object are self-luminous, or at least that the light proceeding from the various points is without phase relations. As has been emphasized by G. J. Stoney, the restriction is often, perhaps usually, violated in the microscope. A different treatment is then necessary, and for some of the problems which arise under this head the method of Abbe is convenient. The importance of the general conclusions above formulated, as imposing a limit upon our powers of direct observation, can hardly be overestimated; but there has been in some quarters a tendency to ascribe to it a more precise character than it can bear, or even to mistake its meaning altogether. A few words of further explanation may therefore be desirable. The first point to be emphasized is that nothing whatever is said as to the smallness of a single object that may be made visible. The eye, unaided or armed with a telescope, is able to see, as points of light, stars subtending no sensible angle. The visibility of a star is a question of brightness simply, and has nothing to do with resolving power. The latter element enters only when it is a question of recognizing the duplicity of a double star, or of distinguishing detail upon the surface of a planet. So in the microscope there is nothing except lack of light to hinder the visi- bility of an object however small. But if its dimensions be much less than the half wave-length, it can only be seen as a whole, and its parts cannot be distinctly separated, although in cases near the border line some inference maybe possible, founded upon experience of what appearances are presented in various cases. Interesting observa- tions upon particles, ultra-microscopic in the above sense, have been recorded by H. F. W. Siedentopf and R. A. Zsigmondy (Drude's Ann., 1903, io, p. 1). In a somewhat similar way a dark linear interruption in a bright ground may be visible, although its actual width is much inferior to the half wave-length. In illustration of this fact a simple experi- ment may be mentioned. In front of the naked eye was held a piece of copper foil perforated by a fine needle hole. Observed through this the structure of some wire gauze just disappeared at a distance from the eye equal to 17 in., the gauze containing 46 meshes to the inch. On the other hand, a single wire 0-034 m - m diameter remained fairly visible up to a distance of 20 ft. The ratio between the limiting angles subtended by the periodic structure of the gauze and the diameter of the wire was (•022/-034) X (240/17) =9-1. For further information upon this subject reference may be made to Phil. Mag., 1896, 42, p. 167; Journ. R. Micr. Soc, 1903, p. 447. 6. Coronas or Glories.— The results of the theory of the diffrac- tion patterns due to circular apertures admit of an interesting application to coronas, such as are often seen encircling the sun and moon. They are due to the interposition of small spherules of water, which act the part of diffracting obstacles. In order to the formation of a well-defined corona it is essential that the particles be exclusively, or preponderatingly, of one size. If the origin of light be treated as infinitely small, and be seen in focus, whether with the naked eye or with the aid of a telescope, the whole of the light in the absence of obstacles would be concen- trated* in the immediate neighbourhood of the focus. At other parts of the field the effect is the same, in accordance with the principle known as Babinet's, whether the imaginary screen in front of the object-glass is generally transparent but studded with a number of opaque circular disks, or is generally opaque but perforated with corresponding apertures. Since at these points the resultant due to the whole aperture is zero, any two portions into which the whole may be divided must give equal and opposite resultants. Consider now the light diffracted in a direction many times more oblique than any with which we should be concerned, were the whole aperture uninterrupted, and take first the effect of a single small aperture. The light in the proposed direction is that determined by the size of the small aperture in accordance with the laws already investigated, and its phase depends upon the position of the aperture. If we take a direction such that the light (of given wave-length) from a single aperture vanishes, the evanescence continues even when the whole series of apertures is brought into contemplation. Hence, whatever else may happen, there must be a system of dark rings formed, the same as from a single small aperture. In directions other than these it is a more delicate question how the partial effects should be compounded. If we make the extreme suppositions of an infinitely small source and absolutely homogeneous light, there is no escape from the conclusion that the light in a definite direction is arbitrary, that is, dependent upon the chance distribution of apertures. If, however, as in practice, the light be heterogeneous, the source of finite area, the obstacles in motion, and the discrimination of different directions imperfect, we are concerned merely with the mean bright- ness found by varying the arbitrary phase- relations, and this is obtained by simply multiplying the brightness due to a single aperture by the number of apertures (re) (see Interference of Light, § 4). The diffraction pattern is therefore that due to a single aperture, merely brightened n times. In his experiments upon this subject Fraunhofer employed plates of glass dusted over with lycopodium, or studded with small metallic disks of uniform size; and he found that the diameters of the rings were proportional to the length of the waves and inversely as the diameter of the disks. In another respect the observations of Fraunhofer appear at first sight to be in disaccord with theory; for his measures of the diameters of the red rings, visible when white light was employed, correspond with the law applicable to dark rings, and not to the different law applicable to the luminous maxima. Verdet has, however, pointed out that the observation in this form is essentially different from that in which homogeneous red light is employed, and that the position of the red rings would correspond to the absence of blue-green light rather than to the greatest abundance of red light. Verdet's own observations, conducted with great care, fully confirm this view, and exhibit a complete agreement with theory. By measurements of coronas it is possible to infer the size of the particles to which they are due, an application of considerable interest in the case of natural coronas — the general rule being the larger the corona the smaller the water spherules. Young employed this method not only to determine the diameters of cloud particles (e-g- isWin.), but also those of fibrous material, for which the theory is analogous. His instrument was called the eriometer (see " Chromatics," vol. iii. of supp. to Ency. Brit., 18 17). 7. Influence of Aberration. Optical Power of Instruments. — Our investigations and estimates of resolving power have thus far proceeded upon the supposition that there are no optical imperfections, whether of the nature of a regular aberration or dependent upon irregularities of material and workmanship. In DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT 245 practice there will always be a certain aberration or error of phase, which we may also regard as the deviation of the actual wave- surface from its intended position. In general, we may say that aberration is unimportant when it nowhere (or at any rate over a relatively small area only) exceeds a small fraction of the wave- length (X). Thus in estimating the intensity at a focal point, where, in the absence of aberration, all the secondary waves would have exactly the same phase, we see that an aberration nowhere exceeding jX can have but little effect. The only case in which the influence of small aberration upon the entire image has been calculated (Phil. Mag., 1879) is that of a rectangular aperture, traversed by a cylindrical wave with aberration equal to ex 3 . The aberration is here unsymmetrical, the wave being in advance of its proper place in one half of the aperture, but behind in the other half. No terms in x or x 2 need be considered. The first would correspond to a general turning of the beam; and the second would imply imperfect focusing of the central parts. The effect of aberration may be considered in two ways. We may suppose the aperture (a) constant, and inquire into the operation of an increasing aberration; or we may take a given value of c (i.e. a given wave-surface) and examine the effect of a varying aperture. The results in the second case show that an increase of aperture up to that corresponding to an extreme aberration of half a period has no ill effect upon the central band (§ 3), but it increases unduly the intensity of one of the neighbouring lateral bands; and the practical conclusion is that the best results will be obtained from an aperture giving an extreme aberration of from a quarter to half a period, and that with an increased aperture aberration is not so much a direct cause of deterioration as an obstacle to the attainment of that improved definition which should accompany the increase of aperture. If, on the other hand, we suppose the aperture given, we find that aberration begins to be distinctly mischievous when it amounts to about a quarter period, i.e. when the wave-surface deviates at each end by a quarter wave-length from the true plane. As an application of this result, let us investigate what amount of temperature disturbance in the tube of a telescope may be ex- pected to impair definition. According to J. B. Biot and F. J. D. Arago, the index n for air at t° C. and at atmospheric pressure is given by •00029 " 1- 1 + -U037/- If we take 0° C. as standard temperature, Sm=-i-i tXicnt. Thus, on the supposition that the irregularity of temperature t extends through a length /, and produces an acceleration of a quarter of a wave-length, J\ = i-i WXio- 6 ; or, if we take X = 5-3 X io -6 , It = 12, the unit of length being the centimetre. We may infer that, in the case of a telescope tube 12 cm. long, a stratum of air heated i"C. lying along the top of the tube, and occupying a moderate fraction of the whole volume, would produce a not insensible effect. If the change of temperature progressed uniformly from one side to the other, the result would be a lateral displacement of the image without loss of definition ; but in general both effects would be observable. In longer tubes a similar dis- turbance would be caused by a proportionally less difference of temperature. S. P. Langley has proposed to obviate such ill-effects by stirring the air included within a telescope tube. It has long been known that the definition of a carbon bisulphide prism may be much improved by a vigorous shaking. We will now consider the application of the principle to the formation of images, unassisted by reflection or refraction (Phil. Mag., 1881). The function of a lens in forming an image is to compensate by its variable thickness the differences of phase which would other- wise exist between secondary waves arriving at the focal point from various parts of the aperture. If we suppose the diameter of the lens to be given (2R), and its focal length / gradually to increase, the original differences of phase at the image of an infinitely distant luminous point diminish without limit. When / attains a certain value, say /j, the extreme error of phase to be compensated falls to JX. But, as we have seen, such an error of phase causes no sensible deterioration in the definition; so that from this point onwards the lens is useless, as only improving an image already sensibly as perfect as the aperture admits of. Throughout the operation of increasing the focal length, the resolving power of the instrument, which depends only upon the aperture, remains unchanged; and we thus arrive at the rather startling conclusion that a telescope of any degree of resolving power might be constructed without an object-glass, if only there were no limit to the admissible focal length. This last proviso, however, as we shall see, takes away almost all practical importance from the proposition. To get an idea of the magnitudes of the quantities involved, let us take the case of an aperture of \ in., about that of the pupil of the eye. The distance /1, which the actual focal length must exceed, is given by V(/i 2 +R 2 )-y 1 =Jx; so that /1-2RVX (1). Thus, if X = j Tr i^,, R=A, we find /1 = 800 inches. The image of the sun thrown upon a screen at a distance exceeding 66 ft., through a hole \ in. in diameter, is therefore at least as well defined as that seen direct. As the minimum focal length increases with the square of the aperture, a quite impracticable distance would be required to rival the resolving power of a modern telescope. Even for an aperture of 4 in., _/i would have to be 5 miles. A similar argument may be applied to find at what point an achromatic lens becomes sensibly superior to a single one. The question is whether, when the adjustment of focus is correct for the central rays of the spectrum, the error of phase for the most extreme rays (which it is necessary to consider) amounts to a quarter of a wave-length. If not, the substitution of an achromatic lens will be of no advantage. Calculation shows that, if the aperture be i in., an achromatic lens has no sensible advantage if the focal length be greater than about 11 in. If we suppose the focal length to be 66 ft., a single lens is practically perfect up to an aperture of l-7in. Another obvious inference from the necessary imperfection of optical images is the uselessness of attempting anything like an absolute destruction of spherical aberration. An admissible error of phase of JX will correspond to an error of |X in a reflecting and jX in a (glass) refracting surface, the incidence in both cases being perpendicular. If we inquire what is the greatest admissible longi- tudinal aberration (df) in an object-glass according to the above rule, we find 5/=Xa-« (2), a being the angular semi-aperture. In the case of a single lens of glass with the most favourable curva- tures, 8/ is about equal to a 2 /, so that a 4 must not exceed X//. For a lens of 3 ft. focus this condition is satisfied if the aperture does not exceed 2 in. When parallel rays fall directly upon a spherical mirror the longitudinal aberration is only about one-eighth as great as for the most favourably shaped single lens of equal focal length and aper- ture. Hence a spherical mirror of 3 ft. focus might have an aperture of 2$ in., and the image would not suffer materially from aberration. On the same principle we may estimate the least visible displace- ment of the eve-piece of a telescope focused upon a distant object, a question of interest in connexion with range-finders. It appears (Phil. Mag., 1885, 20, p. 354) that a displacement Sf from the true focus will not sensibly impair definition, provided S/X/R3 (3), 2R being the diameter of aperture. The linear accuracy required is thus a function of the ratio of aperture to focal length. The formula agrees well with experiment. The principle gives an instantaneous solution of the question of the ultimate optical efficiency in the method of " mirror-reading," as commonly practised in various physical observations. A rotation by which one edge of the mirror advances i\ (while the other edge retreats to a like amount) introduces a phase-discrepancy of a whole period where before the rotation there was complete agreement. A rotation of this amount should therefore be easily visible, but the limits of resolving power are being approached ; and the conclusion is independent of the focal length of the mirror, and of the employ- ment of a telescope, provided of course that the reflected image is seen in focus, and that the full width of the mirror is utilized. A comparison with the method of a material pointer, attached to the parts whose rotation is under observation, and viewed through a microscope, is of interest. The limiting efficiency of the microscope is attained when the angular aperture amounts to 180 ; and it is evident that a lateral displacement of the point under observation through §X entails (at the old image) a phase-discrepancy of a whole period, one extreme ray being accelerated and the other re- tarded by half that amount. We may infer that the limits of efficiency in the two methods are the same when the length of the pointer is equal to the width of the mirror. We have seen that in perpendicular reflection a surface error not exceeding fX may be admissible. In the case of oblique reflection at an angle <£, the error of retardation due to an elevation BD (fig. 5) is QQ'- QS - BD sec (i - cos SQQ') = BD sec <#>(i +cos 2*) = 2BD cos P- !93)- It is not likely that such a result will ever be fully attained in practice ; but the case is worth stating, in order to show that there is no theoretical limit to the concentration of light of assigned wave-length in one spectrum, and as illustrating the frequently observed un- symmetrical character of the spectra on the two sides of the central image. 1 We have hitherto supposed that the light is incident perpen- Fig, 1 The last sentence is repeated from the writer's article " Wave Theory " in the 9th edition of this work, but A. A. Michelson's ingenious echelon grating constitutes a" realization in an unexpected manner of what was thought to be impracticable. — [R.] Fig. 7. dicularly upon the grating; but the theory is easily extended. If the incident rays make an angle 6 with the normal (fig. 6), and the diffracted rays make an angle ) ; and this is the quantity which is to be equated to m\. Thus sinfl+sin = 2 sin i(6+) cos i(8 — 4>) = m\j(a+d) (5). The " deviation " is (8+), and is therefore a minimum when 9 = tj>, i.e. when the grating is so situated that the angles of incidence and diffraction are equal. In the case of a reflection grating the same method applies. If 6 and denote the angles with the normal made by the incident and diffracted rays, the formula (5) still holds, and, if the deviation be reckoned from the direction of the regularly reflected rays, it is _ expressed as before [by (9+), and is a mini- ' mum when 8 = , that is, when the diffracted rays return upon the course of the incident rays. In either case (as also with a prism) the position of minimum deviation leaves the width of the beam unaltered, i.e. neither magnifies nor diminishes the angular width of the object under view. From (5) we see that, when the light falls perpendicularly upon a grating (8 = 0), there is no spectrum formed (the image corre- sponding to m = o not being counted as a spectrum), if the grating interval m th spectrum. Then the relative retardation ^\ of the extreme rays (corresponding to the a.-* 1 edges A, B of the grating) is mnh. If BQ a a be the direction for the first minimum (the pi G , 8. darkness between the central and first lateral band), the relative retardation of the extreme rays is (mn+i)\. Suppose now that X+SX is the wave-length for which BQ gives the principal maximum, then (mn + 1 ) X = mn (X + SX) ; whence S\/\=i/mn (6). According to our former standard, this gives the smallest difference of wave-lengths in a double line which can be just resolved; and we conclude that the resolving power of a grating depends only upon the total number of lines, and upon the order of the spectrum, without regard to any other considerations. It is here of course assumed that the n lines are really utilized. In the case of the D lines the value of 6X/X is about 1/1000; so that to resolve this double line in the first spectrum requires 1000 lines, in the second spectrum 500, and so on. It is especially to be noticed that the resolving power does not depend directly upon the closeness of the ruling. Let us take the case of a grating I in. broad, and containing 1000 lines, and consider the effect of interpolating an additional 1000 lines, so as to bisect the former intervals. There will be destruction by interference of the first, third and odd spectra generally; while the advantage gained in the spectra of even order is not in dispersion, nor in resolving power, but simply in brilliancy, which is increased four times. If we now suppose half the grating cut away, so as to leave 1000 lines in half an inch, the dispersion will not be altered, while the brightness and resolving power are halved. There is clearly no theoretical limit to the resolving power of gratings, even in spectra of given order. But it is possible that, as suggested by Rowland, 2 the structure of natural spectra may be too coarse to give opportunity for resolving powers much higher than those now in use. However this may be, it would always be possible, with the aid of a grating of given resolving power, to construct artificially from white light mixtures of slightly different wave-length whose resolution or otherwise would discriminate between powers inferior and superior to the given one. 3 2 Compare also F. F. Lippich, Pogg. Ann. cxxxix. p. 465, 1870; Rayleigh, Nature (October 2, 1873). 3 The power of a grating to construct light of nearly definite wave- length is well illustrated by Young's comparison with the production of a musical note by reflection of a sudden sound from a row of palings. The objection raised by Herschel (Light, § 703) to this comparison depends on a misconception. 2 4 8 DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT If we define as the " dispersion " in a particular part of the spectrum the ratio of the angular interval do to the corresponding increment of wave-length d\, we may express it by a very simple formula. For the alteration of wave-length entails, at the two limits of a diffracted wave-front, a relative retardation equal to mnd\. Hence, if a be the width of the diffracted beam, and do the angle through which the wave-front is turned, ad9 = mnd\ dispersion = mn/a (7). The resolving power and the width of the emergent beam fix the optical character of the instrument. The latter element must eventually be decreased until less than the diameter of the pupil of the eye. Hence a wide beam demands treatment with further apparatus (usually a telescope) of high magnifying power. In the above discussion it has been supposed that the ruling is accurate, and we have seen that by increase of m a high resolving power is attainable with a moderate number of lines. But this procedure (apart from the question of illumination) is open to the objection that it makes excessive demands upon accuracy. Accord- ing to the principle already laid down it can make but little difference in the principal direction corresponding to the first spectrum, provided each line lie within a quarter of an interval (a+d) from its theoretical position. But, to obtain an equally good result in the m th spectrum, the error must be less than \jm of the above amount. 1 There are certain errors of a systematic character which demand special consideration. The spacing is usually effected by means of a screw, to each revolution of which corresponds a large number (e:g. one hundred) of lines. In this way it may happen that although there is almost perfect periodicity with each revolution of the screw after (say) ioo lines, yet the ioo lines themselves are not equally spaced. The " ghosts " thus arising were first described by G. H. Quincke (Pogg. Ann., 1872, 146, p. 1)* and have been elaborately investigated by C. S. Peirce {Ann. Journ. Math., 1879, 2, p. 330), both theoretically and experimentally. The general nature of the effects to be expected in such a case may be made clear by means of an illus- tration already employed for another purpose. Suppose two similar and accurately ruled transparent gratings to be superposed in such a manner that the lines are parallel. If the one set of lines exactly bisect the intervals between the others, the grating interval is practically halved, and the previously existing spectra of odd order vanish. But a very slight relative displacement will cause the apparition of the odd spectra. In this case there is approximate periodicity in the half interval, but complete periodicity only after the whole interval. The advantage of approximate bisection lies in the superior brilliancy of the surviving spectra ; but in any case the compound grating may be considered to be perfect in the longer interval, and the definition is as good as if the bisection were accurate. The effect of a gradual increase in the interval (fig. 9) as we pass across, the grating has been investigated by M. A. Cornu (C.R., 1875, 80, p. 655), who thus explains an anomaly observed by / III Fig. 9. — x 2 . Fig. 10. — y*. Fig. ii. — x 3 . Fig. 12. — xy 2 . E. E. N. Mascart. The latter found that certain gratings exercised a converging power upon the spectra formed upon one side, and a corresponding diverging power upon the spectra on the other side. Let us suppose that the light is incident perpendicularly, and that the grating interval increases from the centre towards that edge which lies nearest to the spectrum under observation, and decreases towards the hinder edge. It is evident that the waves from both halves of the grating are ac- celerated in an increasing degree, as we pass from the centre out- Fig. 13.— xy. FlG. 14. — X*y. FlG. 15.— / f. wards, as com- pared with the phase they would possess. were the central value of the grating interval maintained throughout. The irregularity of spacing has thus the effect of a convex lens, which accelerates the marginal relatively to the central rays. On the other side the effect is reversed. This kind of irregularity may clearly be present in a 1 It must not be supposed that errors of this order of magnitude are unobjectionable in all cases. The position of the middle of the bright band representative of a mathematical line can be fixed with a spider-line micrometer within a small fraction of the width of the band, just as the accuracy of astronomical observations far transcends the separating power of the instrument. degree surpassing the usual limits, without loss of definition, when the telescope is focused so as to secure the best effect. It may be worth while to examine further the other variations from correct ruling which correspond to the various terms expressing the deviation of the wave-surface from a perfect plane. If x and y be co-ordinates in the plane of the wave-surface, the axis of y being parallel to the lines of the grating, and the origin corresponding to the centre of the beam, we may take as an approximate equation to the wave-surface x 2 y 2 z = T +Bxy+ ~- i +ax 3 +Px*y+yxy*+Sy>+ . "2 P 2p< (8); and, as we have just seen, the term in a 2 corresponds to a linear error in the spacing. In like manner, the term in y 2 corresponds to a general curvature of the lines (fig. 10), and does not influence the definition at the (primary) focus, although it may introduce astigmatism. 2 If we suppose that everything is symmetrical on the two sides of the primary plane y = o, the coefficients B, {), S vanish. In spite of any inequality between p and p', the definition will be good to this order of approximation, provided a and y vanish. The former measures the thickness of the primary focal line, and the latter measures its curvature. The error of ruling giving rise to o is one in which the intervals increase or decrease in both directions from the centre outwards (fig. Ii), and it may often be compensated by a slight rotation in azimuth of the object-glass of the observing telescope. The term in y corresponds to a variation of curvature in crossing the grating (fig. 12). When the plane zx is not a plane of symmetry, we have to consider the terms in xy , x 2 y, and y 3 . _ The first of these corresponds to a devia- tion from parallelism, causing the interval to alter gradually as we pass along the lines (fig. 13). _ The error thus arising may be compensated by a rotation of the object-glass about one of the diameters y— *=x. The term in x 2 y corresponds to a deviation from parallelism in the same direction on both sides of the central line (fig. 14) ; and that in y 3 would be caused by a curvature such that there is a point of inflection at the middle of each line (fig. 15). All the errors, except that depending on a, and especially those depending on y and 5, can be diminished, without loss of resolving power, by contracting the vertical aperture. A linear error in the spacing, and a general curvature of the lines, are eliminated in the ordinary use of a grating. The explanation of the difference of focus upon the two sides as due to unequal spacing was verified by Cornu upon gratings purposely constructed with an increasing interval. He has also shown how to rule a plane surface with lines so disposed that the grating shall of itself give well-focused spectra. A similar idea appears to have guided H. A. Rowland to his brilliant invention of concave gratings, by which spectra can be photographed without any further optical appliance. In these instruments the lines are ruled upon a spherical surface of speculum metal, and mark the intersections of the surface by a system of parallel and equidistant planes, o|~ of which the middle member passes through the centre of the sphere. If we consider for the present only the primary plane of sym- metry, the figure is reduced to two dimen- sions. Let AP (fig. 16) represent the surface of the grating, O being the centre of the circle. Then, if Q be any radiant point and Q' its image (primary focus) in the spherical mirror AP, 1_ , l_ = 2cos0 v\u a ' we have where Vi —AQ', u — AQ, a = OA, = angle of incidence QAO, equal to the angle of reflection Q'AO. If Q be on the circle described upon OA as diameter, so that u — a cos , then Q' lies also upon the same circle; and in this case it follows from the symmetry that the unsymmetrical aberration (depending upon a) vanishes. This disposition is adopted in Rowland's instrument; only, in addition to the central image formed at the angle ' = , there are a series of spectra with various values of f', but all disposed upon the same circle. Rowland's investigation is contained in the paper already referred to ; but the following account of the theory is in the form adopted by R. T. Glazebrook (Phil. Mag., 1883). In order to find the difference of optical distances between the courses QAQ', QPQ', we have to express QP-QA, PQ'-AQ'. To find the former, we have, if OAQ=°=, AOP = «, QP 2 = M 2 +4a 2 sin 2 \a-$au sin j« sin (j«-<#>) = (u-\-a sin sin u) 2 -a 2 sin 2 sin 2 u+4a sin 2 \a(a-u cos $). 2 " In the same way we may conclude that in flat gratings any departure from a' straight line has the effect of causing the dust in the slit and the spectrum to have different, foci — a fact sometimes observed " (Rowland, " On Concave Gratings for Optical Purposes," Phil. Mag., September 1883). DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT 249 Now as far as u* 4 sin 2 §w = siiAo+jsin 4 ci>, and thus to the same order QP 2 = (u+a sin sin w) 2 —a cos ) sin 2 w+jo(a— « cos 0) sin 4 w. But if we now suppose that Q lies on the circle « = a cos 0, the middle term vanishes, and we get, correct as far as a 4 , ~~ , , . . s IS 1 1 a 2 sin 2 0sin 4 w) . QP = (w+asin<£sin a) *M l-\ j-^j 5 . so that QP — M = asin0sin&>+!asin<£tan$sin 4 w . . (9), in which it is to be noticed that the adjustment necessary to secure the disappearance of sin 2 o> is sufficient also to destroy the term in sin 3 w. A similar expression can be found for Q'P — Q'A; and thus, if Q'A = i>, Q'AO = ' , where v-a cos ', we get QP + PQ'-QA-AQ' = asin u(sin -sin ' ) + |a sin 4 w(sin<#>tan0 + sin0'tan0') . . . (10). If ' = , the term of the first order vanishes, and the reduction of the difference of path via P and via A to a term of the fourth order proves not only that Q and Q' are conjugate foci, but also that the foci are exempt from the most important term in the aberration. In the present application ' is not necessarily equal to 0; but if P correspond to a line upon the grating, the difference of retarda- tions for consecutive positions of P, so far as expressed by the term of the first order, will be equal to =f»jX (m integral), and therefore without influence, provided ' in the m^ spectrum is asin' , or i»5 mn\ sin 3 w tan ' (13). This expresses the retardation of the extreme relatively to the central ray, and is to be reckoned positive, whatever may be the signs of a, and ' . If the semi-angular aperture (o>) be r 3 , and tan ' = i, mn might be as great as four millions before the error of phase would reach j\. If it were desired to use an angular aperture so large that the aberration according to (13) would be injurious, Rowland points out that on his machine there would be no difficulty in applying a remedy by making ■ If we put for shortness w for the quantity under the last circular function in (1), the expressions (1), (2) may be put under the forms u sin t, v sin (r — a) respectively; and, if I be the intensity, I will be measured by the sum of the squares of the coefficients of sin t and cos t in the expression u sin t+v sin (t — a), so that I =U i -\-V i -\-2UV COS a, which becomes on putting for u, v, and a their values, and putting k-ql 2/ . kkh . , ( , , Oh) ,,. I=Q 4P . , f . Wi ^i sm T- =Q (3), j 2+ 2cos(^-?f)|. . (4). If the subject of examination be a luminous line parallel to rj, we shall obtain what we require by integrating (4) with respect to q from — 00 to + 00. The constant multiplier is of no especial interest so that we may take as applicable to the image of a line t 2 • J^Ml-L / 2 *" R 2 *&\ I /z\ 1 -? sin at \ 1 + cos (— — xr; \ ■ ■ ■ ©• If R = JX, I vanishes at { = o ; but the whole illumination, repre- by I I d£, is independent of the value of R. If R=o, J — 00 sented T 1 . ■^'" X/ in agreement with § 3, where a has the meaning here attached to ih. The expression (5) gives the illumination at { due to that part of the complete image whose geometrical focus is at £ = 0, the retardation for this component being R. Since we have now to integrate for the whole illumination at a particular point O due to all the components which have their foci in its neighbourhood, we may conveniently regard O as origin. | is then the co-ordinate relatively to O of any focal point O' for which the retardation is R; and the required result is obtained by simply integrating (5) with respect to { from —00 to +06. To each value of £ corresponds a different value of X, and (in consequence of the dispersing power of the plate) of R. The variation of X may, however, be neglected in the integration, except in 2irR/X, where a small variation of X "■ntails a comparatively large alteration of phase. If we write p = 2 lr R/X ....... (6), we must regard p as a function of £, and we may take with sufficient approximation under any ordinary circumstances P=p'+vZ (7), where p denotes the value of p at O, and m is a constant, which is Eositive when the retarding plate is held at the side on which the lue of the spectrum is seen. The possibility of dark bands depends upon o being positive. Only in this case can COs!p'+(3J-2Wj/X/){) retain the constant value — 1 throughout the integration, and then only when CT=27rft/X/ (8) and cosp'=-i ....... (9). The first of these equations is the condition for the formation of dark bands, and the second marks their situation, which is the same as that determined by the imperfect theory. The integration can be effected without much difficulty. For the first term in (5) the evaluation is effected at once by a known formula. In the second term if we observe that cos {p'+(a- 2wh/\f) Q = cos |/ - gi?) = cos p' cos gi J +sin p' sin gi J, we see that the second part vanishes when integrated, and that the remaining integral is of the form X+» fit sin%^cosgiJ|>, where Ai=*-ft/X/, &=er-2irft/X/ . . . (10). By differentiation with respect to gi it may be proved that w=0 fromgi = — 00 tog! = —2fei, Z0 = i7r(2/!i+gi) from gi=—2fe tog! =0, w = \ir{2hi— gi) fromgi= togi=2fe, b> = fromgi = 2fti togi = oo. The integrated intensity, I', or 2rhi+2 COS pW, is thus I' = 27rfci ...... (11), when gi numerically exceeds 2/tr, and, when gi lies between ±2ki, I=7r{2ft 1 -|-(2^ 1 -Vgi 2 )COSp') . . . (12). It appears therefore that there are no bands at all unless vs lies between o and +4A1, and that within these limits the best bands are formed at the middle of the range when vs = 2ht. The formation of bands thus requires that the retarding plate be held upon the side already specified, so that ra be positive; and that the thickness of the plate (to which sr is proportional) do not exceed a certain limit, which we may call 2T0. At the best thickness T the bands are black, and not otherwise. The linear width of the band (?) is the increment of { which alters p by 2x, so that e = 2x/ra (13). With the best thickness , . ,. sr = 2irftA/ (14). so that in this case « = X//A (15). The bands are thus of the same width as those due to two infinitely narrow apertures coincident with the central lines of the retarded and unretarded streams, the subject of examination being itself a fine luminous line. If it be desired to see a given number of bands in the whole or in any part of the spectrum, the thickness of the retarding plate is thereby determined, independently of all other considerations. But in order that the bands may be really visible, and still more in order that they may be black, another condition must be satisfied. It is necessary that the aperture of the pupil be accommodated to the angular extent of the spectrum, or reciprocally. Black bands will be too fine to be well seen unless the aperture (2k) of the pupil be somewhat contracted. One-twentieth to one-fiftieth of an inch is suitable.^ The aperture and the number of bands being both fixed, the condition of blackness determines the angular magni- tude of a band and of the spectrum. The use of a grating is very convenient, for not only are there several spectra in view at the same time, but the dispersion can be varied continuously by sloping the grating. The slits may be cut out of tin-plate, and half covered by mica or " microscopic glass," held in position by a little cement. If a telescope be employed there is a distinction to be observed, according as the half-covered aperture is between the eye and the ocular, or in front of the object-glass. In the former case the function of_ the telescope is simply to increase the dispersion, and the formation of the bands is of course independent of the par- ticular manner in which the dispersion arises. If, however, the half -covered aperture be in front of the object-glass, the pheno- menon is magnified as a whole, and the desirable relation between the (unmagnified) dispersion and the aperture is the same as with- out the telescope. There appears to be no further advantage in the use of a telescope than the increased facility of accommodation, and for this of course a very low power suffices. The original investigation of Stokes, here briefly sketched, extends also to the case where the streams are of unequal width h, k, and are separated by an interval 2g. In the case of unequal width the bands cannot be black; but if h = k, the finiteness of 2g does not preclude the formation of black bands. The theory of Talbot's bands with a half-covered circular aperture has been considered by H. Struve (St Peters. Trans., 1883, 31, No. 1). The subject of "Talbot's bands" has been treated in a very instructive manner by A. Schuster (Phil. Mag., 1904), whose point of view offers the great advantage of affording an instantaneous explanation of the peculiarity noticed by Brewster. A plane pulse, i.e. a disturbance limited to an infinitely thin slice of the medium, is supposed to fall upon a parallel grating, which again may DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT 251 be regarded as formed of infinitely thin wires, or infinitely narrow lines traced upon glass. The secondary pulses diverted by the ruling fall upon an object-glass as usual, and on arrival at the focus constitute a procession equally spaced in time, the interval between consecutive members depending upon the obliquity. If a retarding plate be now inserted so as to operate upon the pulses which come from one side of the grating, while leaving the remainder unaffected, we have to consider what happens at the focal point chosen. A full discussion would call for the formal application of Fourier's theorem, but some conclusions of importance are almost obvious. Previously to the introduction of the plate we have an effect corresponding to wave-lengths closely grouped around the principal wave-length, viz. a sin (j>, where a is the grating-interval and the obliquity, the closeness of the grouping increasing with the number of intervals. In addition to these wave-lengths there are other groups centred round the wave-lengths which are submultiples of the principal one — the overlapping spectra of the second and higher orders. Suppose now that the plate is introduced so as to cover naif the aperture and that it retards those pulses which would otherwise arrive first. The consequences must depend upon the amount of the retardation. As this increases from zero, the two processions which correspond to the two halves of the aperture begin to overlap, and the overlapping gradually increases until there is almost complete superposition. The stage upon which we will fix our attention is that where the one procession bisects the intervals between the other, so that a new simple procession is constituted, containing the same number of members as before the insertion of the plate, but now spaced at intervals only half as great. It is evident that the effect at the focal point is the obliteration of the first and other spectra of odd order, so that as regards the spectrum of the first order we may consider that the two beams interfere. The formation of black bands is thus explained, and it requires that the plate be introduced upon one particular side, and that the amount of the retardation be adjusted to a particular value. If the retardation be too little, the overlapping of the processions is incomplete, so that besides the procession of half period there are residues of the original C recessions of full period. The same thing occurs if the retardation e too great. If it exceed the double of the value necessary for black bands, there is again no overlapping and consequently no interference. If the plate be introduced upon the other side, so as to retard the procession originally in arrear, there is no overlapping, whatever may be the amount of retardation. In this way the principal features of the phenomenon are accounted for, and Schuster has shown further how to extend the results to spectra having their origin in prisms instead of gratings. 10. Diffraction when the Source of Light is not seen in Focus. — The phenomena to be considered under this head are of less importance than those investigated by Fraunhofer, and will be treated in less detail; but in view of their historical interest and of the ease with which many of the experiments may be tried, some account of their theory cannot be omitted. One or two examples have already attracted our attention when considering Fresnel's zones, viz. the shadow of a circular disk and of a screen circularly perforated. Fresnel commenced his researches with an examination of the fringes, external and internal, which accompany the shadow of a narrow opaque strip, such as a wire. As a source of light he used sunshine passing through a very small hole perforated in a metal plate, or condensed by a lens of short focus. In the absence of a heliostat the latter was the more convenient. Following, un- known to himself, in the footsteps of Young, he deduced the principle of interference from the circumstance that the darkness of the interior bands requires the co-operation of light from both sides of the obstacle. At first, too, he followed Young in the view that the exterior bands are the result of interference between the direct light and that reflected from the edge of the obstacle, but he soon discovered that the character of the edge — e.g. whether it was the cutting edge or the back of a razor — made no material difference, and was thus led to the conclusion that the explanation of these phenomena requires nothing more than the application of Huygens's principle to the unobstructed parts of the wave. In observing the bands he received them at first upon a screen of finely ground glass, upon which a magnifying lens was focused; but it soon appeared that the ground glass could be dispensed with, the diffraction pattern being viewed in the same way as the image formed by the object-glass of a telescope is viewed through the eye -piece. This simplification was attended by a great saving of light, allowing measures to be taken such as would otherwise have presented great difficulties. In theoretical investigations these problems are usually treated as of two dimensions only, everything being referred to the plane passing through the luminous point and perpendicular to the diffract- ing edges, supposed to be straight and parallel. In strictness this idea is appropriate only when the source is a luminous line, emitting cylindrical waves, such as might be obtained from a luminous point with the aid of a cylindrical lens. When, in order to apply Huygens's principle, the wave is supposed to be broken up, the phase is the same at every element of the surface of resolution which lies upon a line perpendicular to the plane of reference, and thus the effect of the whole line, or rather infinitesimal strip, is related in a constant manner to that of the element which lies in the plane of reference, and may be considered to be represented thereby. The same method of representation is applicable to spherical waves, issuing from a point, if the radius of curvature be large; for, al- though there is variation of phase along the length of the infinitesimal strip, the whole effect depends practically upon that of the central parts where the phase is sensibly constant. 1 In fig. 17 APQ is the arc of the circle representative of the wave- front of resolution, the centre being at O, and the radius OA being equal to o. B is the point at which the effect is required, distant a+b from O, so that AB=6, AP = s, PQ-ds. Taking as the standard phase that of the secondary wave from A, we may represent the effect of PQ by Fig. 17. cos 2: -(H)-'- where S = BP— AP is the retardation at B of the wave from P relatively to that from A. Now d = (a+b)s*/2ab . (1), so that, if we write the effect at B is ab\ 2ttS _ ir(a+b)s 2 _tt 2 X ab\ 2 V ■ (2), 1 2"FFF) 1 l \ cos? r/ cos h^-dv+sin Hli CsinlTv\dv I (3), the limits of integration depending upon the disposition of the diffracting edges. When a, b, X are regarded as constant, the first factor may be omitted, — as indeed should be done for consistency's sake, inasmuch as other factors of the same nature have been omitted already. The intensity I 2 , the quantity with which we are principally concerned, may thus be expressed I 2 = { fcosimiKdv £ 2 + 1 fsm$*v*.dv } 2 (4). These integrals, taken from »=o, are known as Fresnel's integrals; we will denote them by C and S, so that •-£ cos Jjri>'.=/o" sin %irv*.dv (5). When the upper limit is infinity, so that the limits correspond to the inclusion of half the primary wave, C and S are both equal to \, by a known formula; and on account of the rapid fluctuation of sign the parts of the range beyond very moderate values of v contribute but little to the result. Ascending series for C and S were given by K. W. Knockenhauer, and are readily investigated. Integrating by parts, we find K ' +t "~J e dv = e .v-$i*J e dv*; and, by continuing this process, C+iS = e i.lirv'- ' 2 j „_H v 3 +~ ^. V i-% i I iir 3 5" 3 By separation of real and imaginary parts, C = M cos i«> 2 +N sin %wv* ) S = M sin iirtfi-N cos Jim 2 ) where 5 7 •»+...[. M-j- 3.5 + 3X7.9 N=^L : 1.3 1.3.5.7 +1 (6), (7), .(8). 1.3.5.7.9.11— - * These series are convergent for all values of tr, but are practically useful only when v is small . Expressions suitable for discussion when v is large were obtained 1 In experiment a line of light is sometimes substituted for a point in order to increase the illumination. The various parts of the line are here independent sources, and should be treated accordingly. To assume a cylindrical form of primary wave would be justifiable only when there is synchronism among the secondary waves issuing from the various centres. 252 DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT byL. P. Gilbert {Mem. cow. de V Acad, de Bruxelles,^!, p. i). Taking i« 2 = «. . . ... . (9), we may write rjL-c 1 f V"- Again, by a known formula, -L = -Lf"- * of the tangent at any points to the axis of x, assumes a very simple form. For dx=cos%irtP.dv, dy = sm ImP.dv; so that o-=/y (dx*+df)=v, (30), ■■ ■ ' $ = t. Hence, in accordance Fig. 19. with the rule for compounding vector quantities, the resultant vibration at B, due to any finite part of the primary wave, is represented in amplitude and phase by the chord joining the ex- tremities of the corresponding arc (o-j-oi). In applying the curve in special cases of diffraction to exhibit the effect at any point P (fig. 18) the centre of the curve O is to be considered to correspond to that point C of the primary wave-front which lies nearest to P. The operative part, or parts, of the curve are of course those which represent the unobstructed portions of the primary wave. Let us reconsider, following Cornu, the diffraction of a screen unlimited on one side, and on the other terminated by a straight edge. On the illuminated side, at a distance from the shadow, the vibration is represented by ]]'. The co-ordinates of J, j' being (hih), ( — h — i)> I 2 is 2; and the phase is | period in arrear of that of the element at O. As the point under contemplation is supposed to approach the shadow, the vibration is represented by the chord drawn from J to a point on the other half of the curve, which travels inwards from J' towards O. The amplitude is thus subject to fluctuations, which increase as the shadow is approached. At the point O the intensity is one-quarter of that of the entire wave, and after this point is passed, that is, when we have entered the geometrical shadow, the intensity falls off gradually to zero, without fluctuations. The whole progress of the phenomenon is thus ex- hibited to the eye in a very instructive manner. We will next suppose that the light is transmitted by a slit, and inquire what is the effect of varying the width of the slit upon the illumination at the projection of its centre. Under these circum- stances the arc to be considered is bisected at O, and its length is proportional to the width of the slit. It is easy to see that the length of the chord (which passes in all cases through O) increases to a maximum near the place where the phase-retardation is f of a period, then diminishes to a minimum when the retardation is about I of a period, and so on. If the slit is of constant width and we require the illumination at various points on the screen behind it, we must regard the arc of the curve as of constant length. The intensity is then, as always, represented by the square of the length of the chord. If the slit be narrow, so that the arc is short, the intensity is constant over a wide range, and does not fall off to an important extent until the discrepancy of the extreme phases reaches about a quarter of a period. We have hitherto supposed that the shadow of a diffracting obstacle is received upon a diffusing screen, or, which comes to nearly the same thing, is observed with an eye-piece. If the eye, provided if necessary with a perforated plate in order to reduce the aperture, be situated inside the shadow at a place where the illumina- tion is still sensible, and be focused upon the diffracting edge, the light which it receives will appear to come from the neighbourhood of the sdge, and will present the effect of a silver lining. This is doubtless the explanation of a " pretty optical phenomenon, seen in Switzerland, when the sun rises from behind distant trees stand- ing on the summit of a mountain." 1 11. Dynamical Theory of Diffraction. — The explanation of diffraction phenomena given by Fresnel and his followers is 1 H. Necker {Phil. Mag., November 1832) ; Fox Talbot (Phil.Mag., June 1833). " When the sun is about to emerge .... every branch and leaf is lighted up with a silvery lustre of indescribable beauty. . . . The birds, as Mr Necker very truly describes, appear like flying brilliant sparks." Talbot ascribes the appearance to diffraction; and he recommends the use of a telescope. independent of special views as to the nature of the aether, at least in its main features; for in the absence of a more complete foundation it is impossible to treat rigorously the mode of action of a solid obstacle such as a screen. But; without entering upon matters of this kind, we may inquire in what manner a primary wave may be resolved into elementary secondary waves, and in particular as to the law of intensity and polarization in a secondary wave as dependent upon its direction of propagation, and upon the character as regards polarization of the primary wave. This question was treated by Stokes in his " Dynamical Theory of Diffraction " {Camb. Phil. Trans., 1849) on the basis of the elastic solid theory. Let x, y, z be the co-ordinates of any particle of the medium in its natural state, and {, tj, f the displacements of the same particle at the end of time t, measured in the directions of the three axes respectively. Then the first of the equations of motion may be put under the form dP -** Kd0 + d? + d*J +(0 ¥ >lx \T X + dy + Tz) ' where o 2 and b 1 denote the two arbitrary constants. Put for short- ness di , dij.d? dx + dy + Tz~ b (1), and represent by v 2 ? the quantity multiplied by b 1 . According to this notation, the three equations of motion are (2). It is to be observed that S denotes the dilatation of volume of the element situated at (x, y, 2). In the limiting case in which the medium is regarded as absolutely incompressible S vanishes; but, in order that equations (2) may preserve their generality, we must suppose a at the same time to become infinite, and replace a 2 8 by a new function of the co-ordinates. These equations simplify very much in their application to plane waves. If the ray be parallel to OX, and the direction of vibration parallel to OZ, we have £ = 0, tj = o, while f is a function of x and t only. Equation (1) and the first pair of equations (2) are thus satisfied identically. The third equation gives dp ~ (3), of which the solution is i=f{bt-x) (4), where / is an arbitrary function. The question as to the law of the secondary waves is thus an- swered by Stokes. " Let £ = 0, ij =0, f =f(bt—x) be the displacements corresponding to the incident light ; let Oi be any point in the plane P (of the wave-front), dS an element of that plane adjacent to Or, and consider the disturbance due to that portion only of the incident disturbance which passes continually across dS. Let O be any point in the medium situated at a distance from the point Oi which is large in comparison with the length of a wave ; let OiO = r, and let this line make an angle with the direction of propagation of the incident light, or the axis of x, and with the direction of vibration, or axis of z. Then the displacement at O will take place in a direction perpendicular to OiO, and lying in the plane ZOiO; and, if f be the displacement at O, reckoned positive in the direction nearest to that in which the incident vibrations are reckoned positive, f' = 4§:(l+cos0) sin* f'(bt-r). In particular, if f(bt-x)=csin y (&/-*) .... (5), we shall have r'=^f(l+cos0)sintf>cos 2 f{bt-r) . . . (6)." It is then verified that, after integration with respect to dS, (6) gives the same disturbance as if the primary wave had been supposed to pass on unbroken. The occurrence of sin - In terms of these we obtain from (7), by differentiation and subtrac- tion, (JV+nV3 = • 1 (W +n')"i = dZ/dy V .... (9). {b i v t +n')" i =-dZ/dx] The first of equations (9) gives For eti we have », = (10). i= -4^ffJ§ e -r dxd y dz ■ ■ ■ c"). where r is the distance between the element dx dy dz and the point where &i is estimated, and k=nlb=2xj\. (12), X being the wave-length. (This solution may be verified in the same manner as Poisson's theorem, in which k = o.) We will now introduce the supposition that the force Z acts only within a small space of volume T, situated at (x, y, 2), and for simplicity suppose that it is at the origin of co-ordinates that the rotations are to be estimated. Integrating by parts in (11), we get in which the integrated terms at the limits vanish, Z being finite only within the region T. Thus " i =4^»ffS z T y (Ft) dx d y dz - Since the dimensions of T are supposed to be very small in com- parison with X, the factor j- (——) is- sensibly constant ; so that, if Z stand for the mean value of Z over the volume T, we may write TZ _ A /f - *^ ~~±*W r -Tr\ In like manner we find ! ) TZ "47T& 2 ' x d /g-""^ 7-dr\ r ) (13). [(14). From (10), (13), (14) we see that, as might have been expected, the rotation at any point is about an axis perpendicular both to the direction of the force and to the line joining the point to the source of disturbance. If the resultant rotation be » , we have „_TL_ V (* a +y) __ ( e' ihr \ _ TZsin,ft rf /e-'^X 4vb* ■ r ■ dr\ r ) ~ 4ir6 2 dr \~T) • denoting the angle between r and z. In differentiating g-f^/r with respect to r, we may neglect the term divided by r 2 as altogether insensible, kr being an exceedingly great quantity at any moderate distance from the origin of disturbance. Thus _ — t'fe.TZsinift e~ iwb* ■ ~ (15), which completely determines the rotation at any point. For a dis- turbing force of given integral magnitude it is seen to be everywhere about an axis perpendicular to r and the direction of the force, and in magnitude dependent only upon the angle (<£) between these two directions and upon the distance (r). The intensity of light is, however, more usually expressed in terms of the actual displacement in the plane of the wave. This displacement, which we may denote by f ', is in the plane containing z and r, and perpendicular to the latter. Its connexion with ct is expressed by n=dj;'/dr; so that ,, _ TZsin.fr e'^'-fa-) .r= ivW (16), where the factor e int is restored. Retaining only the real part of (16), we find, as the result of a local application of force equal to DTZcosn* (17), the disturbance expressed by , _ TZsin0 cos(nt — kr) ' ~ 4*1? • r (18). The occurrence of sin shows that there is no disturbance radiated in the direction of the force, a feature which might have been anticipated from considerations of symmetry. We will now apply (18) to the investigation of a law of secondary disturbance, when a primary wave f = sin(n/-iSi*) . . . . . (19) is supposed to be broken up in passing the plane x = o. The first step is to calculate the force which represents the reaction between the parts of the medium separated by * = o. The force operative upon the positive half is parallel to OZ, and of amount per unit of area equal to -TO dtldx^PkV cos nt\ and to this force acting over the whole of the plane the actual motion on the positive side may be conceived to be due. The DIFFUSION 255 secondary disturbance corresponding to the element dS of the plane may be supposed to be that caused by a force of the above magnitude acting over dS and vanishing elsewhere ; and it only remains to examine what the result of such a force would be. Now it is evident that the force in question, supposed to act upon the positive half only of the medium, produces just double of the effect that would be caused by the same force if the medium were undivided, and on the latter supposition (being also localized at a point) it comes under the head already considered. According to (18), the effect of the force acting at dS parallel to OZ, and of amount equal to 2b 2 kJ) dS cos nt, will be a disturbance v/ dS sin with OZ (the direction of primary vibration) due to the element dS of the wave-front. The proportionality of the secondary disturbance to sin is common to the present law and to that given by Stokes, but here there is no dependence upon the angle 9 between the primary and secondary rays. The occurrence of the factor (Xr) _1 , and the necessity of supposing the phase of the secondary wave accelerated by a quarter of an undulation, were first established by Archibald Smith, as the result of a comparison between the primary wave, supposed to pass on without resolution, and the integrated effect of all the secondary waves (§ 2). The occurrence of factors such as sin , or £(i+cos 8), in the expression of the secondary wave has no influence upon the result of the integration, the effects of all the elements for which the factors differ appreciably from unity being destroyed by mutual interference. The' choice between various methods of resolution, all mathe- matically admissible, would be guided by physical considerations respecting the mode of action of obstacles. Thus, to refer again to the acoustical analogue in which plane waves are incident upon a perforated rigid screen, the circumstances of the case are best represented by the first method of resolution, leading to symmetrical secondary waves, in which the normal motion is supposed to be zero over the unperforated parts. Indeed, if the aperture is very small, this method gives the correct result, save as to a constant factor. In like manner our present law (20) would apply to the kind of obstruc- tion that would be caused by an actual physical division of the elastic medium, extending over the whole of the area supposed to be occupied by the intercepting screen, but of course not extending to the parts supposed to be perforated. On the electromagnetic theory, the problem of diffraction becomes definite when the properties of the obstacle are laid down. The simplest supposition is that the material composing the obstacle is perfectly conducting, i.e. perfectly reflecting. On this basis A. J. W. Sommerfeld {Math. Ann., 1895, 47, p. 317), with great mathe- matical skill, has solved the problem of the shadow thrown by a semi-infinite plane screen. A simplified exposition has been given by Horace Lamb (Proc. Lond. Math. Soc, 1906, 4, p. 190). It appears that Fresnel's results, although based on an imperfect theory, require only insignificant corrections. Problems not limited to two dimensions, such for example as the shadow of a circular disk, present great difficulties, and have not hitherto been treated by a rigorous method ; but there is no reason to suppose that Fresnel's results would be departed from materially. (R.) DIFFUSION (from the Lat. diffundere; dis-, asunder, and fundere, to pour out), in general, a spreading out, scattering or circulation; in physics the term is applied to a special phenomenon, treated below. 1. General Description. — When two different substances are placed in contact with each other they sometimes remain separate, but in many cases a gradual mixing takes place. In the case where both the substances are gases the process of mixing continues until the result is a uniform mixture. In other cases the proportions in which two different substances can mix lie between certain fixed limits, but the mixture is distinguished from a chemical compound by the fact that between these limits the composition of the mixture is capable of continuous variation, while in chemical compounds, the proportions of the different constituents can only have a discrete series of numerical values, each different ratio representing a different compound. If we take, for example, air and water in the presence of each other, air will become dissolved in the water, and water will evaporate into the air, and the proportions of either constituent absorbed by the other will vary continuously. But a limit will come when the air will absorb no more water, and the water will absorb no more air, and throughout the change a definite surface of separation will exist between the liquid and the gaseous parts. When no surface of separation ever exists between two substances they must necessarily be capable of mixing in all proportions. If they are not capable of mixing in all proportions a discontinuous change must occur somewhere between the regions where the substances are still unmixed, thus giving rise to a surface of separation. The phenomena of mixing thus involves the following pro- cesses: — (1) A motion of the substances relative to one another throughout a definite region of space in which mixing is taking place. This relative motion is called " diffusion." (2) The pas- sage of portions of the mixing substances across the surface of separation when such a surface exists. These surface actions are described under various terms such as solution, evaporation, condensation and so forth. For example, when a soluble salt is placed in a liquid, the process which occurs at the surface of the salt is called " solution," but the salt which enters the liquid by solution is transported from the surface into the interior of the liquid by " diffusion." Diffusion may take place in solids, that is, in regions occupied by matter which continues to exhibit the properties of the solid state. Thus if two liquids which can mix are separated by a membrane or partition, the mixing may take place through the membrane. If a solution of salt is separated from pure water by a sheet of parchment, part of the salt will pass through the parch- ment into the water. If water and glycerin are separated in this way most of the water will pass into the glycerin and a little glycerin will pass through in the opposite direction, a property frequently used by microscopists for the purpose of gradually transferring minute algae from water into glycerin. A still more interesting series of examples is afforded by the passage of gases through partitions of metal, notably the passage of hydrogen through platinum and palladium at high temperatures. When the process is considered with reference to a membrane or partition taken as a whole, the passage of a substance from one side to the other is commonly known as " osmosis " or " transpiration " (see Solution), but what occurs in the material of the membrane itself is correctly described as diffusion. Simple cases of diffusion are easily observed qualitatively. If a solution of a coloured salt is carefully introduced by a funnel intc the bottom of a jar containing water, the two portions will at first be fairly well defined, but if the mixture can exist in all propor- tions, the surface of separation will gradually disappear; and the rise of the colour into the upper part and its gradual weakening in the lower part, may be watched for days, weeks or even longer intervals. The diffusion of a strong aniline colouring matter into the interior of gelatine is easily observed, and is commonly seen in copying apparatus. Diffusion of gases may be shown to exist by taking glass jars containing vapours of hydrochloric acid and ammonia, and placing them in communication with the heavier gas downmost. The precipitation of ammonium chloride shows that diffusion exists, though the chemical action prevents this example from forming a typical case of diffusion. Again, when a film of Canada balsam is enclosed between glass plates, the disappearance during a few weeks of small air bubbles enclosed in the balsam can be watched under the microscope. In fluid media, whether liquids or gases, the process of mixing is greatly accelerated by stirring or agitating the fluids, and liquids which might take years to mix if left to themselves can thus be mixed in a few seconds. It is necessary to carefully distinguish the effects of agitation from those of diffusion proper. By shaking up two liquids which do not mix we split them up into a large number of different portions, and so greatly increase the area of the surface of separation, besides decreasing the thicknesses of the various portions. But even when we produce the appearance of a uniform turbid mixture, the small portions remain quite distinct. If however the fluids can really mix, the final process must in every case depend on diffusion, and all we do by shaking is to increase the sectional area, and decrease the thickness of the diffusing portions, thus rendering the completion of the operation more rapid. If a gas is shaken up in a liquid the process of absorption of the bubbles is also accelerated by capillary action, as occurs in an ordinary sparklet bottle. To state the matter precisely, however finely two fluids have beeD 256 DIFFUSION subdivided by agitation, the molecular constitution of the different portions remains unchanged. The ultimate process by which the individual molecules of two different substances become mixed, producing finally a homogeneous mixture, is in every case diffusion. In other words, diffusion is that relative motion of the molecules of two different substances by which the proportions of the molecules in any region containing a finite number of molecules are changed. In order, therefore, to make accurate observations of diffusion in fluids it is necessary to guard against any cause which may set up currents; and in some cases this is exceedingly difficult. Thus, if gas is absorbed at the upper surface of a liquid, and if the gaseous solution is heavier than the pure liquid, currents may be set up, and a steady state of diffusion may cease to exist. This has been tested experimentally by C. G. von Hiifner and W. E. Adney. The same thing may happen when a gas is evolved into a liquid at the surface of a solid even if no bubbles are formed ; thus if pieces of aluminium are placed in caUstic soda, the currents set up by the evolution of hydrogen are sufficient to set the aluminium pieces in motion, and it is probable that the motions of the Diatomaceae are similarly caused by the evolution of oxygen. In some pairs of substances diffusion may take place more rapidly than in others. Of course the progress of events in any experiment necessarily depends on various causes, such as the size of the containing vessels, but it is easy to see that when experiments with different substances are carried out under similar conditions, however these " similar conditions " be defined, the rates of diffusion must be capable of numerical comparison, and the results must be expressible in terms of at least one physical quantity, which for any two substances can be called their co- efficient of diffusion. How to select this quantity we shall see later. 2 Quantitative Methods of observing Diffusions — The simplest plan of determining the progress of diffusion between two liquids would be to draw off and examine portions from different strata at some stage in the process; the disturbance produced would, however, interfere with the subsequent process of diffusion, and the observations could not be continued. By placing in the liquid column hollow glass beads of different average densities, and observing at what height they remain suspended, it is possible to trace the variations of density of the liquid column at different depths, and different times. In this method, which was originally introduced by Lord Kelvin, difficulties were caused by the adherence of small air bubbles to the beads. In general, optical methods are the most capable of giving exact results, and the following may be distinguished, (a) By refraction in a horizontal plane. If the containing vessel is in the form of a prism, the deviation of a horizontal ray of light in passing through the prism determines the index of refraction, and consequently the density of the stratum through which the ray passes, (b) By refraction in a vertical plane. Owing to the density varying with the depth, a horizontal ray entering the liquid also undergoes a small vertical deviation, being bent downwards towards the layers of greater density. The observa- tion of this vertical deviation determines not the actual density, but its rate of variation with the depth, i.e. the "density gradient" at any point, (c) By the saccharimeter. In the cases of solutions of sugar, which cause rotation of the plane of polarized light, the density of the sugar at any depth may be determined by observing the corresponding angle of rotation, this was done originally by W. Voigt. 3. Elementary Definitions of Coefficient of Diffusion. — The simplest case of diffusion is that of a substance, say a gas, diffusing in the interior of a homogeneous solid medium, which remains at rest, when no external forces act on the system. We may regard it as the result of experience that: (1) if the density of the diffus- ing substance is everywhere the same no diffusion takes place, and (2) if the density of the diffusing substance is different at different points, diffusion will take place from places of greater to those of lesser density, and will not cease until the density is everywhere the same. It follows that the rate of flow of the diffusing sub- stance at any point in any direction must depend on the density gradient at that point in that direction, i.e. on the rate at which the density of the diffusing substance decreases as we move in that direction. We may define the coefficient of diffusion as the ratio of the total mass per unit area which flows across any small section, to the rate of decrease of the density per unit distance in a direction perpendicular to that section. In the case of steady diffusion parallel to the axis of *, if p be the density of the diffusing substance, and q the mass which flows across a unit of area in a plane perpendicular to the axis of *, then the density gradient is —dp/dx and the ratio of q to this is called the " coefficient of diffusion." By what has been said this ratio remains finite, how- ever small the actual gradient and flow may be; and it is natural to assume, at any rate as a first approximation, that it is constant as far as the quantities in question are concerned. Thus if the coefficient of diffusion be denoted by K we have q = —K{dp/dx). Further, the rate at which the quantity of substance is increasing in an element between the distances x and x-\-dx is equal to the difference of the rates of flow in and out of the two faces, whence as in hydrodynamics, we have dpldt = —dq/dx. It follows that the equation of diffusion in this case assumes the form dp _ d (y.dp\ dt dx\ dxj' which is identical with the equations representing conduction of heat, flow of electricity and other physical phenomena. For motion in three dimensions we have in like manner <*£_ d lvdp\ , d f v dp\ , (d v dp\. dt ~ dx K^dH) ~% \*d}) + \dzdl)' and the corresponding equations in electricity and heat for aniso- tropic substances would be available to account for any parallel phenomena, which may arise, or might be conceived, to exist in connexion with diffusion through a crystalline solid. In the case of a very dilute solution, the coefficient of diffusion of the dissolved substance can be defined in the same way as when the diffusion takes place in a solid, because the effects of diffusion will not have any perceptible influence on the solvent, and the latter may therefore be regarded as remaining practically at rest. But in most cases of diffusion between two fluids, both of the fluids are in motion, and hence there is far greater difficulty in determining the motion, and even in defining the coefficient of diffusion. It is important to notice in the first instance, that it is only the relative motion of the two substances which consti- tutes diffusion. Thus when a current of air is blowing, under ordinary circumstances the changes which take place are purely mechanical, and do not depend on the separate diffusions of the oxygen and nitrogen of which the air is mainly composed. It is only when two gases are flowing with unequal velocity, that is, when they have a relative motion, that these changes of relative distribution, which are called diffusion, take place. The best way out of the difficulty is to investigate the separate motions of the two fluids, taking account of the mechanical actions exerted on them, and supposing that the mutual action of the fluids causes either fluid to resist the relative motion of the other. 4. The Coefficient of Resistance. — Let us call the two diffusing fluids -A and B. If B were absent, the motion of the fluid A would be determined entirely by the variations of pressure of the fluid A, and by the external forces, such as that due to gravity acting on A. Similarly if A were absent, the motion of B would be determined entirely by the variations of pressure due to the fluid B, and by the external forces acting on B. When both fluids are mixed together, each fluid tends to resist the relative motion of the other, and by the law of equality of action and reaction, the resistance which A experiences from B is every- where equal and opposite to the resistance which B experiences from A. If the amount of this resistance per unit volume be divided by the relative velocity of the two fluids, and also by the product of their densities, the quotient is called the "coefficient of resistance." If then pi, p 2 are the densities cf the two fluids, Mi, W2 their velocities, C the coefficient of resistance, then the portion of the fluid A contained in a small element of volume v will experience from the fluid B a resistance Cpip 2 »(«i— w 2 ), and the fluid B contained in the same volume element will experience from the fluid A an equal and opposite resistance, Cp 2 piii(tt 2 — «j). This definition implies the following laws of resistance to diffusion, which must be regarded as based on experience, and not as self-evident truths: (1) each fluid tends to assume, so far as diffusion is concerned, the same equilibrium distribution that it would assume if its motion were unresisted by the presence of the other fluid. (Of course, the mutual attraction of gravitation of the two fluids might affect the final distribution, but this is practically negligible. Leaving such actions as this out of DIFFUSION 257 account the following statement is correct.) In a state of equilibrium, the density of each fluid at any point thus depends only on the partial pressure of that fluid alone, and is the same as if the other fluids were absent. It does not depend on the partial pressures of the other fluids. If this were not the case, the resistance to diffusion would be analogous to friction, and would contain terms which were independent of the relative velocity u 2 —U\. (2) For slow motions the resistance to diffusion is (approximately at any rate) proportional to the relative velocity. (3) The coefficient of resistance C is not necessarily always constant; it may, for example, and, in general, does, depend on the temperature. ***» If we form the equations of hydrodynamics for the different fluids occurring in any mixture, taking account of diffusion, but neglecting viscosity, and using suffixes 1, 2 to denote the separate fluids, these assume the form given by James Clerk Maxwell (" Diffusion," in Ency. Brit., 9th ed.) :— Pr where Dili dpi „ „ , * T57 ~T~dx~ -*iPJ + ( -iM ) i«( M i" ■« 2 )+&c.=0, D«i dui , dui . dux . du\ ~ = -dT +Ul te +v ^ +w *Tz' Dt and these equations imply that when diffusion and other motions cease, the fluids satisfy the separate conditions of equilibrium dpi/dx — Xipi = o. The assumption made in the following account is that terms such as Dui/Dt may be neglected in the cases considered. A further property based on experience is that the motions set up in a mixture by diffusion are very slow compared with those set up by mechanical actions, such as differences of pressure. Thus, if two gases at equal temperature and pressure be allowed to mix by diffusion, the heavier gas being below the lighter, the process will take a long time; on the other hand, if two gases, or parts of the same gas, at different pressures be connected, equalization of pressure will take place almost immediately. It follows from this property that the forces required to overcome the " inertia " of the fluids in the motions due to diffusion are quite imperceptible. At any stage of the process, therefore, any one of the diffusing fluids may be regarded as in equilibrium under the action of its own partial pressure, the external forces to which it is subjected and the resistance to diffusion of the other fluids. 5. Slow Diffusion of two Gases. Relation between the Co- efficients of Resistance and of Diffusion. — We now suppose the diffusing substances to be two gases which obey Boyle's law, and that diffusion takes place in a closed cylinder or tube of unit sectional area at constant temperature, the surfaces of equal density being perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, so that the direction of diffusion is along the length of the cylinder, and we suppose no external forces, such as gravity, to act on the system. The densities of the gases are denoted by pi, P2, their velocities of diffusion by U\, u-i, and if their partial pressures are pi, pi, we have by Boyle's law pi = kipi, p2 = k 2 pi, where ki, fe are constants for the two gases, the temperature being constant. The axis of the cylinder is taken as the axis of x. From the considerations of the preceding section, the effects of inertia of the diffusing gases may be neglected, and at any instant of the process either of the gases is to be treated as kept in equilibrium by its partial pressure and the resistance to diffusion produced by the other gas. Calling this resistance per unit volume R, and putting R = CpiP2(«i — u 2 ), where C is the coefficient of resistance, the equa- tions of equilibrium give ■^+Cpip 2 («i-«2)=o, and -^r+Cp2Pi(w2-Mi) -o . (1). These involve g+g-oorft+fr-P • ■ • • (2). where P is the total pressure of the mixture, and is everywhere constant, consistently with the conditions of mechanical equilibrium. Now dpildx is the pressure-gradient of the first gas, and is, by Boyle's law, equal to ki times the corresponding density-gradient. Again pith is the mass of gas flowing across any section per unit time, and kipiUi or piUi can be regarded as representing the flux of partial pressure produced by the motion of the gas. Since the total pressure is everywhere constant, and the ends of the cylinder are supposed fixed, the fluxes of partial pressure due to the two gases are equal and opposite, so that piUi J rp 2 u 2 — o or kipiiii+.k 2 p 2 u 2 =o ... (3). From (2) (3) we find by elementary algebra ^ «l//>2= -uzlpi= (ui—ui)ltpi+pi) = {ui-u 2 )/P, VIII. Q and therefore p 2 Ul = — p 2 U 2 =plp 2 (Ul—U 2 )IP=klk 2 pip 2 (lh—U 2 )/P Hence equations (1) (2) gives dpi.CP,^ . ,dp 2 ,CP r ,_ . ,; lE+kik^ =°> Md di- + Z$^ =° ; whence also substituting pi = kipi, p 2 —k 2 p 2 , and by transposing kik 2 dpi kikj dp 2 «=-KX^. Pi% = -Qp -fa, and P2 M2 = -^jr s . We may now define the " coefficient of diffusion " of either gas as the ratio of the rate of flow of that gas to its density -gradient. With this definition, the coefficients of diffusion of both the gases in a mixture are equal, each being equal to fcfe/CP. The ratios of the fluxes of partial pressure to the corresponding pressure-gradients are also equal to the same coefficient. Calling this coefficient K, we also observe that the equations of continuity for the two gases are dpi , d(piUi) „ , dpi d(p 2 u 2 ) dt + ~dx~ -0 ' and ~dT + ~dx~ ~ ' leading to the equations of diffusion ^Pi_A./ir^ Pl \ o« 1 dp 2 _ d fjrdpi} dt ~dx \^dx) ' ana dt ~dx y^dx}' exactly as in the case of diffusion through a solid. If we attempt to treat diffusion in liquids by a similar method, it is, in the first place, necessary to define the " partial pressure " of the components occurring in a liquid mixture. This leads to the conception of " osmotic pressure," which is dealt with in the article Solution. For dilute solutions at constant temperature, the assumption that the osmotic pressure is proportional to the density, leads to results agreeing fairly closely with experience, and this fact may be represented by the statement that a sub- stance occurring in a dilute solution behaves like a perfect gas. 6. Relation of the Coefficient of Diffusion to the Units of Length and Time. — We may write the equation defining K in the form L 4? p Here —dp/pdx represents the " percentage rate " at which the density decreases with the distance x; and we thus see that the coefficient of diffusion represents the ratio of the velocity of flow to the percentage rate at which the density decreases with the distance measured in the direction of flow. This percentage rate being of the nature of a number divided by a length, and the velocity being of the nature of a length divided by a time, we may state that K is of two dimensions in length and — 1 in time, i.e. dimensions L 2 /T. Example 1. Taking K =6-1423 for carbon dioxide and air (at temperature 0° C. and pressure 76 cm. of mercury) referred to a centimetre and a second as units, we may interpret the result as follows: — Supposing in a mixture of carbon dioxide and air, the density of the carbon dioxide decreases by, say, 1, 2 or 3% of itself in a distance of 1 cm., then the corresponding velocities of the diffusing carbon dioxide will be respectively o-oi, o-02 and 0-03 times 0-1423, that is, 0-001423, 0-002846 and 0-004269 cm. per second in the three cases. Example 2. If we wished to take a foot and a second as our units, we should have to divide the value of the coefficient of diffusion in Example I by the square of the number of centimetres in 1 ft., that is, roughly speaking, by 900, giving the new value of K = 000016 roughly. 7. Numerical Values of the Coefficient of Diffusion. — The table on p. 258 gives the values of the coefficient of diffusion of several of the principal pairs of gases at a pressure of 76 cm. of mercury, and also of a number of other substances. In the gases the centimetre and second are taken as fundamental units, in other cases the centimetre and day. 8. Irreversible Changes accompanying Diffusion. — The diffusion of two gases at constant pressure and temperature is a good example of an " irreversible process." The gases always tend to mix, never to separate. In order to separate the gases a change must be effected in the external conditions to which the mixture is subjected, either by liquefying one of the gases, or by separating them by diffusion through a membrane, or by bringing other out- side influences to bear on them. In the case of liquids, electrolysis affords a means of separating the constituents of a mixture. Every such method involves some change taking place outside the mixture, and this change may be regarded as a " compensating 2 5 8 DIFFUSION transformation." We thus have an instance of the property that every irreveisible change leaves an indelible imprint some- where or other on the progress of events in the universe. That the process of diffusion obeys the laws of irreversible thermo- dynamics (if these laws are properly stated) is proved by the fact that the compensating transformations required to separate mixed gases do not essentially involve anything but transforma- tion of energy. The process of allowing gases to mix by diffusion, and then separating them by a compensating transformation, thus constitutes an irreversible cycle, the outside effects of which Substances. Temp. K. Author. Carbon dioxide and air . o°C. 0-1423 cm 2 /sec. J. Loschmidt. ,, „ hydrogen . o°C. 0-5558 it » „ oxygen o°C. 0-1409 „ , „ „ carbon monoxide o°C. 0-1406 ,, , ,, ,, marsh gas (methane) o°C. 0-1586 ) ,, „ nitrous oxide o°C. 0-0983 , Hydrogen and oxygen .... o°C. 0-7214 J ,, „ carbon monoxide o°C. 0-6422 , ,, ,, sulphur dioxide o°C. 0-4800 ,, , Oxygen and carbon monoxide . . . o°C. 0-1802 „ , Water and ammonia .... 20° C. 1-250 G. Hufner. ■ 5°C. 0-822 ,, ,, „ common salt (density 1-0269) 0-355 cm'/hour. J. Graham. If tt 1) ft 14-33° C. 1-020, 0-996, 0-972, 0-932 cm 2 /day. F. Heimbrodt. „ zinc sulphate (0-312 gm/cm 3 ) . 0-1162 ,, W. Seitz. „ zinc sulphate (normal) 0-2355 tt „ zinc acetate (double normal) o-ii95 ,, „ zinc formate (half normal) 0-4654 11 „ cadmium sulphate (double normal) .... „ glycerin (fn, fn, fn, 1-511) 0-2456 ,, io-I4°C. 0-356, 0-350, 0-342, 0-315 cm 2 /day. F. Heimbrodt. tt urea „ „ 14-83° C. 0-973, 0-946, 0-926, 0-883 cm 2 /day. „ hydrochloric acid . 14-30° c. 2-208, 2-331, 2-480 cm 2 /day. Gelatin 20 % and ammonia I7°C. 127-1 ,, A. Hagenbach. ■ ,, ,, carbon dioxide 0-845 ,, „ „ nitrous oxide. 0509 ) >t „ oxygen 0-230 " 1 „ ,, hydrogen 0-0565 1 are that energy somewhere or other must be less capable of trans- formation than it was before the change. We express this fact by stating that an irreversible process essentially implies a loss of availability. To measure this loss we make use of the law:, of thermodynamics, and in particular of Lord Kelvin's statement that " It is impossible by means of inanimate material agency to derive mechanical effect from any portion of mat*ir by cooling it below the temperature of the coldest of the surrounding objects." Let us now assume that we have any '.ystem such as the gases above considered, and that it is in the presence of an indefinitely extended medium which we shall call the " auxiliary medium." If heat be taken from any part of the iystem, only part of this heat can be converted into work by means of thermodynamic engines; and the rest will be given to the auxiliary medium, and will constitute unavailable energy or waste. To understand what this means, we may consider the case of a condensing steam engine. Only part of the energy liberated by the- cr:nbustion of the coal is available for driving the engine, the rest takes the form of heat imparted to the condenser. The colder the condenser the more efficient is the engine, and the smaller i -, the quantity of waste. The amount of unavailable energy associated with any given transformation is proportional to the abso ute temperature of the auxiliary medium. When divided by that temperature the quotient is called the change of " entropy " associated with the given change (see Thermodynamics). Thus if a body at temperature T receives a quantity of heat Q, and if T» is the temperature of the auxiliary medium, the quantity of work which could be obtained from Q by means of ideal thermodynamic engines would be Q(l— T>/T), and the balance, which is QT>/T, would take the form of unavailable or waste energy given to the medium. The quotient of this, when divided by T«, is Q/T, and this represents the quantity of entropy associated with Q units of heat at temperature T. Any irreversible change for which a compensating transformation of energy exists represents, therefore, an increase of unavailable energy, which is measurable in terms of entropy. The increase of entropy is independent of the temperature of the auxiliary medium. It thus affords a measure of the extent to which energy has run to waste during the change. Moreover, when a body is heated, the increase of entropy is the factor which determines how much of the energy imparted to the body is unavailable for conversion into work under given conditions. In all cases we have increase of unavailable energy . . temperature of auxiliary medium " mCrease of entro Py- When diffusion takes place between two gases inside a closed vessel at uniform pressure and temperature no energy in the form of heat or work is received from without, and hence the entropy gained by the gases from without is zero. But the irreversible processes inside the vessel may involve a gain of entropy, and this can only be estimated by ex- amining by what means mixed gases can be separated, and, in particular, under what con- ditions the process of mixing and separating the gases could (theoretically) be made revers- ible. 9. Evidence derived from Liquefaction of one or both of the Gases. — The gases in a mixture can often be separated by liquefying, or even solidify- ing, one or both of the com- ponents. In connexion with this property we have the important law according to which " The pressure of a vapour in equilibrium with its liquid depends only on the temperature and is indepen- dent of the pressures of any other gases or vapours which may be mixed with it." Thus if two closed vessels be taken contemning some water and one be exhausted, the other containing air, and if the tem- / peratures be equal, evapora- tion will go on until the pressure of the vapour in the exhausted vessel is equal to its partial pressure in the other vessel, notwithstanding the fact that the total pressure in the latter vessel is greater by the pressure of the air. To separate mixed gases by liquefaction, they must be compressed and cooled till one separates in the form of a liquid. If no changes are to take place outside the system, the separate components must be allowed to expand until the work of expansion is equal to the work of compression, and the heat given out in compression is reabsorbed in expansion. The process may be made as nearly reversible as we like by performing the operations so slowly that the substances are practically in a state of equilibrium at every stage. This is a consequence of an important axiom in thermodynamics according to which "any small change in the neighbourhood of a state of equilibrium is to a first approximation reversible." Suppose now that at any stage of the compression the partial pressures of the two gases are pi and p%, and that the volume is changed from V to V—dV. The work of compression is (pi-\-pi)dV, and this work will be restored at the corresponding stage if each of the separated gases increases in volume from V — 2V to V. The ultimate state of the separated gases will thus be one in which each gas occupies the volume V originally occupied by the mixture. We may now obtain an estimate of the amount of energy rendered unavailable by diffusion. We suppose two gases occupying volumes Vi and V2 at equal pressure p to mix by diffusion, so that the final volume is Vi+V 2 - Then if before mixing each gas had been allowed to expand till its volume was V1+V2, work would have been done in the expansion, and the gases could still have been mixed by a reversal of the process above described. In the actual diffusion this work of expansion is lost, and represents energy rendered unavailable at the temperature at which diffusion takes place. When divided by that temperature the quotient gives the increase of entropy. Thus the irreversible processes, and, in particular, the entropy changes associated with diffusion of two gases at uniform pressure, are the same as would take place if each of the gases in turn were to expand by rushing into a vacuum, till it occupied the whole volume of the mixture. A more rigorous proof involves considerations of the thermodynamic potentials, following the methods of J. Willard Gibbs (see Energetics). DIFFUSION 259 Another way in which two or more mixed gases can be separated is by placing them in the presence of a liquid which can freely absorb one of the gases, but in which the other gas or gases are insoluble. Here again it is found by experience that when equilibrium exists at a given temperature between the dissolved and undissolved portions of the first gas, the partial pressure of that gas in the mixture depends on the temperature alone, and is independent of the partial pressures of the insoluble gases with which it is mixed, so that the conclusions are the same as before. 10. Diffusion through a Membrane or Partition. Theory of the semi-permeable Membrane. — It has been pointed out that diffusion of gases frequently takes place in the interior of solids; moreover, different gases behave differently with respect to the same solid at the same temperature. A membrane or partition formed of such a solid can therefore be used to effect a moie or less complete separation of gases from a mixture. This method is employed commercially for extracting oxygen from the atmosphere, in particular for use in projection lanterns where a high degree of purity is not required. A similar method is often applied to liquids and solutions and is known as " dialysis." In such cases as can be tested experimentally it has been found that a gas always tends to pass through a membrane from the side where its density, and therefore its partial pressure, is greater to the side where it is less; so that for equilibrium the partial pressures on the two sides must be equal. This result is un- affected by the presence of other gases on one or both sides of the membrane. For example, if different gases at the same pressure are separated by a partition through which one gas can pass more rapidly than the other, the diffusion will give rise to a difference of pressure on the two sides, which is capable of doing mechanical work in moving the partition. In evidence of this conclusion Max Planck quotes a test experiment made by him in the Physical Institute of the university of Munich in 1883, depending on the fact that platinum foil at white heat is permeable to hydrogen but impermeable to air, so that if a platinum tube filled with hydrogen be heated the hydrogen will diffuse out, leaving a vacuum. The details of the experiment may be quoted here: — " A glass tube of about 5 mm. internal diameter, blown out to a bulb at the middle, was provided with a stop-cock at one end. To the other a platinum tube 10 cm. long was fastened, and closed at the end. The whole tube was exhausted by a mercury pump, filled with hydrogen at ordinary atmospheric pressure, and then closed. The closed end of the platinum portion was then heated in a horizontal position by a Bunsen burner. The connexion between the glass and platinum tubes, having been made by means of sealing-wax, had to be kept cool by a continuous current of water to prevent the softening of the wax. After four hours the tube was taken from the flame, cooled to the temperature of the room, and the stop-cock opened under mercury. The mercury rose rapidly, almost completely filling the tube, proving that the tube had been very nearly exhausted." In order that diffusion through a membrane may be reversible so far as a particular gas is concerned, the process must take place so slowly that equilibrium is set up at every stage (see § 9 above). _ _ r s * n orc ler to separate one BB *m m t^ML Gas A Gases A&B Gas B gas from another con- sistently with this con- dition it is necessary that no diffusion of the latter gas should ac- company the process. The name " semi-per- meable " is applied to an ideal membrane or partition through which one gas can pass, and which offers an insuperable barrier to any diffusion whatever of a second gas. By means of two semi-permeable partitions acting oppositely with respect to two different gases A and B these gases could be mixed or separated by reversible methods. The annexed figure shows a diagrammatic representa- tion of the process. We suppose the gases contained in a cylindrical tube; P, Q, R, S are four pistons, of which P and R are joined to one connecting rod, Q and S to another. P, S are impermeable to both gases ; Q is semi-permeable, allowing the gas A to pass through but not B, simi- larly R allows the gas B to pass through but not A. The distance PR is equal to the distance QS, so that if the rods are pushed towards each other as far as they will go, P and Q will be in contact, as also R and S. Imagine the space RQ filled with a mixture of the two gases under these conditions. Then by slowly drawing the connecting rods apart until R, Q touch, the gas A will pass into the space PQ, and B will pass into the space RS, and the gases will finally be com- pletely separated ; similarly, by pushing the connecting rods together, the two gases will be remixed in the space RQ. By performing the operations slowly enough we may make the processes as nearly reversible as we please, se that no available energy is lost in either change. The gas A being at every instant in equilibrium on the two sides of the piston Q, its density, and therefore its partial pressure, is the same on both sides, and the same is true regarding the gas B on the two sides of R. Also no work is done in moving the pistons, for the partial pressures of B on the two sides of R balance each other, consequently, the resultant thrust on R is due to the gas A alone, and is equal and opposite to its resultant thrust on P, so that the connecting rods are at every instant in a state of mechanical equili- brium so far as the pressures of the gases A and B are concerned. We conclude that in the reversible separation of the gases by this method at constant temperature without the production or absorption of mechanical work, the densities and the partial pressures of the two separated gases are the same as they were in the mixture. These conclusions are in entire agreement with those of the preceding section. If this agreement did not exist it would be possible, theo- retically, to obtain perpetual motion from the gases in a way that would be inconsistent with the second law of thermodynamics. Most physicists admit, as Planck does, that it is impossible to obtain an ideal semi-permeable substance; indeed such a sub- stance would necessarily have to possess an infinitely great resist- ance to diffusion for such gases as could not penetrate it. But in an experiment performed under actual conditions the losses of available energy arising from this cause would be attributable to the imperfect efficiency of the partitions and not to the gases themselves; moreover, these losses are, in every case, found to be completely in accordance with the laws of irreversible thermo- dynamics. The reasoning in this article being somewhat con- densed the reader must necessarily be referred to treatises on thermodynamics for further information on points of detail connected with the argument. Even when he consults these treatises he may find some points omitted which have been examined in full detail at some time or other, but are not suffi- ciently often raised to require mention in print. 11. Kinetic Models of Diffusion.-^- Imagine in the first instance that a very large number of red balls are distributed over one half of a billiard table, and an equal number of white balls over the other half. If the balls are set in motion with different velocities in various directions, diffusion will take place, the red balls find- ing their way among the white ones, and vice versa; and the process will be retarded by collisions between the balls. The simplest model of a perfect gas studied in the kinetic theory of gases (see Molecule) differs from the above illustration in that the bodies representing the molecules move in space instead of in a plane, and, unlike billiard balls, their motion is unresisted, and they are perfectly elastic, so that no kinetic energy is lost either during their free motions, or at a collision. The mathematical analysis connected with the application of the kinetic theory to diffusion is very long and cumbersome. We shall therefore confine our attention to regarding a medium formed of elastic spheres as a mechanical model, by which the most important features of diffusion can be illustrated. We shall assume the results of the kinetic theory, according to which: — (1) In a dynamical model of a perfect gas the mean kinetic energy of translation of the molecules represents the absolute temperature of the gas. (2) The pressure at any, point is proportional to the product of the number of molecules in unit volume about that point into the mean square of the velocity. (The mean square of the velocity is different from but proportional to the square of the mean velocity, and in the subsequent arguments either of these two quantities can generally be taken.) (3) In a gas mixture represented by a mixture of mole- cules of unequal masses, the mean kinetic energies of the different kinds are equal. Consider now the problem of diffusion in a region containing two kinds of molecules A and B of unequal mass. The molecules of A in the neighbourhood of any point will, by their motion, spread out in every direction until they come into collision with other molecules of either kind, and this spreading out from every point of the medium will give rise to diffusion. If we imagine the velocities of the A molecules to be equally distributed in all directions, as they would be in a homogeneous mixture, it is obvious that the process of diffusion will be greater, ceteris paribus, the greater the velocity of th : mole- cules, and the greater the length of the free path before a collision takes place. If we assume consistently with this, that the co- efficient of diffusion of the gas A is proportional to the mean value of Wala, where w a is the velocity and U is the length of the path of a 26o DIGBY, SIR E. molecule of A, this expression for the coefficient of diffusion is of the right dimensions in length and time. If, moreover, we observe that when diffusion takes place in a fixed direction, say that of the axis of x, it depends only on the resolved part of the velocity and length of path in that direction : this hypothesis readily leads to our taking the mean value of IwJa as the coefficient of diffusion for the gas A. This value was obtained by O. E. Meyer and others. Unfortunately, however, it makes the coefficients of diffusion unequal for the two gases, a result inconsistent with that obtained above from considerations of the coefficient of resistance, and leading to the consequence that differences of pressure would be set up in different parts of the gas. To equalize these differences of pressure, Meyer assumed that a counter current is set up, this current being, of course, very slow in practice; and J. Stefan assumed that the diffusion of one gas was not affected by collisions between mole- cules of the same gas. When the molecules are mixed in equal proportions both hypotheses lead to the value l([wala]+[wblb]), (square brackets denoting mean values). When one gas preponder- ates largely over the other, the phenomena of diffusion are too difficult of observation to allow of accurate experimental tests being made. Moreover, in this case no difference exists unless the molecules are different in size or mass. Instead of supposing a velocity of translation added after the mathematical calculations have been performed, a better plan is to assume from the outset that the molecules of the two gases have small velocities of translation in opposite directions, superposed on the distribution of velocity, which would occur in a medium repre- senting a gas at rest. When a collision occurs between molecules of different gases a transference of momentum takes place between them, and the quantitj' of momentum so transferred in one second in a unit of volume gives a dynamical measure of the resistance to diffusion. It is to be observed that, however small the relative velocity of the gases A and B, it plays an all-important part in determining the coefficient of resistance; for without such relative motion, and with the velocities evenly distributed in all directions, no transference of momentum could take place. The coefficient of resistance being found, the motion of each of the two gases may be discussed separately. •One of the most important consequences of the kinetic theory is that if the volume be kept constant the coefficient of diffusion varies as the square root of the absolute temperature. To prove this, we merely have to imagine the velocity of each molecule to be suddenly increased n fold; the subsequent processes, includ- ing diffusion, will then go on n times as fast; and the temperature T, being proportional to the kinetic energy, and therefore to the square of the velocity, will be increased n 2 fold. Thus K, the coefficient of diffusion, varies as VT. The relation of K to the density when the temperature remains constant is more difficult to discuss, but it may be sufficient to notice that if the number of molecules is increased n fold, the chances of a collision are n times as great, and the distance traversed between collisions is (not therefore but as the result of more detailed reasoning) on the average i/n of what it was before. Thus the free path, and therefore the coefficient of diffusion, varies inversely as the density, or directly as the volume. If the pressure p and temperature T be taken as variables, K varies inversely as p and directly as VT 3 . Now according to the experiments first made by J. C. Maxwell and J. Loschmidt, it appeared that with constant density K was proportional to T more nearly than to VT. The inference is that in this respect a medium formed of colliding spheres fails to give a correct mechanical model of gases. It has been found by L. Boltzmann, Maxwell and others that a system of particles whose mutual actions vary according to the inverse fifth power of the distance between them represents more correctly the relation between the coefficient of diffusion and temperature in actual gases. Other recent theories of diffusion have been advanced by M. Thiesen, P. Langevin and W. Sutherland. On the other hand, J. Thovert finds experimental evidence that the coefficient of diffusion is proportional to molecular velocity in the cases examined of non-electrolytes dissolved in water at i8° at 2-5 grams per litre. Bibliography. — The best introduction to the study of theories of diffusion is afforded by O. E. Meyer's Kinetic Theory of Gases, translated by Robert E. Baynes (London, 1899). The mathematical portion, though sufficient for ordinary purposes, is mostly of the simplest possible character. Another useful treatise is R. Ruhlmann's Handbuch der mechanischen Warmetheorie (Brunswick, 1885). For a shorter sketch the reader may refer to J. C. Maxwell's Theory of Heat, chaps, xix. and xxii., or numerous other treatises on physics. The theory of the semi-permeable membrane is discussed by M. Planck in his Treatise on Thermodynamics, English translation by A. Ogg (1903), also in treatises on thermodynamics by W. Voigt and other writers. For a more detailed study of diffusion in general the following papers may be consulted: — L. Boltzmann, " Zur Integration der Diffusionsgleichung," Sitzung.derk.bayer.Akadmath.- phys. Klasse (May 1894); T. des Coudres, " Diffusionsvorgange in einem Zylinder," Wied. Ann. lv. (1895), P- 213; J- Loschmidt, " Experimentaiuntersuchungen iiber Diffusion," Wien. Sitz. lxi., lxii. (1870) ; J. Stefan, " Gleichgewicht und . . . Diffusion von Gas- mengen," Wien. Sitz. lxiii., " Dynamische Theorie der Diffusion," Wien. Sitz. lxv. (April 1872); M. Toepler, "Gas-diffusion," Wied. Ann. lviii. (1896), p. 599; A. Wretschko, "Experimentaiunter- suchungen iiber die Diffusion von Gasmengen," Wien. Sitz. lxii. The mathematical theory of diffusion, according to the kinetic theory of gases, has been treated by a number of different methods, and for the study of these the reader may consult L. Boltzmann, Vorlesungen iiber Gastheorie (Leipzig, 1 896-1 898); S. H. Burbury, Kinetic Theory of Gases (Cambridge, 1899), and papers by L. Boltz- mann in Wien. Sitz. lxxxvi. (1882), Ixxxvii. (1883); P. G. Tait, " Foundations of the Kinetic Theory of Gases," Trans. R.S.E. xxxiii., xxxv., xxvi., or Scientific Papers, ii. (Cambridge, 1900). For recent work reference should be made to the current issues of Science Abstracts (London), and entries under the heading " Diffusion " will be found in the general index at the end of each volume. (G. H. Br.) DIGBY, SIR EVERARD (1578-1606), English conspirator, son of Everard Digby of Stoke Dry, Rutland, was born on the 16th of May 1578. He inherited a large estate at his father's death in 1592, and acquired a considerable increase by his marriage in 1596 to Mary, daughter and heir of William Mulsho of Gothurst (now Gayhurst), in Buckinghamshire. He obtained a place in Queen Elizabeth's household and as a ward of the crown was brought up a Protestant; but about 1599 he came under the influence of the Jesuit, John Gerard, and soon afterwards joined the Roman Catholics. He supported James's accession and was knighted by the latter on the 23rd of April 1603. In a letter to Salisbury, the date of which has been ascribed to May 1605, Digby offered to go on a mission to the pope to obtain from the latter a promise to prevent Romanist attempts against the government in return for concessions to the Roman Catholics; adding that if severe measures were again taken against them " within brief there will be massacres, rebellions and desperate attempts against the king and state." Digby had suffered no personal injury or persecution on account of his religion, but he sympathized with his co-religionists; and when at Michaelmas, 1605, the government had fully decided to return to the policy of repression, the authors of the Gunpowder Plot (q.v.) sought his financial support, and he joined eagerly in the conspiracy. His particular share in the plan was the organization of a rising in the Midlands; and on the pretence of a hunting party he assembled a body of gentlemen together at Danchurch in Warwickshire on the 5 th of November, who were to take action immediately the news arrived from London of the successful destruction of the king and the House of Lords, and to seize the person of the princess Elizabeth, who was residing in the neighbourhood. The con- spirators arrived late on the evening of the 6th to tell their story of failure and disaster, and Digby, who possibly might have escaped the more serious charge of high treason, was persuaded by Catesby, with a false tale that the king and Salisbury were dead, to further implicate himself in the plot and join the small band of conspirators in their hopeless endeavour to raise the country. He accompanied them, the same day, to Huddington in Worcester- shire and on the 7th to Holbeche in Staffordshire. The following morning, however, he abandoned his companions, dismissed his servants except two, who declared " they would never leave him but against their will," and attempted with these to conceal him- self in a pit. He was, however, soon discovered and surrounded. He made a last effort to break through his captors on horseback, but was taken and conveyed a prisoner to the Tower. His trial took place in Westminster Hall, on the 27th of January 1606, and alone among the conspirators he pleaded guilty, declaring that the motives of his crime had been his friendship for Catesby and his devotion to his religion. He was condemned to death, and his execution, which took place on the 31st, in St Paul's Churchyard, was accompanied by all the brutalities exacted by the law. Digby was a handsome man, of fine presence. Father Gerard DIGBY, SIR K. 261 extols his skill in sport, his " riding of great horses," as well as his skill in music, his gifts of mind and his religious devotion, and concludes " he was as complete a man in all things, that deserved estimation or might win affection as one should see in a kingdom." Some of Digby's letters and papers, which include a poem before his execution, a last letter to his infant sons and corre- spondence with his wife from the Tower, were published in The Gunpowder Treason by Thomas Barlow, bishop of Lincoln, in 1679. He left two sons, of whom the elder, Sir Kenelm Digby, was the well-known author and diplomatist. See works on the Gunpowder Plot; Narrative of Father Gerard, in Condition of the Catholics under James I. by J. Morris (1872), &c. ,A life of Digby under the title of A ILife of a Conspirator, by a Romish Recusant (Thomas Longueville), was published in 1895. (P- C. Y.) DIGBY, SIR KENELM (1603-1665), English author, diplom- atist and naval commander, son of Sir Everard Digby (q.v.), was born on the 1 ith of July 1603, and after his father's execution in 1606 resided with his mother at Gay hurst, being brought up apparently as a Roman Catholic. In 1617 he accompanied his cousin, Sir John Digby, afterwards 1st earl of Bristol, and then ambassador in Spain, to Madrid. On his return in April 1618 he entered Gloucester Hall (now Worcester College), Oxford, and studied under Thomas Allen (1542-1632), the celebrated mathe- matician, who was much impressed with his abilities and called him the Mirandula, i.e. the infant prodigy, of his age. 1 He left the university without taking a degree in 1620, and travelled in France, where, according to his own account, he inspired an uncontrollable passion in the queen-mother, Marie de' Medici, now a lady of more than mature age and charms; he visited Florence, and in March 1623 joined Sir John Digby again at Madrid, at the time when Prince Charles and Buckingham arrived on their adventurous expedition. He joined the prince's house- hold and returned with him to England on the 5th of October 1623, being knighted by James I. on the 23rd of October and receiving the appointment of gentleman of the privy chamber to Prince Charles. In 1625 he married secretly Venetia, daughter of Sir. Edward Hanley of Tonge Castle, Shropshire, a lady of extra- ordinary beauty and intellectual attainments, but of doubtful virtue. Digby was a man of great stature and bodily strength. Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of Clarendon, who with Ben Jonson was included among his most intimate friends, describes him as " a man of very extraordinary person and presence which drew the eyes of all men upon him, a wonderful graceful behaviour, a flowing courtesy and civility, and such a volubility of language as surprised and delighted." 2 Digby for sometime was excluded from public employment by Buckingham's jealousy of his cousin, Lord Bristol. At length in 1627, on the latter's advice, Digby determined to attempt " some generous action," and on the 22nd of December, with the approval of the king, embarked as a privateer with two ships, with the object of attack- ing the French ships in the Venetian harbour of Scanderoon. On the 1 8th of January he arrived off Gibraltar and captured several Spanish and Flemish vessels. From the 15th of February to the 27 th of March he remained at anchor off Algiers on account of the sickness of his men, and extracted a promise from the authorities of better treatment of the English ships. He seized a rich Dutch vessel near Majorca, and after other adventures gained a complete victory over the French and Venetian ships in the harbour of Scanderoon on the 1 ith of June. His successes, however, brought upon the English merchants the risk of reprisals, and he was urged to depart. He returned home in triumph in February 1629, and was well received by the king, and was made a commissioner of the navy in October 1630, but his proceedings were disavowed on account of the complaints of the Venetian ambassador. In 1633 Lady Digby died, and her memory was celebrated by Ben Jonson in a series of poems entitled Eupheme, and by other poets of the day. Digby retired to Gresham College, and exhibited ex- travagant grief, maintaining a seclusion for two years. About this time Digby professed himself a Protestant, but by October 1635, while in France, he had already returned to the Roman 1 Letters by Eminent Persons (Aubrey's Lives), ii. 324. 2 Life and Continuation. Catholic faith. 3 In a letter dated the 27th of March 1636 Laud remonstrates with him, but assures him of the continuance of his friendship. 4 In 1638 he published A Conference with a Lady about choice of a Religion, in which he argues that the Roman Church, possessing alone the qualifications of universality, unity of doctrine and uninterrupted apostolic succession, is the only true church, and that the intrusion of error into it is impossible. The same subject is treated in letters to George Digby, afterwards 2nd earl of Bristol, dated the 2nd of November 1638 and the 29th of November 1639, which were published in 1651, as well as in a further Discourse concerning Infallibility in Religion in 1652. Returning to England he associated himself with the queen and her Roman Catholic friends, and joined in the appeal to the English Romanists for money to support the king's Scottish expedition. 6 In consequence he was summoned to the bar of the House of Commons on the 27th of January 1641, and the king was petitioned to remove him with other recusants from his councils. He left England, and while at Paris killed in a duel a French lord who had insulted Charles I. in his presence. Louis XIII. took his part, and furnished him with a military escort into Flanders. Returning home he was imprisoned, by order of the House of Commons, early in 1642, successively in the " Three Tobacco Pipes nigh Charing Cross," where his delightful con- versation is said to have transformed the prison into " a place of delight," * and at Winchester House. He was finally released and allowed to go to France on the 30th of July 1643, through the intervention of the queen of France, Anne of Austria, on condition that he would neither promote nor conceal any plots abroad against the English government. Before leaving England an attempt was made to draw from him an admission that Laud, with whom he had been intimate, had desired to be made a cardinal, but Digby denied that the archbishop had any leanings towards Rome. On the 1st of November 1643 it was resolved by the Commons to confiscate his property. He published in London the same year Observations on the 22nd stanza in the gth canto of the 2nd book of Spenser's " Faerie Queene," the MS. of which is in the Egerton collection (British Museum, No. 2725 f. 117 b), and Observations on a surreptitious and unauthorized edition of the Religio Medici, by Sir Thomas Browne, from the Roman Catholic point of view, which drew a severe rebuke from the author. After his arrival in Paris he published his chief philosophical works, Of Bodies and Of the Immortality of Man's Soul (1644), autograph MSS. of which are in the Bibliotheque Ste Genevieve at Paris, and made the acquaintance of Descartes. He was appointed by Queen Henrietta Maria her chancellor, and in the summer of 1645 ne was despatched by her to Rome to obtain assistance. Digby promised the conversion of Charles and of his chief supporters. At first his eloquence made a great impression. Pope Innocent X. declared that he spoke not merely as a Catholic but as an ecclesiastic. But the absence of any warrant from Charles himself roused suspicions as to the solidity of his assurances, and he obtained nothing but a grant of 20,000 crowns. A violent quarrel with the pope followed, and he returned in 1646, having consented in the queen's name to complete religious freedom for the Roman Catholics, both in England and Ireland, to an independent parlia- ment in Ireland, and to the surrender of Dublin and all the Irish fortresses into the hands of the Roman Catholics, the king's troops to be employed in enforcing the articles and the pope granting about £36,000 with a promise of further payments in obtaining direct assistance. In February 1649 Digby was invited to come to England to arrange a proposed toleration of the Roman Catholics, but on his arrival in May the scheme had already been abandoned. He was again banished on the 31st of August, and it was not till 1654 that he was allowed by the council of state to return. He now entered into close relations with Cromwell, from whom he hoped to obtain toleration for the Roman Catholics, and whose alliance he desired to secure for France rather than for s Strafford's Letters, i. 474. 4 Laud's Works, vi. 447. 6 Thotnason Tracts, Brit. Mus. E 164 (15). 6 Archaeologia Cantiana, ii. 190. 262 DIGBY, K. H.— DIGESTIVE ORGANS Spain, and was engaged by Cromwell, much to the scandal of both Royalists and Roundheads, in negotiations abroad, of which the aim was probably to prevent a union between those two foreign powers. He visited Germany, in 1660 was in Paris, and at the Restoration returned to England. He was well received in spite of his former relations with Cromwell, and was confirmed in his post as Queen Henrietta Maria's chancellor. In January 166 1 he delivered a lecture, which was published the same month, at Gresham College, on the vegetation of plants, and became an original member of the Royal Society in 1663. In January 1664 he was forbidden to appear at court, the cause assigned being that he had interposed too far in favour of the 2nd earl of Bristol, disgraced by the king on account of the charge of high treason brought by him against Clarendon into the House of Lords. The rest of his life was spent in the enjoyment of literary and scientific society at his house in Covent Garden. He died on the nth of June 1665. He had five children, of whom two, a son and one daughter, survived him. Digby, though he possessed for the time a considerable know- ledge of natural science, and is said to have been the first to explain the necessity of oxygen to the existence of plants, bears no high place in the history of science. He was a firm believer in astrology and alchemy, and the extraordinary fables which he circulated on the subject of his discoveries are evidence of any- thing rather than of the scientific spirit. In 1656 he made public a marvellous account of a city in Tripoli, petrified in a few hours, which he printed in the Mercurius Politicus. Malicious reports had been current that his wife had been poisoned by one of his prescriptions, viper wine, taken to preserve her beauty. Evelyn, who visited him in Paris in 165 1, describes him as an " errant mountebank." Henry Stubbes characterizes him as "the very Pliny of our age for lying," and Lady Fanshawe refers to the same " infirmity." 1 His famous " powder of sympathy," which seems to have been only powder of " vitriol," healed without any contact, by being merely applied to a rag or bandage taken from the wound, and Digby records a miraculous cure by this means in a lecture given by him at Montpellier on this subject in 1658, published in French and English the same year, in German in 1660 and in Dutch in 1663; but Digby's claim to its original discovery is doubtful, Nathaniel Highmore in his History of Generation (1651, p. 113) calling the powder " Talbot's powder," and ascribing its invention to Sir Gilbert Talbot. Some of Digby's pills and preparations, however, described in The Closet of the Eminently Learned Sir Kenelm Digby Knt. Opened (publ. 1677), are said to make less demand upon the faith of patients, and his injunction on the subject of the making of tea, to let the water " remain upon it no longer than you can say the Miserere Psalm very leisurely," is one by no means to be ridiculed. As a philo- sopher and an Aristotelian Digby shows little originality and followed the methods of the schoolmen. His Roman Catholic orthodoxy mixed with rationalism, and his political opinions, according to which any existing authority should receive support, were evidently derived from Thomas White (1582-1676), the Roman Catholic philosopher, who lived with' him in France. White published in 1651 Inslitutionum Peripateticorum libri quinque, purporting to expound Digby's "peripatetic philo- sophy," but going far beyond Digby's published treatises. Digby's Memoirs are composed in the high-flown Jantastic manner then usual when recounting incidents of love and adventure, but the style of his more sober works is excellent. In 1632 he presented to the Bodleian library a collection of 236 MSS., be- queathed to him by his former tutor Thomas Allen, and described in Catalogi codicum manuscriptorum bibliothecae Bodleianae, by W. D. Macray, part ix. Besides the works already mentioned Digby translated A Treatise of adhering to God written by Albert the Great, Bishop of Ratisbon (1653); and he was the author of Private Memoirs, published by Sir N. H. Nicholas from Harleian MS. 6758 with introduction (1827); Journal of the Scanderoon Voyage in 1628, printed by J. Bruce with preface (Camden Society, 1868); Poems from Sir Kenelm Digby's Papers . . . with 1 Diet, of Nat. Biog. sub " Digby." See also Robert Boyle's Works (1744), v. 302. preface and notes (Roxburghe Club, 1877); in the Add. MSSi 34,362 f. 66 is a poem Of Ike Miserys of Man, probably by Digby; Choice of Experimental Receipts in Physick and Chirurgery . . . collected by Sir K. Digby (1668), and Chymical Secrets and Rare Experiments (1683), were published by G. Hartman, who describes himself as Digby's steward and laboratory assistant. See the Life of Sir Kenelm Digby by one of his Descendants (T. Longueville), 1896. (P. C. Y.) DIGBY, KENELM HENRY (1800-1880), English writer, youngest son of William Digby, dean of Clonfert, was born at Clonfert, Ireland, in 1800. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and soon after taking his B.A. degree there in 181 9 became a Roman Catholic. He spent most of his life, which was mainly devoted to literary pursuits, in London, where he died on the 22nd of March 1880. Digby's reputation rests chiefly on his earliest publication, The Broadstone of Honour, or Rules for the Gentlemen of England (1822), which contains an exhaustive survey of medieval customs, full of quotations from varied sources. The work was subsequently enlarged and issued (1826-1827) in four volumes entitled: Godefridus, Tancredus, Morus and Orlandus (numerous re-impressions, the best of which is the editior brought out by B. Quaritch in five volumes, 1876-1877). Among Digby's other works are: Mores Catholici, or Ages of Faith (n vols., London, 1831-1840); Compitum; or the Meeting of the Ways at the Catholic Church (7 vols., London, 1848-1854); The Lovers' Seat, KathemSrina ; or Common Things in relation to Beauty, Virtue and Faith (2 vols., London, 1856). A complete list is given in J. Gillow's Bibliographical Dictionary of English Catholics, ii. 81-83. DIGENES ACRITAS, BASILIUS, Byzantine national hero, probably lived in the 10th century. He is named Digenes (of double birth) as the son of a Moslem father and a Christian mother; Acritas (ckpa, frontier, boundary), as one of the fron- tier guards of the empire, corresponding to the Roman tnililes limitanei. The chief duty of these acritae consisted in repelling Moslem inroads and the raids of the apelalae (cattle-lifters), brigands who may be compared with the more modern Klephts. The original Digenes epic is lost, but four poems are extant, in which the different incidents of the legend have been worked up by different hands. The first of these consists of about 4000 lines, written in the so-called " political " metre, and was dis- covered in the latter part of the 19th century, in a 16th-century MS., at Trebizond; the other three MSS. were found at Grotta Ferrata, Andros and Oxford. The poem, which has been com- pared with the Chanson de Roland and the Romance of the Cid, undoubtedly contains a kernel of fact, although it cannot be regarded as in any sense an historical record. The scene of action is laid in Cappadocia and the district of the Euphrates. Editions of the Trebizond MS. by C. Sathas and E. Legrand in the Collection des monuments pour servir d. Vetude de la langue neo- hellenique, new series, vi. (1875), and by S. Joannides (Constantinople, 1887). See monographs by A. Luber (Salzburg, 1885) and G. Wartenberg (Berlin, 1897). Full information will be found in C. Krumbacher's Geschichte der byzantinischen ■ Litter atur, p. 827 (2nd ed., 1897); see also G. Schlumberger, L'Epopee Byzantine a la fin du dixieme siecle (1897). DIGEST, a term used generally of any digested or carefully arranged collection or compendium of written matter, but more particularly in law of a compilation in condensed form of a body of law digested in a systematical method; e.g. the Digest (Digesta) or Pandects (HavdeKrai.) of Justinian, a collection of extracts from the earlier jurists compiled by order of the emperor Justinian. The word is also given to the compilations of the main points (marginal or hand-notes) of decided cases, usually arranged in alphabetical and subject order, and published under such titles as " Common Law Digest," " Annual Digest," &c. DIGESTIVE ORGANS (Pathology). Several facts of im- portance have to be borne in mind for a proper appreciation of the pathology of the organs concerned in digestive processes (for the anatomy see Alimentary Canal and allied articles). In the first place, more than all other systems, the digestive comprises greater range of structure and exhibits wider diversity of function within its domain. Each separate structure and each different function presents special pathological signs and symptoms. Again, the duties imposed upon the system .have to be performed DIGESTIVE ORGANS 263 notwithstanding constant variations in the work set them. The crude articles of diet offered them vary immensely in nature, bulk and utility, from which they must elaborate simple food-elements for absorption, incorporate them after absorption into complex organic substances properly designed to supply the constant needs of cellular activity, of growth and repair, and fitly harmonized to fulfil the many requirements of very divergent processes and functions. Any form of unphysiological diet, each failure to cater for the wants of any special tissue engaged in, or of any processes of, metabolism, carry with them pathological signs. Perhaps in greater degree than elsewhere are the individual sections of the digestive system dependent upon, and closely correlated with, one another. The lungs can only yield oxygen to the blood when the oxygen is uncombined; no compounds are of use. The digestive organs have to deal with an enormous variety of compound bodies, from which to obtain the elements necessary for protoplasmic upkeep and activity. Morbid lesions of the respiratory and circulatory systems are frequently capable of compensation through increased activity elsewhere, and the symptoms they give rise to follow chiefly along one line; diseases of the digestive organs are more liable to occasion disorders elsewhere than to excite compensatory actions. The digestive system includes every organ, function and process concerned with the utilization of food-stuffs, from the moment of their entrance into the mouth, their preparation in the canal, assimi- lation with the tissues, their employment therein, up to their excretion or expulsion in the form of waste. Each portion resembles a link of a continuous chain; each link depends upon the integrity of the others, the weakening or breaking of one straining or making impotent the chain as a whole. The mucous membrane lining the alimentary tract is the part most subject to pathological alterations, and in this connexion it should be remembered that this membrane differs both in structure and functions throughout the tract. Chiefly protective from the mouth to the cardia, it is secretory and absorbent in the stomach and bowel; while the glandular cells forming part of it secrete both acid and alkaline fluids, several ferments or mucus. Over the dorsum of the tongue its modified cells subserve the sense of taste. Without, connected with it by the submucous connective tissue, is placed the muscular coat, and externally over the greater portion of its length the peritoneal serous membrane. All parts are supplied with blood-vessels, lymph-ducts and nerves, the last belonging either to local or to central circuits. Associated with the tract are the salivary glands, the liver and the pancreas; while, in addition, lymphoid tissue is met with diffusely scattered throughout the lining membranes in the tonsils, appendix, solitary glands and Peyer's patches, and the mesenteric glands. The functions of the various parts of the system in whose lesions we are here interested are many in number, and can only be summarized here. (For the physiology of digestion see Nutrition.) Broadly, they maybe given as: (1) Ingestion and swallowing of food, transmission of it through the tract, and expulsion of the waste material; (2) secretion of acids and alkalis for the performance of digestive processes, aided by (3) elaboration and addition of complex bodies, termed enzymes or ferments; (4) secretion of mucus; (5) protection of the body against organismal infection, and against toxic products; (6) absorption of food elements and reconstitution of them into complex substances fitted for metabolic application; and (7) excretion of the waste products of protoplasmic action. ■ These ^unctions may oe altered by disease, singly or in conjunction; it '% rare, however, to find but one affected, while an apparently identical disturbance of function may often arise from totally different organic lesions. Another point of importance is =esn in the close interdependence which exists between the secretions of acid and those of alkaline reaction. The difference in reaction seems to act mutatis mutandis as a stimulant in each instance. General Diseases. In all sections of the alimentary canal actively engaged in the ingestion of food, a well-marked local engorgement of the blood- vessels supplying the walls occurs. The hyperaemia abates soon after completion of the special duties of the individual sections. This normal condition ma,y be abnormally exaggerated by over- stimulation from irritant poisons introduced into the canal; from too rich, too copious or indigestible XtSSmf articles of diet; or from too prolonged an experience of some unvaried kind of food-stuff, especially if large quantities of it are necessary for metabolic needs; entering into the first stage of inflammation, acute hyperaemia. More important, because productive of less tractable lesions, is passive congestion of the digestive organs. Whenever the flow of blood into the right side of the heart is hindered, whether it arise from disease of the heart itself, or of the lungs, or proceed from obstruction in some part of the portal system, the damming-back of the venous circulation speedily produces a more or less pronounced stasis of the blood in the walls of the alimentary canal and in the associated abdominal glands. The lack of a sufficiently vigorous flow of blood is followed by deficient secretion of digestive agents from the glandular elements involved, by decreased motility of the muscular coats of the stomach and bowel, and lessened adapt- ability throughout for dealing with even slight irregular demands on their powers. The mucous membrane of the stomach and bowel, less able to withstand the effects of irritation, even of a minor character, readily passes into a condition of chronic catarrh, while it frequently is the seat of small abrasions, haemorrhagic erosions, which may cause vomiting of blood and the appearance of blood in the stools. Obstruction to the flow of blood from the liver leads to dilatation of its blood-vessels, consequent pressure upon the hepatic cells adjoining them, and their gradual loss of function, or even atrophy and degeneration. In addition to the results of such passive congestion exhibited by the stomach and bowel as noted above, passive congestion of the liver is often accompanied by varicose enlargement of the abdominal veins, in particular of those which surround the lower end of the oesophagus, the lowest part of the rectum and anus. In the latter position these dilated veins constitute what are known as haemorrhoids or piles, internal or external as their site lies within or outside the anal aperture. The mucous and serous membranes of the canal and the glandular elements of the associated organs are the parts most subject to inflammatory affections. Among the several sections of the digestive tract itself, the oesophagus and jejunum are singularly exempt from inflammatory processes; the fauces, stomach, caecum and appendix, ileum, mouth and duodenum (including the opening of the common bile-duct), are more commonly involved. Stomatitis, or inflammation of the mouth, has many predisposing factors, but it has now been definitely determined that its exciting cause is always Inflam- some form of micro-organism. Any condition favouring kthuu. oral sepsis, as carious teeth, pyorrhoea alveolaris (a dis- charge of pus due to inflamed granulations round carious teeth), granulations beneath thick crusts of tartar, or an irritating tooth plate, favours the growth of pyogenic organisms and hence of stomatitis. Many varieties of this disease have been described, but all are forms of " pyogenic " or " septic stomatitis." This in its mildest form is catarrhal or erythematous, and is attended only by slight swelling tenderness and salivation. In its next stage of acuteness it is known as "membranous," as a false membrane is produced somewhat resembling that due to diphtheria, though caused by a staphylococcus only. A still more acute form is " ulcerative," which may go on to the forma- tion of an abscess beneath the tongue. Scarlet fever usually gives rise to a slight inflammation of the mouth followed by desauamation, but more rarely it is accompanied by a most severe oedematous stomatitis with glossitis and tonsillitis. Erysipelas on the face may infect the mouth, and an acute stomatitis due to the diphtheria bacillus, Klebs-Loeffler bacillus, has been described. A distinct and very dangerous form of stomatitis in infants and young children is known as " aphthous stomatitis " or " thrush." This is caused by the growth of Oidium albicans. It is always preceded by a gastro-enteritis and dry mouth, and if this is not attended to, soon attracts attention by the little white raised patches surrounded by a dusky red zone 264 DIGESTIVE ORGANS scattered on tongue and cheeks. Epidemics have occurred in hospitals and orphanages. Mouth breathing is the cause of many ills. As a result of this, the mucous membrane of the tongue, &c, becomes dry, micro-organisms multiply and the mouth becomes foul. Also from disease of the nose, the upper jaw, palate and teeth do not make proper progress in development. There is overgrowth of tonsils, and adenoids, with resulting deafness, and the child's mental development suffers. An ordinary " sore throat " usually signifies acute catarrh of the fauces, and is of purely organismal origin, " catching cold " being only a secondary ' and minor cause. In " relaxed throats " there is a chronic catarrhal state of the lining membrane, with some passive con- gestion. The tonsils are peculiarly liable to catarrhal attacks, as might a priori be expected by reason of their Cerberus-like function with regard to bacterial intruders. Still, acute attacks of tonsillitis appear on good evidence to be more common among individuals predisposed constitutionally to rheumatic manifesta- tions. Cases of acute tonsillitis may or may not go on to suppura- tion or quinsy; in all there is great congestion of the glands, increased mucus secretion, and often secondary involvement of the lymphatic glands of the neck. Repeated acute attacks often lead to chronic inflammation, in which the glands are enlarged, and often hypertrophied in the true sense of the term. The oesophagus is the seat of inflammation but seldom. In infants and young children thrush due to Oidium albicans may spread from the mouth, and also a diphtheritic inflammation spreads from the fauces into the oesophagus. A catarrhal oesophagitis is rarely seen, but the commonest form is traumatic, due to the swallowing of boiling water, corrosive or irritant substances, &c. A non-malignant ulceration may result which later leads on to an oesophageal stricture. The physical changes presented by the coats of the stomach and the intestine, the subjects of catarrhal attacks, closely resemble one another, but differ symptomatic- ally. Acute catarrh of the stomach is associated with intense hyperaemia of its lining coats, with visible engorgement and swelling of the mucous membrane, and an excessive secretion of mucus. The formation of active gastric juice is arrested, digestion ceases, peristaltic movements are sluggish or absent, unless so over-stimulated that they act in a direction the reverse of the normal, and induce expulsion of the gastric contents by vomiting. The gastric contents, in whatever degree of dilution or concentra- tion they may have been ingested, when ejected are of porridge- thick consistency, and often but slightly digested. Such conditions may succeed a severe alcoholic bout, be caused by irritant substances taken in by the mouth or arise from fer- mentative processes in the stomach contents themselves. Should the irritating material succeed in passing from the stomach into the bowel, similar physical signs are present; but as the quickest path offered for the expulsion of the offending substances from the body is downwards, peristalsis is increased, the flow of fluid from the intestinal glands is larger in bulk, though of less potency as regards its normal actions, than in health, and diarrhoea, with removal of the irritant, follows. As a general rule, the more marked the involvement of the large bowel, the severer and more fluid is the resultant diarrhoea. Inflammation of the stomach may be due to mechanical injury, thermal or chemical irritants or invasion by micro-organisms. Also all the symptoms of gastric catarrh may be brought on by any acute emotion. The commonest mechanical injury is that due to an excess of food, especially when following on a fast; poisons act as irritants, and also the weevils of cheese and the larvae of insects. . Inflammatory affections of the caecum and its attached appendix vermiformis are very common, and give rise to several special symptoms and signs. Acute inflammatory appendicitis appears to be increasing in frequency, and is associated by many with the modern deterioration in the teeth. Constipation certainly predisposes to it, and it appears to be more prevalent among medical men, commercial travellers, or any engaged in arduous callings, subjected to irregular meals, fatigue and exposure. A foreign body is the exciting cause in many cases, though less commonly so than was formerly imagined. The inflammation in the appendix varies in intensity from a very slight catarrhal or simple form to an ulcerative variety, and much more rarely to the acute fulminating appendicitis in which necrosis of the appendix with abscess formation occurs. It is always accompanied by more or less peritonitis, which is pro- tective in nature, shutting in the inflammatory process. Very similar symptomatically is the condition termed perityphlitis, doubtless in former days frequently due to the appendix, an acute or chronic inflammation of the walls of the caecum often leading to abscess formation outside the gut, with or without direct communication with the canal. The colon is subject to three main forms of inflammation. In simple colitis the mucous membrane of the colon is intensely injected, bright red in colour, and secreting a thick mucus, but there is no accompanying ulceration. It is often found in association with some constitu- tional disease, as Bright's disease, and also with cancer of the bowel. But when it has no association with other trouble it is probably bacterial in origin, the Bacillus enteritidis spirogenes having been isolated in many cases. The motions always contain large quantities of mucus and more or less blood. A second very severe form of inflammation of the colon is known as " membran- ous colitis," and this may be either dyspeptic, or secondary to other diseases. In this trouble membranes are passed per anum, accompanied by a pain so intense as often to cause fainting. In severe cases complete tubular casts of the intestine have been found. Often the motions contain very little faecal matter, but consist only of membranes, mucus and a little blood. A third form is that known as " ulcerative colitis." Any part of the large intestine may be affected, and the ulceration shows no special distribution. In severe cases the muscular coat is exposed, and perforation may ensue. The number of ulcers varies from a few to many dozen, and in size from a pea to a five-shilling piece. Like all chronic intestinal ulcers they show a tendency to become transverse. Chronic catarrhal affections of the stomach are very common, and often follow upon repeated acute attacks. In them the connective tissue increases at the expense of the glandular elements; the mucous membrane becomes thickened and less active in function. Should the muscular coat be involved, the elasticity and contractility of the organ suffer; peristaltic move- ment is weakened; expulsion of the contents through the pylorus hindered; and, aggravated by these effects, the condition becomes worse, atonic dyspepsia in its most pronounced form results, with or without dilatation. Chronic vascular congestion may occasion in process of time similar signs and symptoms. Duodenal catarrh is constantly associated with jaundice, indeed is most probably the commonest cause of catarrhal jaundice; often it is accompanied by catarrh of the common bile-duct. Chronic inflammation of the small intestine gives rise to less prominent symptoms than in the stomach. It generally arises from more than one cause; or rather secondary causes rapidly become as import- ant as the primary in its incidence. Chronic congestion and pro- longed irritation lead to deficient secretion and sluggish peristalsis; these effects encourage intestinal putrefaction and autointoxi- cation; and these latter, in turn, increase the local unrest. The intestinal mucous membrane, the peritoneum and the mesenteric glands are the chief sites of tubercular infection in the digestive organs. Rarely met with in the gullet and stomach, and comparatively seldom in the mouth and ^Jsitas" lips, tubercular inflammation of the small intestine and peritoneum is common. Tubercular enteritis is a frequent accompaniment of phthisis, but may occur apart from tubercle of other organs. Children are especially subject to the primary form. Tubercular peritonitis often is present also. The in- flammatory process readily tends towards ulcer formation, with haemorrhage and sometimes perforation. If in the large bowel, the symptoms are usually less acute than those characterizing tubercular inflammation of the small intestine. The appendix has been found to be the seat of tubercular processes; in the rectum they form the general cause of the fistulae and abscesses so commonly met with here. Tubercular peritonitis may be primary or secondary, acute or chronic; occasionally very acute cases are seen running a rapid course; the majority are chronic in type. DIGESTIVE ORGANS 265 The tubercles spread over the surface of the serous membrane, and if small and not very numerous may give rise in chronic cases to few symptoms; if larger, and especially when they involve and obstruct the lymph- and blood-vessels, ascites follows. It is hardly possible that tubercular invasion of the mesenteric glands can ever occur unaccompanied by peritoneal infection; but when the infection of the glands constitutes the most pro- minent sign, the term tabes mesenterica is sometimes employed. Here the glands, enlarged, forma doughy mass in the abdomen, leading to marked protrusion of the abdominal walls, with wasting elsewhere and diarrhoea. The liver is seldom attacked by tubercle, unless in cases of general miliary tuberculosis. Now and then it contains large caseous tubercular masses in its substance. An important fact with regard to the tubercular processes in the digestive organs lies in the ready response to treatment shown by many cases of peritoneal or mesenteric invasion, particularly in the young. The later sequelae of syphilis display a predilection for the rectam and the liver, usually leading to the development of a stricture in the former, to a diffuse hepatitis or the formation of gumma ta in the second. In inherited syphilis the temporary teeth usually appear early, are discoloured and soon crumble away. The permanent teeth may be sound and healthy, but are often—especially the upper incisors — notched and stunted, when they are known as " Hutchinson's teeth." As the result both of syphilis and of tubercle, the tissues of the liver and bowel may present a peculiar alteration; they become amyloid, or lard- aceous, a condition in which they appear " waxy," are coloured dark mahogany brown with dilute iodine solutions, and show degenerative changes ir> the connective tissue. The Bacillus typhosus discovered by Eberth is the causal agent of typhoid fever, and has its chief seat of activity in the small intestine, more especially in the lower half of the ileum. Attack- ing the lymphoid follicles in the mucous membrane, it causes first inflammatory enlargement, then necrosis and ulceration. The adjacent portions of the mucous membrane show acute catarrhal changes. Diarrhoea, of a special " pea-soup " type, may or may not be present; while haemorrhage from the bowel, if ulcers have formed, is common. As the ulcers frequently extend down to the peritoneal coat of the bowel, perforation of this membrane and extravasation into the peritoneal cavity is easily induced .by irritants introduced into or elaborated in the bowel, acting physically or by the excitation of hyper-peristalsis. True Asiatic cholera is due to the comma-bacillus or spirillum of cholera, which is found in the rice-water evacuations, in the contents of the intestine after death, and in the mucous membrane of the intestine just beneath the epithelium. It has not been found in the blood. It produces an intense irritation of the bowel, seldom of the stomach, without giving rise locally to any marked physical change; it causes violent diarrhoea and copious dis- charges of " rice-water " stools, consisting largely of serum swarming with the organism. Dysentery gives rise to an inflammation of the large intestine and sometimes of the lower part of the ileum, resulting in exten- sive ulceration and accompanied by faecal discharges of mucus, muco-pus or blood. In some forms a protozoan, the Amoeba dysenteriae, is found in the stools — this is the amoebic dysentery; in other cases a bacillus, Bacillus dysenteriae, is found — the bacillary dysentery. Acute parotitis, or mumps, is an infectious disease of the parotid glands, chiefly interesting because of the association between it and the testes in males, inflammation of these glands occasionally following or replacing the affection of the parotids. The causal agent is probably organismal, but has as yet escaped detection. The relative frequency with which malignant growths occur in the different organs of the digestive system may be gathered from the tabular analysis, on p. 266, of 1768 cases recorded in the books of the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary as having been treated in the medical and surgical wards between the years 1892 and 1899 inclusive. Of these, 1263, or 71-44 %, were males; 505, or 28-56%, females. (See Table I. p. 266-) New growths. If the figures there given be classified upon broader lines, the results are as given in Table II. p. 266, and speak for them- selves. The digestive organs are peculiarly subject to malignant disease, a result of the incessant changes from passive to active conditions, and vice versa, called for by repeated introduction of food; while the comparative frequency with which different parts are attacked depends, in part, upon the degree of irritation or changes of function imposed upon them. Scirrhous, en- cephaloid and colloid forms of carcinoma occur. In the stomach and oesophagus the scirrhous form is most common, the soft encephaloid form coming next. The most common situation for cancerous growth in the stomach is the pyloric region. Walsh out of 1300 cases found 6o-8 % near the pylorus, 11-4 % over the lesser curvature, and 4-7 % more or less over the whole organ. The small intestine is rarely attacked by cancer; the large intestine frequently. The rectum, sigmoid flexure, caecum and colon are affected, and in this order, the cylindrical-celled form; being the most common. Carcinoma of the peritoneum' is generally colloid in character, and is often secondary to growths in other organs. Cancer of the liver follows cancer of the stomach 1 and rectum in frequency of Occurrence, and is relatively more common in females than males. Secondary invasion of the liver is a frequent sequel to gastric cancer. The pancreas occasionally is the seat of cancerous growth. Sarcomata are not so often met with in the digestive organs. When present, they generally involve the peritoneum or the mesenteric glands. The liver is sometimes attacked, the stomach rarely. Benign tumours are not of common occurrence in the digestive organs. Simple growths of the salivary glands, cysts of the pancreas and polypoid tumours of the rectum are the most frequent. The intestinal canal is the habitat of the majority of animal parasites found in man. Frequently their presence leads to no morbid symptoms, local or general; nor are the symptoms, when they do arise, always characteristic of the presence of parasites alone.- Discovery of their bodies, or of their parasites. eggs, in the stools is in most instances the only satis- factory proof of their presence. The parasites found in the bowel belong principally to two natural groups, Protozoa and Metazoa. The great class of the Protozoa furnish amoebae, members of Sporozoa and Infusoria. The amoebae are almost invariably found in the large intestine; one species, indeed, is termed Amoeba coli. The frequently observed relation between attacks of dysentery and the presence of amoebae in the stools has led to the proposition that an Amoeba dysenterica exists, causing the disease — a theory supported by the detection of amoebae in the contents of dysenteric abscesses of the liver. No symptoms of injury to health appear to accompany the presence of Sporozoa in the. bowel, while the species of Infusoria found in it, the Cercomonas, and Trichomonas intestinalis, and the Balantidium coli, may or: may not be guilty of prolonging conditions within the bowel as have previously set up diarrhoea. The Metazoa supply examples of intestinal parasites from the classes Annuloida and Nematoidea. To the former class belong the various tapeworms found in the small intestine of man. They, like other intestinal parasites, are destitute of any power of active digestion, simply absorbing the nutritious proceeds of the digestive processes of their hosts. Nematode worms infest both the small and large intestine; Ascaris lumbricoides, the common round worm, and the male Oxyuris vermicularis are found in the small bowel, the adult female Oxyuris vermicularis and the Tricocephalus dispar in the large. The eggs of the Trichina spiralis, when introduced with the food, develop in the bowel into larval forms which invade the tissues of the body, to find in the muscles congenial spots wherein to reach maturity. Similarly, the eggs of the Echinococcus are hatched in the bowel, and the embryos proceed to take up their abode in the tissues of the body, developing into cysts capable of growth into mature worms after their ingestion by dogs. 2 66 DIGESTIVE ORGANS Numbers of bacterial forms habitually infest the alimentary canal. Many of them are non-pathogenic; some develop patho- genic characters only under provocation or when a plflsltes. suitable environment induces them to act in such a manner; others may form the materies morbi of special lesions, or be casual visitors capable of originating disease if opportunity occurs. Apart from those organisms associated with acute infective diseases, disturbances of function and physical Table I. Males. Females. Both Sexes. Organ or Tissue in Per- Organ or Tissue in Per- Organ or Tissue in Per- Order of Frequency. centage. Order of Frequency. centage. Order of Frequency. centage. i Stomach 22-56 1 Stomach 22-37 1 Stomach 22-49 2 Lip .... 12-94 2 Rectum 17-24 2 Rectum 13-12 3" Rectum . n-57 3 Liver 15-5° 3 Liver 10-02 4 Tongue . 11-36 4 Peritoneum 7-86 4 Lip . . . 9-8 9 5 Oesophagus 10-90 5 Oesophagus 5-33 5 Oesophagus 9-29 6 Liver 7-80 6 Sigmoid 4-53 6 Tongue . 8-96 7 Jaw .... 8 Mouth . . . 6-38 7 Pancreas 3-52 7 Jaw . . . . 5-65 2-88 8 Tongue . 3-12 8 Peritoneum 2-94 9 Tonsils . 2-09 9 Omentum 2 98 9 Sigmoid . . IQ Mouth . 2-56 io Sigmoid flexure 1-77 10 Lip . 2-57 2-40 11 Parotid . . 1 12 Pancreas . J 11 Jaw . 1-97 II Pancreas i-8o I-IO 12 Colon :1 1-84 12 Tonsils . 1-35 13 Caecum . . ) 14 Peritoneum. . ) 13 Abdomen 13 Omentum . 1-25 094 14 Intestine 1-56 14 Parotid . . / 15 Colon . ) 15 Colon . 089 15 Caecum 1-37 I * 12 16 Pharynx . . ~| 16 Mouth . ■:l 1-18 16 Caecum 1-08 17 Intestine (site V 0-79 17 Parotid 17 Intestine . . ) 18 Abdomen . . ] unknown) . . J 18 Splenic flexure 0-98 I-O0 18 Abdomen 0-71 19 Jejunum and 19 Pharynx 0-62 19 Mesentery . . ) 20 Omentum . . \ o-55 ileum . 0-78 20 Mesentery . 0-52 20 Tonsils . o-68 21 Jejunum and ") 21 Hepatic flexure o-39 21 Pharynx . "| ileum . . .1 0-44 22 Submaxillary . ~| 22 Hepatic flexure > 0-40 22 Hepatic flexure f gland . . .1 23 Mesentery . . J 24 Submaxillary . ) 25 Duodenum . . ) 23 Splenic flexure J 23 Jejunum and t 0-31 24 Submaxillary . 0-28 ileum . . .J 0-20 25 Duodenum 0-22 24 Duodenum . 0-23 25 Splenic flexure 015 Note. — The figures where several organs are bracketed apply to each organ separately lesions may be the result of abnormal bacterial activity in the canal; and these disturbances may be both local and general. Many of the bacteria commonly present produce putrefactive changes in the contents of the tract by their metabolic processes. They render the medium they grow in alkaline, produce different gases and elaborate more or less virulent toxins. Other species set up an acid fermentation, seldom accompanied by gas or toxin formation. The products of either class are inimical to the free Table II. Per- Per- Per- Males. centage. Females. centage. Total. centage. 1 Mouth and 1 Intestines 28-9 1 Oesophagus and pharynx 37-85 2 Oesophagus and stomach 31-78 2 Oesophagus and stomach 27-7 2Mouth and stomach 33-46 . 3 Liver 15-5 pharynx 30-27 3 Intestines 17-04 4 Peritoneum . I3-I 3 Intestines 20-42 4 Liver ... 7-8 5 M u t h and • 4 Liver 10-02 5 Peritoneum . 2-75 pharynx n-3 5 Peritoneum . 5-7i 6 Pancreas i-i 6 Pancreas 3-5 6 Pancreas i-8o growth of members of the other. The specieswhichproduceacids are more resistant to the action of acids. Thus, when the contents of the stomach possess a normal or excessive proportion of free hydrochloric acid, a much larger number of putrefactive and pathogenic organisms in the food are destroyed or inhibited than of the bacteria of acid fermentation. Diminished gastric acidity allows of the entry of a greater number of putrefactive (and pathogenic) types, with, as a consequence, increased facilities for their growth and activity, and the appearance of intestinal derangements. In a healthy new-born infant the mouth is free from micro- organisms, and very few are found in a breast-fed baby, but Bacillus lactis may be found where the child is bottle fed. If there is trouble with the first dentition and food is allowed to collect, staphylococci, streptococci, pneumococci and colon bacilli may be present. Even in healthy babies Oidium albicans may be present, and in older children the pseudo-diphtheria bacillus. From carious teeth may be isolated streptothrix, leptothrix, spirilla and fusiform bacilli. Under conditions of health these micro-organisms live in the mouth as saprophytes, and show no virulence when culti- vated and injected into animals. The two common pyogenetic organ- isms, Staphylococcus albus and brevis, show no virulence. Also the pneumococcus, though often present, must be raised in virulence before it can produce untoward results. The foulness of the mouth is supposed to be due to the colon bacillus and its allies, but those obtained from the mouth are in- nocuous. Also to enable the Oidium albicans to attack the mucous mem- brane there must be some slight inflammation or injury. The micro- organisms found in the stomach gain access to that organ in the food or by regurgitation from the small intestine. Most are relatively inert, but some have a special fer- mentative action on the food (see Nutrition). Abelous isolated six- teen distinct species of organism from a healthy stomach, including Sarcinae, B. lactis, pyocyaneus, subtilis, la.ctis erythrogenes, amy- lobacter, megatherium, and Vibrio rugula. Hare-lip, cleft palate, hernia and imperforate anus are physical abnormalities which are interesting to the surgeon rather than to the pathologist. The oesophagus may be the seat of a diverti- culum, or blind pouch, usually situated in its lower half, which in most instances is probably partly acquired and partly congenital; a local weakness succumbing to pressure. p *^ sfca ^ Hypertrophy of the muscular coat of the pyloric region aitties. is an infrequent congenital gastric anomaly in infants, preventing the passage of food into the bowel, and causing death in a short time. Incomplete closure of the vitelline duct results in the presence of a diverticulum — Meckel's— generally connected with the ileum, mainly important by reason of the readiness with which it occasions intestinal obstruction. Idiopathic congenital dilatation of the colon has been described. Traction diverticula of the oeso- phagus not uncommonly occur as sequels to suppurative inflamma- tion of cervical lymphatic glands. More frequently dilatation of a section is met with, due as a rule to the presence of a stricture. The stomach often diverges from the normal in size, shape and position. Normally capable in the adult of containing from fifty to sixty ounces, either by reason of organic disease, or as the result of functional disturb- ance, its capacity may vary enormously. The writer has seen post mortem a stomach which held a gallon (160 ounces), and again one holding only two ounces. Cancer spread over a large area and cirrhosis of the stomach wall cause diminution in capacity; pyloric obstruction, weakness of the muscular coat, and nervous influences are associated with dilatation. A peculiar distortion of the shape of the stomach follows cicatrization of DIGESTIVE ORGANS 267 ulcers of greater or lesser curvature; the gastric cavity becomes " hour-glass " in shape. In addition, the stomach may be dis- placed downwards as a whole, a condition known as gastroptosis: if the pyloric portion only be displaced, the lesion is termed pyloroptosis. Ptoses of other abdominal organs are described; the liver, transverse colon, spleen and kidneys may be involved. Displacements downwards of the stomach and transverse colon, along with a movable right kidney and associated with dyspepsia and neurasthenia, form the malady termed by G16nard entero- ptosis. A general visceroptosis often occurs in those patients who have some tuberculous lesion of the lungs or elsewhere, this disease causing a general weakening and subsequent stretching of all ligaments. Displacements of the abdominal viscera aie almost invariably accompanied by symptoms of dyspepsia of a neurotic type. The rectum is liable to prolapse, consequent upon constipation and straining at stool, or following local injuries of the perineal floor. Every pathological lesion shown by digestive organs is closely associated with the state of the nervous system, general or local; influence s0 s ^°PP a g e °f active gastric digestive processes after ofthe profound nervous shock, and occurrence of nervous nervous diarrhoea from the same cause. Gastric dyspepsia system. f nervous origin presents most varied and contra- dictory symptoms: diminished acidity of the gastric juice, hyper-acidity, over-production, arrest of secretion, lessened or increased movements, greater sensitiveness to the presence of contents, dilatation or spasm. Often the nervous cause can be traced back farther, — in females, frequently to the pelvic organs; in both sexes, to the condition of the blood, the brain or the bowel. Unhealthy conditions related to evacuation of the bowel-contents commonly induce reflex nervous manifestations of abnormal character referred to the stomach and liver. Gastric disturbances similarly react upon the proper conduct of intestinal functions. Local Diseases. The, Mouth. — The lining membrane of the cheeks inside the mouth, of the gums and the under-surfaee and edges of the tongue, is often the seat of small irritable ulcers, usually associated with some digestive derangement. A crop of minute vesicles known as Koplik's spots over these parts has been lately stated by Koplik to be an early symptom of measles. Xerostomia, or dry mouth, is a rare condition, connected with lack of salivary secretion. Gangrenous stomatitis, cancrum oris, or noma, occasionally attacks debilitated children, or patients convalescing from acute fevers, more especially after measles. It commences in the gums or cheeks, and causes widespread sloughing of the adjacent soft parts — it may be of the bones. The Stomach. — It were futile to attempt to enumerate all the protean manifestations of disturbance which proceed from a dis- ordered stomach. The possible permutations and combinations of the causes of gastric vagaries almost reach infinity. Idio- syncrasy, past and present gastric education, penury or plethora, actual digestive power, motility, bodily requirements and condi- tions, environment, mental influences, local or adjacent organic lesions, and, not least, reflex impressions from other organs, all contribute to the variance. Ulcer of the stomach, however — the perforating gastric ulcer — occupies a unique position among diseases of this organ. Gastric ulcers are circumscribed, punched out, rarely larger than a sixpenny-bit, funnel-shaped, the narrower end towards the peritoneal coat, and distributed in those regions of the stomach wall which are most exposed to the action of the gastric contents. They occur most frequently in females, especially if anaemic, and are usually accompanied by excess of acid, actual or relative to the state of the blood, in the stomach contents. Local pain, dorsal pain, generally to the left of the eighth or ninth dorsal spinous process, and haematemesis and melaena, are symptom- atic of it. The amount of blood lost varies with the rapidity of ulcer formation and the size of vessel opened into. Fatal results arise from ulceration into large blood-vessels, followed by copious haemorrhage, or by perforation of the ulcer into the peritoneal cavity. Scars of such ulcers may be found post mortem, although no symptoms of gastric disease have been exhibited during life; gastric ulcers, therefore, may be latent. Irritation of the sensory nerve-endings in the stomach wall from the presence of an increased proportion of acid, organic or mineral, in the stomach contents is accountable for the well- known symptom heartburn. Water-brash is a term applied to eructation of a colourless, almost tasteless fluid, probably saliva, which has collected in the lower part of the oesophagus from failure of the cardiac, sphincter of the stomach to relax; reversed oesophageal peristalsis causing regurgitation. A similar reverted action serves in merycism, or rumination, occasionally found in man, to raise part of the food, lately ingested, from thestomach to the mouth. Vomiting also is aided by reversed peristaltic action, both of the stomach and the oesophagus, with the help of the diaphragm and the muscles of the anterior abdominal wall. Emesis may be caused both by local nervous influence, and through the central nervous mechanism either reflexly or from the direct action of substances circulating in the blood. Further, the causal agent acting on the central nervous apparatus may be organic or functional, as well as medicinal. Vomiting without any apparent cause suggests nervous lesions, organic or reflex. The obstinate vomiting of pregnancy is a case in point. Here the primary cause proceeds reflexly from the pelvis. In females the pelvic organs are often the true source of emesis. Haematemesis accompanies gastric ulcer, cancer, chronic congestion with haemorrhagic erosion, congestion of the liver, or may follow violent acts of vomiting. In cases of ulcer the blood is usually bright and in considerable amount; in cancer, darker, like coffee- grounds; and in cases of erosion, in smaller quantity and of bright colour. The reaction of the stomach contents, if the cause be doubtful, yields valuable aid towards a diagnosis. Of increased acidity in gastric ulcer, normal in hepatic congestion, it is diminished in cancer; but as the acid present in cancer is largely lactic, analysis of the gastric contents must often be a sine qua non, because hyperacidity from lactic may obscure hypoacidity of hydrochloric acid. Flatulence usually results from fermentative processes in the stomach and bowel, as the outcome of bacterial activity. A different form of flatulence is common in neurotic individuals: in such the gas evolved consists simply in carbonic acid liberated from the blood, and its evolution is generally characterized by rapid development and by lack of all fermentative signs. The Liver. — The liver is an organ frequently libelled for the delinquencies of other organs, and regarded as a common source of ill. In catarrhal jaundice it is in most cases the bowel that is at fault, the liver acting properly, but unable to get rid of all the bile prqduced. The liver suffers, however, from several diseases of its own. Its fibrous or connective tissue is very apt to increase at the expense of the cellular elements, destroying their functions. This cirrhotic process usually follows long-continued irritation, such as is produced by too much alcohol absorbed from the bowel habitually, the organ gradually becoming harder in texture and smaller in bulk. Hypertrophic cirrhosis of the liver is not un- commonly met with, in which the liver is much increased in size, the " unilobular " form, also of alcoholic origin. In still-born children and in some infants a form of hypertrophic cirrhosis is occasionally seen, probably of hereditary syphilitic origin. Acute congestion of the liver forms an important symptom of malarial fever, and often leads in time to establishment of cirrhotic changes; here the liver is generally enlarged, but not invariably so, and the part played by alcohol in its causation has still to be investigated. Acute yellow atrophy of the liver is a disease sui generis. Of rare occurrence, possibly of toxic origin, it is marked by jaundice, at first of usual type, later becoming most intense; by vomiting; haemorrhages widely distributed; rapid diminution in the size of the liver; the appearance of leucin and tyrosin in the urine, with lessened urea; and in two or three days, death. The liver after death is soft, of a reddish colour dotted with yellow patches, and weighs only about a third part of the normal — about 1$ lb in place of 3 1 lb. A closely analogous affection of the liver, known as Weil's disease, is of infectious type, and has been noted in 268 DIGGES— DIGITALIS epidemic form. In this the spleen and liver are commonly but not always swollen, and the liver is often tender on pressure. As a large proportion of the sufferers from this disease have been butchers, and the epidemics have occurred in the hot season of the year, it probably arises from contact with decomposing animal matter. Hepatic abscess may follow on an attack of amoebic dysentery, and is produced either by infection through the portal vein, or by direct infection from the adjacent colon. In general pyaemia multiple small abscesses may occur in the liver. The Gall- Bladder. — The formation of biliary calculi in the gall- bladder is the chief point of interest here. At least 75% of such cases occur in women, especially in those who have borne children. Tight-lacing has been stated to act as an exciting cause, owing to the consequent retardation of the flow of bile. Gall-stones may number from one to many thousands. They are largely com- posed of cholesterin, combined with small amounts of bile- pigments and acids, lime and magnesium salts. Their presence may give rise to no symptoms, or may cause violent biliary colic, and, if the bile-stream be obstructed, to jaundice. Inflammatory processes may be initiated in the gall-bladder or the bile-ducts, catarrhal or suppurative in character. The Pancreas. — Haemorrhages into the body of the pancreas, acute and chronic inflammation, calculi, cysts and tumours, among which cancer is by far the most common, are recognized as occurring in this organ; the point of greatest interest regarding them lies in the relations established between pancreatic disease and diabetes mellitus, affections of the gland frequently being complicated by, and probably causing, the appearance of sugar in the urine. The Small Intestine. — Little remains to be added to the account of inflammatory lesions in connexion with the small intestine. It offers but few conditions peculiar to itself, save in typhoid fever, and the ease with which it contrives to become kinked, or intus- suscepted, producing obstruction, or to take part in hernial protrusions. The first section, the duodenum, is subject to development of ulcers very similar to those of the gastric mucous membrane. For long duodenal ulceration has been regarded as a complication of extensive burns of the skin, but the relationship between them has not yet been quite satisfactorily explained. The condition of colic in the bowel usually arises from over- distension of some part of the small gut with gas, the frequent sharp turns of the gut facilitating temporary closure of its lumen by pressure of the dilated gut near a curve against the part beyond. In the large bowel accumulations of gas seldom cause such acute symptoms, having a readier exit. The Large Intestine. — The colon, especially the ascending portion, may become immensely dilated, usually after prolonged constipation and paralysis of the gut; occasionally the condition is congenital. Straining efforts made in defaecation may often account for prolapse of the lower end of the rectum through the anus. Haemorrhage from the bowel is usually a sign of disease situated in the large intestine: if bright in colour, the source is probably low down; if dark, from the caecum or from above the ileo-caecal valve. Blood after a short stay in any section of the alimentary canal darkens, and eventually becomes almost black in colour. (A. L. G.; M. F.*) DIGGES, WEST (1720-1786), English actor, made his first stage appearance in Dublin in 1749 as Jaffier in Venice Preserved; and both there and in Edinburgh until 1764 he acted in many tragic roles with success. He was the original " young Norval " in Home's Douglas (1756). His first London appearance was as Cato in the Haymarket in 1777, and he afterwards played Lear, Macbeth, Shylock and Wolsey. In 1881 he returned to Dublin and retired in 1784. DIGIT (Lat. digitus, finger), literally a finger or toe, and so used to mean, from counting on the fingers, a single numeral, or, from measuring, a finger's breadth. In astronomy a digit is the twelfth part of the diameter of the sun or moon; it is used to express the magnitude of an eclipse. DIGITALIS. The leaves of the foxglove (q.v.), gathered from wild plants when about two-thirds of their flowers are expanded, deprived usually of the petiole and the thicker part of the midrib, and dried, constitute the drug digitalis or digitalis folia of the Pharmacopoeia. The prepared leaves have a faint odour and bitter taste; and to preserve their properties they must be kept excluded from light in stoppered bottles. They are occasionally adulterated with the leaves of' Inula Conyza, ploughman's spikenard, which may be distinguished by their greater rough- ness, their less divided margins, and their odour when rubbed; also with the leaves of Symphytum officinale, comfrey, and of Verbascum Thapsus, great mullein, which unlike those of the foxglove have woolly upper and under surfaces. The earliest known descriptions of the foxglove are those given by Leonhard Fuchs and Tragus about the middle of the 16th century, but its virtues were doubtless known to herbalists at a much remoter period. J. Gerarde, in his Herbal (1597), advocates the use of foxglove for a variety of complaints; and John Parkinson, in the Theatrum Botanicum, or Theater of Plants (1640)/ and later W. Salmon, in The New London Dispensatory, similarly praised the remedy. Digitalis was first brought prominently under the notice of the medical profession by Dr W. Withering, who, in his Account of the Foxglove (1785), gave details of upwards of 200 cases chiefly dropsical, in which it was used. Digitalis contains four important glucosides, of which three are cardiac stimulants. The most powerful is digitoxin C34H54O11, an extremely poisonous and cumulative drug, insoluble in water. Digilalin, C3 5 H 56 0i4, is crystalline and is also insoluble in water. Digitalein is amorphous but readily soluble in water. It can therefore be administered subcutaneously, in doses of about one- hundredth of a grain. Digitonin, on the other hand, is a cardiac depressant, and has been found to be identical with saponin, the chief constituent of senega root. There are numerous pre- parations, patent and pharmacopeial, their composition being extremely varied, so that, unless one has reason to be certain of any particular preparation, it is almost better to use only the dried leaves themselves in the form of a powder (dose §- 2 grains). The pharmacopeial tincture may be given in doses of five to fifteen minims, and the infusion has the unusually small dose of two to four drachms — the dose of other infusions being an ounce or more. The tincture contains a fair proportion of both digitalin and digitoxin. Digitalis leaves have no definite external action. Taken by the mouth, the drug is apt to cause considerable digestive disturbance, varying in different cases and sometimes so severe as to cause serious difficulty. This action is probably due to the digitonin, which is thus a constituent in every way undesirable. The all- important property of the drug is its action on the circulation. Its first action on any of the body-tissues is upon unstriped muscle, so that the first consequence of its absorption is a con- traction of the arteries and arterioles. No other known drug has an equally marked action in contracting the arterioles. As the vaso-motor centre in the medulla oblongata is also stimulated, as well as the contractions of the heart, there is thus trebly caused a very great rise in the blood-pressure. The clinical influence of digitalis upon the heart is very well defined. After the taking of a moderate dose the pulse is markedly slowed. This is due to a very definite influence upon the different portions of the cardiac cycle. The systole is not altered in length, but the diastole is very much prolonged, and since this is the period not only of cardiac rest but also of cardiac " feeding " — the coronary vessels being compressed and occluded during systole — the result is greatly to benefit the nutrition of the cardiac muscle. So definite is this that, despite a great increase in the force of the contractions and despite experimental proof that the heart does more work in a given time under the influence of digitalis, the organ subsequently displays all the signs of having rested, its improved vigour being really due to its obtaining a larger supply of the nutrient blood. Almost equally striking is the fact that digitalis causes an irregular pulse to become regular. Added to the greater force of cardiac contraction is a permanent tonic contraction of the organ, so that its internal capacity is reduced. The bearing of this fact on cases of cardiac dilatation is evident. In larger doses a remarkable sequel to these actions DIGNE— DIJON 269 may be observed. The cardiac contractions become irregular, the ventricle assumes curious shapes — " hour-glass," &c. — becomes very pale and bloodless, and finally the heart stops in a state of spasm, which shortly afterwards becomes rigor-mortis. Before this final change the heart may be started again by the applica- tion of a soluble potassium salt, or by raising the fluid pressure within it. Clinically it is to be observed that the drug is cumu- lative, being very slowly excreted, and that after it has been taken for some time the pulse may become irregular, the blood-pressure low, and the cardiac pulsations rapid and feeble. These symptoms with more or less gastro-intestinal irritation and decrease in the quantity of urine passed indicate digitalis poison- ing. The initial action of digitalis is a stimulation of the cardiac terminals of the vagus nerves, so that the heart's action is slowed. Thereafter follows the most important effect of the drug, which is a direct stimulation of the cardiac muscle. This can be proved to occur in a heart so embryonic that no nerves can be recognized in it, and in portions of cardiac muscle that contain neither nerve- cells nor nerve-fibres. The action of this drug on the kidney is of importance only second to its action on the circulation. In small or moderate doses it is a powerful diuretic. Though Heidenhain asserts that rise in the renal blood-pressure has not a diuretic action per se, it seems probable that this influence of the drug is due to a rise in the general blood-pressure associated with a relatively dilated condition of the renal vessels. In large doses, on the other hand, the renal vessels also are constricted and the amount of urine falls. It is probable that digitalis increases the amount of water rather than that of the urinary solids. In large doses the action of digitalis on the circulation causes various cerebral symptoms, such as seeing all objects blue, and various other disturbances of the special senses. There appears also to be a specific action of lowering the reflex excitability of the spinal cord. Digitalis is used in therapeutics exclusively for its action on the circulation. In prescribing this drug it must be remembered that fully three days elapse before it gets into the system, and thus it must always be combined with other remedies to tide the patient over this period. It must never be prescribed in large doses to begin with, as some patients are quite unable to take it, intractable vomiting being caused. The three days that must pass before any clinical effect is obtained renders it useless in an emergency. A certain consequence of its use is to cause or increase cardiac hypertrophy — a condition which has its own dangers and ultimately disastrous consequences, and must never be provoked beyond the positive needs of the case. But digitalis is indicated whenever the heart shows itself unequal to the work it has to perform. This formula includes the vast majority of cardiac cases. The drug is contra-indicated in all cases where the heart is already beating too slowly; in aortic incompetence — where the prolongation of diastole increases the amount of the blood that regurgitates through the incompetent valve; in chronic Bright's disease and in fatty degeneration of the heart — since nothing can cause fat to become contractile. DIGNE, the chief town of the department of the Basses Alpes, in S.E. France, 14 m. by a branch line from the main railway line between Grenoble and Avignon. Pop. (1906), town, 4628; commune, 7456. The Ville Haute is built on a mountain spur running down to the left bank of the Bleone river, and is composed of a labyrinth of narrow winding streets, above which towers the present cathedral church, dating from the end of the 15th century, but largely reconstructed in modern times, and the former bishop's palace (now the prison). The fine Boulevard Gassendi separates the Ville Haute from the Ville Basse, which is of modern date. The old cathedral (Notre Dame du Bourg) is a building of the 13th century, but is now disused except for funerals: it stands at the east end of the Ville Basse. The neighbourhood of Digne is rich in orchards, which have long made the town famous in France for its preserved fruits and confections. It is the Dinia of the Romans, and was the capital of the Bodiontii. From the early 6th century at least it has been an episcopal see, which till 1790 was in the ecclesiastical province of Embrun, but since 1802 in that of Aix en Provence. The history of Digne in the middle ages is bound up with that of its bishops, under whom it prospered greatly. But it suffered much during the religious wars of the 1 6th and 17th centuries, when it was sacked several times. A little way off, above the right bank of the Bleone, is Champtercier, the birthplace of the astronomer Gassendi (1592-1655), whose name has been given to the principal thoroughfare of the little town. See F. Guichard, Souvenirs Mstoriques sur la ville de Digne et ses environs (Digne, 1847). (W. A. B. C.) DIGOIN, a town of east-central France, in the department of Saone-et-Loire, on the right bank of the Loire, 55 m. W.N.W. of Macon on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 5321. It is situated at the meeting places of the Loire, the Lateral canal of the Loire and the Canal du Centre, which here crosses the Loire by a fine aqueduct. The town carries on considerable manufactures of faience, pottery and porcelain. The port on the Canal du Centre has considerable traffic in timber, sand, iron, coal and stone. DIJON, a town of eastern France, capital of the department of C&te d'Or and formerly capital of the province of Burgundy, 195 m. S.E. of Paris on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 65,516. It is situated on the western border of the fertile plain of Burgundy, at the foot of Mont Afrique, the north-eastern summit of the C6te d'Or range, and at the confluence of the Ouche and the Suzon; it also has a port on the canal of Burgundy. The great strategic importance of Dijon as a centre of railways and roads, and its position with reference to an invasion of France from the Rhine, have led to the creation of a fortress forming part of the Langres group. There is no enceinte, but on the east side detached forts, 3 to 4 m. distant from the centre, command all the great roads, while the hilly ground to the west is protected by Fort Hauteville to the N.W. and the "groups" of Motte Giron and Mont Afrique to the S.W., these latter being very formidable works. Including a fort near Saussy (about 8 m. to the N.W.) protecting the water-supply of Dijon, there are eight forts, besides the groups above mentioned. The fortifications which partly surrounded the eld and central portion of the city have disappeared to make way for tree-lined boulevards with fine squares at intervals. The old churches and historic buildings of Dijon are to be found in the irregular streets of the old town, but industrial and commercial activity has been transferred to the new quarters beyond its limits. A fine park more than 80 acres in extent lies to the south of the city, which is rich in open spaces and promenades, the latter including the botanical garden and the Promenade de l'Arquebuse, in which there is a black poplar famous for its size and age. The cathedral of St Benigne, originally an abbey church, was built in the latter half of the 13th century on the site of a Romanesque basilica, of which the crypt remains. The west front is flanked by two towers and the crossing is surmounted by a slender timber spire. The plan consists of three naves, short transepts and a small choir, without ambulatory, terminating in three apses. In the interior there is a fine organ and a quantity of statuary, and the vaults contain the remains of Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, and Anne of Burgundy, daughter of John the Fearless. The site of the abbey buildings is occupied by the bishop's palace and an ecclesiastical seminary. The church of Notre-Dame, typical of the Gothic style of Burgundy, was erected from 1252 to 1334, and is distinguished for the grace of its interior and the beauty of the western facade. The portal consists of three arched openings, above which are two stages of arcades, open to the light and supported on slender columns. A row of gargoyles surmounts each storey of the facade, which is also ornamented by sculptured friezes. A turret to the right of the portal carries a clock called the Jaquemart, on which the hours are struck by two figures. The church of St Michel belongs to the 1 5th century. The west facade, the most remarkable feature of the church, is, however, of the Renaissance period. The vaulting of the three portals is of exceptional depth owing to the projection of the lower storey of the facade. Above this storey rise two towers of five stages, the fifth stage being formed by an octagonal cupola. The columns decorating the facade represent al] the four orders. The design of this facade is wrongly attributed to Hugues 270 DIKE— DILAPIDATION Sambin (fl. c. 1540), a native of Dijon, and pupil of Leonardo da Vinci, but the sculpture of the portals, including " The Last Judgment " on the tympanum of the main portal, is probably from his hand. St Jean (15th century) and St Etienne (15th, 16th and 1 7th centuries), now used as the exchange, are the other chief churches. Of the ancient palace of the dukes of Burgundy there remain two towers, the Tour de la Terrasse and the Tour de Bar, the guard-room and the kitchens; these now form part of the hotel de ville, the rest of which belongs to the 17 th and 18th centuries. This building contains an archaeological museum with a collection of Roman stone monuments; the archives of the town; and the principal museum, which, besides valuable paintings and other works of art, contains the magnificent tombs of Philip the Bold and John the Fearless, dukes of Burgundy. These were transferred from the Chartreuse of Dijon (or of Champmol), built by Philip the Bold as a mausoleum, now re- placed by a lunatic asylum. Relics of it survive in the old Gothic entrance, the portal of the church, a tower and the well of Moses, which is adorned with statues of Moses and the prophets by Claux Sluter (fl. end of 14th century), the Dutch sculptor, who also designed the tomb of Philip the Bold. The Palais de Justice, which belongs to the reign of Louis XII., is of interest as the former seat of the parlement of Burgundy. Dijon possesses several houses of the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries, notably the Maison Richard in the Gothic, and the Hotel Vogue in the Renaissance style. St Bernard, the composer J. P. Rameau and the sculptor Francois Rude have statues in the town, of which they were natives. There are also monuments to those inr habitants of Dijon who fell in the engagement before the town in 1870, and to President Carnot and Garibaldi. The town is important as the seat of a prefecture, a bishopric, a court of appeal and a court of assizes, and as centre of an academie (educational district) . There are tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce, an exchange (occupying the former cathedral of St fitienne), and an important branch of the Bank of France. Its educational establishments include faculties of law, of science and of letters, a preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy, a higher school of commerce, a school of fine art, a conservatoire of music, lycees and training colleges, and there is a public library with about 100,000 volumes. Dijon is well known for its mustard, and for the black currant liqueur called cassis de Dijon; its industries include the manu- facture of machinery, automobiles, bicycles, soap, biscuits, brandy, leather, boots and shoes, candles and hosiery. There are also flour mills, breweries, important printing works, vinegar works and, in the vicinity, nursery gardens. The state has a large tobacco manufactory in the town. Dijon has considerable trade in cereals and wool, and is the second market for the wines of Burgundy. Under the Romans Dijon (Divonense castrum) was a vicus in the civitas of Langres. In the 2nd century it was the scene of the martyrdom of St Benignus (Benigne, vulg. Berin, Berain), the apostle of Burgundy. About 274 the emperor Aurelian surrounded it with ramparts. Gregory of Tours, in the 6th century, comments on the strength and pleasant situation of the place, expressing surprise that it does not rank as a civitas. During the middle ages the fortunes of Dijon followed those of Burgundy, the dukes of which acquired it early in the nth century. The communal privileges, conferred on the town in 1182 by Hugh III., duke of Burgundy, were confirmed by Philip Augustus in 1183, and in the 13th century the dukes took up their residence there. For the decoration of the palace and other monuments built by them, eminent artists were gathered from northern France and Flanders, and during this period the town became one of the great intellectual centres of France. The union of the duchy with the crown in 1477 deprived Dijon of the splendour of the ducal court; but to cbunterbalance this loss it was made the capital of the province and seat of a parlement. Its fidelity to the monarchy was tested in 1513, when the citizens were besieged by 50,000 Swiss and Germans, and forced to agree to a treaty so disadvantageous that Louis XII. refused to ratify it. In the wars of religion Dijon sided with the League, and only opened its gates to Henry IV. in IS95- The 18th century was a brilliant period for the city; it became the seat of a bishopric, its streets were improved, its commerce developed, and an academy of science and 1 letters founded; while its literary salons were hardly less celebrated than those of Paris. The neighbourhood was the scene of considerable fighting during the Franco-German War, which was, however, indirectly of some advantage to the city owing to the impetus given to its industries by the immigrants from Alsace. See H. Chabeuf, Dijon a travers les Ages (Dijon, 1897), and Dijon, monuments et souvenirs (Dijon, 1894). DIKE, or Dyke (Old Eng. die, a word which appears in various forms in many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch dijk, German Teich, Danish dige, and in French, derived from Teutonic, digue; it is the same word as " ditch " and is ultimately connected with the root of " dig "), properly a trench dug out of the earth for de- fensive and other purposes. Water naturally collects in such trenches, and hence the word is applied to natural and artificial channels filled with water, as appears in the proverbial expression " February fill-dyke," and in the names of many narrow water- ways in East Anglia. " Dike " also is naturally used of the bank of earth thrown up out of the ditch, and so of any embankment, dam or causeway, particularly the defensive works in Holland, the Fen district of England, and other low-lying districts which are liable to flooding by the sea or rivers (see Holland and Fens). In Scotland any wall, fence or even hedge, used as a boundary is called a dyke. In geology the term is applied to wall-like masses «r rock (sometimes projecting beyond the surrounding surface) which fill up vertical or highly inclined fissures in the strata. DIKKA, a term in Mahommedan architecture for the tribune raised upon columns, from which the Koran is recited and the prayers intoned by the Imam of the mosque. DILAPIDATION (Lat. for " scattering the stones," lapides, of a building), a term meaning in general a falling into decay, but more particularly used in the plural in English law for (1) the waste committed by the incumbent of an ecclesiastical living; (2) the disrepair for which a tenant is usually liable when he has agreed to give up his premises in good repair (see Easement; Flat; Landlord and Tenant). By the general law a tenant for life has no power to cut down timber, destroy buildings, &c, (voluntary waste), or to let buildings fall into disrepair (per- missive waste) . In the eye of the law an incumbent of a living is a tenant for life of his benefice, and any waste, voluntary or per- missive, on his part must be made good by his administrators to his successor in office. The principles on which such dilapidations are to be ascertained, and the application of the money payable in respect thereof, depend partly on old ecclesiastical law and partly on acts of parliament. Questions as to ecclesiastical dilapidations usually arise in respect of the residence house and other buildings belonging to the living. Inclosures, hedges, ditches and the like are included in things " of which the beneficed person hath the burden and charge of reparation." In a leading case (Ross v. Adcock, 1868, L.R. 3 C.P. 657) it was said that the court was acquainted with no precedent or decision extending the liability of the executors of a deceased incumbent to any species of waste beyond dilapidation of the house, chancel or other buildings or fences of the benefice. And it has been held that the mere mis- management or miscultivation of the ecclesiastical lands will not give rise to an action for dilapidations. To place the law relating to dilapidations on a more satisfactory footing, the Ecclesiastical Dilapidations Act 1871 was passed. The buildings to which the act applies are defined to be such houses of residence, chancels, walls, fences and other buildings and things as the incumbent of the benefice is by law and custom bound to maintain in repair. In each diocese a surveyor is appointed by the archdeacons and rural deans subject to the approval of the bishop; and such surveyor shall by the direction of the bishop examine the build- ings on the following occasions — -viz. (1) when the benefice is sequestrated; (2) when it is vacant; (3) at the request of the incumbent or on complaint by the archdeacon, rural dean or patron. The surveyor specifies the works required, and gives an DILATATION— DILKE 271 estimate of their probable cost. In the case of a vacant benefice, the new incumbent and the old incumbent or his representatives may lodge objections to the surveyor's report on any grounds of fact or law, and the bishop, after consideration, may make an order for the repairs and their cost, for which the late incumbent or his representatives are liable. The sum so stated becomes a debt due from the late incumbent or his representatives to the new incumbent, who shall pay over the money when recovered to the governors of Queen Anne's Bounty. The governors pay for the works on execution on receipt of a certificate from the surveyor; and the surveyor, when the works have been completed to his satisfaction, gives a certificate to that effect, the effect of which, so far as regards the incumbent, is to protect him from liability for dilapidations for the next five years. Unnecessary buildings belonging to a residence house may, by the authority of the bishop and with the consent of the patron, be removed. An amending statute of 1872 (Ecclesiastical Dilapidations Act (1871) Amendment) relates chiefly to advances by the governors of Queen Anne's Bounty for the purposes of the act. DILATATION (from Lat. dis-, distributive, and latus, wide), a widening or enlarging; a term used in physiology, &c. DILATORY (from Lat. dilatus, from differre, to put off or delay), delaying, or slow; in law a " dilatory plea " is one made merely for delaying the suit. DILEMMA (Gr. SiXruina, a double proposition, from Si- and "KanPavav) , a term used technically in logic, and popularly in common parlance and rhetoric. (1) The latter use has no exact definition, but in general it describes a situation wherein from either of two (or more) possible alternatives an unsatis- factory conclusion results. The alternatives are called the " horns " of the dilemma. Thus a nation which has to choose between bankruptcy and the repudiation of its debts is on the horns of a dilemma. (2) In logic there is considerable divergence of opinion as to the best definition. Whately defined it as " a conditional syllogism with two or more antecedents in the major and a disjunctive minor." Aulus Gellius gives an example as follows: — " Women are either fair or ugly; if you marry a fair woman, she will attract other men; if an ugly woman she will not please you; therefore marriage is absurd." From either alternative, an unpleasant result follows. Four kinds of dilemma are admitted: — (a) Simple Constructive: If A, then C; if B, then C, but either B or A; therefore C. (b) Simple Destructive: If A is true, B is true; if A is true, C is true; B and C are not both true; therefore A is not true, (c) Complex Constructive: If A, then B; if C, then D; but either A or C; therefore either B or D. (d) Complex Destructive: If A is true, B is true; if C is true, D is true; but B and D are not both true; hence A and C are not both true. The soundness of the dilemmatic argument in general depends on the alternative possibilities. Unless the alternatives produced exhaust the possibilities of the case, the conclusion is invalid. The logical form of the argument makes it especially valuable in public speaking, before uncritical audiences. It is, in fact, important rather as a rhetorcial subtlety than as a serious argument. Dilemmist is also a term used to translate Vaibhashikas, the name of a Buddhist school of philosophy. DILETTANTE, an Italian word for one who delights in the fine arts, especially in music and painting, so a lover of the fine arts in general. The Ital. dilettare is from Lat. delectare, to delight. Properly the word refers to an " amateur " as opposed to a " professional " cultivation of the arts, but like " amateur " it is often used in a depreciatory sense for one who is only a dabbler, or who only has a superficial knowledge or interest in art. The Dilettanti Society founded in 1 733-1 734 still exists in England. A history of the society, by Lionel Cust, was published in 1898. DILIGENCE, in law, the care which a person is bound to exercise in his relations with others. The possible degrees of diligence are of course numerous, and the same degree is not required in all cases. Thus a mere depositary would not be held bound to the same degree of diligence as a person borrowing an article for his own use and benefit. Jurists, following the divisions of the civil law, have concurred in fixing three approximate standards of diligence — viz. ordinary (diligentia), less than ordinary (levissima diligentia) and more than ordinary (exactissima diligentia) . Ordinary or common diligence is defined by Story (On Bailments) as " that degree of diligence which men in general exert in respect of their own concerns." So Sir William Jones: — " This care, which every person of common prudence and capable of governing a family takes of his own concerns, is a proper measure of that which would uniformly be required in performing every contract, if there were not strong reasons for exacting in some of them a greater and permitting in others a less degree of attention" (Essay on Bailments) . The highest degree of diligence would be that which only very prudent persons bestow on their own concerns; the lowest, that which even careless persons bestow on their own concerns. The want of these various degrees of diligence is negligence in corresponding degrees. These approximations indicate roughly the greater or less severity with which the law will judge the performance of different classes of contracts; but English judges have been inclined to repudiate the distinction as a useless refinement of the jurists. Thus Baron Rolfe could see no difference between negligence and gross negligence; it was the same thing with the addition of a vituper- ative epithet. See Negligence. Diligence, in Scots law, is a general term for the process by which persons, lands or effects are attached on execution, or in security for debt. DILKE, SIR CHARLES WENTWORTH, Bart. (1810-1869), English politician, son of Charles Wentworth Dilke, proprietor and editor of The Athenaeum, was born in London on the 18th of February 18 10, and was educated at Westminster school and Trinity Hall, Cambridge. He studied law, and in 1834 took his degree of LL.B., but did not practise. He assisted his father in his literary work, and was for some years chairman of the council of the Society of Arts, besides taking a prominent part in the affairs of the Royal Horticultural Society and other bodies. He was one of the most zealous promoters of the Great Exhibition (1851), and a member of the executive committee. At the close of the exhibition he was honoured by foreign sovereigns, and the queen offered him knighthood, which, however, he did not accept; he also declined a large remuneration offered by the royal com- mission. In 1853 Dilke was one of the English commissioners at the New York Industrial Exhibition, and prepared a report on it. He again declined to receive any money reward for his services. He was appointed one of the five royal commissioners for the Great Exhibition of 1862; and soon after the death of the prince consort he was created a baronet. In 1865 he entered parliament as member for Wallingford. In 1869 he was sent to Russia as representative of England at the horticultural exhibition held at St Petersburg. His health, however, had been for some time failing, and he died suddenly in that city, on the 10th of May 1869. A selection from his writings, Papers of a Critic (2 vols., 1875), contains a biographical sketch by his son. His son, Sir Charles Wentworth Dilke, Bart. (1843- ), became a prominent Liberal politician, as M.P. for Chelsea (1S68-1886), under-secretary for foreign affairs (1880-1882), and president of the local government board. (1882-1885); and he was then marked out as one of the best-informed and ablest of the advanced Radicals. He was chairman of the royal commission on the housing of the working classes in 1884-1885. But his sensational appearance as co-respondent in a divorce case of a peculiarly unpleasant character in 1885 cast a cloud over his career. He was defeated in Chelsea in 1886, and did not return to parliament till 1892, when he was elected for the Forest of Dean; and though his knowledge of foreign affairs and his powers as a critic and writer on military and naval questions were admittedly of the highest order, his official position in public life could not again be recovered. His military writings are The British Army (1888); Army Reform (1898) and, with Mr Spenser Wilkinson, Imperial Defence (1892). On colonial questions he wrote with equal authority. His Greater Britain (2 vols., 1866- 1867) reached a fourth edition in 1868, and was followed by Problems of Greater Britain (2 vols., 1890) and The British Empire (1899). He was twice married, his second wife (nit 272 DILL— DILLMANN Dill (Anelhum or Peucedanum graveolens) , leaf and inflorescence. Emilia Frances Strong), the widow of Mark Pattison, being an accomplished art critic and collector. She died in 1904. The most important of her books were the studies on French Painters of Ike Eighteenth Century (1890) and three subsequent volumes on the architects and sculptors, furniture and decoration, engravers and draughtsmen of the same period, the last of which appeared in 1902. A posthumous volume, The Book of the Spiritual Life (1905), contains a memoir of her by Sir Charles Dilke. DILL (Anethum or Peucedanum graveolens) , a member of the natural botanical order Umbelliferae, indigenous to the south of Europe, Egypt and the Cape of Good Hope. It resembles fennel in appearance. Its root is long and fusiform; the stem is round, jointed and about a yard high; the leaves have fragrant leaflets; and the fruits are brown, oval and concavo-con- vex. The piant flowers from June till August in England. The seeds are sown, preferably as soon as ripe, either broad- cast or in drills between 6 and 12 in. asunder. The young plants should be thinned when 3 or 4 weeks old, so as to be at distances of about 10 in. A sheltered spot and dry soil are needed for the production of the seed in the climate of England. The leaves of the dill are used in soups and sauces, and, as well as the umbels, for flavouring pickles. The seeds are employed for the preparation of dill- water and oil of dill; they are largely consumed in the manufacture of gin, and, when ground, are eaten in the East as a condiment. The British Pharmacopoeia contains the Aqua Anethi or dill- water (dose 1-2 oz.), and the Oleum Anethi, almost identical in composition with caraway oil, and given in doses of 5-3 minims. Dill- water is largely used as a carminative for children, and as a vehicle for the exhibition of nauseous drugs. DILLEN [Dillenius], JOHANN JAKOB (1684-1747), English botanist, was born at Darmstadt in 1684, and was educated at the university of Giessen, where he wrote several botanical papers for the Ephemerides naturae curiosorum, and printed, in 1719, his Catalogus plantarum sponte circa Gissam nascentium, illustrated with figures drawn and engraved by his own hand, and containing descriptions of many new species. In 1 7 2 1 , at the instance of the botanist William- Sherard (1659-1728), he came to England, and in 1724 he published a new edition of Ray's Synopsis stirpium Britannicarum. In 1732 he published Hortus Elthamensis, a catalogue of the rare plants growing at Eltham, Kent, in the collection of Sherard's younger brother, James (1666-1738), who, after making a fortune as an apothecary, devoted himself to gardening and music. For this work Dillen himself executed 324 plates, and it was described by Linnaeus, who spent a month with him at Oxford in 1736, and afterwards dedicated his Critica botanica to him, as " opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non vidit." In 1 734 he was appointed Sherardian professor of botany at Oxford, in accordance with the will of W. Sherard, who at his death in 1728 left the university £3000 for the endowment of the chair, as well as his library and herbarium. Dillen, who was also the author of an Historia muscorum (1741), died at Oxford, of apoplexy, on the 2nd of April 1747. His manuscripts, books and collections of dried plants, with many drawings, were bought by his successor at Oxford, Dr Humphry Sibthorp (1713-1797), and ultimately passed into the possession of the university. For an account of his collections preserved at Oxford, see The Dillenian Herbaria, by G. Claridge Druce (Oxford, 1907). DILLENBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, delightfully situated in the midst of a well- wooded country, on the Dill, 25 m. N.W. from- Giessen on the railway to Troisdorf. Pop. 4500. On an eminence above it lie the ruins of the castle of Dillenburg, founded by Count Henry the Rich of Nassau, about the year 1255, and the birthplace of Prince William of Orange (1533). It has an Evangelical church, with the vault of the princes of Nassau-Dillenburg, a Roman Catholic church, a classical school, a teachers' seminary and a chamber of commerce. Its industries embrace iron- works, tanneies and the manufacture of cigars. Owing to its beautiful surroundings Dillenburg has become a favourite summer resort. DILLENS, J U LI EN (1849-1904), Belgian sculptor, was born at Antwerp on the 8th of June 1849, son of a painter. He studied under Eugene Simonis at the Brussels Academy of Fine Arts. In 1877 he received- the prix de Rome f or " A Gaulish Chief taken Prisoner by the Romans." At Brussels, in 1881, he executed the groups entitled " Justice " and " Herkenbald, the Brussels Brutus." For the pediment of the orphanage at Uccle, " Figure Kneeling" (Brussels Gallery), and the statue of the lawyer Metdepenningen in front of the Palais de Justice at Ghent, he was awarded the medal of honour in 1889 at the Paris Universal Exhibition, where, in 1900, his " Two Statues of the Anspach Monument" gained him a similar distinction. For the town of Brussels he executed " The Four Continents " (Maison du Renard, Grand' Place), " The Lansquenets " crowning the lucarnes of the Maison de Roi, and the " Monument t' Serclaes " under the arcades of the Maison de l'Etoile, and, for the Belgian govern- ment, " Flemish Art," " German Art," " Classic Art " and " Art applied to Industry " (all in the Palais des Beaux Arts, Brussels), " The Laurel " (Botanic Garden, Brussels), and the statue of " Bernard van Orley " (Place du petit Sablon, Brussels) . Mention must also be made of " An Enigma " (1876), the bronze busts of " Rogier de la Pasture" and " P. P. Rubens " (1879) , " Etruria " (1880), " The Painter Leon Frederic " (1888), " Madame Leon Herbo," " Hermes," a scheme of decoration for the ogival facade of the hdtel de ville at Ghent (1893), " The Genius of the Funeral Monument of the Moselli Family," " The Silence of Death " (for the entrance of the cemetery of St Gilles), two caryatides for the town hall of St Gilles, presentation plaquette to Dr Heger, medals of MM. Godefroid and Vanderkindere and of " The Three Burgomasters of Brussels," and the ivories " Allegretto," "Minerva" and the " Jamaer Memorial." Dillens died at Brussels in November 1904. DILLINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the left bank of the Danube, 25 m. N.E. from Ulm, on the railway to Ingolstadt. Pop. (1905) 6078. Its principal buildings are an old palace, formerly the residence of the bishops of Augsburg and now government offices, a royal gymnasium, a Latin school with a library of 75,000 volumes, seven churches (six Roman Catholic), two episcopal seminaries, a Capuchin monastery, a Franciscan convent and a deaf and dumb asylum. The university, founded in 1549, was abolished in 1804, being converted into a lyceum. The inhabitants are engaged in cattle- rearing, the cultivation of corn, hops and fruit, shipbuilding and the shipping trade, and the manufacture of cloth, paper and cutlery. In the vicinity is the Karolinen canal, which cuts off a bend in the Danube between Lauingen and Dillingen. In 1488 Dillingen became the residence of the bishops of Augsburg; was taken by the Swedes in 1632 and 1648, by the Austrians in 1702, and on the 17th of June 1800 by the French. In 1803 it passed to Bavaria. DILLMANN, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1823-1894), German orientalist and biblical scholar, the son of a Wurttemberg schoolmaster, was born at Illingen on the 25th of April 1823. He was educated at Tubingen, where he became a pupil and friend of Heinrich Ewald, and studied under F. C. Baur, though he did not join the new Tubingen school. For a short time he worked as pastor at Gersheim, near his native place, but he soon came to feel that his studies demanded his whole time. He devoted him- self to the study of Ethiopic MSS. in the libraries of Paris, London and Oxford, and this work caused a revival of Ethiopic study in the 19th century. In 1847 and 1848 he prepared catalogues of the Ethiopic MSS. in the British Museum and the Bodleian library at Oxford. He then set to work upon an edition of the Ethiopic bible. Returning to Tubingen in 1848, in 1853 he was appointed professor extraordinarius. Subsequently he became DILLON— DINAJPUR 273 professor of philosophy at Kiel (1854), and of theology at Giessen (1864) and Berlin (1869). He died on the 4th of July 1894. In 1851 he had published the Book of Enoch in Ethiopian (German, 1853), and at Kiel he completed the first part of the Ethiopic bible, Octateuchus Aethiopicus (1853-1855). In 1857 appeared his Grammatik der dthiopischen Sprache (2nd ed. by C. Bezold, 1899); in 1859 the Book of Jubilees; in 1861 and 1871 another part of the Ethiopic bible, Libri Regum ; in 1865 his great Lexicon linguae aethiopicae; in 1866 his Chrestomathia aethiopica. Always a theologian at heart, however, he returned to theology in 1864. His Giessen lectures were published under the titles, Ur sprung der alttestamentlichen Religion (1865) and Die Propheten des alien Bundes nach ihrer politischen Wirksamkeit (1868). In 1869 appeared his Commentar zum Hiob (4th ed. 1891) which stamped him as one of the foremost Old Testament exegetes. His renown as a theologian, however, was mainly founded by the series of commentaries, based on those of August Wilhelm Knobels' Genesis (Leipzig, 1875; 6th ed. 1892; Eng. trans, by W. B. Stevenson, Edinburgh, 1897); Exodus und Leviticus, 1880, revised edition by V. Ryssel, 1897; Numeri, Deuleronomium und Josua, with a dissertation on the origin of the Hexateuch, 1886; Jesaja, 1890 (revised edition by Rudolf Kittel in 1898). In 1877 he published the Ascension of Isaiah in Ethiopian and Latin. He. was also a contributor to D. Schenkel's Bibellexikon, Brockhaus's Conversationslexikon, and Herzog's Realencyklopddie. His lectures on Old Testament theology, Vorlesungen iiber Theologie des Allen Teslamenles, were published by Kittel in 1895. See the articles in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie, and the Allgemeine deutsche Biographie; F. Lichtenberger, History of German Theology in the Nineteenth Century (1889); Wolf Baudissin, A. Dillmann (Leipzig, 1895). DILLON, ARTHUR RICHARD (1721-1807), French arch- bishop, was the son of Arthur Dillon (1670-1733), an Irish gentleman who became general in the French service. He was born at St Germain, entered the priesthood and was successively cure of Elan near Mezieres, vicar-general of Pontoise (1747), bishop of Evreux (1753) and archbishop of Toulouse (1758), archDishop of Narbonne in 1763, and in that capacity, president of the estates of Languedoc. He devoted himself much less to the spiritual direction of his diocese than to its temporal welfare, carrying out many works of public utility, bridges, canals, roads, harbours, &c. ; had chairs of chemistry and of physics created at Montpellier and at Toulouse, and tried to reduce the poverty, especially in Narbonne. In 1 787 and in 1 788 he was a member of the Assembly of Notables called together by Louis XVI. , and in 1788 presided over the assembly of the clergy. Having refused to accept the civil constitution of the clergy, Dillon had to leave Narbonne in 1790, then to emigrate to Coblenz in 1791. Soon afterwards he went to London, where he lived until his death in 1807, never accepting the Concordat, which had suppressed his archiepiscopal see. See L. Audibret, Le Dernier President des Utats du Languedoc, Mgr. Arthur Richard Dillon, archevique de Narbonne (Bordeaux, 1868); L. de Lavergne, Les Assemblies provinciales sous Louis XVI (Paris, 1864). DILLON, JOHN (1851- ), Irish nationalist politician, was the son of John Blake Dillon (1816-1866), who sat in parliament for Tipperary, and was one of the leaders of " Young Ireland." John Dillon was educated at the Roman Catholic university of Dublin, and afterwards studied medicine. He entered parliament in 1880 as member for Tipperary, and was at first an ardent supporter of C. S. Parnell. In August he delivered a speech on the Land League at Kildare which was characterized as " wicked and cowardly " by W. E. Forster; he advocated boycotting, and was arrested in May 1881 under the Coercion Act, and again after two months of freedom in October. In 1883 he resigned his seat for reasons of health, but was returned unopposed in 1885 for East Mayo, which he continued to represent. He was one of the prime movers in the famous " plan of campaign," which provided that the tenant should pay his rent to the National League instead of the landlord, and in case of eviction be supported by the general fund. Mr Dillon was compelled by the court of queen's bench on the 14th of December 1886 to find securities for good behaviour, but two days later he was arrested while receiving rents on Lord Clanricarde's estates. In this instance the jury disagreed, but in June 1888 under the provisions of the new Criminal Law Procedure Bill he was condemned to six months' imprisonment. He was, however, released in September, and in the spring of 1889 sailed for Australia and New Zealand, where he collected funds for the Nationalist party. On his return to Ireland he was again arrested, but, being allowed bail, sailed to America, and failed to appear at the trial. He returned to Ireland by way of Boulogne, where he and Mr W. O'Brien held long and indecisive conferences with Parnell. They surrendered to the police in February, and on their release from Galway gaol in July declared their opposition to Parnell. After the expulsion of Mr T. M. Healy and others from the Irish National Federation, Mr Dillon became the chair- man (February 1896). His early friendship with Mr O'Brien gave place to considerable hostility, but the various sections of the party were ostensibly reconciled in 1900 under the leadership of Mr Redmond. In the autumn of 1896 he arranged a conven- tion of the Irish race, which included 2000 delegates from various parts of the world. In 1897 Mr Dillon opposed in the House the Address to Queen Victoria on the occasion of the Diamond Jubilee, on the ground that her reign had not been a blessing to Ireland, and he showed the same uncompromising attitude in 1 90 1 when a grant to Lord Roberts was under discussion, accusing him of " systematized inhumanity." He was suspended on the 20th of March for violent language addressed to Mr Chamberlain. He married in 1895 Elizabeth (d. 1907), daughter of Lord Justice J. C. Mathew. DILUVIUM (Lat. for "deluge," from diluere, to wash away), a term in geology for superficial deposits formed by flood-like operations of water, and so contrasted with alluvium (q.v.) or alluvial deposits formed by slow and steady aqueous agencies. The term was formerly given to the " boulder clay " deposits, supposed to have been caused by the Noachian deluge. DIME (from the Lat. decima, a tenth, through the O. Fr. disme), the tenth part, the tithe paid as church dues, or as tribute to a temporal power. In this sense it is obsolete, but is found in Wycliffe's translation of the Bible — " He gave him dymes of alle thingis " (Gen. xiv. 20). A dime is a silver coin of the United States, in value 10 cents (English equivalent about sd.) or one- tenth of a dollar; hence " dime-novel," a cheap sensational novel, a "penny dreadful"; also "dime-museum." DIMENSION (from Lat. dimensio, a measuring), in geometry, a magnitude measured in a specified direction, i.e. length, breadth and thickness; thus a line has only length and is said to be of one dimension, a surface has length and breadth, and has two dimensions, a solid has length, breadth and thickness, and has three dimensions. This concept is extended to algebra: since a line, surface and solid are represented by linear, quadratic and cubic equations, and are of one, two and three dimensions; a biquadratic equation has its highest terms of four dimensions, and, in general, an equation in any number of variables which has the greatest sum of the indices of any term equal to n is said to have n dimensions. The " fourth dimension " is a type of non- Euclidean geometry, in which it is conceived that a " solid " has one dimension more than the solids of experience. For the dimensions of units see Units, Dimensions op. DIMITY, derived from the Gr. 51/uros " double thread," through the Ital. dimito, " a kind of course linzie-wolzie " (Florio, 161 1); a cloth commonly employed for bed upholstery and curtains, and usually white, though sometimes a pattern is printed on it in colours. It is stout in texture, and woven in raised patterns. DINAJPUR, a town (with a population in 1901 of 13,430) and district of Britsh India, in the Rajshahi division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. The earthquake of the 12th of June 1897 caused serious damage to most of the public buildings of the town. There is a railway station and a government high school. The district comprises an area of 3946 sq. m. It is traversed in every direction by a network of channels and water courses. Along the banks of the Kulik river, the undulating ridges and long lines of 274 DINAN— DINARCHUS mango-trees give the landscape a beauty which is not found else- where. Dinajpur forms part of the rich arable tract lying between the Ganges and the southern slopes of the Himalayas. Although essentially a fluvial district, it does not possess any river navigable throughout the year by boats of 4 tons burden. Rice forms the staple agricultural product. The climate of the district, although cooler than that of Calcutta, is very unhealthy, and the people have a sickly appearance. The worst part of the year is at the close of the rains in September and October, during which months few of the natives escape fever. The average maximum tempera- ture is 92-3° F., and the minimum 74-8°. The average rainfall is 85-54 in. In 1901 the population was 1,567,080, showing an increase of 6 % in the decade. The district is partly traversed by the main line of the Eastern Bengal railway and by two branch lines. Save between 1404 and 1442, when it was the seat of an independent raj, founded by Raja Ganesh, a Hindu turned Mussulman, Dinajpur has no separate history. Pillars and copper-plate inscriptions have yielded numerous records of the Pal kings who ruled the country from the 9th century onwards, and the district is famous for many other antiquities, some of which are connected by legend with an immemorial past (see Reports, Arch. Survey of India, xv.; Epigraphia Indica, ii.). DINAN, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of C6tes-du-Nord, 37 rh. E. of St Brieuc on the Western railway. Pop. (1906) 8588. Dinan is situated on a height on the left bank of the Ranee (here canalized) , some 17 m. above its mouth at St Malo, with which it com- municates by means of small steamers. It is united to the village of Lanvallay on the right bank of the river by a granite viaduct 130 ft. in height. The town is almost entirely encircled by the ramparts of the middle ages, strengthened at intervals by towers and defended on the south by a castle of the late 14th century, which now serves as prison. ' Three old gateways are also pre- served. Dinan has two interesting churches; that of St Malo, of late Gothic architecture, and St Sauveur, in which the Roman- esque and Gothic styles are intermingled. In the latter church a granite 1 monument contains the heart of Bertrand Du Guesclin, whose connexion with the town is also commemorated by an equestrian statue. The quaint winding streets of Dinan are often bordered by medieval houses. Its picturesqueness attracts large numbers of visitors and there are many English residents in the town and its vicinity. About three-quarters of a mile from the town are the ruins of the chateau and the Benedictine abbey at Lehon; near the neighbouring village of St Esprit stands the large lunatic asylum of Les Bas Foins, founded in 1836; and at no great distance is the now dismantled chateau of La Garaye, which was rendered famous in the 18th century by the philan- thropic devotion of the count and countess whose story is told in Mrs Norton's Lady of La Garaye. Dinan is the seat of a sub- prefect and has a tribunal of first instance, and a communal college. There is trade in grain, cider, wax, butter and other agricultural products. The industries include the manufacture of leather, farm-implements and canvas. The principal event in the history of Dinan, which was a strong- hold of the dukes of Brittany, is the siege by the English under the duke of Lancaster in 1359, during which Du Guesclin and an English knight called Thomas of Canterbury engaged in single combat. DINANT, an ancient town on the right bank of the Meuse in the province of Namur, Belgium, connected by a bridge with the left bank, on which are the station and the suburb of St Medard. Pop. (1904) 7674. The name is supposed to be derived from Diana, and as early as the 7th century it was named as one of the dependencies of the bishopric of Tongres. In the 10th century it passed under the titular sway of Liege, and remained the fief of the prince-bishopric till the French revolution put an end to that survival of feudalism. In the middle of the 1 5th century Dinant reached the height of its prosperity. With a population of 60,000, and 8000 workers in copper, it was one of the most flourishing cities in Walloon Belgium- until it incurred the wrath of Charles the Bold. Belief in the strength of its walls and of the castle that occupied the centre bridge, thus effectually command- ing navigation by the river, engendered arrogance and over- confidence, and the people of Dinant thought they could defy the full power of Burgundy. Perhaps they also expected aid from France or Liege. In 1466 Charles, in his father's name, laid siege to Dinant, and on the 27th of August carried the place by storm. He razed the walls and allowed the women, children and priests to retire in safety to Liege, but the male prisoners he either hanged or drowned in the river by causing them to be cast from the projecting cliff of Bouvignes. In 1675 the capture of Dinant: formed one of the early military achievements of Louis XIV., and it remained in the hands of the French for nearly thirty years after that date. The citadel on the cliff, 300 ft. or 408 steps above the town, was fortified by the Dutch in 1818. It is now dis- mantled, but forms the chief curiosity of the place. The views of the river valley from this eminence are exceedingly fine. Half way up the cliff, but some distance south of the citadel, is the grotto of Montfat, alleged to be the site of Diana's shrine. The church of Notre Dame, dating from the 13th century, stands immediately under the citadel and flanking the bridge. It has been restored, and is considered by some authorities, although others make the same claim on behalf of Huy, the most complete specimen in Belgium of pointed Gothic architecture. The baptismal fonts date from the 12th century, and the curious spire in the form of an elongated pumpkin and covered with slates gives a fantastic and original appearance to the whole edifice. The present prosperity of Dinant is chiefly derived from its being a favourite summer resort for Belgians as well as foreigners. It has facilities for beating and bathing as well as for trips by steamer up and down the river Meuse. It is also a convenient central point for excursions into the Ardennes. Although there are some indications of increased industrial activity in recent years, the population of Dinant is not one-eighth of what it was at the time of the Burgundians. DINAPUR, a town and military station of British India, in the Patna district of Bengal, on the right bank of the Ganges, 12 m. W. of Patna city by rail. Pop. (1901) 33,699. It is the largest military cantonment in Bengal, with accommodation for two batteries of artillery, a European and a native infantry regiment. In 1857 the sepoy garrison of the place initiated the mutiny of that year in Patna district, but after a conflict with the European troops were forced to retire from the town, and subsequently laid siege to Arrah. DINARCHUS, last of the " ten " Attic orators, son of Sostratus (or, according to Suidas, Socrates), born at Corinth about 361 ' B.C. He settled at Athens early in life, and when not more than twenty-five was already active as a writer of speeches for the law courts. As an alien, he was unable to take part in the debates. He had been the pupil both of Theophrastus and of Demetrius Phalereus, and had early acquired a certain fluency and versa- tility of style. In 324 the Areopagus, after inquiry, reported that nine men had taken bribes from Harpalus, the fugitive treasurer of Alexander. Ten public prosecutors were appointed. Dinarchus wrote, for one or more of these prosecutors, the three speeches which are still extant — Against Demosthenes, Against Aristogeiton, Against Philocles. The sympathies of Dinarchus were in favour of an Athenian oligarchy under Macedonian control; but it should be remembered that he was not an Athenian citizen. Aeschines and Demades had no such excuse. In the Harpalus affair, Demosthenes was doubtless innocent, and so, probably, were others of the accused. Yet Hypereides, the most fiery of the patriots, was on the same side as Dinarchus. Under the regency of his old master, Demetrius Phalereus, Dinarchus exercised much political influence. The years 3 1 7-307 were the most prosperous of his life. On the fall of Demetrius Phalereus and the restoration of the democracy by Demetrius Poliorcetes, Dinarchus was condemned to death and withdrew into exile at Chalcis in Euboea. About 292, thanks to his friend Theophrastus, he was able to return to Attica, and took up his abode in the country with a former associate, Proxenus. He afterwards brought an action against Proxenus on the ground that he had robbed him of some money and plate. Dinarchus died at Athens about 291. DINARD— DINGELSTEDT 275 According to Suidas, Dinarchus wrote 160 speeches; and Dionysius held that, out of 85 extant speeches bearing his name, 58 were genuine, — 28 relating to public, 30 to private causes. Although the authenticity of the three speeches mentioned above is generally admitted, Demetrius of Magnesia doubted that of the speech Against Demosthenes, while A. Westermann rejected all three. Dinarchus had little individual style and imitated by turns Lysias, Hypereides and Demosthenes. He is called by Hermogenes d KpiBwos kqiuxjdkirris, a metaphor taken from barley compared with wheat, or beer compared with wine, — a Demosthenes whose strength is rougher, without flavour or sparkle. Editions: (text and exhaustive commentary) E. Matzner (1842); (text) T. Thalheim (1887), F. Blass (1888); see L. L. Forman, Index Andocideus, Lycurgeus, Dinarcheus (1897); and, in general, F. Blass, Attische Beredsamkeit, iii. There is a valuable treatise on the life and speeches of Dinarchus by Dionysius of Halicarnassus. DINARD, a seaside town of north-western France, in the department of Ille-et-Vilaine. The town, which is the chief watering-place of Brittany, is situated on a rocky promontory at the mouth of the Kance opposite St Malo, which is about 1 m. distant. It is a favourite resort of English and Americans as well as of the French, its attractions being the beauty of its situation, the mildness of the climate and the good bathing. It has two casinos and numerous luxurious hotels and elegant villas. Together with the adjoining watering-place of St Enogat, Dinard has a population of 4882 (1906). DINDIGUL, a town of British India, in the Madura district of Madras, 880 ft. above the sea, 40 m. from Madura by rail. Pop. (1901) 25,182. Dindigul has risen into importance as the centre of a trade in tobacco and manufacture of cigars, which are exported to England. There are two large European cigar factories here. The town has manufactures of silk, muslin and blankets, and an export trade in hides and cardamoms; and there is a large native Christian population, with two churches. The ancient fort, well preserved, stands on a rock rising 350 ft. above the town; this was formerly a position of great strategic importance, commanding passes into Madura from Coimbatore, and figured prominently in the military operations of the Mahrattas in the 17th and 18th centuries, and of Hyder Ali in 1755 seq., being thrice captured by the British (1767, 1783, 1790). After the two first captures it was restored to Hyder Ali under treaty; after the third it was ceded to the East India Company. DINDORF, KARL WILHELM (1802-1883), German classical scholar, was born at Leipzig on the 2nd of January 1802. From his earliest years he showed a strong taste for classical studies, and after completing F. Invernizi's edition of Aristophanes at an early age, and editing several grammarians and rhetoricians, was in 1828 appointed extraordinary professor of literary history in his native city. Disappointed at not obtaining the ordinary professorship when it became vacant in 1833, he resigned his post in the same year, and devoted himself entirely to study and literary work. His attention had at first been chiefly given to Athenaeus, whom he edited in 1827, and to the Greek dramatists, all of whom he edited separately and combined in his Poetae scenici Graeci (1830 and later editions). He also wrote a work on the metres of the Greek dramatic poets, and compiled special lexicons to Aeschylus and Sophocles. He edited Procopius for Niebuhr's Corpus of the Byzantine writers, and between 1846 and 1851 brought out at Oxford an important edition of Demosthenes; he also edited Lucian and Josephus for the Didot classics. His last important editorial labour was his Eusebius of Caesarea (1867-1871). Much of his attention was occupied by the re- publication of Stephanus's Thesaurus (Paris, 1831-1865), chiefly executed by him and his brother Ludwig, a work of prodigious labour and utility. His reputation suffered somewhat through the imposture practised upon him by the Greek Constantine Simonides, who succeeded in deceiving him by a fabricated fragment of the Greek historian Uranius. The book was printed, and a few copies had been circulated, when the forgery was discovered, just in time to prevent its being given to the world under the auspices of the university of Oxford. Shortly after the death of his brother, he lost all his property and his library by rash speculations. He died on the 1st of August 1883. His brother Ludwig (1805-1871) was born at Leipzig on the 3rd of January 1805, and died thereon the 6th of September 187 1. He never held any academical position, and led so secluded a life that many doubted his existence, and declared that he was a mere pseudonym. The important share which he took in the edition of the Thesaurus is nevertheless authenticated by his own signature to his contributions. He also published valuable editions of Polybius, Dio Cassius and other Greek historians. D'INDY, PAUL-MARIE-THEODORE-VINCENT (1851- ), French musical composer, was born in Paris, on the 27th of March 1 8 5 1 . He studied composition and the organ at the Paris Conser- vatoire under Cesar Franck, and obtained the grand prize offered by the city of Paris in 1885 with Le Chant de la Cloche, a dramatic legend after Schiller. His principal works, beside the above, are the symphonic trilogy Wallenslein, the symphonic works entitled Saugefleurie, La Forlt enchantee, Istar, Symphonie sur un air montagnard franqais; overture to Anthony and Cleopatra; Ste Marie Magdeleine, a cantata; Attendez-moi sous I'orme, a one-act opera; Fervaal, a musical drama in three acts. Vincent dTndy is perhaps the most prominent among the disciples of Cesar Franck. Imbued with very high aims, he was always guided by a lofty ideal, and few musicians have attained so complete a mastery over the art of instrumentation. His music, however, lacks simplicity, and can never become popular in the widest sense. His opera Fervaal, which is styled " action musicale," is constructed upon the system of Leit-motifs. Its legendary subject recalls both Parsifal and Tristan, and the music is also suggestive of Wagnerian influence. DTndy can scarcely be considered so typical a representative of modern French music as his juniors Alfred Bruneau, the composer of Le R&oe, L'Attaque du moulin, Messidor, or Gustave Charpentier, the author of Louise, who chose subjects of modern life for their operatic works. DINEIR, a small town in Asia Minor, built amidst the ruins of Celaenae-Apamea, near the sources of the Maeander (Menderes). It is the terminus of the Smyrna-Aidin-Dineir railway. Pop. 1400. (See Apamea.) DINGELSTEDT, FRANZ VON (1814-1881), German poet and dramatist, was born at Halsdorf , in Hesse Cassel, on the 30th of June 1814. Having studied at the university of Marburg, he became in 1836 a master at the Lyceum in Cassel; from which he was transferred to Fulda in 1838. In 1839 he produced a novel, Unter der Erde, which obtained considerable success, and in 1841 published the book by which he is best remembered, the Lieder eines kosmopolitischen Nachtwiichters. These poems, animated as they are by a spirit of bitter opposition to everything that savours of despotism, were an effective contribution to the political poetry of the day. The popularity of this book determined Dingelstedt to take up a literary career, and in 1841 he obtained an appointment on the staff of the Augsburger allgemeine Zeitung. In 1843, however, the satirist of German princes accepted, to the general surprise, the appointment of private librarian to the king of Wurttemberg, and in the same year he married the celebrated Bohemian opera singer, Jenny Lutzer. In 1845 he published a volume of poems, some of which, treating of modern life, possessed great literary rather than strictly poetical merit. A subsequent collection, published in 1852, attracted little attention. The success of his tragedy Das Haus der Barneveldt (1850) obtained for him the position of intendant at the court theatre at Munich, where he soon became the centre of literary society. He incurred, however, the animosity of the Jesuit clique at the court, and in 1856 was suddenly dismissed on the most frivolous charges. A similar position was offered to him at Weimar through the influence of Liszt, and he remained there until 1867. His administration was most successful, and he especially distinguished himself by presenting all Shakespeare's historical plays upon the stage in an.unbroken cycle. In 1867 he became director of the court opera house in Vienna, and in 1872 of the Hofburgtheater, a position he held until his death on the 15th of May 1881. Among his other works may be noticed an autobiographical sketch of his Munich career, entitled Miinchener 276 DINGHY— DINKA Bilderbogen (1879), Die Amazone, an art novel of considerable merit (1869), translations of several of Shakespeare's comedies, and several writings dealing with questions of practical drama- turgy. He was ennobled in 1867 by the king of Bavaria and in 1876 was created Freiherr by the emperor of Austria. Dingelstedt's Samtliche Werke appeared in 12 vols. (1877-1878), but this edition is far from complete. On his life see, besides the autobiography mentioned above, J. Rodenberg, Heimaterinnerungen an F. Dingelstedt (Berlin, 1882), and by the same author, F. Dingel- sledt, Blatter aus seinem Nachlass (2 vols., 1891). Also an essay by A. Stern in Zur Literatur der Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1880). DINGHY, or Dingey (from the Hindu dengi a small boat, the diminutive of denga, a sloop or coasting vessel), a boat of greatly varying size and shape, used on the rivers of India; the term is applied also, in certain districts, to a larger boat used for coasting purposes. The name was adopted by the merchantmen trading with India, and is now generally used to designate the small extra boat kept for general purposes on a man-of-war or merchant vessel, and also, on the Thames, for small pleasure boats built for one or two pairs of sculls. DINGLE, a seaport and market town of county Kerry, Ireland, in the west parliamentary division, the terminus of the Tralee and Dingle railway. Pop. (1901) 1786. This may be considered the most westerly town in the United Kingdom unless Knightstown at Valencia Island be excepted: it lies on the south side of the northernmost of the great promontories which pro- trude into the Atlantic on the south-western coast of Ireland, on the fine natural harbour of Dingle Bay, in a wild hilly district abundant in relics of antiquity. The town, which is the centre of a considerable fishing industry, especially in mackerel, was in the 1 6th century of no little importance as a seaport; it had also a noted manufacture of linen. It was incorporated by Queen Elizabeth, and returned two members to the Irish parliament until the Union. DINGO, a name applied apparently by Europeans to the warrigal, cr native Australian dog. the Canis dingo of J. F. Blumenbach. The dingo is a stoutly-built, rather short-legged, sandy-coloured dog, intermediate in size between a jackal and a wolf, and measuring about 51 in. in total length, of which the tail takes up about eleven. In general appearance it is very like some of the pariah dogs of India and Egypt; and, except on distributional grounds, there is no reason for regarding it as specifically distinct from such breeds. Dingos, which are found both wild and tame, interbreed freely with European dogs in- troduced into the country, and it may be that the large amount of black on the back of many specimens may be the result of crossing of this nature. The main point of interest connected with the dingo relates to its origin ; that is to say, whether it is a member of the indigenous Australian fauna (among which it is the only large placental mammal), or whether it has been introduced into the country by man. There seems to be no doubt that fossilized remains of the dingo occur intermingled with those of the extinct Australian mammals, such as giant kangaroos, giant wombats and the still more gigantic Diprotodon. And since remains of man have apparently not yet been detected in these deposits, it has been thought by some naturalists that the dingo must be an indigenous species. This was the opinion of Sir Frederick McCoy, by whom the deposits in question were regarded as probably of Pliocene age. A similar view is adopted by D . Ogilvy in a Catalogue of A ustralian Mammals, published at Sydney in 1892; the writer going how- ever one step further and expressing the belief that the dingo is the ancestor of all domesticated dogs. The latter contention cannot for a moment be sustained; and there are also strong arguments against the indigenous origin of the dingo. That the animal now occurs in a wild state is no argument whatever as to its being indigenous, seeing that a domesticated breed introduced by man into a new country abounding in game would almost certainly revert to the wild state. The apparent absence of human remains in the beds yielding dingo teeth and bones (which are almost certainly not older than the Pleistocene) is of only negative value, and liable to be upset by new discoveries. Then, again (as has been pointed out by R. I. Pocock in the first part of the Kennel Encyclopaedia, 1907), the absence of any really wild species of the typical group of the genus Canis between Burma and Siam on the one hand and Australia on the other is a very strong argument against the dingo being indigenous, seeing that, whether brought by man or having travelled thither of its own accord, the dingo must have reached its present habitat by way of the Austro-Malay archipelago. If it had followed that route in the course of nature, it is inconceivable that it would not still be found on some portions of the route. On the supposition that the dingo was introduced by man, we have now fairly decisive evidence that the native Australian, in place of being (as formerly supposed) a member of the negro stock, is a low type of Caucasian allied to the Veddahs of Ceylon and the Toalas of Celebes. Consequently the Australian natives must be presumed to have reached the island-continent by way of Malaya; and if this be admitted, nothing is more likely than that they should have been accompanied by pariah dogs of the Indian type. Confirmation of this is afforded by the occurrence in the mountains of Java of a pariah-like dog which has reverted to an almost completely wild condition; and likewise by the fact that the old voyagers met with dogs more or less similar to the dingo in New Guinea, New Zealand and the Solomon and certain other of the smaller Pacific islands. On the whole, then, the most probable explanation of the case is that the dingo is an introduced species closely allied to the Indian pariah dog. Whether the latter represents a truly wild type now extinct, cannot be determined. If so, all pariahs should be classed with the Australian warrigal under the name of Canis dingo. If, on the other hand, pariahs, and consequently the dingo, cannot be separated specifically from the domesticated dogs of western Europe, then the dingo should be designated Canis familiaris dingo. (R. L.*) DINGWALL, a royal and police burgh and county town of the shire of Ross and Cromarty, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 2519. It is situated near the head of Cromarty Firth where the valley of the Peffery unites with the alluvial lands at the mouth of the Conon, i8| m. N.W. of Inverness by the Highland railway. Its name, derived from the Scandinavian Thingvollr, " field or meeting- place of the thing," or local assembly, preserves the Norse origin of the town; its Gaelic designation is Inverpefferon," the mouth of the Peffery." The 18th-century town house, and some remains of the ancient mansion of the once powerful earls of Ross still exist. There is also a public park. An obelisk, 57 ft. high, was erected over the grave of the 1st earl of Cromarty. The town belongs to the Wick district group of parliamentary burghs. It is a flourishing distributing centre and has an important corn market and auction marts. Some shipping is carried on at the harbour at the mouth of the Peffery, about a mile below the burgh. Branch lines of the Highland railway run to Strathpeffer and to Strome Ferry and Kyle of Lochalsh (for Skye). Alexander II. created Dingwall^a royal borough in 1226, and its charter was renewed by James IV. On the top of Knockfarrel (Gaelic, cnoc, hill; faire, watch, or guard), a hill about 3 m. to the west, is a large and very complete vitrified fort with ramparts. DINKA (called by the Arabs Jange), a widely spread negro people dwelling on the right bank of the White Nile to about 12° N., around the mouth of the Babr-el-Ghazal, along the right bank of that river and on the banks of the lower Sobat. Like the Shilluk, they were greatly harried from the north by Nuba- Arabic tribes, but remained comparatively free owing to the vast extent of their country, estimated to cover 40,000 sq. m., and their energy in defending themselves. They are a tall race with skins of almost blue black. The men wear practically no clothes, married women having a short apron, and unmarried girls a fringe of iron cones round the waist. They tattoo themselves with tribal marks, and extract the lower incisors; they also pierce the ears and lip for the attachment of ornaments, and wear a variety of feather, iron, ivory and brass ornaments. Nearly all shave the head, but some give the hair a reddish colour by moistening it with animal matter. Polygamy is general; some headmen have as many as thirty or more wives; but six is the average number. They are great cattle and sheep breeders; the men tend their beasts with great devotion, despising agriculture, DINKELSBUHL— DINOFLAGELLATA 2JJ which is left to the women; the cattle are called by means of drums. Save under stress of famine cattle are never killed for food, the people subsisting largely on durra. The Dinkas reverence the cow, and snakes, which they call " brothers." Their folklore recognizes a good and evil deity; one of the two wives of the good deity created man, and the dead go to live with him in a great park filled with animals of enormous size. The evil deity created cripples. The Dinka came, in 1899, under the control of the Sudan government, justice being administered as far as possible in accord with tribal custom. A compendium of Dinka laws was compiled by Captain H. D. E. O'Sullivan. See G. A. Schweinfurth, The Heart of Africa (1874); W. Junker, Travels in Africa, Eng. edit. (London, 1890-1892); The Anglo- Egyptian Sudan, edited by Count Gleichen (London, 1905). DINKELSBUHL, a town of German}', in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the Wornitz, 16 m. N.from Nordlingen, on the rail- way to Dombuhl. Pop. 5000. It is an interesting medieval town, still surrounded by old walls and towers, and has an Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches. Notable is the so-called Deutsches Haus, the ancestral home of the counts of Drechsel- Deufstetten, a fine specimen of the German renaissance style of wooden architecture. There are a Latin and industrial school, several benevolent institutions, and a monument to Christoph von Schmid (1768-1854), a writer of stories for the young. The inhabitants carry on the manufacture of brushes, gloves, stock- ings and gingerbread, and deal largely in cattle. Fortified by the emperor Henry I., Dinkelsbiihl received in 1305 the same municipal rights as Ulm, and obtained in 1351 the position of a free imperial city, which it retained till 1802, when it passed to Bavaria. Its municipal code, the Dinkelsbuhler Recht, published in 1536, and revised in 1738, contained a very extensive collection of public and private laws. DINNER, the chief meal of the day, eaten either in the middle of the day, as was formerly the universal custom, or in the evening. The word " dine " comes through Fr. from Med. Lat. disnare, for disjejunare, to break one's fast (jejunium); it is, therefore, the same word as Fr. dejeuner, to breakfast, in modern France, to take the midday meal, diner being used for the later repast. The term " dinner-wagon," originally a movable table to hold dishes, is now used of a two-tier side- board. DINOCRATES, a great and original Greek architect, of the age of Alexander the Great. He tried to captivate the ambitious fancy of that king with a design for carving Mount Athos into a gigantic seated statue. This plan was not carried out, but Dino- crates designed for Alexander the plan of the new city of Alex- andria, and constructed the vast funeral pyre of Hephaestion. Alexandria was, like Peiraeus and Rhodes (see Hippodamus), built on a regular plan ; the streets of most earlier towns being narrow and confused. DINOFLAGELLATA, so called by O. Butschli (= the Cilio- flagellata of E. Claparide and . . H. Lachmann), a group of Pro- large "sack pusule" discharging tozoa> characterized as Mastigo- " c r onfctfve U pusui y e P dTscharging Ph° ra > Provided with two flagella, at 0, and surrounded by a ring the one anterior extended in loco- of formative " or " daughter motion, the other coiled round pusules"; n, nucleus. j ts b ase> or lyj n g j n a transverse groove. The body is bounded by a firm pellicle, often supple- mented by an armour (" lorica ") of cuticular cellulose plates, with usually a marked longitudinal groove from which the anterior flagellum springs, and an oblique or spiral transverse After F. Schiitt in Engler and Prantl's Pflanzcnfatniiien, by permission of Wm. Engelmann. Fig. 1 . — Peridinium divergens showing longitudinal and trans- verse grooves in which lie the respective flagella l.f., t.f.; s.p., groove for the second flagellum. In Polykrikos (fig. 2, 9) there are eight transverse grooves each with its flagellum. The armour-plates are often exquisitely sculptured, and may be produced into spines or perpendicular plates to give greater surface extension, as we find in other plankton organisms. The cortical plasma may protrude pseudopodia in the longi- tudinal groove; it contains trichocysts in several species, true nematocysts in Polykrikos. It contains chromatophores in many species, coloured by a mixed lipochrome pigment which Fig. 2. From Delate and Herouard*s Traits de zoologie concrHe, by permission of Schleicher Freres. 1. Modified from Schiitt, Ornitho- ceras. 2. Diagram of transverse fission of a Dinoflagellate. 3. After Schiitt, Exuviaeella. 4. After Stein, Prorocentrum. 5, 6. Ceralium, single and series. 7. Pouchetia fusus (Schiitt). 8. Citharistes. 9. After Butschli, Polykrikos. appears to be distinct from diatomin. The endoplasm is ramified between alveoli; it contains a large nucleus (in Polykrikos there are eight nuclei, accompanied by smaller, more numerous bodies regarded by O. Butschli as micro- nuclei). Besides the other spaces are definite rounded or oval vacuoles with a permanent pellicular wall termed by Schiitt " pusules "; these open by a duct or ducts into the longitudinal groove. They enlarge and diminish, and are possibly excretory like the " contractile vacuoles " of other Protista; though it has been suggested that by their communication with the medium they subserve nutrition. Nutrition is of course holozoic or 278 DINOTHERIUM— DIO CASSIUS saprophytic in the colourless forms, holophytic in the coloured; but these divergent methods are exhibited by different species of the same genus, or even by individuals of one and the same species under different conditions. Binary fission has been widely observed, both in the active condition or after loss of the flagella: it differs from that of true Flagellates in not being longitudinal, but transverse or oblique (fig. 2, 2). Re- peated fission (brood-formation) within a cyst has also been observed, as in Pyrocystis and Ceratium; and possibly the chains of Ceratium and other (fig. 2, 5 and 6) genera are due to the non- separation of the brood-cells. Conjugation of adults has been observed in several species, the most complete account being that of Zederbauer on Ceratium hirundinella (marine): either mate puts forth a tube which meets and opens into that of the other (as in some species of Chlamydomonas and Desmids) ; the two cell-bodies fuse in this tube, and encyst to form a rest- ing zygospore. The Dinoflagellates are relatively large for Mastigophora, many attaining 50 fi (xh>") in length. The majority are marine; but some genera (Ceratium, Peridinium) include fresh-water species. Many are highly phosphorescent and some by their abundance colour the water of the sea or pool which they dwell in. Like so many coloured Protista, they frequently possess a pigmented " eye-spot " in which may be sunk a spheroidal refractive body ("lens"). The affinities of the Dinoflagellata are certainly with those Cryptomonadine Flagellates which possess two unequal flagella; the zoospores or young of the Cystoflagellates are practically colourless Dinoflagellates. 1. Gymnodiniaceae; body naked, or with a simple cellulose or gelatinous envelope; both grooves present. Pyrocystis (Murray), often encysted, spherical or crescentic, becoming free within cyst wall, and escaping whole or after brood-divisions as a form like Gymno- dinium; Gymnodinium (Stein); Hemidinium (Stein); Pouchetia (Schutt) (fig. 2, 7) with complex eye-spot; to this group we may refer Polykrikos (Biitschli) (fig. 2, 9), with its metameric transverse grooves and flagella. 2. Prorocentraceae (Schutt) (=the Adinida of Bergh); body sur- rounded by a firm shell of two valves without a girdle band ; trans- verse groove absent; transverse flagellum coiled round base of longitudinal. Exuviaeella (Cienk.) (fig. 2, 3); Prorocentrum (Ehrb.) (fig. 2, 4). 3. Peridiniaceae (Schutt) ; body with a shell of plates, a girdle band along the transverse groove, in which the transverse flagellum lies. Genera, Peridinium (Ehrb.) (fig. i), fresh-water and marine; Ceratium (Schrank) (fig. 2, 5, 6), fresh-water and marine; Citharistes (Stein); Ornithoceras (Claparede and Lachmann) (fig. 2, 1). Literature.— R. S. Bergh, "DerOrganismusder Cilioflagellaten," Morphol. Jahrbuch, vii. (1881); F. von Stein, Organismus der Infu- sionsthiere, Abth. 3, 2. Halfte; Die Naturgeschichte der arthrodelen Flagellaten (1883); Biitschli, "Mastigophora" (in Bronn's Thier- reich, i. Abth. 2), 1881-1887; G. Pouchet, various observations on Dinoflagellates, Journal de I'anatomie et de la physiologie (1885, 1887, 1891); F. Schutt, " Die Peridineen der Plankton Expedition " (Ergebnisse d. PI. Exed. i. Th. vol. iv. 1895); and " Peridiniales " in Engler and Prantl's Pflanzenfamilien, vol. i. Abt. 2 b. (1896); Zederbauer, Berichte d. deutschen botanischen Gesellsckaft, vol. xx. (1900) ; Delage and Herouard, TraitS de zoologie concrete, vol. i. La Cellule et les protozoaires (1896). (M. Ha.) DINOTHERIUM, an extinct mammal, fossil remains of which occur in the Miocene beds of France, Germany, Greece and Northern India. These consist chiefly of teeth and the bones of the head. An entire skull, obtained from the Lower Pliocene beds of Eppelsheim, Hesse-Darmstadt, in 1836, measured 43 ft. in length and 3 ft. in breadth, and indicates an animal exceeding the elephant in size. The upper jaw is apparently destitute of incisor and canine teeth, but possesses five molars on each side, with a corresponding number in the jaw beneath. The most remarkable feature, however, consists in the front part of the lower jaw being bent downwards and bearing two tusk-like incisors also directed downwards and backwards. Dinotherium is a member of the group Proboscidea, of the line of descent of the elephants. DINWIDDIE, ROBERT (1 693-1 770), English colonial governor of Virginia, was born near Glasgow, Scotland, in 1693. From the position of customs clerk in Bermuda, which he held in 1727-1738, he was promoted to be surveyor-general of the customs " of the southern ports 01 the continent of America," as a reward for having exposed the corruption in the West Indian customs service. In 1743 he was commissioned to examine into the customs service in the Barbadoes and exposed similar corruption there. In 1751-1758 he was lieutenant-governor of Virginia, first as the deputy of Lord Albemarle and then, from July 1756 to January 1758, as deputy for Lord Loudon. He was energetic in the discharge of his duties, but aroused much animosity among the colonists by his zeal in looking after the royal quit-rents, and by exacting heavy fees for the issue of land-patents. It was his chief concern to prevent the French from building in the Ohio Valley a chain of forts connecting their settlements in the north with those on the Gulf of Mexico; and in the autumn of 1753 he sent George Washington to Fort Le Bceuf, a newly established French post at what is now Waterford, Pennsylvania, with a message demanding the withdrawal of the French from English territory. As the French refused to comply, Dinwiddie secured from the reluctant Virginia assembly a grant of £1 0.000 and in the spring of 1754 he sent Washington with an armed force toward the forks of the Ohio river " to prevent the intentions of the French in settling those lands." In the latter part of May Washington encountered a French force at a spot called Great Meadows, near the Youghiogheny river, in what is now south- 1 western Pennsylvania, and a skirmish followed which precipitated the French and Indian War. Dinwiddie was especially active at this time in urging the co-operation of the colonies against the French in the Ohio Valley; but none of the other governors, except William Shirley of Massachusetts, was then much con- cerned about the western frontier, and he could accomplish very little. His appeals to the home government, however, resulted in the sending of General Edward Braddock to Virginia with two regiments of regular troops; and at Braddock's call Dinwiddie and the governors of Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania and Maryland met at Alexandria, Virginia, in April 1755, arid ; planned the initial operations of the war. Dinwiddie's administra- tion was marked by a constant wrangle with the assembly over money matters; and its obstinate resistance to military appro- priations caused him in 1754 and 1755 to urge the home govern- ment to secure an act of parliament compelling the colonies to raise money for their protection. In January 1758 he left Virginia and lived in England until his death on the 27th of July 1770 at Clifton, Bristol. The Official Records of Robert Dinwiddie, Lieutenant-Governor of Virginia (1751-1758), published in two volumes, at Richmond, Va., in 1 883-1884, by the Virginia Historical Society, and edited by R. A. Brock, are of great value for the political history of the colonies in this period. DIO CASSIUS (more correctly Cassius Dio), Cocceianus (c. a.d. 150-235), Roman historian, was born at Nicaea in Bithynia. His father was Cassius Apronianus, governor of Dalmatia and Cilicia under Marcus Aurelius, and on his mother's side he was the grandson of Dio Chrysostom, who had assumed the surname of Cocceianus in honour of his patron the emperor Cocceius Nerva. After his father's death, Dio Cassius left Cilicia for Rome (180) and became a member of the senate. During the reign of Commodus, Dio practised as an' advocate at the Roman bar, and held the offices of aedile and quaestor. He was raised to the praetorship by Pertinax (193), but did not assume office till the reign of Septimius Severus, with whom he was for a long time on the most intimate footing. By Maqrinus he was entrusted with the administration of Pergamum and Smyrna; and on his return to Rome he was raised to the consulship about 220. After this he obtained the proconsulship of Africa, and again on his return was sent as legate successively to Dalmatia and Pannonia. He was raised a second time to the consulship by Alexander Severus, in 229; but on the plea of ill health soon afterwards retired to Nicaea, where he died. Before writing his history of Rome ('Vuiiauci. or 'Pajjuauti) 'Icrropia), Dio Cassius had dedicated to the emperor Severus an account of various dreams and prodigies which had presaged his elevation to the throne (perhaps the 'EvoSto attributed to Dio by Suidas), and had also written a biography I of his fellow-countryman Arrian. The history of Rome, which DIOCESE— DIO CHRYSOSTOM 279 consisted of eighty books, — and, after the example of Livy, was divided into decades, — began with the landing of Aeneas in Italy, and was continued as far as the reign of Alexander Severus (222-235). Of this great work we possess books 36-60, contain- ing the history of events from 68 b.c.-a.d. 47; books 36 and 55-60 are imperfect. We also have part of 35 and 36-80 in the epitome of John Xiphilinus, an 11th-century Byzantine monk. For the earlier period the loss of Dio's work is partly supplied by the history of Zonaras, who followed him closely. Numerous fragments are also contained in the excerpts of Constantine Porphyrogenitus. Dio's work is a most important authority for the history of the last years of the republic and the early empire. His industry was great and the various important offices he held afforded him ample opportunities for historical investigation. His style, though marred by Latinisms, is clearer than that of his model Thucydides, and his narrative shows the hand of the practised soldier and politician; the language is correct and free from affectation. But he displays a superstitious regard for miracles and prophecies; he has nothing to say against the arbitrary acts of the emperors, which he seems to take as a matter of course; and his work, although far more than a mere compila- tion, is not remarkable for impartiality, vigour of judgment or critical historical faculty. The best edition with notes is that of H. S. Reimar (1750-1752), new ed. by F. G. Sturz (1824-1836); text by I. Melber (1890 foil.), with account of previous editions, and U. P. Boissevain (1895-1901) ; translation by H. B. Foster (Troy, New York, 1905 foil.), with full hibliography ; see also W. Christ, Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur (1898), p. 675; E. Schwartz in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopddie, iii. pt. 2 (1899) ; C. Wachsmuth, Einleitung in das Studium der alien Geschichte (1895). DIOCESE (formed on Fr. diocese, in place of the Eng. form diocess — current until the 19th century — from Lat. dioecesis, med. Lat. variant diocesis, from Gr. Sioiicqcns, " house- keeping," " administration," Siouctlv, " to keep house," " to govern "), the sphere of a bishop's jurisdiction. In this, its sole modern sense, the word diocese (dioecesis) has only been regularly used since the 9th century, though isolated instances of such use occur so early as the 3rd, what is now known as a diocese having been till then usually called a parochia (parish). The Greek word Sto'uaicns, from meaning " administration," came to be applied to the territorial circumscription in which ad- ministration was exercised. It was thus first applied e.g. to the three districts of Cibyra, Apamea and Synnada, which were added to Cilicia in Cicero's time (between 56 and 50 B.C.). The word is here equivalent to " assize-districts " (Tyrrell and Purser's edition of Cicero Epist. ad jam. iii. 8. 4; xiii. 67; cf. Strabo xiii. 628-629). But in the reorganization of the empire, begun by Diocletian and completed by Constantine, the word " diocese" acquired a more important meaning, the empire being divided into twelve dioceses, of which the largest — Oriens — embraced sixteen provinces, and the smallest — Britain — four (see Rome: Ancient History; and W. T. Arnold, Roman Provincial Adminis- tration, pp. 187, 194-196, which gives a list of the dioceses and their subdivisions) . The organization of the Christian church in the Roman empire following very closely the lines of the civil administration (see Church History), the word diocese, in its ecclesiastical sense, was at first applied to the sphere of jurisdic- tion, not of a bishop, but of a metropolitan. 1 Thus Anastasius Bibliothecarius (d. c. 886), in his life of Pope Dionysius, says that he assigned churches to the presbyters, and established dioceses (parochiae) and provinces (dioeceses). The word, however, sur- vived in its general sense of " office " or " administration," and it was even used during the middle ages for " parish " (see Du Cange, Glossarium, s. " Dioecesis " 2). The practice, under the Roman empire, of making the areas of ecclesiastical administration very exactly coincide with those of the civil administration, was continued in the organization of the church beyond the borders of the empire, and many dioceses to this day preserve the limits of long vanished political divisions. The process is well illustrated in the case of English bishoprics. But this practice was based on convenience, not principle; and 1 For exceptions see Hinschius ii. p. 39, note I. the limits of the dioceses, once fixed, did not usually change with the changing political boundaries. Thus Hincmar, archbishop of Reims, complains that not only his metropolitanate (dioecesis) but his bishopric (parochia) is divided between two realms under two kings; and this inconvenient overlapping of jurisdictions remained, in fact, very common in Europe until the readjust- ments of national boundaries by the territorial settlements of the 19th century. In principle, however, the subdivision of a diocese, in the event of the work becoming too heavy for one bishop, was very early admitted, e.g. by the first council at Lugo in Spain (569), which erected Lugo into a metropolitanate, the consequent division of diocese being confirmed by the king of the second council, held in 572. Another reason for dividing a diocese, and establishing a new see, has been recognized by the church as duly existing " if the sovereign should think fit to endow some principal village or town with the rank and privileges of a city" (Bingham, lib. xvii. c. 5). But there are canons for the punishment of such as might induce the sovereign so to erect any town into a city, solely with the view of becoming bishop thereof. Nor could any diocese be divided without the consent of the primate. In England an act of parliament is necessary for the creation of new dioceses. In the reign of Henry VIII. six new dioceses were thus cheated (under an act of 1539); but from that time onward until the 19th century they remained practically unchanged. The Ecclesiastical Commissioners Act 1836, which created two new dioceses (Ripon and Manchester), remodelled the state of the old dioceses by an entirely new adjustment of the revenues and patronage of each see, and also extended or curtailed the parishes and counties in the various jurisdictions. By the ancient custom of the church the bishop takes his title, not from his diocese, but from his see, i.e. the place where his cathedral is established. Thus the old episcopal titles are all derived from cities. This tradition has been broken, however, by the modern practice of bishops in the United States and the British colonies, e.g. archbishop of the West Indies, bishop of Pennsylvania, Wyoming, &c. (see Bishop). See Hinschius, Kirchenrecht, ii. 38, &c. ; Joseph Bingham, Origines ecclesiasticae, 9 vols. (1840); Du Cange, Glossarium, s. " Dioecesis "; New English Dictionary (Oxford, 1897), s. " Diocese." DIO CHRYSOSTOM (c. a.d. 40-115), Greek sophist and rhetorician, was born at Piusa (mod. Brusa), a town at the foot of Mount Olympus in Bithynia. He was called Chrysostom (" golden-mouthed ") from his eloquence, and also to distinguish him from his grandson, the historian Dio Cassius; his surname Cocceianus was derived from his patron, the emperor Cocceius Nerva. Although he did much to promote the welfare of his native place, he became so unpopular there that he migrated to Rome, but, having incurred the suspicion of Domitian, he was banished from Italy. With nothing in his pocket but Plato's Phaedo and Demosthenes' De falsa legatione, he wandered about in Thrace, Mysia, Scythia and the land of the Getae. He returned to Rome on the accession of Nerva, with whom and his successor Trajan he was on intimate terms. During this period he paid a visit to Prusa, but, disgusted at his reception, he went back to Rome. The place and date of his death are unknown; it is certain, however, that he was alive in 112, when the younger Pliny was governor of Bithynia. Eighty orations, or rather essays on political, moral and philosophical subjects, have come down to us under his name; the Corinthiaca, however, is generally regarded as spurious, and is probably the work of Favorinus of Arelate. Of the extant orations the following are the most important: — Borysthenitica (xxxvi.), on the advantages of monarchy, addressed to the inhabitants of 01bia,and containing interesting information on the history of the Greek colonies on the shores of the Black Sea; Olympica (xii.), in which Pheidias is represented as setting forth the principles which he had followed in his statue of Zeus, one passage being supposed by some to have suggested Lessing's Laocoon; Rhodiaca (xxxi.), an attack on the Rhodians for alter- ing the names on their statues, and thus converting them into memorials of famous men of theday (an imitation of Demosthenes' 28o DIOCLETIAN— DIOCLETIAN, EDICT OF „ Leptines); De regno (i.-iv.), addressed to Trajan, a eulogy of the monarchical form of government, under which the emperor is the representative of Zeus upon earth; De Aeschyio et Sophocle et Euripide (Hi.), a comparison of the treatment of the story of Philoctetes by the three great Greek tragedians; and Philoctetes (lix.), a summary of the prologue to the lost play by Euripides. In his later life, Dio, who had originally attacked the philosophers, himself became a convert to Stoicism. To this period belong the essays on moral subjects, such as the denunciation of various cities (Tarsus, Alexandria) for their immorality. Most pleasing of all is the Euboica (vii.), a description of the simple life of the herdsmen and huntsmen of Euboea as contrasted with that of the inhabitants of the towns. Troica (xi.), an attempt to prove to the inhabitants of Ilium that Homer was a liar and that Troy was never taken, is a good example of a sophistical rhetorical exercise. Amongst his lost works were attacks on philosophers and Domitian, and Getica (wrongly attributed to Dio Cassius by Suidas), an account of the manners and customs of the Getae, for which he had collected material on the spot during his banish- ment. The style of Dio, who took Plato and Xenophon especially as his models, is pure and refined, and on the whole free from rhetorical exaggeration. With Plutarch he played an important part in the revival of Greek literature at the end of the ist century of the Christian era. • Editions: J. J. Reiske (Leipzig, 1784); A. Emperius (Bruns- wick, 1844); L. Dindorf (Leipzig, 1857) ; H. von Arnim (Berlin, 1893- 1896). The ancient authorities for his life are Philostratus, Vit. Soph. i. 7 ; Photius, Bibliotheca, cod. 209 ; Suidas, s.v. ; Synesius, Atuv. On Dio generally see H. von Arnim, Leben und Werke dcs Dion von Prusa (Berlin, 1898) ; C. Martha, Les Moralistes sous V empire romain (1865); W. Christ, Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur (1898), § 520; J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship (2nd ed., 1906) ; W. Schmid in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopadie, v. pt. 1 (1905). The Euboica has been abridged by J. P. Mahaffy in The Greek World under Roman Sway (1890), and there is a translation of Select Essays by Gilbert Wakefield (1800). DIOCLETIAN (Gaius Atjrelitjs Valerius Diocletiantjs) (a.d. 245-313), Roman emperor 284-305, is said to have been born at Dioclea, near Salona, in Dalmatia. His original name was Diodes. Of humble origin, he served with high distinction and held important military commands under the emperors Probus and Aurelian, and accompanied Carus to the Persian War. After the death of Numerianus he was chosen emperor by the troops at Chalcedon, on the 17th of September 284, and slew with his own hands Arrius Aper, the praefect of the praetorians. He thus fulfilled the prediction of a druidess of Gaul, that he would mount a throne as soon as he had slain a wild boar (aper) . Having been installed at Nicomedia, he received general acknowledg- ment after the murder of Carinus. In consequence of the rising of the Bagaudae in Gaul, and the threatening attitude of the German peoples on the Rhine, he appointed Maximian Augustus in 286; and, in view of further dangers and disturbances in the empire, proclaimed ConstantiusChlorus and Galerius Caesars in 293. Each of the four rulers was placed at a separate capital — Nicomedia, Mediolanum (Milan), Augusta Trevirorum (Trier), Sirmium. This amounted to an entirely new organization of the empire, on a plan commensurate with the work of government which it now had to carry on. At the age of fifty-nine, exhausted with labour, Diocletian abdicated his sovereignty on the ist of May 305, and retired to Salona, where he died eight years afterwards (others give 316 as the year of his death). The end of his reign was memorable for the persecution of the Christians. In defence of this it may be urged that he hoped to strengthen the empire by reviving the old religion, and that the church as an independent state over whose inner life at least he possessed no influence, appeared to be a standing menace to his authority. Under Diocletian the senate became a political nonentity, the last traces of republican institutions disappeared, and were replaced by an absolute monarchy approaching to despotism. He wore the royal diadem, assumed the title of lord, and introduced a com- plicated system of ceremonial and etiquette, borrowed from the East, in order to surround the monarchy and its representative with mysterious sanctity. But at the same time he devoted his energies to the improvement of the administration of the empire; he reformed the standard of coinage, fixed the price of provisions and other necessaries of daily life, remitted the tax upon inheritances and manumissions, abolished various monopolies, repressed corruption and encouraged trade. In addition, he adorned the city with numerous buildings, such as the thermae, of which extensive remains are still standing (Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, 39; Eutropius ix. 13; Zonaras xii. 31). See A. Vogel, Der Kaiser Diocletian (Gotha, 1857), a short sketch, with notes on the authorities ; T. Preuss, Kaiser Diocletian und seine Zeit (Leipzig, 1869); V. Casagrandi, Diocleziano (Faenza, 1876); H. Schiller, Gesch. der romischen Kaiserzeit, ii. (1887) ; T. Bernhardt, Geschichte Roms von Valerian bis zu Diocletians Tod (1867); A. J. Mason, The Persecution of Diocletian (1 876) ; P. Allard, La Persecution de Diocletien (1890); V. Schultze in Herzog-Hauck's Realency- klopddie fur protestantische Theologie, iv. (1898); Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chaps. 13 and 16; A. W. Hunzinger, Die Diocletianische Staatsreform (1899); O. Seeck, "Die Schatzungsordnung Dio- cletians" in Zeitschrift filr Social- und Wirthschaftsgeschichte (1896), a valuable paper with notes containing references to sources; and O. Seeck, Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt, vol. i. cap. I. On his military reforms see T. Mommsen in Hermes, xxiv., and on his tariff system, Diocletian, Edict of. DIOCLETIAN, EDICT OF (De pretiis rerum venalium), an im- perial edict promulgated in a.d. 301, fixing a maximum price for provisions and other articles of commerce, and a maximum rate of wages. Incomplete copies of it have been discovered at various times in various places, the first (in Greek and Latin) in 1709, at Stratonicea in Caria, by W. Sherard, British consul at Smyrna, containing the preamble and the beginning of the tables down to No. 403. This partial copy was completed by W. Bankes in 181 7. A second fragment (now in the museum at Aix in Provence) was brought from Egypt in 1809; it supplements the preamble by specifying the titles of the emperors and Caesars and the number of times they had held them, whereby the date of publication can be accurately determined. For other fragments and their localities see Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (iii., 1873, pp. 801 and 1055; and supplement L, 1893, p. 1909); special mention may be made of those of Elatea, Plataea and Megalopolis. Latin being the official language all over the empire, there was no official Greek translation (except for Greece proper), as is shown by the varia- tions in those portions of the text of which more than one Greek version is extant. Further, all the fragments come from the provinces which were under the jurisdiction of Diocletian, from which it is argued that the edict was only published in the eastern portion of the empire; certainly the phrase universo orbi in the preamble is against this, but the words may merely be an exaggerated description of Diocletian's special provinces, and if it had been published in the western portion as well, it is curious that no traces have been found of it. The articles mentioned in the edict, which is chiefly interesting as giving their relative values at the time, include cereals, wine, oil, meat, vegetables, fruits, skins, leather, furs, foot-gear, timber, carpets, articles of dress, and the wages range from the ordinary labourer to the professional advocate. The unit of money was the denarius, not the silver, but a copper coin introduced by Diocletian, of which the value has been fixed approximately at £th of a penny. The punishment for exceeding the prices fixed was death or deporta- tion. The edict was a well-intended but abortive attempt, in great measure in the interests of the soldiers, to meet the distress caused by several bad harvests and commercial speculation. The actual effect was disastrous; the restrictions thus placed upon commercial freedom brought about a disturbance of the food supply in non-productive countries, many traders were ruined, and the edict soon fell into abeyance. See Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum, vii.; a contemporary who, as a Christian, writes with natural bias against Diocletian ; T. Mommsen, Das Edict Diocletians (1851) ; W. M. Leake, An Edict of Diocletian (1826) ; W. H. Waddington, L'Edit de Diocletien (1864), and E. Lepaulle, L'Edit de maximum (1886), both containing intro- ductions and ample notes; J. C. Rolfe and F. B. Tarbell in Papers of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, v. (1892) (Plataea); W. Loring in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xi. (1890) (Megalopolis) ; P. Paris in Bulletin de correspondance hellenique, ix. (1885) (Elatea). There is an edition of the whole by Mommsen, with notes by H. Bliimner (1893). DIODATI— DIOGENES, THE CYNIC 281 DIODATI, GIOVANNI (1576-1649), Swiss Protestant divine, was born at Geneva on the 6th of June 1576, of a noble family originally belonging to Lucca, which had been expatriated on account of its Protestantism. At the age of twenty-one he was nominated professor of Hebrew at Geneva on the recommendation of Theodor Beza. In 1606 he became professor of theology, in 1608 pastor, or parish minister, at Geneva, and in the following year he succeeded Beza as professor of theology. As a preacher he was eloquent, bold and fearless. He held a high place among the reformers of Geneva, by whom he was sent on a mission to France in 1614. He had previously visited Italy, and made the acquaintance of Paolo Sarpi, whom he endeavoured unsuccess- fully to engage in a reformation movement. In 1618-1619 he attended the synod of Dort, and took a prominent part in its deliberations, being one of the six divines appointed to draw up the account of its proceedings. He was a thorough Calvinist, and entirely sympathized with the condemnation of the Arminians. In 1645 he resigned his professorship, and died at Geneva on the 3rd of October 1649. Diodati is chiefly famous as the author of the translation of the Bible into Italian (1603, edited with notes, 1607). He also undertook a translation of the Bible into French, which appeared with notes in 1644. Among his other works are his Annotationes in Biblia (1607), of which an English translation {Pious and Learned Annotations upon the Holy Bible) was published in London in 1648, and various polemical treatises, such as De fictitio Pentificiorum Purgatorio (1619); De justa secessione Refortnatorum ab Ecclesia Romana (1628) ; De Antichristo, &c. He also published French translations of Sarpi's History of the Council of Trent, and of Edwin Sandys's Account of the State of Religion in the West. DIODORUS CRONUS (4th century B.C.), Greek philosopher of the Megarian school. Practically nothing is known of his life. Diogenes Laertius (ii. in) tells a story that, while staying at the court of Ptolemy Soter, Diodorus was asked to solve a dialectical subtlety by Stilpo. Not being able to answer on the spur of the moment, he was nicknamed 6 Kpovos (the God, equivalent to " slowcoach ") by Ptolemy. The story goes that he died of shame at his failure. Strabo, however, says (xiv. 658; xvii. 838) that he took the name from Apollonius, his master. Like the rest of the Megarian school he revelled in verbal quibbles, proving that motion and existence are impossible. His was the famous sophism known as the Kvpievuv. The impossible cannot result from the possible; a past event cannot become other than it is; but if an event, at a given moment, had been possible, from this possible would result something impossible; therefore the original event was impossible. This problem was taken up by Chrysippus, who admitted that he could not solve it. Apart from these verbal gymnastics, Diodorus did not differ from the Megarian school. From his great dialectical skill he earned the title 6 SiaXeKrucos, or StaXejcTixcbraTOS, a title which was borne by his five daughters, who inherited his ability. See Cicero, De Fato, 6, 7, 9; Aristotle, Metaphysial, 8 3; Sext. Empiric, adv. Math. x. 85; Ritter and Pseller, Hist, philos. Gr. et Rom. chap. v. §§ 234-236 (ed. 1869); and bibliography appended to article Megarian School. DIODORUS SICULUS, Greek historian, born at Agyrium in Sicily, lived in the times of Julius Caesar and Augustus. From his own statements we learn that he travelled in Egypt between 60-57 B.C. and that he spent several years in Rome. The latest event mentioned by him belongs to the year 21 B.C. He asserts that he devoted thirty years to the composition of his history, and that he undertook frequent and dangerous journeys in prosecu- tion of his historical researches. These assertions, however, find little credit with recent critics. The history, to which Diodorus gave the name j3t.f}\iodT]icri tcrropiKii (Bibliotheca historica, " Historical Library "), consisted of forty books, and was divided into three parts. The first treats of the mythic history of the non- Hellenic, and afterwards of the Hellenic tribes, to the destruction of Troy; the second section ends with Alexander's death; and the third continues the history as far as the beginning of Caesar's Gallic War. Of this extensive work there are still extant only the first five books, treating of the mythic history of the Egyptians, Assyrians, Ethiopians and Greeks; and also the nth to the 20th books inclusive, beginning with the second Persian War, and end- ing with the history of the successors of Alexander, previous to the partition of the Macedonian empire (302). The rest exists only in fragments preserved in Photius and the excerpts of Constantine Porphyrogenitus. The faults of Diodorus arise partly from the nature of the undertaking, and the awkward form of annals into which he has thrown the historical portion of his narrative. He shows none of the critical faculties of the historian, merely setting down a number of unconnected details. His narrative contains frequent repetitions and contradictions, is without colouring, and monotonous; and his simple diction, which stands intermediate between pure Attic and the colloquial Greek of his time, enables us to detect in the narrative the undigested fragments of the materials which he employed. In spite of its defects, however, the Bibliotheca is of considerable value as to some extent supplying the loss of the works of older authors, from which it is compiled. Unfortunately, Diodorus does not always quote his authorities, but his general sources of information were — in history and chronology, Castor, Ephorus and Apollodorus; in geography, Agatharchides and Artemidorus. In special sections he followed special authorities — e.g. in the history of his native Sicily, Philistus and Timaeus. Edilio princeps, by H. Stephanus (1559); of other editions the best are: P. Wesseling (1746), not yet superseded; L. Dindorf (1828-1831); (text) L. Dindorf (1866-1868, revised by F. Vogel, 1888-1893 and C. T. Fischer, 1905-1906). The standard works on the sources of Diodorus are C. G. Heyne, De fontibus et auctoribus historiarum Diodori, printed in Dindorf's edition, and C. A. Volquardsen, Die Quellen der griechischen und sicilischen Geschichten bei Diodor (1868); A. von Mess, Rheinisches Museum (1906); see also L. O. Brocker, Untersuchungen uber Diodor (1879), short, but containing much information; O. Maass, Kleitarch und Diodor (1894- ); G. J. Schneider, De Diodori fontibus, i.-iv. (1880); C. Wachsmuth, Einleitung in das Studium der alien Geschichte (1895) ; Greece: Ancient History, "Authorities." DIODOTUS, Seleucid satrap of Bactria, who rebelled against Antiochus II. (about 255) and became the founder of the Graeco- Bactrian kingdom (Trogus, Prol. 41; Justin xli. 4, 5, where he is wrongly called Theodotus; Strabo xi. 515). His power seems to have extended over the neighbouring provinces. Arsaces, the chieftain of the nomadic (Dahan) tribe of the Parni, fled before him into Parthia and here became the founder of the Parthian kingdom (Strabo I.e.). When Seleucus II. in 239 attempted to subjugate the rebels in the east he seems to have united with him against the Parthians (Justin xli. 4, 9). Soon afterwards he died and was succeeded by his son Diodotus II., who concluded a peace with the Parthians (Justin I.e.). Diodotus II. was killed by another usurper, Euthydemus (Polyb. xi. 34, 2). Of Diodotus I. we possess gold and silver coins, which imitate the coins of Antiochus II.; on these he sometimes calls himself Soter, " the saviour." As the power of the Seleucids was weak and con- tinually attacked by Ptolemy II., the eastern provinces and their Greek cities were exposed to the invasion of the nomadic barbarians and threatened with destruction (Polyb. xi. 34, 5); thus the erection of an independent kingdom may have been a necessity and indeed an advantage to the Greeks, and this epithet well deserved. Diodotus Soter appears also on coins struck in his memory by the later Graeco-Bactrian kings Agathocles and Antimachus. Cf. A. v. Sallet, Die Nachfolger Alexanders d. Gr. in Baktrien und Indien ; Percy Gardner, Calal. of the Coins of the Greek and Scythian Kings of Bactria and India (Brit. Mus.) ; see also Bactria. (Ed. M.) DIOGENES, " the Cynic," Greek philosopher, was born at Sinope about 412 B.C., and died in 323 at Corinth, according to Diogenes Laertius, on the day on which Alexander the Great died at Babylon. His father, Icesias, a money-changer, was imprisoned or exiled on the charge of adulterating the coinage. Diogenes was included in the charge, and went to Athens with one attendant, whom he dismissed, saying, " If Manes can live without Diogenes, why not Diogenes without Manes ? " Attracted by the ascetic teaching of Antisthenes, be became his pupil, despite the brutality with which he was received, and rapidly excelled his master both in reputation and in the austerity of his life. The stories which 2% 2, DIOGENES APOLLONIATES— DIOGNEDTUS are told of him are probably true; in any case, they serve to illustrate the logical consistency of his character. He inured himself to the vicissitudes of weather by living in a tub belonging to the temple of Cybele. The single wooden bowl he possessed he destroyed on seeing a peasant boy drink from the hollow of his hands. On a voyage to Aegina he was captured by pirates and sold as a slave in Crete to a Corinthian named Xeniades. Being asked his trade, he replied that he knew no trade but that of governing men, and that he wished to be sold to a man who needed a master. As tutor to the two sons of Xeniades, he lived in Corinth for the rest of his life, which he devoted entirely to preaching the doctrines of virtuous self-control. At the Isthmian games he lectured to large audiences who turned to him from Antisthenes. It was, probably, at one of these festivals that he craved from Alexander the single boon that he would not stand between him and the sun, to which Alexander replied " If I were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes." On his death, about which there exist several accounts, the Corinthians erected to his memory a pillar on which there rested a dog of Parian marble. His ethical teaching will be found in the article Cynics (q.v.). It may suffice to say here that virtue, for him, consisted in the avoidance of all physical pleasure; that pain and hunger were positively helpful in the pursuit of goodness; that all the artificial growths of society appeared to him incompatible with truth and goodness; that moralization implies a return to nature and simplicity. He has been credited with going to extremes of impropriety in pursuance of these ideas; probably, however, his reputation has suffered from the undoubted immorality of some of his successors. Both in ancient and in modern times, his person- ality has appealed strongly to sculptors and to painters. Ancient busts exist in the museums of the Vatican, the Louvre and the Capitol. The interview between Diogenes and Alexander is repre- sented in an ancient marble bas-relief found in the Villa Albani. Rubens, Jordaens, Steen, Van der Werff, Jeaurat, Salvator Rosa and Karel Dujardin have painted various episodes in his life. The chief ancient authority for his life is Diogenes Laertius vi. 20; see also Mayor's notes on Juvenal, Satires, xiv. 308-314; and article Cynics. DIOGENES APOLLONIATES (c. 460 B.C.), Greek natural philosopher, was a native of Apollonia in Crete. Although of Dorian stock, he wrote in the Ionic dialect, like all the physiologi (physical philosophers) . There seems no doubt that he lived some time at Athens, where it is said that he became so unpopular (probably owing to his supposed atheistical opinions) that his life was in danger. The views of Diogenes are transferred in the Clouds (264 if.) of Aristophanes to Socrates. Like Anaximenes, he believed air to be the one source of all being, and all other substances to be derived from it by condensation and rarefaction. His chief advance upon the doctrines of Anaximenes is that hp asserted air, the primal force, to be possessed of intelligence — " the air which stirred within him not only prompted, but in- structed. The air as the origin of all things is necessarily an eternal, imperishable substance, but as soul it is also necessarily endowed with consciousness." In fact, he belonged to the old Ionian school, whose doctrines he modified by the theories of his contemporary Anaxagoras, although he avoided his dualism. His most important work was Hepi 4>bcrews (De natura), of which considerable fragments are extant (chiefly in Simplicius) ; it is possible that he wrote also Against the Sophists and On the Nature of Man, to which the well-known fragment about the veins would belong; possibly these discussions were subdivisions of his great work. Fragments in F. Mullach, Fragmenta philosophorum Graecorum, i. (i860); F. Panzerbieter, Diogenes Apolloniates (1830), with philosophical dissertation; J. Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy (1892) ; H. Ritter and L. Preller, Hisloria philosophiae (4th ed., 1869), §§ 59-68; E. Krause, Diogenes von Apollonia (1909). See Ionian School. DIOGENES LAERTIUS (or" Laertius Diogenes), the biographer of the Greek philosophers, is supposed by some to have received his surname from the town of Laerte in Cilicia, and by others from the Roman family of the Laertii. Of the circum- stances of bis life we know nothing. He must have lived after I Sextus Empiricus (c. a.d. 200), whom he mentions, and before Stephanus of Byzantium (c. a.d. 500), who quotes him. It is probable that he flourished during the reign of Alexander Severus (a.d. 222-235) and his successors. His own opinions are equally uncertain. By some he was regarded as a Christian; but it seems more probable that he was an Epicurean. The work by which he is known professes to give an account of the lives and sayings of the Greek philosophers. Although it is at best an uncritical and unphilosophical compilation, its value, as giving us an insight into the private life of the Greek sages, justly led Montaigne to exclaim that he wished that instead of one Laertius there had been a dozen. He treats his subject in two divisions which he describes as the Ionian and the Italian schools; the division is quite unscientific. The biographies of the former begin with Anaximander, and end with Clitomachus, Theophrastus and Chrysippus; the latter begins with Pythagoras, and ends with Epicurus. The Socratic school, with its various branches, is classed with the Ionic; while the Eleatics and sceptics are treated under the Italic. The whole of the last book is devoted to Epicurus, and contains three most interesting letters addressed to Herodotus, Pythocles and Menoeceus. His chief authorities were Diodes of Magnesia's Cursory Notice ('EmSpo/xri) of Philo- sophers and Favorinus's Miscellaneous History and Memoirs. From the statements of Burlaeus (Walter Burley, a 14th-century monk) in his De vita et moribus philosophorum the text of Diogenes seems to have been much fuller than that which we now possess. In addition to the Lives, Diogenes was the author of a work in verse on famous men, in various metres. Bibliography. — Editio princeps (1533); H. Hiibner and C. Jacobitz with commentary (1828-1833); C. G. Cobet (1850), text only. See F. Nietzsche, " De Diogenis Laertii fontibus " in Rheinisches Museum, xxiii., xxiv. (1868-1869); J. Freudenthal, " Zu Quellenkunde Diog. Laert.," in Hellenislische Studien, iii. (1879); O. Maass, De biographis Graecis (1880); V. Egger, De fontibus Diog. Laert. (1881). There is an English translation by C. D. Yonge in Bohn's Classical Library. DIOGENIANUS, of Heraclea on the Pontus (or in Caria), Greek grammarian, flourished during the reign of Hadrian. He was the author of an alphabetical lexicon, chiefly of poetical words, abridged from the great lexicon (ILepl yX&xrow) of Pamphilus of Alexandria (fl. a.d. 50) and other similar works. It was also known by the title HepiepyoTrev^res (for the use of "industrious poor students "). It formed the basis of the lexicon, or rather glossary, of Hesychius of Alexandria, which is described in the preface as a new edition of the work of Diogenianus. We still possess a collection of proverbs under his name, probably an abridgment of the collection made by himself from his lexicon (ed. by E. Leutsch and F. W. Schneidewin in Paroemiographi Graeci, i. 1839) . Diogenianus was also the author of an Anthology of epigrams, of treatises on rivers, lakes, fountains and pro- montories; and of a list (with map) of all the towns in the world. DIOGNETUS, EPISTLE TO, one of the early Christian apolo- gies. Diognetus, of whom nothing is really known, has expressed a desire to know what Christianity really means — " What is this new race " of men who are neither pagans nor Jews? " What is this new interest which has entered into men's lives now and not before?" The anonymous answer begins with a refutation of the folly of worshipping idols, fashioned by human hands and needing to be guarded if of precious material. The repulsive smell of animal sacrifices is enough to show their monstrous absurdity. Next Judaism is attacked. Jews abstain from idolatry and worship one God, but they fall into the same error of repulsive sacrifice, and have absurd superstitions about meats and sabbaths, circumcision and new moons. So far the task is easy; but the mystery of the Christian religion " think not to learn from man." A passage of great eloquence follows, showing that Christians have no obvious peculiarities that mark them off as a separate race. In spite of blameless lives they are hated. Their home is in heaven, while they live on earth. " In a word, what the soul is in a body, this the Christians are in the world. . . . The soul is enclosed in the body, and yet itself holdeth the body together: so Christians are kept in the world as in a prison-house, and yet they themselves hold the world DIOMEDES— DIONYSIA 283 together." This strange life is inspired in them by the almighty and invisible God, who sent jio angel or subordinate messenger to teach them, but His own Son by whom He created the universe. No man could have known God, had He not thus declared Himself. " If thou too wouldst have this faith, learn first the knowledge of the Father. For God loved men, for whose sake He made the world. . . . Knowing Him, thou wilt love Him and imi- tate His goodness; and marvel not if a man can imitate God: he can, if God will." By kindness to the needy, by giving them what God has given to him, a man can become " a god of them that receive, an imitator of God." " Tl :n shalt thou on earth behold God's life in heaven; then shalt thou begin to speak the mysteries of God." A few lines after this the letter suddenly breaks off. Even this rapid summary may show that the writer was a man of no ordinary power, and there is no other early Christian writing outside the New Testament which appeals so strongly to modern readers. The letter has been often classed with the writings of the Apostolic Fathers, and in some ways it seems to mark the transition from the sub-apostolic age to that of the Apologists. Bishop Lightfoot, who speaks of the letter as " one of the noblest and most impressive of early Christian apologies," places it c. a.d. 150, and inclines to identify Diognetus with the tutor of Marcus Aurelius. Harnack and others would place it later, perhaps in the 3rd century. There are some striking parallels in method and language to the Apology of Aristides (q.v.), and also to the early " Preaching of Peter." The one manuscript which contained this letter perished by fire at Strassburg in 1870, but happily it had been accurately collated by Reuss nine years before. It formed part of a collection of works supposed to be by Justin Martyr, and to this mistaken attribution its preservation is no doubt due. Both thought and language mark the author off entirely from Justin. The end of the letter is lost, but there followed in the codex the end of a homily, 1 which was attached without a break to the epistle: this points to the loss in some earlier codex of pages containing the end of the letter and the beginning of the homily. The Epistle may be read in J. B. Lightfoot's Apostolic Fathers (ed. min.), where there is also a translation into English. (J. A. R.) DIOMEDES, in Greek legend, son of Tydeus, one of the bravest of the heroes of the Trojan War. In the Iliad he is the favourite of Athena, by whose aid he not only overcomes all mortals who venture to oppose him, but is even enabled to attack the gods. In the post-Homeric story, he made his way with Odysseus by an underground passage into the citadel of Troy and carried off the Palladium, the presence of which within the walls secured Troy against capture (Virgil, Aeneid, ii. 164). On his return to Argos, finding that his wife had been unfaithful, he removed to Aetolia, and thence to Daunia (Apulia), where he married the daughter of King Daunus. He was buried or mysteriously disappeared on one of the islands in the Adriatic called after him Diomedeae, his sorrowing companions being changed into birds by the gods out of compassion (Ovid, Melam. xiv. 457 ff.). He was the reputed founder of Argyrippa (Arpi) and other Italian cities {Aeneid, xi. 243 ff.). He was worshipped as a hero not only in Greece, but on the coast of the Adriatic, as at Thurii and Metapontum. At Argos, his native place, during the festival of Athena, his shield was carried through the streets as a relic, together with the Palladium, and his statue was washed in the river Inachus. DIOMEDES, Latin grammarian, flourished at the end of the 4th century a.d. He was the author of an extant Ars grammatica in three books, dedicated to a certain Atha.nasius. The third book is the most important, as containing extracts from Suetonius's De po'etis. Diomedes wrote about the same time as Charisius (q.v. ) and used the same sources independently. The works of both grammarians are valuable, but whereas much cf Charisius has been lost, the Ars of Diomedes has come down to us complete. In book i. he treats of the eight parts of speech; in ii. of the elemen- tary ideas of grammar and of style; in iii. of quantity and metres. The best edition is in H. Keil's Grammatici Latini, i. ; see also C. von Paucker, Kleinere Studien, i. (1883), on the Latinity of Diomedes. 1 Chapters xi. and xii., which Lightfoot suggested might be the •vork of Pantaenus. DION, tyrant of Syracuse (408-353 B.C.), the son of Hipparinus, and brother-in-law of Dionysius the Elder. In his youth he was an admirer and pupil of Plato, whom Dionysius had invited to Syracuse; and he used every effort to inculcate the maxims of his master in the mind of the tyrant. The stern morality of Dion was distasteful to the younger Dionysius, and the historian' Philistus, a faithful supporter of despotic power, succeeded in procuring his banishment on account of alleged intrigues with the Carthaginians. The exiled philosopher retired to Athens, where he was at first permitted to enjoy his revenues in peace; but the intercession of Plato (who had again visited Syracuse to procure Dion's recall) only served to exasperate the tyrant, and at length provoked him to confiscate the property of Dion, and give his wife to another. This last outrage roused Dion. Assembling a small force at Zacynthus, he sailed to Sicily (357) and was received with demonstrations of joy. Dionysius, who was in Italy, returned to Sicily, but was defeated and obliged to flee. Dion himself was soon after supplanted by the intrigues of Heracleides, and again banished. The incompetency of the new leader and the cruelties of Apollocrates, the son of Dionysius, soon led to his recall. He had, however, scarcely made himself master of Sicily when the people began to express their discontent with his tyrannical conduct, and he was assassinated by Callippus, an Athenian who had accompanied him in his expedition. See Lives by Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos (cf. Diod. Sic. xvi. 6-20) and in modern times by T. Lau (i860) ; see also Syracuse and Sicily: History. DIONE, in the earliest Greek mythology, the wife of Zeus. As such she is associated with Zeus Naiius (the god of fertilizing moisture) at Dodona (Strabo vii. p. 329), by whose side she sits, adorned with a bridal veil and garland and holding a sceptre. As the oracle declined in importance, her place as the wife of Zeus was taken by Hera. It is probable that in very early times the cult of Dione existed in Athens, where she had an altar before the Erechtheum. After her admission to the general religious system of the Greeks, Dione was variously described. In the Iliad (v. 370) she is the mother by Zeus of Aphrodite, who is herself in later times called Dione (the epithet Dionaeus was given to Julius Caesar as claiming descent from Venus) . In Hesiod ( Theog. 353) she is one of the daughters of Oceanus; in Pherecydes (ap. schol. Iliad, xviii. 486), one of the nymphs of Dodona, the nurses of Dionysus; in Euripides (frag. 177), the mother of Dionysus; in Hyginus (fab. 9. 82), the daughter of Atlas, wife of Tantalus and mother of Pelops and Niobe. Others make her a Titanid, the daughter of Uranus and Gaea (Apollodorus i. 1). Speaking generally, Dione may be regarded as the female embodiment of the attributes of Zeus, to whose name her own is related as Juno ( = Jovino) to Jupiter. DIONYSIA, festivals in honour of the god Dionysus generally, but in particular the festivals celebrated in Attica and by the branches of the Attic-Ionic race in the islands and in Asia Minor. In Attica there were two festivals annually. (1) The lesser Dionysia, or ra kojt aypovs, was held in the country places for four days (about the 19th to the 22nd of December) at the first tasting of the new wine. It was accompanied by songs, dance, phallic processions and the impromptu performances of itinerant players, who with others from the city thronged to take part in the excitement of the rustic sports. A favourite amusement was the Ascoliasmus, or dancing on one leg upon a leathern bag (davcos), which had been smeared with oil. (2) The greater Dionysia, or to. iv Hurra, was held in the city of Athens for six days (about the 28th of March to the 2nd of April). This was a festival of joy at the departure of winter and the promise of summer, Dionysus being regarded as having delivered the people from the wants and troubles of winter. The religious act of the festival was the conveying of the ancient image of the god, which had been brought from Eleutherae to Athens, from the ancient sanctuary of the Lenaeum to a small temple near the Acropolis and back again, with a chorus of boys and a procession carrying masks and singing the dithyrambus. The festival culminated in the production of tragedies, comedies and satyric dramas in the great theatre of Dionysus. Other festivals in honour of Dionysus were the 284 DIONYSIUS, POPE— DION YSIUS AREOPAGITICUS Anthesteria (g.v.) ; the Lenaea (about the 28th to the 31st of Janu- ary), or festival of vats, at which, after a great public banquet, the citizens went through the city in procession to attend the dramatic representations; the Oschophoria (October-November), a vintage festival, so called from the branches of vine with grapes carried by twenty youths from the ephebi, two from each tribe, in a race from the temple of Dionysus in Athens to the temple of Athena Sciras in Phalerum. See A. Mommsen, Feste der Stadt Athen (1898); L. Preller, Griechische Mythologie; L. C. Purser in Smith's Dictionary of Antiquities (3rd ed., 1890); article Dionysos in W. H. Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie; and the exhaustive account with biblio- graphy by J. Girard in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites. DIONYSIUS, pope from 259 t0 268. To Dionysius, who was elected pope in 259 after the persecution of Valerian, fell the task of reorganizing the Roman church, which had fallen into great disorder. At the protest of some of the faithful at Alexandria, he demanded from the bishop of Alexandria, also called Dionysius, explanations touching his doctrine. He died on the 26th of December 268. DIONYSIUS (c. 432-367 B.C.), tyrant of Syracuse, began life as a clerk in a public office, but by courage and diplomacy succeeded in making himself supreme (see Syracuse). He carried on war with Carthage with varying success; his attempts to drive the Carthaginians entirely out of the island failed, and at his death they were masters of at least a third of it. He also carried on an expedition against Rhegium and its allied cities in Magna Graecia. In one campaign, in which he was joined by the Lucanians, he devastated the territories of Thurii, Croton and Locri. After a protracted siege he took Rhegium (386), and sold the inhabitants as slaves. He joined the Illyrians in an attempt to plunder the temple of Delphi, pillaged the temple of Caere on the Etruscan coast, and founded several military colonies on the Adriatic. In the Peloponnesian War he espoused the side of the Spartans, and assisted them with mercenaries. He also posed as an author and patron of literature; his poems, severely criticized by Philoxenus, were hissed at the Olympic games; but having gained a prize for a tragedy on the Ransom of Hector at the Lenaea at Athens, he was so elated that he engaged in a debauch which proved fatal. According to others, he was poisoned by his physicians at the instigation of his son. His life was written by Philistus, but the work is not extant. Dionysius was regarded by the ancients as a type of the worst kind of despot — cruel, suspicious and vin- dictive. Like Peisistratus, he was fond of having distinguished literary men about him, such as the historian Philistus, the poet Philoxenus, and the philosopher Plato, but treated them in a most arbitrary manner. See Diod. Sic. xiii., xiv., xv. ; J. Bass, Dionysius I, von Syrakus (Vienna, 1881), with full references to authorities in footnotes; articles Sicjly and Syracuse. His son Dionysius, known as " the Younger," succeeded in 367 B.C. He was driven from the kingdom by Dion (356) and fled to Locri; but during the commotions which followed Dion's assassination, he managed to make himself master of Syracuse. On the arrival of Timoleon he was compelled to surrender and retire to Corinth (343), where he spent the rest of his days in poverty (Diodorus Siculus xvi.; Plutarch, Timoleon). See Syracuse and Timoleon; and, on both the Dionysii, articles by B. Niese in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopddie, v. pt. I (1905). DIONYSIUS AREOPAGITICUS (or " the Areopagite "), named in Acts xvii. 34 as one of those Athenians who believed when they had heard Paul preach on Mars Hill. Beyond this mention our only knowledge of him is the statement of Dionysius, bishop of Corinth (ft. a.d. 171), recorded by Eusebius {Church Hist. iii. 4; iv. 23), that this same Dionysius the Areopagite was the first "bishop" of Athens. Some hundreds of years after the Areopagite's death, his name was attached by the Pseudo- Areopagite to certain theological writings composed by the latter. These were destined to exert enormous influence upon medieval thought, and their fame led to the extension of the personal legend of the real Dionysius. Hilduin, abbot of St Denys (814-840), identified him with St Denys, martyr and patron-saint of France. In Hilduin's Areopagitica, the Life and Passion of the most holy Dionysius (Migne, Patrol. Lat. tome t i 06), the Areopagite is sent to France by Clement of Rome, and suffers martyrdom upon the hill where the monastery called St Denys was to rise in his honbur. There is no earlier trace of this identification, and Gregory of Tours (d. 594.) says (Hist. Francorum, i. 18) that St Denys came to France in the reign of Decius (a.d. 250), which falls about midway between the presumptive death of the real Areopagite and the probable date of the writings to which he owed his adventitious fame. Traces of the influence of these writings appear in the works of Eastern theologians in the early part of the 6th century. They also were cited at the council held in Constantinople in 533, which is the first certain dated reference to them. In the West, Gregory the Great (d. 604) refers to them in his thirty-fourth sermon on the gospels (Migne, Pat. Lai. tome 76, col. 1254). They did not, however, become generally known in the Western church till after the year 827, when the Byzantine emperor Michael the Stammerer sent a copy to Louis the Pious. It was given over to the care of the above-mentioned abbot Hilduin. In the next generation the scholar and philosopher Joannes Scotus Erigena (q.v.) translated the Dionysian writings into Latin. This appears to have been the only Latin translation until the 12th century when another was made, followed by several others. Thus, the author, date and place of composition of these writings are unknown. External evidence precludes a date later than the year 500, and the internal evidence from the writings themselves precludes any date prior to 4th-century phases of Neo-platonism. The extant writings of the Pseudo-Areopagite are: (a) Uepl rrjs oupavias tepopxtas, Concerning the Celestial Hierarchy, in fifteen chapters, (b) Uepl rfjs eK/cXr/omcrTucJJs lepapxias, Concerning the Ecclesiastical Hierarchy, in seven chapters, (c) Uepl deioiv bvonwrwv, Concerning Divine Names, in thirteen chapters, (d) Uepl juuotucijs 6ed\oyias, Concerning Mystic Theology, in five chapters, (e) Ten letters addressed to various worthies of the apostolic period. Although these writings seem complete, they contain refer- ences to others of the same author. But of the latter nothing is known, and they may never have existed. The writings of the Pseudo-Areopagite are of great interest, first as a striking presentation of the heterogeneous elements that might unite in the mind of a gifted man in the 5th century, and secondly, because of their enormous influence upon subsequent Christian theology and art. Their ingredients — Christian, Greek, Oriental and Jewish — are not crudely mingled, but are united into an organic system. Perhaps theological philosophic fantasy has never constructed anything more remarkable. The system of Dionysius was a proper product of its time, — lofty, apparently complete, comparable to the Enneads of Plotinus which formed part of its materials. But its materials abounded everywhere, and offered themselves temptingly to the hand strong enough to build with them. There was what had entered into Neo- platonism, both in its dialectic form as established by Plotinus, and in its magic-mystic modes devised by Iamblichus (d. c. 333). There was Jewish angel lore and Eastern mood and fancy; and there was Christianity so variously understood and heterogene- ously constituted among Syro-Judaic Hellenic communities. Such Christianity held materials for formula and creed; also principles of liturgic and sacramental doctrine and priestly function; also a mass of popular beliefs as to intermediate superhuman beings who seemed nearer to men than any member of the Trinity. Out of this vast spiritual conglomerate, Pseudo-Dionysius formed his system. It was not juristic, — not Roman, Pauline or Augustinian. Rather he borrowed his constructive principles from Hellenism in its last great creation, Neo-platonism. That had been able to gather and arrange within itself the various elements of latter-day paganism. The Neo-platonic categories might be altered in name and import, and yet the scheme remain a scheme; since the general principle of the transmission of life from the ultimate Source downward through orders of mediating beings unto men, might readily be adapted to the Christian God DIONYSIUS EXIGUUS— DIONYSIUS HALICARNASSENSIS 285 and his ministering angels. Pseudo-Dionysius had lofty thoughts of the sublime transcendence of the ultimate divine Source. That source was not remote or inert ; but a veritable Source from which life streamed to all lower orders of existence, — in part directly, and in part indirectly as power and guidance through the higher orders to the lower. Life, creation, every good gift, is from God directly; but his flaming ministers also intervene to guide and aid the life of man; and the life which through love floods forth from God has its counterflow wherebv it draws its own creations to itself. God is at once absolutely transcendent and universally immanent. To live is to be united with God; evil is the non- existent, that is, severance from God. Whatever is, is part of the forth-flowing divine life which ever purifies, enlightens and perfects, and so draws all back to the Source. The transcendent Source, as well as the universal immanence, is the Triune God. Between that and men are ranged the three triads of the Celestial Hierarchy: Seraphim, Cherubim and Thrones; Dominations, Virtues, Powers; Principalities, Archangels, Angels. Collectively their general office is to raise mankind to God through purification, illumination and perfec- tion; and to all may be applied the term angel. The highest triad, which is nearest God, contemplates the divine effulgence, and reflects it onward to the second; the third, and more specifically angelic triad, immediately ministers to men. The sources of these names are evident: seraphim and cherubim are from the Old Testament; later Jewish writings gave names to archangels and angels, who also fill important functions in the New Testament. The other names are from Paul (Eph. i. 2 1 ; Col. i. 1 6) . Such is the system of Pseudo-Dionysius, as presented mainly in The Celestial Hierarchy. That work is followed by The Ecclesi- astical Hierarchy, its counterpart on earth. What the primal triune Godhead is to the former, Jesus is to the latter. The Ecclesiastical Hierarchy likewise is composed of Triads. The first includes the symbolic sacraments: Baptism, Communion, Consecration of the Holy Chrism. Baptism signifies purification; Communion signifies enlightening; the Holy Chrism signifies perfecting. The second triad is made up of the three orders of Bishops, Presbyters and Deacons, or rather, as the Areopagite names them: Hierarchs, Light-bearers, Servitors. The third triad consists of monks, who are in a state of perfection, the initiated laity, who are in a state of illumination, and the catechumens, in a state of purification. All worship, in this treatise, is a celebration of mysteries, and the pagan mysteries are continually suggested by the terms employed. The work Concerning the Divine Names is a noble discussion of the qualities which may be predicated of God, according to the warrant of the terms applied to him in Scripture. The work Concerning Mystic Theology explains the function of symbols, and shows that he who would know God truly must rise above them and above the conceptions of God drawn from sensible things. The works of Pseudo-Dionysius began to influence theological thought in the West from the time of their translation into Latin by Erigena. Their use may be followed through the writings of scholastic philosophers, e.g. Peter Lombard, Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas and many others. In poetry we find their influence in Dante, Spenser, Milton. The fifteenth chapter of The Celestial Hierarchy constituted the canon of symbolical angelic lore for the literature and art of the middle ages. Therein the author explains in what respect theology ascribes to angels the qualities of fire, why the thrones are said to be fiery (irvpivovs) ; why the seraphim are burning (hfnrpqffTas) as their name indicates. The fiery form signifies, with Celestial Intelligences, likeness to God. Dionysius explains the significance of the parts of the human body when given to celestial beings: feet are ascribed to angels to denote their unceasing movement on the divine business, and their feet are winged to denote their celerity. He likewise explains the symbolism of wands and axes, of brass and precious stones, when joined to celestial beings; and what wheels and a chariot denote when furnished to them, — and much more besides. Bibliography. — There is an enormous literature on Pseudo- Dionysius. The reader may be first referred to the articles in Smith's Dictionary of Christian Biography and Hauck's Realencyklo- pddiefiir protestantisclie Theologie (Leipzig, 1898). The bibliography in the latter is very full. Some other references, especially upon the later influence of these works, are given in H. O. Taylor's Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages (Macmillan, 1903). The works themselves are in Migne's Patrologia Graeca, tomes 3 and 4, with a Latin version. Erigena's version is in Migne, Patrol. Lat. t. 122. Vita Dionysii by Hilduin is in Migne, Pat. Lat. 106. There is an English version by Parker (London, 1894 and 1897). (H. O. T.) DIONYSIUS EXIGUUS, one of the most learned men of the 6th century, and especially distinguished as a chronologist, was, according to the statement of his friend Cassiodorus, a Scythian by birth, " Scytha natione." This may mean only that he was a native of the region bordering on the Black Sea, and does not necessarily imply that he was not of Greek origin. Such origin is indicated by his name and by his thorough familiarity with the Greek language. His surname " Exiguus " is usually translated " the Little," but he probably assumed it out of hum lity. He was living at Rome in the first half of the 6th century, and is usually spoken of as abbot of a Roman monastery. Cassiodorus, however, calls him simply " monk," while Bede calls him " abbot." But as itwas not unusual to apply the latter term to distinguished monks who were not heads of their houses, it is uncertain whether Dionysius was abbot in fact or only by courtesy. He was in high repute as a learned theologian, was profoundly versed in the Holy Scriptures and in canon law, and was also an accomplished mathematician and astronomer. We owe to him a collection of 401 ecclesiastical canons, including the apostolical canons and the decrees of the councils of Nicaea, Constantinople, Chalcedon and Sardis, and also a collection of the decretals of the popes from Siricius (385) to Anastasius II. (498). These collections, which had great authority in the West (see Canon Law) , were published by Justel in 1628. Dionysius did good service to his contempor- aries by his translations of many Greek works into Latin; and by these translations some works, the originals of which have perished, have been handed down to us. His name, however, is now perhaps chiefly remembered for his chronological labours. It was Dionysius who introduced the method of reckoning the Christian era which we now use (see Chronology). His friend Cassiodorus depicts in glowing terms the character of Dionysius as a saintly ascetic, and praises his wisdom and simplicity, his accomplishments and his lowly-mindedness, his power of eloquent speech and his capacity of silence. He died at Rome, some time before a.d. 550. His works have been published in Migne, Patrologia Latina, tome 67; see especially A. Tardif, Hisloire des sources du droit canonique (Paris, 1887), and D. Pitra, Analecta povissima, Spicilegii Solesmensis continuatio, vol. i. p. 36 (Paris, 1885). DIONYSIUS HALICARNASSENSIS ("of Halicarnassus "), Greek historian and teacher of rhetoric, flourished during the reign of Augustus. He went to Rome after the termination of the civil wars, and spent twenty-two years in studying the Latin language and literature and preparing materials for his history. During this period he gave lessons in rhetoric, and enjoyed the society of many distinguished men. The date of his death is unknown. His great work, entitled 'Poj/wukij a.px6rr]TOs) ; and On the Character of Thucydides (Ilepi tov OovkvSLSov xapaKTrjpos), a detailed but on the whole an unfair estimate. These two treatises are supplemented by letters to Cn. Pompeius and Ammaeus (two). Complete edition by J. J. Reiske (1774-1777) ; of the Archaeologia by A. Kiessling and V. Prou (1886) and C. Jacoby (1885-1891); Opuscula by Usener and Radermacher (1899); Eng. translation by E. Spelman (1758). A full bibliography of the rhetorical works is given in W. Rhys Roberts's edition of the Three Literary Letters (1901) ; the same author published an edition of the De compositione verborum (1910, with trans.) ; see also M. Egger, Denys d ' Hahcarnasse (1902), a very useful treatise. On the sources of Dionysius see O. Bocksch, " De fontibus Dion. Halicarnassensis " inLeipziger Studien, xvii. (1895). Cf. also J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Class. Schol. i. (1906). DIONYSIUS PERIEGETES, author of a nepufrijtns rrjs oiKovpkvqs, a description of the habitable world in Greek hexameter verse, written in a terse and elegant style. Nothing certain is known of the date or nationality of the writer, but there is some reason for believing that he was an Alexandrian, who wrote in the time of Hadrian (some put him as late as the end of the 3rd century). The work enjoyed a high degree of popularity in ancient times as a school-book; it was translated into Latin by Ruf us Festus Avienus, and by the grammarian Priscian. The commentary of Eustathius is valuable. The best editions are by G. Bernhardy (1828) and C. Muller (1861) in their Geographici Graeci minores; see also E. H. Bunbury, Ancient Geography (ii. p. 480), who regards the author as flourishing from the reign of Nero to that of Trajan, and U. Bernays, Studien zu Dion. Perieg. (1905). There are two old English translations: T. Twine (1572, black letter), J. Free (1789, blank verse). DIONYSIUS TELMAHARENSIS (" of Tell-Mahre "), patriarch or supreme head of the Syrian Jacobite Church during the years 818-848, was born at Tell-Mahre near Rakka (ar-Rakkah) on the Ballkh. He was the author of an important historical work, which has seemingly perished except for some passages quoted by Barhebraeus and an extract found by Assemani in Cod. Vat. 144 and published by him in the Bibliotheca orientalis (ii. 72-77). He spent his earlier years as a monk at the convent of I£en-neshre on the upper Euphrates; and when this monastery was destroyed by fire in 815, he migrated northwards to that of Kaistim in the district of Samosata. At the death of the Jacobite patriarch Cyriacus in 817, the church was agitated by a dispute about the use of the phrase " heavenly bread " in connexion with the Eucharist. An anti-patriarch had been appointed in the person of Abraham of Kurtamln, who insisted on the use of the phrase in opposition to the recognized authorities of the church. The council of bishops who met at Rakka in the summer of 818 to choose a successor to Cyriacus had great difficulty in finding a worthy occupant of the patriarchal chair, but finally agreed on the election of Dionysius, hitherto known only as an honest monk who devoted himself to historical studies. Sorely against his will he was brought to Rakka, ordained deacon and priest on two successive days, and raised to the supreme ecclesiastical dignity on the istof August. From this time he showed the utmost zeal in fulfilling the duties of his office, and undertook many journeys both within and without his province. The ecclesiastical schism continued unhealed during the thirty years of his patriarchate. The details of this contest, of his relations with the caliph Ma'mun, and of his many travels— including a journey to Egypt, on which he viewed with admiration the great Egyptian monuments, — are to be found in the Ecclesiastical Chronicle of B arhebraeus } He died in 848, his last days having been especially 1 Ed. Abbeloos and Lamy,. i. 343-386; cf. Wright, Syriac Literature, 196-200, and Chabot's introduction to his translation of the fourth part of the Chronicle of (pseudo) Dionysius. embittered by Mahommedan oppression. We learn from Michael the Syrian that his Annals consisted of two parts each divided into eight chapters, and covered a period of 260 years, viz. from the accession of the emperor Maurice (582-583) to the death of Theophilus (842-843). In addition to the lost Annals, Dionysius was from the time of Assemani until 1896 credited with the authorship of another im- portant historical work — a Chronicle, which in four parts narrates the history of the world from the creation to the year a.d. 774-775 and is preserved entire in Cod. Vat. 162. The first part (edited by Tullberg, Upsala, 1850) reaches to the epoch of Constantine the Great, and is in the main an epitome of the Eusebian Chronicle. 2 The second part reaches to Theodosius II. and follows closely the Ecclesiastical History of Socrates; while the third, extending to Justin II., reproduces the second part of the History of John of Asia or Ephesus, and also contains the well-known chronicle attributed to Joshua the Stylite. The fourth part 3 is not like the others a compilation, but the original work of the author, and reaches to the year 774-775 — apparently the date when he was writing. On the publication of this fourth part by M. Chabot, it was discovered and clearly proved by Noldeke ( Vienna Oriental Journal, x. 160-170), and Nau {Bulletin critique, xvii. 321-327), who independently reached the same conclusion, that Assemani's opinion was a mistake, and that the chronicle in question was the work not of Dionysius of Tell-Mahre but of an earlier writer, a monk of the convent of Zuknin near Amid (Diarbekr) on the upper Tigris. Though the author was a man of limited intelligence and destitute of historical skill, yet the last part of his work at least has considerable value as a contemporary account of events during the middle period of the 8th century. (N. M ) DIONYSIUS THRAX (so called because his father was a Thracian) , the author of the first Greek grammar, flourished about 100 B.C. He was a native of Alexandria, where he attended the lectures of Aristarchus, and afterwards taught rhetoric in Rhodes and Rome. His Tkxvy ypap.p.aTud\, which we possess (though probably not in its original form), begins with the defini- tion of grammar and its functions. Dealing next with accent, punctuation marks, sounds and syllables, it goes on to the different parts of speech (eight in number) and their inflections. No rules of syntax are given, and nothing is said about style. The authorship of Dionysius was doubted by many of the early middle- age commentators and grammarians, and in modern times its origin has been attributed to the oecumenical college founded by Constantine the Great, which continued in existence till 730. But there seems no reason for doubt; the great grammarians of imperial times (Apollonius Dyscolus and Herodian) were acquainted with the work in its present form, although, as was natural considering its popularity, additions and alterations may have been made later. The rexvri was first edited by J. A. Fabricius from a Hamburg MS. and published in his Bibliotheca Graeca, vi. (ed. Harles). An Armenian translation, belonging to the 4th or 5th century, containing five additional chapters, was published with the Greek text and a French version, by M. Cirbied ( 1 830) . Dionysius also contributed much to the criticism and elucidation of Homer, and was the author of various other works — amongst them an account of Rhodes, and a collection of MeXerai (literary studies) , to which the considerable fragment in the Stromata (v. 8) of Clement of Alexandria probably belongs. Editions, with scholia, by I. Bekker in Anecdota Graeca, ii. and G. Uhlig (1884), reviewed exhaustively by P. Egenolff in Bursian's Jahresbericht, vol. xlvi. (1888); Scholia, ed. A. Hilgard (1901); see also W. Horschelmann, De Dionysii Thracis interpretibus veteribus (1874) ; J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Classical Scholarship, i. (1906). DIONYSUS (probably = " son of Zeus," from At6s and vvoos, a Thracian word for " son "), in Greek mythology, originally a nature god of fruitfulness and vegetation, especially of the vine; hence, distinctively, the god of wine. The names Bacchus (Bcucxos, in use among the Greeks from the 5th 2 See the studies by Siegfried and Gelzer, Eusebii canonum epitome ex Dionysii Telmaha,rensis chronico petita (Leipzig, 1884), and von Gutschmid, Untersuchungen ilber die syrische Epitome del Eusebischen Canones (Stuttgart, 1886). 3 Text and translation by J.-B. Chabot (Paris, 1895). DIONYSUS 287 century), Sabazius, and Bassareus, are also Thracian names of the god. The two first (like Iacchus, Bromius and Euios) have been connected with the loud "shout" (craj3&f uv = /3df tiv = eva^ew) of his worshippers, Bassareus with fiaacapai., the fox-skin garments of the Thracian Bacchanals. It has been suggested (J. E. Harrison Prolegomena to Greek Religion) that Sabazius and Bromias= " beer-god," " god of a cereal intoxicant " (cf. Illyrian sabaia and modern Greek /3pw/ii, " oats "), while W. Ridgewap {Classical Review, January 1896), comparing Apollo Smintheus, interprets Bassareus as " he who keeps away the foxes from the vineyards " (for various interpreta- tions of these and other cult-titles, see O. Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, ii. pp. 1408, 1532, especially the notes). In Homer, notwithstanding the frequent mention of the use of wine, Dionysus is never mentioned as its inventor or introducer, nor does he appear in Olympus; Hesiod is the first who calls wine the gift of Dionysus. On the other hand, he is spoken of in the Iliad (vi. 130 foil., a passage belonging to the latest period of epic), as " raging," an epithet that indicates that in those comparatively early times the orgiastic character of his worship was recognized. In fact, Dionysus may be regarded under two distinct aspects: that of a popular national Greek god of wine and cheerfulness, and that of a foreign deity, worshipped with ecstatic and mysterious rites introduced from Thrace. Accord- ing to the usual tradition, he was born at Thebes— originally the local centre of his worship in Greece — and was the son of Zeus, the fertilizing rain god, and Semele, the daughter of Cadmus, a personification of earth. Before the child was mature, Zeus appeared to Semele at her request in his majesty as god of lightning, by which she was killed, but the infant was saved from the flames by Zeus (or Hermes). The epithet irepuaovios, originally referring to an ivy-crowned, pillar-shaped fetish of the god, afterwards gave rise to the legend of a miraculous growth of ivy " round the pillars " of the royal palace, whereby the infant Dionysus was preserved from the flames. Zeus took him up, enclosed him within his own thigh till he came to maturity, and then brought him to the light, so that he was twice born; it was to celebrate this double birth that the dithyrambus (also used as an epithet of the god) was sung (see Etym. Mag. s.v.). It has been suggested that this is an allusion to the couvade of certain barbarous tribes, amongst whom it is customary, when a child is born, for the husband to take to his bed and receive medical treat- ment, as if he shared the pains of maternity (see Couvade, and references there). Dionysus was then conveyed by Hermes to be brought up by the nymphs of Nysa, a purely imaginary spot, afterwards localized in different parts of the world, which claimed the honour of having been the birthplace of the god. As soon as Dionysus was grown up, he started on a journey through the world, to teach the cultivation of the vine and spread his worship among men. While so engaged he met with opposition, even in his own country, as in the case of Pentheus, king of Thebes, who opposed the orgiastic rites introduced by Dionysus among the women of Thebes, and, having been discovered watch- ing one of these ceremonies, was mistaken for some animal of the chase, and slain by his own mother (see A. G. Bather, Journ. Hell. Studies, xiv. 1804). A similar instance is that of Lycurgus, a Thracian king, from whose attack Dionysus saved himself by leaping into the sea, where he was kindly received by Thetis. Lycurgus was blinded by Zeus and soon died, or became frantic and hewed down his own son, mistaking him for a vine. At Orchomenus, the three daughters of Minyas refused to join the other women in their nocturnal orgies, and for this were trans- formed into birds (see Agrionia) . These and similar stories point to the vigorous resistance offered to the introduction of the mystic rites of Dionysus, in places where an established religion already existed. On the other hand, when the god was received hospitably he repaid the kindness by the gift of the vine, as in the case of Icarius of Attica (see Erigone). The worship of Dionysus was actively conducted in Asia Minor, particularly in Phrygia and Lydia. Here, as Sabazius, he was associated with the.Phrygian goddess Cybele, and was followed in his expeditions by a thiasos (retinue) of centauraand satyrs, with Pan and Silenus. In Lydia his triumphant return from India was celebrated by an annual festival on Mount Tmolus; in Lydia he assumed the long beard and long robe which were after- wards given him in his character of the " Indian Bacchus," the conqueror of the East, who, after the campaigns of Alexander, was reported to have advanced as far as the Ganges. The other incidents in which he appears in a purely triumphal character are his transforming into dolphins the Tyrrhene pirates who attacked him, as told in the Homeric hymn to Dionysus and represented on the monument of Lysicrates at Athens, and his part in the war of the gods against the giants. The former story has been connected with the sailors' custom of hanging vine leaves, ivy and bunches of grapes round the masts of vessels in honour of vintage festivals. The adventure with the pirates occurred on his voyage to Naxos, where he found Ariadne abandoned by Theseus. At Naxos Ariadne (probably a Cretan goddess akin to Aphrodite) was associated with Dionysus as his wife, by whom he was the father of Oenopion (wine-drinker), Staphylus (grape), and Euanthes (blooming), and their marriage was annually celebrated by a festival. Having compelled all the world to recognize his divinity, he descended to the underworld to bring up his mother, who was afterwards worshipped with him under the name of Thycne ("the raging"), he himself being called after her Thyoneus. Another phase in the myth of Dionysus originated in observing the decay of vegetation in winter, to suit which he was supposed to be slain and to join the deities of the lower world. This phase of his character was developed by the Orphic poets, he having here the name of Zagreus (" torn in pieces "), and being no longer the Theban god, but a son of Zeus and Persephone. The child was brought up secretly, watched over by Curetes; but the jealous Hera discovered where he was, and sent Titans to the spot, who, finding him at play, tore him to pieces, and cooked and ate his lirnbs, while Hera gave his heart to Zeus. The tearing in pieces is referred by some to the torture experienced by the grape (Naturschmerz) when crushed for making into wine (cf. Burns's John Barleycorn) ; but it is better to refer it to the tearing of the flesh of the victim at sacrifices at which the deity or the sacred animal was slain, and sacramentally eaten raw (cf. the title wnwrfc given to Dionysus in certain places, probably point- ing to human sacrifice.) To connect this with the myth of the Theban birth of Dionysus, it is said that Zeus gave the child's heart to Semele, or himself swallowed it and gave birth to the new Dionysus (called Iacchus from his worshippers' cry of rejoicing), who was cradled and swung in a winnowing fan (Xkws; see J. E. Harrison, Journ. Hellenic Studies, xxiii.), the swinging being supposed to act as a charm in awakening vegetation from its winter sleep. The conception of Zagreus, or the winter Dionysus, appears to have originated in Crete, but it was accepted also in Delphi, where his grave was shown, and sacrifice was secretly offered at it annually on the shortest day. The story is in many respects similar to that of Osiris. According to others, Zagreus was originally a god of the chase, who became a hunter of men and a god of the underworld, more akin to Hades than to Dionysus (see also Titans). Dionysus further possessed the prophetic gift, and his oracle at Delphi was as important as that of Apollo. Like Hermes, Dionysus was a god of the productiveness of nature, and hence Priapus was one of his regular companions, while not only in the mysteries but in the rural festivals his symbol, the phallus, was carried about ostentatiously. His symbols from the animal kingdom were the bull (perhaps a totemistic attribute and identified with him), the panther, the lion, the tiger, the ass, the goat, and sometimes also the dolphin and the snake. His personal attributes are an ivy wreath, the thyrsus (a staff with pine cone at the end), the laurel, the pine, a drinking cup, and sometimes the horn of a bull on his forehead. Artistically he was represented mostly either as a youth of soft, nearly feminine form, or as a bearded and draped man, but frequently also as an infant, with reference to his birth or to his bringing up in " Nysa." His earliest images were of wood with the branches still attached in parts, whence he was called Dionysus Dendrites, an allusion to his 288 DIOPHANTUS— DIOPSIDE protection of trees generally (according to Pherecydes in C. W. Miiller, Frag. Hist. Graec. iv. p. 637, the word vvcra signified " tree ")• It is suggested that the cult of Dionysus absorbed that of an old tree-spirit. He was figured also, like Hermes, in the form of a pillar or term surmounted by his head. For the connexion of Dionysus with Greek tragedy see Drama. See Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, v. (1910) ; also O. Rapp, Beziehungen des Dionysuskultus zu Thrahien (1882) ; O. Ribbeck, Anfdnge und Entwickelung des Dionysuskultes in Attica (1869); A. Lang, Myth, Ritual and Religion, ii. p. 241 ; L. Dyer, The Gods in Greece (1891); J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion (1903) ; J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough, ii (1900), pp. 160, 291, who regards the bull and goat form of Dionysus as expressions of his proper character as a deity of vegetation; F. A. Voigt in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie ; L. Preller, Griechische Mythologie (4th ed. by C. Robert) ; F. Lenormant (s.v. " Bacchus ") in Darem- berg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquitis ; O. Kern in Pauly- Wissowa's Realencyclopadie (with list of cult titles) ; W. Pater, Greek Studies (1895); E. Rohde, Psyche, ii., who finds the origin of the Hellenic belief in the immortality of the soul in the " enthusi- astic " rites of the Thracian Dionysus, which lifted persons out of themselves, and exalted them to a fancied equality with the gods; O. Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie und Religions geschichte, ii. (1907), who considers Boeotia, not Thrace, to have been the original home of Dionysus; P. Foucart, " Le Culte de Dionysos en Attique " in Memoires de I'Institut national de France, xxxvii. (1906), who finds the prototype of Dionysus in Egypt. The Great Dionysiak Myth (1877-1878) by R. Brown contains a wealth of material, but is weak in scholarship. For a striking survival of Dionysiac rites in Thrace (Bizye), see Dawkins, in J.H.S. (1906), p. 191. DIOPHANTUS, of Alexandria, Greek algebraist, probably flourished about the middle of the 3rd century. Not that this date rests on positive evidence. But it seems a fair inference from a passage of Michael Psellus (Diophantus, ed. P. Tannery, ii. p. 38) that he was not later than Anatolius, bishop of Laodicea from a.d. 270, while he is not quoted by Nicomachus (fl. c. a.d. 100), nor by Theon of Smyrna (c. a.d. 130), nor does Greek arithmetic as represented by these authors and by Iamblichus (end of 3rd century) show any trace of his influence, facts which can only be accounted for by his being later than those arith- meticians at least who would have been capable of understanding him fully. On the other hand he is quoted by Theon of Alexandria (who observed an eclipse at Alexandria in a.d. 365); and his work was the subject of a commentary by Theon 's daughter Hypatia (d. 41 5). The Arithmetica, the greatest treatise on which the fame of Diophantus rests, purports to be in thirteen Books, but none of the Greek MSS. which have survived contain more than six (though one has the same text in seven Books). They contain, however, a fragment of a separate tract on Polygonal Numbers. The missing books were apparently lost early, for there is no reason to suppose that the Arabs who translated or commented on Diophantus ever had access to more of the work than we now have. The difference in form and content suggests that the Polygonal Numbers was not part of the larger work. On the other hand the Porisms, to which Diophantus makes three references (" we have it in the Porisms that . . . "), were probably not a separate book but were embodied in the Arithmetica itself, whether placed all together or, as Tannery thinks, spread over the work in appropriate places. The " Porisms " quoted are interesting propositions in the theory of numbers, one of which was clearly that the difference between two cubes can be resolved into the sum of two cubes. Tannery thinks that the solution of a complete quadratic promised by Diophantus himself (I. def. n), and really assumed later, was one of the Porisms. Among the great variety of problems solved are problems leading to determinate equations of the first degree in one, two, three or four variables, to determinate quadratic equations, and to inde- terminate equations of the first degree in one or more variables, which are, however, transformed into determinate equations by arbitrarily assuming a value for one of the required numbers, Diophantus being always satisfied with a rational, even if fractional, result and not re- quiring a solution in integers. But the bulk of the work consists of problems leading to indeterminate equations of the second degree, and these universally take the form that one or two (and never more) linear or quadratic functions of one variable x are to be made rational square numbers by finding a suitable value for x. A few problems lead to indeterminate equations of the third and fourth degrees, an easy indeterminate equation of the sixth degree being also found. The general type of problem is to find two, three or four numbers such that different expressions involving them in the first and second, and sometimes the third, degree are squares, cubes, partly squares and partly cubes, &c. E.g. To find three numbers such that the product of any two added to the sum of those two gives a square (III. 15, ed. Tannery) ; To find four numbers such that, if we take the square of their sum =*= any one of them singly, all the resulting numbers are squares (III. 22) ; To find two numbers such thai their product =>= their sum gives a cube (IV. 29) ; To find three squ-cres such that their continued product added to any one of them gives a square (V. 21). Book VI. contains problems of finding rational right-angled triangles such that different functions of their parts (the sides and the area) are squares. A word is necessary on Diophantus' notation. He has only one symbol (written somewhat like a final sigma) for an unknown quantity, which he calls apiSubs (defined as " an undefined number of units ") ; the symbol may be a contraction of the initial letters ap, as A v , K K , A K A, &c, are for the powers of the unknown (Siit/a/iis, square; ku/Jos, cube; 8vvaiioiiii>a.uus, fourth power, &c). The only other algebraical symbol is /f> for minus ; plus being expressed by merely writing terms one after another. With one symbol for an unknown, it will easily be understood what scope there is foradroitassumptions, for the required numbers, of expressions in the one unknown which are at once seen to satisfy some of the conditions, leaving only one or two to be satisfied by the particular value of x to be determined. Often assumptions are made which lead to equations in x which cannot be solved " rationally," i.e. would give negative, surd or imaginary values; Diophantus then traces how each element of the equation has arisen, and formulates the auxiliary problem of de- termining how the assumptions must be corrected so as to lead to an equation (in place of the " impossible " one) which can be solved rationally. Sometimes his x has to do duty twice, for different unknowns, in one problem. In general his object is to reduce the final equation to a simple one by making such an assumption for the side of the square or cube to which the expression in x is to be equal as will make the necessary number of coefficients vanish. The book is valuable also for the propositions in the theory of numbers, other than the "porisms," stated or assumed in it. Thus Diophantus knew that no number of the form 8n+7 can be the sum of three squares. He also says that, if 2»+i is to be the sum of two squares, n must not be odd " (i.e. no number of the form 4n+3, or 4n — 1, can be the sum of two squares), and goes on to add, practically, the condition stated by Fermat, " and the double of it [n] increased by one, when divided by the greatest square which measures it, must not be divisible by a prime number of the form 471 — I," except for the omission of the words " when divided . . . measures it." Authorities. — The first to publish anything on Diophantus in Europe was Rafael Bombelli, who embodied in his Algebra (1572) all the problems of Books I.— IV. and some of Book V., interspersing them with his own problems. Next Xylander (Wilhelm Holzmann) published a Latin translation (Basel, 1575), an altogether meri- torious work, especially having regard to the difficulties he had with the text of his MS. The Greek text was first edited by C. G. Bachet (Diophanti Alexandrini arilhmeticorum libri sex, et de numeris multangulis liber unus, nunc primum graece et latine editi atque absolulissimis commentariis illustrati . . . Lutetiae Parisiorum . . . MDCXXL). A reprint of 1670 is only valuable because it contains P. de Fermat's notes; as far as the Greek text is concerned it is much inferior to the 6ther. There are two German translations, one by Otto Schulz (1822) and the other by G. Wertheim (Leipzig, 1890), and an English edition in modern notation (T. L. Heath, Diophantos of Alexandria: A Study in the History of Greek Algebra (Cambridge, 1885). The Greek text has now been definitively edited (with Latin translation, Scholia, &c.) by P. Tannery (Teubner, voi. i., 1893; vol. ii., 1895). General accounts of Diophantus' work are to be found in H. Hankel and M. Cantor's histories of mathematics, and more elaborate analyses are those of Nesselmann (Die Algebra der Griechen, Berlin, 1842) and G. Loria (Le Scienze esalte nell' antica Grecia, libro v., Modena, 1902, pp. 95-158). (T. L. H.) DIOPSIDE, an important member of the pyroxene group of rock-forming minerals. It is a calcium-magnesium metasilicate, CaMg (Si0 3 ) 2 , and crystallizes in the monoclinic system. Usually some iron is present replacing magnesium, and when this pre- dominates there is a passage to hedenbergite, CaFe(Si0 3 ) 2 , a closely allied variety of monoclinic pyroxene. These are distin- guished from augite by containing little or no aluminium. Diopside is colourless, white, pale green to dark green or nearly black in colour, the depth of the colour depending on the amount of iron present. The specific gravity and optical constants also vary with the chemical composition; the sp. gr. of diopside is 3-2, increasing to 3-6 in hedenbergite, and the angle of optical extinction in the plane of symmetry varies between 38 and 47° in the two extremes of the series. Crystals are usually prismatic in habit with a rectangular cross-section as shown in the figure: the angle between the prism faces m, parallel to which there are perfect cleavages, is 92 50'. DIOPTASE— DIP 289 Several varieties, depending on differences in structure and chemical composition, have been distinguished, viz. coccolite (from kokkos, a grain), a granular variety; salite or sahlite, from Sala in Sweden; malacolite; diallage; violane, a lamellar variety of a dark violet-blue colour; chrome-diopside, a bright green variety containing a small amount of chromium; and many others. Belonging to the same series with diopside and hedenbergite is & , manganese pyroxene, known as schefierite, which has the composition (Ca, Mg) (Fe, Mn) (Si0 3 ) 2 . Diopside is the characteristic pyroxene of metamorphic rocks, occurring especially in crystalline limestones, and often in association with garnet and epidote. It is also an essential constituent of some pyroxene-granites, diorites and a few other igneous rocks, but the characteristic pyroxene of this class of rocks is augite. Fine transparent crystals of a pale green colour occur, with crystals of yellowish-red garnet (hessonite) and chlorite, in veins traversing serpentine in the Ala valley near Turin in Piedmont: a crystal of this variety (" alalite ") is represented in the accompanying figure. These, as well as the long, transparent, bottle-green crystals from the Zillerthal in the Tyrol, have occasionally been cut as gem-stones. Good crystals have been found also at Achmatovsk near Zlatoust in the Urals, Traversella near Ivrea in Piedmont (" traversellite "), Nordmark in Sweden, Monroe in New York, Burgess in Lanark county, Ontario, and several other places: at Nordmark the large, rectangular black crystals occur with magnetite in the iron mines. (L. J. S.) DIOPTASE, a rare mineral species consisting of acid copper orthosilicate, H 2 CuSi0 4 , crystallizing in the parallel-faced hemi- hedral class of the rhombohedral system. The degree of sym- metry is the same as in the mineral phenacite, there being orly an axis of triad symmetry and a centre of symmetry. The crystals have the form of a hexagonal prism m terminated by a rhombohedron r, the alter- nate edges between these being sometimes re- placed by the faces of a rhombohedron s. The faces are striated parallel to the edges between r, s and m. There are perfect cleavages parallel to the faces of a rhombohedron which truncate the polar edges of r: from the cleav- age cracks internal reflections are often to be seen in the crystal, and it was on account of this that the mineral was named dioptase, by R. J. Haiiy in 1797, from dioirreveiv, " to see into." The crystals vary from transparent to translucent with a vitreous lustre, and are bright emerald-green in colour; they thus have a certain resemblance to emerald, hence the early name emerald-copper (German, Kupjer-Smaragd) . Hardness 5; sp. gr. 3-3. The mineral is decomposed by hydrochloric acid with separation of gelatinous silica. At a red heat it blackens and gives off water. The fine crystals from Mount Altyn-Tiibe on the western slopes of the Altai Mountains in the Kirghiz Steppes, Asiatic Russia, line cavities in a compact limestone; they were first sent to Europe in 1785 by Achir Mahmed, a Bucharian merchant, after whom the mineral has been named archirite. More recently, in 1890, good crystals of similar habit, but rather darker in colour, have been found with quartz and malachite near Komba in the French Congo. As drusy crystalline crusts it has} been found at Copiapo in Chile and in Arizona. Dioptase has occasionally been used as a gem-stone, especially in Russia and Persia; it has a fine colour, but a low degree of hardness and the transparency is imperfect. (L. J. S.) DIORITE (from the Gr. Siopifeie to distinguish, from 5td through, opos, a boundary), in petrology, the name given by Haiiy to a family of rocks of granitic texture, composed of plagioclase felspar and hornblende. As they are richer in the dark via. 10 coloured ferromagnesian minerals they are usually grey or dark grey, and have a higher specific gravity than granite. They also rarely show visible quartz. But there are diorites of many kinds, as the name applies rather to a family of rocks than to a single species. Some contain biotite, others augite or hypersthene; many have a small amount of quartz. Orthoclase is rarely entirely absent, and when it is fairly common the rock becomes a tonalite; in this way a transition is furnished between diorites and granites. It is rare to find the pure types of " hornblende- diorite," " augite-diorite," &c, but in most cases the rocks contain two or more ferromagnesian silicates, and such combina- tions as " hornblende-biotite-diorite " are commonest in nature. The felspar of the diorites ranges in composition from oligoclase to labradorite, and is often remarkably zonal, the external layers being more alkaline than the internal. Small fluid enclosures and blacb grains, probably iron oxides, often occur in it in great numbers. Weathering produces epidote, calcite, sericite and kaolin. The biotite is always brown or yellow; the hornblende usually green, but sometimes brown or yellowish brown in those diorites which have affinities to lamprophyres. The augite is nearly always green but sometimes has a reddish tinge; bronzite and hypersthene have their usual green and brown shades. Apatite, iron oxides and zircon are almost invariably present; sphene, garnet and orthite are occasionally observed; calcite, chlorite, muscovite, kaolin, epidote and bastite are secondary. The structure is not essentially different from that of granite. The ferromagnesian minerals crystallize comparatively early and have some idiomorphism; the felspar usually follows and only in part shows good crystalline outlines. Orthoclase and quartz, if present, are last to separate out, and fill the spaces between the other minerals; often they interpenetrate to form micropegmatite. In many diorites the plagioclase felspar has crystallized before the hornblende, which consequently has less perfect outlines and forms irregular plates which enclose sharply formed individuals of felspar. This produces the ophitic structure (very common also in the dolerites). More rarely biotite and augite exhibit the same relations to the plagioclase. Orbicular structure also occasionally appears in these rocks; in fact the orbicular diorite of Corsica (also called " Napoleonite " or " Corsite ") was for a long time the best-known example of this structure. The rock seems composed of spheroids, about an inch in diameter, surrounded by a smaller amount of dark-coloured dioritic matrix. The spheroids have a radiate structure and often show concentric dark and pale shells. These consist of hornblende (dark green) and basic plagioclase felspar, labradorite and bytownite (grey or nearly white). Occasionally diorites have a parallel banded or foliated structure, but these must not be confounded with the epidiorites, which are metamorphic rocks and also have a conspicuous foliation. Diorites must also be distinguished from hornblendic gabbros, which contain more basic felspars, rarely quartz and occasionally olivine; but the boundary lines between diorites and gabbros are admittedly somewhat vague, e.g. some authors would call rocks gabbro which others would regard as augite-diorite. The horn- blendites differ from the diorites in containing little felspar, and consist principally of hornblende. Among varietal designations given to rocks of the diorite family are " banatite " for an augite- diorite with or without quartz (from the Schemnitz district), " granodiorite " for a quartz-hornblende-diorite (essentially the same as tonalite) from California, &c, " adamellite " for the quartz-mica-diorite or tonalite of Monte Adamello (Alps), " ornite " for a hornblende-diorite rich in felspar, from Sweden. (J. S. F.) DIP (Old Eng. dyppan, connected with the common Teutonic root seen in " deep "), the angle which the magnetic needle makes with the horizon. A freely suspended magnetic needle will not maintain a horizontal position except at the magnetic equator. Over the N. magnetic pole the north-seeking end of the needle points directly downwards and dips at an intermediate angle at intermediate distances between the magnetic poles and equator. There are secular progressive variations of dip as well as of declination and the maxima are independent of each other. In 11 290 DIPHENYL— DIPHTHERIA 1576 the dip at London was 71° 50', in 1720 (max.) 74 42', in 1000 67 9'. (For Dip Circle see Inclinometer.) DIPHENYL (phenyl benzene), CeHs.CeHs, a hydrocarbon found in that fraction of the coal-tar distillate boiling between 240-300 C, from which it may be obtained by warming with sulphuric acid, separating the acid layer and strongly cooling the undissolved oil. It may be artificially prepared by passing benzene vapour through a red-hot tube; by the action of sodium on brombenzene dissolved in ether; by the action of stannous chloride on phenyldiazonium chloride; or by the addition of solid phenyldiazonium sulphate to warm benzene (R. Mohlau, Berichte, 1893, 26, 1997) C 6 H5N2-HS04+C6H 6 = H2S04+N2+C6H5-C6H5. L. Gattermann {Berichte, 1890, 23, 1226) has also prepared it by the decomposition of a solution of phenyldiazonium sulphate with alcohol and copper powder. It crystallizes in plates (from alcohol) melting at 70-7 i°C. and boiling at 2 S4°C. It is oxidized by chromic acid in glacial acetic acid solution to benzoic acid, dilute nitric acid and chromic acid mixture being without effect. It is not reduced by hydriodic acid and phosphorus, but sodium in the presence of amyl alcohol reduces it to tetrahydrodiphenyl C12H14. Many substitution derivatives are known: the monosubstitution derivatives being capable of existing in three isomeric forms. Of the disubstitution derivatives the most important are those derived from diparadiaminodiphenyl or benzidine (q.v.). NH 2 _ l_ Orthoaminodiphenyl, <^ ^> — <^ ^>, is prepared by the action of bromine and caustic soda on orthophenylbenzamide (R. Hirsch, Berichte, 1892, 2$, 1974); when its vapour is passed over heated lime, carbazol {q.v.) is formed. NH 2 NH 2 J L Diorthodiaminodiphenyl,<^ ^> — <^ ^>,isobtainedbythereduc- tion of the corresponding nitro compound (obtained by the action of ethyl nitrite at 0° C. on metadinitrobenzidine hydrochloride). Its tetrazo compound on reduction gives a hydrazine which, on warming with hydrochloric acid at 150 C, decomposes into ammonium N = N _l J_ chloride and phenazone,<^_^>— <^_^> (Ci 2 H 8 N 2 ). One of the most important derivatives of diphenyl, from the theoretical point of view, is diphenic acid or diorthodiphenyl carboxylic acid, which can be obtained from_ diparadiaminodiphenyldiorthocarboxylic acid, HjN<' ^>— <^ ^> NH 2 ,orfrom phenanthrene {q.v.), the consti- . HOOC COOH tution of which it determines. See Benzidine for diparadiamino- diphenyl. DIPHILUS, of Sinope, poet of the new Attic comedy and contemporary of Menander (342-291 B.C.). Most of his plays were written and acted at Athens, but he led a wandering life, and died at Smyrna. He was on intimate terms with the famous courtesan Gnathaena (Athenaeus xiii. pp. 579, 583). He is said to have written 100 comedies, the titles of fifty of which are preserved. He sometimes acted himself. To judge from the imitations of Plautus. {Casina from the Kk^pov/javoi, Asinaria from the 'Oj^os, Rudens from some other play), he was very skilful in the construction of his plots. Terence also tells us that he introduced into the Adelphi (ii. 1) a scene from the Xvvairodvr)- cKovrts, which had been omitted by Plautus in his adaptation {Commorientes) of the same play. The style of Diphilus was simple and natural, and his language on the whole good Attic; he paid great attention to versification, and was supposed to have invented a peculiar kind of metre. The ancients were undecided whether to class him among the writers of the New or Middle comedy. In his fondness for mythological subjects {Hercules, Theseus) and his introduction on the stage (by a bold ana- chronism) of the poets Archilochus and Hipponax as rivals of Sappho, he approximates to the spirit of the latter. Fragments in H. Koch, Comicorum Atticorunj. fragmenta, ii. ; see J. Denis, La Comedie grecque (1886), ii. p. 414; R. W. Bond in Classical Review (Feb. 1910, with trans, of Emporos fragm.). DIPHTHERIA (from Si^epa, a skin or membrane), the term applied to an acute infectious disease, which is accompanied by a membranous exudation on a mucous surface, generally on the tonsils and back of the throat or pharynx. In general the symptoms at the commencement of an attack of diphtheria are comparatively slight, being those commonly accompanying a cold, viz. ohilliness and depression. Sometimes more severe phenomena usher in the attack, such as vomiting and diarrhoea. : A slight feeling of uneasiness in the throat is ex- perienced along with some stiffness of the back of the neck. When looked at the throat appears reddened and somewhat swollen, particularly in the neighbourhood of the tonsils, the soft palate and upper part of pharynx, while along with 'this there is tender- ness and swelling of the glands at the angles of the jaws. The affection of the throat spreads rapidly, and soon the character- istic exudation appears on the inflamed surface in the form of greyish-white specks or patches, increasing in extent and thickness untilayellowish-looking false membrane isformed. This deposit is firmly adherent to the mucous membrane beneath or in- corporated with it, and if removed leaves a raw, bleeding, ulcerated surface, upon which it is reproduced in a short period. The appearance of the exudation has been compared to wet parchment or washed leather, and it is more or less dense in texture. It may cover the whole of the back of the throat, the cavity of the mouth, and the posterior nares, and spread down- wards into the air-passages on the one hand and into the ali- mentary canal on the other, while anywound on the surface of the body is liable to become covered with it. This membrane is apt to be detached spontaneously, and as it loosens it becomes decomposed, giving a most offensive and characteristic odour to the breath. There is pain and difficulty in swallowing, but unless the disease has affected the larynx no affection of the breathing. The voice acquires a snuffling character. When the disease invades the posterior nares an acrid, fetid discharge, and some- times also copious bleeding, takes place from the nostrils. Along with these local phenomena there is evidence of constitutional disturbance of the most severe character. There may be no great amount of fever, but there is marked depression and loss of strength. The pulse becomes small and frequent, the countenance pale, the swelling of the glands of the neck increases, which, along with the presence of albumen in the urine, testifies to a condition of blood poisoning. Unless favourable symptoms emerge death takes place within three or four days or sooner, either from the rapid extension of the false membrane into the air-passage, giving rise to asphyxia, or from a condition of general collapse, which is sometimes remarkably sudden. In cases of recovery the change for the better is marked by an arrest in the extension of the false membrane, the detachment and expectoration of that already formed, and the healing of the ulcerated mucous membrane beneath. Along with this there is a general improvement in the symptoms, the power of swallowing returns, and the strength gradually increases, while the glandular enlargement of the neck diminishes, and the albumen disappears from the urine. Recovery, however, is generally slow, and it is many weeks before full convalescence is established. Even, however, where diphtheria ends thus favourably, the peculiar sequelae already mentioned are apt to follow, generally within a period of two or three weeks after all the local evidence of the disease has dis- appeared. These secondary affections may occur after mild as well as after severe attacks, and they are principally in the form of paralysis affecting the soft palate and pharynx, causing difficulty in swallowing with regurgitation of food through the nose, and giving a peculiar nasal character to the voice. There are, how- ever, other forms of paralysis occurring after diphtheria,especially that affecting the muscles of the eye, which produces a loss of the power of accommodation and consequent impairment of vision. There may be, besides, paralysis of both legs, and occasionally also of one side of the body (hemiplegia). These symptoms, however, after continuing for a variable length of time, almost always ultimately disappear. Under the name of the Malum Egyptiacum, Aretaeus in the 2nd century gives a minute description of a disease which in all its essential characteristics corresponds to diphtheria. In the i6th, 17 th and 1 8th centuries epidemics of diphtheria appear to have- DIPHTHERIA 291 frequently prevailed in many parts of Europe, particularly in Holland, Spain, Italy, France, as well as in England, and were described by physicians belonging to those countries under various titles; but it is probable that other diseases of a similar nature were included in their descriptions, and no accurate account of this affection had been published till M. Bretonneau of Tours in 1821 laid his celebrated treatise on the subject before the French Academy of Medicine. By him the term La Diphtherite was first given to the disease. Great attention has been paid to diphtheria in recent years, with some striking results. Its cause and nature have been definitely ascertained, the conditions which influence its pre- valence have been elucidated, and a specific " cure " has been found. In the last respect it occupies a unique position at the present time. In the case of several other zymotic diseases much has been done by way of prevention, little or nothing for treat- ment ; in the case of diphtheria prevention has failed, but treat- ment has been revolutionized by the introduction of antitoxin, which constitutes the most important contribution to practical medicine as yet, made by bacteriology. The exciting cause of diphtheria is a micro-organism, identified by Klebs and Loffler in 1883 (see Parasitic Diseases). It Causation. ^ as Deen shown by experiment that the symptoms of diphtheria, including the after-effects, are produced by a toxin derived from the micro-organisms which lodge in the air- passages and multiply in a susceptible subject. The natural history of the organism outside the body is not well understood, but there is some reason to believe that it lives in a dormant condition in suitable soils. Recent research does not favour the theory that it is derived from defective drains or " sewer gas," but these things, like damp and want of sunlight, probably promote its spread, by lowering the health of persons exposed to them, and particularly by causing an unhealthy condition of the throat, rendering it susceptible to the contagion. Defective drainage, or want of drainage, may also act, by polluting the ground, and so providing a favourable soil for the germ, though it is to be noted that " the steady increase in the diphtheria mortality has coincided, in point of time, with steady improve- ment in regard of such sanitary circumstances as water supply, sewerage, and drainage " (Thome Thome). Cats and cows are susceptible to the diphtheritic bacillus, and fowls, turkeys and other birds have been known to suffer from a disease like diphtheria, but Other domestic animals appear to be more or less resistant or immune. In human beings the mere presence of the germ is not sufficient to cause disease; there must also be susceptibility, but it is not known in what that consists. Indi- viduals exhibit all degrees of resistance up to complete immunity. Children are far more susceptible than adults, but. even children may have the Klebs-Loffler bacillus in their throats without showing any symptoms of illness. Altogether there are many obscure points about this micro-organism, which is. apt to assume a puzzling variety of forms. Nevertheless its identification has greatly facilitated the diagnosis of the disease, which was previ- ously, a very difficult matter, often determined in an arbitrary fashion on no particular principles. Diphtheria, as at present understood, may be defined as sore throat in which the bacillus is found; if it cannot be found, the illness is regarded as something else, unless the clinical symptoms are quite unmistakable. One result of this is a large transference of registered mortality from Other throat affections, and particti- ' larly from croup, to diphtheria. Croup, which never had a well- defined application, and is not recognized by the College of Physicians as a synonym for diphtheria, appears to be dying out from the medical vocabulary in Great Britain. In France the distinction has never been recognized. Diphtheria is endemic in all European and American countries, and is apparently increasing, but the incidence varies greatly. It is far more prevalent on the continent than; in England, and still more so in the United States and Canada. The following table, compiled from figures collected by Dr Nev/sholme, shows - how London compares with some foreign cities. The figures give the mean death-rate from New York . 161.0 Munich . Chicago . 1400 Milan . Buenos Aires •• . . 1360 Florence. Trieste . 1300 Vienna . Dresden . 1290 Stockholm Berlin . 1 190 St Petersburg Boston . 1 160 Moscow . Marseilles . 1 130 Paris Christiania . 1090 Hamburg Budapest . . . 1880 London . Preva^ lence. diphtheria and croup for the term of years during which records have been kept. The period varies in different cases, and there- fore the comparison is only a rough one. Mean Death-Rales from Diphtheria and Croup per Million living. 990 990 830 770 720 650 640 630 490 386 There is comparatively little diphtheria in India and Japan, but in Egypt, the Cape and Australasia it prevails very extensively among the urban populations. The mortality varies greatly from year to year in all countries and cities. In Berlin, for instance, it has oscillated between a maximum of 2420 in 1883 and a minimum of 340 in 1896; in New York between 2760 in 1877 and 680 in 1868; in Christiania between 3290 in 1887 and 170 in 1871. In some American cities still higher maxima have been recorded. In other words, diphtheria, though always endemic, exhibits at times a great increase of activity, and becomes epidemic or even pandemic. The following table for 1859-99 shows fairly well the periodical rise and fall in England and Wales. Diphtheria and croup are given both separately and together, showing the increasing transference from one to the other of late years. Diphtheria was first entered separately in the year 1859. Deaths from Diphtheria and Croup per Million living in England and Wales. Years. Diphtheria. Croup. Diphtheria and Croup. 1859 517 286 803 i860 261 220 481 1861-70 . . . 185 246 431 1871-80 . 121 168 289 1881-90 . 163 144 3°7 1891-95 . 254 70 324 1896-97 . 269 43 312 1898 244 27 271 1899 293 32 j 325 The combined figures for diphtheria and croup in later years are : — (1900) 316; (1901) 296; (.1902) 255; (1903) 195; (1904) 184; (1905) 174; (1906) 190; (1907) 175; (1908) 166. Several facts are roughly indicated by the table. It begins with an extremely severe epidemic, which has not been ap- proached since. Then follows a fall extending over twenty years. On the whole this diminution was progressive, though not in reality so steady as the decennial grouping makes it appear, being interrupted by smaller oscillations in single years and groups of years. Still the main fact holds good. After 1880 an opposite movement began, likewise interrupted by minor oscillations, but on the whole progressive, and culminating in the year 1893 with a death-rate of 389, the highest recorded since 1865. After 1896 a marked fall again took place. This is partly accounted for by the use of antitoxin, which only began on a considerable scale in 1895, and did not become general until a year or two later at least. Its effects were only then fully felt. The registrar- general's returns record mortality, not prevalence — that is to say, the number of • deaths, not of cases. On the whole, we get clear evidence of an epidemic rise and fall, which may serve to dispose of some erroneous conceptions. The belief, held until recently, that diphtheria is steadily increasing in Great Britain was obviously premature; it did rise over a series of years, but has now ebbed again. Moreover, the general prevalence during the last thirty years has been notably less than in the previous twelve years. Yet it is during years since 1870 that compulsory education has been in existence and main drainage chiefly carried out. It follows that neither school attendance nor sewer gas exercises such an important influence over the epidemicity of diphtheria as some other conditions. 292 DIPHTHERIA What are those conditions ? " Dr Newsholme has advanced the theory, based on an elaborate examination of statistics in various countries, that the activity of diphtheria is connected with the rainfall, and he lays down the following general induction from the facts: " Diphtheria only becomes epidemic in years in which the rainfall is deficient, and the epidemics are on the largest scale when three or more years of deficient rainfall fqllow each other." He points out that the comparative rarity of diphtheria in tropical climates, which are characterized by excessive rainfall, and its greater prevalence in continental than in insular countries, confirm his theory. His observations seem quite contrary to the view laid down by various authorities, and hitherto accepted, that wet weather favours diphtheria. The two, however, are not irreconcilable. The key to the problem — and possibly to many other epidemiological problems — may perhaps be found in the movements of the subsoil water. It has been suggested by different observers, and particularly by Mr M. A. Adams, who has for some years made a study of the subsoil water at Maidstone, that there is a definite connexion between it and diphtheria. In England the underground water normally reaches its lowest level at the end of the summer; then it gradually rises, fed by percola- tion from the winter rains, reaching a maximum level about the end of March, after which it gradually sinks. This maximum level Mr Adams calls the annual spring cleaning of the soil, and his observations go to show that when the normal movement is arrested or disturbed, diphtheria becomes active. Now that is what happens in periods of drought. The underground water does not rise to its usual level, and there is no spring 1 cleaning. The hypothesis, then, is this: The diphtheria bacillus lives in the soil, but is " drowned out " in wet periods by the subsoil water. In droughty ones it lives and flourishes in the warm, dry soil; then when rain comes, it is driven out with the ground air into the houses. This process will continue for some time, so that epidemic outbreaks may well seem to be associated with wet. But they begin in drought, and are stopped by long-continued periods of copious rainfall. This is quite in keeping with the observed fact that diphtheria is a seasonal disease, always most prevalent in the last quarter of the year. The summer develops the poison in the soil, the autumnal rains bring it out. The fact that the same cause does not produce the same effect in tropical countries may perhaps be explained by the extreme violence of the alternations, which are too great to suit this particular micro-organism, or possibly the regularity of the rainfall prevents its development. The foregoing hypothesis is supported by a good deal of evidence, and notably by the concurrence of the great epidemic or pandemic prevalence in Great Britain, culminating in 1859, witha prolonged period of exceptionally deficient rainfall. Again, the highest death-rate registered since 1865 was in 1893, a year of similarly exceptional drought. But it is no more than an hypothesis, and the fate of former theories is a warning against drawing conclusions from statistics and records extending over too short a period of time. The warning is particularly necessary in connexion with meteorological conditions, which are apt to upset all calculations. As it happens, a period of deficient rain- fall even greater than that of 1854-1858 has recently been experienced. It began in 1893 and culminated in the extra- ordinary season of 1899. The dry years were 1893, 1895, 1896, 1898 and 1899, an( l the deficiency of rainfall was not made good by any considerable excess in 1894 and 1897. It surpassed all records at Greenwich; streams and wells ran dry all over the country, and the flow of the Thames and Lea was reduced to the lowest point ever recorded. There should be, according to the theory, at least a very large increase in the prevalence of diphtheria. To a certain extent it has held good. There was a marked rise in 1893-1896 over the preceding period, though not so large as might have been expected, but it was followed by a decided fall in 1897-1898. The experience of 1898 contradicts, that of 1899 supports, the theory. Further light is therefore required; but perhaps the failure of the recent drought to produce results at all comparable with the epidemic of the 'fifties may be due to variations in the resistance of the disease, which differs widelv in different years. It may also be due in part to improved sanitation, to the notification of infectious diseases, the use of isolation hospitals, which have greatly developed in quite recent years, and, lastly, to the beneficial effects of antitoxin. If these be the real explanations, then scientific and administrative work has not been thrown away after all in combating this very painful and fatal enemy of the young. The conditions governing the general prevalence of diphtheria, and its epidemic rise and fall, which have just been discussed, do not touch the question of actual dissemination. The contagion is spread by means which are in constant tattoo" operation, whether the general amount of disease is great or small. Water, so important in some epidemic diseases, is believed not to be one of them, though a negative proof based on absence of evidence cannot be accepted as conclusive. Cn the other hand, milk is undoubtedly a means of dissemination. Several outbreaks of an almost explosive character, besides minor extensions of disease from one place to another, have been traced to this cause. Milk may be contaminated in various ways— at the dairy, for instance, or on the way to customers, — but several cases, investigated by the officers of the Local Government Board and others, have been thought to point to infection from cows suffering from a diphtheritic affection of the udder. The part played by aerial convection is undetermined, but there is no reason to suppose that the infecting material is conveyed any distance by wind or air currents. Instances which seem to point to the contrary may be explained in other ways, and particularly by the fact, now fully demonstrated, that persons suffering from minor sore throats, not recognized as diphtheria, may carry the disease about and introduce it into other localities. Human intercourse is the most important means of dissemination, the contagion passing from person to person either by actual contact, as in kissing, or by the use of the same utensils and articles, or by mere proximity. In the last case the germs must be supposed to be air-borne for short distances, and to enter with the breath. Rooms appear liable to become infected by the presence of diphtheritic cases, and so spread the disease among other persons using them. At a small outbreak which occurred at Darenth Asylum in 1898 the infection clung obstinately to a particular ward, in spite of the prompt removal of all cases, and fresh ones continued to occur until it had been thoroughly disinfected, after which there were no more. The part played by human inter- course in fostering the spread of the disease suggests that it would naturally be more prevalent in urban communities, where people congregate together more, than in rural ones. This is at variance with the conclusion laid down by some authorities, that in this country diphtheria used to affect chiefly the sparsely populated districts, and though tending to become more urban, is still rather a rural disease. That view is based upon an analysis of the distribution by counties in England and Wales from 1855 to 1880, and it has been generally accepted and repeated until it has become a sort of axiom. Of course the facts of distribution are facts, but the general inference drawn from them, that diphtheria peculiarly affects the country and is changing its habitat, may be erroneous. Dr Newsholme, by taking a wider basis of experience, has arrived at the opposite conclusion, and finds that diphtheria does not, in fact, flourish more in sparsely-peopled districts. " When a sufficiently long series of years is taken," he says, " it appears clear that there is more diphtheria in urban than in rural communities." The rate for London has always been in excess of that for the whole of England and Wales. Its distribution at any given time is determined by a number of circumstances, and by their incidental co-operation, not by any property or predilection for town or country inherent in the disease. There are the epidemic conditions of soil and rainfall, previously discussed, which vary widely in different localities at different times; there is the steady influence of regular intercourse, and the accidental element of special distribution by various means. These things may combine to alter the incidence. In short, accident plays too great a part to permit any general conclusion to be drawn from distribution, except from a very wide basis of experience. The variations are very great and sometimes very sudden. For instance, the county of London for some years headed the list, DIPHTHERIA 293 having a far higher death-rate than any other. In 1 898 it dropped to the fifth place, and was surpassed by Rutland, a purely rural county, which had the lowest mortality of all in the previous year and very nearly the lowest for the previous ten years. Again, South Wales, which had had a low mortality for some years, suddenly came into prominence as a diphtheria district, and in 1898 had the highest death-rate in the country. Staffordshire and Bedfordshire show a similar rise, the one an urban, the other a rural, county. All the northern counties, both rural and urban, —namely, Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland, Westmorland, Lancashire, Yorkshire, Cheshire and Lincolnshire,— had a very high rate in 1861-1870, and a low one in 1896-1898. It is obviously unsafe to draw general conclusions from distribution data on a small scale. Diphtheria appears to creep about very slowly, as a rule, from place to place, and from one part of a large town to another; it forsakes one district and appears in another; occasionally it attacks a fresh locality with great energy, pre- sumably because the local conditions are exceptionally favourable, which may be due to the soil or, possibly, to the susceptibility of the inhabitants, who are, so to speak, virgin ground. But through it all personal infection is the chief means of spread. The acceptance of this doctrine has directed great attention to the practical question of school influence. There is no doubt whatever that it plays a very considerable part in spreading diphtheria. The incidence of the disease is chiefly on children, and nothing so often and regularly brings large numbers together in close contact under the same roof as school attendance. Nothing, in fact, furnishes such constant and extensive oppor- tunities for personal infection. Many outbreaks have definitely been traced to schools. In London the subject has been very fully investigated by Sir Shirley Murphy, the medical officer of health to the London County Council, and by Dr W. R. Smith, formerly medical officer of health to the London School Board. Sir Shirley Murphy has shown that a special incidence on children of school age began to manifest itself after the adoption of compulsory education, and that the summer holidays are marked by a distinct diminution of cases, which is succeeded by an increase on the return to school. Dr W. R. Smith's observations are directed rather to minimizing the effect of school influence, and to showing that it is less important than other factors; which is doubtless true, as has been already remarked. It appears that the heaviest incidence falls upon infants under school age, and that liability diminishes progressively after school age is reached. But this by no means disposes of the importance of school influence, as the younger children at home may be infected by older ones, who have picked up the contagion at school, but, being less susceptible, are less severely affected and exhibit no worse symptoms than a sore throat. From a practical point of view the problem is a difficult one to deal with, as it is virtually impossible to ensure the exclusion of all infection, on account of the deceptively mild forms it may assume; but considering how very often outbreaks of diphtheria necessitate the closing of schools, it would probably be to the advantage of the authorities to discourage, rather than to compel, the attendance of children with sore throats. A fact of some interest revealed by statistics is that in the earliest years of life the incidence of diphtheria is greater upon male than upon female children, but from three years onwards the position is reversed, and with every succeeding year the relative female liability becomes greater. This is prob- ably due to the habit of kissing maintained among females, but more and more abandoned by boys from babyhood onwards. All these considerations suggest the importance of segregating the sick in isolation hospitals. Of late years this preventive measure has been carried out with increasing efficiency, owing to the better provision of such hospitals and the greater willingness of the public to make use of them; and probably the improve- ment so effected has had some share in keeping down the prevalence of the disease to comparatively moderate proportions. Unfortunately, the complete segregation of infected persons is hardly possible, because of the mild symptoms, and even absence of symptoms, exhibited by some individuals. A further difficulty arises with reference to the discharge of patients. It has been proved that the bacillus may persist almost indefinitely in the air-passages in certain cases, and in a considerable proportion it does persist for several weeks after convalescence. On returning home such cases may, and often do, infect others. Since the antitoxin treatment was introduced in 1894 it has overshadowed all other methods. We owe this drug originally to the Berlin school of bacteriologists, and particularly Treatment. to Dr Behring. The idea of making use of serum arose about 1890, out of researches made in connexion with Mechnikov's theory of phagocytosis, by which is meant the action of the phagocytes or white corpuscles of the blood in destroying the bacteria of disease. It was shown by the German bacteriologists that the serum or liquid part of the blood plays an equally or more important part in resisting disease, and the idea of combating the toxins produced by pathogenic bacteria with resistant serum injected into the blood presented itself to several workers. The idea was followed up and worked out independently in France and Germany, so successfully that by the year 1894 the serum treat- ment had been tried on a considerable scale with most encourag- ing results. Some of these were published in Germany in the earlier part of that year, and at the International Hygienic Congress, held in Budapest a little later, Dr Roux, of the Institut Pasteur, whose experience was somewhat more extensive than that of his German colleagues, read a paper giving the result of several hundred cases treated in Paris. When all allowance for errors had been made, they showed a remarkable and even astonishing reduction of mortality, fully confirming the con- clusions drawn from the German experiments. This consensus of independent opinion proved a great stimulus to further trial, and before long one clinique after another told the same tale. The evidence was so favourable that Professor Virchow — the last man to be carried away by a novelty — declared it " the imperative duty of medical men to use the new remedy " {The Times, 19th October 1894). Since then an enormous mass of facts has accumulated from all quarters of the globe, all testifying to the value of antitoxin in the treatment of diphtheria. The experience of the hospitals of the London Metropolitan Asylums Board for five years before and after antitoxin may be given as a particularly instructive illustration; but the subsequent reduction in the rate of mortality (12 in 1900, 11-3 in 1901, io-8 in 1902, 9-3 in 1903, and an average of 9 in 1904-1908) added further confirmation. Annual Case Mortality in Metropolitan Asylums Board's Hospitals. Before Antitoxin. Mortality Year. per cent. 1800 . . . 33-55 1891 . . . 30-61 1892 . . . 29-51 1893 . . . 30-42 1894 . . . 29-29 After Antitoxin. ' Mortality Year. per cent. 1895 • • 22-85 1896 . . . 21-20 1897 . . . 17-79 1898 . . . 15-37 1899 ■ ■ • 13-95 The number of cases dealt with in these five antitoxin years was 32,835, or an average of 6567 a year, and the broad result is a reduction of mortality by more than one-half. It is a fair inference that the treatment saves the lives of about 1000 children every year in London alone. This refers to all cases. Those which occur in the hospitals as a sequel to scarlet fever, and consequently come under treatment from the commencement, show very much more striking results. The case mortality, which was 46-8% in 1892 and 58-8% in 1893, has been reduced to 3-6% since the introduction of antitoxin. But the evidence is not from statistics alone. The beneficial effect of the treatment is equally attested by clinical observation. Dr Roux's original account has been confirmed by a cloud of witnesses year after year. " One may say," he wrote, " that the appearance of most of the patients is totally different from what it used to be. The pale and leaden faces are scarcely seen in the wards; the expression of the children is brighter and more lively." Adult patients have described the relief afforded by inoculation; it acts like a charm, and lifts the deadly feeling of oppression off like a cloud in the course of a few hours. Finally, the counteracting effect of antitoxin in preventing the disintegrating action of the 294 DIPLODOCUS+-DIPLOMACY CO •v a VO O 3 U « diphtheritic toxin on the nervous tissues has been demonstrated pathologically. There are some who still affect scepticism as to the value of this drug. They cannot be ac- quainted with the evi- dence, for if the efficacy of antitoxin in the treat- ment of diphtheria has not been proved, then neither can the efficacy of • any treatment for anything be said to be proved. Prophylactic properties are also claimed for the serum; but protection is neces- sarily more difficult to demonstrate than cure,: and though there is some evidence to sup- port the claim, it has not been fully made out. Authoritie s.— * Adams, Public Health, vol. vii. ; Thome Thorne, Milroy Lectures (1891); Newsholme, Epidemic Diphtherial . R. Smith, Harben Lectures (1899); M urphy , Report toLondon County Council (1894); Sims Woodhead, Report to Metropolitan Asylums Board (1901). DIPLODOCUS, a gigantic extinct land reptile discovered in rocks of Upper Jurassic age in western North America, the best- known example of a Sauropodous Dinosaur. The first scattered re- mains of a skeleton were found in 1877 by Prof. S. W. Williston near Canon City, Colorado; and the tail and hind- limb of this specimen were described in the following year by Prof. O. C. Marsh. He noticed that in the part ofthetail which dragged on the ground, each chevron bone below the vertebral column con- sisted of a pair of bars; and as so peculiar an arrangement for the protection of the artery and vein beneath the tail had not previously been observed in any animal, he proposed the name Diplodocus (" double beam " or " double bar ") for the new reptile, adding the specific name longus in allusion to the elongated shape of the tail vertebrae. In 1884 Prof. Marsh described the head, vertebrae and pelvis of the same skeleton, which is now in the National . Museum, Washington. In 1897 the next important specimen, a tail associated with other fragments, apparently of Diplodocus longus, was obtained by the American Museum of Natural History, New York, from Como Bluffs, Wyoming. In 1899-1900 large parts of two skeletons of another species, in a remarkable state of preservation, were disinterred by Messrs J. L. Wortman,Q. A. Peterson and J. B. Hatcher in Sheep Creek, Albany county, Wyo., and these are now exhibited with tainor discoveries in the Carnegie Museum, Pittsburg. There are also other specimens in New York, Chicago and the Uni- versity of Wyoming. In 1901 Mr J. B. Hatcher studied the new species at Pittsburg, named it Diplodocus carnegii, and published the first restored sketch of a complete skeleton. Shortly after- wards plaster casts of the finest specimens were prepared under the direction of Mr J. B. Hatcher and Dr W. J. Holland, and these were skilfully combined to form the cast of a completely reconstructed skeleton, which was presented to. the British Museum by Andrew Carnegie in 1905. This reconstruction is based primarily on a well-preserved chain of vertebrae, extending from the second cervical to' the twelfth caudal, associated with the ribs, pelvis and several limb-bones. The tail is completed from two other specimens in the Carnegie Museum, having caudals 13 to 36 and 37 to 73 respectively in apparently unbroken series. Prof. Marsh's specimen in Washington supplied the greater part of the skull; and the fore-foot is copied from a specimen in New York. The cast of the reconstructed skeleton of Diplodocus carnegii measures 84 ft. in length and 12 ft. 9 in. in maximum height at the hind-limbs. It displays the elongated neck and tail and the relatively small head so characteristic of the Sauropodous Dinosaurs. The skull is inclined to the axis of the neck, denot- ing a browsing animal; while the feeble blunt teeth and flat expanded snout suggest feeding among succulent water- weeds. The large narial opening at the highest point of the head probably indicates an aquatic mode of life, and there seems to have been a soft valve to close the nostrils when under water. The diminutive brain-cavity, scarcely large enough to contain a walnut, is noteworthy. There are 104 vertebrae, namely, 15 in the neck, 1 1 in the back, 5 in the sacrum and 73 in the tail. The presacral vertebrae are of remarkably light construction, the plates and struts of bone being arranged to give the greatest strength with the least weight. The end of the tail is a flexible lash; which would probably be used as a weapon, like the tail of some existing lizards. The feet, notwithstanding the weight they had to support, are as unsymmetrical as those of a crocodile, with claws only on the three inner toes. There is no external armour. See O. C. Marsh, Amer. Journ. Sci. ser. 3, vol. xvi. (1878), p. 414, pi. viii., and loc. cit. vol. xxvii. (1884), p. 161, pis. ih., iv.; H. F. Osborn, Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. vol. i. pt. v. (1899); J. B. Hatcher, Mem. Carnegie Mus. vol. i. No. 1 (1901), and vol. ii. No. 1 (1903) ; W. J. Holland, Mem. Carnegie Mus. vol. ii. No. 6 (1906). (A. S. Wo.)' DIPLOMACY (Fr. diplomatic), the art of conducting inter- national negotiations. The word, borrowed from the French, has the same derivation as Diplomatic (q.v.), and, according to the New English Dictionary, was first used in England so late as 1796 by Burke. Yet there is no other word in the English language that could supply its exact sense. The need for such a term was indeed not felt; for what we know as diplomacy was long regarded, partly as falling under the Jus gentium or international law, partly as a kind of activity morally somewhat suspect and incapable of being brought under any system. Moreover, though in a certain sense it is as old as history, diplomacy as a uniform system, based upon generally recognized rules and directed by a diplomatic hierarchy having a fixed international status, is of quite modern growth even in Europe. It was finally established only at the congresses of Vienna (1815) and Aix-la-Chapelle ( 1 8 1 8) , while its effective extension to the great monarchies of the East, beyond the bounds of European civilization, was comparatively an affair of yesterday. So late as 1876 it was possible for the DIPLOMACY 295 writer on this subject in the 9th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica to say that " it would be an historical absurdity to suppose diplomatic relations connecting together China, Burma and Japan, as they connect the great European powers." Principles. — Though diplomacy has been usually treated under the head of international law, it would perhaps be more consonant with the facts to place international law under diplomacy. The principles and rules governing the intercourse of states, defined by a long succession of international lawyers, have no sanction save the consensus of the powers, established and maintained by diplomacy (see Balance of Power) ; in so far as they have become, by international agreement, more than mere pious opinions of theorists, they are working rules established for mutual convenience, which it is the function of diplomacy to safeguard or to use for its own ends. In any case they by no means cover the whole field of diplomatic activity; and, were they swept away, the art of diplomacy, developed through long ages of experience, would survive. This experience may perhaps be called the science, as distinct from the art, of diplomacy. It covers not only the province of international law, but the vast field of recorded experience which we know as history, of which indeed international law is but a part; for, as Bielfeld in his Institutions politiques (La Haye, 1760, 1. 1, ch. ii. § 13) points out, " public law is founded on facts. To know it we must know history, which is the soul of this science as of politics in general." The broad outlook on human affairs implied in " historical sense " is more necessary to the diplomatist under modern conditions than in the 18th century, when inter- national policy was still wholly under the control of princes and their immediate advisers. Diplomacy was then a game of wits played in a narrow circle. Its objects too were narrower; for states were practically regarded as the property of their sovereigns, which it was the main function of their " agents " to enlarge or to protect, while scarcely less important than the preservation or rearrangement of territorial boundaries was that of precedence and etiquette generally, over which an incredible amount of time was wasted. The haute diplomatie thus resolved itself into a process of exalted haggling, conducted with an utter disregard of the ordinary standards of morality, but with the most exquisite politeness and in accordance with ever more and more elaborate rules. Much of the outcome of these dead debates has become stereotyped in the conventions of the diplomatic service; but the character of diplomacy itself has undergone a great change. This change is threefold: firstly, as. the result of the greater sense of the community of interests among nations, which was one of the outcomes of the French Revolution; secondly, owing to the rise of democracy, with its expression in parliamentary assemblies and in the press; thirdly, through the alteration in the position of the diplomatic agent, due to modern means of communication. The first of these changes may be dated to the circular of Count Kaunitz of the 17th of July 1701, in which, in face of the Revolu- tion, he impressed upon the powers the duty of making common cause for the purpose of preserving " public peace, the tran- quillity of states, the inviolability of possessions, and the faith of treaties." The duty of watching over the common interests of Europe, or of the world, was thus for the first time officially recognized as a function of diplomacy, since common action could only be taken as the result of diplomatic negotiations. It would be easy to exaggerate the effective results of this idea, even when it had crystallized in the Grand Alliance of 1814 and been pro- claimed to the world in the Holy Alliance of the 26th of September 181 sand the declaration of Aix-la-Chapelle. The cynical picture given by La Bruyere of the diplomatist of the 18th century still remained largely true : " His talk is only of peace, of alliances, of the public tranquillity, and of the public interests; in reality he is thinking only of his own, that is to say, of those of his master or of his republic." x The proceedings of the congress of Vienna proved how little the common good weighed unless reinforced by particular interests; but the conception of " Europe " as a political entity none the less survived. The congresses, notably •La Bruyere, Caracleres, ii. 77 (ed. P. Jouast, Paris, 1881). the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (q.v.) in 1818, were in a certain sense European parliaments, and their ostensible object was the furtherance of common interests. Had the imperial dreamer Alexander I. of Russia had his way, they would have been permanently established on the broad basis of the Holy Alliance, and would have included, not the great powers only, but re- presentatives of every state (see Alexander I. and Europe: History). Whatever the effective value of that "Concert of Europe " which was the outcome of the period of the congresses, it certainly produced a great effect on the spirit and the practice of diplomacy. In the congresses and conferences diplomacy assumes international functions both legislative and admini- strative. The diplomat is responsible, not only to his own government, but to " Europe." Thus Castlereagh was accused of subordinating the interests of Great Britain to those of Europe; and the same charge was brought, perhaps with greater justice, against Metternich in respect of Austria. Canning's principle, of, " Every nation for itself and God for us all!" prevailed, it is true, over that of Alexander's " Confederation of Europe "; yet, as one outcome of the congresses, every diplomatic agent, though he represents the interests of his own state, has behind him the whole body of the treaties which constitute the public law of the world, of which he is in some sort the interpreter and the guardian. Parallel with this development runs the second process making for change: the increasing responsibility of diplomacy to public opinion. To discuss all the momentous issues involved in this is impossible; but the subject is too important to be altogether passed over, since it is one of the main problems of modern international intercourse, and concerns every one who by his vote may influence the policy of the state to which he belongs. The question, broadly speaking, is: how far has the public discussion of international affairs affected the legitimate functions of diplomacy for better or for worse? To. the diplomatist of the old school the answer seems clear. For him diplomacy was too delicate and too personal an art to survive the glare and confusion of publicity. Metternich, the last representative of the old haute diplomatie, lived to moralize over the ruin caused by the first manifestations of the " new diplomacy," the outcome of the rise of the power of public opinion. He had early, from his own point of view, unfavourably contrasted the " limited " constitutional monarchies of the west with the " free " autocracies of the east of Europe, free because they were under no obligation to give a' public account of their actions. He himself was a master of the old diplomatic art, of intrigue, of veiling his purpose under a cloud of magniloquence, above all, of the art of personal fascination. But public opinion was for him only a dangerous force to be kept under control; and, even had he realized the necessity for appeal- ing to it, he had none of the qualities that would have, made the appeal successful. In direct antagonism to him was George Canning, who may be called the great prototype of the " new diplomacy," and to Metternich was a " malevolent meteor hujrled by divine providence upon Europe." Canning saw clearly the immense force that would be added to his diplomatic action if he had behind him the force of public opinion. In answer to Metternich's complaint of the tone of speeches in parliament and of the popular support given in England to revolutionary move- ments, he wrote, " Our influence, if it is to be maintained abroad, must be secure in its sources of strength at home : and the sources of that strength are in the sympathy between the people and the government; in the union of the public sentiment with the public counsels; in the reciprocal confidence of the House of Commons and the crown." a It would be a mistake to jump to the conclusion that Canning was wholly right and Metternich wholly wrong. The conditions of the Habsburg monarchy were not those of Great Britain, 3 and even if it had been possible to speak of a public opinion in the Austrian empire at all, it certainly possessed no such organ as the British parliament. But the argument may be carried yet 2 To Wellesley, in Stapleton's Canning, i. 374. 8 For the motives of Metternich's foreign policy see AuSTRIA- Hungary: History (iii. 332-333). 296 DIPLOMACY further. In the abstract the success of the policy of a minister in a democratic state must ultimately rest upon the support of public opinion; yet the necessity for this support has in the conduct of foreign affairs its peculiar dangers. In the difficult game of diplomacy a certain reticence is always necessary. Secret sources of information would be dried up were they to be lightly revealed; a plain exposition of policy would often give an undue advantage to the other party to a negotiation. Thus, even in Great Britain, the diplomatic correspondence laid before parlia- ment is carefully edited, and all governments are jealous of granting access to their modern archives. Yet a representative assembly is apt to be resentful of such reservations. Its members know little or nothing of the conditions under which foreign affairs are conducted, and they are not unnaturally irritated by explanations which seem to lack candour or completeness. Canning himself had experience of this in the affair of the capture of the Danish fleet at Copenhagen; and Castlereagh's diplomacy was hampered by the bitter attacks of an opposition which accused him, with little justice, of pursuing a policy which he dared not reveal in its full scope to parliament. Moreover, the appeal to public opinion may be used as a diplomatic weapon for ends no less " selfish " than any aimed at by the old diplomacy. Bismarck, whose statesmanship was at least as cynical as that of Metternich, was a master of the art of taking the world into bis confidence — when it suited him to do so; and the " reptile press," hired to give a seemingly independent support to his policy, was one of his most potent weapons. So far the only necessary consequence of the growth of the power of public opinion on the art of diplomacy has been to extend the sphere of its application; it is but one more factor to be dealt with; and experience has proved that it is subject to the wiles of a skilful diplomatist no less than were the princes and statesmen with whom the old diplomacy was solely concerned. The third factor making for change — the revolution in the means of communication which has brought all the world into closer touch — remains to be discussed. It is obvious that before the invention of the telegraph, the diplomatic agent was in a far more responsible position than he is now, when he can, in most cases, receive immediate instructions from his government on difficult questions as they arise. When communication was still slow there was often no time to await instructions, or the instruc- tions when they arrived were not seldom already out of date and had to be set aside on the minister's own responsibility. It would, however, be easy to exaggerate the importance of this change as affecting the character and status of diplomatic agents. It is true that the tendency has been for ministers of foreign affairs to hold the threads of diplomacy in their own hands to a far greater extent than was formerly the case; but they must still depend for information and advice on the " man on the spot," and the success of their policy largely depends upon his qualities of discretion and judgment. The growth of democracy, moreover, has given to the ambassador a new and peculiar importance; for he represents not only the sovereign to the sovereign, but the nation to the nation; and, as a succession of notable American ambassadors to Great Britain has proved, he may by his personal qualities do a large amount to remove the prejudices and ignorances which stand as a barrier between the nations. It marks an immense advance in the comity of international intercourse when the representatives of friendly powers are no longer regarded as " spies rather than ambassadors," to be " quickly heard and dismissed," as Philippe de Commines would have them, but as agreeable guests to be parted from with regret. As to the qualifications for an ambassador, it is clearly im- possible to lay down a general rule, for the same qualities are obviously not required in Washington as in Vienna, nor in Paris as in Pekin. Yet the effort to depict the ideal ambassador bulks largely in the works of the earlier theorists, and the demands they make are sufficiently alarming. Ottaviano Maggi, himself a diplomatist of the brilliant age of the Renaissance, has left us in his De legato (Hanoviae, 1506) his idea of what an ambassador should be. He must not only be a good Christian but a learned theologian; he must be a philosopher, well versed in Aristotle I and Plato, and able at a moment's notice to solve in correct dialectical form the most abstruse problems; he must be well read in the classics, and an expert in mathematics, architecture, music, physics and civil and canon law. He must not only know how to write and speak Latin with classical refinement, but he must be a master of Greek, Spanish, French, German and Turkish. He must have a sound knowledge of history, geography and the science of war; but at the same time is not to neglect the poets, and never to be without his Homer. Add to this that he must be well born, rich and of a handsome presence, and we have a portrait of a diplomatist whose original can hardly have existed even in that age of brilliant versatility. The Dutchman Frederikus de Marselaer, in his Ktipunuov sive legationum insigne (Antwerp, 1618), is scarcely less exacting than the Venetian. His ideal ambassador is a nobleman of fine presence and in the prime of life, famous, rich, munificent, abstemious, not violent, nor quarrelsome, nor morose, no flatterer, learned, eloquent, witty without being talkative, a good linguist, widely read, prudent and cautious, but brave and — as he adds somewhat superfluously — many-sided. With these theoretical perfections one or two instances of the qualifications demanded by the exigencies of practical politics may be cited by way of illuminating contrast. At the court of the empress Elizabeth of Russia good looks were a surer means of diplomatic success than all the talents and virtues, and the princess of Zerbst (mother of the empress Catherine II.) wrote to Frederick of Prussia advising him to replace his elderly am- bassador by a handsome young man with a good complexion; and the essential qualification for an ambassador to Switzerland, Germany, Poland, Denmark and Russia used to be that he should be able to drink the native diplomatists, seasoned from babyhood to strong liquors, under the table. History. — In its widest sense the history of diplomacy is that of the intercourse between nations, in so far as this has not been a mere brute struggle for the mastery; 1 in a narrower sense, with which the present article is alone concerned, it is that of the methods and spirit of diplomatic intercourse and of the character and status of diplomatic agents. Earlier writers on the office and functions of ambassadors, such as Gentilis or Archbishop Germonius, conscientiously trace their origin to God himself, who created the angels to be his legates; and they fortify their arguments by copious examples drawn from ancient history, sacred and profane. But, whatever the influence upon it of earlier practice, modern diplomacy really dates from the rise of permanent missions, and the consequent development of the diplomatic hierarchy as an international institution. Of this the first beginnings are traceable to the 15th century and to Italy. There had, of course, during the middle ages been embassies and negotiations; but the embassies had been no more than tem- porary missions directed to a particular end and conducted by ecclesiastics or nobles of a dignity appropriate to each occasion; there were neither permanent diplomatic agents nor a professional diplomatic class. To the evolution of such a class the Italy of the Renaissance, the nursing-ground of modern statecraft, gave the first impetus. This was but natural; for Italy, with its numerous independent states, between which there existed a lively inter- course and a yet livelier rivalry, anticipated in miniature the modern states' system of Europe. In feudal Europe there had been little room for diplomacy; but in northern and central Italy feudalism had never taken root, and in the struggles of the peninsula diplomacy had early played a part as great as, or greater than, war. Where all were struggling for the mastery, the existence of each depended upon alliances and counter-alliances, of which the object was the maintenance of the balance of power. In this school there was trained a notable succession of men of affairs. Thus, in the 13th and 14th centuries Florence counted among her envoys Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, and later on could boast of agents such as Capponi, Vettori, Guicciardini and Machiavelli. Papal Rome, too, as was to be expected, had always been a fruitful nursing-mother of diplomatists; and some 1 e.g. A History of Diplomacy in the International Development of Europe, by D. J. Hill (London and New York, 1905). DIPLOMACY 297 authorities have traced the beginnings of modern diplomacy to a conscious imitation of her legatine system. 1 It is, however, in Venice, that the origins of modern diplomacy are to be sought. 2 So early as the 13 th century the republic, with a view to safeguarding the public interests, began to lay down a series of rules for the conduct of its ambassadors. Thus, in 1 236, envoys to the court of Rome are forbidden to procure a benefice for anyone without leave of the doge and little council ; in 1268 ambassadors are commanded to surrender on their return any gifts they may have received, and by another decree they are compelled to take an oath to conduct affairs to the honour and advantage of the republic. About the same time it was decided that diplomatic agents were to hand in, on their return, a written account of their mission ; in 1 288 this was somewhat expanded by a law decreeing that ambassadors were to deposit, within fifteen days of their return, a written account of the replies made to them during their mission, together with anything they might have seen or heard to the honour or in the interests of the republic. These provisions, which were several times renewed, notably in 1296, £425 and 1533, are the origin of the famous reports of the Venetian ambassadors to the senate, which are at once a monu- ment to the political genius of Venetian statesmen and a mine of invaluable historical material. 3 These are but a few examples of a long series of regulations, many others also dating to the 13th century, by which the Venetian government sought to systematize its diplomatic service. That permanent diplomatic agencies were not estab- lished by it earlier than was the case is probably due to the distrust of its agents by which most of this legislation of the republic is inspired. In the 13th century two or three months was considered over-long a period for an ambassador to reside at a foreign court; in the 15th century the period of residence was extended to two years, and in the 16th century to three. This latter rule continued till the end of the republic; the embassy had become permanent, but the ambassador was changed every three years. The origin of the change from temporary to permanent missions has been the subject of much debate and controversy. The theory that it was due, in the first instance, to the evolution of the Venetian consulates (bajulats) in the Levant into permanent diplomatic posts, and that the idea was thence transferred to the West, is disproved by the fact that Venice had established other permanent embassies before the baylo (q.v.) at Constantinople was transformed into a diplomatic agent of the first rank. Nor is the first known instance of the appointment of a permanent ambassador Venetian. The earliest record 4 is contained in the announcement by Francesco Sforza, duke of Milan, in 1455, of his intention to maintain a permanent embassy at Genoa 5 ; and in 1460 the duke of Savoy sent Eusebio Margaria, archdeacon of Vercelli, as his permanent representative to the Curia. 6 Though, however, the early records of such appointments are rare, the practice was probably common among the Italian states. Its extension to countries outside Italy was a somewhat later develop- ment. In 1494 Milan is already represented in France by a permanent ambassador. In 1495 Zacharia Contarini, Venetian ambassador to the emperor Maximilian, is described by Sanuto (Diarii, i. 294) as stato ambasciatore; and from the time of 1 For this see Hinschius, Kirchenreckt, i. p. 498. 2 The Venetians, however, in their turn, doubtless learned their diplomacy originally from the Byzantines, with whom their trade expansion in the Levant early brought them into close contact. For Byzantine diplomacy see Roman Empire, Later: Diplomacy. 3 See Eugenio Alberi, Le Relazioni degli ambasciatori Veneti al senato, 15 vols. (Florence, 1 839-1 863). * The apocrisiarii {inroKpiaiapioij or responsales should perhaps be mentioned, though they certainly did not set the precedent for the modern permanent missions. They were resident agents, practically legates, of the popes at the court of Constantinople. They were established by Pope Leo I., and continued until the Iconoclastic controversy broke the intimate ties between East and West. . See Luxardo, Das vordekretalische Gesandtschaftsrecht der Papste (Inns- bruck, 1878); also Hinschius, Kirchenreckt, i. 501. 5 N. Bianchi, Le Materie politiche relative all' estero degli archivi di . stato piemontese (Bologna, Modena, 1875), p. 29. 6 lb. Note 2, teneamus et deputemus ibidem continue mansurum. VIII. IOO Charles V. onwards the succession of ambassadors of the republic at the imperial court is fairly traceable. In 1496 " as the way to the British Isles is very long and very dangerous," two merchants resident in London, Pietro Contarini and Luca Valaressa, were appointed by the republic subambasciatores; and in June of the same year Andrea Trevisano arrived in London as permanent ambassador at the court of Henry VII. 7 Florence, too, from 1498 onwards, was represented at the courts of Charles V. and of France by permanent ambassadors. During the same period the practice had been growing up among the other European powers. Spain led the way in 1487 by the appointment of Dr Roderigo Gondesalvi de Puebla as ambassador in England. As he was still there in 1500, the Spanish embassy in London may be regarded as the oldest still surviving post of the new permanent diplomacy. Other states followed suit, but only fitfully; it was not till late in the 16th century that permanent embassies were regarded as the norm. The precarious relations between the European powers during the 16th century, indeed, naturally retarded the development of the system. Thus it was not till after good relations had been established with France by the treaty of London that, in 1519, Sir Thomas Boleyn and Dr West were sent to Paris as resident English ambassadors, and, after the' renewed breach between the two countries, no others were appointed till the reign of Elizabeth. Nine years before, Sir Robert Wingfield, whose simplicity earned him the nickname of " Summer-shail-be-green," had been sent as ambassador to the court of Charles V., where he remained from 1510 to 1517; and in 1520 the mutual appointment of resident ambassadors was made a condition of the treaty between Henry VIII. and Charles V. In 1517 Thomas Spinelly, who had for some years represented England at the court of the Netherlands, was appointed " resident ambassador to the court of Spain," where he remained till his death on the 22nd of August 1522. These are the most important early instances of the new system. Alone of the great powers, the emperor remained permanently unrepresented at foreign courts. In theory this was the result of his unique dignity, which made him superior to all other potentates; actually it was because, as emperor, he could not speak for the practically independent princes nominally his vassals. It served all practical purposes if he were represented abroad by his agents as king of Spain or archduke of Austria. All the evidence now available goes to prove that the establish- ment of permanent diplomatic agencies was not an unconscious and accidental development of previous conditions, but de- liberately adopted as an obvious convenience. But, while all the powers were agreed as to the convenience of maintaining such agencies abroad, all were equally agreed in viewing the repre- sentatives accredited to them by foreign states with extreme suspicion. This attitude was abundantly justified by the peculiar ethics of the new diplomacy. The old " orators " of the Summer-shall-be-green type could not long hold their own against the new men who had studied in the school of Italian statecraft, for whom the end justified the means. Machiavelli had gathered in The Prince and The Discourses on Livy the principles which underlay the practice of his day in Italy; Francis I., the first monarch to establish a completely organized diplomatic machinery, did most to give these principles a European extension. By the close of the 16th century diplomacy had become frankly " Machiavellian," and the ordinary rules of morality were held not to apply to the intercourse between nations. This was admitted in theory as well as in practice. Germonius, after a vigorous denunciation of lying in general, argues that it is permissible for the safety or convenience (commodo) of princes, since solus populi suprema lex, and quod non permittit naturalis ratio, admittit civilis; and he adduces in support of this principle the answer given by Ulysses to Neoptolemus, in the Ajax of Sophocles, and the examples of Abraham, Jacob and David. Paschalius, while affirming that an ambassador must study to speak the truth, adds that he is not 7 The first ambassador of Venice to visit England was Zuanne da Lezze, who came in 1319 to demand compensation for the plundering of Venetian ships by English pirates. 298 DIPLOMACY sudh a " rustic boor " as to say that an " official lie " (officiosum mendacium) is never to be employed, or to deny that an ambassador should be, on occasion, splendide mendax. 1 The situation is summed up in the famous definition of Sir Henry Wotton, which, though excused by himself as a jest, was held to be an indiscreet revelation of the truth: " An ambassador is an honest man sent to lie abroad for the good of his country." 2 The most successful liar, in fact, was esteemed the most successful diplomatist. " A prime article of the catechism of ambassadors," says Bayle in his Dictionnaire critique (1699), " whatever their religion, is to invent falsehoods and to go about making society believe them." So universally was this principle adopted that, in' the end, no diplomatist even expected to be believed; and the best way to deceive was — as Bismarck cynically avowed — to tell the truth. But, in addition to being a' liar ex officio, the ambassador was also " an honourable spy." " The principal functions of an envoy," says Francois de Callieres, himself an ex-ambassador of Louis XIV., " are two; the first is to look after the affairs of his own prince; the second is to discover the affairs of the other." A clever minister, he maintains, will know how to keep himself informed of all that goes on in the mind of the sovereign, in the councils of ministers or in the country; and for this end " good cheer and the warming effect of wine " are excellent allies. 3 This being so, it is hardly to be wondered at that foreign ambassadors were commonly regarded as perhaps necessary, but certainly very unwelcome, guests. The views of Philippe de Commines have already been quoted above, and they were shared by a long series of theoretical writers as well as by men of affairs. Gentilis is all but alone in his protest against the view that all ambassadors were exploratores magis quam oratores, and to be treated as such. So early as 148 1 the government of Venice had decreed the penalty of banishment and a heavy fine for any one who should talk of affairs of state with a foreign envoy, and though the more civilized princes did not follow the example of the sultan, who by way of precaution locked the ambassador of Ferdinand II., Jerome Laski, into " a dark and stinking place without windows," they took the most minute precautions to prevent the ambassadors of friendly powers from penetrating into their secrets. Charles V. thought it safest to keep them as far away as possible from his court. So did Francis I. ; and, when affairs were critical, he made his frequent changes of residence and his hunting expeditions the excuse for escaping from their presence. Henry VII. forbade his subjects to hold any intercourse with them, and, later on, set spies upon them and examined their correspondence — a practice by no means confined to England. If the system of permanent embassies survived, it is clear that this was mainly due to the belief of the sovereigns that they gained more by maintaining " honourable spies " at foreign courts than they lost by the presence of those of foreign courts at their own. It was purely a question of the balance of advantage. Neither among statesmen nor among theorists was there any premonition of the great part to be played by the permanent diplomatic body in the development and maintenance of the concert of Europe. To Paschalius the permanent embassies were " a miserable outgrowth of a miserable age." 4 Grotius himself condemned them as not only harmful, 1 Germonius, De legatis principum et populorum libri tres (Rome, 1627), chap. vi. p. 164; Paschalius, Legatus (Rouen, 1598), p. 302. Etienne Dolet, who had been secretary to Cardinal Jean du Bellay, and was burned for atheism in 1546, in his De officio legati (1541) advises ambassadors, to surround themselves with taciturn servants, to employ vigilant spies, and to set afoot all manner of fictions, especially when negotiating with the court of Rome or with the Italian princes. 2 See Pearsall Smith, Sir Henry Wotton, pp. 49, 126 et seq. 3 Francois de Callieres, De la maniere de nSgocier avec les souverains (Brussels, 17 16). See also A. Sorel, Recueil des instructions donnees aux ambdssadeurs et ministres de France (Paris, 1884), e.g. vol. Autriche, pp. 77, 88, 102, 112. 4 " Nova res est, quod sciam, et infelicis hujus aetatis infelix partus. . . . Hinc oriri securitatem universorum, hinc stabiliri pacem gentium. Quae utinam tarn vere dicerentur, quam speciose. Ego ; quidem, ne quid dissimulem, ab istis seorsum sentio. Nimirum, effoeta virtutis, foecunda fraudis haec saecula video peperisse but useless, the proof of the latter being that they were unknown to antiquity. 6 Development of the Diplomatic Hierarchy.— -The history of the diplomatic bod> 6 is, like that of other bodies, that of the progressive differentiation of functions. The middle ages knew no classification of diplomatic agents; the person sent on mission is described indifferently as legatus, orator, nuntius, ablegatus, commissarius, procurator, mandatarius, agens or ambaxator (ambassator, &c). In Gundissalvus, De legato (1485), the oldest printed work oh the subject, the word ambasiator, first found in a Venetian decree of 1268, is applied to any diplomat. Florence was the first to make distinction; the orator was appointed by the council of the republic; the mandatorio, with inferior powers, by the Council of Ten. In 1500 Machiavelli, who held only the latter rank, wrote from France urging the Signoria to send ambasiadori. This was, however, rather a question of powers than of dignity. But the causes which ultimately led to the elaborate differentiation of diplomatic ranks were rather ques- tions of dignity than of functions. 7 The breakdown of feudalism, with the consequent rise of a series of sovereign states or of states claiming to be sovereign, of very various size and importance, led to a certain confusion in the ceremonial relation between them, which had been unknown to the comparatively clearly defined system of the middle ages. The smaller states were eager to assert the dignity of their actual or practical independence; the greater powers were equally bent on " keeping them in their place." If the emperor, as has been stated above, was too exalted to send ambassadors, certain of the lesser states were soon esteemed too humble to be represented at the courts of the great powers save by agents of an inferior rank. By the second half of the 16th century, then, there are two classes of diplomatists, ambassadors and residents or agents, the latter being accounted ambassadors of the second class. 8 At first the difference of rank was determined by the status of the sovereign by whom or to whom the diplomatic agent was accredited; but early in the 16th century it became fairly common for powers of the first rank to send agents of the second class to represent them at courts of an equal status. The reasons were various, and not unamusing. First and foremost came the question of expense. The am- bassador, as representing the person of his sovereign, was bound by the sentiment of the age to display an exaggerated magnifi- cence. His journeys were like royal progresses, his state entries surrounded with every circumstance of pomp, and it was held to be his duty to advertise the munificence of his prince by boundless largesses. Had this munificence been as unlimited in fact as in theory, all might have been well, but, in that age of vaulting ambitions, depleted exchequers were the rule rather than the exception in Europe; the records are full of pitiful appeals from ambassadors for arrears of pay, and appointment to an embassy often meant ruin, even to a man of substance. To give but one example, Sir Richard Morison, Edward VI. 's ambassador in Germany, had to borrow money to pay his debts before he could leave Augsburg (Cal. State Pap. Edw. VI., No. 467), and later on he writes from Hamburg (April 9, 1552) that he could buy nothing, because everyone believed that he had packed up in spissata haec imperia, sive summas potestates, unde, ut e vomitariis, hae legationes undatim se fundunt." Paschalius, Legatus (1598), p. 447. So too Felix de la Mothe Le Vayer (1547-1625), in his Legatus (Paris, 1579), says " Legatos tunc primum aut non multum post institutes fuisse cum Pandora malorum omnium semina in hunc mundum . . . demisit." 6 De jure belli et pads (Amsterdam, 1621), ii. c. 18, § 3, n. 2. 6 The term corps diplomatique originated about the middle of the 18th century. " The Chancellor Furst," says Ranke (xxx. 47, note), " does not use it as yet in his report (1754) but he knows it," and it would appear that it had just been invented at Vienna. " Corps diplomatique, nom qu'une dame donna un jour a ce corps nombreux de ministres etrangers a Vienne." 7 So too Pradier-Fodere, vol. i. p. 262. 8 Thus Charles V. would not allow the representatives of the duke of Mantua, Ferrara, &c, to style themselves " ambassadors," on the ground that this title could be borne only by the agents of kings and of the republic of Venice, and not by those of states whose sovereignty was impaired by any feudal relation to a superior power. (See Krausbr p. 155.) DIPLOMACY 299 readiness to flit secretly, for " How must they buy things, where men know their stuff is ready trussed up, and they fleeting every day?" (ib. No. 544). But the dignity of ambassador carried another drawback besides expense; his function of " honourable spy " was seriously hampered by the trammels of his position. He was unable to move freely in society, but lived a ceremonial existence in the midst of a crowd of retainers, through whom alone it was proper for him to communicate with the world outside. It followed that, though the office of ambassador was more dignified, that of agent was more generally useful. Yet a third cause, possibly the most immediately potent, encouraged the growth of the lesser diplomatic ranks: the question of precedence among powers theoretically equal. Modern diplomacy has settled a difficulty which caused at one time much heart-burning and even bloodshed by a simple appeal to the alphabet. Qreat Britain feels no humiliation in signing after France, if the reason be that her name begins with G; had she not been Great, she would sign before. The vexed question of the precedence of ambassadors, too, has been settled by the rule, already referred to above, as to seniority of appointment. But while the question remained unsettled it was obviously best to evade it; and this was most easily done by sending an agent of inferior rank to a court where the precedence claimed for an ambassador would have been refused. Thus set in motion, the process of differentiation continues until the system is stereotyped in the 19th century. It is un- necessary to trace this evolution here in any detail. It is mainly a question of names, and diplomatic titles are no exception to the general rule by which all titles tend to become cheapened and therefore, from time to time, need to be reinforced by fresh verbal devices. The method was the familiar one of applying terms that had once implied a particular quality in a fashion that implied actually nothing. The ambassador extraordinary had originally been one sent on an extraordinary mission; for the time and purpose of this mission his authority superseded that of the resident ambassador. But by the middle of the 17th century the custom had grown up of calling all ambassadors " extraordinary," in order to place them on an equality with the others. The same process was extended to diplomatists of the second rank; and envoys (envoy e for ablegatus) were always " extraordinary," and as such claimed and received precedence over mere " residents," who in their day had asserted the same claim against the agents — all three terms having at one time been synonymous. Similarly a " minister plenipotentiary " had originally meant an agent armed with full powers (plein-pouvoir) ; but, by a like process, the combination came to mean as little as " envoy extraordinary " — though a plenipotentiary tout simple is still an agent, of no ceremonially defined dignity, despatched with full powers to treat and conclude. Finally, the evolution of the title of a diplomatist of the second rank is crowned by the high- sounding combination, now almost exclusively used, of " envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary." The ultimate fate of the simple title " resident " was the same as that of " agent." Both had been freely sold by needy sovereigns to all and sundry who were prepared to pay for what gave them a certain social status. The " agent " fell thus into utter discredit, and those "residents" who were still actual diplomatic agents became " ministers resident " to distinguish them from the common herd. The classification of diplomatic agents was for the first time definitively included in the general body of international law by the Reglement of the 19th of March 1815 at Vienna 1 ; and the whole question was finally settled at the congress of Aix-la- Chapelle (November 21, 1818) when, the proposal to establish precedence by the status of the accrediting powers having wisely been rejected, diplomatic agents were divided into four classes: (1) Ambassadors, legates, nuncios; (2) Envoys extraordinary and ministers, plenipotentiary, and other ministers accredited direct to the sovereign; (3) Ministers resident; (4) Charges d'affaires. With a few exceptions (e.g. Turkey), this settlement was accepted by all states, including the United States of America. 1 See Pradier-Fodere, i. 265. Rights and Privileges of , Diplomatic Agents. — These are partly founded upon immemorial custom, partly the result of negotia- tions embodied in international law. The most important, as it is the most ancient, is the right of personal inviolability extended to the diplomatic agent and the members of his suite. This inviolability is maintained after a rupture between the two governments concerned, and even after the outbreak of war. The habit of the Ottoman government of imprisoning in the Seven Towers the ambassador of a power with which it quarrelled was but an exception which proved the rule. The second im- portant right is that of exterritoriality (q.v.), a convenient fiction by which the house and equipages of the diplomatic agent are regarded as the territory of the power by whom he is ac- credited. This involves the further principle that the agent is in no way subject to the receiving government. He is exempt from taxation and from the payment at least of certain local rates. He also enjoys immunity (1) from civil jurisdiction, e.g. he cannot be sued, nor can his goods be seized, for debt; (2) from criminal jurisdiction, e.g. he cannot be arrested and tried for a criminal offence. For a crime of violence, however, or for plotting against the state, he can be placed under the necessary restraint and expelled the country. 2 These immunities extend to all the members of an envoy's suite. The difficulties that might be supposed to arise from such exemptions have not in practice been found very serious; for though, in the case of crimes committed by servants of agents of the first or second class the procedure is not clearly defined, each case would easily be made the subject of arrangement. In certain cases, e.g. embassies in Turkey, the exterritoriality of ambassadors implies a fairly extensive criminal jurisdiction; in other cases the dismissal of the servant would deprive him of his diplomatic immunity and bring him under the law of the land. The right of granting asylum claimed by diplomatic agents in virtue of that of exterritoriality, at one time much abused, is now strictly limited. A political or criminal offender may seek asylum in a foreign embassy; but if, after a request has been formally made for his surrender, the ambassador refuses to deliver him up, the authorities may take the measures necessary to effect his arrest, and even force an entrance into the embassy for the purpose. The " right of chapel " (droit de chapelle, or droit de culte), enjoyed by envoys in reference to their exterritoriality, i.e. the right of free exercise of religious worship within their house, formerly of great importance, has been rendered superfluous by the spread of religious toleration. (See L. Oppenheim, Internat. Law (London, 1905), i. p. 441, &c; A. W. Haffter, Das europaische Volkerrecht (Berlin, 1888), p. 435, &c.) The Personnel of the " Corps diplomatique." — The establishment of diplomacy as a regular branch of the civil service is of modern growth, and even now by no means universal. From old time states naturally chose as their agents those who would best serve their interests in the matter in hand. In the middle ages diplomacy was practically a monopoly of the clergy, who as a class alone possessed the necessary qualifications: and in later times, when learning had spread to the laity as well, there were still potent reasons why the clergy should continue to be employed as diplomatic agents. Of these reasons the most practical was that of expense; for the wealth of the church formed an in- exhaustible reserve which was used without scruple for secular purposes. Francis I. of France, who by the Concordat with Rome had in his hands the patronage of all the sees and abbeys in France, used this partly to reward his clerical ministers, partly as a great secret service fund for bribing the ambassadors of other powers, partly for the payment of those high-placed spies at foreign courts maintained by the elaborately organized system 2 Gentilis, who had been consulted by the government in the case of the Spanish ambassador, Don Bernardino de Mendoza, expelled for intriguing against Queen Elizabeth, lays this down definitely. An ambassador, he says, need not be received, and he may be ex- pelled. In actual practice a diplomatic agent who has made himself objectionable is withdrawn by his government on the representations of that to which he is accredited, and it is customary, before an ambassador is despatched, to find out whether he is a persona grata to the power to which he is accredited. 3°° DIPLOMATIC known as the Secret du Roi. 1 ' None the less, in the 16th century, laymen as diplomats are already well in evidence. They are usually lawyers, rarely soldiers, occasionally even simple merchants. Not uncommonly they were foreigners, like the Italian Thomas Spinelly mentioned above, drawn from that cosmopolitan class of diplomats who were ready to serve any master. Though nobles were often employed as ambassadors by all the powers, Venice alone made nobility a condition of diplomatic service. They were professional in the sense that, for the most part, diplomacy was the main occupation of their lives; there was, however, no graded diplomatic service in which, as at present, it was possible to rise on a fixed system from the position of simple attacks to that of minister and ambassador. The "attache to the embassy" existed 2 ; but he was not, as is now the case, a young diplomat learning his profession, but an experienced man of affairs, often a foreigner employed by the ambassador as adviser, secret service agent and general go- between, and he was without diplomatic status. 3 The 18th century saw the rise of the diplomatic service in the modern sense. The elaboration of court ceremonial, for which Versailles had set the fashion, made it desirable that diplomatic agents should be courtiers, and young men of rank about the court began to be attached to missions for the express purpose of teaching them the art of diplomacy. Thus arose that aristocratic diplomatic class, distinguished by the exquisite refinement of its manners, which survived from the 1 8th century into the i gth. Modern democracy has tended to break with this tradition, but it still widely prevails. Even in Great Britain, where the rest of the public services have been thrown open to all classes, a certain social position is still demanded for candidates for the diplomatic service and the foreign office, and in addition to passing a competitive examina- tion, they must be nominated by someone of recognized station prepared to vouch for their social qualifications. In America, where no regular diplomatic service exists, all diplomatic agents are nominated by the president. The existence of an official diplomatic service, however, by no means excludes the appointment of outsiders to diplomatic posts. It is, in fact, one of the main grievances of the regular diplomatic body that the great rewards of their profession, the embassies, are so often assigned to politicians or others who have not passed through the drudgery of the service. But though this practice has, doubtless, sometimes been abused, it is impossible to criticize the wisdom of its occasional application. A word may be added as to the part played by women in diplomacy. So far as their unofficial influence upon it is con- cerned, it would be impossible to exaggerate its importance; it would suffice to mention three names taken at random from the annals of the 19th century, Madame de Stael, Baroness von Kriidener, and Princess Lieven. Gentz comments on the " feminine intrigues " that darkened the counsels of the con- gresses of Vienna and Aix-la-ChapeUe, and from which the powers so happily escaped in the bachelor seclusion of Troppau. Nor is it to be supposed that statesmen will ever renounce a diplomatic weapon so easy of disguise and so potent for use. A brilliant salon presided over by a woman of charm may be a most valuable centre of a political propaganda; and ladies are still widely employed in the secret diplomacy of the powers. Their employ- ment as regularly accredited diplomatic agents, however, though not unknown, has been extremely rare. An interesting instance is the appointment of Catherine of Aragon, when princessof Wales, as representative of her father, Ferdinand the Catholic, at the court of Henry VII. (G. A. Bergenroth, Calendar of State Papers . . . England and Spain — in the Archives at Simancas, &c, i. pp. xxxiii, cxix). Literature. — Besides general works on international law (q.v.) which necessarily deal with the subject of diplomacy, a vast mass of treatises on diplomatic agents exists. The earliest printed work is the Tractatus de legato (Rome, 1485) of Gundissalvus (Gonsalvo de Villadiego), professor of law at Salamanca, auditor for Spain at the 1 See Zeller. 2 A. O. Meyer, p. 22. 3 See the amusing account of the methods of these agents in Morysine to Cecil (January 23, 1551-1552), Cat. State Pap. Edw. VI., No. 530. Roman court of the Rota, and bishop of Oviedo ; but the first really systematic writer on the subject was Albericus Gentilis,Z?e legationibus hbriiii. (London, 1583, 1585, Hanover, 1596, 1607, 1612). For a full bibliography of works on ambassadors see Baron Diedrich H. L.von Ompteda, Litteratur des gesammten sowohl natiirlichen als positiven Volkerrechts (Regensburg, 1785), p. 534, &c, which was completed and continued by the Prussian minister Karl Albert von Kamptz, in Neue Literatur des Volkerrechts seit dem Jahre 1784 (Berlin, 181 7), p. 231. A list of writers, with critical and biographical remarks, is also given in Ernest Nys's " Les Commencements de la diplomatic et le droit d'ambassade jusqu'a Grotius," in the Revue de droit inter- national, vol. xvi. p. 167. Other useful modern works on the history of diplomacy are : E. C. Grenville-Murray, Embassies and Foreign Courts, a History of Diplomacy (2nd ed., 1856); J. Zeller, La Diplo- malie franqaise vers le milieu du XVI" siecle (Paris, 1881); A. O. Meyer, Die englische Diplomatie in Deutschland zur Zeit Eduards VI. und Mariens (Breslau, 1900) ; and, above all, Otto Krauske, Die Entwickelung der standgien Diplomatie vom fiinfzehnten Jahrhundett bis zu den Beschliissen von 1815 und 1818, in Gustav Schmoller's Staats- und socialwissenschaftliche Forschungen, vol. v. (Leipzig, 1885). To these may be added, as admirably illustrating in detail the early developments of modern diplomacy, Logan Pearsall Smith's Life and Letters of Sir Henry Wotton (Oxford, 1907). Of works on modern diplomacy the most important are the Guide diplomatique of Baron Charles de Martens, new edition revised by F. H. Geffcken, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1866), and P. Pradier-Fodere, Cours de droit diplomatique, 2 vols. (Paris, 1881). (W. A. P.) DIPLOMATIC, the science of diplomas, founded on the critical study of the " diplomatic " ' sources of history: diplomas, charters, acts, treaties, contracts, judicial records, rolls, chartu- laries, registers, &c. The employment of the word " diploma," as a general term to designate an historical document, is of com- paratively recent date. The Roman diploma, so called because it was formed of two sheets of metal which were shut together (Gr. diTKovv, to double) like the leaves of a book, was the pass- port or licence to travel by the public post; also, the certificate of discharge, conferring privileges of citizenship and marriage on soldiers who had served their time; and, later, any imperial grant of privileges. The word was adopted, rather pedantically, by the humanists of the Renaissance and applied by them to important deeds and to acts of sovereign authority, to privileges granted by kings and by great personages; and by degrees the term became extended and embraced generally the documents of the middle ages. History of the Study. — The term " diplomatic," the French diplomatique, is a modern adaptation of the Latin phrase res diplomatica employed in early works upon the subject, and more especially in the first great text-book, the De re diplomatica, issued in 1681 by the learned Benedictine, Dom Jean Mabillon, of the abbey of St Germain-des-Pres. Mabillon's treatise was called forth by an earlier work of Daniel van Papenbroeck, the editor of the Acta Sanctorum of the Bollandists, who, with no great knowledge or experience of archives, undertook to criticize the historical value of ancient records and monastic documents, and raised wholesale suspicions as to their authenticity in his Propylaeum antiquarium circa veri ac falsi discrimen in vetustis membranis, which he printed in 1675. This was a rash challenge to the Benedictines, and especially to the congregation of St Maur, or confraternity of the Benedictine abbeys of France, whose combined efforts produced great literary works which still remain as monuments of profound learning. Mabillon was at that time engaged in collecting material for a great history of his order. He worked silently for six years before producing the work above referred to. His refutation of Papenbroeck's criticisms was complete, and his rival himself accepted Mabillon's system of the study of diplomatic as the true one. The De re diplomatica established the science on a secure basis; and it has been the foundation of all subsequent works on the subject, although the immediate result of its publication was a flood of controversial writings between the Jesuits and the Benedictines, which, how- ever, did not affect its stability. In Spain, the Benedictine Perez published, in 1688, a series of dissertations following the line of Mabillon's work. In Eng- land, Madox's Formulare Anglicanum, with a dissertation con- cerning ancient charters and instruments, appeared in 1702, and in 1705 Hickes followed with his Linguarum septentrionalium thesaurus, both accepting the principles laid down by the learned DIPLOMATIC 301 Benedictine. In Italy, Maffei appeared with his Istoria diplo- matica in 1727, and Muratori, in 1740, introduced dissertations on diplomatic into his great work, the Antiquitales Italicae. In Germany, the first diplomatic work of importance was that by Bessel, entitled Chronicon Qotwicense and issued in 1732; and this was followed closely by similar works of Baring, Eckhard and Heumann. France, however, had been the cradle of the science, and that country continued to be the home of its development. Mabillon had not taken cognizance of documents later than the 13th century. Arising out of a discussion relative to the origin of the abbey of St Victor en Caux and the authenticity of its archives, a more comprehensive work than Mabillon's was compiled by the two Benedictines, Dom Toustain and Dom Tassin, viz. the Nouveau Traits de diplomatique, in six volumes, 1 750-1 765, which embraced more than diplomatic proper and extended to all branches of Latin palaeography. With great industry the compilers gathered together a mass of details; but their arrange- ment is faulty, and the text is broken up into such a multitude of divisions and subdivisions that it is tediously minute. However, its more extended scope has given the Nouveau Traite an ad- vantage over Mabillon's work, and modern compilations have drawn largely upon it. As a result of the Revolution, the archives of the middle ages lost in France their juridical and legal value; but this rather tended to enhance their historical importance. The taste for historical literature revived. The Academie des Inscriptions fostered it. In 1821 the ficole des Chartes was founded; and, after a few years of incipient inactivity, it received a further impetus, in 1829, by the issue of a royal ordinance re-establishing it. Thenceforth it has been an active centre for the teaching and for the encouragement of the study ot diplomatic throughout the country, and has produced results which other nations may envy. Next to France, Germany and Austria are distinguished as countries where activity has been displayed in the systematic study of diplomatic archives, more or less with the support of the state. In Italy, too, diplomatic science has not been neglected. In England, after a long period of regrettable indifference to the study of the national and municipal archives of the country, some effort has been made in recent years to remove the reproach. The publications of the Public Record Office and of the department of MSS. in the British Museum are more numerous and are issued more regularly than in former times; and an awakened interest is manifested by the foundation in the universities of a few lectureships in diplomatic and palaeography, and by the attention which those subjects receive in such an institution as the London School of Economics, and in the publications of private literary societies. But such efforts can never show the systematic results which are to be attained by a special institution of the character of the French ficole des Chartes. Extent of the Science. — The field covered by the study of diplomatic is so extensive and the different kinds of documents which it takes into its purview are so numerous and various, that it is impossible to do more than give a few general indications of their nature. No nation can have advanced far on the path of civilization before discovering the necessity for documentary evidence both in public and in private life. The laws, the constitutions, the decrees of government, on the one hand, and private contracts between man and man, on the other, must be embodied in formal documents, in order to ensure permanent record. In the case of a nation advancing independently from a primitive to a later stage of civilization we should have to trace the origin of its documentary records and examine their develop- ment from a rudimentary condition. But in an inquiry into the history of the documents of the middle ages in Europe we do not begin with primitive forms. Those ages inherited the docu- mentary system which had been created and developed by the Romans; and, imperfect and limited in number as are the earliest surviving charters and diplomas of European medieval history, they present themselves to us fully developed and cast in the mould and employing the methods and formulae of the earlier tradition. Based on this foundation the chanceries of the several countries of Europe, as they came into existence and were organized, reduced to method and rule on one general system the various documents which the exigencies of public and of private life from time to time called into existence, each individual chancery at the same time following its own line of practice in detail, and evolving and confirming particular formulas which have become characteristic of it. Classification of Documents. — If we classify these documents under the two main heads of public and private deeds, we shall have to place in the former category the legislative, adminis- trative, judicial, diplomatic documents emanating from public authority in public form: laws, constitutions, ordinances, privileges, grants and concessions, proclamations, decrees, judicial records, pleas, treaties; in a word, every kind of deed necessary for the orderly government of a civilized state. In early times many of these were comprised under the general term of " letters," litterae, and to the large number of them which were issued in open form and addressed to the community the specific title of " letters patent," litterae patentes, was given. In contradistinction those public documents which were issued in closed form under seal were known as " close letters," litterae ciausae. Such public documents belong to the state archives of their several countries, and are the monuments of administrative and political and domestic history of a nation from one generation to another. In no country has so perfect a series been preserved as in our own. Into the Public Record Office in London have been brought together all the collections of state archives which were formerly stored in different official repositories of the kingdom. Beginning with the great survey of Domesday, long series of enrolments of state documents, in many instances extending from the times of the Angevin kings to our own day in almost unbroken sequence, besides thousands of separate deeds of all descriptions, are therein preserved (see Record). Under the category of private documents must be included, not only the deeds of individuals, but also those of corporate bodies representing private interests and standing in the position of individual units in relation to the state, such as municipal bodies and monastic foundations. The largest class of documents of this character is composed of those numerous conveyances of real property and other title deeds of many descriptions and dating from early periods which are commonly described by the generic name of " charters," and which are to be found in thousands, not only in such public repositories as the Public Record Office and the British Museum, but also in the archives of municipal and other corporate bodies throughout the country and in the muniment-rooms of old families. There are also the records of the manorial courts preserved in countless court-rolls and registers; also the scattered muniments of the dissolved monasteries represented by the many collections of charters and the valuable chartularies, or registers of charters, which have fortunately survived and exist both in public and in private keeping. It will be noticed that in this enumeration of public and private documents in England reference is made to rolls. The practice of entering records on rolls has been in favour in England from a very early date subsequent to the Norman Conquest; and while in other countries the comprehensive term of " charters " (literally " papers ": Gr. x^P^s) is employed as a general description of documents of the middle ages, in England the fuller phrase " charters and rolls " is required. The master of the rolls, the Magister Rotulorum, is the official keeper of the public records. From the great body of records, both public and private, many fall easily and naturally into the class in which the text takes a simpler narrative form; such as judicial records, laws, decrees, proclamations, registers, &c, which tell their own story in formulae and phraseology early developed and requiring little change. These we may leave on one side. For fuller description we select those deeds which, conferring grants and favours and privileges, conform more nearly to the idea of the Roman diploma and have received the special attention of the chanceries in the 302 DIPLOMATIC development and arrangement of their formulae and in their methods of execution. All such medieval deeds are composed of certain recognized members or sections, some essential, others special arid peculiar to the most elaborate and solemn documents. A deed of Structure tne more elaborate character is made up of two principal of mettle- di v i s j ons: j. the Text, in which is set out the object of val , the deed, the statement of the considerations and circum- dlplomaa. stances wn ; c h have led to it, and the declaration of the will and intention of the person executing the deed, together with such protecting clauses as the particular circumstances of the case may require; 2. the Protocol (originally, the first sheet of a papyrus roll; Gr. Trpwros, first, and icoXXae, to glue), consisting of the introductory and of the concluding formulae: superscription, address, salutation, &c, at the beginning, and date, formulae of execution, &c, at the end, of the deed. The latter portion of the protocol is sometimes styled the eschatocol (Gr. io-xaros, last, and /coXX Sv, to glue) . While the text followed certain formulae which had become fixed by common usage, the protocol was always special and varied with the practices of the several chanceries, changing in a sovereign chancery with each successive reign. The different sections of a full deed, taking them in order under the heads of Initial Protocol, Text and Final Protocol or Eschatocol, are as follows : — The initial protocol consists of the Invocation, the _. , Superscription, the Address and the Salutation. . I. The The Invo- j NVOCATIO n, lending a character of sanctity to the pro- cation - ceedings, might be either verbal or symbolic. The verbal invocation consisted usually of some pious ejaculation, such as In nomine Dei, In nomine domini noslri Jesu Christi; from the 8th cen- tury, In nomine Sanctae et individuae Trinitatis ; and later, In nomine Patris et Filii et Spiritus Sancti. The symbolic form was usually the chrismon, or monogram composed of the Greek initials XP of the name of Christ. In the course of the ioth and nth centuries this symbol came to be so scrawled that it had probably lost all meaning with the scribes. From the 9th century the letter C (initial of Christus) came gradually into use, and in German imperial diplomas it superseded the chrismon. Stenographic signs of the system known as Tironian notes were also sometimes added to this symbol down to the end of the ioth century, expressing such a phrase as Ante omnia Christus, or Christus, or Amen. From the Merovingian period, too, a cross was often used. The symbol gradually died out after the I2th century for general use, surviving only in notarial instruments and wills. 2.The Superscription {superscript™, intitulatio) expressed the name and titles of the grantor or person mcrloti issuing the deed. 3. The Address. As diplomas were scnpaoa. or ;g ma lly ; n epistolary form the address was then a necessity. While in Merovingian deeds the old pattern was adhered _ to, in the Carolingian period the address was sometimes ™J omitted. From the 8th century it was not considered neces- Address. ^^ an( j a di stmc tion arose in the case of royal acts, those having the address being styled letters, and those omitting it, charters. The general form of address ran in phrase as Omnibus (or Universis) Christi fidelibus presentes litterasinspecturis. The Sam- -p^ e salutation was expressed in such words as tailon. Salutem; Salutem et dilectionem; Salutem et apostolicam benedictionem, but it was not essential. Then follows the text in five sections : the Preamble, the Notifica- tion, the Exposition, the Disposition and the Final Clauses. 5. The _. Preamble {prologus,arenga)\ an ornamental introduction V te generally composed of pious or moral sentiments, a Preamble. p re j at i a d captandam benevolentiam which facit ad ornamentum, degenerating into tiresome platitudes. It became stereotyped at an early age: in the ioth and nth centuries it was a most ornate performance ; in the i .V° 1 2th century it was cut short; in the 13th century it ticama. ciied out- 6. The Notification (nptificatio, promulgatio) was the publication of the purport of the deed introduced by such a phrase as notum sit, &c. 7. The Exposition The Bx" set out (-he motives influencing the issue of the deed. 8. The position. Disposition described the object of the deed and the will THe ^' and intention of the grantor. 9. The Final Clauses en- nm"' 1 sured the fulfilment of the terms of the deed ; guarded The hiaai a g a ; nst infringement, by comminatory anathemas and im- ciauses. p reca ti onSi n ot infrequently of a vehement description, or by penalties ; guaranteed the validity of the deed ; enumerated the formalities of subscription and execution ; reserved rights, &c. Next comes the final protocol or eschatocol comprising : the Date, the Appreciation, the Authentication. It was particularly in this portion of the deed that the varying practices of the several n chanceries led to minute and intricate distinctions at The Date, different periods. 10. The Date. By the Roman law every act must be dated by the day and the year of execution. Yet in the middle ages, from the 9th to the 12th century, a large proportion of deeds bears no date. In the most ancient charters the date clause was frequently separated from the body of the deed and placed " in an isolated position at the foot of the sheet. From the 12th century it commonly followed the text immediately. Certain classes of documents, such as decrees of councils, notarial deeds, &c, began with The Super- The Au- thentica- tion. the date. The usual formula was data, datum, actum, factum, scrip- turn. In the Carolingian period a distinction grew up between datum and actum, the former applying to the time, the latter to the place, of date. In the papal chancery from an early period down to the 12th century the use of a double date prevailed, the first following the text and being inserted by the scribe when the deed was written (scriptum), the second b£ing added at the foot of the deed on its execution (actum), by the chancellor or other high functionary. From the Roman custom of dating by the consular year arose the medieval practice of dating by the regnal year of emperor, king or pope. Special dates were sometimes employed, such as the year of some great historical event, battle,; siege, pesti- lence, &c. 11. The Appreciation. The feliciter of the _. . " Romans became the medieval feliciter in Domino, or ' la fj „ In Dei nomine feliciter, or the more simple Deo gratias or the still more simple Amen, for the auspicious closing of a deed. In Merovingian and Carolingian diplomas it follows the date; in other cases it closes the text. In the greater papal bulls it appears in the form of a triple Amen. Benevalete was also employed as the appreciation in early deeds; but in Merovingian diplomas and in papal bulls this valedictory salutation becomes a mark of authentica- tion, as will be noticed below. 12. The Authentication was a solemn proceeding which was discharged by more than one act. The most important was the subscription or subscriptions of the person or persons from whom the deed emanated. The laws of the late Roman empire required the subscriptions and the impressions of the signet seals of the parties and of the witnesses to the deed. The subscription (subscriptio) com- prised the name, signature and description of the person signing. The impression of the signet (not the signature) was the signum, sometimes signaculum, rarely sigillum. The practice of subscribing with the autograph signature obtained in the early middle ages, as appears from early documents such as those of Ravenna. But from the 7th century it began to decline, and by the 12th century it had practically ceased. In Roman deeds an illiterate person affixed his. mark, or signum manuale, which was attested. The cross being an easy form for a mark, it was very commonly used and naturally became connected with the Christian symbol. Hence, in course of time, it came to be attached very generally to subscriptions, auto- graph or otherwise. Great personages who were illiterate required something more elaborate than a common mark. Hence arose the use of the monogram, the caracter nominis, composed of the letters of the name. The emperor Justin, who could not write, made use of a monogram, as did also Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths. Those Merovingian kings, likewise, who were illiterate, had their individual monograms ; and at length Charlemagne adopted the monogram as his regular form of signature. From his reign down to that of Philip the Fair the monogram was the recognized sign manual of the sovereigns of France (see Autographs). It was employed by the German emperors down to the reign of Maximilian I. The royal use of the monogram was naturally imitated by great officers and ecclesiastics. But another form of sign manual also arose out of the subscription. The closing word (usually subscripsi), written or abbreviated as sub., or iJ. or s., was often finished off with flourishes and interlacings, sometimes accompanied with Tironian notes, the whole taking the shape of a domed structure to which the French have given the name of ruche or bee-hive. Thus in the early middle ages we have deeds authenticated by the subscription, usually autograph, giving the name and titles of the person executing, and stating the part taken by him in the- deed, and closing with the subscripsi, often in shape of the ruche and constituting the signum manuale. If not autograph, the subscription might be impersonal in such form as signum (or signum manus) + N. In the Carolingian period, while phrases were constantly used in the body of the deed implying that it was executed by autograph subscription, it did not necessarily follow that such subscription was actually written in person. The ruche was also adopted by chancellors, notaries and scribes as their official mark. While autograph subscriptions continued to be employed, chiefly by ecclesiastics, down to the begin- ning of the 12th century, the monogram was perpetuated from the ioth century by the notaries. Their marks, simple at first, became so elaborate from the end of the 13th century that they found it necessary to add their names in ordinary writing, or also to employ a le.ss complicated design. This was the_ commencement of the modern practice of writing the signature which first came into vogue in the 14th century.' To lend further weight and authority to the subscription, certain symbols and forms were added at different periods. Imitating, the corroborative Legi of the Byzantine quaestor and the Legimus , of the Eastern emperors, the Frankish chancery in the West made use of the same form, notably in the reign of Charles the Bald, in some of whose diplomas the Legimus appears written in larger letters in red. The valedictory Benevalete, employed in early deeds as a form of appreciation (see above), appears in Merovingian and in fheBene- early Carolingian royal diplomas, and also in papal bulls, valete% as an authenticating addition to the subscription. In the diplomas it was written in cursive letters in two lines, Bene valete, just to the right of the incision cut in the sheet to hold fast the seal, which sometimes even covered part of the word. In the mostancient papal bulls it was written by the pope himself at the foot of the deed. DIPLOMATIC 303 in two lines, generally in larger capital or uncial characters, placed between two crosses. From the beginning of the nth century it became the fashion to link the letters; and, dating from the time of Leo IX., a.d. 1048-1054, the Benevalete was inscribed in form of a monogram. During Leo's pontificate it was also accompanied with a flourish called the Komma, which was only an exaggeration of the mark of punctuation (periodus) which from the 9th to the nth century closed the subscription and generally resembled the modern semicolon. Leo's successors abandoned the Komma, but the mono- grammatic Benevalete continued, invariable in form, but from time to time varying in size. In Leo IX. 's pontificate also was introduced the Rota. This sign, when it had received its final shape in the The Rota. XI th century, was in form of a wheel, composed of two concentric circles, in the space between which was written the motto Or device of the pope (signum papae), usually a short sentence from one of the Psalms or some other portion of Scripture; preceded by a small cross, which the pontiff himself sometimes inscribed. The central space within the wheel was divided (by cross lines) into four quarters, the two upper ones being occupied by the names of the apostles St Peter and St Paul, and the two lower ones by the name of the pope. The Rota was placed on the left of the subscription, the rnonogrammatic Benevalete on the right. The two signs were likewise adopted by certain ecclesiastical chanceries and by feudal lords, particularly in the 12th century. From the same period also the Spanish and Portuguese monarchs adopted the Rota, the signo rodado, which is so conspicuous in the royal charters of the Peninsula. Besides the subscription, an early auxiliary method of authentica- tion was by the impression of the seal which, as noticed above, was Sealing. required by the Roman law. But the general use of the signet gradually failed, and by the 7th century it had ceased. Still it survived in the royal chanceries, and the sovereigns both of the Merovingian and of the Carolingian lines had their seals ; and, in the 8th century, the mayors of the palace like- wise. It is interesting to find instances of the use of antique intaglios for the purpose by some of them. In England too there is proof that the Mercian kings Offa and Coenwulf used seals, in imitation of the Frankish monarchs. In the 7th century, and still more so in the 8th and 9th centuries, the royal seals were of exaggerated size : the precursors of the great seals of the later sovereigns of western Europe. The waxen seals of the early diplomas were in all cases en placard: that is, they were attached to the face of the document and not sus- pended from it, being held in position by a cross-cut incision in the material, through which the wax was pressed and then flattened at the back. On the cessation of autograph signatures in subscriptions, the general use of seals revived, beginning in the 10th century and becoming the ordinary method of authentication from the 12th to the 15th century inclusive. Even when signatures had once again become universal, the seal continued to hold its place; and thus sealing is, to the present day, required for the legal execution of a deed. The attachment en placard was discontinued, as a general practice, in the middle of the nth century; and seals thenceforward were, for the most part, suspended, leathern thongs being used at first, and afterwards silken and hempen cords or parchment labels. In documents of minor importance it was sometimes the custom to impress the seal or seals on one or more strips of the parchment of the deed itself, cut, but not entirely detached, from the lower margin, and left to hang loose. Besides waxen impressions of seals, im- pressions in metal, bearing a device on both faces, after the fashion of a coin, and suspended, were employed from an early period. The most widely known instances are the bullae attached to papal docu- ments, generally of lead. The earliest surviving papal bulla is one of Pope Zacharias, a.d. 746, but earlier examples are known from drawings. The papal bulla was a disk of metal stamped on both sides. From the time of Boniface V. to Leo IV., a.d. 617-855, the name of the pontiff, in the genitive case, was impressed on the obverse, and his title as pope on the reverse, e.g. Bonifati/ papae. After that period, for some time, the name was inscribed in a circle round a central ornament. Other variations followed; but at length in the pontificate of Paschal II., A.D. 1099, the bulla took the form which it afterwards retained: on the obverse, the heads of the apostles St Peter and St Paul; on the reverse, the pope's name, title and number in succession. In the period of time betwreen his election and consecration, the pope made use of the half-bull, that is, the obverse only was impressed. It should be mentioned that, in order to conform to modern conditions and for convenience of despatch through the post, Leo XIII., in 1878, substituted for the leaden bulla a red ink stamp bearing the heads of the two apostles with the name of the pope inscribed as a legend. The Carolingian monarchs also used metal bullae. None of Charlemagne's have survived, but there are still extant leaden ex- amples of Charles the Bald. The use of lead was not persisted in either in the chancery of France or in that of Germany. Golden bullae were employed on special occasions by both popes and temporal monarchs; for example, they were attached to the confirmations of the elections of the emperors in the 12th and 13th centuries; the bull of Leo X. conferring the title of Defender of the Faith on Henry VIII. in 1524, and the deed of alliance between Henry and Francis I. in 1527, had golden bullae; and other examples could be cited. But lead has always been the common metal to be thus employed. In the southern countries of Europe, where the warmth of the climate renders wax an undesirable material, leaden bullae have been in ordinary use, not only in Italy but also in the Peninsula, in southern France, and in the Latin East (see Seals). The necessity of conforming to exact phraseology in diplomas and of observing regularity in expressing formulas naturally led to the compilation of formularies. From the early middle ages p orma . the art of composition, not only of charters but also of larles general correspondence, was commonly taught in the monasteries. The teacher was the dictator, his method of teaching was described by the verb dictare, and his teaching was dictamen or the ars dictaminis. ■ For the use of these monastic schools, formularies and manuals comprising formulas and models for the composition of the various acts and documents soon became indispensable. At a later stage such formularies developed into the models and treatises for epistolary style which have had their imitations even in modern times._ The widespread use of the formularies had the advantage of imposing a certain degree of uniformity on the phrasing of documents of the western nations of Europe. Those compilations which are of an earlier period than the nth century have been systematically examined and are published ; those of more recent date still remain to be thoroughly edited. The early formularies are of the simpler kind, being collections of formulas without dissertation. The Formulae Marculfi, compiled by the monk Marculf about the year 650, was the most important work of this nature of the Merovingian period and became the official formulary of the time ; and it con- tinued in use in a revised edition in the early Carolingian chancery. Of the same period there are extant formularies compiled at various centres, such as Angers, Tours, Bourges, Sens, Reichenau, St Gall, Salzburg, Passau, Regensburg, Cordova, &c. (see Giry, Manuel de diplomatique, pp. 482-488). The Liber diurnus Romanorum Pontificum was compiled in the 7th and 8th centuries, and was em- ployed in the papal chancery to the end of the I Ith century. Of the more developed treatises and manuals of epistolary rhetoric which succeeded, and which originated in Italy, the earliest example was the Breviarium de dictamine of the monk Alberic of Monte Cassiro, compiled about the year 1075. Another well-known work, the Rationes dictandi, is also attributed to the same author. Of later date was the Ars dictaminis of Bernard of Chartres ot the 12th century. (Among special works on formularies are: E. de Roziere, Recueil general des formules usitees dans V empire des Francs (3 vols., Paris, 1861-1871); K. Zeumer, Formulae Merovingici et Karolini aevi (Hanover, 1886) ; and L. Rockinger, Briefsteller und Formelbiicher des II bis. 14 Jahrhunderts (Munich, 1863-1864). Organization. — The formalities observed by the different chanceries of medieval Europe, which are to be learned from a study of the documents issued by them, are so varied and often so minute, that it is impossible to give a full account of them within the limits of the present article. We can only state some of the results of the investigations of students of diplomatic. The chancery which stands first, and foremost is the papal chancery. On account of its antiquity and of its steady develop- ment, it has served as a model for the other chanceries of Europe. Organized in remote times, it adopted for ^nce the structure of its letters a number of formulas and rules which developed and became more and more fixed and precise from century to century. The Apostolic court being organized from the first on the model of the Roman imperial court, the early pontiffs would naturally have collected their archives, as the emperors had done, into scrinia. Pope Julius I., A.d. 337-3S3, reorganized the papal archives under an official schola notariorum, at the head of which was a primicerius notariorum. Pope Damasus, a.d. .366-384, built a record office at the Lateran, archivium sanctae Romanae ecclesiae, where the archives were kept and registers of them compiled. The collec- tion and orderly arrangement of the archives provided material for the establishment of regular diplomatic usages, and the science of formulae naturally followed. For the study of papal documents four 'periods have been defined, each successive period being distinguished from its predecessor by some particular development of forms and procedure. The first period is reckoned from the earliest times to the accession of Leo IX., a.d. 1048. For almost the whole of the first eight centuries no original papal documents have survived. But copies are found in canonical works and registers, many of them false, and others probably not transcribed in full or in the original words; but still of use, as showing the growth of formulas. The earliest original document is a fragment of a letter of Adrian I., a.d. 788. From that date there is a series, but the documents are rare to the beginning of the nth century, all down to that period beirig written on papyrus. The latest existing 3°4 DIPLOMATIC papyrus document in France is one of Sergius IV., a.d. ioii; in Germany, one of Eenedict VIII., a.d. 1022. The earliest docu- ment on vellum is one of John XVIII., a.d. 1005. The nomencla- ture of papal documents even at an early period is rather wide. In their earliest form they are Letters, called in the documents themselves, litterae, epistola, pagina, scriptum, sometimes decretum. A classification, generally accepted, divides them into: 1. Letters or Epistles: the ordinary acts of correspondence with persons of all ranks and orders; including constitutions (a later term) or decisions in matters of faith and discipline, and encyclicals giving directions to bishops of the whole church or of individual countries. 2. Decrees, being letters promulgated by the popes of their own motion. 3. Decretals, decisions on points of ecclesiastical administration or discipline. 4. Rescripts (called in the originals preceptum, auctoritas, privilegium) , granting requests to petitioners. But writers differ in their terms, and such sub- divisions must be more or less arbitrary. The comprehensive term " bull " (the name of the leaden papal seal, bulla, being transferred to the document) did not come into use until the 13 th century. Copies of papal deeds were collected into registers or bullaria. Lists showing the chronological sequence of documents are catalogues of acts. When into such lists indications from narrative sources are introduced they become regesta {res gestae) : a term not to be confused with " register." Clearness and conciseness have been recognized as attributes of early papal letters; but even in those of the 4th century certain rhythmical periods have been detected in their composition which became more marked under Leo the Great, a.d. 440-461, and which developed into the cursus or prose rhythm of the pontifical chancery of the nth and 12th centuries. In the most ancient deeds the pope styles himself Episcopus, sometimes Episcopus Catholicae Ecclesiae, or Episcopus Romanae Ecclesiae, rarely Papa. Gregory I., a.d. 590, was the first to adopt the form Episcopus, servus servorum Dei, which became general in the 9th century, and thenceforth was invariable. The second period of papal documents extends from Leo IX. to the accession of Innocent III., a.d. 1048-1198. At the beginning of the period formulae tended to take more definite shape and to become fixed. In the superscription of bulls a distinction arose : those which conferred lasting privileges employing the words in perpetuum to close this clause; those whose benefaction was of a transitory character using the form of salutation, salutem el apostolicam benedictionem. But it was under Urban II., a.d. 1088-1099, that the principal formulae became stereotyped. Then the distinction between documents of lasting, and those of transitory, value became more exactly defined; the former class being known as greater bulls, bullae majores (also called privilegia), the latter lesser bulls, bullae minores. The leading characteristics of the greater bulls were these: The first line containing the superscription and closing with the words in perpetuum (or, some- times, ad perpetuam, or aeternam, rei memoriam) was written in tall and slender ornamental letters, close packed; the final clauses of the text develop with tendency to fixity; the pope's subscription is accompanied with the rota on the left and the benevalete monogram on the right; and certain elaborate forms of dating are punctiliously observed. The introduction of subscriptions of cardinals as witnesses had gradually become a practice. Under Victor II., a.d. 1055-1057, the practice became more confirmed, and after the time of Innocent II., a.d. 1130- 1145, the subscriptions of the three orders were arranged accord- ing to rank, those of the cardinal bishops being placed in the centre under the papal subscription, those of the priests under the rota on the left, and those of the deacons under the benevalete on the right. In the lesser bulls simpler forms were employed; there was no introductory line of stilted letters; the salutation, salutem et apostolicam benedictionem, closed the superscription; the final clauses were shortened; there was neither papal sub- scription, nor rota, nor benevalete; the date was simple. From the time of Adrian I., a.d. 772-795, the system of double dating was followed in the larger bulls. • The first date was written by the scribe of the document, scriptum per manum N. with the month (rarely the day of the month) and year of the indiction. The second, the actual date of the execution of the deed, was entered (ostensibly) by some high official, data, or datum, per manum N., and contained the day of the month (according to the Roman calendar), the year of indiction, the year of pontificate (in some early deeds, also th= year of the empire and the post- consulate year), and the year of the Incarnation, which, however, was gradually introduced and only became more common in the course of the 1 1 th century. For example, a common form of a full date would run thus: Datum Later ani, per manum N., sanctae Romanae ecclesiae diaconi cardinalis, xiiii. hi. Maii, indictione V ., anno dominicae Incarnationis mxcvii., pontificatus autem domini papae Urbani secundi X°. The simpler form of the date of a lesser bull might be: Datum Later ani, Hi. non. Jan., pontificatus nostri anno iiii. By degrees the use of the lesser bulls almost entirely superseded that of the greater bulls, which became exceptional in the 13th century and almost ceased after the migration to Avignon in 1309. In modern times the greater bulls occasionally reappear for very solemn acts, as bullae consistoriales, executed in the consistory. The third period of papal documents extends from Innocent III. to Eugenius IV., a.d. 1198-1431. The pontificate of Innocent III. was a most important epoch in the history of the development of the papal chancery. Formulas became more exactly fixed, definitions more precise, the observation of rules and precedents more constant. The staff of the chancery was reorganized. The existing series of registers of papal documents was then com- menced. The growing use of lesser bulls for the business of the papal court led to a further development in the 13th century. They were now divided into two classes : Tituli and Mandamenta. The former conferred favours, promulgated precepts, judgments, decisions, &c. The latter comprised ordinances, commissions, &c, and were executive documents. There are certain features which distinguish the two classes. In the tituli, the initial letter of the pope's name is ornamented with openwork and the other letters are stilted. In the mandamenta, the initial is filled in solid and the other letters are of the same size as the rest of the text. In the tituli, enlarged letters mark the beginnings of the text and of certain clauses; but not in the mandamenta. In the former the mark of abbreviation is a looped sign; in the latter it is a horizontal stroke. In the former the old practice of leaving a gap between the letters s and t, and c and /, whenever they occur together in a word {e.g. is te, sane tus), and linking them by a coupling stroke above the line is continued; in the latter it disappears. The leaden bulla attached to a titulus (as a permanent deed) is suspended by cords of red and yellow silks; while that of a mandamentum (a temporary deed) hangs from a hempen cord. In the fourth period, extending from 143 1 to the present time, the tituli and mandamenta have continued to be the ordinary documents in use; but certain other kinds have also arisen. Briefs {brevia), or apostolic letters, concerning the personal affairs of the pope or the administration of the temporal dominion, or conceding indulgences, came into general use in the 13th century in the pontificate of Eugenius IV. They are written in the italic hand on thin white vellum; and the name of the pope with his style as papa is written at the head of the sheet, e.g. Eugenius papa iiii. They are closed and sealed with Seal of the Fisher- man, sub anulo Piscatoris. Briefs have almost superseded the mandamenta. The documents known as Signatures of the court of Rome or Latin letters, and used principally for the expedition of indulgences, were first introduced in the 1 5th century They were drawn in the form of a petition to the pope, which he granted by the words fiat ut petatur written across the top. They were not sealed; and only the pontifical year appears in the date. Lastly, the documents to which the name of Motu proprio is given are also without seal and are used in the administration of the papal court, the formula placet et ita motu proprio mandamus being signed by the pope. The character of the handwriting employed by the papal chancery is discussed in the article Palaeography. Here it will be enough to state that the early style was derived from the Lombardic hand, and that it continued in use down to the beginning of the 12th century; but that, from the 10th century, DIPLOMATIC 3°5 owing to the general adoption of the Caroline minuscule writing, it began to fail and gradually became so unfamiliar to the un- initiated, that, whileit still continued in use for papal bulls, it was found necessary to accompany them with copies written in the more intelligible Caroline script. The intricate, fanciful character, known as the Liter a sancti Petri, was invented in the time of Clement VIII., a.d. 1592-1605, was fully developed under Alexander VIII., 1689-1691, and was only abolished at the end of the year 1878 by Leo XIII. Of the chancery of the Merovingian line of kings as many as ninety authentic diplomas are known, and, of these, thirty-seven are originals, the earliest being of the year 625. The vingiaa most anc i ent examples were written on papyrus, vellum chancery, superseding that material towards the end of the 7th century. All these diplomas are technically letters, having the superscription and address and, at the foot, close to the seal, the valedictory benevalete. They commence with a monogrammatic invocation, which, together with the superscrip- tion and address written in fanciful elongated letters, occupies the first line. The superscription always runs in the form, N. rex Francorum. The most complete kinds of diplomas were authenticated by the king's subscription, that of the referendarius (the official charged with the custody of the royal seal), the impression of the seal, and exceptionally by subscriptions of prelates and great personages. The royal subscription was usually autograph; but, if the sovereign were too young or too illiterate to write, a monogram was traced by the scribe. The referendary, if he countersigned the royal subscription, added the word optulit to his own signature; if he subscribed independently, he wrote recognovit et subscripsit, the end of the last word being usually lost in flourishes forming a ruche. The date gave the place, day, month and year of the reign. The Merovingian royal diplomas are of two classes: (1) Precepts, conferring gifts, favours, immunities and confirmations, entitled in the documents themselves as praeceplum, praeceptio, auctorilas; some drawn up in full form, with preamble and ample final clauses; others less precise and formal. (2) Judgments (judicia), which required no preamble or final clauses as they were records of the sovereign's judicial decisions; they were subscribed by the referendary and were sealed with the royal seal. Other classes of documents were the cartae de mundeburde, taking persons under the royal pro- tection, and indiculi or letters transmitting orders or notifying decisions; but no examples have survived. The diplomas of the early Carolingians differed, as was natural, but little from those of their predecessors. As mayors of the palace, Charles Martel and Pippin took the style of lagiaa ^ r i n ^ us ^ er - On becoming king, Pippin retained it; chancery. Pippinus, vir Muster, rex Francorum, and it continued to be part of the royal title till Charlemagne became emperor. The royal subscription was in form of a sign-manual or mark; but Charlemagne elaborated this into a monogram of the letters of his name built up on a cross. In 775 the royal title of Charlemagne became Carolus, gratia Dei rex Francorum et Langobardorum, ac patricius Romanorum, the last words being assumed on his visit to Rome in 774. On becoming emperor in 800, he was styled Imperator, Romanum gubernans imperium, rex Francorum et Langobardorum. It is to be noticed that thenceforth his name was spelt with initial K (as it was on the monogram), having previously been written with C in the deeds. Most of his diplomas were authenticated by the subscription of the chancellor and impression of the seal. A novelty in the form of dating was also introduced, two words, datum (for time) and actum (for place), being now employed. The character of the writing of the diplomas, founded on the Roman cursive hand, which had become very intricate under the Merovingians, improved under their successors, yet the reform which was introduced into the literary script hardly affected the cursive writing of diplomatic until the latter part of Charlemagne's reign. The archaic style was particularly maintained in judgments, which were issued by the private chancery of the palace, a department more con- servative in its methods than the imperial chancery. It was in the reign of Louis Debonair, a.d. 814-840, that the Carolingian diploma took its final shape. A variation now appears in the monogram, that monarch's sign-manual being built up, not on a cross as previously, but on the letter H., the initial of his name Hludovicus, and serving as the pattern for successive monarchs of the name of Louis. In the Carolingian chancery the staff was exclusively ecclesi- astical; at its head was the chancellor, whose title is traced back to the cancellarius, or petty officer under the Roman empire, stationed at the bar or lattice (cancelli) of the basilica or other law court and serving as usher. As keeper of the royal archives his subscription was indispensable for royal acts. The diplomas were drawn up by the notaries, an important body, upon whom devolved the duty of maintaining the formulae and traditions of the office. It has been observed that in the 9th century the documents were drawn carefully, but that in the 10th century there was a great degeneration in this respect. Under the early Capetian kings there was great confusion and want of uniformity in their diplomas; and it was not until the reign of Louis VI., a.d. 1 108, that the formulae were again reduced to rules. The acts of the imperial chancery of Germany followed the patterns of the Carolingian diplomas, with little variation down to the reign of Frederick Barbarossa, a.d. 11 52-1 190. The sovereign's style was N. divina favente dementia a e %, a " n rex; after coronation at Rome he became imperator chancery. augustus. At the end of the 10th century, Otto III. developed the latter title into Romanorum imperator augustus. Under Henry III., and regularly from the time of Henry V., a.d. 1106-1125, the title before coronation has been Romanorum rex. The royal monogram did not necessarily contain all the letters of the name; but, on the other hand, from the year 976, it became more complicated and combined the imperial title with the name. For example, the monogram of Henry II. combines the words Henricus Romanorum imperator augustus. The flourished ruches also, as in the Frankish chanceries, were in vogue. Eventually they were used by certain of the chancellors as a sign-manual, and took fanciful shapes, such as a building with a cupola, or even a diptych. They disappear early in the 12th century, the period when in other respects the chancery of the Holy Roman Empire largely adopted a more simple style in its diplomas. Lists of witnesses, in support of the royal and official subscriptions, were sometimes added in the course of the nth century, and they appear regularly in documents a hundred years later. For the study of diplomatic in England, material exists in two distinct series of documents, those of the Anglo-Saxon period, and those subsequent to the Norman Conquest. The Anglo- Saxon kings appear to have borrowed, partially, the m aUcin style of their diplomas from the chanceries of their England. Frankish neighbours, introducing at the same time modifications which give those documents a particular character marking their nationality. In some of the earlier examples we find that the lines of the foreign style are followed more or les? closely; but very soon a simpler model was adopted which, while it varied in formulas from reign to reign, lasted in general con- struction down to the time of the Norman Conquest. The royal charters were usually drawn up in Latin, sometimes in Anglo- Saxon, and began with a preamble or exordium (in some instances preceded by an invocation headed with the chrismon or with a cross), in the early times of a simple character, but, later, drawn out not infrequently to great length in involved and bombastic periods. Then immediately followed the disposing or granting clause, often accompanied with a few words explaining the motive, such as, for the good of the soul of the grantor; and the text was closed with final clauses of varying extent, protecting the deed against infringement, &c. In early examples the dating clause gave the day and month (often according to the Roman calendar) and the year of the indiction; but the year of the Incarnation was also immediately adopted; and, later, the regnal year also. The position of this clause in the charter was subject to variation. The subscriptions of the king and of the personages witnessing the deed, each preceded by a cross, but all written by the hand of the scribe, usually closed the charter. A peculiarity was the introduction, in many instances, either in the body of the charter, 3-o6 DIPOiBNTO-wDiePEL or in a separate paragraph at the end* of the boundaries of the land granted, written in the native tongue. The sovereigns of the several kingdoms, of the Heptarchy, as well as those of the United Kingdom, usually styled themselves rex. But from the time of jEthelstan, a.d. 825-840, they also assumed fantastic titles in the text of their charters, such as: rex et primicerius, rex et rector, gubernator et rector, monarchus, and particularly the Greek basileus, and basileus industrius. At the same time the name of Albion was also frequently used for Britain. A large number of documents of the Anglo-Saxon period, dating from the 7th century, has survived, both original and copies entered in chartularies. Of distinct documents there are nearly two hundred; but a large proportion of these must be set aside as copies (both contemporary and later) or as spurious deeds. Although there is evidence, as above stated, of the use of seals by certain of the Mercian kings, the method of authentication of diplomas by seal impression was practically unknown to the Anglo-Saxon sovereigns, save only to Edward the Confessor, who, copying the custom which obtained upon the continent, adopted the use of a great seal. With the Norman Conquest the old tradition of the Anglo- Saxons disappeared. The Conqueror brought with him the practice of the Roman chancery, which naturally followed the Capetian model; and his diplomas of English origin differed only from those of Normandy by the addition of his new style, rex Anglorum, in the superscription. But even from the first there was a. tendency to simplicity in the new English chancery, not improbably suggested by the brief formalities of Anglo-Saxon charters, and, side by side with the more formal royal diplomas, others of shorter form and less ceremony were issued, which by the reign of Henry II. quite superseded the more solemn docu- ments. These simpler charters began with the royal superscrip- tion, the address, and the salutation, e.g. Willelmus, Dei gratia rex Anglorum, N. episcopo et omnibus baronibus et fidelibus suis ■Francis et Anglis salutem. Then followed the notification and the grant, e.g. Sciatis me concessisse, &c, generally without final clauses, or, if any, brief clauses of protection and warranty; and, at the end, the list of witnesses and the date. The regnal year was usually cited; but the year of the Incarnation was also sometimes given. The great seal was appended. To some of the Conqueror's charters his subscription and those of his queen and sons are attached, written by the scribe, but accompanied with crosses which may or may not be autograph. By the reign of John the simpler form of royal charters had taken final shape, and from this time the acts of the kings of England have been classified under three heads: viz. (1) Charters, generally of the pattern described above; (2) Letters patent, in which the address is general, Universis presentes litteras inspecturis, &c; the cor- roborative clause describes the character of the document, In cujus rei testimonium has literas nostras fieri iecimus patentes; the king himself is his own witness, Teste me ipso; and the great seal is appended; (3) Close letters, administrative documents convey- ing orders, the king witnessing, Teste me ipso. The style of the English kings down to John was, with few exceptions, Rex Anglorum; thenceforward, Rex Angliae. Henry II. added the feudal titles, dux Normannorum et Aquitanorum et comes A ndegavorum, which Henry III. curtailed to dux A quitaniae. John added the title dominus Hiberniae; Edward III., on claim- ing the crown of France, styled himself rex Angliae et Franciae, the same title being borne by successive kings down to the year 1 801; and Henry VIII., in 1321, assumed the title of fidei defensor. The formula Dei gratia does not consistently accompany the royal title until the reign of Henry II., who adopted it in 11 73 (see L. Delisle, Mimoire sur la chronologie des chartes de Henri II., in the Bibl. de V Ecole des Charles, lxvii. 361-401). The forms adopted in the royal chanceries were naturally imitated in the composition of private deeds which in all countries form the mass of material for historical and diplomatic research. The student of English diplomatic will soon remark how readily the private charters, especially conveyances of real property, fall into classes, ■ and how stereotyped the phraseology and formulae of each class become, Private deeds. only modified from time to time by particular acts of legislation. The brevity of the early conveyances is maintained through successive generations, with only moderate growth as time progresses through the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries. The different kinds of deeds which the requirements of society have from time to time called into existence must be learned by the student from the text-books. But a particular form of document which was especially in favour in England should be mentioned. This was the chirograph (Gr. %elp, a hand, ypafaw, to write), which is found even in the Anglo-Saxon period, and which got its name from the word chirographum, cirographum or cyrographum being written in large letters at the head of the deed. At first the word was written, presumably, at the head of each of the two authentic copies which the two parties to a transaction would require. Then it became the habit to use the word thus written as a tally, the two copies of the deed being written on one sheet, head to head, with the word between them, which was then cut through longitudinally in a straight, or more commonly waved or indented (in modum dentium) line, each of the two copies thus having half of the word at the head. Any other word, or a series of letters, might thus be employed; and more than two copies of a deed could thus be made to tally. The chirograph was the precursor of the modern indenture, the commonest form of English deeds, though no longer a tally. In other countries, the notarial instrument has performed the functions which the chirograph and indenture have discharged for us. Authorities. — General treatises, handbooks, &c, are J. Mabillon, De re diplomatica (1709); Tassin and Toustain, Nouveau Traite de diplomatique (1750-1765) ; T. Madox, Formulare Anglicanum (1702) ; G. Hickes, Linguarum septentrionalium thesaurus (1 703-1 705); F. S.Maffei, Istoria diplomatica (1727); G. Marini, I Papiri diplo- matici (1805); G. Bessel, Chronicon Gotwicense (De diplomatibus imperatorum ac regum Germaniae) (1732); A. Fumagalli, Delle istituzioni diplomatiche (1802); M. F. Kopp, Palaeographia crilica .(18 1 7-1829); K. T. G. Schdnemann, Versuch eines vollstandigen Systems der Diplomatik (18 1 8); T. Sickel, Lehre von den Urkunden der erstew Karolinger ■'(1867); J. Ficker, Beitrage zur Urkundenlehre (1877-1878); A. Gloria, Compendio delle lezioni di paleografia e diplomatica (1870) ; C. Paoli, Programma scolastico di paleografia Latina e di diplomatica (1888-1890); H. Bresslau, Handbuch der Urkundenlehre fur Deutschland und Italien (1889); A. Giry, Manuel de diplomatique (1894); F. Leist, Urkundenlehre (1893); E. M. Thompson, Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography, cap. xix. (1906); J. M. Kemble, Codex diplomaticus aevi Saxonici (1839- 1848) ; W. G. Birch, Cartularium Saxonicum (1885-1893) ; J. Mufioz y Rivero, Manuel de paleografia diplomatica Espanola (1890); M. Russi, Paleografia e diplomatica de' documenti delle provincie Napolitane (1883). Facsimiles are given in J. B. Silvestre, Paleo- graphie universale (English edition, 1850); and in the Facsimiles, &c, published by the Palaeographical Society (1873-1894) and the New Palaeographical Society (1903, &c.) ; and also in the following works: — A. Champollion-Figeac, Chartes et manuscrits sur papyrus (1840); J. A. Letronne, Diplomes et chartes de I'Spoque mero- vingienne (1845-1866); J. Tardif, Archives de I'Empire: Facsimile^ de chartes et diplomes merovingiens et carlovingiens (1866); G. H. Pettz, Schrifttafeln zum Gebrauch bei diplomatischen Vorlesungen (1844-1869); H. von Sybel and T. Sickel, Kaiser- urkunden in Abbildungen (1880-1891); J. von Pflugk-Harttung, Specimina selecta chartarum Pontificum Romanorum (1885^1887); Specimina palaeographica regestorum Romanorum pontificum (1888); Recueil de facsimiles & V usage de V Ecole des Chartes' (not published) (1880, &c); J. Mufioz y Rivero, Chrestomathia palaeographica: scripturae Hispanae veteris specimina (1890) ; E. A. Bond, Fac- similes of Ancient Charters xn the British Museum "(1873-1878): W. B. Sanders, Facsimiles of Anglo-Saxon Manuscripts (charters) (1878-1884); G. F. Warner and H. J. Ellis, Facsimiles of Royal and other Charters in the British Museum (1903). (E. M. T.) DIPOENUS and SCYLLIS, early Greek sculptors, who worked together, and are said to have been pupils of Daedalus. Pliny assigns to them the date 580 B.C., and says that they worked at Sicyon, which city from their time onwards became one of the great schools of sculpture. They also made statues for Cleonae' and Argos. They worked in wood, ebony and, ivory, and apparently also in marble. It is curious that no inscription bearing their names has come to light. DIPPEL, JOHANN KONRAD (1673-1734), German theologian and alchemist, son of a Lutheran pastor, was born at the castle of Frankenstein, near Darmstadt, on the 10th of August 1673. He studied theology at Giessen. After a short visit to Wittenberg- DIPSOMANIA^MPTERA 307 he went to Strassburg, where he lectured on alchemy and chiro- mancy, and occasionally preached. He gained considerable popularity, but was obliged after a time to quit the city, owing to his irregular manner of living. He had up to this time espoused the cause of the orthodox as against the pietists; but in his two first works, published under the name " Christianus Democritus," Orthodoxia Orthodoxorum (1697) and Papismus vapulans Pro- les'lanlium (1698), he assailed the fundamental positions of the Lutheran theology. He held that religion consisted not in dogma but exclusively in love and self-sacrifice. To avoid persecution he was compelled to wander from place to place in Germany, Holland, Denmark and Sweden. He took the degree of doctor of medicine at Leiden in 1711. He discovered Prussian blue, and by the destructive distillation of bones prepared the evil- smelling product known as Dippel's animal oil. He died near Berleburg on the 25th of April 1734. An enlarged edition of Dippel's collected works was published at Berleburg in 1 743. See the biographies by J. C. G. Ackermann (Leipzig, 1781), H. V. Hoffmann (Darmstadt, 1783), K. Henning (1881) and W. Bender (Bonn, 1882) ; also a memoir by K. Bucher in the Hislorisches Taschenbuch for 1858. DIPSOMANIA (from Gr. 8L\pa, thirst, and navia, madness), a term formerly applied to the attacks of delirium (q.v.) caused by alcoholic poisoning. It is now sometimes loosely used as equivalent to the condition of incurable inebriates, but strictly should be confined to the pathological and insatiable desire for alcohol, sometimes occurring in paroxysms. DIPTERA (5is, double, irrepa, wings), a term (first em- ployed in its modern sense by Linnaeus, Fauna Suecica, 1st ed., 1 746, p. 306) used in zoological classification for one of the Orders into which the Hexapoda, or Insecta, are divided. The relation of the Diptera (two-winged flies, or flies proper) to the other Orders is dealt with under Hexapoda (q.v.). The chief characteristic of the Diptera is expressed in the name of the Order, since, with the exception of certain aberrant and apterous forms, flies possess but a single pair of membranous wings, which are attached to the meso-thorax. Wing-covers and hind-wings are alike absent, and the latter are represented by a pair of little knobbed organs, the halteres or balancers, which have a controlling and directing function in flight. The other structural characters of the Order may be briefly summarized as: — mouth-parts adapted for piercing and sucking, or for suction alone, and consisting of a proboscis formed of the labium, and enclosing modifications of the other usual parts of the mouth, some of which, however, may be wanting; a thorax fused into a single mass; and legs with five-jointed tarsi. The wings, which are not capable of being folded, are usually transparent, but occasionally pigmented and adorned with coloured spots, blotches or bands; the wing-membrane, though sometimes clothed with minute hairs, seldom bears scales; the wing-veins, which are of great importance in the classification of Diptera, are usually few in number and chiefly longitudinal, there being a marked paucity of cross-veins. In a large number of Diptera an incision in the posterior margin of the wing, near the base, marks off a small lobe, the posterior lobe or alula, while connected with this but situated on the thorax itself there is a pair of membranous scales, or squamae, which when present serve to conceal the halteres. The antennae of Diptera, which are also extremely important in classification, are thread-like in the more primitive families, such as the Tipulidae (daddy-long-legs), where they consist of a considerable number of joints, all of which except the first two, and sometimes also trie last two, are similar in shape; in the more specialized families, such as the Tabanidae (horse-flies), Syrphidae (hover- flies) or Muscidae (house-flies, blue-bottles and their allies), the number of antennal joints is greatly reduced by coalescence, so that the antennae appear to consist of only three joints. In these forms, however, the third joint is really a complex, which in many families bears in addition a jointed bristle (arista) or style, representing the terminal joints of the primitive antenna. Although in the case of the majority of Diptera the body is more or less clothed with hair, the hairy covering is usually so short that to the unaided eye the insects appear almost bare; some forms, however, such as the bee-flies (Bombylius) and certain robber-flies (Asilidae) are conspicuously hairy. Bristles are usually present on the legs, and in the case of many families on the body also; those on the head and thorax are of great importance in classification. Between 40,000 and 50,000 species of Diptera are at present known, but these are only a fraction of those actually in existence. The species recognized as British number some 2706, but to this total additions are constantly being made. As a rule flies are of small or moderate size, and many, such as certain blood-sucking midges of the genus Ceratopogon, are even minute; as extremes of size may be mentioned a common British midge, Ceratopogon varius, the female of which measures only i\ millimetre, and the gigantic Mydaidae of Central and South America as well as certain Australian robber-flies, which have a body 1% in. long, with a wing-expanse of 3^ in. In bodily form Diptera present two main types, either, as in the case of the more primitive and generalized families, they are gnat- or midge-like in shape, with slender bodies and long, delicate legs, or else they exhibit a more or less distinct resemblance to the common house-fly, having compact and Stoutly built bodies and legs of moderate length. Diptera in general are not remarkable for brilliancy of coloration; as a rule they are dull and inconspicuous in hue, the prevailing body- tints being browns and greys; occasionally, however, more especially in species (Syrphidae) that mimic Hymenoptera, the body is conspicuously banded with yellow; a few are metallic, such as the species of Formosia, found in the islands of the East Indian Archipelago, which are among the most brilliant of all insects. The sexes in Diptera are usually alike, though in a number of families with short antennae the males are distinguished by the fact that their eyes meet together (or nearly so) on the forehead. Metamorphosis in Diptera is complete; the larvae are utterly different from the perfect insects in appearance, and, although varying greatly in outward form, are usually footless grubs; those of the Muscidae are generally known as maggots. The pupa either shows the appendages of the perfect insect, though these are encased in a sheath and adherent to the body, or else it is entirely concealed within the hardened and contracted larval integument, which forms a barrel-shaped protecting capsule or puparium. Diptera are divided into some sixty families, the exact classi- fication of which has not yet been finally settled. The majority of authors, however, follow Brauer in dividing the order into two sections, Orthorrhapha and Cyclorrhapha, according to the manner in which the pupa-case splits to admit of the escape of the perfect insect. The general characteristics of the pupae in these two sections have already been described. In the Orthorrhapha, in the pupae of which the appendages of the perfect insect are usually visible, the pupa-case generally splits in a straight line down the back near the cephalic end ; in front of this longitudinal cleft there may be a small transverse one, the two together forming a T-shaped fissure. In the Cyclorrhapha on the other hand, in which the actual pupa is concealed within the hardened larval skin, the imago escapes through a circular orifice formed by pushing off or through the head end of the puparium. The Diptera Orthorrhapha include the more primitive and less specialized families such as the Tipulidae (daddy-long-legs), Culicidae (gnats or mosquitoes), Chironomidae (midges), Mycetophilidae (fungus-midges), Tab- anidae (horse-flies), Asilidae (robber-flies), &c. The Diptera Cyclorrhapha on the other hand consist, of the most highly specialized families, such as the Syrphidae (hover-flies) , Oestridat (bot and warble flies), and Muscidae (sensu latiore — the house-fly and its allies, including tsetse-flies, flesh-flies, Tachininae, or flies the larvae of which are internal parasites of caterpillars, &c). It is customary to divide the Orthorrhapha into the two divisions Nematocera and Brachycera, in the former of which the antennae are elongate and in a more or less primitive condition, as described above, while in the latter these organs are short, and, as already explained, apparently composed of only three joints. Within the divisions named— Orthorrhapha Nematocera, Orthorrhapha Brachycera and Cyclorrhapha — the constituent families are usually grouped into a series of " superfamilies," 3 o8 DIPTERAL— DIPTYCH distinguished by features of structure or habit. Certain extremely aberrant Diptera, which, in consequence of the adoption of a parasitic mode of life, have undergone great structural modifica- tion, are further remarkable for their peculiar mode of reproduc- tion, on account of which the families composing the group are often termed Pupipara. In these forms the pregnant female, instead of laying eggs, as Diptera usually do, or even producing a number of minute living larvae, gives birth at one time but to a single larva, which is retained within the oviduct of the mother until adult, and assumes the pupal state immediately on extrusion. The Pupipara are also termed Eproboscidea (although they actually possess a well-developed and functional proboscis), and by some dipterists the Eproboscidea are regarded as a suborder and contrasted as such with the rest of the Diptera, which are styled the suborder Proboscidea. By other writers Proboscidea and Eproboscidea are treated as primary divisions of the Cyclorrhapha. In reality, however, the families designated Eproboscidea {Hippoboscidae, Braulidae, Nycteribiidae and Slreblidae), are not entitled to be considered as constituting either a suborder, or even a main division of the Cyclorrhapha; they are simply Cyclorrhapha much modified owing to parasitism, and in view of the closely similiar mode of reproduction in the tsetse- flies the special designation Pupipara should be abandoned. Before leaving the subject of classification it may be noted in passing that in 1906 Professor Lameere, of Brussels, proposed a scheme for the classification of Diptera which as regards both the limits of the families and their grouping into higher categories differs considerably from that in current use. Little light on the relationship and evolution of the various families of Diptera is afforded by fossil forms, since as a rule the latter are readily referable to existing families. With the excep- tion of a few species from the Solenhofen lithographic Oolite, fossil Diptera belong to the Tertiary Period, during which the members of this order attained a high degree of development. In amber, as proved by the deposits on the shores of the Baltic, the proverbial " fly " is more numerous than any other crea- tures, and with very few exceptions representatives of all the existing families have been found. The famous Tertiary beds at Florissant, Colorado, have yielded a considerable number or remarkably well-preserved Tipulidae (in which family are included the most primitive of existing Diptera), as also species belonging to other families, such as Mycetophilidae and even Oeslridae. Diptera as an order are probably more widely distributed over the earth's surface than are the representatives of any similar division of the animal kingdom. Flies seem capable of adapting themselves to extremes of cold equally as well as to those of heat, and species belonging to the order are almost invariably included in the collections brought back by members of Arctic expeditions. Others are met with in the most isolated localities; thus the Rev. A. E. Eaton discovered on the desolate shores of Kerguelen's Island apterous and semi-apterous Diptera {Tipulidae and Ephydridae) of a degraded type adapted to the climatic peculi- arities of the locality. Many bird parasites belonging to the Hippoboscidae have naturally been carried about the world by their hosts, while other species, such as the house-fly, blow-fly and drone-fly, have in like manner been disseminated by human agency. Most families and a large proportion of genera are represented throughout the world, but in some cases {e.g. Glossina — see Tsetse-Fly) the distribution of a genus is limited to a continent. As a rule the general fades as well as dimensions are remarkably uniform throughout a family, so that tropical species often differ little in appearance from those inhabiting temperate regions. Many instances of exaggerated and apparently un- natural structure nevertheless occur, as in the case of the genera Pangonia, Nemestrina, Achias, Diopsis and the family Celyphidae, and, as might be expected, it is chiefly in tropical species that these peculiarities are found. To a geographical distribution of the widest extent, Diptera add a range of habits of the most diversified nature; they are both animal and vegetable feeders, an enormous number of species acting, especially in the larval state, as scavengers in consuming putrescent or decomposing matter of both kinds. The phytophagous species are attached tc various parts of plants, dead or alive; and the carnivorous in like manner feed on dead or living flesh, or its products, many larvae being parasitic on living animals of various classes (in Australia the larva of a species of Muscidae is even a parasite of frogs), especially the caterpillars of Lepidoptera, which are destroyed in great numbers by Tachininae. The recent discovery of a blood- sucking maggot, which is found in native huts throughout the greater part of tropical and subtropical Africa, and attacks the inmates when asleep, is of great interest. It may confidently be asserted that, of insects which directly or indirectly affect the welfare of man, Diptera form the vast majority, and it is a moot point whether the good effected by many species in the rapid clearing away of animal and vegetable impurities, and in keeping other insect enemies in check, counter- balances the evil and annoyance wrought by a large section of the Order. The part played by certain blood-sucking Diptera in the dissemination of disease is now well known (see Mosquito and Tsetse-Fly), and under the term myiasis medical literature includes a lengthy recital of instances of the presence of Dipterous larvae in various parts of the living human body, and the injuries caused thereby. That Diptera of the type of the common house-fly are often in large measure responsible for the spread of such diseases as cholera and enteric fever is undeniable, and as regards blood-sucking forms, in addition to those to which reference has already been made, it is sufficient to mention the vast army of pests constituted by the midges, sand-flies, horse- flies, &c, from the attacks of which domestic animals suffer equally with man, in addition to being frequently infested with the larvae of the bot and warble flies {Gastrophilus, Oestrus and Hypoderma). Lastly, as regards the phytophagous forms, there can be no doubt that the destruction of grass-lands by " leather- jackets " (the larvae of crane-flies, or daddy-long-legs, — Tipula oleracea and T. paludosa), of divers fruits by Ceratitis capitata and species of Dacus, and of wheat and other crops by the Hessian-fly {Mayeliola destructor) and species of Oscinis, Chlorops, &c, is of very serious consequence. With many writers it is customary to treat the fleas as a sub- order of Diptera, under the title Aphaniptera or Siphonaptera. Since, however, although undoubtedly allied to the Diptera, they must have diverged from the ancestral stem at an early period, before the existing forms of Diptera became so extremely specialized, it seems better to regard the fleas as constituting an independent order (see Flea). (E. E. A.) DIPTERAL (Gr. for " double- winged "), the architectural term applied to those temples which have a double range of columns in the peristyle, as in the temple of Diana at Ephesus. DIPTYCH (Gr. Siwrjxos, two-folding), (1) A tablet made with a hinge to open and shut, used in the Roman empire for letters (especially love-letters), and official tokens of the com- mencement of a consul's, praetor's or aedile's term of office. The latter variety of diptych was inscribed with the magistrate's name and bore his portrait, and was issued to his friends and the public generally. They were made of boxwood or maple. More costly examples were in cedar, ivory {q.v.), silver or sometimes gold. They were often sent as New Year gifts. (2)In the primitive church when the worshippers brought their own offerings of bread and wine, from which were taken the Communion elements, the names of the contributors were recorded on diptychs and read aloud. To these names were early added those of deceased members of the community whom it was desired to commemorate. This custom rapidly developed into a kind of commemoration of saints and benefactors, living and dead; especially, in each church, were the names of those who had been its bishops recorded. The custom was maintained until the lists became so long that it was impossible to read them through, and the observance in this form had to be abandoned. The insertion of a name on the diptych, thereby securing the prayers of the church, was a privilege from which a person could be excluded on account of suspicion of heresy or by the intrigues of enemies. His name could, if written, be expunged under similar circumstances. The names thus written were read from DIR— DIRECTORS 309 ihe ambo, in which the diptych was kept. The reading of these names during the canon of the mass gave rise to the term canoniza- tion. By various councils it was ordained that the name of the pope should always be inserted in the diptych list. The addition of dates resulted from the custom of recording baptisms and deaths; and thus the diptych developed into a calendar and formed the germ of the elaborate system of festologies, martyrologies and calendars which developed in the church. The diptych went by various names in the early church — mystical tablets, anniversary books, ecclesiastical matriculation registers or books of the living. According to the names in- scribed, bishops, the dead or the living, a diptych might be a diptycha episcoporum, diptycha mortuorum or diptycha vivorum. In course of time the list of the names swelled to such propor- tions that the space afforded by the diptych was insufficient. A third fold was consequently provided, and the tablet became a triptych (though the name diptych was retained as a general term for the object). Further room was afforded by the insertion of leaves of parchment or wood between the folds. The custom of reading names from the diptychs died out about the 8th century. The diptychs, however, were retained as altar ornaments. From the original consular documents onwards, the outsides of the folds had always been richly ornamented, and when they ceased to be of immediate practical use they became merely decora- tive. Instead of the list of names the inside was ornamented like the outer, and in the middle ages the best painters of the day would often paint them. When folded, the portraits of the donor and his wife might be shown; when open there would be three paintings, one on each fold, of a religious character. (R. A. S. M.) DIR, an independent state in the North- West Frontier Province of India, lying to the north-east of Swat. Its importance chiefly arises from the fact that it commands the greater part of the route between Chitral and the Peshawar frontier. The quarrels and intrigues between the khan of Dir and Umra Khan of Jandol were among the chief events that led up to the Chitral Campaign of 1895. During that expedition the khan made an agreement with the British Government to keep the road to Chitral open in return for a subsidy. Including the Bashkars, an aboriginal tribe allied to the Torwals and Garhuis, who inhabit Panjkora Kohistan, the population is estimated at about 100,000. DIRCE, in Greek legend, daughter of Helios the sun-god, the second wife of Lycus, king of Thebes. She sorely persecuted Antiope, his first wife, who escaped to Mount Cithaeron, where her twin sons Amphion and Zethus were being brought up by a herdsman who was ignorant of their parentage. Having recog- nized their mother, the sons avenged her by tying Dirce to the horns of a wild bull, which dragged her about till she died. Her body was cast into a spring near Thebes, which was ever after- wards called by her name. Her punishment is the subject of the famous group called " The Farnese Bull," by Apollonius and Tauriscus of Tralles, in the Naples museum (see Greek Art, Plate I. fig. 51). DIRECT MOTION, in astronomy, the apparent motion of a body of the solar system on the celestial sphere in the direction from west to east; so called because this is the usual direction of revolution and rotation of the heavenly bodies. DIRECTORS, in company law, the agents by whom a trading or public company acts, the company itself being a legal ab- straction and unable to do anything. As joint-stock companies have multiplied and their enterprise has extended, the position of directors has become one of increasing influence and importance. It is they who control the colossal funds now invested in trading companies, and who direct their policy (for shareholders are seldom more than dividend-drawers). Upon their uprightness, vigilance and sound judgment depends the welfare of the greater part of the trade of the country concerned. It is not to be wondered at that in view of this influence and independence of action the law courts have held directors to a strict standard of duty, and that the parliament of the United Kingdom has singled out directors from other agents for special legislation in the Directors Liability Act 1890, the Larceny Act 1861, the Companies Act 1867 and the Winding-up Act 1890. The first directors of a company are generally appointed by the articles of association. Their consent to act must now, under the Companies Act 1908, be filed with the registrar of joint-stock com- panies. Directors other than the first are elected at the annual general meeting, a certain proportion of the acting directors — usually one-third — retiring under the articles by rotation each year, and their places being filled up by election. A share qualifi- cation is nearly always required, on the well-recognized principle that a substantial stake in the undertaking is the best guarantee of fidelity to the company's interests. A director once appointed cannot be removed during his term of office by the shareholders, unless there is a special provision for that purpose in the articles of association; but a company may dismiss a director if the articles — as is usually the case — authorize dismissal. The authority and powers of directors are prima facie those necessary for carrying on the ordinary business of the company, but it is usual to define the more important of such powers in the articles of association. For instance, it is commonly prescribed how and when the directors may make calls, to what amount they may borrow, how they may invest the funds of the company, in what circumstances they may forfeit shares, or veto transfers, in what manner they shall conduct their proceedings, and what shall constitute a quorum of the board. Whenever, indeed, specific directions are desirable they may properly be given by the articles. But superadded to and supplementing these specific powers there is usually inserted in the articles a general power of management in terms similar to those of clause 55 of the model regulations for a company, known as Table A (clause 71 of the revised Table). The powers, whether general or specific, thus confided to directors are in the nature of a trust, and the directors must exercise them with a single eye to the benefit of the company. For instance, in allotting shares they must consult the interests of the company, not favour their friends. So in forfeiting shares they must not use the power collusively for the purpose of relieving the shareholder from liability. To do so is an abuse of the power and a fraud on the other shareholders. It would give a very erroneous idea of the position and functions of directors to speak of them — as is sometimes done — as trustees. They are only trustees in the sense that every agent is. They are " commercial men managing a trading concern for the benefit of themselves and the other shareholders." They have to carry on the company's business, to extend and consolidate it, and to do this they must have a free hand and a large discretion to deal with the exigencies of the commerical situation. This large discretion the law allows them so long as they keep within the limits set by the company's memorandum and articles. They are not to be held liable for mere errors of judgment, still less for being de- frauded. That would make their position intolerable. All that the law requires of them is that they should be faithful to their duties as agents — " diligent and honest," to use the words of Sir George Jessel , formerly master of the rolls. Thus in the matter of diligence it is a director's duty to attend as far as possible all meetings of the board; at the same time non-attendance, unless gross, will not amount to negligence such as to render a director liable for irregularities committed by his co-directors in his absence. A director again must not sign cheques without inform- ing himself of the purpose for which they are given. A director, on the same principle, must not delegate his duties to others unless expressly authorized to do so, as where the company's articles empower the directors to appoint a committee. Directors may, it is true, employ skilled persons, such as engineers, valuers or accountants, to assist them, but they must still exercise their judgment as business men on the materials before them. Then in the matter of honesty, a director must net accept a present in cash or shares or in any other form whatever from the company's vendor, because such a present is neither more nor less than a bribe to betray the interests of the company, nor must he make any profit in the matter of his agency without the knowledge and consent of his principal, the company. He must not, in other words, put himself in a position in which his duty to the company 3io DIRECTORYU-DIRSCHAU and his own. interest conflict or even may conflict. This rule often, comes into play in the case of contracts between a company and a director. There is nothing in itself invalid in such a contract, but the onus is on the director if he would keep such a contract to show that the company assented to his making a profit out of the; contract, and for that purpose he must show that he made full and fair disclosure to the company of the nature and extent of his interest under the contract. It is for this reason that when a company's vendor is also a director he does not join the board until his co-directors have exercised an independent judgment on the propriety of the purchase. A director must also bear in mind — what is a fundamental principle of company management^-tha't the funds of the company are entrusted to the directors for the objects of the company as defined by the company's memorandum of associa- tion and authorized by the general law, and that they must not be diverted from those objects or applied to purposes which are out- side the objects of the company, ultra vires, as it is commonly called, or outside the powers of management given by the share- holders to the directors. This does not abridge the large discre- tion allowed to directors in carrying on the business of the company. The funds embarked in a trading company are intended to be employed for the acquisition of gain, and risk, greater or less according to circumstances, is necessarily incidental to such employment; but it is quite another matter, when directors pay dividends out of capital, or return capital to the shareholders, or spend money of the company in " rigging " the market, or in buying the company's shares or paying commission for underwriting the shares of the company except where such commission is authorized under acts of 1900 and 1907, incorpor- ated in the Companies Act 1908. Directors who in these or any other ways misapply the funds of the company are guilty of what is technically known as "misfeasance" or breach of trust, and all who join in the misapplication are jointly and severally liable to replace the sums so misapplied. The remedy of the company for misfeasance, if the company is a going concern, is by action against the delinquent directors; but where a company is being wound up, the legislature has, under the Winding-up Act 1890, provided a summary mode of proceeding, by which the official receiver or liquidator, or any creditor or contributory of the company, may take out what is known as a misfeasance summons, to compel the delinquent director or officer ,to repay the misapplied moneys or make compensation. The departmental committee of the Board of Trade in its report (July 1906) recommended that the court should be given a discretionary power, analogous to that it already possesses in the case of trustees under the Judicial Trustees Act 1896, s. 3, to relieve a director (or a promoter) in certain cases from liability. This recommendation has been given effect to by s. 279 of the Companies Act 1908, which provides that, " If in any proceeding against a director of a company for negligence or breach of trust it appears to a court that the director is or may be liable in respect of the negligence or breach of trust, but has acted honestly and reasonably and ought. fairly to be excused for the negligence or breach of trust, the court may relieve him either wholly or partly from his liability on such terms as the court may think proper." Directors who circulate a prospectus containing statements which they know to be false, with intent to induce any person to become a shareholder, may be prosecuted under § 84 of the Larceny Act 1861. They arealso liable criminally for falsification of the company's books, and for this or any other criminal offence the court in winding up may, on the application of the liquidator, direct a prosecution. As to the liability of directors for state- ments or omissions in a prospectus see Company. In managing the affairs of the company directors must meet together and act as a body, for the company is ehtitled to their collective wisdom in council assembled. Board meetings are held at such intervals as the directors think expedient. Notice of the meeting must be given to all directors who are within reach, Out the notice need not specify the particular business to be trans- acted. The articles usually fix, or give the directors power to fix, what number shall constitute a quorum "for a board meeting. They also empower the directors to elect a chairman of the board. The directors exercise their powers by a resolution of the board which is recorded in the directors' minute-book. The court will not as a rule interfere with the discretion of directors honestly exercised in the management of the affairs of the company. The directors have prima facie the confidence of the shareholders, and it is not for the court to say that such con- fidence is misplaced. If the stockholders are dissatisfied witb the management' the remedy is in their own hands — they can call a meeting and elect a new board. ■ A company's articles usually provide for the payment of a certain sum to each director for his services during the year. When this is the case it is an authority to the directors to pay themselves the amount of such remuneration. The remuneration, unless otherwise expressly provided, covers all expenses incidental to the directors' duties. A director, for instance, cannot claim to be paid in addition to his fixed remuneration his travelling expenses for attending board meetings. When a company winds up, the directors' powers of manage- ment come to an end. Their agency is superseded in favour of that of the liquidator. (E. Ma.) DIRECTORY, a term meaning literally that which guides or directs, and so applied to a book or set of rules giving directions for public worship, The directorium or ordo of the Roman Church contains regulations as to the Mass and office to be used on each day throughout the year, and the word is found in the Directory for the Publick Worship of God drawn up in 1644 at the West- minster Assembly. The term now usually signifies a book contain- ing the names, addresses and occupations, &c. of the inhabitants of a town or district, or of a similar list of the users of a telephone supply, or of the members of a particular profession or trade. The name Directoire or Directory was given to the body which held the executive power in France from October 1795 until November 1799 (see French Revolution). DIRGE, a song or hymn of mourning, particularly one sung at funerals or at a Service in commemoration of the dead. It is derived from the first word of the antiphon " Dirige, Domine, Deus meus, in conspectu tuo viam meant " (Guide, O Lord, my God, my way in Thy sight), of the opening psalm in the office for the dead in the Roman Church. The antiphon is adapted from verse 8 of Psalm v. DIRK, a dagger, particularly the heavy dagger carried by the Highlanders of Scotland. The dirk as worn in full Highland costume is an elaborately ornamented weapon, with cairngorms or other stones set in the head of the handle, which has no guard. Inserted in the sheath there may be two small knives. The dirk, in the shape of a straight blade, with a small guard, some 18 in. long, is worn by midshipmen in the British navy. The origin of the word is doubtful. The earlier forms were dork and durk, and the spelling dirk, adopted by Johnson, represents the pronuncia- tion of the second form. The name seems to have been early applied to the daggers of the Highlanders, but the Gaelic word is biodag, and the Irish duirc, often stated to be the origin, is only an adaptation of the English word. It may be a corruption of the German Dokh, a dagger. The suggestion that it is an application of the Christian name " Dirk," the short form of " Dieterich," is not borne out, according to the New English Dictionary, by any use of this name for a dagger, and is further disproved by the earlier English spelling. DIRSCHAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, province of West Prussia, on the left bank of the Vistula, 20 m. S. from Danzig and at the junction of the important lines of railway Berlin-Konigsberg and Danzig-Bromberg. Pop. (1905) 14,18$. It has a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church and several schools. The river is here crossed by two fine iron bridges. The older structure dating from the year 1857, originally used for the railway, is now given up to road traffic, and the railway carried by a new bridge completed in 189 1. Dirschau has railway work- shops and manufactories of sugar, agricultural implements and cement. During the war with Poland, Gustavus Adolphus made it his headquarters for many months after its capture in 1626. DISABILITY-^DISCIPLES OF CHRIST 3M DISABILITY, a term meaning, in genera], want of ability, and used in law to denote an incapacity in certain persons or classes of persons for the full enjoyment of duties or privileges, which, but for their disqualification, would be open to them; hence, legal disqualification. Thus, married women, persons under age, insane persons, convicted felons are under disability to do certain legal acts. This disability may be absolute, wholly disabling the person so long as it continues, or partial, ceasing on discontinua- tion of the disabling state, as attainment of full age. DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. descharge, modern dicharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and carricare, to load, cf. " charge "), a word meaning relief from a load or burden, hence applied to the unloading of a ship, the firing of a weapon, the passage of electricity from an electrified body, the issue from a wound, &c. From the sense of relief from an obligation, " discharge " is also applied to the release of a soldier or sailor from military or naval service, or of the crew of a merchant vessel, or to the dismissal from an office or situation. In law, it is used of a document or other evidence that can be accepted as proof of the release from an obligation, as of a receipt, on payment of money due. Similarly it is applied to the release in accordance with law of a person in custody on a criminal charge, and to the legal release of a bankrupt from further liability for debts provable in the bankruptcy except those incurred by fraud or debts to the crown. It is also applied to the reversal of an order of a court. In the case of divorce, where the rule nisi is not made absolute, the rule is said to be discharged. DISCHARGING ARCH, in architecture, an arch built over a lintel or architrave to take off the superincumbent weight. The earliest example is found in the Great Pyramid, over the lintels of the entrance passage to the tomb: it consisted of two stones only, resting one against the other. The same object was attained in the Lion Gate and the tomb of Agamemnon, both in Mycenae, and in other examples in Greece, where the stones laid in horizontal courses, one projecting over the other, left a triangular hollow space above the lintel of the door, which was subsequently filled in by vertical sculptured stone panels. The Romans frequently employed the discharging arch, and inside the portico of the Pantheon the architraves have such arches over them. In the Golden Gateway of the palace of Diocletian at Spalato the discharging arches, semicircular in form, were adopted as archi- tectural features and decorated with mouldings. The same is found in the synagogues in Palestine of the 2nd century; and later, in Byzantine architecture, these moulded archivolts above an architrave constitute one of the characteristics of the style. In the early Christian churches in Rome, where a colonnade divided off the nave and aisles, discharging arches are turned in the frieze just above the architraves. DISCIPLE, properly a pupil, scholar (Lat. discipulus, from discere, to learn, and root seen in pupillus), but chiefly used of the personal followers of Jesus Christ, including the inner circle of the Apostles (q.v.). DISCIPLES OF CHRIST, or Christians, an American Pro- testant denomination, founded by Thomas Campbell, his son Alexander Campbell (q.v.) and Barton Warren Stone (i 772-1844). Stone had been a Presbyterian minister prominent in the Kentucky revival of 1801, but had been turned against sectarian- ism and ecclesiastical authority because the synod had condemned Richard McNemar, one of his colleagues in the revival, for preaching (as Stone himself had done) counter to the Westminster Confession, on faith and the work of the Holy Spirit in conversion. He had organized the Springfield Presbytery, but in 1804 with his five fellow ministers signed " The Last Will and Testament of the Springfield Presbytery," giving up that name and calling them- selves "Christians." Like Stone, Alexander Campbell had adopted (in 1812) immersion, and, like him, his two great desires were for Christian unity and the restoration of the ancient order of things. But the Campbellite doctrines differed widely from the hyper-Calvinism of the Baptists whom they had joined in 1813, especially on the points on which Stone had quarrelled with the Presbyterians; and after various local breaks in 1825-1830, when there were large additions to the Restorationists from the Baptist ranks, especially under the apostolic fervour and simplicity of the preaching of Walter Scott (1796-1861L in 1832 the Reformers were practically all ruled out of the Baptist com- munion. The Campbells gradually lost sight of Christian unity, owing to the unfortunate experience with the Baptists and to the tone taken by those clergymen who had met them in debates; and for the sake of Christian union it was peculiarly fortunate that in January 1832 at Lexington, Kentucky, the followers of the Campbells and those of Stone (who had stressed union more than primitive Christianity) united. Campbell objected to the name " Christians " as sectarianized by Stone, but " Disciples " never drove out of use the name " Christians." During the Civil War the denomination escaped an actual scission by following the neutral views of Campbell, who opposed slavery, war and abolition. In 1849 the American Christian Missionary Society was formed; it was immediately attacked as a " human innovation," unwarranted by the New Testament, by literalists led in lateryearsby Benjamin Franklin (secretary of the missionary society in 1857), who opposed all church music also. Isaac Errett (1820-1888) was the most prominent leader of the progressive party, which was considered corrupt and worldly by the literalists, many of whom, in spite of his efforts, broke off from the main body, especially in Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas and Texas. The main body appointed in 1890 a standing committee on Christian union; their aim in this respect is not for absorption, as was clearly shown by their answer in 1887 to overtures from the Protestant Episcopal Church regarding Christian unity. The credal position of the Disciples is simple: great stress is put upon the phrase " the Christ, the Son of the living God," and upon the recognition by Jesus of this confession as the foundation of His church; as to baptism, agreement with Baptists is only as to the mode, immersion; this is considered " the primitive confession of Christ and a gracious token of salvation," and as being " for the remission of sins "; the Disciples generally deny the authority over Christians of the Old Covenant, and Alexander Campbell in particular held this view so forcibly that he was accused by Baptists of " throwing away the Old Testament." The Lord's Supper is celebrated every Sunday, the bread being broken by the communicants. The Disciples are not Unitarian in fact or tendency, but they urge the use of simple New Testament phraseology as to the Godhead. Their church government is congregational. The growth of the denomination has been greatest in the states along the Ohio river, whence they have spread throughout the Union. In 1908 there were 6673 ministers and 1,285,123 communicants in the United States. There are churches in Canada, in Great Britain and in Australia. Bethany College, at Bethany, West Virginia, was chartered in 1840, and Alexander Campbell, who had founded it as Buffalo Seminary, was its president until his death in 1866; other colleges founded by the sect are : Kentucky University, Lexington, Ky. ; Hiram College, Hiram, Ohio (1850, until 1867 known as Western Reserve Eclectic Institute) ; Butler College, Indianapolis, Indiana (1855); Christian University, Canton, Missouri (1851; coeducational) ; Eureka College, in Woodford county, Illinois (1855; coeducational); Union Christian College, Merom, Ind. (1859); Texas Christian University, Waco, Texas (1873, founded as Add Ran College at Thorpe's Springs, removing to Waco in 1895) ; Drake University, Des Moines, Iowa (1881); Milligan College, Milligan, Tennessee (1882); Defiance College, Defiance, O. (1885); Cotner University, Lincoln, Nebraska (1889) ; Elon College, Elon, North Carolina (1890); American University, Harriman, Tenn. (1893); the Virginia Christian College, Lynchburg, Virginia (1903), and for negroes, the Southern Christian Institute, Edwards, Mississippi (1877), and the Christian Bible College, Newcastle, Henry County, Ky. Theological seminaries are the Berkeley Bible Seminary, Berkeley, California (1896) ; the Disciples' Divinity House, Chicago, 111. (1894); and the Eugene Divinity School, Eugene, Oregon (1895). Bible chairs " were established in state universities and elsewhere by the Disciples,- — at the University of Michigan (1893), at the University of Virginia (1899), at the University of Calcutta (1900) and at the University of Kansas (1901). The denomination has publishing houses in Cincinnati, St Louis, Louisville and Nashville. See Errett Gates's History of the Disciples of Christ (New York, 1905), in " The Story of the Churches " series, and his Early Relation and Separation of Baptists and Disciples (Chicago, 1904), a University of Chicago doctoral thesis; and B. B. Tyler's History of the Disciples of Christ in vol. xii. of " The American Church History Series " (New York, 1894). 312 DISCLAIMER— DISINFECTANTS DISCLAIMER, a renunciation, denial or refusal; a disavowal of claims. In law the term is used more particularly in the following senses : — ( i ) In the law of landlord and tenant, the direct repudiation of that relation by some act on the part of the tenant. A disclaimer may be verbal or written, but in such case it must be something more than a mere renunciation of the tenant's title, or it may be an act which is wholly inconsistent with the existence of such relation, as the setting up by the tenant of a distinct title either in himself or some third party. (2) In the law of bank- ruptcy, where any part of the property of a bankrupt consists of land of any tenure burdened with onerous covenants, of stocks or shares in companies, of unprofitable contracts, or of any property that is unsaleable, or not readily saleable, by reason of its binding the possessor to the performance of any onerous act, the trustee, notwithstanding that he has endeavoured to sell or has taken possession of the property, or exercised any act of ownership in relation to it, may, subject to certain provisions, by writing signed by him, at any time within twelve months after the first appoint- ment of a trustee, " disclaim " the property (see Bankruptcy). (3) In the law of trusts, disclaimer is the refusal or renunciation of the office or duties of a trustee. It is an undisputed rule that no one is compellable to undertake a trust, so that as soon as a person knows he has been appointed a trustee under some instrument, he should determine whether he will accept the office or not. Dis- claimer of trust should be by deed, as admitting of no ambiguity, but it may be by conveyance to other accepting trustees, or orally, or by written declaration, or even by conduct. (4) In the law of patents, disclaimer is the renunciation, by amendment of specifica- tions, of the portion of an- inventor's claim to protection. DISCOUNT. (1) A money-market term for the price paid in order to obtain immediate realization of a bill not yet due. If a bill for £100 due six months hence is discounted at the rate of 3 % per annum, its holder will obtain £98, 10s. in cash for it. (2) A Stock-Exchange term applied to a security, not fully paid, which has fallen below its issue price, and so is said to stand at so much discount. See Premium. DISCOVERY, in law, the revealing or disclosing of any matter. The English common law courts were originally unable to compel a litigant before a trial to disclose the facts and documents on which he relied. In equity, however, a different rule prevailed, there being an absolute right to discovery of all material facts on which a case was founded. Now the practice is regulated by the Rules of the Supreme Court, 1 883 , Order 3 1 . Discovery is of two kinds, namely, by interrogatories and by affidavit of documents, provision being also made for the production and inspection of documents. Where a party to a suit can make an affidavit stating that in his belief certain specified documents are or have been in the possession of some other party, the court may make an order that such party state on affidavit whether he has or ever had any of those documents in his possession, or if he has parted with them or what has become of them, A further application may then be made by notice to the party who has admitted possession of the documents for production and inspection. Copies also may be taken of the more important documents. There is also dis- covery of facts obtained by means of interrogatories, i.e. written questions addressed on behalf of one party, before trial, to the other party, who is bound to answer them in writing upon oath. In order to prevent needless expense the party seeking discovery must first secure the cost of it by paying into court a sum of money, generally not less than five pounds. See also Evidence. DISCUS (Gr. 51ck6s, disk), a circular plate of stone, later of metal, which was used by the ancient Greeks for throwing to a distance as a gymnastic exercise. Judging from specimens found by excavators, the ancient discus was about 8 or 9 in. in diameter and weighed from 4 to 5 lb, although one of bronze, preserved in the British Museum, weighs over 8 lb. Sometimes a kind of quoit, spherical in form, was used, through a hole in which a thong was passed to assist the athlete in throwing it. The sport of throwing the discus was common in the time of Homer, who mentions it repeatedly. It formed a part of the pentathlon, or quintuple games, in the ancient Olympic Games. Statius, in Thebais, 646-721, fully describes the use of the discus. In the British Museum there is a restored copy of a statue by Myron (see Greek Art, Plate IV. fig. 68) of a discus-thrower (discobolus) in the act of hurling the missile; but the investigations of N. E. Norman Gardiner show that a wrong attitude has been adopted by the restorer. Throwing the discus was introduced as an event in modern athletics at the revived Olympic Games, first held at Athens in 1896, and since that time it has become a recognized event in the athletic championship meetings of several European nations, as well as in the United States, where it has become very popular. According to the American rules the discus must be of a smooth, hard-wood body without finger-holes, weighted in the centre with lead disks and capped with polished brass disks, with a steel ring on the outside. Its weight must be 45 lb, its outside diameter 8 in. and its thickness at the centre 2 in. It must be thrown from a 7-ft. circle, which may not be overstepped in throwing, and the throw is measured from the spot where the discus first strikes the ground to the point in the circumference of the circle on a line between the centre and the point of striking. DISINFECTANTS, substances employed to neutralize the action of pathogenic organisms, and prevent the spread of contagious or infectious disease. The efficiency of any disinfectant is due to its power of destroying, or of rendering inert, specific poisons or disease germs. Therefore antiseptic substances generally are to this extent disinfectants. So also the deodorizers, which act by oxidizing or otherwise changing the chemical constitution of volatile substances disseminated in the air, or which prevent noxious exhalations from organic substances, are in virtue of these properties effective disinfectants in certain diseases. A knowledge of the value of disinfectants, and the use of some of the most valuable agents, can be traced to very remote times ; and much of the Levitical law of cleansing, as well as the origin of numerous heathen ceremonial practices, are clearly based on a perception of the value of disinfection. The means of disinfection, and the substances employed, are very numerous, as are the classes and conditions of disease and contagion they are designed to meet. . Nature, in the oxidizing influence of freely circulating atmospheric air, in the purifying effect of water, and in the powerful deodorizing properties of common earth, has provided the most potent ever-present and acting disinfecting media. Of the artificial disinfectants employed or available three classes may be recognized: — 1st, volatile or vaporizabie substances, which attack impurities in the air; 2nd, chemical agents, for acting on the diseased body or on the infectious discharges therefrom; and 3rd, the physical agencies of heat and cold. In some of these cases the destruction of the contagium is effected by the formation of new chemical compounds, by oxidation, deoxidation or other reaction, and in others the conditions favourable to life are removed or life is destroyed by high temperature. Among the first class, aerial or gaseous disinfectants, formic aldehyde has of late years taken foremost place. The vapour is a powerful disinfectant and deodorant, and for the surface disinfection of rooms, fulfils all requirements when used in sufficient amount. It acts more rapidly than equal quantities of sulphurous acid, and it does not affect colours. It is non-poisonous, though irritating to the eyes and throat. With the exception of iron and steel it does not attack metals. It can be obtained in paraform tabloids, and with a specially constructed spirit lamp disinfection can be carried out by any one. Twenty tabloids must be employed for every 1000 cubic ft. of space. Disinfection by sulphurous acid fumes is of great antiquity, and is still in very general use; for the purpose of destroying vermin it is more powerful than formic aldehyde. Camphor and some volatile oils have also been employed as air disinfectants, but their virtues lie chiefly in masking, not destroying, noxious effluvia. In the 2nd class — non-gaseous disinfecting compounds — all the numerous antiseptic substances may be reckoned; but the substances principally em- ployed in practice are oxidizing agents, as potassium manganates and permanganates, " Condy's fluid," and solutions of the so- called " chlorides of lime," soda and potash, with the chlorides of aluminium and zinc, soluble sulphates and sulphites, solutions of sulphurous acid, and the tar products — carbolic, cresylic and DISMAL— DISPENSATION 3*3 salicylic acids; Of the physical agents heat and cold, the latter, though a powerful natural disinfectant, is not practically available by artificial means; heat is a power chiefly relied on for purifying and disinfecting clothes, bedding and textile substances generally. Different degrees of temperature are required for the destruction of the virus of various diseases; but as clothing, &c, can be exposed to a heat of about 250 Fahr. without injury, provision is made for submitting articles to nearly that temperature. For the thorough disinfection of a sick-room the employment of all three classes of disinfectants, for purifying the air, for destroying the virus at its point of origin, and for cleansing clothing, &c, may be required. DISMAL, an adjective meaning dreary, gloomy, and so a name given to stretches of swampy land on the east coast of the United States, as the Dismal Swamp in Virginia and North Carolina. The derivation has been much discussed. In the early examples of the use the word is a substantive, especially in the expres- sion " in the dismal," i.e. in the dismal time or days. Later it became adjectival, especially in combination with " days." It has been connected with " decimal," med. Latin decimalis, belonging to a tithe or tenth, and thus the " dismal days " are the unpleasant days connected with the extortion and oppression of exacting payment of tithes. According to the New English Dictionary, quoting Professor W. W. Skeat, " dismal " is derived, through an Anglo-Fr. dis mal, from the Lat. dies mali, evil or unpropitious days. This Anglo-French expression, explained as les mal jours, is found in a MS. of Rauf de Linham's Art de Kalender, 1256. These days of evil omen were known as Dies Aegyptiaci (Du Cange, Glossarium, s.v.) or Egyptian days, either as having been instituted by Egyptian astrologers or with refer- ence to the " ten plagues "; so Chaucer, " I trowe hit was in the dismal, That were the ten woundes of Egipte " (Book of the Duchesse, 1206). There were two such days in each month. See Skeat, Trans. Philol. Soc. (1888), p. 2, and note on the line in the " Book of the Duchesse," The Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer, vol. i. (1894). DISORDERLY HOUSE, in law, a house in which the conduct of its inmates is such as to become a public nuisance, or a house where persons congregate to the probable disturbance of the public peace or other commission of crime. In England, by the Dis- orderly Houses Act 1751, the term includes common bawdy houses or brothels, 1 common gaming houses, common betting houses and disorderly places of entertainment. The keeping of such is a misdemeanour punishable by fine or imprisonment, and in the case of a brothel also punishable on summary conviction by the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885; the letting out for gain for indiscriminate prostitution of a room or rooms in a house will make it as much a brothel in law as if the whole house were let out for the purpose. Where, however, a woman occupies a house or room which is frequented by men for the purpose of committing fornication with her, she cannot be convicted of keeping a dis- orderly house. See also Prostitution. DISPATCH, or Despatch, to send off immediately, or by express; particularly in the case of the sending of official messages, or of the immediate sending of troops to their destina- tion, or the like. The word is thus used as a substantive of written official reports of events, battles and the like, sent by ambassadors, generals, &c, by means of a special messenger, or of express correspondence generally. From the primary meaning of the prompt sending of a message, &c, the word is used of the quick disposal of business, or of the disposal of a person by violence; hence the word means to execute or murder. The etymology of the word has been obscured by the connexion with the Fr. depecher, and deplche, which are in meaning the equivalents of 1 The etymology of this word has been confufed by the early adoption into English usage of the O. Fr. bordel. The two words are in origin quite distinct. Brothel is an O. Eng. word for a person, not a place. It meant an abandoned vagabond, one who had gone to ruin (abreolhan). Bordel, on the contrary, is a place, literally a small hut or shelter, especially for fornication, Med. Lat. bordellum, diminutive of the Late Lat. borda, board. The words were early confused, and brothel-house, bordel-house, bordel or brothel, are all used for a disorderly house, while bordel was similarly misused, and, like brothel in its proper meaning, was applied to a disorderly person. the Eng. verb and substantive. The Fr. word is made up of the prefix de-, Lat. dis-, and the root which appears in empecher, to embarrass, and means literally to disentangle. The Lat. origin of dSpicher and emptcher is a Low Lat. pedicare, pedica, a fetter. The Fr. word came into Eng. as depeach, which was in use from the 15th century until " despatch " was introduced. This word is certainly direct from the Ital. dispacciare, or Span, despackar, which must be derived from the Lat. root appearing in pactus, fixed, fastened, from pangere. The New English Dictionary finds the earliest instance of " dispatch " in a letter to Henry VIII. from Bishop Tunstall, commissioner to Spain in 1516-1517. DISPENSATION, a term with two main applications, (1) to the action of administering, arranging or dealing out, and (2) to the action of allowing certain things, rules, &c, to be done away with, relaxed. Of these two meanings the first is to be derived from the classical Latin use of dispensare, literally, to weigh out, hence to distribute, especially of the orderly arrangement of a household by a steward; thus dispensatio was, in theology, the word chosen to translate the Greek oUovo/xla, economy, i.e. divine or religious systems, as in the Jewish, Mosaic, Christian dispensa- tions. Dispensation in law is, strictly speaking, the suspension by competent authority of general rules of law in particular cases. Its object is to modify the hardships often arising from the rigorous application of general laws to particular cases, and its essence is to preserve the law by suspending its operation, i.e. making it non-existent, in such cases. It follows, then, that dis- pensation, in its strict sense, is anticipative, i.e. it does not absolve from the consequences of a legal obligation already contracted, but avoids a breach of the law by suspending the obligation to conform to it, e.g. a dispensation or licence to marry within the prohibited degrees, or to hold benefices in plurality. The term is, however, frequently used of the power claimed and exercised by the supreme legislative authority of altering or abrogating in particular cases conditions established under the existing law and of releasing individuals from obligations incurred under it, e.g. dispensations granted by the pope ex plenitudine potestatis from the obligation of celibacy, from religious and other vows, from matrimonium ratum, non consummatum, &c. 1. Ecclesiastical Law. — -In the theory of the canon law the dispensing power is the corollary of the legislative, the authority that makes laws, and no other, having power to suspend them. It follows that the law of nature (jus naturae) and a fortiori the law of God (jus divinum) are not subject to dispensation of any earthly authority, and that it is only the disciplinary laws made by the Church that the Church is empowered to suspend or to abrogate. Thus, not even the pope could grant a dispensation for a marriage between persons related in the direct line Of ascent or descent, e.g. father and daughter, or between brother and sister, while dispensations are granted for marriages within other prohibited degrees, e.g. uncle and niece. The dispensing power, like the legislative authority, was formerly invested in general councils and even in provincial synods; but in the West, with the gradual centralization of authority at Rome, it became ultimately vested in the pope as the supreme lawgiver of the Church. Subject, however, to the supreme jurisdiction of the pope, the power of dispensation con- tinued to reside in the other organs of the Church in exact proportion to their legislative capacities, i.e. in provincial synods in respect of regional rules laid down by them, and in bishops in respect of rules laid down by them for their dioceses. According to Du Cange, the earliest record of the use of the word dispensatio in this connexion is in the letter of Pope Gelasius I. of the nth of March 494, to the bishops of Lucania (in Jaff6, Reg. Pont. Rom., ed. 2, torn. i. no. 636): necessaria rerum Dispensatione con- stringimur, ... sic canonum paternorum decreta librare, . . . ut quae praesentium necessitas temporum restaurandis Ecclesiis relaxanda deposcit, adhibita consideratione diligenti, quantum fieri potest temperemus. 2 Dispensations from the observance 2 In this quotation the word dispensatio still has its meaning of " economy " : "we are bound by the necessary economy of things." Possibly its use by the pope in this connexion may have led to the technical meaning of the word dispensatio in the medieval canon law. 314 DISPENSATION of traditional -rules were, however, during the early centuries exceedingly rare, and there are more instances of the popes repudiating than of their exercising the power to grant them. Thus Celestine I. (d; 432) wrote: " The rules govern us, not we the rules: we are subject to the canons, since we are the servants of the precepts of the canons " (Epist. 3 ad Episcopos Illyrici) ; and Pope Zozimus wrote even more strongly: " This see possesses no authority to make any concession or change; for with us abides antiquity firmly rooted (inconvulsis radicibus), reverence for which the decrees of the Fathers enjoined." As time went on, however, and the Church expanded, this rigidly con- servative attitude proved impossible to maintain, and the principle of " tempering " the law when forced to do so " by the exigencies of affairs or of the times " fyerum vel temporum angustia), as laid down by Gelasius, was adopted into the canon law itself. The principle was, of course, singularly open to abuse. In theory it was laid down from the first that dispensations were only to be granted in cases of urgent necessity and in the highest interests of the Church; in practice, from the nth century onwards, the power of dispensation was used by the popes as one of the most potent instruments for extending their influence. Dispensations to hold benefices in plurality formed, with pro- visions and the papal claim to the right of direct appointment, a powerful means for extending the patronage of the Holy See and therefore its hold over the clergy, and from the 13th century onwards this abuse assumed vast proportions (Hinschius iii. p. 250). Even more scandalous was the almost unrestrained traffic in licences and dispensations at Rome, which grew up, at least as early as the 14th century , owing to the fees charged for such dispensations having come to be regarded by the Curia as a regular source of revenue (Woker, Das kirchliche Finanzwesen der Pdpste, Nordlingen, 1878, pp. 75, 160). Loud complaints of these abuses were raised in the reforming councils of Constance and- Basel in the 15th century, but nothing was done effectually to check them. The actual practice'of the Roman Catholic Church is based upon the decisions of the council of Trent, which left the medieval theory intact while endeavouring to guard against its abuses. The proposal put forward by the Gallican and Spanish bishops to subordinate the papal power of dispensation to the consent of the Church in general council was rejected, and even the canons of the council of Trent itself, in so far as they affected reformation of morals or ecclesiastical discipline, were decreed " saving the authority of the Holy See " (Sess. xxv. cap. 21, de ref.). At the same time it was laid down in respect of all dispensations, whether papal or other, that they were to be granted only for just and urgent causes, or in view of some decided benefit to the Church (urgens justaque causa et major quandoque utilitas), and in all cases gratis. The payment of money for a dispensation was ipso facto to make the dispensation void (Sess. xxv. cap. 18, de ref.). Though verbal dispensations are valid, papal dispensations are given in writing. Before the constitution Sapienti of Pius X. (190S) all dispensations in foro externo, especially in matrimonial causes, were dealt with by the Dataria Apostolica, those in foro interna by the Penitentiary, which latter also possessed in foro externo the right to grant dispensations in matrimonial causes to poor people. Since 1908 the Dataria only deals with dispensa- tions in matters concerning benefices, dispensations in matri- monial matters having been transferred to the new Congregation on the discipline of the sacraments (see Curia Romana). The regular form of dispensation is the forma commissaria (Trid. Sess. xxii. cap. 5, de ref.), i.e. a mandate to the bishop to grant the dispensation, after due inquiry, in the pope's name. In exceptional cases, e.g. sovereigns or bishops, the dispensation is sent direct to the petitioner (forma gratiosa). Dispensations are nominally gratuitous; but the officials are entitled to fees for drawing them up, and there are customary " compositions " (compositiones) which are destined for charitable objects in Rome. These fees were and are regulated according to the capacity of the petitioners to pay, the result being that the abuses which the council of Trent had sought to abolish continued to flourish. In the 17th century a specially privileged class of bankers (banquiers expSditionnaires) existed at Rome whose sole business was obtaining dispensations on commission, and one of these, named Pelletier, published at Paris in 1677, under the royal imprimatur > a regular tariff of the sums for which in any given case a dis- pensation might be obtained. That the " urgent and just cause " was, in the circumstances, a very minor consideration was to be expected, and the enlightened pope Benedict XIV., himself a canon lawyer of eminence, complained " Dispensationem non raro eoncedi in Dataria, sine causa, nempe ob eleemosynam quae praestatur " (Inst. 87, No. 26). It may be added that the worst abuses of this system have long since disappeared. The bishops have their own correspondents at Rome, and one of the duties of the diplomatic representatives of foreign states at the Curia' is to see that their nationals receive their dispensations without overcharge. Bishops are by right (jure ordinario) competent to dispense in all cases expressly reserved to them by the canon law, e.g. in the matter of publication of banns of marriage. They possess besides special powers delegated to them by the pope and renewed every five years (facultates quinquennales) , or by virtue of faculties granted to them personally > (facultates extraordinariae), e.g. to dispense from rules of abstinence, from simple vows, and with some exceptions from the prohibition of marriage within pro- hibited degrees. Church of England. — By 25 Henry VIII. cap. 21. sec. 2 (1534), it was enacted that neither the king, his successors, nor any of his subjects should henceforth sue for licences, dispensations, &c, to the see of Rome, and that the power to issue such licences, dispensations, &c, " for causes not being contrary or repugnant to the Holy Scriptures and laws of God," should be vested in the archbishop of Canterbury for the time being, who at his own discretion was to issue such dispensations, &c, under his seal, to the king -and his subjects. The power of dispensation thus vested in the archbishops partly fell obsolete, partly has been curtailed by subsequent statutes, e.g. the Pluralities Act of 1838. It is now confined to granting dispensations for holding two benefices at once, to issuing licences for non-residence, and in matrimonial cases to the issuing of special licences. The dispens- ing power of bishops in the Church of England survives only in the right to grant marriage licences, i.e. dispensations from the obligation to publish the banns. Though, however, these licences and dispensations are given under the archiepiscopal and episcopal seals, they are actually issued by the commissaries of faculties and vicars-general (chancellors) , independently, in virtue of the powers conferred on them by their patents. This has led, since the pass- ing of the Divorce Acts and the Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister Act, to a curiously anomalous position, licences for the remarriage of divorced persons having been issued under the bishop's seal, while the bishop himself publicly protested that such marriages were contrary to " the law of God," but that he himself had no power to prevent his chancellor licensing them. See Hinschius, Kirchenrecht (Berlin, 1883), iii. 250, &c; article " Dispensation" by Hinschius in Herzog-Hauck, Rsalencyklopddie (Leipzig, 1898); article "Dispensation" in Wetzer and Welte's Kirchenlexikon (2nd ed. Freiburg im Breisgau, 1882-1901); F. Lichtenberger, Encycloptdie des sciences religieuses (Paris, 1878), s.v. " Dispense "; Phihimore, Eccl. Law. 2. Constitutional Law. — The power of dispensation from the operation of the ordinary law in particular cases is, of course, everywhere inherent in the supreme legislative authority, how- ever rarely it may be exercised. Divorce (in Ireland) by act of parliament may be taken as an example which still actually occurs. On the other hand, the dispensing power once vested in the crown in England is now merely of historical interest, though of great importance in the constitutional struggles of the past. This power possessed by the crown of dispensing with the statute law is said to have been copied from the dispensations or non obstante clauses granted by the popes in matters of canon law; the parallel between them is certainly very striking, and there can be no doubt that the principles of the canon law influenced the decisions of the courts in the matter. It was, for instance, very generally laid down that the king could by dispensation make it lawful to do what was malum prohibitum but not to do what was DISPERSION 3i5 malum in se, a principle of the canon law, but one difficult to reconcile with English legal principles, since no act is legally malum unless forbidden by law. This was pointed out by Chief Justice Vaughan in the celebrated judgment in the case of Thomas v. Sorrell, when he rejected the distinction between mala in se and mala prohibita as confusing, and attempted to define the dispens- ing power of the crown by limiting it to cases of individual breaches of penal statutes where no third party loses a right of action, and where the breach is not continuous, at the same time denying the power of the crown to dispense with any general penallaw. This judgment, as Sir William Anson points out, only snowed the extreme, difficulty of limiting the power ascribed to the crown, a standing grievance from the time that parliament had risen to be a constituent part of the state. So long as the legal principle by which the law was " the king's law " survived there was in fact no theoretical basis for such limitation, and the matter resolved itself into one of the great constitutional questions between crown and parliament which issued in the Revolution of 1688. The supreme crisis came owing to the use made by James II. of the dispensing power. His action in dispensing with the Test Act, in order to enable Roman Catholics to hold office under the crown, was supported by the courts in the test case of Godden v. Hales, but it made the Revolution inevitable. By the Bill of Rights the exercise of the dispensing power was forbidden, except as might be permitted by statute. At the same time the legality of its exercise in the past was admitted by the clause maintaining the validity of dispensations granted in a certain form before the 23rd of October 1689. See Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, part i. " Parlia- ment," 3rd ed. pp. 311-319; F. W. Maitland, Const. Hist, of England (Cambridge, 1908), pp. 302, &c. ; Stubbs, Const. Hist. ss. 290, 291. (W. A. P.) DISPERSION (from Lat. dispergere, to scatter), the act or process of separation and distribution. Apart from the technical use of the term, especially in optics (see below), the expression particularly applied to the settlements of Jews in foreign countries outside Palestine. These were either voluntary, for purposes of trade and commerce, or the results of conquest, such as the captivities of Assyria and Babylonia. The word diaspora (Gr. SiaoTropd) is also used of these scattered communities, but is usually confined to the dispersion among the Hellenic and Roman peoples, or to the body of Christian Jews outside Palestine (see Jews). Dispersion, in Optics. When a beam of light which is not homogeneous in character, i.e. which does not consist of simple vibrations of a definite wave-length, undergoes refraction at the surface of any transparent medium, the different colours corre- sponding to the different wave-lengths become separated or dispersed. Thus, if a ray of white light AO (fig. 1 ) enters obliquely into the surface of a block of glass at O, it gives rise to the divergent system of rays ORV, varying con- tinuously in colour from red to violet, the red ray OR being least refracted and the violet ray OV most so. The order of the successive colours in all colourless transparent media is red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. Dispersion is therefore due to the fact that rays of different colours possess dif- ferent refrangibilities. The simplest way of showing dispersion is to refract a narrow beam of sunlight through a prism of glass or prismatic vessel containing water or other clear liquid. As the light is twice refracted, the dispersion is increased, and the rays, after trans- mission through the prism, form a divergent system, which may be allowed to fall on a sheet of white paper, forming the well- known solar spectrum. This method was employed by Sir Isaac Newton, whose experiments constitute the earliest systematic investigation of the phenomenon. Let O (fig. 2) represent a small hole in the shutter of a darkened room, and OS a narrow Fig. 1. Fig. 2. beam of sunlight which is allowed to fall on a white screen so as to form an image of the sun at S. If now the prism P be interposed as in the figure, the whole beam is not only refracted up- ward, but also spread out into the spectrum RV, the horizontal breadth of the band of colours being the same as that of the original image S. In an experiment similar to that here represented, Newton made a small hole in the screen and another small hole in a second screen placed behind the first. By slightly turning the prism P, the position of the spectrum on the first screen could be shifted sufficiently to cause light of any desired colour to pass through. Some of this light also passed through the second hole, and thus he obtained a narrow beam of practically homogeneous light in a fixed direction (the line joining the apertures in the two screens) . Operating on this beam with a second prism, he found that the homogeneous light was not dispersed, and also that it was more refracted the nearer the point from which it was taken approached to the violet end of the spectrum R V. This confirmed his previous conclusion that the rays increase in refrangibility from red to violet. Newton also made use of the method of crossed prisms, which has been found of great use in studying dispersion. The prism P (fig. 3) refracts upwards, while the prism Q, which has its refract- ing edge perpendicular to that of P, refracts towards the right. The combined effect of the two is to pro- duce a spectrum sloping up from left to right. The spectrum will be straight if the twoprismsaresimilar in dispersive property, but if one of them is con- FlG - 3-— Method of Crossed Prisms, structed of a material which possesses any peculiarity in this respect it will be revealed by the curvature of the spectrum. The coloured borders seen in the images produced by simple lenses are due to dispersion. The explanation of the colours of the rainbow, which are also due to dispersion, was given by Newton, although it was known previously to be due to refraction in the drops of rain (see Rainbow). According to the wave-theory of light, refraction (q.v.) is due to a change of velocity when light passes from one medium to another. The phenomenon of dispersion shows that in dispersive media the velocity is different for lights of different wave-lengths. In free space, lightof all wave-lengths is propagated with the same velocity, as is shown by the fact that stars, when occulted by the moon or planets, preserve their white colour up to the last moment of disappearance, which would not be the case if one colour reached the eye later than another. The absence of colour changes in variable stars or in the appearance of new stars is further evidence of the same fact. All material media, however, are more or less dispersive. In air and other gases, at ordinary pressures, the dispersion is very small, because the refractivity is small. The dispersive powers of gases are, however, generally comparable with those of liquids and solids. Dispersive Power. — In order to find the amount of dispersion caused by any given prism, the deviations produced by it on two rays of any definite pure colours may be measured. The angle of difference between these deviations is called the dispersion for those rays. For this purpose the C and F lines in the spark-spectrum of hydrogen, situated in the red and blue respectively, are usually employed. If Sr and 5c are the angular deviations of these rays, then 5f — Sc is called the mean dispersion of the prism. If the refracting angle of the prism is small, then the ratio of the dispersion to the mean deviation of the two rays is the dispersive power of the material of the prism. Instead of the mean deviation, | (S F +8c), it is more usual to take the deviation of some intermediate ray. The exact position of the selected ray does not matter much, but the yellow D line of sodium 316 DISPERSION is the most convenient. If we denote its deviation by Sd, then we may put Dispersive power = (Sf-dc) I Sd ■ ■ ■ (1). This quantity may readily be expressed in terms of the refractive indices for the three colours, for if A is the angle of the prism (sup- posed small) «c = (Mc-i)A, «d = (md-i)A, S f = (mf-i)A, where mc, md. Mf are the respective indices of refraction. This gives at once - Dispersive power = (/*f~mc) I (m> _ i) ■ ■ • (2). The second of these two expressions is generally given as the definition of dispersive power. It is more useful than (i), as the refractive indices may be measured with a prism of any convenient angle. By studying the dispersion of colours in water, turpentine and crown glass Newton was led to suppose that dispersion is pro- portional to refraction. He concluded that there could be no refraction without dispersion, and hence that achromatism was impossible of attainment (see Aberration). This conclusion was proved to be erroneous when Chester M. Hall in 1733 constructed achromatic lenses. Glasses can now be made differing considerably both in refractivity and dispersive power. Irrationality of Dispersion. — If we compare the spectrum produced by refraction in a glass prism with that of a diffraction grating, we find not only that the order of colours is reversed, but also that the same colours do not occupy corresponding lengths on the two spectra, the blue and violet being much more extended in the refraction spectrum. The refraction spectra for different media also differ amongst themselves. This shows that the connexion between the refrangibility of light and its wave-length does not obey any simple law, but depends on the nature of the refracting medium. This property is referred to as the "irrationality of dispersion." In a diffraction spectrum the diffraction is proportional to the wave- length, and the spectrum is said to be " normal." If the increase of the angle of refraction were proportional to the diminution of wave-length for a prism of any material, the resulting spectrum would also be normal. This, however, is not the case with ordinary refracting media, the refrangibility generally increasing more and more rapidly as the wave-length diminishes. The irrationality of dispersion is well illustrated by C.Christiansen's experiments on the dispersive properties of white powders. If the powder of a transparent substance is immersed in a liquid of the same refractive index, the mixture becomes transparent and a measure- ment of the refractive index of the liquid gives the refractivity of the powder. Christiansen found, in an investigation of this kind, that the refractivity of the liquid could only be got to match that of the powder for mono-chromatic light, and that, if white light were used, brilliant colour effects were obtained, which varied in a remarkable manner when small changes occurred in the refractive index of the liquid. These effects are due to the difference in dis- persive power of the powder and the liquid. If the refractive index is, for instance, the same for both in the case of green light, and a source of white light is viewed through the mixture, the green com- ponent will be completely transmitted, while the other colours are more or less scattered by multiple reflections and refractions at the surfaces of the powdered substance. Very striking colour changes are observed, according to R. W. Wood, when white light is trans- mitted through a paste made of powdered quartz and a mixture of carbon bisulphide with benzol having the same refractive index as the quartz for yellow light. In this case small temperature changes alter the refractivity of the liquid without appreciably affecting the quartz. R. W. Wood has studied the iridescent colours seen when a precipitate of potassium silicofluoride is produced by adding silico- fluoric acid to a solution of potassium chloride, and found that they are due to the same cause, the refractive index of the minute crystals precipitated being about the same as that of the solution, which latter can be varied by dilution. Anomalous Dispersion. — In some media the usual order of the colours is changed. This curious phenomenon was noticed by W. H. Fox Talbot about 1840, but does not seem to have become generally known. In i860 F. P. Leroux discovered that iodine vapour refracted the red rays more than the violet, the intermediate colours not being transmitted; and in 1870 Christiansen found that an alcoholic solution of fuchsine refracted the violet less than the red, the order of the successive colours being violet, red, orange, yellow; the green being absorbed and a dark interval occurring between the violet and red. A. Kundt found that similar effects occur with a large number of substances, in particular with all those which f>ossess the property of " surface colour," i.e., which strongly reflect ight of a definite colour, as do many of the aniline dyes. Such bodies show strong absorption bands in those colours which they reflect, while of the transmitted light that which is of a slightly greater wave-length than the absorbed light has an abnormally great refrangibility, and that of a slightly shorter wave-length an abnormally small refrangibility. The name given to this pheno- menon, — ' anomalous dispersion " — is an unfortunate one, as it has been found to obey a regular law. In studying the dispersion of the aniline dyes, a prism with a very small refracting angle is made of two glass plates slightly inclined to each other and enclosing a very thin wedge of the dye, which is either melted between the plates, or is in the form of a solution retained in position by surface-tension. Only very thin layers are sufficiently transparent to show the dispersion near or within an absorption band, and a large refracting angle is not required, the dispersion usually being very considerable. Another method, which has been used by R. W. Wood and C. E. Magnusson, is to introduce a thin film of the dye into one of the optical paths of a Michelson interferometer, and to determine the consequent displace- ment of the fringes. E. Mach and J. Arbes have used a method depending on total reflection (Drude's Theory of Optics, p. 394). A very remarkable example of anomalous dispersion, which was first observed by A. Kundt, is that exhibited by the vapour of sodium. It has not been found practicable to make a prism of this vapour in the ordinary way by enclosing it in a glass vessel of the required shape, as sodium vapour attacks glass, quickly rendering it opaque. A. E. Becquerel, however, investigated the character of the dis- persion by using prism-shaped flames strongly coloured with sodium. But the best way of exhibiting the effect is by making use of a remarkable property of sodium vapour discovered by R. W. Wood and employed for this purpose in a very ingenious manner. He found that when sodium is heated in a hard glass tube, the vapour which is formed is extraordinarily cohesive, only slowly spreading out in a cloud with well-defined borders, which can be rendered visible by placing the tube in front of a sodium flame, against which the cloud appears black. If a long glass tube with plane ends, and containing some pellets of sodium is heated in the middle by a row of burners, the cool ends remain practically vacuous and do not become obscured. The sodium vapour in the middle is very dense on the heated side, the density diminishing rapidly towards the upper part of the tube, so that, although not prismatic in form, it refracts like a prism owing to the variation in density. Thus if a horizontal slit is illuminated by an arc lamp, and the light — rendered parallel by a collimating lens 1 — is transmitted through the sodium tube and focused on the vertical slit of a spectroscope, the effect of the sodium vapour is to produce its refraction spec- . trum vertically on the slit. \ The image of this through the glass prism of Jfjy the spectroscope will appear as in fig. 4. The whole of the light, with the exception of a small part in the neigh- bourhood of the D lines, is r "TitM Fig. 4. — Anomalous Dispersion of Sodium Vapour. practically undeviated, so that it illuminates only a very short piece of the slit and is spread out into the ordinary spectrum. But the light of slightly greater wave-length than the D lines, being refracted strongly downward by the sodium vapour, illuminates the bottom of the slit ; while that of slightly shorter wave-length is refracted upward and illuminates the top of the slit. Fig. 4 represents the in- verted image seen in the telescope. The light corre- sponding to the D lines and the space between them is absorbed, as evi- j *> *j . n. denced by the dark inter- l \r — ~_ •- val. If the sodium is only D i" D * gently heated, so as to produce a comparatively rarefied vapour, and a grat- Fig. c ing spectroscope employed, the spectrum obtained is like that shown in fig. 5, which was the effect noticed by Becquerel with the sodium flame. Here the light corresponding to the space between the D lines is transmitted, being strongly refracted upward near Di, and downward near D 2 . The theory of anomalous dispersion has been applied in a very interesting way by W. H. Julius to explain the " flash spectrum " seen during a solar eclipse at the moment at which totality occurs. The conditions of this phenomenon have been imitated in the laboratory by Wood, and the corresponding effect obtained. Theories of Dispersion. — The first attempt at a mathematical theory of dispersion was made by A. Cauchy and published in 1835. This was based on the assumption that the medium in which the light is propagated is discontinuous and molecular in character, the molecules being subject to a mutual attraction. Thus, if one mole- cule is disturbed from its mean position, it communicates the disturbance to its neighbours, and so a wave is propagated. The formula arrived at by Cauchy was n = A-h§+£+.... A2 A4 n being the refractive index, X the wave-length, and A, B, C, &c, constants depending on the material, which diminish so rapidly that only the first three as here written need be taken into account. If suitable values are chosen for these constants, the formula can be made to represent the dispersion of ordinary transparent media within the visible spectrum very well, but when extended to the infra-red region it often departs considerably from the truth, and it fails altogether in cases of anomalous dispersion. There are also grave theoretical objections to Cauchy's formula. DISRAELI 3i7 The modern theory of dispersion, the foundation of which was laid by W. Sellmeier, is based upon the assumption that an interaction takes place between ether and matter. Sellmeier adopted the elastic-solid theory of the ether, and imagined the molecules to be attached to the ether surrounding them, but free to vibrate about their mean positions within a limited range. Thus the ether within the dispersive medium is loaded with molecules which are forced to perform oscillations of the same period as that of the transmitted wave. It can be shown mathematically that the velocity of propa- gation will be greatly increased if the frequency of the light-wave is slightly greater, and greatly diminished if it is slightly less than the natural frequency of the molecules ; also that these effects become less and less marked as the difference in the two frequencies increases. This is exactly in accordance with the observed facts in the case of substances showing anomalous dispersion. Sellmeier's theory did not take account of absorption, and cannot be applied to calculate the dispersion within a broad absorption band. H. von Helmholtz, working on a similar hypothesis, but with a frictional term intro- duced into his equations, obtained formulae which are applicable to cases of absorption. A modified form of Helmholtz's equation, due to E. Ketteler and known as the Ketteler-Helmholtz formula, has been much used in calculating dispersion, and expresses the facts with remarkable accuracy. P. Drude has obtained a similar formula based on the electromagnetic theory, thus placing the theory of dispersion on a much more satisfactory basis. The fundamental assumption is that the medium contains positively and negatively charged ions or electrons which are acted on by the periodic electric forces which occur in wave propagation on Maxwell's theory. The equations finally arrived at are nil k) i +z^o^-\ i m y+z^ nK zL/(x 2 -x 2 m) 2 +g 2 x 2 where X is the wave-length in free ether of light whose refractive index is n, and X m the wave-length of light of the same period as the electron, k is a coefficient of absorption, and D and g are constants. The sign of summation S is used in cases where there are several absorption bands, and consequently several similar terms on the right-hand side, each with a different value of X„. This would occur if there were several kinds of ions, each with its own natural period. In a region where there is no absorption, we have k = o and therefore g = o, and we have only one equation, namely, which is identical with Sellmeier's result. As X„ is a wave-length corresponding to an absorption band, this formula can be used to find values of X m which satisfy the observed values of » within the region of transparency, and so to determine where the absorption bands are situated. In this way the existence of bands in the infra- red part of the spectrum has been predicted in the case of quartz and detected by experiments on the selective reflection of the material. References. — For the theory of dispersion see P. Drude, Theory of Optics (Eng. trans.) ; R. W. Wood, Physical Optics; and A. Schuster, Theory of Optics. For descriptive accounts, see Wood's Physical Optics, T. Preston's Theory of Light, E. Edser's Light. The last work contains an elementary treatment of Sellmeier's theory. (J. R. C.) D'ISRAELI (or Disraeli), ISAAC (1766-1848), English man of letters, father of the earl of Beaconsfield (q.v.) , was born at Enfield in May 1 766. He belonged to a Jewish family which, having been driven by the Inquisition from Spain, towards the end of the 1 5th century, settled as merchants at Venice, and assumed the name which has become famous; it was generally spelt D 'Israeli until the middle of the 19th century. In 1748 his father, Benjamin D'Israeli, then only about eighteen years of age, removed to England, where, before passing the prime of life, he amassed a competent fortune, and retired from business. He belonged to the London congregation of Spanish and Portuguese Jews, of which his son also remained a nominal member until after Benjamin D'Israeli died at the end of 1816. The strongly marked characteristics which determined Isaac D'Israeli's career were displayed to a singular degree even in his boyhood. He spent his time over books and in long day- dreams, and evinced the strongest distaste for business and all the more bustling pursuits of life. These idiosyncrasies met with no sympathy from either of his parents, whose ambitious plans for bis future career they threatened to disappoint. When he was about fourteen, in the hope of changing the bent of his mind, his father sent him to live with his agent at Amsterdam, where he worked under a tutor for four or five years. Here he studied Bayle and Voltaire, and became an ardent disciple of Rousseau. Here also he wrote a long poem against commerce, which he produced as an exposition of his opinions when, on his return to England, his father announced his intention of placing him in a commercial house at Bordeaux. Against such a destiny D'Israeli's mind strongly revolted; and he carried his poem, with a letter earnestly appealing for advice and assistance, to Samuel Johnson ; but when he called again a week after to receive an answer, the packet was returned unopened — the great Doctor was on his death-bed. He also addressed a letter to Dr Vicesimus Knox, master of Tonbridge Grammar School, begging to be received into his family, that he might enjoy the benefit of his learning and experience. How this application was answered we do not know. The evident firmness of his resolve, however, was not without effect. His parents gave up their purpose for a time. He was sent to travel in France, and allowed to occupy himself as he- wished; and he had the happiness of spending some months in Paris, in the society of literary men, and devoted to the literary pursuits in which he delighted. In the beginning of 1 788 he returned home, and in the next year he attacked Peter Pindar (John Wolcot) in The Gentleman's Magazine in a poem in the manner of Pope, " On the Abuse of Satire." The authorship of the poem was much debated, and it was attributed by some to William Hayley, upon whom it was actually avenged, with characteristic savageness, by its victim. It is greatly to Wolcot's credit that, on learning his mistake, he sought the acquaintance of his young opponent, whose friend he remained to the end of his life. Through the success of this satire D'Israeli made the acquaintance of Henry James Pye, who helped to persuade his father that it would be a mistake to force him into a business career, and introduced him into literary circles. D'Israeli dedicated his first book, A Defence of Poetry, to Pye in 1 790. Henceforth his life was passed in the way he best liked — in quiet and almost uninterrupted study. In 1802 he married Maria Basevi, by whom he had five children, of whom Benjamin (after- wards Lord Beaconsfield and Prime Minister of England) was the second. He was able to maintain his strenuous habits of study till he reached the advanced age of seventy-two, when he was forced, by paralysis of the optic nerve, to give up work almost entirely. He lived ten years longer, and died at his seat at Braden- ham House, Buckinghamshire, on the 19th of January 1848. Isaac D'Israeli is most celebrated as the author of the Curiosities of Literature (1791, subsequent volumes in 1793, 1817, 1823 and 1834). It is a miscellany of literary and historical anecdotes, of original critical remarks, and of interesting and curious information of all kinds, animated by genuine literary feeling, taste and enthusiasm. With the Curiosities of Literature may be classed D'Israeli's Miscellanies, or Literary Recreations (1796), the Calamities of Authors (1812-181$), and theQuarrels of A uthors ( 1 8 1 4) . Towards the close of his life D 'Israeli projected a continuous history of English literature, three volumes of which appeared in 1841 under the title of the Amenities of Literature. But of all his works the most delightful is his Essay on the Literary Character (1795), which, like most of his writings, abounds in illustrative anecdotes. In the famous " Pope controversy " he supported Byron and Campbell against Bowles and Hazlitt by a defence of Pope in the form of a criticism of Joseph Spence's Anecdotes contributed to the Quarterly Review (July 1820). In 1797 D'Israeli published three novels; one of these, Mejnoun and Leila, the Arabian Petrarch and Laura, was said to be the first oriental romance in English. His last novel, Despotism, or the Fall of the Jesuits, appeared in 1811, but none of his romances was popular. He also published a slight sketch of Jewish history, and especially of the growth of the Talmud, entitled the Genius of Judaism (1833). He was the author of two historical works — a brief defence of the literary merit and personal and political character of James I. (18 16), and a learned Commentary on the Life and Reign of King Charles I. (1828-1831). This was recognized by the University of Oxford, which conferred upon the author the honorary degree of D.C.L. As an historian D'Israeli is distinguished by two characteristics. In the first place, he had small interest in politics, and no sympathy with the passionate fervour, or adequate appreciation of the importance, of political struggles. And, secondly, with a laborious zeal then less common than now among 3 i8 DISS— DISTILLATION historians, he sought to bring to light fresh historical material by patient search for letters, diaries and other manuscripts of value which had escaped the notice of previous students, indeed, the honour has been claimed for him of being one of the founders of the modern school of historical research. Of the amiable personal character and the placid life of Isaac D'Israeli a charming picture is to be found in the brief memoir Prefixed to the 1849 edition of Curiosities of Literature, by his son i^ord Beaconsfield. DISS, a market town in the southern parliamentary division of Norfolk, England; near the river Waveney (the boundary with Suffolk), 95 m. N.E. by N. from London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3745. The town lies pleasantly upon a hill rising above a mere, which drains to the Waveney, having its banks laid out as public gardens. The church of St Mary exhibits Decorated and Perpendicular stone and flint work. There is a corn exchange and the agricultural trade is con- siderable; brushes and matting are manufactured. The poet and satirist, John Skelton (d. 1529), was rector here in the later part of his life, and is doubtfully considered a native. DISSECTION (from Lat. dissecare, to cut apart), the separation into parts by cutting, particularly the cutting of an animal or plant into parts for the purpose of examination or display of its structure. DISSENTER (Lat. dis-sentire, to disagree), one who dissents or disagrees in matters of opinion, belief, &c. The term " dis- senter " is, however, practically restricted to the special sense of a member of a religious body in England which has, for one reason or another, separated from the Established Church. Strictly, the term includes the English Roman Catholics, who in the original draft of the Relief Act of 1791 were styled " Protest- ing Catholic Dissenters." It is in practice, however, restricted to the " Protestant Dissenters " referred to in sec. ii. of the Toleration Act of 1688. The term is not applied to those bodies who dissent from the Established Church of Scotland ; and in speaking of members of religious bodies which have seceded from established churches abroad it is usual to employ the term "dissidents" (Lat. dissidere, to dissent). In this connotation the terms "dissenter" and " dissenting," which had acquired a somewhat contemptuous flavour, have tended since the middle of the 19th century to be replaced by " nonconformist," a term which did not originally imply secession, but only refusal to conform in certain particulars (e.g. the wearing of the surplice) with the authorized usages of the Established Church. Still more recently the term " nonconformist " has in its turn, as the political attack on the principle of a state establishment of religion developed, tended to give place to the style of " Free Churches " and " Free Churchman." All three terms are now in use, "nonconformist" being the most usual, as it is the most colourless. (See Congregationalism, &c.) DISSOCIATION, a separation or dispersal, the opposite of association. In chemistry the term is given to chemical reactions in which a substance decomposes into two or more substances, and particularly to cases in which associated mole- cules break down into simpler molecules. Thus the reactions NHXl^NHs+HCl.andPCle^PCls+Clzareinstancesofthe first type; N 2 4 ^±2N0 2 , of the second (see Chemical Action). Electrolytic or ionic dissociation is the separation of a substance in solution into ions (see Electrolysis; Solution). DISSOLUTION (from Lat. dissolvere, to break up into parts), the act of dissolving or reducing to constituent parts, especially of the bringing to an end an association such as a partnership or building society, and particularly of the termination of an assembly. A dissolution of parliament in England is thus the end of its existence, brought about by the efflux of time in accordance with the Septennial Act 1716, or by an exercise of the royal prerogative. This is done either in person, or by commission, if parliament is sitting; if prorogued, then by proclamation. The word is used as a synonym for end or death. DISTAFF, in the early forms of spinning, the " rock " or short stick round one end of which the flax, cotton or wool is loosely wound, and from which it is spun off by the spindle. The word is derived from the Old English distaef, the first part of which is connected with dizen, in modern English seen in " bedizen," to deck out or embellish, originally " to equip the distaff with flax, &c," cf. the German dialectal word Diesse, flax. The last part of the word is " staff." " Distaff " from early times has been used to symbolize woman's work (cf. the use of " spinster " for an unmarried woman) ; thus the " distaff " or " spindle " side of a family refers to the female branch, as opposed to the " spear " or male branch. The 7th of January, the day after Epiphany, was formerly known as St Distaff's day, as women then began work again after the Christmas holiday. DISTILLATION (from the Lat. distillare, more correctly destiUare, to drop or trickle down), an operation consisting in the conversion of a substance or mixture of substances into vapours which are afterwards condensed to the liquid form; it has for its object the separation or purification of substances by taking advantage of differences in volatility. The apparatus consists of three parts: — the " retort " or " still," in which the substance is heated; the " condenser," in which the vapours are condensed; and the " receiver," in which the condensed vapours are collected. Generally the components of a mixture will be vaporized in the order of their boiling-points; consequently if the condensates or " fractions " corresponding to definite ranges of temperature be separately collected, it is obvious that a more or less partial separation of the components will be effected. If the substance operated upon be practically pure to start with, or the product 'of distillation be nearly of constant composition, the operation is termed " purification by distillation " or " rectification "; the latter term is particularly used in the spirit industry. If a complex mixture be operated upon, and a separation effected by collect- ing the distillates in several portions, the operation is termed "fractional distillation." Since many substances decompose ieitherat, or below, their boiling-points underordinary atmospheric pressure, it is necessary to lower the boiling-point by reducing the pressure if it be desired to distil them. This variation is termed "distillation under reduced pressure or in a vacuum." The vaporization of a substance below its normal boiling-point can also be effected by blowing in steam or some other vapour; this operation is termed "distillation with steam." "Dry distilla- tion" is the term used when solid substances which do not liquefy on heating are operated upon; "sublimation" is the term used when a solid distils without the intervention of a liquid phase. Distillation appears to have been practised at very remote times. The Alexandrians prepared oil of turpentine by distilling pine-resin; Zosimus of Panopolis, a voluminous writer of the 5th century A.D., speaks of the distillation of a " divine water " or " panacea " (probably from the complex mixture of calcium polysulphides, thiosulphate, &c, and free sulphur, which is obtained by boiling sulphur with lime and water) and advises " the efficient luting of the apparatus, for otherwise the valuable properties would be lost." The Arabians greatly improved the earlier apparatus, naming one form the alembic (q.v.); they discovered many ethereal oils by distilling plants and plant juices, alcohol by the distillation of wine, and also distilled water. The alchemists gave great attention to the method, as is shown by the many discoveries made. Nitric, hydrochloric and sulphuric acids, all more or less impure, were better studied; and many ethereal oils were discovered. Prior to about the 18th century three forms of distillation were practised: (1) destillatio per ascensum, in which the retort was heated from the bottom, and the vapours escaped from the top; (2) destillatio per latus, in which the vapours escaped from the side; (3) destillatio per descensum, in which the retort was heated at the top, and the vapours led off by a pipe passing through the bottom. According to K. B. Hoffmann the earliest mention of destillatio per descensum occurs in the writings of Aetius, a Greek physician who flourished at about the end of the 5th century. In modern times the laboratory practice of distillation was greatly facilitated by the introduction of the condenser named after Justus von Liebig; A. Kolbe and E. Frankland introduced the "reflux condenser," i.e. a condenser so placed that the condensed vapours return to the distilling flask, a device per- mitting the continued boiling Of a substance with little loss; W. DISTILLATION 3 r 9 Dittmar and R. Anschutz, independently of one another, intro- duced "distillation under reduced pressure "; and "fractional distillation " was greatly aided by the columns of Wurtz (1855), E. Linnemann (1871), and of J. A. Le Bel and A. Henninger (1874). In chemical technology enormous strides have been made, as is apparent from the coal-gas, coal-tar, mineral oil, spirits and mineral acids industries. The subject is here treated under the following subdivisions: (1) ordinary distillation, (2) distillation under reduced pressure, (3) fractional distillation, (4) distillation with steam, (5) theory of distillation, (6) dry distillation, (7) distillation in chemical technology and (8) commercial distillation of water. 1. Ordinary Distillation. — The apparatus generally used is shown in fig. 1. The substance is heated in a retort a, which consists of a large bulb drawn out at the top to form a long neck; it may also Fig. 1. be provided with a tubulure, or opening, which permits the charging of the retort, and also the insertion of a thermometer b. The retort may be replaced by a distilling flask, which is a round-bottomed flask (generally with a lengthened neck) provided with an inclined side tube. The neck of the retort, or side tube of the flask, is con- nected to the condenser c by an ordinary or rubber cork, according to the nature of the substance distilled ; ordinary corks soaked in paraffin wax are very effective when ordinary or rubber corks cannot be used. Sometimes an " adapter " is used ; this is simply a tapering tube, the side tube being corked into the wider end, and the condenser on to the narrower end. The thermometer is placed so that the bulb is near the neck of the retort or the side tube of the distilling flask. It generally happens that much of the mercury column is outside the flask and consequently at a lower temperature than the bulb, hence a correction of the observed temperature is necessary. If N be the length of the unheated mercury column in degrees, / the temperature of this column (generally determined by a small thermometer placed with its bulb at the middle of the column), and T the temperature recorded by the thermometer, then the corrected temperature of the vapour is T +0-000143 (T-t) N (T. E. Thorpe, Journ. Chem. Soc, 1880, p. 150). The mode of heating varies with the substance to be distilled. For highly volatile liquids, e.g. ether, Hgroin, &c, immersion of the flask in warm water suffices; for less volatile liquids a directly heated water or sand bath is used; for other liquids the flask is heated through wire gauze or asbestos board, or directly by a Bunsen. The condensing apparatus must also be conditioned by the volatility. With difficulty volatile substances, e.g. nitrobenzene, air cooling of the retort neck or of a straight tube connected with the distilling flask will suffice; or wet blotting-paper placed on the tube and the receiver immersed in water may be used. For less volatile liquids the Liebig condenser is most frequently used. In its original form, this consists of a long tube surrounded by an outer tube so arranged that cold water circulates in the annular space between the two. The vapours pass through the inner tube, and the cold water enters at the end farthest from the distilling flask. For more efficient condensation — and also for shortening the apparatus — the central tube may be flattened, bent into a succession of V's, or twisted into a spiral form, the object in each case being to increase the condensing surface. Of other common types of condenser, we may notice the " spiral " or " worm " type, which con- sists of a glass, copper or tin worm enclosed in a vessel in which water circulates; and the ball condenser, which consists of two concentric spheres, the vapour passing through the inner sphere and water circulating in the space between this and the outer (in another form the vapour circulates in a shell, on the outside and inside of which water circulates). A very effective type is shown in fig. 2. The condensing water enters at the top and is conducted to the bottom of the inner tube, which it fills and then flows over the outside of the outer tube; it collects in the bottom funnel and is then led off. The vapours pass between the inner and outer tubes. Practically any vessel may serve as a receiver — test tube, flask, beaker, &c. If noxious vapours come over, it is necessary to have an air-tight connexion between the condenser and receiver, and to pro- Fig. 2. vide the latter with an outlet tube leading to an absorption column or other contrivance in which the vapours are taken up. If the substances operated upon decompose when heated in air, as, for example, the zinc alkyls which inflame, the air within the apparatus is replaced by some inert gas, e.g. nitrogen, carbon dioxide, &c, which is led in at the distilling flask before the process is started, and a slow current maintained during the operation. 2. Distillation under Reduced Pressure. — This method is adopted for substances which decompose at their boiling-points under ordinary pressure, and, generally, when it is desirable to work at a lower temperature. The apparatus differs very slightly from that employed in ordinary distillation. The " receiver must be con- nected on the one side to the condenser, and on the other to the exhaust pump. A safety vessel and a manometer are generally interposed between the pump and receiver. For the purpose of collecting the distillates in fractions, many forms of receivers have been devised. Bruhl's is one of the simplest. It consists of a number of tubes mounted vertically on a horizontal circular disk which rotates about a vertical axis in a cylindrical vessel. This vessel has two tubulures: through one the end of the condenser projects so as to be over one of the receiving tubes ; the other leads to the pump. By rotating the disk the tubes may be successively brought under the end of the condenser. Boiling under reduced pressure has one very serious drawbaek, viz. the liquid boils ir- regularly or " bumps." W. Dittmar showed that this may be avoided by leading a fine, steady stream of dry gas — air, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, &c, according to the substance operated upon — -through the liquid by means of a fine capillary tube, the lower end of which reaches to nearly the bottom of the flask. " Bumping " is common in open boiling when the liquid is free from air bubbles and the interior of the vessel is very smooth. It may be diminished by introducing clippings of platinum foil, pieces of porcelain, glass beads or garnets into the liquid. " Frothing " is another objection- able feature with many liquids. When cold, froth can be immediately dissipated by adding a few drops of ether. In boiling liquids its formation may be prevented by adding paraffin wax ; the wax melts and forms a ring on the surface of the liquid, which boils tranquilly in the centre. * 3. Fractional Distillation. — By fractional distillation is meant the separation of a mixture having components which boil at neighbour- ing temperatures. The distilling flask has an elongated neck so that N* Young. Kreusler. Wurtz. Linnemann. Le Bel-Henninger. Glynsky. Fig. 3. the less volatile vapours are condensed and return to the flask, while the more volatile component passes over. The success of the operation depends upon two factors : (1) that the heating be careful, slow and steady, and (2) that the column attached to the flask be efficient to sort out, as it were, the irtost volatile vapour. Three types of columns are employed : (1) the elongation is simply a straight or bulb tube; (2) the column, properly termed a " dephlegmator," is so constructed that the vapours have to traverse a column of previously condensed vapour ; (3) the column is encircled by a jacket through which a liquid circulates at the same temperature as the boiling-point of the most volatile component. To the first type belongs the simple straight tube, and the Wurtz tube (see fig. 3), which is simply a series of bulbs blown on a tube. These forms are not of much value. Several forms of the second type are in use. In the Linnemann column the condensed vapours temporarily collect on platinum gauzes (a) placed at the constrictions of a bulbed tube. In the Le Bel-Henninger form a series of bulbs are connected con- secutively by means of syphon tubes (b) and having platinum gauzes (o) at the constrictions, so that when a certain amount of liquid collects in any one bulb it syphons over into the next lower bulb. The Glynsky form is simpler, having only one syphon tube ; at the constrictions it Is usual to have a glass bead. The " rod-and-disk " form of Sidney Young is a series of disks mounted on a central spindle and surrounded by a slightly wider tube. The " pear- shaped " form of the same author consists of a series of pear-shaped bulbs, the narrow end of one adjoining the wider end of the next lower one. In this class may also be placed the Hempel tube, which is simply a straight tube filled with glass beads. Of the third type is the Warren column consisting of a spiral kept at a constant temperature by a liquid bath. Improved forms were devised by 320 DISTILLATION F. D. Brown. Kreusler's form is easily made and manipulated. A tube closed at the bottom is traversed by an open narrower tube, and the arrangement is fitted in the neck of the distilling flask. Water is led in by the inner tube, and leaves by a side tube fused on the wider tube. Many comparisons of the effectiveness of dephlegmating columns have been made (see Sidney Young, Fractional Distillation, 1903). The pear-shaped form is the most effective, second in order is the Le Bel-Henninger, which, in turn, is better than the Glynsky. The main objection to the Hempel is the retention of liquid in the beads, and the consequent inapplicability to the distillation of small quantities. 4. Distillation with Steam.— In this process a current of steam, which is generated in a separate boiler and superheated, if necessary, by circulation through a heated copper worm, is led into the dis- tilling vessel, and the mixed vapours condensed as in the ordinary processes. This method is particularly successful in the case of substances which cannot be distilled at their ordinary boiling-points (it will be seen in the following , section that distilling with steam implies a lowering of boiling-point), and which can be readily separated from water. Instances of its application are found in the separation of ortho-and para-nitrophenol, the o-compound distilling and the p- remaining behind ; in the separation of aniline from the mixture obtained by reducing nitrobenzene ; of the naphthols from the melts produced by fusing the naphthalene monosulphonic acids with potash; and of quinoline from the reaction between aniline, nitrobenzene, glycerin, and sulphuric acid (the product being first steam distilled to remove any aniline, nitrobenzene, or. glycerin, then treated with alkali, and again steam distilled when quinoline comes over). With substances prone to discolorization, as, for example, certain amino compounds, the operation may be conducted in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide, or the water may be saturated with sulphuretted hydrogen. Liquids other than water may be used : thus alcohol separates o-pipecoline and ether nitropropylene. 5. Theory of Distillation.— The general observation that under a constant pressure a pure substance boils at a constant temperature leads to the conclusion that the distillate which comes over while the thermometer records only a small variation is of practically constant composition. On this fact depends " rectification or purification by distillation." A liquid boils when its vapour pressure equals the superincumbent pressure (see Vaporization); con- sequently any process which diminishes the external pressure must also lower the boiling-point. In this we have the theory of " dis- tillation under reduced pressure." The theory of fractional distilla- tion, or the behaviour of liquid mixtures when heated to their boiling-points, is more complex. For simplicity we confine ourselves to mixtures of two components, in which experience shows that three cases are to be recognized according as the components are (1) completely immiscible, (2) partially miscible, (3) miscible in all proportions. . . , . When the components are completely immiscible, the vapour pressure of the one is not influenced by the presence of the other. The mixture consequently distils at the temperature at which the sum of the partial pressures equals that of the atmosphere. Both components come over in a constant proportion until one disap- pears; it is then necessary to raise the temperature in order to distil the residue. The composition of the distillate is determinate (by Avogadro's law) if the molecular weights and vapour pressure of the components at the temperature of distillation be known. If Mi, M 2 , and Pi, P 2 be the molecular weights and vapour pressures of the components A and B, then the ratio of A to B in the distillate is MiPi/M 2 P 2 . Although, as is generally the case, one liquid (say A) is more volatile than the other (say B), i.e. Pi greater than P 2 , if the molecukr weight of A be much less than that of B, then it is obvious that the ratio M]Pi/M 2 P 2 need not be very great, and hence the less volatile liquid B would come over in fair amount. These con- ditions pertain in cases where distillation with steam is successfully practised, the relatively high volatility of water being counter- balanced by the relatively high molecular weight of the other component; for example, in the case of nitrobenzene and water the ratio is 1 to 5. In general, when the substance to be distilled has a vapour pressure of only 10 mm. at ioo° C, distillation with steam can be adopted, if the product can be subsequently separated from the water. When distilling a mixture of partially miscible components a distillate of constant composition is obtained so long as two layers are present, i.e. A dissolved in B and B dissolved in A, since both of these solutions emit vapours of the same composition (this follows since the same vapour must be in equilibrium with both solutions, for if it were not so a cyclic system contradicting the second law of thermodynamics would be realizable). The composition of the vapour, however, would not be the same as that of either layer. As the distillation proceeded one layer would diminish more rapidly than the other until only the latter Would remain; this would then distil as a completely miscible mixture. The distillation of completely miscible mixtures is the most common practically and the most complex theoretically. A co- ordination of the results obtained on the distillation of mixtures of this nature with the introduction of certain theoretical considerations led to the formation of three groups distinguished by the relative solubilities of the vapours in the liquid components. (i.) If the vapour of A be readily soluble in the liquid B, and the vapour of B readily soluble in the liquid A, there will exist a mixture of A and B which will have a lower vapour pressure than any other mixture. The vapour pressure composition curve will be convex to the axis of compositions, the maximum vapour pressures corre- sponding to pure A and pure B, and the minimum to some mixture of A and B. On distilling such a mixture under constant pressure, a mixture of the two components (of variable composition) will come over until there remains in the distilling flask the mixture of minimum vapour pressure. This will then distil at a constant temperature. Thus nitric acid, boiling-point 68°, forms a mixture with water, boiling point ioo°, which boils at a constant temperature of 126°, and contains 68% of acid. Hydrochloric acid forms a similar mixture which boils at no" and contains 20-2% of acid. Another mixture of this type is formic acid and water. (ii.) If the vapours be sparingly soluble in the liquids there will exist a mixture having a greater vapour pressure than that of any other mixture. The vapour pressure-composition curve will now be concave to the axis of composition, the minima corresponding to the pure components. On distilling such a mixture, a mixture of constant composition will distil first, leaving in the distilling flask one or other of the components according to the composition of the mixture. An example is propyl alcohol and water. At one time it was thought that these mixtures of constant boiling-point (an ex- tended list is given in Young's Fractional Distillation) were definite compounds. The above theory, coupled with such facts as the variation of the composition of the constant boiling-point fraction with the pressure under which the mixture is distilled, the pro- portionality of the density of all mixtures to their composition, &c, shows this to be erroneous. (iii.) If the vapour of A be readily soluble in liquid B, and the vapour of B sparingly soluble in liquid A, and if the vapour pressure' of A be greater than that of B, then the vapour pressures of mixtures of A and B will continually diminish as one passes from 100% A to 100% B. The vapour tension may approximate to a linear function of the composition, and the curve will then be practically a straight line. On distilling such a mixture pure A will come over first, followed by mixtures in which the quantity of B continually increases; consequently by a sufficient number of distillations A and B can be completely separated. Examples are water and methyl or ethyl alcohol. Van't Hoff {Theoretical and Physical Chemistry, vol. i. p. 51) illustrates the five cases on one diagram. In fig. 4 let AB be the axis of composition, AP be the vapour pressure of pure A, BQ the vapour pressure of pure B. For immiscible liquids the vapour pressure curve is the hori- zontal line ab, described so that aP = QB and 6Q = AP. For partially miscible liquids the curve is Pai&iQ. The hori- zontal line di 61 corresponds to the two layers of liquid, and the inclined lines P01 Q61 to solutions of B in A and of A in B. The curves Pa t Q, having a minimum at a,, Po 3 Q, having a maximum at a 3 , and Pa 6 Q, with neither a maximum nor minimum, correspond to the types 1., ii., iii. of completely miscible mixtures. 6. Dry Distillation. — In this process the substance operated upon is invariably a solid, the vapours being condensed and collected as in the other methods. When the substance operated upon is of uncertain composition, as, for example, coal, wood, coal-tar, &c, the term destructive distillation is employed. A more general designa- tion is " pyrogenic processes," which also includes such operations as leading vapours through red-hot tubes and condensing the products. We may also consider here cases of sublimation wherein a solid vaporizes and the vapour condenses without the occurrence of the liquid phase. Dry distillation is extremely wasteful even when definite sub- stances or mixtures, such as calcium acetate which yields acetone, are dealt with, valueless by-products being obtained and the condensate usually requiring much purification. Prior to 1830, little was known of the process other than that organic compounds generally yielded tarry and solid matters, but the discoveries of Liebig and Dumas (of acetone from acetates), of Mitscherlich (of benzene from benzoates) and of Persoz (of methane from acetates and lime) brought the opera- tion into common laboratory practice. For efficiency the operation must be conducted with small quantities; caking may be prevented by mixing the substance with sand or powdered pumice, or, better, with iron filings, which also renders the decomposition more regular by increasing the conductivity of the mass. The most favourable retort is a shallow iron pan heated in a sand bath, and provided with a screwed-down lid bearing the delivery tube. Sidney Young has suggested conducting the operation in a current of carbon dioxide which sweeps out the vapours as they are evolved, and also heating in a vapour bath, e.g. of sulphur. One of the earliest red-hot tube syntheses of importance wae the formation of naphthalene from a mixture of alcohol and ether vapours. Such condensations were especially studied by M. P. E. Berthelot, and shown to be very fruitful in forming hydrocarbons. DISTILLATION 321 Sometimes reagents are placed in the combustion tube, for example lead oxide (litharge), which takes up bromine and sulphur. In its simplest form the apparatus consists of a straight tube, made of glass, pdrcelain or iron according to the temperature required and the nature of the reacting substances, heated in an ordinary com- bustion furnace, the mixture entering at one end and the vapours being condensed at the other. Apparatus can also be constructed in which the unchanged vapours are continually circulated through the tube. Operating in a current of catbon dioxide facilitates the process by preventing overheating. 7. Distillation in Chemical Technology. — In laboratory . practice use is made of a fairly constant type of apparatus, only trifling modifications being generally necessary to adapt the apparatus for any distillation or fractionation; in technology, on the other hand, many questions have to be considered which generally demand the adoption of special constructions for the economic distillation of different substances. The modes of distillation enumerated above all occur in manufacturing practice. Distillation in a vacuum is practised in two forms: — if the pump draws off steam as well as air it is termed a " wet " air-pump; if it only draws off air, it is a " dry " air-pump. In the glycerin industry the lyes obtained by saponifying the fats are first evaporated with " wet vacuum " and finally distilled with closed and live steam and a " dry vacuum." Two forms of steam distillation may be distinguished : — in one the still is simply heated by a steam coil wound inside or outside the still — this is terrned heating by dry steam; in the other steam is injected into the mass within the still — this is the distillation with live steam of laboratory practice. The details of the plant — the material and fittings of the still, the manner of heating, the form of the condensing plant, receivers, &c. — have to be determined for each substance to be distilled in order to work with the maximum economy. For the distillation of liquids the retort is usually a cylindrical pot placed vertically; cast iron is generally employed, in which case the bottom is frequently incurved and thicker than the sides in order to take up the additional wear and tear. Sometimes linings of enamelled iron or other material are employed, which when worn can be replaced at a far lower cost than that of a new still. Glass stills heated by a sand bath are sometimes employed in the final distillation of sulphuric acid; platinum, and an alloy of platinum and iridium with a lining of gold rolled on (a discovery due to Heraeus), are used for the same purpose. Cast iron stills are pro- vided with a hemispherical head or dome, generally attached to the body of the still by bolts, and of sufficient size to allow for any frothing. It is invariably provided with an opening to carry off the vapours produced. In its more complete form a still has in addition the following fittings: — The dome is provided with openings to admit (1) the axis of the stirring gear (in some stills the stirring gear rotates on a horizontal axis which traverses the side and not the head of the still), (2) the inlet and outlet tubes of a closed steam coil, (3) a tube reaching to nearly the bottom of the still to carry live steam, (4) a tube to carry a thermometer, (5) one or more manholes for charging purposes, (6) sight-holes through which the operation can be watched, and (7) a safety valve. The body of the still is provided with one or more openings at different heights to serve for the discharge of the residue in the still, and sometimes with a glass gauge to record the quantity of matter in the still. For dry dis- tillations the retorts are generally horizontal cylinders, the bottom or lower surface being sometimes flattened. Iron and fireclay are the materials commonly employed; wrought iron is used in the manufacture of wood-spirit, fireclay for coal-gas (see Gas: Manu- facture), phosphorus, zinc, &c. The vertical type, however, is employed in the manufacture of acetone and of iodine. Several modes of heating are adopted. In some cases, especially in dry distillations, the furnace flames play directly on the retorts, in others, such as in the case of nitric acid, the whole still comes under the action of the furnace gases to prevent condensation on the upper part of the still, while in others the furnace gases do not play directly on the base or upper portion of the still but are conducted around it by a system of flues (see Coal-Tar). Steam heating, dry or live, is employed alone and also as an auxiliary to direct firing. The condensing plant varies with the volatility of the distillate. Air cooling is adopted whenever possible. For example, in the less modern methods for manufacturing nitric acid the vapours were conducted directly into double-necked bottles (bombonnes) immersed in water. A more efficient arrangement consists of a stack of vertical pipes standing, up from a main or collecting trough and connected at the top in consecutive pairs by a cross tube. By an arrangement of diaphragm-; in the lower trough the vapours are circulated through the system. As an auxiliary to air cooling the stack may be cooled by a slow stream of water trickling down the outside of the pipes, or, in certain cases, cold water may be injected into the condenser in the form of a spray, where it meets the ascend- ing vapours. Horizontal air-cooling arrangements are also employed. A common type of condenser consists of a copper worm placed in a water bath; but more generally straight tubes of copper or cast iron ■vhich cross and recross a rectangular tank are employed, since this form is more readily repaired and cleansed. Wood-spirit, petroleum and coal-tar distillates are condensed in plant of the latter type. In cases where the condenser is likely to become plugged there is a vm. 11 pipe by means of which live steam can be injected into the condenser. The supply of water to the condenser is regulated according to the volatility of the condensate. When the vapours readily condense to a solid form the condensing plant may take the form of large chambers ; such conditions prevail in the manufacture of arsenic, sulphur and lampblack: in the latter case (which, however, is not properly one of distillation) the chamber is hung with sheets on which the pigment collects. Large chambers are also used in the condensation of mercury. Dephlegmation of the vapours arising from such mixtures as coal- tar fractions, petroleum and the " wash " of the spirit industry, is very important, and many types of apparatus are employed in order to effect a separation of the vapours. The earliest form, invented by C. B. Mansfield to facilitate the fractionation of paraffin and coal- tar distillates, consisted in having a pipe leading from the inclined delivery tube of the still to the still again, so that any vapour which condensed in the delivery tube was returned to the still. Of really effective columns Coupler's was one of the earliest. The vapours rising from the still traverse a tall vertical column, and are then conveyed through a series of bulbs placed in a bath kept at the boiling-point of the most volatile constituent. The more volatile vapours pass over to the condensing plant, while the less volatile ones condense in the bulbs and are returned to the column at varying heights by means of connecting tubes. The French column is similar in action. The Coffey still is one of the most effective and is employed in the spirit, ammonia, coal-tar and other industries. It consists of a vertical column divided into a number of sections by horizontal plates, which are perforated so that the ascending vapours have to traverse a layer of liquid. Above this '' separator " is a reflux Condenser, termed the " cooler," maintained at the correct temperature so that only the more volatile component passes to the receiver. The success of the operation chiefly depends upon the proper management of the cooler. 8. Commercial Distillation of Water. — Distilled water, i.e. water free from salts and to some extent of the dissolved gases which are always present in natural waters, is of indispensable value in many operations both of scientific and industrial chemistry. The ap- paratus and process for distilling ordinary water are very simple. The body of the still is made of copper, with a head and worm, or condensing apparatus, either of copper or tin. The still is usually fed continuously by the heated water from the condenser. The first portion of the distillate brings over the gase9 dissolved in the water, ammonia and other volatile impurities, and is consequently rejected ; scarcely two-fifths of the entire quantity of water can be safely used as pure distilled water. Apparatus for the economic production of a potable water from sea-water is of vital importance in the equipment of ships. The simple distillation of sea-water, and the production thereby of a certain proportion of chemically fresh water, is a very simple problem ; but it is found that water which is merely evaporated and recondensed has a very disagreeable flat taste, and it is only after long exposure to pure atmospheric air, with continued agitation, or repeated pouring from one vessel to another, that it becomes sufficiently aerated to lose its unpleasant taste and smell and become drinkable. The water, moreover, till it is saturated with gases, readily absorbs noxious vapours to which it may be exposed. For the successful preparation of potable water from sea-water, the following conditions are essential: — 1st, aeration of the distilled product so that it may be immediately available for drinking pur- poses; 2nd, economy of coal to obtain the maximum of water with the minimum expenditure of fuel; and 3rd, simplicity of working parts, to secure the apparatus from breaking down, and enable unskilled attendants to work it with safety. The problem is a com- paratively old one, for we find that R. Fitzgerald patented a process in 1683 having for its purpose the " sweetening of sea-water." A history of early attempts is given in S. Hales s Philosophical Ex- periments, published in 1739. Among the earlier of the modern forms of apparatus which came into practical adoption are the inventions of Dr Normandy and of Chaplin of Glasgow, the apparatus of Rocher of Nantes, and that patented by Galle and Mazeline of Havre. Normandy's apparatus, although economical and producing water of good quality, is very complex in its structure, consisting of very numerous v/orking parts, with elaborate arrangements of pipes, cocks and other fittings. It is consequently expensive and requires careful attention for its working. It was extensively adopted in the British navy, the Cunard line and many other important emigrant and mercantile lines. Chaplin's apparatus, which was invented and patented later, has also since 1865 been sanctioned for use on emigrant, troop and passenger vessels. The apparatus possesses the great merit of simplicity and compactness, in consequence of which it is comparatively cheap and not liable to derangement. It was adopted by many important British and continental shipping companies, among others by the Peninsular & Oriental, the Inman, the North German Lloyd and the Hamburg American companies. The modern distilling plant consists of two main parts termed the evaporator and condenser; in addition there must be a boiler (sometimes steam is run off the main boilers, but this practice has several disadvantages), pumps for circulating cold water in the condenser and for supplying salt water to the evaporator, and a filter through which the aerated water passes. The evaporator IX 322 DISTRACTION— DISTRESS consists of a cylindrical vessel having in its lower half a horizontal copper coil connected to the steam supply. The cylindrical vessel is filled to a certain level with salt water and the steam turned on. The water vaporizes and is led from the dome of the evaporator to the head of the condenser. The water level is maintained in the evaporator until it contains a certain amount of salt. It is then run off, and replaced by fresh sea-water. The condenser consists of a vertical cylinder having manifolds at the head and foot and through which a number of tubes pass. In some types, e.g. the Weir, the condensing water circulates upwards through the tubes; in others, e.g. the Quiggins, the water circulates around the tubes. Various forms of the tubes have been adopted. In the Pape-Henneberg condenser, which has been adopted in the German navy, they are oval in section and tend to become circular under the pressure of the steam ; this alteration in shape makes the tubes self-scaling. In the Quiggins condenser, which has been widely adopted, e.g. in the " Lusitania," the steam traverses vertical copper coils tinned inside and outside ; the coils are crescent-shaped, a form which gives a greater condensing surface and makes the coils self-scaling. The aeration of the water is effected by blowing air into the steam before it is condensed; as an auxiliary, the storage tanks have a false bottom perforated by fine holes so that if air be injected below it, the water is efficiently aerated by the air which traverses it in fine streams. After condensation the water is filtered through charcoal. The filter is either a separate piece of plant, or, as in the Quiggins form, it may be placed below the coils in the same outer vessel. In this plant the aeration is conducted by blowing in air at the base of the condenser. After filtration the water is pumped to the storage tanks. Many types of distilling plant are in use in addition to those mentioned above, for example the Rayner, Kirkaldy, Merlees, Normand ; the United States navy has adopted a form designed by the Bureau of Engineering. Bibliography. — The general practice of laboratory distillation is . discussed in all treatises on practical organic chemistry; reference may be made to Lassar-Cohn, Manual of Organic Chemistry (1896), and Arbeitsmethoden fur organisch-chemische Laboratorien (1901); Hans Meyer, Analyse und Konstilutionermittlung orgamscher Verbindungen (1909). The theory of distillation finds a place in all treatises on physical chemistry. Of especial importance is Sidney Young, Fractional Distillation (1903). The history of distillation is to be studied in E. Gildemeister and F. Hoffmann, Die atherischen Ole (Berlin, 1899; Eng. tr. by E. Kremers, Milwaukee Press, 1900). The technology of distillation is best studied in relation to the several industries in which it is employed; reference should be made to the articles Coal-Tar, Gas, Petroleum, Spirits, Nitric Acid, &c. (C. E.*) DISTRACTION (from Lat. distrahere, to pull asunder), a draw- ing away or apart; a word now used generally of a state of mind, to mean a diversion of attention, or a violent emotion amounting almost to madness. DISTRESS (from the O. Fr. deslrece, deslresse, from the past participle of the Lat. distringere, to pull apart, used in Late Lat. in the sense of to punish, hence to distrain), pressure, especially of sorrow, pain or ill-fortune. As a legal term, the action of distraining or distraint, the right which a landlord has of seizing the personal chattels of his tenant for non-payment of rent. Cattle damage feasant (doing damage or trespassing upon a neigh- bour's land) may also be distrained, i.e. may be detained until satisfaction be rendered for injury they have done. The cattle or other animals thus distrained are a mere pledge in the hands of the injured person, who has only power to retain them until the owner appear to make satisfaction for the mischief they have done. " Distress damage feasant " is also applicable to inanimate things on the land if doing damage thereto or to its produce; things in actual use, however, are exempt. Such distress must be made during the actual trespass, and by whoever is aggrieved by the damage. Distress for rent was also at one time regarded as a mere pledge or security; but the remedy, having been found to be speedy and efficacious, was rendered more perfect by enact- ments allowing the thing taken to be sold. Blackstone notes that the lawof distresses in this respect " has been greatly altered within a few years last past." The legislature, in fact, converted an ancient right of personal redress into a powerful remedy for the exclusive benefit of a single class of creditors, viz. landlords. Now that the relation of landlord and tenant in England has come to be regarded as purely a matter of contract, the language of the law-books seems to be singularly inappropriate. The defaulting tenant is a " wrong-doer," the landlord is the " injured party,"; any attempt to defeat the landlord's remedy by carry- ing off distrainable goods is denounced as " fraudulent and knavish." The operation of the law has, as we shall point out, been mitigated in some important respects, but it still remains an almost unique specimen of one-sided legislation. At common law distress was said to be incident to rent service, and by particular reservation to rent charges; but by 4 Geo. it. c. 23 it was extended to rent seek, rents of assize and chief rents (see Rent). It is therefore a general remedy for rent certain in arrear. All personal chattels are distrainable with the following exceptions: — (1) things in which there can be no property, as animals ferae naturae; (2) ledgers, daybooks, title-deeds, &c; (3) things delivered to a person following a public trade, as a horse sent to be shod, &c; (4) things already in the custody of the law; (5) things which cannot be restored in as good a plight as when distrained, that is, perishable articles; (6) fixtures; (7) beasts of the plough and instruments of husbandry while there is other sufficient distress to be found; (8) instruments of a man's trade or profession in actual use at the time the distress is made. If not in actual use they are only privileged in case there is other sufficient distress upon the premises. These exceptions, it will be seen, imply that the thing distrained is to be held as a pledge merely — not to be sold. They also imply that in general any chattels found on the land in question are to be available for the benefit of the landlord, whether they belong to the tenant or not. This principle worked with peculiar harshness in the case of lodgers, whose goods might be seized and sold for the payment of the rent due by their landlord to his superior landlord. By the Lodgers' Goods Protection Act 187 1, however, where a lodger's goods have been seized by the superior landlord the lodger may serve him with a notice stating that the intermediate landlord has no interest in the property seized, but that it is the property or in the lawful possession of the lodger, and setting forth the amount of the rent due by the lodger to his immediate landlord. On pay- ment or tender of such rent the landlord cannot proceed with the distress against the goods in question. By the Law of Distress Amendment Act 1908 this protection was extended to under tenants liable to pay rent by equal quarterly instalments, as well as to any person whatsoever who is not a tenant of the premises or any part thereof nor has any beneficial interest therein. The act, however, excludes certain goods, particularly goods belonging to the husband or wife of the tenant whose rent is. in arrear, goods comprised in any bill of sale, hire purchase agreement or settle- ment made by the tenant, goods in the possession or disposition of a tenant by the consent and permission of the true owner under such circumstances as to make the tenant reputed owner, goods of the partner of an immediate tenant, and goods (not being goods of a lodger) upon premises where any trade or business is carried on in which both the immediate tenant and the under tenant have an interest. The act does not apply where an under tenancy has been created in breach of a covenant or agreement between the landlord and his immediate tenant. The Law of Distress Amendment Act 1888 also absolutely exempted from distress the tools and implements of trade and wearing apparel and bedding of a tenant and his family to the value of five pounds, and the Law of Distress Amendment Act 1895 gave power to a court of summary jurisdiction to direct that such goods, when distrained upon, should be restored if not sold, or, if sold, to order their value to be paid by the persons who levied the distress or directed it to be levied. Originally the landlord could only seize things actually on the premises, so that the remedy might be defeated by the things being taken away. But by an act of 17 10 , and by the Distress for Rent Act 1737, he may follow things fraudulently 01 clandestinely removed off the premises within thirty days after their removal, unless they have been in the meantime bona fide sold for a valuable consideration. The sixth exception mentioned above was held to extend to sheaves of corn; but by an act of 1690 corn, when reaped, as well as hay, was made subject to distress. That act was modified by the Landlord and Tenant Act 1851, under which growing crops seized by the sheriff and sold under an execution are liable to distress for rent which becomes due after the seizure and sale, if there is no other sufficient distress on the premises. Excessive or disproportionate distress exposes the distrainer to an action, and any irregularity formerly made the proceedings DISTRIBUTION— DITHYRAMBIC POETRY 323 void ab initio, so that the remedy was attended with considerable risk. The Distress for Rent Act 1737, before alluded to, in the interests of landlords, protected distresses for rent from the consequences of irregularity. In all cases of distress for rent, if the owner do not within five days (by the Law of Distress Amend- ment Act 1888, fifteen days, if the tenant make a request in writing to the person levying the distress and also give security for any additional cost that may be occasioned by such extension of time) replevy the same with sufficient security, the thing dis- trained may be sold towards satisfaction of the rent and charges, and the surplus, if any, must be returned to the owner. To " replevy " is when the person distrained upon applies to the proper authority (the registrar of the county court) to have the thing returned to his own possession, on giving security to try the right of taking it in an action of replevin. Duties and penalties imposed by act of parliament (e.g. pay- ment of rates and taxes) are sometimes enforced by distress. DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out), a term used in various connexions with the general meaning of spreading out. In law, the word is used for the division of the personal estate of an intestate among the next-of-kin (see Intestacy). The important scientific question as to the distribution of plants and animals on the earth is treated under Plants: Distribution, and Zoological Distribution. In economics the word is used generally for the transference of commodities from person to person or from place to place, or the dividing up of large quantities of commodities into smaller quantities; and in a more technical sense, for the division of the product of industry amongst the various members or classes of the community. The theory of economic distribution, i.e. the causes which determine rent, wages, profits and interest, forms an important subject-matter in all text-books. Among recent works, see E. Cannan's History of Theories of Production and Distribution, 1776-1848 (1893), J. R. Common's Distribution of Wealth (1893), and H. J. Davenport's Value and Distribution (Chicago, 1908). DISTRICT, a word denoting in its more general sense, a tract or extent of a country, town, &c, marked off for administrative or other purposes, or having some special and distinguishing characteristics. The medieval Latin districtus (from distringere, to distrain) is defined by Du Cange as Territorium feudi, seu tr actus, in quo Dominus vassallos et tenentes suos distringere potest; and as justiliae exercendae in eo traclu facultas. It was also used of the territory over which the feudal lord exercised his juris- diction generally. It may be noted that distringere had a wider significance than " to distrain " in the English legal sense (see Distress). It is defined by Du Cange as compellere ad aliquid faciendum per mulctam, poenam, vel capto pignore. In English usage, apart from its general application in such forms as postal district, registration district and the like, " district " has specific usages for ecclesiastical and local government purposes. It is thus applied to a division of a parish under the Church Building Acts, originally called a " perpetual curacy," and the church serving such a division is properly a " district chapel." Under the Local Government Act of 1894 counties are divided for the purposes of the act into urban stnd rural districts. In British India the word is used to represent the zillah, an administrative subdivision of a province or presidency. In the United States of America the word has many administrative, judicial and other applications. In South Carolina it was used instead of " county " for the chief division of the state other than in the coast region. In the Virginias, Tennessee, Georgia, Kentucky and Maryland it answers to " township " or precinct, elsewhere the principal subdivision of a county. It is used for an electoral "division," each state be- ing divided into Congressional and senatorial districts; and also for a political subdivision ranking between an unorganized and an jrganized Territory — e.g., thj District of Columbia and Alaska. DISTYLE (from Gr. &-, two, and